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986 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Plague%20%28novel%29 | The Plague (novel) | the plague is a 1947 absurdist novel by albert camus it tells the story from the point of view of a narrator in the midst of a plague sweeping the french algerian city of oran the narrator remains unknown until the start of the last chapter the novel presents a snapshot of life in oran as seen through the authors distinctive absurdist point of view camus used as source material the cholera epidemic that killed a large proportion of orans population in 1849 but situated the novel in the 1940s oran and its surroundings were struck by disease several times before camus published his novel according to an academic study oran was decimated by the bubonic plague in 1556 and 1678 but all later outbreaks in 1921 185 cases 1931 76 cases and 1944 95 cases were very far from the scale of the epidemic described in the novel the plague is considered an existentialist classic despite camus objection to the label the novel stresses the powerlessness of the individual characters to affect their destinies the narrative tone is similar to kafkas especially in the trial whose individual sentences potentially have multiple meanings the material often pointedly resonating as stark allegory of phenomenal consciousness and the human condition major characters dr bernard rieux dr bernard rieux is described as a man about age 35 of moderate height darkskinned with closecropped black hair at the beginning of the novel rieuxs wife who has been ill for a year leaves for a sanatorium it is rieux who treats the first victim of plague and first uses the word plague to describe the disease he urges the authorities to take action to stop the spread of the epidemic however at first along with everyone else the danger the town faces seems unreal to him he feels uneasy but does not realise the gravity of the situation within a short while he grasps what is at stake and warns the authorities that unless steps are taken immediately the epidemic could kill off half the towns population of two hundred thousand within a couple of monthsduring the epidemic rieux heads an auxiliary hospital and works long hours treating the victims he injects serum and lances the abscesses but there is little more that he can do and his duties weigh heavily upon him he never gets home until late and he has to distance himself from the natural pity that he feels for the victims otherwise he would not be able to go on it is especially hard for him when he visits a victim in the persons home because he knows that he must immediately call for an ambulance and have the person removed from the house often the relatives plead with him not to do so since they know they may never see the person againrieux works to combat the plague simply because he is a doctor and his job is to relieve human suffering he does not do it for any grand religious purpose like paneloux rieux does not believe in god or as part of a highminded moral code like tarrou he is a practical man doing what needs to be done without any fuss but he knows that the struggle against death is something that he can never win jean tarrou jean tarrou arrived in oran some weeks before the plague broke out for unknown reasons he is not there on business since he appears to have private means tarrou is a goodnatured man who smiles a lot before the plague came he liked to associate with the spanish dancers and musicians in the city he also keeps a diary full of his observations of life in oran which the narrator incorporates into the narrativeit is tarrou who first comes up with the idea of organising teams of volunteers to fight the plague he wants to do so before the authorities begin to conscript people and he does not like the official plan to get prisoners to do the work he takes action prompted by his own code of morals he feels that the plague is everybodys responsibility and that everyone should do their duty what interests him he tells rieux is how to become a saint even though he does not believe in godlater in the novel tarrou tells rieux with whom he has become friends the story of his life his father although a kind man in private was also an aggressive prosecuting attorney who tried death penalty cases arguing strongly for the death penalty to be imposed as a young boy tarrou attended one day of a criminal proceeding in which a man was on trial for his life however the idea of capital punishment disgusted him after he left home before 18 his main interest in life was his opposition to the death penalty which he regarded as statesponsored murder however years of activism have left him disillusionedwhen the plague epidemic is virtually over tarrou becomes one of its last victims but puts up a heroic struggle before dying raymond rambert raymond rambert is a journalist who is visiting oran to research a story on the standards of living in the arab colony of oran when the plague strikes he finds himself trapped in a city with which he feels he has no connection he misses his girlfriend who is in paris and uses all his ingenuity and resourcefulness to persuade the city bureaucracy to allow him to leave when that fails he contacts smugglers who agree to help him escape for a fee of ten thousand francs however there is a hitch in the arrangements and by the time another escape plan is arranged rambert has changed his mind he decides to stay in the city and continue to help fight the plague saying that he would feel ashamed of himself if he pursued a merely private happiness he now feels that he belongs in oran and that the plague is everyones business including his joseph grand joseph grand is a fiftyyearold clerk for the city government he is tall and thin poorly paid he lives an austere life but he is capable of deep affection in his spare time grand polishes up his latin and he is also writing a book but he is such a perfectionist that he continually rewrites the first sentence and can get no further one of his problems in life is that he can rarely find the correct words to express what he means grand tells rieux that he married while still in his teens but overwork and poverty took their toll grand did not receive the career advancement that he had been promised and his wife jeanne left him he tried but failed to write a letter to her and he still grieves for his lossgrand is a neighbor of cottard and it is he who calls rieux for help when cottard tries to commit suicide when the plague takes a grip on the town grand joins the team of volunteers acting as general secretary recording all the statistics rieux regards him as the true embodiment of the quiet courage that inspired the sanitary groups grand catches the plague himself and asks rieux to burn his manuscript but then makes an unexpected recovery at the end of the novel grand says he is much happier he has written to jeanne and made a fresh start on his book cottard cottard lives in the same building as grand he does not appear to have a job and is described as having private means although he describes himself as a traveling salesman in wines and spirits cottard is an eccentric figure silent and secretive who tries to hang himself in his room he is anxious for rieux not to report the incident as he is under investigation by the authorities for an unstated crime in an offhand reference to the plot of the outsider cottard reacts by a sudden exit from the tobacconist shop when she mentions an arrest in algiers of a man for killing an arab on a beach cottards personality changes after the outbreak of plague whereas he was aloof and mistrustful before he now becomes agreeable and tries hard to make friends he appears to relish the coming of the plague and tarrou thinks it is because he finds it easier to live with his own fears now that everyone else is in a state of fear too cottard also avoids arrest by the police during the chaos caused by the plague cottard takes advantage of the crisis to make money by selling contraband cigarettes and inferior liquoras the quarantine of the city comes to an end cottard anticipates being arrested after life returns to normal he experiences severe mood swings sometimes he is sociable but at other times he shuts himself up in his room on the day the city gates are reopened he shoots at random at people on the street wounding some and killing a dog the police arrest him father paneloux father paneloux is a learned wellrespected jesuit priest he is well known for having given a series of lectures in which he championed a pure form of christian doctrine and chastised his audience about their laxity during the first stage of the plague outbreak paneloux preaches a sermon at the cathedral he has a powerful way of speaking and he insists to the congregation that the plague is a scourge sent by god to those who have hardened their hearts against him however paneloux also claims that god is present to offer succor and hope later paneloux attends at the bedside of othons stricken son and prays that the boy may be spared after the boys death paneloux tells rieux that although the death of an innocent child in a world ruled by a loving god cannot be rationally explained it should nonetheless be accepted paneloux joins the team of volunteer workers and preaches another sermon saying that the death of the innocent child is a test of faith since god willed the childs death so the christian should will it too a few days after preaching this sermon paneloux is taken ill he refuses to call for a doctor trusting in god alone and dies since his symptoms did not seem to resemble those of the plague rieux records his death as a doubtful case minor characters the narrator the narrator presents himself at the outset of the book as witness to the events and privy to documents but does not identify himself until the ending of the novel the prefect the prefect believes at first that the talk of plague is a false alarm but on the advice of his medical association he authorizes limited measures to combat it when they do not work he tries to avoid responsibility saying he will ask the government for orders then he takes responsibility for tightening up the regulations relating to the plague and issues the order to close the town dr castel dr castel is one of rieuxs medical colleagues and is much older than rieux he realizes after the first few cases that the disease is bubonic plague and is aware of the seriousness of the situation he works hard to make an antiplague serum but as the epidemic continues he shows increasing signs of wear and tear m othon m othon is a magistrate in oran he is tall and thin and as tarrou observes in his journal his small beady eyes narrow nose and hard straight mouth make him look like a wellbroughtup owl othon treats his wife and children unkindly but after his son dies of the plague his character softens after he finishes his time at the isolation camp where he is sent because his son is infected he wants to return there because it would make him feel closer to his lost son however before othon can do this he contracts the plague and dies jacques othon philippe othon is m othons young son when he contracts the plague he is the first to receive dr castels antiplague serum but the serum is ineffective and the boy dies after a long and painful struggle mme rieux mme rieux is dr rieuxs mother who comes to stay with him when his sick wife goes to the sanatorium she is a serene woman who after taking care of the housework sits quietly in a chair she says that at her age there is nothing much left to fear dr richard dr richard is chairman of the oran medical association he is slow to recommend any action to combat the plague for fear of public alarm he does not want even to admit that the disease is the plague referring instead to a special type of fever m michel m michel is the concierge of the building in which rieux lives an old man he is the first victim of the plague raoul raoul is the man who agrees for a fee of ten thousand francs to arrange for rambert to escape he introduces rambert to gonzales gonzales gonzales is the smuggler who makes the arrangements for ramberts escape and bonds with him over football asthma patient the asthma patient receives regular visits from dr rieux he is a seventyfiveyearold spaniard with a rugged face who comments on events in oran that he hears about on the radio and in the newspapers he sits in his bed all day and measures the passing of time by putting peas from one jug into another louis louis is one of the sentries who take part in the plan for rambert to escape marcel marcel louiss brother is also a sentry who is part of the escape plan for rambert garcia garcia is a man who knows the group of smugglers in oran he introduces rambert to raoul plot summary the book begins with an epigraph quoting daniel defoe author of a journal of the plague year part one in the town of oran thousands of rats initially unnoticed by the populace begin to die in the streets hysteria develops soon afterward causing the local newspapers to report the incident authorities responding to public pressure order the collection and cremation of the rats unaware that the collection itself was the catalyst for the spread of the bubonic plague the main character dr bernard rieux lives comfortably in an apartment building when strangely the buildings concierge m michel a confidante dies from a fever dr rieux consults his colleague dr castel about the illness until they come to the conclusion that a plague is sweeping the town they both approach fellow doctors and town authorities about their theory but are eventually dismissed on the basis of one death however as more deaths quickly ensue it becomes apparent that there is an epidemic meanwhile rieuxs wife has been sent to a sanatorium in another city to be treated for an unrelated chronic illness authorities including the prefect are slow to accept that the situation is serious and quibble over the appropriate action to take official notices enacting control measures are posted but the language used is optimistic and downplays the seriousness of the situation a special ward is opened at the hospital but its 80 beds are filled within three days as the death toll begins to rise more desperate measures are taken homes are quarantined corpses and burials are strictly supervised a supply of plague serum finally arrives but there is enough to treat only existing cases and the countrys emergency reserves are depleted when the daily number of deaths jumps to 30 the town is sealed and an outbreak of plague is officially declared part two the town is sealed off the town gates are shut rail travel is prohibited and all mail service is suspended the use of telephone lines is restricted only to urgent calls leaving short telegrams as the only means of communicating with friends or family outside the town the separation affects daily activity and depresses the spirit of the townspeople who begin to feel isolated and introverted and the plague begins to affect various characters one character raymond rambert devises a plan to escape the city to join his wife in paris after city officials refused his request to leave he befriends some underground criminals so that they may smuggle him out of the city another character father paneloux uses the plague as an opportunity to advance his stature in the town by suggesting that the plague was an act of god punishing the citizens sinful nature his diatribe falls on the ears of many citizens of the town who turned to religion in droves but would not have done so under normal circumstances cottard a criminal remorseful enough to attempt suicide but fearful of being arrested becomes wealthy as a major smuggler meanwhile jean tarrou a vacationer joseph grand a civil engineer and dr rieux exhaustively treat patients in their homes and in the hospital rambert informs tarrou of his escape plan but when tarrou tells him that there are others in the city including dr rieux who have loved ones outside the city whom they are not allowed to see rambert becomes sympathetic and offers to help rieux fight the epidemic until he leaves town part three in midaugust the situation continues to worsen people try to escape the town but some are shot by armed sentries violence and looting break out on a small scale and the authorities respond by declaring martial law and imposing a curfew funerals are conducted with more speed no ceremony and little concern for the feelings of the families of the deceased the inhabitants passively endure their increasing feelings of exile and separation despondent they waste away emotionally as well as physically part four in september and october the town remains at the mercy of the plague rieux hears from the sanatorium that his wifes condition is worsening he also hardens his heart regarding the plague victims so that he can continue to do his work cottard on the other hand seems to flourish during the plague because it gives him a sense of being connected to others since everybody faces the same danger cottard and tarrou attend a performance of glucks opera orpheus and eurydice but the actor portraying orpheus collapses with plague symptoms during the performance after extended negotiations with guards rambert finally has a chance to escape but he decides to stay saying that he would feel ashamed of himself if he left towards the end of october castels new antiplague serum is tried for the first time but it cannot save the life of othons young son who suffers greatly as paneloux rieux and tarrou tend to his bedside in horror paneloux who has joined the group of volunteers fighting the plague gives a second sermon he addresses the problem of an innocent childs suffering and says it is a test of a christians faith since it requires him either to deny everything or believe everything he urges the congregation not to give up the struggle but to do everything possible to fight the plague a few days after the sermon paneloux is taken ill his symptoms do not conform to those of the plague but the disease still proves fatal tarrou and rambert visit one of the isolation camps where they meet othon when othons period of quarantine ends he chooses to stay in the camp as a volunteer because this will make him feel less separated from his dead son tarrou tells rieux the story of his life and to take their mind off the epidemic the two men go swimming together in the sea grand catches the plague and instructs rieux to burn all his papers however grand makes an unexpected recovery and deaths from the plague start to decline part five by late january the plague is in full retreat and the townspeople begin to celebrate the imminent opening of the town gates othon however does not escape death from the disease cottard is distressed by the ending of the epidemic from which he has profited by shady dealings two government employees approach him and he flees despite the epidemics ending tarrou contracts the plague and dies after a heroic struggle rieux is later informed via telegram that his wife has also died in february the town gates open and people are reunited with their loved ones from other cities rambert is reunited with his wife cottard goes mad and shoots at people from his home and is soon arrested after a brief skirmish with the police grand begins working on his novel again the narrator of the chronicle says that he is dr rieux and states that he tried to present an objective view of the events he reflects on the epidemic and declares he wrote the chronicle to simply say what we learn in the midst of plagues there are more things to admire in men than to despise critical analysis germaine brée has characterised the struggle of the characters against the plague as undramatic and stubborn and in contrast to the ideology of glorification of power in the novels of andré malraux whereas camus characters are obscurely engaged in saving not destroying and this in the name of no ideology lulu haroutunian has discussed camus own medical history including a bout with tuberculosis and how it informs the novel marina warner notes its larger philosophical themes of engagement paltriness and generosity small heroism and large cowardice and all kinds of profoundly humanist problems such as love and goodness happiness and mutual connection thomas l hanna and john loose have separately discussed themes related to christianity in the novel with particular respect to father paneloux and dr rieux louis r rossi briefly discusses the role of tarrou in the novel and the sense of philosophical guilt behind his character elwyn sterling has analysed the role of cottard and his final actions at the end of the novel father paneloux has been subject to several literary analyses in the context of faith faced with great suffering dr rieux has been described as a classic example of an idealist doctor he has also been an inspiration to the life and career of the french doctor and also to the fictional character of jeanne dion starring in the movie trilogy directed by bernard émond beginning with the novena medically trained readers are sometimes upset that dr rieux and dr castel make no effort to get their patients sulfa drugs which were available and known to be effective against plague instead the doctors waste time and effort attempting to obtain plague antiserum which was much less effective and in fact was rapidly being abandoned during the 1940s in the popular press the novel has been read as an allegorical treatment of the french resistance to nazi occupation during world war ii the novel became a bestseller during the worldwide covid19 pandemic of 2020 to the point that its british publisher penguin classics reported struggling to keep up with demand the prescience of the fictional cordon sanitaire of oran with reallife covid19 lockdowns worldwide brought revived popular attention sales in italy tripled and it became a topten bestseller during its nationwide lockdown penguin classics editorial director said it couldnt be more relevant to the current moment and camus daughter catherine said that the message of the novel had newfound relevance in that we are not responsible for coronavirus but we can be responsible in the way we respond to it adaptations 1965 la peste a cantata composed by roberto gerhard 1970 yesterday today tomorrow a hong kong film directed by patrick lung 1992 la peste a film directed by luis puenzo 2017 the plague a play adapted by neil bartlett bartlett substitutes a black woman for the male doctor rieux and a black man for tarrou 2020 the plague an adaptation for radio of neil bartletts 2017 play premiered on 26 july on bbc radio 4 during the covid19 pandemic the play was recorded at home by actors during the quarantine period with sara powell as doctor rieux billy postlethwaite as raymond rambert joe alessi as mr cottard jude aduwudike as jean tarrou and colin hurley as mr grand publication history as early as april 1941 camus had been working on the novel as evidenced in his diaries in which he wrote down a few ideas on the redeeming plague on 13 march 1942 he informed andré malraux that he was writing a novel on the plague adding said like that it might sound strange but this subject seems so natural to me 1947 la peste french paris gallimard 1948 translated by stuart gilbert london hamish hamilton 1960 translated by stuart gilbert london penguin 2001 translated by robin buss london allen lane 2021 translated by laura marris new york knopf see also the decameron the masque of the red death the betrothed references external links la peste les classiques des sciences sociales word pdf rtf formats public domain in canada la peste ebooksgratuitscom html format public domain in canada 1947 french novels absurdist fiction books with atheismrelated themes éditions gallimard books existentialist novels french novels adapted into films novels by albert camus novels set in the 1940s novels set in algeria plague disease oran health in algeria novels about diseases and disorders novels about viral outbreaks french novels adapted into plays firstperson narrative novels | 4,251 |
988 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied%20ethics | Applied ethics | applied ethics is the practical aspect of moral considerations it is ethics with respect to realworld actions and their moral considerations in private and public life the professions health technology law and leadership for example bioethics is concerned with identifying the best approach to moral issues in the life sciences such as euthanasia the allocation of scarce health resources or the use of human embryos in research environmental ethics is concerned with ecological issues such as the responsibility of government and corporations to clean up pollution business ethics includes the duties of whistleblowers to the public and to their employers history applied ethics has expanded the study of ethics beyond the realms of academic philosophical discourse the field of applied ethics as it appears today emerged from debate surrounding rapid medical and technological advances in the early 1970s and is now established as a subdiscipline of moral philosophy however applied ethics is by its very nature a multiprofessional subject because it requires specialist understanding of the potential ethical issues in fields like medicine business or information technology nowadays ethical codes of conduct exist in almost every profession an applied ethics approach to the examination of moral dilemmas can take many different forms but one of the most influential and most widely utilised approaches in bioethics and health care ethics is the fourprinciple approach developed by tom beauchamp and james childress the fourprinciple approach commonly termed principlism entails consideration and application of four prima facie ethical principles autonomy nonmaleficence beneficence and justice underpinning theory applied ethics is distinguished from normative ethics which concerns standards for right and wrong behavior and from metaethics which concerns the nature of ethical properties statements attitudes and judgments whilst these three areas of ethics appear to be distinct they are also interrelated the use of an applied ethics approach often draws upon these normative ethical theories consequentialist ethics which hold that the rightness of acts depends only on their consequences the paradigmatic consequentialist theory is utilitarianism which classically holds that whether an act is morally right depends on whether it maximizes net aggregated psychological wellbeing this theorys main developments came from jeremy bentham and john stuart mill who distinguished between act and rule utilitarianism notable later developments were made by henry sidgwick who introduced the significance of motive or intent and r m hare who introduced the significance of preference in utilitarian decisionmaking other forms of consequentialism include prioritarianism deontological ethics which hold that acts have an inherent rightness or wrongness regardless of their context or consequences this approach is epitomized by immanuel kants notion of the categorical imperative which was the centre of kants ethical theory based on duty another key deontological theory is natural law which was heavily developed by thomas aquinas and is an important part of the catholic churchs teaching on morals threshold deontology holds that rules ought to govern up to a point despite adverse consequences but when the consequences become so dire that they cross a stipulated threshold consequentialism takes over virtue ethics derived from aristotles and confucius notions which asserts that the right action will be that chosen by a suitably virtuous agent normative ethical theories can clash when trying to resolve realworld ethical dilemmas one approach attempting to overcome the divide between consequentialism and deontology is casebased reasoning also known as casuistry casuistry does not begin with theory rather it starts with the immediate facts of a real and concrete case while casuistry makes use of ethical theory it does not view ethical theory as the most important feature of moral reasoning casuists like albert jonsen and stephen toulmin the abuse of casuistry 1988 challenge the traditional paradigm of applied ethics instead of starting from theory and applying theory to a particular case casuists start with the particular case itself and then ask what morally significant features including both theory and practical considerations ought to be considered for that particular case in their observations of medical ethics committees jonsen and toulmin note that a consensus on particularly problematic moral cases often emerges when participants focus on the facts of the case rather than on ideology or theory thus a rabbi a catholic priest and an agnostic might agree that in this particular case the best approach is to withhold extraordinary medical care while disagreeing on the reasons that support their individual positions by focusing on cases and not on theory those engaged in moral debate increase the possibility of agreement applied ethics was later distinguished from the nascent applied epistemology which is also under the umbrella of applied philosophy while the former was concerned with the practical application of moral considerations the latter focuses on the application of epistemology in solving practical problems see also bioethics business ethics effective altruism ethical codes ethics medical ethics outline of ethics philosophy precautionary principle master of applied ethics references further reading monograph external links ethics | 814 |
991 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute%20value | Absolute value | in mathematics the absolute value or modulus of a real number is the nonnegative value without regard to its sign namely if is a positive number and if is negative in which case negating makes positive and for example the absolute value of 3 and the absolute value of 3 is the absolute value of a number may be thought of as its distance from zero generalisations of the absolute value for real numbers occur in a wide variety of mathematical settings for example an absolute value is also defined for the complex numbers the quaternions ordered rings fields and vector spaces the absolute value is closely related to the notions of magnitude distance and norm in various mathematical and physical contexts terminology and notation in 1806 jeanrobert argand introduced the term module meaning unit of measure in french specifically for the complex absolute value and it was borrowed into english in 1866 as the latin equivalent modulus the term absolute value has been used in this sense from at least 1806 in french and 1857 in english the notation with a vertical bar on each side was introduced by karl weierstrass in 1841 other names for absolute value include numerical value and magnitude in programming languages and computational software packages the absolute value of is generally represented by absx or a similar expression the vertical bar notation also appears in a number of other mathematical contexts for example when applied to a set it denotes its cardinality when applied to a matrix it denotes its determinant vertical bars denote the absolute value only for algebraic objects for which the notion of an absolute value is defined notably an element of a normed division algebra for example a real number a complex number or a quaternion a closely related but distinct notation is the use of vertical bars for either the euclidean norm or sup norm of a vector although double vertical bars with subscripts respectively are a more common and less ambiguous notation definition and properties real numbers for any the absolute value or modulus is denoted with a vertical bar on each side of the quantity and is defined as the absolute value is thus always either a positive number or zero but never negative when itself is negative then its absolute value is necessarily positive from an analytic geometry point of view the absolute value of a real number is that numbers distance from zero along the real number line and more generally the absolute value of the difference of two real numbers their absolute difference is the distance between them the notion of an abstract distance function in mathematics can be seen to be a generalisation of the absolute value of the difference see distance below since the square root symbol represents the unique positive square root when applied to a positive number it follows that this is equivalent to the definition above and may be used as an alternative definition of the absolute value of real numbers the absolute value has the following four fundamental properties are real numbers that are used for generalization of this notion to other domains nonnegativity positive definiteness and multiplicativity are readily apparent from the definition to see that subadditivity holds first note that with its sign chosen to make the result positive now since it follows that whichever of is the value one has for all consequently as desired some additional useful properties are given below these are either immediate consequences of the definition or implied by the four fundamental properties above two other useful properties concerning inequalities are these relations may be used to solve inequalities involving absolute values for example the absolute value as distance from zero is used to define the absolute difference between arbitrary real numbers the standard metric on the real numbers complex numbers since the complex numbers are not ordered the definition given at the top for the real absolute value cannot be directly applied to complex numbers however the geometric interpretation of the absolute value of a real number as its distance from 0 can be generalised the absolute value of a complex number is defined by the euclidean distance of its corresponding point in the complex plane from the origin this can be computed using the pythagorean theorem for any complex number where and are real numbers the absolute value or modulus is and is defined by the pythagorean addition of and where and denote the real and imaginary parts respectively when the is zero this coincides with the definition of the absolute value of the when a complex number is expressed in its polar form its absolute value since the product of any complex number and its with the same absolute value is always the nonnegative real number the absolute value of a complex number is the square root which is therefore called the absolute square or squared modulus this generalizes the alternative definition for reals the complex absolute value shares the four fundamental properties given above for the real absolute value the identity is a special case of multiplicativity that is often useful by itself absolute value function the real absolute value function is continuous everywhere it is differentiable everywhere except for it is monotonically decreasing on the interval and monotonically increasing on the interval since a real number and its opposite have the same absolute value it is an even function and is hence not invertible the real absolute value function is a piecewise linear convex function for both real and complex numbers the absolute value function is idempotent meaning that the absolute value of any absolute value is itself relationship to the sign function the absolute value function of a real number returns its value irrespective of its sign whereas the sign or signum function returns a numbers sign irrespective of its value the following equations show the relationship between these two functions or and for relationship to the max and min functions let then and derivative the real absolute value function has a derivative for every but is not differentiable at its derivative for is given by the step function the real absolute value function is an example of a continuous function that achieves a global minimum where the derivative does not exist the subdifferential of at is the interval the complex absolute value function is continuous everywhere but complex differentiable nowhere because it violates the cauchyriemann equations the second derivative of with respect to is zero everywhere except zero where it does not exist as a generalised function the second derivative may be taken as two times the dirac delta function antiderivative the antiderivative indefinite integral of the real absolute value function is where is an arbitrary constant of integration this is not a complex antiderivative because complex antiderivatives can only exist for complexdifferentiable holomorphic functions which the complex absolute value function is not derivatives of compositions the following two formulae are special cases of the chain rule if the absolute value is inside a function and if another function is inside the absolute value in the first case the derivative is always discontinuous at in the first case and where in the second case distance the absolute value is closely related to the idea of distance as noted above the absolute value of a real or complex number is the distance from that number to the origin along the real number line for real numbers or in the complex plane for complex numbers and more generally the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers is the distance between them the standard euclidean distance between two points and in euclidean space is defined as this can be seen as a generalisation since for and real ie in a 1space according to the alternative definition of the absolute value and for and complex numbers ie in a 2space the above shows that the absolute valuedistance for real and complex numbers agrees with the standard euclidean distance which they inherit as a result of considering them as one and twodimensional euclidean spaces respectively the properties of the absolute value of the difference of two real or complex numbers nonnegativity identity of indiscernibles symmetry and the triangle inequality given above can be seen to motivate the more general notion of a distance function as follows a real valued function on a set is called a metric or a distance function on if it satisfies the following four axioms stylewidth250px nonnegativity identity of indiscernibles symmetry triangle inequality generalizations ordered rings the definition of absolute value given for real numbers above can be extended to any ordered ring that is if is an element of an ordered ring r then the absolute value of denoted by is defined to be where is the additive inverse of 0 is the additive identity and and have the usual meaning with respect to the ordering in the ring fields the four fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers can be used to generalise the notion of absolute value to an arbitrary field as follows a realvalued function on a field is called an absolute value also a modulus magnitude value or valuation if it satisfies the following four axioms cellpadding10 nonnegativity positivedefiniteness multiplicativity subadditivity or the triangle inequality where 0 denotes the additive identity of it follows from positivedefiniteness and multiplicativity that where 1 denotes the multiplicative identity of the real and complex absolute values defined above are examples of absolute values for an arbitrary field if is an absolute value on then the function on defined by is a metric and the following are equivalent satisfies the ultrametric inequality for all in is bounded in r for every for all for all an absolute value which satisfies any hence all of the above conditions is said to be nonarchimedean otherwise it is said to be archimedean vector spaces again the fundamental properties of the absolute value for real numbers can be used with a slight modification to generalise the notion to an arbitrary vector space a realvalued function on a vector space over a field represented as is called an absolute value but more usually a norm if it satisfies the following axioms for all in and in cellpadding10 nonnegativity positivedefiniteness positive homogeneity or positive scalability subadditivity or the triangle inequality the norm of a vector is also called its length or magnitude in the case of euclidean space the function defined by is a norm called the euclidean norm when the real numbers are considered as the onedimensional vector space the absolute value is a norm and is the norm see lp space for any in fact the absolute value is the only norm on in the sense that for every norm on the complex absolute value is a special case of the norm in an inner product space which is identical to the euclidean norm when the complex plane is identified as the euclidean plane composition algebras every composition algebra a has an involution x x called its conjugation the product in a of an element x and its conjugate x is written nx x x and called the norm of x the real numbers complex numbers and quaternions are all composition algebras with norms given by definite quadratic forms the absolute value in these division algebras is given by the square root of the composition algebra norm in general the norm of a composition algebra may be a quadratic form that is not definite and has null vectors however as in the case of division algebras when an element x has a nonzero norm then x has a multiplicative inverse given by xnx see also least absolute values notes references bartle sherbert introduction to real analysis 4th ed john wiley sons 2011 nahin paul j an imaginary tale princeton university press hardcover 1998 mac lane saunders garrett birkhoff algebra american mathematical soc 1999 mendelson elliott schaums outline of beginning calculus mcgrawhill professional 2008 oconnor jj and robertson ef jean robert argand schechter eric handbook of analysis and its foundations pp 259263 absolute values academic press 1997 external links special functions real numbers norms mathematics | 2,031 |
993 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog%20signal | Analog signal | an analog signal is any continuoustime signal representing some other quantity ie analogous to another quantity for example in an analog audio signal the instantaneous signal voltage varies continuously with the pressure of the sound waves in contrast a digital signal represents the original timevarying quantity as a sampled sequence of quantized values digital sampling imposes some bandwidth and dynamic range constraints on the representation and adds quantization error the term analog signal usually refers to electrical signals however mechanical pneumatic hydraulic and other systems may also convey or be considered analog signals representation an analog signal uses some property of the medium to convey the signals information for example an aneroid barometer uses rotary position as the signal to convey pressure information in an electrical signal the voltage current or frequency of the signal may be varied to represent the information any information may be conveyed by an analog signal such a signal may be a measured response to changes in a physical variable such as sound light temperature position or pressure the physical variable is converted to an analog signal by a transducer for example sound striking the diaphragm of a microphone induces corresponding fluctuations in the current produced by a coil in an electromagnetic microphone or the voltage produced by a condenser microphone the voltage or the current is said to be an analog of the sound noise an analog signal is subject to electronic noise and distortion introduced by communication channels recording and signal processing operations which can progressively degrade the signaltonoise ratio snr as the signal is transmitted copied or processed the unavoidable noise introduced in the signal path will accumulate as a generation loss progressively and irreversibly degrading the snr until in extreme cases the signal can be overwhelmed noise can show up as hiss and intermodulation distortion in audio signals or snow in video signals generation loss is irreversible as there is no reliable method to distinguish the noise from the signal converting an analog signal to digital form introduces a lowlevel quantization noise into the signal due to finite resolution of digital systems once in digital form the signal can be transmitted stored and processed without introducing additional noise or distortion using error detection and correction noise accumulation in analog systems can be minimized by electromagnetic shielding balanced lines lownoise amplifiers and highquality electrical components see also amplifier analog computer analog device analog signal processing magnetic tape preamplifier references analog circuits electronic design television terminology video signal | 415 |
994 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arecales | Arecales | arecales is an order of flowering plants the order has been widely recognised only for the past few decades until then the accepted name for the order including these plants was principes taxonomy the apg iv system of 2016 places dasypogonaceae in this order after studies showing dasypogonaceae as sister to arecaceae however this decision has been called into question historical taxonomical systems the cronquist system of 1981 assigned the order to the subclass arecidae in the class liliopsida monocotyledons the thorne system 1992 and the dahlgren system assigned the order to the superorder areciflorae also called arecanae in the subclass liliidae monocotyledons with the single family arecaceae the apg ii system of 2003 recognised the order and placed it in the clade commelinids in the monocots and uses this circumscription order arecales family arecaceae alternative name palmae this was unchanged from the apg system of 1998 although it used the spelling commelinoids instead of commelinids principes in plant taxonomy principes is a botanical name meaning the first it was used in the engler system for an order in the monocotyledones and later in the kubitzki system this order included one family only the palmae alternate name arecaceae as the rules for botanical nomenclature provide for the use of such descriptive botanical names above the rank of family it is quite allowed to use this name even today but in practice most systems prefer the name arecales following this principes became the name of the journal of the international palm society becoming palms in 1999 references external links ncbi taxonomy browser angiosperm orders late cretaceous plants extant campanian first appearances esarecales | 271 |
1000 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hercule%20Poirot | Hercule Poirot | hercule poirot is a fictional belgian detective created by british writer agatha christie poirot is one of christies most famous and longrunning characters appearing in 33 novels two plays black coffee and alibi and 51 short stories published between 1920 and 1975 poirot has been portrayed on radio in film and on television by various actors including austin trevor john moffatt albert finney peter ustinov ian holm tony randall alfred molina orson welles david suchet kenneth branagh and john malkovich overview influences poirots name was derived from two other fictional detectives of the time marie belloc lowndes hercule popeau and frank howel evans monsieur poiret a retired french police officer living in london evans jules poiret was small and rather heavyset hardly more than five feet but moved with his head held high the most remarkable features of his head were the stiff military moustache his apparel was neat to perfection a little quaint and frankly dandified he was accompanied by captain harry haven who had returned to london from a colombian business venture ended by a civil war a more obvious influence on the early poirot stories is that of arthur conan doyle in an autobiography christie states i was still writing in the sherlock holmes tradition eccentric detective stooge assistant with a lestradetype scotland yard detective inspector japp for his part conan doyle acknowledged basing his detective stories on the model of edgar allan poes c auguste dupin and his anonymous narrator and basing his character sherlock holmes on joseph bell who in his use of ratiocination prefigured poirots reliance on his little grey cells poirot also bears a striking resemblance to a e w masons fictional detective inspector hanaud of the french sûreté who first appeared in the 1910 novel at the villa rose and predates the first poirot novel by 10 years christies poirot was clearly the result of her early development of the detective in her first book written in 1916 and published in 1920 the large number of refugees in the country who had fled the german invasion of belgium in august to november 1914 served as a plausible explanation of why such a skilled detective would be available to solve mysteries at an english country house at the time of christies writing it was considered patriotic to express sympathy towards the belgians since the invasion of their country had constituted britains casus belli for entering world war i and british wartime propaganda emphasised the rape of belgium popularity poirot first appeared in the mysterious affair at styles published in 1920 and exited in curtain published in 1975 following the latter poirot was the only fictional character to receive an obituary on the front page of the new york times by 1930 agatha christie found poirot insufferable and by 1960 she felt that he was a detestable bombastic tiresome egocentric little creep despite this poirot remained an exceedingly popular character with the general public christie later stated that she refused to kill him off claiming that it was her duty to produce what the public liked appearance and proclivities captain arthur hastingss first description of poirot agatha christies initial description of poirot in murder on the orient express in the later books his limp is not mentioned suggesting it may have been a temporary wartime injury in curtain poirot admits he was wounded when he first came to england poirot has green eyes that are repeatedly described as shining like a cats when he is struck by a clever idea and dark hair which he dyes later in life in curtain he admits to hastings that he wears a wig and a false moustache however in many of his screen incarnations he is bald or balding frequent mention is made of his patent leather shoes damage to which is frequently a source of misery for him but comical for the reader poirots appearance regarded as fastidious during his early career later falls hopelessly out of fashion among poirots most significant personal attributes is the sensitivity of his stomach he suffers from sea sickness and in death in the clouds he states that his air sickness prevents him from being more alert at the time of the murder later in his life we are told poirot is extremely punctual and carries a pocket watch almost to the end of his career he is also particular about his personal finances preferring to keep a bank balance of 444 pounds 4 shillings and 4 pence actor david suchet who portrayed poirot on television said theres no question hes obsessivecompulsive film portrayer kenneth branagh said that he enjoyed finding the sort of obsessivecompulsive in poirot as mentioned in curtain and the clocks he is fond of classical music particularly mozart and bach methods in the mysterious affair at styles poirot operates as a fairly conventional cluebased and logical detective reflected in his vocabulary by two common phrases his use of the little grey cells and order and method hastings is irritated by the fact that poirot sometimes conceals important details of his plans as in the big four in this novel hastings is kept in the dark throughout the climax this aspect of poirot is less evident in the later novels partly because there is rarely a narrator to mislead in murder on the links still largely dependent on clues himself poirot mocks a rival bloodhound detective who focuses on the traditional trail of clues established in detective fiction eg sherlock holmes depending on footprints fingerprints and cigar ash from this point on poirot establishes his psychological bona fides rather than painstakingly examining crime scenes he enquires into the nature of the victim or the psychology of the murderer he predicates his actions in the later novels on his underlying assumption that particular crimes are committed by particular types of people poirot focuses on getting people to talk in the early novels he casts himself in the role of papa poirot a benign confessor especially to young women in later works christie made a point of having poirot supply false or misleading information about himself or his background to assist him in obtaining information in the murder of roger ackroyd poirot speaks of a nonexistent mentally disabled nephew to uncover information about homes for the mentally unfit in dumb witness poirot invents an elderly invalid mother as a pretence to investigate local nurses in the big four poirot pretends to have and poses as an identical twin brother named achille however this brother was mentioned again in the labours of hercules if i remember rightly though my memory isnt what it was you also had a brother called achille did you not poirots mind raced back over the details of achille poirots career had all that really happened only for a short space of time he replied poirot is also willing to appear more foreign or vain in an effort to make people underestimate him he admits as much it is true that i can speak the exact the idiomatic english but my friend to speak the broken english is an enormous asset it leads people to despise you they say a foreigner he cant even speak english properly also i boast an englishman he says often a fellow who thinks as much of himself as that cannot be worth much and so you see i put people off their guard he also has a tendency to refer to himself in the third person in later novels christie often uses the word mountebank when characters describe poirot showing that he has successfully passed himself off as a charlatan or fraud poirots investigating techniques assist him solving cases for in the long run either through a lie or through truth people were bound to give themselves away at the end poirot usually reveals his description of the sequence of events and his deductions to a room of suspects often leading to the culprits apprehension life origins christie was purposely vague about poirots origins as he is thought to be an elderly man even in the early novels in an autobiography she admitted that she already imagined him to be an old man in 1920 at the time however she did not know that she would write works featuring him for decades to come a brief passage in the big four provides original information about poirots birth or at least childhood in or near the town of spa belgium but we did not go into spa itself we left the main road and wound into the leafy fastnesses of the hills till we reached a little hamlet and an isolated white villa high on the hillside christie strongly implies that this quiet retreat in the ardennes near spa is the location of the poirot family home an alternative tradition holds that poirot was born in the village of ellezelles province of hainaut belgium a few memorials dedicated to hercule poirot can be seen in the centre of this village there appears to be no reference to this in christies writings but the town of ellezelles cherishes a copy of poirots birth certificate in a local memorial attesting poirots birth naming his father and mother as juleslouis poirot and godelieve poirot christie wrote that poirot is a catholic by birth but not much is described about his later religious convictions except sporadic references to his going to church and occasional invocations of le bon dieu christie provides little information regarding poirots childhood only mentioning in three act tragedy that he comes from a large family with little wealth and has at least one younger sister apart from french and english poirot is also fluent in german policeman gustave was not a policeman i have dealt with policemen all my life and i know he could pass as a detective to an outsider but not to a man who was a policeman himself hercule poirot hercule poirot was active in the brussels police force by 1893 very little mention is made about this part of his life but in the nemean lion 1939 poirot refers to a belgian case of his in which a wealthy soap manufacturer poisoned his wife in order to be free to marry his secretary as poirot was often misleading about his past to gain information the truthfulness of that statement is unknown it does however scare off a wouldbe wifekiller in the short story the chocolate box 1923 poirot reveals to captain arthur hastings an account of what he considers to be his only failure poirot admits that he has failed to solve a crime innumerable times i have been called in too late very often another working towards the same goal has arrived there first twice i have been struck down with illness just as i was on the point of success nevertheless he regards the 1893 case in the chocolate box as his only failure through his fault only again poirot is not reliable as a narrator of his personal history and there is no evidence that christie sketched it out in any depth during his police career poirot shot a man who was firing from a roof into the public below in lord edgware dies poirot reveals that he learned to read writing upside down during his police career around that time he met xavier bouc director of the compagnie internationale des wagonslits inspector japp offers some insight into poirots career with the belgian police when introducing him to a colleague youve heard me speak of mr poirot it was in 1904 he and i worked together the abercrombie forgery case you remember he was run down in brussels ah those were the days moosier then do you remember baron altara there was a pretty rogue for you he eluded the clutches of half the police in europe but we nailed him in antwerp thanks to mr poirot here in the double clue poirot mentions that he was chief of police of brussels until the great war world war i forced him to leave for england private detective i had called in at my friend poirots rooms to find him sadly overworked so much had he become the rage that every rich woman who had mislaid a bracelet or lost a pet kitten rushed to secure the services of the great hercule poirot during world war i poirot left belgium for england as a refugee although he returned a few times on 16 july 1916 he again met his lifelong friend captain arthur hastings and solved the first of his cases to be published the mysterious affair at styles it is clear that hastings and poirot are already friends when they meet in chapter 2 of the novel as hastings tells cynthia that he has not seen him for some years agatha christies poirot has hastings reveal that they met on a shooting case where hastings was a suspect particulars such as the date of 1916 for the case and that hastings had met poirot in belgium are given in curtain poirots last case chapter 1 after that case poirot apparently came to the attention of the british secret service and undertook cases for the british government including foiling the attempted abduction of the prime minister readers were told that the british authorities had learned of poirots keen investigative ability from certain members of belgiums royal family after the war poirot became a private detective and began undertaking civilian cases he moved into what became both his home and work address flat 203 at 56b whitehaven mansions hastings first visits the flat when he returns to england in june 1935 from argentina in the abc murders chapter 1 the tv programmes place this in florin court charterhouse square in the wrong part of london according to hastings it was chosen by poirot entirely on account of its strict geometrical appearance and proportion and described as the newest type of service flat the florin court building was actually built in 1936 decades after poirot fictionally moved in his first case in this period was the affair at the victory ball which allowed poirot to enter high society and begin his career as a private detective between the world wars poirot travelled all over europe and the middle east investigating crimes and solving murders most of his cases occurred during this time and he was at the height of his powers at this point in his life in the murder on the links the belgian pits his grey cells against a french murderer in the middle east he solved the cases death on the nile and murder in mesopotamia with ease and even survived an appointment with death as he passed through eastern europe on his return trip he solved the murder on the orient express however he did not travel to africa or asia probably to avoid seasickness it is this villainous sea that troubles me the mal de mer it is horrible suffering it was during this time he met the countess vera rossakoff a glamorous jewel thief the history of the countess is like poirots steeped in mystery she claims to have been a member of the russian aristocracy before the russian revolution and suffered greatly as a result but how much of that story is true is an open question even poirot acknowledges that rossakoff offered wildly varying accounts of her early life poirot later became smitten with the woman and allowed her to escape justice it is the misfortune of small precise men always to hanker after large and flamboyant women poirot had never been able to rid himself of the fatal fascination that the countess held for him although letting the countess escape was morally questionable it was not uncommon in the nemean lion poirot sided with the criminal miss amy carnaby allowing her to evade prosecution by blackmailing his client sir joseph hoggins who poirot discovered had plans to commit murder poirot even sent miss carnaby two hundred pounds as a final payoff prior to the conclusion of her dog kidnapping campaign in the murder of roger ackroyd poirot allowed the murderer to escape justice through suicide and then withheld the truth to spare the feelings of the murderers relatives in the augean stables he helped the government to cover up vast corruption in murder on the orient express poirot allowed the murderers to go free after discovering that twelve different people participated in the murder each one stabbing the victim in a darkened carriage after drugging him into unconsciousness so that there was no way for anyone to definitively determine which of them actually delivered the killing blow the victim had committed a disgusting crime which led to the deaths of at least five people and there was no question of his guilt but he had been acquitted in america in a miscarriage of justice considering it poetic justice that twelve jurors had acquitted him and twelve people had stabbed him poirot produced an alternative sequence of events to explain the death involving an unknown additional passenger on the train with the medical examiner agreeing to doctor his own report to support this theory after his cases in the middle east poirot returned to britain apart from some of the socalled labours of hercules see next section he very rarely went abroad during his later career he moved into styles court towards the end of his life while poirot was usually paid handsomely by clients he was also known to take on cases that piqued his curiosity although they did not pay well poirot shows a love of steam trains which christie contrasts with hastings love of autos this is shown in the plymouth express the mystery of the blue train murder on the orient express and the abc murders in the tv series steam trains are seen in nearly all of the episodes retirement thats the way of it just a case or two just one case more the prima donnas farewell performance wont be in it with yours poirot confusion surrounds poirots retirement most of the cases covered by poirots private detective agency take place before his retirement to attempt to grow larger marrows at which time he solves the murder of roger ackroyd it has been said that the twelve cases related in the labours of hercules 1947 must refer to a different retirement but the fact that poirot specifically says that he intends to grow marrows indicates that these stories also take place before roger ackroyd and presumably poirot closed his agency once he had completed them there is specific mention in the capture of cerberus of the twentyyear gap between poirots previous meeting with countess rossakoff and this one if the labours precede the events in roger ackroyd then the ackroyd case must have taken place around twenty years later than it was published and so must any of the cases that refer to it one alternative would be that having failed to grow marrows once poirot is determined to have another go but this is specifically denied by poirot himself also in the erymanthian boar a character is said to have been turned out of austria by the nazis implying that the events of the labours of hercules took place after 1937 another alternative would be to suggest that the preface to the labours takes place at one date but that the labours are completed over a matter of twenty years none of the explanations is especially attractive in terms of a rudimentary chronology poirot speaks of retiring to grow marrows in chapter 18 of the big four 1927 which places that novel out of published order before roger ackroyd he declines to solve a case for the home secretary because he is retired in chapter one of peril at end house 1932 he has certainly retired at the time of three act tragedy 1935 but he does not enjoy his retirement and repeatedly takes cases thereafter when his curiosity is engaged he continues to employ his secretary miss lemon at the time of the cases retold in hickory dickory dock and dead mans folly which take place in the mid1950s it is therefore better to assume that christie provided no authoritative chronology for poirots retirement but assumed that he could either be an active detective a consulting detective or a retired detective as the needs of the immediate case required one consistent element about poirots retirement is that his fame declines during it so that in the later novels he is often disappointed when characters especially younger characters recognise neither him nor his name i should perhaps madame tell you a little more about myself i am hercule poirot the revelation left mrs summerhayes unmoved what a lovely name she said kindly greek isnt it postworld war ii poirot is less active during the cases that take place at the end of his career beginning with three act tragedy 1934 christie had perfected during the interwar years a subgenre of poirot novel in which the detective himself spent much of the first third of the novel on the periphery of events in novels such as taken at the flood after the funeral and hickory dickory dock he is even less in evidence frequently passing the duties of main interviewing detective to a subsidiary character in cat among the pigeons poirots entrance is so late as to be almost an afterthought whether this was a reflection of his age or of christies distaste for him is impossible to assess crooked house 1949 and ordeal by innocence 1957 which could easily have been poirot novels represent a logical endpoint of the general diminution of his presence in such works towards the end of his career it becomes clear that poirots retirement is no longer a convenient fiction he assumes a genuinely inactive lifestyle during which he concerns himself with studying famous unsolved cases of the past and reading detective novels he even writes a book about mystery fiction in which he deals sternly with edgar allan poe and wilkie collins in the absence of a more appropriate puzzle he solves such inconsequential domestic riddles as the presence of three pieces of orange peel in his umbrella stand poirot and it is reasonable to suppose his creator becomes increasingly bemused by the vulgarism of the upandcoming generations young people in hickory dickory dock he investigates the strange goingson in a student hostel while in third girl 1966 he is forced into contact with the smart set of chelsea youths in the growing drug and pop culture of the sixties he proves himself once again but has become heavily reliant on other investigators especially the private investigator mr goby who provide him with the clues that he can no longer gather for himself notably during this time his physical characteristics also change dramatically and by the time arthur hastings meets poirot again in curtain he looks very different from his previous appearances having become thin with age and with obviously dyed hair death on the itv television series poirot died in october 1949 from complications of a heart condition at the end of curtain poirots last case this took place at styles court the scene of his first english case in 1916 in christies novels he lived into the early 1970s perhaps even until 1975 when curtain was published in both the novel and the television adaptation he had moved his amyl nitrite pills out of his own reach possibly because of guilt he thereby became the murderer in curtain although it was for the benefit of others poirot himself noted that he wanted to kill his victim shortly before his own death so that he could avoid succumbing to the arrogance of the murderer concerned that he might come to view himself as entitled to kill those whom he deemed necessary to eliminate the murderer that he was hunting had never actually killed anyone but he had manipulated others to kill for him subtly and psychologically manipulating the moments where others desire to commit murder so that they carry out the crime when they might otherwise dismiss their thoughts as nothing more than a momentary passion poirot thus was forced to kill the man himself as otherwise he would have continued his actions and never been officially convicted as he did not legally do anything wrong it is revealed at the end of curtain that he fakes his need for a wheelchair to fool people into believing that he is suffering from arthritis to give the impression that he is more infirm than he is his last recorded words are cher ami spoken to hastings as the captain left his room the tv adaptation adds that as poirot is dying alone he whispers out his final prayer to god in these words forgive me forgive poirot was buried at styles and his funeral was arranged by his best friend hastings and hastings daughter judith hastings reasoned here was the spot where he had lived when he first came to this country he was to lie here at the last poirots actual death and funeral occurred in curtain years after his retirement from the active investigation but it was not the first time that hastings attended the funeral of his best friend in the big four 1927 poirot feigned his death and subsequent funeral to launch a surprise attack on the big four recurring characters captain arthur hastings hastings a former british army officer meets poirot during poirots years as a police officer in belgium and almost immediately after they both arrive in england he becomes poirots lifelong friend and appears in many cases poirot regards hastings as a poor private detective not particularly intelligent yet helpful in his way of being fooled by the criminal or seeing things the way the average man would see them and for his tendency to unknowingly stumble onto the truth hastings marries and has four children two sons and two daughters as a loyal albeit somewhat naïve companion hastings is to poirot what watson is to sherlock holmes hastings is capable of great bravery and courage facing death unflinchingly when confronted by the big four and displaying unwavering loyalty towards poirot however when forced to choose between poirot and his wife in that novel he initially chooses to betray poirot to protect his wife later though he tells poirot to draw back and escape the trap the two are an airtight team until hastings meets and marries dulcie duveen a beautiful music hall performer half his age after investigating the murder on the links they later emigrated to argentina leaving poirot behind as a very unhappy old man however poirot and hastings reunite during the novels the big four peril at end house the abc murders lord edgware dies and dumb witness when hastings arrives in england for business with poirot noting in abc murders that he enjoys having hastings over because he feels that he always has his most interesting cases with hastings the two collaborate for the final time in curtain poirots last case when the seeminglycrippled poirot asks hastings to assist him in his final case when the killer they are tracking nearly manipulates hastings into committing murder poirot describes this in his final farewell letter to hastings as the catalyst that prompted him to eliminate the man himself as poirot knew that his friend was not a murderer and refused to let a man capable of manipulating hastings in such a manner go on mrs ariadne oliver detective novelist ariadne oliver is agatha christies humorous selfcaricature like christie she is not overly fond of the detective whom she is most famous for creatingin ariadnes case finnish sleuth sven hjerson we never learn anything about her husband but we do know that she hates alcohol and public appearances and has a great fondness for apples until she is put off them by the events of halloween party she also has a habit of constantly changing her hairstyle and in every appearance by her much is made of her clothes and hats her maid maria prevents the public adoration from becoming too much of a burden on her employer but does nothing to prevent her from becoming too much of a burden on others she has authored more than 56 novels and greatly dislikes people modifying her characters she is the only one in poirots universe to have noted that its not natural for five or six people to be on the spot when b is murdered and all have a motive for killing b she first met poirot in the story cards on the table and has bothered him ever since miss felicity lemon poirots secretary miss felicity lemon has few human weaknesses the only mistakes she makes within the series are a typing error during the events of hickory dickory dock and the mismailing of an electricity bill although she was worried about strange events surrounding her sister who worked at a student hostel at the time poirot described her as being unbelievably ugly and incredibly efficient anything that she mentioned as worth consideration usually was worth consideration she is an expert on nearly everything and plans to create the perfect filing system she also worked for the government statisticianturnedphilanthropist parker pyne whether this was during one of poirots numerous retirements or before she entered his employment is unknown in the agatha christie hour she was portrayed by angela easterling while in agatha christies poirot she was portrayed by pauline moran where she was shown to be efficient prim and modest but not remotely unbelievably ugly on a number of occasions she joins poirot in his inquiries or seeks out answers alone at his request chief inspector james harold japp japp is a scotland yard inspector and appears in many of the stories trying to solve cases that poirot is working on japp is outgoing loud and sometimes inconsiderate by nature and his relationship with the refined belgian is one of the stranger aspects of poirots world he first met poirot in belgium in 1904 during the abercrombie forgery later that year they joined forces again to hunt down a criminal known as baron altara they also meet in england where poirot often helps japp and lets him take credit in return for special favours these favours usually entail poirot being supplied with other interesting cases in agatha christies poirot japp was portrayed by philip jackson in the film thirteen at dinner 1985 adapted from lord edgware dies the role of japp was taken by the actor david suchet who would later star as poirot in the itv adaptations major novels the poirot books take readers through the whole of his life in england from the first book the mysterious affair at styles where he is a refugee staying at styles to the last poirot book curtain where he visits styles before his death in between poirot solves cases outside england as well including his most famous case murder on the orient express 1934 hercule poirot became famous in 1926 with the publication of the murder of roger ackroyd whose surprising solution proved controversial the novel is still among the most famous of all detective novels edmund wilson alludes to it in the title of his wellknown attack on detective fiction who cares who killed roger ackroyd aside from roger ackroyd the most critically acclaimed poirot novels appeared from 1932 to 1942 including murder on the orient express 1934 the abc murders 1935 cards on the table 1936 and death on the nile 1937 a tale of multiple murders upon a nile steamer death on the nile was judged by the famed detective novelist john dickson carr to be among the ten greatest mystery novels of all time the 1942 novel five little pigs aka murder in retrospect in which poirot investigates a murder committed sixteen years before by analysing various accounts of the tragedy has been called the best christie of all by critic and mystery novelist robert barnard in 2014 the poirot canon was added to by sophie hannah the first author to be commissioned by the christie estate to write an original story the novel was called the monogram murders and was set in the late 1920s placing it chronologically between the mystery of the blue train and peril at end house a second hannahpenned poirot came out in 2016 called closed casket and a third the mystery of three quarters in 2018 portrayals stage the first actor to portray poirot was charles laughton he appeared on the west end in 1928 in the play alibi which had been adapted by michael morton from the novel the murder of roger ackroyd in 1932 the play was performed as the fatal alibi on broadway another poirot play black coffee opened in london at the embassy theatre on 8 december 1930 and starred francis l sullivan as poirot another production of black coffee ran in dublin ireland from 23 to 28 june 1931 starring robert powell american playwright ken ludwig adapted murder on the orient express into a play which premiered at the mccarter theatre in princeton new jersey on 14 march 2017 it starred allan corduner in the role of hercule poirot film austin trevor austin trevor debuted the role of poirot on screen in the 1931 british film alibi the film was based on the stage play trevor reprised the role of poirot twice in black coffee and lord edgware dies trevor said once that he was probably cast as poirot simply because he could do a french accent notably trevors poirot did not have a moustache leslie s hiscott directed the first two films and henry edwards took over for the third tony randall tony randall portrayed poirot in the alphabet murders a 1965 film also known as the abc murders this was more a satire of poirot than a straightforward adaptation and was greatly changed from the original much of the story set in modern times was played for comedy with poirot investigating the murders while evading the attempts by hastings robert morley and the police to get him out of england and back to belgium albert finney albert finney played poirot in 1974 in the cinematic version of murder on the orient express as of now finney is the only actor to receive an academy award nomination for playing poirot though he did not win peter ustinov peter ustinov played poirot six times starting with death on the nile 1978 he reprised the role in evil under the sun 1982 and appointment with death 1988 christies daughter rosalind hicks observed ustinov during a rehearsal and said thats not poirot he isnt at all like that ustinov overheard and remarked he is now he appeared again as poirot in three television films thirteen at dinner 1985 dead mans folly 1986 and murder in three acts 1986 earlier adaptations were set during the time in which the novels were written but these television films were set in the contemporary era the first of these was based on lord edgware dies and was made by warner bros it also starred faye dunaway with david suchet as inspector japp just before suchet began to play poirot david suchet considers his performance as japp to be possibly the worst performance of his career kenneth branagh kenneth branagh played poirot in film adaptations of murder on the orient express in 2017 death on the nile in 2022 and a haunting in venice based on the novel halloween party in 2023 branagh directed all three and coproduced them alongside ridley scott they were written by michael green other anatoly ravikovich zagadka endkhauza end house mystery 1989 based on peril at end house television david suchet david suchet starred as poirot in the itv series agatha christies poirot from 1989 until june 2013 when he announced that he was bidding farewell to the role no one couldve guessed then that the series would span a quartercentury or that the classically trained suchet would complete the entire catalogue of whodunits featuring the eccentric belgian investigator including 33 novels and dozens of short stories his final appearance in the show was in an adaptation of curtain poirots last case aired on 13 november 2013 the writers of the binge article of entertainment weekly issue 134344 26 december 2014 3 january 2015 picked suchet as best poirot in the hercule poirot miss marple timeline the episodes were shot in various locations in the uk and abroad for example triangle at rhodes and problem at sea whilst other scenes were shot at twickenham studios other heini göbel 1955 an adaptation of murder on the orient express for the west german television series die galerie der großen detektive josé ferrer hercule poirot 1961 unaired tv pilot mgm adaptation of the disappearance of mr davenheim martin gabel general electric theater 411962 adaptation of the disappearance of mr davenheim horst bollmann black coffee 1973 ian holm murder by the book 1986 arnolds liniņš slepkavība stailzā the mysterious affair at styles 1990 hugh laurie spice world 1997 alfred molina murder on the orient express 2001 konstantin raikin neudacha puaro poirots failure 2002 based on the murder of roger ackroyd anthony odonnell agatha christie a life in pictures 2004 shirō itō takashi akafuji meitantei akafuji takashi the detective takashi akafuji 2005 mansai nomura takeru suguro orient kyūkō satsujin jiken murder on the orient express 2015 kuroido goroshi the murder of kuroido 2018 based on the murder of roger ackroyd shi to no yakusoku 2021 based on appointment with death john malkovich was poirot in the 2018 bbc adaptation of the abc murders anime in 2004 the japanese public broadcaster nhk produced a 39episode anime series titled agatha christies great detectives poirot and marple as well as a manga series under the same title released in 2005 the series adapting several of the bestknown poirot and marple stories ran from 4 july 2004 through 15 may 2005 and in repeated reruns on nhk and other networks in japan poirot was voiced by kōtarō satomi and miss marple was voiced by kaoru yachigusa radio from 1985 to 2007 bbc radio 4 produced a series of twentyseven adaptations of poirot novels and short stories adapted by michael bakewell and directed by enyd williams twenty five starred john moffatt as poirot maurice denham and peter sallis played poirot on bbc radio 4 in the first two adaptations the mystery of the blue train and in hercule poirots christmas respectively in 1939 orson welles and the mercury players dramatised roger ackroyd on cbss campbell playhouse on 6 october 1942 the mutual radio series murder clinic broadcast the tragedy at marsden manor starring maurice tarplin as poirot a 1945 radio series of at least 13 original halfhour episodes none of which apparently adapt any christie stories transferred poirot from london to new york and starred character actor harold huber perhaps better known for his appearances as a police officer in various charlie chan films on 22 february 1945 speaking from london agatha christie introduced the initial broadcast of the poirot series via shortwave an adaptation of murder in the mews was broadcast on the bbc light programme in march 1955 starring richard bebb as poirot this program was thought lost but was discovered in the bbc archives in 2015 other audio in 2017 audible released an original audio adaptation of murder on the orient express starring tom conti as poirot the cast included jane asher as mrs hubbard jay benedict as monsieur bouc ruta gedmintas as countess andrenyi sophie okonedo as mary debenham eddie marsan as ratchett walles hamonde as hector macqueen paterson joseph as colonel arbuthnot rula lenska as princess dragimiroff and art malik as the narrator according to the publishers summary on audiblecom sound effects were recorded on the orient express itself in 2021 la theatre works produced an adaptation of the murder on the links dramatised by kate mcall alfred molina starred as poirot with simon helberg as hastings video games the video game agatha christie hercule poirot the first cases has poirot voice acted by will de renzymartin parodies and references parodies of hercule poirot have appeared in a number of movies including revenge of the pink panther where poirot makes a cameo appearance in a mental asylum portrayed by andrew sachs and claiming to be the greatest detective in all of france the greatest in all the world neil simons murder by death where milo perrier is played by american actor james coco the 1977 film the strange case of the end of civilization as we know it 1977 the film spice world where hugh laurie plays poirot and in sherlock holmes the awakened poirot appears as a young boy on the train transporting holmes and watson holmes helps the boy in opening a puzzlebox with watson giving the boy advice about using his little grey cells in the book series geronimo stilton the character hercule poirat is inspired by hercule poirot the belgian brewery brasserie ellezelloise makes a stout called hercule with a moustachioed caricature of hercule poirot on the label in season 2 episode 4 of tvfplays indian web series permanent roommates one of the characters refers to hercule poirot as her inspiration while she attempts to solve the mystery of the cheating spouse throughout the episode she is mocked as hercule poirot and agatha christie by the suspects tvfplay also telecasted a spoof of indian tv suspense drama cid as qissa missing dimaag ka cid qtiyapa in the first episode when ujjwal is shown to browse for the best detectives of the world david suchet appears as poirot in his search see also poirot investigates tropes in agatha christies novels footnotes references literature works reviews goddard john 2018 agatha christies golden age an analysis of poirots golden age puzzles stylish eye press external links official agatha christie website hercule poirot on imdb listen to orson welles in the murder of roger ackroyd listen to the 1945 hercule poirot radio program wiktionary definition of edgar allan poes ratiocination characters in british novels of the 20th century fictional belgian police officers fictional belgian police detectives fictional christians fictional characters from wallonia fictional contract bridge players fictional criminologists fictional illeists fictional private investigators agatha christie characters hercule poirot characters literary characters introduced in 1920 male characters in literature series of books hercule poirot hercule poirot hercule poirot hercule poirot hercule poirot | 7,095 |
1002 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miss%20Marple | Miss Marple | miss jane marple is a fictional character in agatha christies crime novels and short stories miss marple lives in the village of st mary mead and acts as an amateur consulting detective often characterized as an elderly spinster she is one of christies bestknown characters and has been portrayed numerous times on screen her first appearance was in a short story published in the royal magazine in december 1927 the tuesday night club which later became the first chapter of the thirteen problems 1932 her first appearance in a fulllength novel was in the murder at the vicarage in 1930 and her last appearance was in sleeping murder in 1976 origins the character of miss marple is based on friends of christies step grandmotheraunt margaret miller née west christie attributed the inspiration for the character to multiple sources stating that miss marple was the sort of old lady who would have been rather like some of my step grandmothers ealing cronies old ladies whom i have met in so many villages where i have gone to stay as a girl christie also used material from her fictional creation spinster caroline sheppard who appeared in the murder of roger ackroyd when michael morton adapted the novel for the stage he replaced the character of caroline with a young girl this change saddened christie and she determined to give old maids a voice miss marple was born christie is popularly believed to have taken the name from marple railway station through which she passed though a letter she wrote to a fan appears to prove that the name was inspired by a visit to a sale at marple hall in the same town near her sister margaret watts home at abney hall character the character of jane marple in the first miss marple book the murder at the vicarage is quite different from how she appears in later books this early version of miss marple is a gleeful gossip and not an especially nice woman the residents of st mary mead like her but are often tired of her nosy nature and the fact she seems to expect the worst of everyone in later books she becomes a kinder person miss marple solves difficult crimes thanks to her shrewd intelligence and st mary mead over her lifetime has given her seemingly infinite examples of the negative side of human nature crimes always remind her of a previous incident although acquaintances may be bored by analogies that often lead her to a deeper realisation about the true nature of a crime she also has a remarkable ability to latch onto a casual comment and connect it to the case at hand in several stories she is able to rely on her acquaintance with sir henry clithering a retired commissioner of the metropolitan police for official information when required miss marple never married and has no close living relatives her nephew the wellknown author raymond west appears in some stories including the thirteen problems sleeping murder and ingots of gold which also feature his wife joyce lemprière raymond overestimates himself and underestimates his aunts mental acuity miss marple employs young women including clara emily alice esther gwenda and amy from a nearby orphanage whom she trains for service as general housemaids after the retirement of her longtime maidhousekeeper faithful florence she was briefly looked after by her irritating companion miss knight in her later years companion cherry baker first introduced in the mirror crackd from side to side lives in miss marple has never worked for her living and is of independent means although she benefits in her old age from the financial support of her nephew raymond she is not from the aristocracy or landed gentry but is quite at home among them as a gentlewoman miss marple may thus be considered a female version of the gentleman detective a staple of british detective fiction she demonstrates a remarkably thorough education including some art courses that involved the study of human anatomy using human cadavers in they do it with mirrors 1952 it is revealed that miss marple grew up in a cathedral close and that she studied at an italian finishing school with american sisters ruth van rydock and caroline carrie louise serrocold while miss marple is described as an old lady in many of the stories her age is rarely mentioned and is not consistently presented in at bertrams hotel published in 1965 it is said she visited the hotel when she was 14 and almost 60 years have passed since then implying that she is nearly 75 years old but in 450 from paddington published almost a decade earlier in 1957 she says she will be 90 next year excluding sleeping murder 41 years passed between the first and lastwritten novels and many characters grow and age an example would be the vicars nephew in the murder at the vicarage the reverend mr clements nephew dennis is a teenager in the mirror crackd from side to side it is mentioned that the nephew is now an adult and has a successful career the effects of ageing are seen on miss marple such as needing a holiday after illness in a caribbean mystery but she is if anything more agile in nemesis set only 16 months later miss marples background is described in some detail albeit in glimpses across the novels and short stories in which she appears she has a very large family including a sister the mother of raymond and mabel denham a young woman who was accused of poisoning her husband geoffrey the thumb mark of st peter bibliography agatha christie wrote 12 novels and 20 short stories featuring miss marple miss marple series the murder at the vicarage 1930 novel the body in the library 1942 novel the moving finger 1943 novel a murder is announced 1950 novel they do it with mirrors 1952 novel also published in the united states as murder with mirrors a pocket full of rye 1953 novel 450 from paddington 1957 novel also published in the united states as what mrs mcgillicuddy saw the mirror crackd from side to side 1962 novel a caribbean mystery 1964 novel at bertrams hotel 1965 novel nemesis 1971 novel sleeping murder 1976 novel miss marple short story collections the thirteen problems 1932 short story collection featuring miss marple also published as the tuesday club murders the regatta mystery and other stories 1939 collection three blind mice and other stories 1950 collection the adventure of the christmas pudding 1960 collection double sin and other stories 1961 collection miss marples final cases and two other stories short stories collected posthumously also published as miss marples final cases but only six of the eight stories actually feature miss marple written between 1939 and 1954 published 1979 miss marple the complete short stories published 1985 includes 20 from 4 sets the thirteen problems the regatta mystery three blind mice and other stories and double sin and other stories miss marple also appears in greenshaws folly a short story included as part of the poirot collection the adventure of the christmas pudding 1960 four stories in the three blind mice collection 1950 feature miss marple strange jest tapemeasure murder the case of the caretaker and the case of the perfect maid the autograph edition of miss marples final cases includes the eight in the original plus greenshaws folly continuations not by christie marple twelve new mysteries collection with stories written by naomi alderman leigh bardugo alyssa cole lucy foley elly griffiths natalie haynes jean kwok val mcdermid karen m mcmanus dreda say mitchell kate mosse and ruth ware published 2022 books about miss marple the life and times of miss jane marple a biography by anne hart stage a stage adaptation of murder at the vicarage by moie charles and barbara toy was first seen at northampton on 17 october 1949 it was directed by reginald tate starred the 35yearold barbara mullen as miss marple and after touring reached the playhouse theatre in londons west end on 14 december having run till late march 1950 it then went on tour again in july 1974 mullen by then 60 returned to the role in another national tour of the same play culminating 12 months later when the show opened at londons savoy theatre on 28 july 1975 at the end of march 1976 the miss marple role was taken over by avril angers after which the production transferred to the fortune theatre on 5 july the role then passed to muriel pavlow in june 1977 and to gabrielle hamilton late the following year the production finally closed in october 1979 on 21 september 1977 while murder at the vicarage was still running at the fortune a stage adaptation by leslie darbon of a murder is announced opened at the vaudeville theatre with dulcie gray as miss marple the show ran to the end of september 1978 and then toured films margaret rutherford margaret rutherford played miss marple in four films directed by george pollock between 1961 and 1964 these were successful light comedies but christie herself was disappointed with them nevertheless agatha christie dedicated the novel the mirror crackd from side to side to rutherford rutherford presented the character as a bold and eccentric old lady different from the prim and birdlike character christie created in her novels as penned by christie miss marple has never worked for a living but the character as portrayed by margaret rutherford briefly works as a cookhousekeeper a stage actress a sailor and criminal reformer and is offered the chance to run a riding establishmentcumhotel her education and genteel background are hinted at when she mentions her awards at marksmanship fencing and equestrianism although these hints are played for comedic value murder she said 1961 was the first of the four british mgm productions starring rutherford this film was based on the 1957 novel 450 from paddington us title what mrs mcgillicuddy saw and the changes made in the plot were typical of the series in the film mrs mcgillicuddy is cut from the plot miss marple herself sees an apparent murder committed on a train running alongside hers actress joan hickson who played marple in the 19841992 television adaptations has a role as a housekeeper in this movie murder at the gallop 1963 based on the 1953 hercule poirot novel after the funeral in this film she is identified as miss jtv marple though there was no indication as to what the extra initials might stand for murder most foul 1964 based on the 1952 poirot novel mrs mcgintys dead murder ahoy 1964 the last film is not based on any christie work but displays a few plot elements from they do it with mirrors viz the ship is used as a reform school for wayward boys and one of the teachers uses them as a crime force and there is a kind of salute to the mousetrap the music to all four films was composed and conducted by ron goodwin the same theme is used on all four films with slight variations in each the score was written within a couple of weeks by goodwin who was approached by pollock after pollock had heard about him from stanley black black had worked with pollock on stranger in town in 1957 and had previously hired goodwin as his orchestrator rutherford who was 68 years old when the first film was shot in february 1961 insisted that she wear her own clothes during the filming of the movie as well as having her husband stringer davis appear alongside her as the character mr stringer the rutherford films are frequently repeated on television in germany and in that country miss marple is generally identified with rutherfords quirky portrayal rutherford also appeared briefly as miss marple in the parodic hercule poirot adventure the alphabet murders 1965 angela lansbury in 1980 angela lansbury played miss marple in the mirror crackd emi directed by guy hamilton based on christies 1962 novel the film featured an allstar cast that included elizabeth taylor rock hudson geraldine chaplin tony curtis and kim novak edward fox appeared as inspector craddock who did miss marples legwork lansburys marple was a crisp intelligent woman who moved stiffly and spoke in clipped tones unlike most incarnations of miss marple this one smoked cigarettes lansbury was later cast as jessica fletcher in murder she wrote a similar role ita ever in 1983 estonian stage and film actress ita ever starred in the russian language mosfilm adaptation of agatha christies novel a pocket full of rye using the russian editions translated title the secret of the blackbirds as the character of miss marple ever has also portrayed the character of miss marple in the eesti televisioon etv series miss marple stories in 1990 and onstage at the tallinn city theatre in a production of the mirror crackd from side to side in 2005 television the first onscreen portrayal of miss marple was british actress and singer gracie fields playing her in a 1956 episode of the american series goodyear tv playhouse based on a murder is announced the 1950 christie novel in 1970 the character of miss marple was portrayed by in a west german television adaptation of the murder at the vicarage mord im pfarrhaus helen hayes american stage and screen actress helen hayes portrayed miss marple in two american television films near the end of her decadeslong acting career both for cbs a caribbean mystery 1983 and murder with mirrors 1985 sue grafton contributed to the screenplay of the former hayess marple was benign and chirpy she had earlier appeared in a television film adaptation of the nonmarple christie story murder is easy playing an elderly lady somewhat similar to miss marple joan hickson from 1984 to 1992 the bbc adapted all of the original miss marple novels as a series titled miss marple joan hickson played the lead role in the 1940s she had appeared on stage in an agatha christie play appointment with death which was seen by christie who wrote in a note to her i hope one day you will play my dear miss marple she portrayed a maid in the 1937 film love from a stranger which starred ann harding and basil rathbone another agatha christie play adaptation as well as portraying miss marple on television hickson narrated miss marple stories for audio books in the binge article of entertainment weekly issue 13431344 26 december 2014 3 january 2015 the writers picked hickson as best marple in the hercule poirot miss marple timeline listing of the tv series featuring joan hickson the body in the library 1984 the moving finger 1985 a murder is announced 1985 a pocket full of rye 1985 the murder at the vicarage 1986 bafta nomination sleeping murder 1987 at bertrams hotel 1987 nemesis 1987 bafta nomination 450 from paddington 1987 a caribbean mystery 1989 they do it with mirrors 1991 the mirror crackd from side to side 1992 geraldine mcewan 20042008julia mckenzie 20092013 beginning in 2004 itv broadcast a series of adaptations of agatha christies books under the title agatha christies marple usually referred to as marple geraldine mcewan starred in the first three series julia mckenzie took over the role in the fourth season the adaptations change the plots and characters of the original books eg incorporating lesbian affairs changing the identities of some killers renaming or removing significant characters and even using stories from other books in which miss marple did not originally feature in the geraldine mcewan series it is revealed that when she was young portrayed by julie cox in a flashback miss marple had an affair with a married soldier captain ainsworth who was killed in action in world war i in december 1915 it is also said in a murder is announced that she served as an ambulance driver during world war i listing of the tv series featuring geraldine mcewan and julia mckenzie the body in the library 2004 the murder at the vicarage 2004 450 from paddington 2004 a murder is announced 2005 sleeping murder 2005 the moving finger 2006 by the pricking of my thumbs 2006 the sittaford mystery 2006 at bertrams hotel 2007 ordeal by innocence 2007 towards zero 2008 nemesis 2008 a pocket full of rye 2009 murder is easy 2009 they do it with mirrors 2010 why didnt they ask evans 2011 the pale horse 2010 the secret of chimneys 2010 the blue geranium 2010 the mirror crackd from side to side 2011 a caribbean mystery 2013 greenshaws folly 2013 endless night 2013 in 2015 cbs planned a much younger version of the character a granddaughter who takes over a california bookstore in 2018 miss marple was portrayed by yunjin kim in the south korean television series ms ma nemesis anime from 2004 to 2005 japanese tv network nhk produced a 39 episode anime series titled agatha christies great detectives poirot and marple which features both miss marple and hercule poirot miss marples voice is provided by kaoru yachigusa episodes adapted both short stories and novels the anime series dramatised the following miss marple stories strange jest ep 3 the case of the perfect maid ep 4 the tapemeasure murder ep 13 ingots of gold ep 14 the blue geranium ep 15 450 from paddington ep 2124 motive versus opportunity ep 27 sleeping murder ep 3033 radio june whitfield starred as miss marple in michael bakewells adaptations of all twelve novels broadcast on bbc radio 4 between 1993 and 2001 three short stories with whitfield tapemeasure murder the case of the perfect maid and sanctuary were later broadcast under the collective title miss marples final cases weekly 16 30 september 2015 other appearances marple was highlighted in volume 20 of the case closed mangas edition of gosho aoyamas mystery library a section of the graphic novels usually the last page where the author introduces a different detective or occasionally a villain from mystery literature television or other media in the 1976 neil simon spoof murder by death miss marple is parodied as miss marbles by elsa lanchester see also list of female detective characters references external links miss marple at the official agatha christie website miss marple on imdb book series introduced in 1930 british novels adapted into films british novels adapted into plays characters in british novels of the 20th century detective television series agatha christie characters female characters in literature fictional amateur detectives literary characters introduced in 1927 fictional english people novel series novels adapted into radio programs british novels adapted into television shows | 3,111 |
1004 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April | April | april is the fourth month of the year in the gregorian and julian calendars it is the first of four months to have a length of 30 days and the second of five months to have a length of less than 31 days april is commonly associated with the season of spring in the northern hemisphere and autumn in the southern hemisphere where it is the seasonal equivalent to october in the northern hemisphere and vice versa history the romans gave this month the latin name aprilis but the derivation of this name is uncertain the traditional etymology is from the verb aperire to open in allusion to its being the season when trees and flowers begin to open which is supported by comparison with the modern greek use of άνοιξη ánixi opening for spring since some of the roman months were named in honor of divinities and as april was sacred to the goddess venus her veneralia being held on the first day it has been suggested that aprilis was originally her month aphrilis from her equivalent greek goddess name aphrodite aphros or from the etruscan name apru jacob grimm suggests the name of a hypothetical god or hero aper or aprus april was the second month of the earliest roman calendar before ianuarius and februarius were added by king numa pompilius about 700 bc it became the fourth month of the calendar year the year when twelve months are displayed in order during the time of the decemvirs about 450 bc when it was 29 days long the 30th day was added back during the reform of the calendar undertaken by julius caesar in the mid40s bc which produced the julian calendar the anglosaxons called april ēastremonaþ the venerable bede says in the reckoning of time that this month ēastre is the root of the word easter he further states that the month was named after a goddess eostre whose feast was in that month it is also attested by einhard in his work vita karoli magni st georges day is the twentythird of the month and st marks eve with its superstition that the ghosts of those who are doomed to die within the year will be seen to pass into the church falls on the twentyfourth in china the symbolic ploughing of the earth by the emperor and princes of the blood took place in their third month which frequently corresponds to april in finnish april is huhtikuu meaning slashandburn moon when gymnosperms for beat and burn clearing of farmland were felled in slovene the most established traditional name is mali traven meaning the month when plants start growing it was first written in 1466 in the škofja loka manuscript the month aprilis originally had 30 days numa pompilius made it 29 days long finally julius caesars calendar reform made it 30 days long again which was not changed in the calendar revision of augustus caesar in 8 bc in ancient rome the festival of cerealia was held for seven days from midtolate april but exact dates are uncertain feriae latinae was also held in april with the date varying other ancient roman observances include veneralia april 1 megalesia april 1016 fordicidia april 15 parilia april 21 vinalia urbana april 23 robigalia april 25 and serapia april 25 floralia was held april 27 during the republican era or april 28 on the julian calendar and lasted until may 3 however these dates do not correspond to the modern gregorian calendar the lyrids meteor shower appears on april 16 april 26 each year with the peak generally occurring on april 22 the eta aquariids meteor shower also appears in april it is visible from about april 21 to about may 20 each year with peak activity on or around may 6 the pi puppids appear on april 23 but only in years around the parent comets perihelion date the virginids also shower at various dates in april the days of april journées davril is a name assigned in french history to a series of insurrections at lyons paris and elsewhere against the government of louis philippe in 1834 which led to violent repressive measures and to a famous trial known as the procès davril symbols aprils birthstone is the diamond the birth flower is the common daisy bellis perennis or the sweet pea the zodiac signs are aries until april 19 and taurus april 20 onward observances this list does not necessarily imply either official status nor general observance monthlong in catholic protestant and orthodox tradition april is the month of the resurrection of the lord april and march are the months in which is celebrated the moveable feast of easter sunday national pet month united kingdom united states arab american heritage month autism awareness month cancer control month community college awareness month confederate history month alabama florida georgia louisiana mississippi texas virginia financial literacy month jazz appreciation month mathematics and statistics awareness month month of the military child national poetry month national poetry writing month occupational therapy month national prevent child abuse month national volunteer month parkinsons disease awareness month rosacea awareness month sexual assault awareness month united states food months fresh florida tomato month national food month national grilled cheese month national pecan month national soft pretzel month national soyfoods month nongregorian all bahai islamic and jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted list of observances set by the baháí calendar list of observances set by the chinese calendar list of observances set by the hebrew calendar list of observances set by the islamic calendar list of observances set by the solar hijri calendar movable variable 2021 dates shown youth homelessness matters day national health day kiribati april 6 oral head and neck cancer awareness week united states april 1319 national park week united states april 1826 crime victims rights week united states april 1925 national volunteer week april 1925 european immunization week april 2026 day of silence united states april 24 pay it forward day april 28 international observance denim day april 29 international observance day of dialogue united states vaccination week in the americas see list of movable western christian observances see list of movable eastern christian observances first wednesday national day of hope united states first saturday ulcinj municipality day ulcinj montenegro first sunday daylight saving time ends australia and new zealand geologists day former soviet union countries kanamara matsuri kawasaki japan opening day united states first full week national library week united states national library workers day united states tuesday of national library week april 4 national bookmobile day wednesday of national library week april 5 national public health week united states national public safety telecommunicators week united states second wednesday international day of pink second thursday national former prisoner of war recognition day united states second friday fast and prayer day liberia air force day russia kamakura matsuri at tsurugaoka hachiman kamakura japan lasts until third sunday second sunday childrens day peru week of april 14 panamerican week united states third wednesday administrative professionals day new zealand third thursday national high five day united states third saturday record store day international observance last full week of april administrative professionals week malaysia north america world immunization week week of april 23 canada book week canada week of the new moon national darksky week united states third monday patriots day massachusetts maine united states queens official birthday saint helena ascension and tristan da cunha sechseläuten zürich switzerland wednesday of last full week of april administrative professionals day hong kong north america first thursday after april 18 first day of summer iceland fourth thursday take our daughters and sons to work day united states last friday arbor day united states día de la chupina rosario argentina last friday in april to first sunday in may arbour week in ontario last saturday childrens day colombia national rebuilding day united states national sense of smell day united states world tai chi and qigong day last sunday flag day åland finland turkmen racing horse festival turkmenistan april 27 april 26 if april 27 is a sunday koningsdag netherlands last monday confederate memorial day alabama georgia us state and mississippi united states last wednesday international noise awareness day fixed april 1 april fools day arbor day tanzania civil service day thailand cyprus national day cyprus edible book day fossil fools day kha bnisan assyrian people national civil service day thailand odisha day odisha india start of testicular cancer awareness week united states april 17 season for nonviolence january 30 april 4 april 2 international childrens book day international observance malvinas day argentina national peanut butter and jelly day united states thai heritage conservation day thailand unity of peoples of russia and belarus day belarus world autism awareness day international observance april 3 april 4 childrens day hong kong taiwan independence day senegal international day for mine awareness and assistance in mine action peace day angola april 5 childrens day palestinian territories national caramel day united states sikmogil south korea april 6 chakri day thailand national beer day united kingdom new beers eve united states tartan day united states canada april 7 flag day slovenia genocide memorial day rwanda and its related observance international day of reflection on the 1994 rwanda genocide united nations motherhood and beauty day armenia national beer day united states no housework day sheikh abeid amani karume day tanzania womens day mozambique world health day international observance april 8 buddhas birthday japan only other countries follow different calendars feast of the first day of the writing of the book of the law thelema international romani day international observance trading cards for grownups day april 9 anniversary of the german invasion of denmark denmark baghdad liberation day iraqi kurdistan constitution day kosovo day of national unity georgia day of the finnish language finland day of valor or araw ng kagitingan philippines feast of the second day of the writing of the book of the law thelema international banshtai tsai day martyrs day tunisia national former prisoner of war recognition day united states remembrance for haakon sigurdsson the troth vimy ridge day canada april 10 day of the builder azerbaijan feast of the third day of the writing of the book of the law thelema siblings day international observance april 11 juan santamaría day anniversary of his death in the second battle of rivas costa rica international louie louie day national cheese fondue day united states world parkinsons day april 12 childrens day bolivia and haiti commemoration of first human in space by yuri gagarin cosmonautics day russia international day of human space flight yuris night international observance halifax day north carolina national grilled cheese sandwich day united states national redemption day liberia walk on your wild side day april 13 jeffersons birthday united states katyn memorial day poland teachers day ecuador first day of thingyan myanmar april 1316 unfairly prosecuted persons day slovakia april 14 ʔabusibaree okinawa islands japan ambedkar jayanti india black day south korea commemoration of anfal genocide against the kurds iraqi kurdistan dhivehi language day maldives day of mologa yaroslavl oblast russia day of the georgian language georgia country season of emancipation april 14 to august 23 barbados nko alphabet day mande speakers pohela boishakh bangladesh pana sankranti odisha india puthandu tamils india malaysia singapore sri lanka second day of songkran thailand thailand pan american day several countries in the americas the first day of takayama spring festival takayama gifu japan vaisakh punjab region india and pakistan youth day angola april 15 day of the sun north korea hillsborough disaster memorial liverpool england jackie robinson day united states pohela boishakh west bengal india note celebrated on april 14 in bangladesh last day of songkran thailand thailand tax day the official deadline for filing an individual tax return or requesting an extension united states philippines universal day of culture world art day april 16 birthday of josé de diego puerto rico united states birthday of queen margrethe ii denmark emancipation day washington dc united states foursquare day international observance memorial day for the victims of the holocaust hungary national healthcare decisions day united states remembrance of chemical attack on balisan and sheikh wasan iraqi kurdistan world voice day april 17 blah blah blah day evacuation day syria fao day iraq flag day american samoa malbec world day national cheeseball day united states national espresso day italy womens day gabon world hemophilia day april 18 anniversary of the victory over the teutonic knights in the battle of the ice 1242 russia army day iran coma patients day poland friends day brazil independence day zimbabwe international day for monuments and sites invention day japan pet owners independence day april 19 army day brazil beginning of the independence movement venezuela bicycle day dutchamerican friendship day united states holocaust remembrance day poland indigenous peoples day brazil king mswati iiis birthday eswatini landing of the 33 patriots day uruguay national garlic day united states national rice ball day united states primrose day united kingdom april 20 420 cannabis culture international un chinese language day united nations april 21 am day texas am university civil service day india day of local selfgovernment russia grounation day rastafari movement heroic defense of veracruz mexico kang pansoks birthday north korea kartini day indonesia local self government day russia national tree planting day kenya san jacinto day texas queens official birthday falkland islands tiradentes day brazil vietnam book day vietnam april 22 discovery day brazil earth day international observance and its related observance international mother earth day holocaust remembrance day serbia national jelly bean day united states april 23 castile and león day castile and león spain german beer day germany independence day conch republic key west florida international pixelstained technopeasant day khongjom day manipur india national sovereignty and childrens day turkey and northern cyprus navy day china st georges day england and its related observances canada book day canada la diada de sant jordi catalonia spain world book day un english language day united nations april 24 armenian genocide remembrance day armenia concord day niger childrens day zambia democracy day nepal fashion revolution day flag day ireland international sculpture day kapyong day australia labour safety day bangladesh national panchayati raj day india national pigs in a blanket day united states republic day the gambia st marks eve western christianity world day for laboratory animals april 25 anniversary of the first cabinet of kurdish government iraqi kurdistan anzac day australia new zealand arbor day germany dna day feast of saint mark western christianity flag day faroe islands flag day eswatini freedom day portugal liberation day italy major rogation western christianity military foundation day north korea national zucchini bread day united states parental alienation awareness day red hat society day sinai liberation day egypt world malaria day april 26 chernobyl disaster related observances memorial day of radiation accidents and catastrophes russia day of remembrance of the chernobyl tragedy belarus confederate memorial day florida united states hug a friend day hug an australian day lesbian visibility day national pretzel day united states old permic alphabet day union day tanzania world intellectual property day april 27 day of russian parliamentarism russia day of the uprising against the occupying forces slovenia flag day moldova freedom day south africa unfreedom day independence day sierra leone independence day togo national day mayotte national day sierra leone national prime rib day united states national veterans day finland april 28 lawyers day orissa india mujahideen victory day afghanistan national day sardinia italy national heroes day barbados restoration of sovereignty day japan workers memorial day and world day for safety and health at work international national day of mourning canada april 29 day of remembrance for all victims of chemical warfare united nations international dance day unesco princess bedikes birthday denmark national shrimp scampi day united states shōwa day traditionally the start of the golden week holiday period which is april 29 and may 35 japan april 30 armed forces day georgia country birthday of the king sweden camarón day french foreign legion childrens day mexico consumer protection day thailand honesty day united states international jazz day unesco martyrs day pakistan may eve the eve of the first day of summer in the northern hemisphere see may 1 beltane begins at sunset in the northern hemisphere samhain begins at sunset in the southern hemisphere neodruidic wheel of the year carodejnice czech republic and slovakia walpurgis night central and northern europe national persian gulf day iran reunification day vietnam russian state fire service day russia tax day canada teachers day paraguay see also germanic calendar list of historical anniversaries sinking of the rms titanic references external links national arbor day foundation 04 | 2,795 |
1005 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August | August | august is the eighth month of the year in the julian and gregorian calendars and the fifth of seven months to have a length of 31 days in the southern hemisphere august is the seasonal equivalent of february in the northern hemisphere in the northern hemisphere august falls in the season of summer in the southern hemisphere the month falls during the season of winter in many european countries august is the holiday month for most workers numerous religious holidays occurred during august in ancient rome certain meteor showers take place in august the kappa cygnids take place in august with the dates varying each year the alpha capricornids meteor shower takes place as early as july 10 and ends at around august 10 and the southern delta aquariids take place from midjuly to midaugust with the peak usually around july 2829 the perseids a major meteor shower typically takes place between july 17 and august 24 with the days of the peak varying yearly the star cluster of messier 30 is best observed around august among the aborigines of the canary islands especially among the guanches of tenerife the month of august received in the name of beñesmer or beñesmen which was also the harvest festival held this month the month was originally named sextilis in latin because it was the 6th month in the original tenmonth roman calendar under romulus in 753 bc with march being the first month of the year about 700 bc it became the eighth month when january and february were added to the year before march by king numa pompilius who also gave it 29 days julius caesar added two days when he created the julian calendar in giving it its modern length of 31 days in 8 bc the month was renamed in honor of emperor augustus according to a senatus consultum quoted by macrobius he chose this month because it was the time of several of his great triumphs including the conquest of egypt commonly repeated lore has it that august has 31 days because augustus wanted his month to match the length of julius caesars july but this is an invention of the 13th century scholar johannes de sacrobosco sextilis in fact had 31 days before it was renamed and it was not chosen for its length symbols augusts birthstones are the peridot sardonyx and spinel its birth flower is the gladiolus or poppy meaning beauty strength of character love marriage and family the western zodiac signs are leo until august 22 and virgo from august 23 onward observances this list does not necessarily imply either official status or general observance nongregorian dates all bahai islamic and jewish observances begin at the sundown prior to the date listed and end at sundown of the date in question unless otherwise noted list of observances set by the baháí calendar list of observances set by the chinese calendar list of observances set by the hebrew calendar list of observances set by the islamic calendar list of observances set by the solar hijri calendar monthlong american adventures month celebrating vacationing in the americas childrens eye health and safety month digestive tract paralysis dtp month get ready for kindergarten month happiness happens month month of philippine languages or buwan ng wika philippines neurosurgery outreach month psoriasis awareness month spinal muscular atrophy awareness month what will be your legacy month united states monthlong national black business month national childrens vision and learning month national immunization awareness month national princess peach month national water quality month national win with civility month food months in the united states national catfish month national dippin dots month family meals month national goat cheese month national panini month peach month sandwich month moveable gregorian national science week australia see also movable western christian observances see also movable eastern christian observances second to last sunday in july and the following two weeks construction holiday quebec 1st saturday food day canada mead day united states national mustard day united states 1st sunday air force day ukraine american family day arizona united states childrens day uruguay friendship day united states international forgiveness day railway workers day russia first full week of august national farmers market week united states 1st monday august public holiday ireland childrens day tuvalu civic holiday canada british columbia day british columbia canada natal day nova scotia canada new brunswick day new brunswick canada saskatchewan day saskatchewan canada terry fox day manitoba canada commerce day iceland emancipation day anguilla antigua the bahamas british virgin islands dominica grenada saint kitts and nevis farmers day zambia kadooment day barbados labor day samoa national day jamaica picnic day northern territory australia somers day bermuda youth day kiribati 1st tuesday national night out united states 1st friday international beer day 2nd saturday sports day russia sunday on or closest to august 9 national peacekeepers day canada 2nd sunday childrens day argentina chile uruguay fathers day brazil samoa melon day turkmenistan navy day bulgaria national day singapore 2nd monday heroes day zimbabwe victory day hawaii and rhode island united states 2nd tuesday defence forces day zimbabwe 3rd saturday national honey bee day united states 3rd sunday childrens day argentina peru grandparents day hong kong 3rd monday discovery day yukon canada day of hearts haarlem and amsterdam netherlands national mourning day bangladesh 3rd friday hawaii admission day hawaii united states last thursday national burger day united kingdom last sunday coal miners day some former soviet union countries national grandparents day taiwan last monday fathers day south sudan national heroes day philippines liberation day hong kong late summer bank holiday england northern ireland and wales fixed gregorian season of emancipation barbados april 14 to august 23 international clown week august 17 world breastfeeding week august 17 august 1 armed forces day china armed forces day lebanon azerbaijani language and alphabet day azerbaijan emancipation day barbados guyana jamaica saint vincent and the grenadines st lucia trinidad and tobago turks and caicos islands imbolc neopaganism southern hemisphere only lammas england scotland neopaganism northern hemisphere only lughnasadh gaels ireland scotland neopaganism northern hemisphere only minden day united kingdom national day benin national milkshake day united states official birthday and coronation day of the king of tonga tonga pachamama raymi quechua people in ecuador and peru parents day democratic republic of the congo procession of the cross and the beginning of dormition fast eastern orthodoxy statehood day colorado swiss national day switzerland victory day cambodia laos vietnam world scout scarf day yorkshire day yorkshire england august 2 airmobile forces day ukraine day of azerbaijani cinema azerbaijan our lady of the angels day costa rica paratroopers day russia republic day north macedonia august 3 anniversary of the killing of pidjiguiti guineabissau armed forces day equatorial guinea esther day united states flag day venezuela independence day niger arbor day niger national guard day venezuela national watermelon day united states national white wine day united states august 4 coast guard day united states constitution day cook islands matica slovenská day slovakia revolution day burkina faso august 5 dedication of the basilica of st mary major catholic church independence day burkina faso national underwear day united states victory and homeland thanksgiving day and the day of croatian defenders croatia august 6 feast of the transfiguration sheikh zayed bin sultan al nahyans accession day united arab emirates hiroshima peace memorial ceremony hiroshima japan independence day bolivia independence day jamaica russian railway troops day russia august 7 assyrian martyrs day assyrian community battle of boyacá day colombia emancipation day saint kitts and nevis independence day ivory coast republic day ivory coast youth day kiribati august 8 ceasefire day iraqi kurdistan fathers day taiwan happiness happens day international observance international cat day namesday of queen silvia of sweden sweden nane nane day tanzania signal troops day ukraine august 9 battle of gangut day russia international day of the worlds indigenous people united nations national day singapore national womens day south africa remembrance for radbod king of the frisians the troth august 10 argentine air force day argentina constitution day anguilla declaration of independence of quito ecuador international biodiesel day national smore day united states august 11 flag day pakistan independence day chad mountain day japan august 12 glorious twelfth united kingdom hm the queens birthday and national mothers day thailand international youth day united nations russian railway troops day russia sea org day scientology world elephant day august 13 independence day central african republic international lefthanders day national filet mignon day united states womens day tunisia august 14 anniversary day tristan da cunha commemoration of wadi aldahab morocco day of the defenders of the fatherland abkhazia engineers day dominican republic falklands day falkland islands independence day pakistan national creamsicle day united states pramuka day indonesia august 15 feast day of the assumption of mary catholic holy days of obligation a public holiday in many countries ferragosto italy māras latvia mothers day antwerp and costa rica national acadian day acadians virgin of candelaria patron of the canary islands tenerife spain feast of the dormition of the theotokos eastern orthodox oriental orthodox and eastern catholic churches navy day romania armed forces day poland the first day of flooding of the nile or wafaa elnil egypt and coptic church the main day of bon festival japan and its related observances awa dance festival tokushima prefecture constitution day equatorial guinea endofwar memorial day when the national memorial service for war dead is held japan founding of asunción paraguay independence day korea gwangbokjeol south korea jogukhaebangui nal fatherland liberation day north korea independence day india independence day republic of the congo national day liechtenstein national mourning day bangladesh victory over japan day united kingdom national lemon meringue pie day united states august 16 bennington battle day vermont united states childrens day paraguay gozan no okuribi kyoto japan the first day of the independence days gabon national airborne day united states national rum day united states restoration day dominican republic august 17 the birthday of marcus garvey rastafari engineers day colombia flag day bolivia independence day indonesia independence days gabon national vanilla custard day united states prekmurje union day slovenia san martin day argentina august 18 arbor day pakistan armed forces day north macedonia bad poetry day birthday of virginia dare roanoke island constitution day indonesia long tan day australia national science day thailand august 19 feast of the transfiguration julian calendar and its related observances buhe ethiopian orthodox tewahedo church saviours transfiguration popularly known as the apples feast russian orthodox church and georgian orthodox church afghan independence day afghanistan august revolution commemoration day vietnam birthday of crown princess mettemarit norway manuel luis quezón day quezon city and other places in the philippines named after manuel l quezon national aviation day united states national potato day united states world humanitarian day august 20 indian akshay urja day india restoration of independence day estonia revolution of the king and people morocco saint stephens day hungary world mosquito day august 21 ninoy aquino day philippines youth dayking mohammed vis birthday morocco august 22 feast of the coronation of mary flag day russia madras day chennai and tamil nadu india national eat a peach day united states national pecan torte day united states southern hemisphere hoodiehoo day chases calendar of events southern hemisphere august 23 battle of kursk day russia day of the national flag ukraine european day of remembrance for victims of stalinism and nazism or black ribbon day european union and other countries and related observances liberation from fascist occupation day romania international day for the remembrance of the slave trade and its abolition umhlanga day eswatini august 24 flag day liberia independence day of ukraine international strange music day national waffle day united states nostalgia night uruguay willka raymi cusco peru august 25 day of songun north korea independence day uruguay liberation day france national banana split day united states national whiskey sour day united states soldiers day brazil august 26 herero day namibia heroes day namibia repentance day papua new guinea womens equality day united states august 27 film and movies day russia independence day of the republic of moldova lyndon baines johnson day texas united states national banana lovers day united states national pots de creme day united states august 28 assumption of mary eastern orthodox church public holiday in north macedonia serbia and georgia country crackers of the keyboard day race your mouse around the icons day national cherry turnover day united states august 29 international day against nuclear tests miners day ukraine more herbs less salt day national lemon juice day united states national chop suey day united states national sports day india slovak national uprising anniversary slovakia telugu language day india august 30 constitution day kazakhstan constitution day turks and caicos islands independence day tatarstan russia unrecognized international day of the disappeared international popular consultation day east timor saint rose of limas day peru victory day turkey august 31 balochpakhtun unity day balochs and pashtuns international observance day of solidarity and freedom poland independence day federation of malaya malaysia independence day kyrgyzstan independence day trinidad and tobago love litigating lawyers day national trail mix day united states north borneo selfgovernment day sabah borneo romanian language day romania moldova references further reading 08 augustus | 2,204 |
1006 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron | Aaron | according to abrahamic religions aaron or was a prophet a high priest and the elder brother of moses information about aaron comes exclusively from religious texts such as the hebrew bible the new testament luke acts and hebrews and the quran the hebrew bible relates that unlike moses who grew up in the egyptian royal court aaron and his elder sister miriam remained with their kinsmen in the northeastern region of the nile delta when moses first confronted the egyptian king about the enslavement of the israelites aaron served as his brothers spokesman to the pharaoh part of the law given to moses at sinai granted aaron the priesthood for himself and his male descendants and he became the first high priest of the israelites levitical priests or kohanim are traditionally believed and halakhically required to be of direct patrilineal descent from aaron according to the book of numbers aaron died at 123 years of age on mount hor in the fortieth year after the israelites had come out of the land of egypt deuteronomy however places these events at moseroth biblical narrative according to the book of exodus aaron first functioned as moses assistant because moses complained that he could not speak well god appointed aaron as moses prophet at the command of moses he let his rod turn into a snake then he stretched out his rod in order to bring on the first three plagues after that moses tended to act and speak for himself during the journey in the wilderness aaron was not always prominent or active at the battle with amalek he was chosen with hur to support the hand of moses that held the rod of god when the revelation was given to moses at mount sinai he headed the elders of israel who accompanied moses on the way to the summit while joshua went with moses to the top however aaron and hur remained below to look after the people from here on in exodus leviticus and numbers joshua appears in the role of moses assistant while aaron functions instead as the first high priest high priest the books of exodus leviticus and numbers maintain that aaron received from god a monopoly over the priesthood for himself and his male descendants the family of aaron had the exclusive right and responsibility to make offerings on the altar to yahweh the rest of his tribe the levites were given subordinate responsibilities within the sanctuary moses anointed and consecrated aaron and his sons to the priesthood and arrayed them in the robes of office he also related to them gods detailed instructions for performing their duties while the rest of the israelites listened aaron and his successors as high priest were given control over the urim and thummim by which the will of god could be determined god commissioned the aaronide priests to distinguish the holy from the common and the clean from the unclean and to teach the divine laws the torah to the israelites the priests were also commissioned to bless the people when aaron completed the altar offerings for the first time and with moses blessed the people and the glory of the appeared unto all the people and there came a fire out from before the and consumed upon the altar the burnt offering and the fat which when all the people saw they shouted and fell on their faces in this way the institution of the aaronide priesthood was established in later books of the hebrew bible aaron and his kin are not mentioned very often except in literature dating to the babylonian captivity and later the books of judges samuel and kings mention priests and levites but do not mention the aaronides in particular the book of ezekiel which devotes much attention to priestly matters calls the priestly upper class the zadokites after one of king davids priests it does reflect a twotier priesthood with the levites in subordinate position a twotier hierarchy of aaronides and levites appears in ezra nehemiah and chronicles as a result many historians think that aaronide families did not control the priesthood in preexilic israel what is clear is that high priests claiming aaronide descent dominated the second temple period most scholars think the torah reached its final form early in this period which may account for aarons prominence in exodus leviticus and numbers conflicts aaron plays a leading role in several stories of conflicts during israels wilderness wanderings during the prolonged absence of moses on mount sinai the people provoked aaron to make a golden calf this incident nearly caused god to destroy the israelites moses successfully intervened but then led the loyal levites in executing many of the culprits a plague afflicted those who were left aaron however escaped punishment for his role in the affair because of the intercession of moses according to deuteronomy 920 later retellings of this story almost always excuse aaron for his role for example in rabbinic sources and in the quran aaron was not the idolmaker and upon moses return begged his pardon because he felt mortally threatened by the israelites on the day of aarons consecration his oldest sons nadab and abihu were burned up by divine fire because they offered strange incense most interpreters think this story reflects a conflict between priestly families some time in israels past others argue that the story simply shows what can happen if the priests do not follow gods instructions given through moses the torah generally depicts the siblings moses aaron and miriam as the leaders of israel after the exodus a view also reflected in the biblical book of micah numbers 12 however reports that on one occasion aaron and miriam complained about moses exclusive claim to be the s prophet their presumption was rebuffed by god who affirmed moses uniqueness as the one with whom the spoke face to face miriam was punished with a skin disease tzaraath that turned her skin white aaron pleaded with moses to intercede for her and miriam after seven days quarantine was healed aaron once again escaped any retribution according to numbers 1617 a levite named korah led many in challenging aarons exclusive claim to the priesthood when the rebels were punished by being swallowed up by the earth eleazar the son of aaron was commissioned to take charge of the censers of the dead priests and when a plague broke out among the people who had sympathized with the rebels aaron at the command of moses took his censer and stood between the living and the dead until the plague abated atoning in the process to emphasize the validity of the levites claim to the offerings and tithes of the israelites moses collected a rod from the leaders of each tribe in israel and laid the twelve rods overnight in the tent of meeting the next morning aarons rod was found to have budded and blossomed and produced ripe almonds the following chapter then details the distinction between aarons family and the rest of the levites while all the levites and only levites were devoted to the care of the sanctuary charge of its interior and the altar was committed to the aaronites alone death aaron like moses was not permitted to enter canaan with the israelites when moses brought water out of a rock to quench the peoples thirst although they had been commanded to speak to the rock moses struck it with the staff twice which was construed as displaying a lack of deference to the there are two accounts of the death of aaron in the torah numbers says that soon after the incident at meribah aaron with his son eleazar and moses ascended mount hor there moses stripped aaron of his priestly garments and transferred them to eleazar aaron died on the summit of the mountain and the people mourned him for thirty days the other account is found in deuteronomy 106 where aaron died at moserah and was buried there is a significant amount of travel between these two points as the itinerary in numbers 333137 records seven stages between moseroth mosera and mount hor aaron died on the 1st of av and was 123 at the time of his death descendants aaron married elisheba daughter of amminadab and sister of nahshon of the tribe of judah the sons of aaron were nadab abihu eleazar and itamar only the latter two had progeny a descendant of aaron is an aaronite or kohen meaning priest any nonaaronic leviteie descended from levi but not from aaronassisted the levitical priests of the family of aaron in the care of the tabernacle later of the temple the gospel of luke records that both zechariah and elizabeth and therefore their son john the baptist were descendants of aaron family tree historicity in religious traditions jewish rabbinic literature the older prophets and prophetical writers beheld in their priests the representatives of a religious form inferior to the prophetic truth men without the spirit of god and lacking the willpower requisite to resist the multitude in its idolatrous proclivities thus aaron the first priest ranks below moses he is his mouthpiece and the executor of the will of god revealed through moses although it is pointed out that it is said fifteen times in the torah that the lord spoke to moses and aaron under the influence of the priesthood that shaped the destinies of the nation under persian rule a different ideal of the priest was formed according to malachi 247 and the prevailing tendency was to place aaron on a footing equal with moses at times aaron and at other times moses is mentioned first in scripturethis is to show that they were of equal rank says the mekhilta of rabbi ishmael which strongly implies this when introducing in its record of renowned men the glowing description of aarons ministration in fulfillment of the promise of peaceful life symbolized by the pouring of oil upon his head aarons death as described in the aggadah was of a wonderful tranquility accompanied by moses his brother and by eleazar his son aaron went to the summit of mount hor where the rock suddenly opened before him and a beautiful cave lit by a lamp presented itself to his view moses said take off thy priestly raiment and place it upon thy son eleazar said moses and then follow me aaron did as commanded and they entered the cave where was prepared a bed around which angels stood go lie down upon thy bed my brother moses continued and aaron obeyed without a murmur then his soul departed as if by a kiss from god the cave closed behind moses as he left and he went down the hill with eleazar with garments rent and crying alas aaron my brother thou the pillar of supplication of israel when the israelites cried in bewilderment where is aaron angels were seen carrying aarons bier through the air a voice was then heard saying the law of truth was in his mouth and iniquity was not found on his lips he walked with me in righteousness and brought many back from sin he died on the first of av the pillar of cloud which proceeded in front of israels camp disappeared at aarons death the seeming contradiction between numbers 2022 et seq and deuteronomy 106 is solved by the rabbis in the following manner aarons death on mount hor was marked by the defeat of the people in a war with the king of arad in consequence of which the israelites fled marching seven stations backward to mosera where they performed the rites of mourning for aaron wherefore it is said there at mosera died aaron the rabbis particularly praise the brotherly sentiment between aaron and moses when moses was appointed ruler and aaron high priest neither betrayed any jealousy instead they rejoiced in each others greatness when moses at first declined to go to pharaoh saying o my lord send i pray by the hand of him whom you will send he was unwilling to deprive aaron of the high position the latter had held for so many years but the lord reassured him saying behold when he sees you he will be glad in his heart indeed aaron was to find his reward says shimon bar yochai for that heart which had leaped with joy over his younger brothers rise to glory greater than his was decorated with the urim and thummim which were to be upon aarons heart when he goeth in before the lord moses and aaron met in gladness of heart kissing each other as true brothers and of them it is written behold how good and how pleasant it is for brethren to dwell together in unity of them it is said mercy and truth are met together righteousness and peace have kissed each other for moses stood for righteousness and aaron for peace again mercy was personified in aaron according to deuteronomy 338 and truth in moses according to numbers 127 when moses poured the oil of anointment upon the head of aaron aaron modestly shrank back and said who knows whether i have not cast some blemish upon this sacred oil so as to forfeit this high office then the shekhinah spoke the words behold the precious ointment upon the head that ran down upon the beard of aaron that even went down to the skirts of his garment is as pure as the dew of hermon according to tanhuma aarons activity as a prophet began earlier than that of moses hillel held aaron up as an example saying be of the disciples of aaron loving peace and pursuing peace love your fellow creatures and draw them nigh unto the law this is further illustrated by the tradition that aaron was an ideal priest of the people far more beloved for his kindly ways than was moses while moses was stern and uncompromising brooking no wrong aaron went about as peacemaker reconciling man and wife when he saw them estranged or a man with his neighbor when they quarreled and winning evildoers back into the right way by his friendly intercourse as a result aarons death was more intensely mourned than moses when aaron died the whole house of israel wept including the women while moses was bewailed by the sons of israel only even in the making of the golden calf the rabbis find extenuating circumstances for aaron his fortitude and silent submission to the will of god on the loss of his two sons are referred to as an excellent example to men how to glorify god in the midst of great affliction especially significant are the words represented as being spoken by god after the princes of the twelve tribes had brought their dedication offerings into the newly reared tabernacle say to thy brother aaron greater than the gifts of the princes is thy gift for thou art called upon to kindle the light and while the sacrifices shall last only as long as the temple lasts thy light shall last forever christianity in the eastern orthodox and maronite churches aaron is venerated as a saint whose feast day is shared with his brother moses and celebrated on september 4 those churches that follow the traditional julian calendar celebrate this day on september 17 of the modern gregorian calendar aaron is also commemorated with other old testament saints on the sunday of the holy fathers the sunday before christmas in eastern orthodox church he is commemorated on 20 july 12 march sunday of the forefathers sunday of the fathers and on april 14 with all saint sinai monks aaron is commemorated as one of the holy forefathers in the calendar of saints of the armenian apostolic church on july 30 he is commemorated on july 1 in the modern latin calendar and in the syriac calendar the moses and aaron church in the waterlooplein neighborhood of amsterdam is one of the most wellknown catholic churches in the city one version of the bible has an encyclopedia that describes aarons role in scripture as the spokesman for moses mormonism in the church of jesus christ of latterday saints the aaronic priesthood is the lesser order of priesthood under the higher order of the melchizedek priesthood those ordained to this priesthood have the authority to act in gods name in certain responsibilities in the church such as the administration of the sacrament and baptism in the community of christ the aaronic order of priesthood is regarded as an appendage to the melchisedec order and consists of the priesthood offices of deacon teacher and priest while differing in responsibilities these offices along with those of the melchisidec order are regarded as equal before god islam aaron arabic هارون hārūn is mentioned in the quran as a prophet of god the quran praises aaron repeatedly calling him a believing servant as well as one who was guided and one of the victors aaron is important in islam for his role in the events of the exodus in which according to the quran and islamic belief he preached with his elder brother moses to the pharaoh of the exodus aarons significance in islam however is not limited to his role as the helper of moses islamic tradition also accords aaron the role of a patriarch as tradition records that the priestly descent came through aarons lineage which included the entire house of amran baháʼí faith in the baháʼí faith although his father is described as both an apostle and a prophet aaron is merely described as a prophet the kitábiíqán describes imran as his father in art aaron appears paired with moses frequently in jewish and christian art especially in the illustrations of manuscript and printed bibles he can usually be distinguished by his priestly vestments especially his turban or miter and jeweled breastplate he frequently holds a censer or sometimes his flowering rod aaron also appears in scenes depicting the wilderness tabernacle and its altar as already in the thirdcentury frescos in the synagogue at duraeuropos in syria an eleventhcentury portable silver altar from fulda germany depicts aaron with his censor and is located in the musée de cluny in paris this is also how he appears in the frontispieces of early printed passover haggadot and occasionally in church sculptures aaron has rarely been the subject of portraits such as those by anton kern 17101747 and by pier francesco mola christian artists sometimes portray aaron as a prophet holding a scroll as in a twelfthcentury sculpture from the cathedral of noyon in the metropolitan museum of art new york and often in eastern orthodox icons illustrations of the golden calf story usually include him as well most notably in nicolas poussins the adoration of the golden calf 34 national gallery london finally some artists interested in validating later priesthoods have painted the ordination of aaron and his sons leviticus 8 harry andersons realistic portrayal is often reproduced in the literature of the latter day saints see also harun moses in rabbinic literature ychromosomal aaron notes footnotes references further reading which cites numbers rabbah 9 leviticus rabbah 10 midrash peṭirat aharon in jellineks bet hamidrash 19195 yalḳuṭ numbers 764 references in the quran aarons prophecy aaron is made helper of moses aaron and moses sent to pharaoh praise for aaron the golden calf external links englishinglescom etymology of aaron mfnamescom origin and meaning of aaron aaron at the christian iconography website high priests of israel ancient egyptian jews book of deuteronomy book of exodus people christian saints from the old testament moses 15thcentury bc clergy people whose existence is disputed tribe of levi 15thcentury bc people | 3,297 |
1008 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%206 | April 6 | events pre1600 46 bc julius caesar defeats caecilius metellus scipio and marcus porcius cato cato the younger at the battle of thapsus 402 stilicho defeats the visigoths under alaric in the battle of pollentia 1320 the scots reaffirm their independence by signing the declaration of arbroath 1453 mehmed ii begins his siege of constantinople the city falls on may 29 and is renamed istanbul 1580 one of the largest earthquakes recorded in the history of england flanders or northern france takes place 16011900 1652 at the cape of good hope dutch sailor jan van riebeeck establishes a resupply camp that eventually becomes cape town 1712 the new york slave revolt of 1712 begins near broadway 1776 american revolutionary war ships of the continental navy fail in their attempt to capture a royal navy dispatch boat 1782 king buddha yodfa chulaloke rama i of siam modern day thailand establishes the chakri dynasty 1793 during the french revolution the committee of public safety becomes the executive organ of the republic 1800 the treaty of constantinople establishes the septinsular republic the first autonomous greek state since the fall of the byzantine empire under the old style calendar then still in use in the ottoman empire the treaty was signed on 21 march 1808 john jacob astor incorporates the american fur company that would eventually make him americas first millionaire 1812 british forces under the command of the duke of wellington assault the fortress of badajoz this would be the turning point in the peninsular war against napoleonled france 1814 nominal beginning of the bourbon restoration anniversary date that napoleon abdicates and is exiled to elba 1830 church of christ the original church of the latter day saint movement is organized by joseph smith and others at either fayette or manchester new york 1841 us president john tyler is sworn in two days after having become president upon william henry harrisons death 1860 the reorganized church of jesus christ of latter day saints later renamed community of christ is organized by joseph smith iii and others at amboy illinois 1862 american civil war the battle of shiloh begins in tennessee forces under union general ulysses s grant meet confederate troops led by general albert sidney johnston 1865 american civil war the battle of sailors creek confederate general robert e lees army of northern virginia fights and loses its last major battle while in retreat from richmond virginia during the appomattox campaign 1866 the grand army of the republic an american patriotic organization composed of union veterans of the american civil war is founded it lasts until 1956 1896 in athens the opening of the first modern olympic games is celebrated 1500 years after the original games are banned by roman emperor theodosius i 1901present 1909 robert peary and matthew henson become the first people to reach the north pole pearys claim has been disputed because of failings in his navigational ability 1911 during the battle of deçiq dedë gjon luli dedvukaj leader of the malësori albanians raises the albanian flag in the town of tuzi montenegro for the first time after george kastrioti skanderbeg 1917 world war i the united states declares war on germany 1918 finnish civil war the battle of tampere ends 1926 varney airlines makes its first commercial flight varney is the root company of united airlines 1929 huey p long governor of louisiana is impeached by the louisiana house of representatives 1930 at the end of the salt march gandhi raises a lump of mud and salt and declares with this i am shaking the foundations of the british empire 1936 tupelogainesville tornado outbreak another tornado from the same storm system as the tupelo tornado hits gainesville georgia killing 203 1941 world war ii nazi germany launches operation 25 the invasion of kingdom of yugoslavia and operation marita the invasion of greece 1945 world war ii sarajevo is liberated from german and croatian forces by the yugoslav partisans 1945 world war ii the battle of slaters knoll on bougainville comes to an end 1947 the first tony awards are presented for theatrical achievement 1957 the flag carrier airline of greece for decades olympic airways is founded by aristotle onassis following the acquisition of tae greek national airlines 1958 capital airlines flight 67 crashes into saginaw bay near freeland michigan killing 47 1965 launch of early bird the first commercial communications satellite to be placed in geosynchronous orbit 1968 in the downtown district of richmond indiana a double explosion kills 41 and injures 150 1968 pierre elliott trudeau wins the liberal party leadership election and becomes prime minister of canada soon afterward 1970 newhall massacre four california highway patrol officers are killed in a shootout 1972 vietnam war easter offensive american forces begin sustained air strikes and naval bombardments 1973 launch of pioneer 11 spacecraft 1973 the american league of major league baseball begins using the designated hitter 1984 members of cameroons republican guard unsuccessfully attempt to overthrow the government headed by paul biya 1985 sudanese president gaafar nimeiry is ousted from power in a coup détat led by field marshal abdel rahman swar aldahab 1992 the bosnian war begins 1994 the rwandan genocide begins when the aircraft carrying rwandan president juvénal habyarimana and burundian president cyprien ntaryamira is shot down 1997 in greene county tennessee the lillelid murders occur 1998 nuclear weapons testing pakistan tests mediumrange missiles capable of reaching india 2004 rolandas paksas becomes the first president of lithuania to be peacefully removed from office by impeachment 2005 kurdish leader jalal talabani becomes iraqi president shiite arab ibrahim aljaafari is named premier the next day 2008 the 2008 egyptian general strike starts led by egyptian workers later to be adopted by april 6 youth movement and egyptian activists 2009 a 63 magnitude earthquake strikes near laquila italy killing 307 2010 maoist rebels kill 76 crpf officers in dantewada district india 2011 in san fernando tamaulipas mexico over 193 victims of los zetas were exhumed from several mass graves 2012 azawad declares itself independent from the republic of mali 2017 us military launches 59 tomahawk cruise missiles at an air base in syria russia describes the strikes as an aggression adding they significantly damage usrussia ties 2018 a bus carrying the humboldt broncos junior ice hockey team collides with a semitruck in saskatchewan canada killing 16 people and injuring 13 others births pre1600 1135 maimonides jewish philosopher torah scholar physician and astronomer march 30 also proposed d 1204 1342 infanta maria marchioness of tortosa 1573 margaret of brunswicklüneburg german noble d 1643 16011900 1632 maria leopoldine of austria d 1649 1651 andré dacier french scholar and academic d 1722 1660 johann kuhnau german organist and composer d 1722 1664 arvid horn swedish general and politician governor of västerbotten county d 1742 1671 jeanbaptiste rousseau french poet and playwright d 1741 1672 andré cardinal destouches french composer d 1749 1706 louis de cahusac french playwright and composer d 1759 1708 johann georg reutter austrian organist and composer d 1772 1725 pasquale paoli french soldier and politician d 1807 1726 gerard majella italian saint d 1755 1741 nicolas chamfort french author and playwright d 1794 1766 wilhelm von kobell german painter and educator d 1853 1773 james mill scottish historian economist and philosopher d 1836 1787 celestina cordero puerto rican educator d 1862 1810 philip henry gosse english biologist and academic d 1888 1812 alexander herzen russian philosopher and author d 1870 1815 robert volkmann german organist composer and conductor d 1883 1818 aasmund olavsson vinje norwegian journalist and poet d 1870 1820 nadar french photographer journalist and author d 1910 1823 joseph medill canadianamerican publisher and politician 26th mayor of chicago d 1899 1824 george waterhouse englishnew zealand politician 7th prime minister of new zealand d 1906 1826 gustave moreau french painter and academic d 1898 1844 william lyne australian politician 13th premier of new south wales d 1913 1851 guillaume bigourdan french astronomer and academic d 1932 1852 will crooks english trade unionist and politician d 1921 1855 charles huot canadian painter and illustrator d 1930 1857 arthur wesley dow american painter and photographer d 1922 1860 rené lalique french sculptor and jewellery designer d 1945 1861 stanislas de guaita french poet and author d 1897 1864 william bate hardy english biologist and academic d 1934 1866 felixraymondmarie rouleau canadian cardinal d 1931 1869 levon shant armenian author poet and playwright d 1951 1878 erich mühsam german author poet and playwright d 1934 1881 karl staaf swedish pole vaulter and hammer thrower d 1953 1884 j g parrythomas welsh race car driver and engineer d 1927 1886 athenagoras i of constantinople d 1972 1886 walter dandy american physician and neurosurgeon d 1946 1886 osman ali khan asaf jah vii indian ruler d 1967 1888 hans richter swiss painter illustrator and director d 1976 1888 gerhard ritter german historian and academic d 1967 1890 anthony fokker dutch engineer and businessman founded fokker aircraft manufacturer d 1939 1892 donald wills douglas sr american businessman founded the douglas aircraft company d 1981 1892 lowell thomas american journalist and author d 1981 1895 dudley nichols american director producer and screenwriter d 1960 1898 jeanne hébuterne french painter and author d 1920 1900 leo robin american composer and songwriter d 1984 1901present 1901 pier giorgio frassati italian activist d 1925 1902 julien torma french author poet and playwright d 1933 1903 mickey cochrane american baseball player and manager d 1962 1903 harold eugene edgerton american engineer and academic d 1990 1904 kurt georg kiesinger german lawyer politician and chancellor of germany d 1988 1904 erwin komenda austrian car designer and engineer d 1966 1908 marcelmarie desmarais canadian preacher missionary and author d 1994 1908 ernie lombardi american baseball player d 1977 1909 william m branham american minister and theologian d 1965 1909 hermann lang german race car driver d 1987 1910 barys kit belarusianamerican rocket scientist d 2018 1911 feodor felix konrad lynen german biochemist and academic nobel prize laureate d 1979 1913 shannon boydbailey mccune american geographer and academic d 1993 1915 tadeusz kantor polish director painter and set designer d 1990 1916 phil leeds american actor d 1998 1916 vincent ellis mckelvey american geologist and author d 1987 1917 leonora carrington englishmexican painter and author d 2011 1918 alfredo ovando candía bolivian general and politician 56th president of bolivia d 1982 1919 georgios mylonas greek politician 11th greek minister of culture d 1998 1920 jack cover american pilot and physicist invented the taser gun d 2009 1920 edmond h fischer swissamerican biochemist and academic nobel prize laureate d 2021 1921 wilbur thompson american shot putter d 2013 1922 gordon chater englishaustralian comedian and actor d 1999 1923 herb thomas american race car driver d 2000 1926 sergio franchi italianamerican singer and actor d 1990 1926 gil kane latvianamerican author and illustrator d 2000 1926 ian paisley northern irish evangelical minister and politician 2nd first minister of northern ireland d 2014 1926 randy weston american jazz pianist and composer d 2018 1927 gerry mulligan american saxophonist clarinet player and composer d 1996 1928 james watson american biologist geneticist and zoologist nobel prize laureate 1929 willis hall english playwright and author d 2005 1929 joi lansing american model actress and nightclub singer d 1972 1929 andré previn american pianist composer and conductor d 2019 1929 christos sartzetakis greek jurist supreme justice and president of greece d 2022 1931 ram dass american author and educator d 2019 1931 ivan dixon american actor director and producer d 2008 1932 connie broden canadian ice hockey player d 2013 1932 helmut griem german actor and director d 2004 1933 roy goode english lawyer and academic 1933 tom c korologos american journalist and diplomat united states ambassador to belgium 1933 eduardo malapit american lawyer and politician mayor of kauai d 2007 1934 enrique álvarez félix mexican actor d 1996 1934 anton geesink dutch martial artist and wrestler d 2010 1934 guy peellaert belgian painter illustrator and photographer d 2008 1935 douglas hill canadian author and critic d 2007 1936 helen berman dutchisraeli painter and illustrator 1936 jeanpierre changeux french neuroscientist biologist and academic 1937 merle haggard american singersongwriter and guitarist d 2016 1937 tom veivers australian cricketer and politician 1937 billy dee williams american actor singer and writer 1938 paul daniels english magician and television host d 2016 1938 roy thinnes american television and film actor 1939 andré ouellet canadian lawyer and politician 1st canadian minister of foreign affairs 1939 john sculley american businessman cofounded zeta interactive 1940 homero aridjis mexican journalist author and poet 1940 pedro armendáriz jr mexicanamerican actor and producer d 2011 1941 christopher allsopp english economist and academic 1941 phil austin american comedian actor and screenwriter d 2015 1941 hans w geißendörfer german director and producer 1941 angeliki laiou greekamerican byzantinist and politician d 2008 1941 don prudhomme american race car driver and manager 1941 gheorghe zamfir romanian flute player and composer 1942 barry levinson american actor director producer and screenwriter 1942 anita pallenberg italianenglish model actress and fashion designer d 2017 1943 max clifford english journalist and publicist d 2017 1943 roger cook new zealandenglish journalist and academic 1943 ian macrae new zealand rugby player 1943 mitchell melton american lawyer and politician d 2013 1944 felicity palmer english operatic soprano 1945 rodney bickerstaffe english trade union leader d 2017 1945 peter hill english journalist 1946 paul beresford new zealandenglish dentist and politician 1947 john ratzenberger american actor and director 1947 andré weinfeld frenchamerican director producer and screenwriter 1947 mike worboys english mathematician and computer scientist 1949 alyson bailes english academic and diplomat d 2016 1949 patrick hernandez french singersongwriter 1949 ng ser miang singaporean athlete entrepreneur and diplomat 1949 horst ludwig störmer german physicist and academic nobel prize laureate 1950 claire morissette canadian cycling activist d 2007 1950 cleo odzer american anthropologist and author d 2001 1951 bert blyleven dutchamerican baseball player and sportscaster 1951 jeanmarc boivin french skier mountaineer and pilot d 1990 1951 pascal rogé french pianist 1952 udo dirkschneider german singersongwriter 1952 marilu henner greekpolish american actress and author 1952 michel larocque canadian ice hockey player and manager d 1992 1953 patrick doyle scottish actor and composer 1953 christopher franke germanamerican drummer and songwriter 1955 rob epstein american director and producer 1955 michael rooker american actor director and producer 1955 cathy jones canadian actress comedian and writer 1956 michele bachmann american lawyer and politician 1956 normand corbeil canadian composer d 2013 1956 mudassar nazar pakistani cricketer 1956 lee scott english politician 1956 sebastian spreng argentinianamerican painter and journalist 1956 dilip vengsarkar indian cricketer and coach 1957 giorgio damilano italian race walker and coach 1957 maurizio damilano italian race walker and coach 1957 jaroslava maxová czech soprano and educator 1957 paolo nespoli italian soldier engineer and astronaut 1958 graeme base australian author and illustrator 1959 gail shea canadian politician 1960 warren haynes american singersongwriter and guitarist 1960 richard loe new zealand rugby player 1960 john pizzarelli american singersongwriter and guitarist 1961 rory bremner scottish impressionist and comedian 1961 peter jackson english footballer and manager 1962 iris häussler german sculptor and academic 1962 marco schällibaum swiss footballer coach and manager 1963 rafael correa ecuadorian economist and politician 54th president of ecuador 1964 david woodard american conductor and writer 1965 black francis american singersongwriter and guitarist 1965 sterling sharpe american football player and sportscaster 1966 vince flynn american author d 2013 1966 young man kang south koreanamerican director and producer 1967 julian anderson english composer and educator 1967 kathleen barr canadian voice actress and singer 1967 tanya byron english psychologist and academic 1967 jonathan firth english actor 1968 archon fung american political scientist author and academic 1968 affonso giaffone brazilian race car driver 1969 bret boone american baseball player and manager 1969 bison dele american basketball player d 2002 1969 philipp peter austrian race car driver 1969 paul rudd american actor 1969 spencer wells american geneticist and anthropologist 1970 olaf kölzig south africangerman ice hockey player and coach 1970 roy mayorga american drummer songwriter and producer 1970 huang xiaomin chinese swimmer 1972 anders thomas jensen danish director and screenwriter 1972 dickey simpkins american basketball player and sportscaster 1973 donnie edwards american football player 1973 randall godfrey american football player 1973 rie miyazawa japanese model and actress 1973 sun wen chinese footballer 1975 zach braff american actor director producer and screenwriter 1975 hal gill american ice hockey player 1976 candace cameron bure american actress and talk show panelist 1976 james fox welsh singersongwriter guitarist and actor 1976 chris hoke american football player 1976 georg hólm icelandic bass player 1976 hirotada ototake japanese author and educator 1977 ville nieminen finnish ice hockey player 1977 andy phillips american baseball player and coach 1978 imani coppola american singersongwriter and violinist 1978 robert glasper american singersongwriter pianist and producer 1978 tim hasselbeck american football player and sportscaster 1978 myleene klass austrianfilipinoenglish singer pianist and model 1978 martín méndez uruguayan bass player and songwriter 1978 blaine neal american baseball player 1978 igor semshov russian footballer 1979 lord frederick windsor english journalist and financier 1979 clay travis american sports journalist blogger and broadcaster 1980 tommi evilä finnish long jumper 1980 tanja poutiainen finnish skier 1980 antonio thomas american wrestler 1981 robert earnshaw welsh footballer 1981 jeff faine american football player 1981 lucas licht argentine footballer 1981 alex suarez american bass player 1982 travis moen canadian ice hockey player 1982 miguel ángel silvestre spanish actor 1983 mehdi ballouchy moroccan footballer 1983 jerome kaino new zealand rugby player 1983 mitsuru nagata japanese footballer 1983 remi nicole english singersongwriter and actress 1983 james wade english darts player 1983 katie weatherston canadian ice hockey player 1984 max bemis american singersongwriter 1984 michaël ciani french footballer 1984 siboniso gaxa south african footballer 1984 diana matheson canadian soccer player 1985 clarke macarthur canadian ice hockey player 1985 frank ongfiang cameroonian footballer 1985 sinqua walls american basketball player and actor 1986 nikolas asprogenis cypriot footballer 1986 aaron curry american football player 1986 goeido gotaro japanese sumo wrestler 1986 ryota moriwaki japanese footballer 1987 benjamin corgnet french footballer 1987 heidi mount american model 1987 juan adriel ochoa mexican footballer 1987 levi porter english footballer 1987 hilary rhoda american model 1988 jucilei brazilian footballer 1988 leigh adams australian footballer 1988 daniele gasparetto italian footballer 1988 carlton mitchell american football player 1988 fabrice muamba congoleseenglish footballer 1988 ivonne orsini puerto rican model and television host miss world puerto rico 2008 1990 lachlan coote australian rugby league player 1990 charlie mcdermott american actor 1990 andrei veis estonian footballer 1992 ken south korean singer 1992 julie ertz american soccer player 1994 adrián alonso mexican actor 1995 darya lebesheva belarusian tennis player 1998 peyton list american actress and model 1998 spencer list american actor 2000 shaheen afridi pakistani cricketer 2002 andrea botez canadianamerican chess player commentator twitch streamer and youtuber 2002 leyre romero gormaz spanish tennis player 2009 shaylee mansfield deaf american actress and youtuber 2009 valentina tronel french child singer deaths pre1600 861 prudentius bishop of troyes 885 saint methodius byzantine missionary and saint b 815 887 pei che chancellor of the tang dynasty 943 liu churang chinese general and chief of staff b 881 943 nasr ii ruler amir of the samanid empire b 906 1147 frederick ii duke of swabia b 1090 1199 richard i king of england b 1157 1231 william marshal 2nd earl of pembroke 1250 guillaume de sonnac grand master of the knights templar 1252 peter of verona italian priest and saint b 1206 1340 basil emperor of trebizond turkey 1362 james i count of la marche b 1319 1376 preczlaw of pogarell cardinal and bishop of wrocław b 1310 1490 matthias corvinus king of hungary and croatia from 1458 to 1490 b 1443 1520 raphael italian painter and architect b 1483 1523 henry stafford 1st earl of wiltshire english nobleman b 1479 1528 albrecht dürer german painter engraver and mathematician b 1471 1551 joachim vadian swiss scholar and politician b 1484 1571 john hamilton scottish archbishop and academic b 1512 1590 francis walsingham english politician and diplomat chancellor of the duchy of lancaster b 1532 1593 henry barrowe english puritan and separatist b 1550 16011900 1605 john stow english historian and author b 1525 1621 edward seymour 1st earl of hertford b 1539 1641 domenico zampieri domenichino italian painter b 1581 1655 david blondel french minister historian and scholar b 1591 1670 leonora baroni italian composer b 1611 1676 john winthrop the younger english politician 1st governor of connecticut b 1606 1686 arthur annesley 1st earl of anglesey irishenglish politician b 1614 1707 willem van de velde the younger dutchenglish painter b 1633 1755 richard rawlinson english minister and historian b 1690 1790 louis ix landgrave of hessedarmstadt b 1719 1825 vladimir borovikovsky ukrainianrussian painter and educator b 1757 1827 nikolis apostolis greek naval commander during the greek war of independence b 1770 1829 niels henrik abel norwegian mathematician and theorist b 1802 1833 adamantios korais greek philosopher and scholar b 1748 1838 josé bonifácio de andrada brazilian poet academic and politician b 1763 1860 james kirke paulding american author and politician 11th united states secretary of the navy b 1778 1862 albert sidney johnston american general b 1803 1883 benjamin wright raymond american merchant and politician 3rd mayor of chicago b 1801 1886 william edward forster english businessman philanthropist and politician chief secretary for ireland b 1818 1899 alvan wentworth chapman american physician and botanist b 1809 1901present 1906 alexander kielland norwegian author playwright and politician 6th county governor of møre og romsdal b 1849 1913 somerset lowrycorry 4th earl belmore b 1835 1927 florence earle coates american poet b 1850 1935 edwin arlington robinson american poet and playwright b 1869 1944 rose oneill american cartoonist illustrator artist and writer b 1874 1947 herbert backe german agronomist and politician b 1896 1950 louis wilkins american pole vaulter b 1882 1953 idris davies welsh poet and author b 1905 1959 leo aryeh mayer polishisraeli scholar and academic b 1895 1961 jules bordet belgian microbiologist and immunologist nobel prize laureate b 1870 1963 otto struve ukrainianamerican astronomer and academic b 1897 1970 maurice stokes american basketball player b 1933 1971 igor stravinsky russianamerican pianist composer and conductor b 1882 1974 willem marinus dudok dutch architect b 1884 1974 hudson fysh australian pilot and businessman cofounded qantas airways limited b 1895 1977 kōichi kido japanese politician 13th lord keeper of the privy seal of japan b 1889 1979 ivan vasilyov bulgarian architect designed the ss cyril and methodius national library b 1893 1983 jayanto nath chaudhuri indian general who served as the chief of army staff of the indian army from 1962 to 1966 and the military governor of hyderabad state from 1948 to 1949 b 1908 1992 isaac asimov american science fiction writer b 1920 1994 juvénal habyarimana rwandan banker and politician 3rd president of rwanda b 1937 1994 cyprien ntaryamira burundian politician 5th president of burundi b 1955 1995 ioannis alevras greek banker and politician president of greece b 1912 1996 greer garson englishamerican actress b 1904 1998 norbert schmitz german footballer b 1958 1998 tammy wynette american singersongwriter b 1942 1999 red norvo american vibraphone player and composer b 1908 2000 habib bourguiba tunisian politician 1st president of tunisia b 1903 2001 charles pettigrew american singersongwriter b 1963 2003 david bloom american journalist b 1963 2003 anita borg american computer scientist and educator founded anita borg institute for women and technology b 1949 2003 gerald emmett carter canadian cardinal b 1912 2003 babatunde olatunji nigerian drummer educator and activist b 1927 2003 dino yannopoulos greek stage director of the metropolitan opera b 1919 2004 lou berberet american baseball player b 1929 2004 larisa bogoraz russian linguist and activist b 1929 2005 rainier iii prince of monaco b 1923 2005 anthony f depalma american orthopedic surgeon and professor b 1904 2006 maggie dixon american basketball player and coach b 1977 2006 francis l kellogg american soldier and diplomat b 1917 2006 stefanos stratigos greek actor and director b 1926 2007 luigi comencini italian director and producer b 1916 2009 j m s careless canadian historian and academic b 1919 2009 shawn mackay australian rugby player and coach b 1982 2010 wilma mankiller american tribal leader b 1945 2010 corin redgrave english actor b 1939 2011 gerald finnerman american director and cinematographer b 1931 2012 roland guilbault american admiral b 1934 2012 thomas kinkade american painter and illustrator b 1958 2012 fang lizhi chinese astrophysicist and academic b 1936 2012 sheila scotter australian fashion designer and journalist b 1920 2012 reed whittemore american poet and critic b 1919 2013 hilda bynoe grenadian physician and politician 2nd governor of grenada b 1921 2013 bill guttridge english footballer and manager b 1931 2013 bigas luna spanish director and screenwriter b 1946 2013 ottmar schreiner german lawyer and politician b 1946 2014 mary anderson american actress b 1918 2014 jacques castérède french pianist and composer b 1926 2014 liv dommersnes norwegian actress b 1922 2014 mickey rooney american soldier actor and dancer b 1920 2014 chuck stone american soldier journalist and academic b 1924 2014 massimo tamburini italian motorcycle designer cofounded bimota b 1943 2015 giovanni berlinguer italian lawyer and politician b 1924 2015 james best american actor director and screenwriter b 1926 2015 ray charles american singersongwriter and conductor b 1918 2015 dollard st laurent canadian ice hockey player b 1929 2016 merle haggard american singersongwriter and guitarist b 1937 2017 don rickles american actor and comedian b 1926 2019 michael odonnell british physician journalist author and broadcaster b 1928 2020 al kaline american baseball player broadcaster and executive b1934 2021 hans küng swiss catholic priest theologian and author b 1928 2022 vladimir zhirinovsky russian and soviet politician b 1946 2022 jill knight british politician b 1923 holidays and observances chakri day commemorating the establishment of the chakri dynasty thailand christian feast day albrecht dürer and lucas cranach lutheran church brychan eutychius of constantinople eastern orthodox church marcellinus of carthage pope sixtus i april 6 eastern orthodox liturgics international day of sport for development and peace national fisherman day indonesia new beers eve united states tartan day united states canada waltzing matilda day australia international asexuality day other april 6 youth movement starts 6april references external links bbc on this day historical events on april 6 days of the year april | 4,390 |
1009 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%2012 | April 12 | events pre1600 240 shapur i becomes coemperor of the sasanian empire with his father ardashir i 467 anthemius is elevated to emperor of the western roman empire 627 king edwin of northumbria is converted to christianity by paulinus bishop of york 1012 duke oldřich of bohemia deposes and blinds his brother jaromír who flees to poland 1204 the crusaders of the fourth crusade breach the walls of constantinople and enter the city which they completely occupy the following day 16011900 1606 the union flag is adopted as the flag of english and scottish ships 1776 american revolution with the halifax resolves the north carolina provincial congress authorizes its congressional delegation to vote for independence from britain 1807 the froberg mutiny on malta ends when the remaining mutineers blow up the magazine of fort ricasoli 1820 alexander ypsilantis is declared leader of filiki eteria a secret organization to overthrow ottoman rule over greece 1831 soldiers marching on the broughton suspension bridge in manchester england cause it to collapse 1861 american civil war battle of fort sumter the war begins with confederate forces firing on fort sumter in the harbor of charleston south carolina 1862 american civil war the andrews raid the great locomotive chase occurs starting from big shanty georgia now kennesaw 1864 american civil war the battle of fort pillow confederate forces kill most of the african american soldiers that surrendered at fort pillow tennessee 1865 american civil war mobile alabama falls to the union army 1877 the united kingdom annexes the transvaal 1900 one day after its enactment by the congress president william mckinley signs the foraker act into law giving puerto rico limited selfrule 1901present 1910 one of the last predreadnought battleships built by the austrohungarian navy is launched 1917 world war i canadian forces successfully complete the taking of vimy ridge from the germans 1927 shanghai massacre of 1927 chiang kaishek orders the chinese communist party members executed in shanghai ending the first united front 1927 rocksprings texas is hit by an f5 tornado that destroys 235 of the 247 buildings in the town kills 72 townspeople and injures 205 third deadliest tornado in texas history 1928 the bremen a german junkers w 33 type aircraft takes off for the first successful transatlantic aeroplane flight from east to west 1934 the strongest surface wind gust in the world at the time of 231 mph is measured on the summit of mount washington new hampshire it has since been surpassed 1934 the us autolite strike begins culminating in a fiveday melee between ohio national guard troops and 6000 strikers and picketers 1937 sir frank whittle groundtests the first jet engine designed to power an aircraft at rugby england 1945 us president franklin d roosevelt dies in office vice president harry s truman becomes president upon roosevelts death 1945 world war ii the us ninth army under general william h simpson crosses the elbe river astride magdeburg and reaches tangermündeonly 50 miles from berlin 1955 the polio vaccine developed by dr jonas salk is declared safe and effective 1961 space race the soviet cosmonaut yuri gagarin becomes the first human to travel into outer space and perform the first crewed orbital flight vostok 1 1963 the soviet nuclearpowered submarine k33 collides with the finnish merchant vessel ms finnclipper in the danish straits 1970 soviet submarine k8 carrying four nuclear torpedoes sinks in the bay of biscay four days after a fire on board 1980 the americoliberian government of liberia is violently deposed 1980 transbrasil flight 303 a boeing 727 crashes on approach to hercílio luz international airport in florianópolis brazil fiftyfive out of the 58 people on board are killed 1980 canadian runner and athlete terry fox begins his marathon of hope run in st johns nf 1981 the first launch of a space shuttle columbia takes place the sts1 mission 1983 harold washington is elected as the first black mayor of chicago 1990 jim garys twentieth century dinosaurs exhibition opens at the smithsonian institution national museum of natural history in washington dc he is the only sculptor ever invited to present a solo exhibition there 1990 widerøe flight 839 crashes after takeoff from værøy airport in norway killing five people 1992 the euro disney resort officially opens with its theme park euro disneyland the resort and its parks name are subsequently changed to disneyland paris 1999 united states president bill clinton is cited for contempt of court for giving intentionally false statements in a civil lawsuit he is later fined and disbarred 2002 a suicide bomber blows herself up at the entrance to jerusalems mahane yehuda market killing seven people and wounding 104 2007 a suicide bomber penetrates the green zone and detonates in a cafeteria within a parliament building killing iraqi mp mohammed awad and wounding more than twenty other people 2009 zimbabwe officially abandons the zimbabwean dollar as its official currency 2010 merano derailment a rail accident in south tyrol kills nine people and injures a further 28 2013 two suicide bombers kill three chadian soldiers and injure dozens of civilians at a market in kidal mali 2014 the great fire of valparaíso ravages the chilean city of valparaíso killing 16 people displacing nearly 10000 and destroying over 2000 homes births pre1600 811 muhammad aljawad the ninth imam of shia islam d 835 959 enyū emperor of japan d 991 1116 richeza of poland queen of sweden and grand princess of minsk d 1156 1432 anne of austria landgravine of thuringia d 1462 1484 antonio da sangallo the younger italian architect designed the apostolic palace and st peters basilica d 1546 1484 maharana sangram singh rana of mewar d 1527 1500 joachim camerarius german scholar and translator d 1574 1526 muretus french philosopher and author d 1585 1550 edward de vere 17th earl of oxford english courtier and politician lord great chamberlain d 1604 1577 christian iv of denmark d 1648 16011900 1612 simone cantarini italian painter and engraver d 1648 1639 martin lister english naturalist and physician d 1712 1656 benoît de maillet french diplomat and natural historian d 1738 1705 william cookworthy english minister and pharmacist d 1780 1710 caffarelli italian actor and singer d 1783 1713 guillaume thomas françois raynal french historian and author d 1796 1716 felice giardini italian violinist and composer d 1796 1722 pietro nardini italian violinist and composer d 1793 1724 lyman hall american physician clergyman and politician 16th governor of georgia d 1790 1748 antoine laurent de jussieu french botanist and author d 1836 1777 henry clay american lawyer and politician 9th united states secretary of state d 1852 1792 john lambton 1st earl of durham english soldier and politician lord privy seal d 1840 1794 germinal pierre dandelin belgian mathematician and engineer d 1847 1796 george n briggs american lawyer and politician 19th governor of massachusetts d 1861 1799 henri druey swiss lawyer and politician 2nd president of the swiss confederation d 1855 1801 joseph lanner austrian composer and conductor d 1843 1816 charles gavan duffy irishaustralian politician 8th premier of victoria d 1903 1823 alexander ostrovsky russian playwright and translator d 1886 1839 nikolay przhevalsky russian geographer and explorer d 1888 1845 gustaf cederström swedish painter d 1933 1851 josé gautier benítez puerto rican soldier and poet d 1880 1851 edward walter maunder english astronomer and author d 1928 1852 ferdinand von lindemann german mathematician and academic d 1939 1856 martin conway 1st baron conway of allington english mountaineer cartographer and politician d 1937 1863 raul pompeia brazilian writer d 1895 1868 akiyama saneyuki japanese admiral d 1918 1869 henri désiré landru french serial killer d 1922 1871 ioannis metaxas greek general and politician 130th prime minister of greece d 1941 1874 william b bankhead american lawyer and politician 47th speaker of the united states house of representatives d 1940 1880 addie joss american baseball player and journalist d 1911 1883 imogen cunningham american photographer and educator d 1976 1883 dally messenger australian rugby player cricketer and sailor d 1959 1884 tenby davies welsh runner d 1932 1884 otto meyerhof german physician and biochemist nobel prize laureate d 1951 1885 robert delaunay french painter d 1941 1887 harold lockwood american actor and director d 1918 1888 dan ahearn irishamerican long jumper and police officer d 1942 1888 cecil kimber english automobile engineer d 1945 1892 henry darger american writer and artist d 1973 1894 dorothy cumming australianamerican actress d 1983 1894 francisco craveiro lopes portuguese field marshal and politician 13th president of portugal d 1964 1898 lily pons frenchamerican soprano and actress d 1976 1901present 1901 lowell stockman american farmer and politician d 1962 1902 louis beel dutch academic and politician 36th prime minister of the netherlands d 1977 1903 jan tinbergen dutch economist and academic nobel prize laureate d 1994 1907 zawgyi burmese poet author literary historian critic scholar and academic d 1990 1907 felix de weldon austrianamerican sculptor designed the marine corps war memorial d 2003 1908 ida pollock english author and painter d 2013 1908 robert lee scott jr american pilot and general d 2006 1910 gillo dorfles italian art critic painter and philosopher d 2018 1910 irma rapuzzi french politician d 2018 1911 mahmoud younis egyptian engineer d 1976 1912 frank dilio canadian businessman d 1997 1912 hamengkubuwono ix indonesian politician 2nd vice president of indonesia d 1988 1912 hound dog taylor american singersongwriter and guitarist d 1975 1913 keiko fukuda japaneseamerican martial artist d 2013 1914 armen alchian american economist and academic d 2013 1916 beverly cleary american author d 2021 1916 russell garcia americannew zealander composer and conductor d 2011 1916 benjamin libet american neuropsychologist and academic d 2007 1917 helen forrest american singer and actress d 1999 1917 vinoo mankad indian cricketer d 1978 1917 robert manzon french racing driver d 2015 1919 istván anhalt hungariancanadian composer and educator d 2012 1919 billy vaughn american musician and bandleader d 1991 1921 robert cliche canadian lawyer judge and politician d 1978 1922 simon kapwepwe zambian politician 2nd vice president of zambia d 1980 1923 ann miller american actress singer and dancer d 2004 1924 raymond barre french economist and politician prime minister of france d 2007 1924 peter safar austrian physician and academic d 2003 1924 curtis turner american race car driver d 1970 1925 evelyn berezin american computer scientist and engineer d 2018 1925 ned miller american country music singer and songwriter d 2016 1925 oliver postgate english animator puppeteer and screenwriter d 2008 1926 jane withers american actress d 2021 1927 thomas hemsley english baritone d 2013 1927 alvin sargent american screenwriter d 2019 1928 hardy krüger german actor d 2022 1928 jeanfrançois paillard french conductor d 2013 1929 elspet gray scottish actress d 2013 1929 mukhran machavariani georgian poet and educator d 2010 1930 john landy australian runner and politician 26th governor of victoria d 2022 1930 bryan magee english philosopher and politician d 2019 1930 manuel neri american sculptor and painter d 2021 1930 pythagoras papastamatiou greek lyricist and playwright d 1979 1930 michał życzkowski polish technician and educator d 2006 1931 leonid derbenyov russian poet and songwriter d 1995 1932 lakshman kadirgamar sri lankan lawyer and politician 5th sri lankan minister of foreign affairs d 2005 1932 jeanpierre marielle french actor d 2019 1932 tiny tim american singer and ukulele player d 1996 1933 montserrat caballé spanish soprano and actress d 2018 1934 heinz schneiter swiss footballer and manager d 2017 1935 jimmy makulis greek singer d 2007 1936 tony earl american politician 40th governor of wisconsin d 2023 1936 charles napier american actor d 2011 1936 kennedy simmonds kittitian politician 4th prime minister of saint kitts and nevis 1937 dennis banks american author and activist d 2017 1937 igor volk ukrainianrussian colonel pilot and astronaut d 2017 1939 alan ayckbourn english director and playwright 1939 johnny raper australian rugby league player and coach d 2022 1940 woodie fryman american baseball player d 2011 1940 herbie hancock american pianist composer and bandleader 1941 bobby moore english footballer and manager d 1993 1942 bill bryden scottish actor director and screenwriter 1942 carlos reutemann argentinian race car driver and politician d 2021 1942 jacob zuma south african politician 4th president of south africa 1943 sumitra mahajan indian politician 16th speaker of the lok sabha 1944 lisa jardine english historian author and academic d 2015 1944 john kay germancanadian singersongwriter guitarist and producer 1945 lee jongwook south korean physician and diplomat d 2006 1946 john dunsworth canadian actor and comedian d 2017 1946 ed oneill american actor and comedian 1946 george robertson baron robertson of port ellen scottish politician and diplomat 10th secretary general of nato 1947 roy m anderson english epidemiologist zoologist and academic 1947 martin brasier english palaeontologist biologist and academic d 2014 1947 tom clancy american historian and author d 2013 1947 david letterman american comedian and talk show host 1948 jeremy beadle english television host and producer d 2008 1948 joschka fischer german academic and politician 1948 christos iakovou greek weightlifter 1948 marcello lippi italian footballer manager and coach 1949 scott turow american lawyer and author 1950 flavio briatore italian businessman 1950 david cassidy american singersongwriter and guitarist d 2017 1950 joyce banda malawian politician 4th president of malawi 1950 nicholas sackman english composer and educator 1951 tom noonan american actor 1952 reuben gant american football player 1952 leicester rutledge new zealand rugby player 1952 gary soto american poet novelist and memoirist 1952 ralph wiley american journalist d 2004 1953 tanino liberatore italian author and illustrator 1954 john faulkner australian educator and politician 52nd australian minister for defence 1954 steve stevaert belgian businessman and politician d 2015 1954 pat travers canadian singersongwriter and guitarist 1955 fabian hamilton english graphic designer engineer and politician 1956 andy garcia cubanamerican actor director and producer 1956 herbert grönemeyer german singersongwriter and actor 1957 greg child australian mountaineer and author 1957 vince gill american singersongwriter and guitarist 1957 tama janowitz american novelist and short story writer 1958 will sergeant english guitarist 1958 klaus tafelmeier german javelin thrower 1958 ginka zagorcheva bulgarian hurdler 1960 david thirdkill american basketball player 1961 corrado fabi italian racing driver 1961 charles mann american football player and sportscaster 1961 magda szubanski englishaustralian actress comedian and writer 1962 art alexakis american singersongwriter and musician 1962 carlos sainz spanish racing driver 1962 nobuhiko takada japanese mixed martial artist and wrestler founded hustle 1963 lydia cacho mexican journalist and author 1964 chris fairclough english footballer and coach 1964 amy ray american folkrock singersongwriter musician and music producer 1965 kim bodnia danish actor and director 1965 chi onwurah english politician 1965 gervais rufyikiri burundian politician 1965 mihai stoica romanian footballer and manager 1966 nilsolav johansen norwegian guitarist and singer 1966 lorenzo white american football player 1967 sarah cracknell english singersongwriter 1968 alicia coppola american actress 1968 toby gad german songwriter and producer 1968 adam graves canadian ice hockey player 1969 jörn lenz german footballer and manager 1969 lucas radebe south african footballer and sportscaster 1969 michael jackson american football player and politician d 2017 1970 sylvain bouchard canadian speed skater 1971 nicholas brendon american actor 1971 shannen doherty american actress director and producer 1972 paul lo duca american baseball player and sportscaster 1973 j scott campbell american author and illustrator 1973 ryan kisor american trumpet player and composer 1973 antonio osuna mexicanamerican baseball player 1973 christian panucci italian footballer and manager 1974 belinda emmett australian actress d 2006 1974 bryan fletcher australian rugby league player and sportscaster 1974 roman hamrlík czech ice hockey player 1974 marley shelton american actress 1974 sylvinho brazilian footballer and manager 1976 olga kotlyarova russian runner 1976 brad miller american basketball player 1977 giovanny espinoza ecuadorian footballer 1977 sarah monahan australian actress 1977 jason price welsh footballer 1977 glenn rogers australianscottish cricketer 1978 guy berryman scottish bassist coldplay 1978 scott crary american director producer and screenwriter 1978 svetlana lapina russian high jumper 1978 robin walker english businessman and politician 1979 claire danes american actress 1979 elena grosheva russian gymnast 1979 mateja kežman serbian footballer 1979 jennifer morrison american actress 1979 cristian ranalli italian footballer 1979 lee sooyoung south korean singer 1980 sara head welsh paralympic table tennis champion 1980 brian mcfadden irish singersongwriter 1981 yuriy borzakovskiy russian runner 1981 nicolás burdisso argentinian footballer 1981 tulsi gabbard american politician 1981 grant holt english footballer and professional wrestler 1981 hisashi iwakuma japanese baseball pitcher 1983 jelena dokic serbianaustralian tennis player 1983 luke kibet kenyan runner 1984 aleksey dmitrik russian high jumper 1985 brennan boesch american baseball player 1985 hitomi yoshizawa japanese singer 1986 brad brach american baseball pitcher 1986 blerim džemaili swiss footballer 1986 marcel granollers spanish tennis player 1986 jonathan pitroipa burkinabé footballer 1987 brooklyn decker american model and actress 1987 shawn gore canadian football player 1987 josh mccrone australian rugby league player 1987 luiz adriano brazilian professional footballer 1987 brendon urie american singer songwriter musician and multiinstrumentalist 1988 ricky álvarez argentinian footballer 1988 stephen brogan english footballer 1988 amedeo calliari italian footballer 1988 jessie james decker american singersongwriter 1988 moamen zakaria egyptian footballer 1989 bethan dainton welsh rugby union player 1989 miguel ángel ponce americanmexican footballer 1989 ádám hanga hungarian basketball player 1989 kaitlyn weaver canadianamerican ice dancer 1989 valentin stocker swiss footballer 1990 francesca halsall english swimmer 1990 hiroki sakai japanese footballer 1991 torey krug american ice hockey player 1991 lionel carole french professional footballer 1991 oliver norwood english born northern irish international footballer 1991 magnus pääjärvi swedish ice hockey player 1991 jazz richards welsh international footballer 1992 chad le clos south african swimmer 1993 robin anderson american tennis player 1993 jordan archer englishscottish footballer 1993 ryan nugenthopkins canadian ice hockey player 1994 isabelle drummond brazilian actress and singer 1994 saoirse ronan americanborn irish actress 1994 oh sehun south korean musician 1994 eric bailly ivorian professional footballer 1994 guido rodríguez argentine footballer 1995 pedro cachin argentine tennis player 1996 matteo berrettini italian tennis player 1996 elizaveta kulichkova russian tennis player deaths pre1600 45 bc gnaeus pompeius roman general and politician b 75 bc 352 julius i pope of the catholic church 434 maximianus archbishop of constantinople 901 eudokia baïana byzantine empress and wife of leo vi 1125 vladislaus i duke of bohemia b 1065 1167 charles vii king of sweden b c 1130 1256 margaret of bourbon queen of navarre regent of navarre b c 1217 1443 henry chichele english archbishop b 1364 1500 leonhard of gorizia count of gorz b 1440 1530 joanna la beltraneja princess of castile b 1462 1550 claude duke of guise b 1496 1555 joanna queen of castile and aragon b 1479 16011900 1675 richard bennett english politician colonial governor of virginia b 1609 1684 nicola amati italian instrument maker b 1596 1687 ambrose dixon englishamerican soldier b 1619 1704 jacquesbénigne bossuet french bishop and theologian b 1627 1748 william kent english architect designed holkham hall and chiswick house b 1685 1782 metastasio italianaustrian poet and composer b 1698 1788 carlo antonio campioni frenchitalian composer b 1719 1795 johann kaspar basselet von la rosée bavarian general b 1710 1814 charles burney english composer and historian b 1726 1817 charles messier french astronomer and academic b 1730 1850 adoniram judson american lexicographer and missionary b 1788 1866 peter heskethfleetwood english politician founded fleetwood b 1801 1872 nikolaos mantzaros greek composer and theorist b 1795 1878 william m tweed american lawyer and politician b 1823 1879 richard taylor confederate general b 1826 1885 william crowther dutchaustralian politician 14th premier of tasmania b 1817 1898 elzéaralexandre taschereau canadian cardinal b 1820 1901present 1902 marie alfred cornu french physicist and academic b 1842 1906 mahesh chandra nyayratna bhattacharyya indian scholar academic and philanthropist b 1836 1912 clara barton american nurse and humanitarian founded the american red cross b 1821 1933 adelbert ames american general and politician 30th governor of mississippi b 1835 1937 abdülhak hâmid tarhan turkish playwright and poet b 1852 1938 feodor chaliapin russian opera singer b 1873 1943 viktor puskar estonian colonel b 1889 1945 franklin d roosevelt american lawyer and politician 32nd president of the united states b 1882 1953 lionel logue australian actor and therapist b 1880 1962 ron flockhart scottish racing driver b 1923 1966 sydney allard english racing driver and founder of the allard car company b 1910 1968 heinrich nordhoff german engineer b 1899 1971 ed lafitte american baseball player and dentist b 1886 1973 arthur freed american songwriter and producer b 1894 1975 josephine baker french actress activist and humanitarian b 1906 1976 christos kakkalos greek mountain guide b 1882 1977 philip k wrigley american businessman cofounded lincoln park gun club b 1894 1980 william r tolbert jr liberian politician 20th president of liberia b 1913 1981 prince yasuhiko asaka of japan b 1887 1981 joe louis american boxer and wrestler b 1914 1983 jørgen juve norwegian football player and journalist b 1906 1983 carl morton american baseball player b 1944 1984 edwin t layton american admiral and cryptanalyst b 1903 1986 valentin kataev russian author and playwright b 1897 1988 colette deréal french singer and actress b 1927 1988 alan paton south african historian and author b 1903 1989 abbie hoffman american activist cofounded youth international party b 1936 1989 sugar ray robinson american boxer b 1921 1992 ilario bandini italian racing driver and businessman b 1911 1997 george wald american neurologist and academic nobel prize laureate b 1906 1998 robert ford canadian poet and diplomat b 1915 1999 boxcar willie american singersongwriter b 1931 2001 harvey ball american illustrator created the smiley b 1921 2002 george shevelov ukrainianamerican linguist and philologist b 1908 2004 moran campbell canadian physician and academic invented the venturi mask b 1925 2006 william sloane coffin american minister and activist b 1924 2007 kevin crease australian journalist b 1936 2008 cecilia colledge englishamerican figure skater and coach b 1920 2008 patrick hillery irish physician and politician 6th president of ireland b 1923 2008 jerry zucker israeliamerican businessman and philanthropist b 1949 2010 michel chartrand canadian trade union leader b 1916 2010 werner schroeter german director and screenwriter b 1945 2011 karim fakhrawi bahraini journalist cofounded alwasat b 1962 2012 mohit chattopadhyay indian poet and playwright b 1934 2012 rodgers grant american pianist and composer b 1935 2013 robert byrne american chess player and author b 1928 2013 johnny du plooy south african boxer b 1964 2013 michael france american screenwriter b 1962 2013 brennan manning american priest and author b 1934 2013 annamária szalai hungarian journalist and politician b 1961 2013 yaakov yosef israeli rabbi and politician b 1946 2014 pierre autingrenier french author and poet b 1947 2014 pierrehenri menthéour french cyclist b 1960 2014 maurício alves peruchi brazilian footballer b 1990 2014 hal smith american baseball player and coach b 1931 2014 billy standridge american race car driver b 1953 2015 paulo brossard brazilian jurist and politician b 1924 2015 patrice dominguez algerianfrench tennis player and trainer b 1950 2015 alfred eick german commander b 1916 2015 andré mba obame gabonese politician b 1957 2016 anne jackson american actress b 1925 2016 mohammad al gaz emirati politician diplomat b 1930 2017 charlie murphy american actor and comedian b 1959 2020 tarvaris jackson american football player b 1983 2021 joseph siravo american actor and producer b 1955 2022 gilbert gottfried american comedian actor and singer b 1955 holidays and observances childrens day bolivia christian feast day adoniram judson episcopal church alferius blessed angelo carletti di chivasso erkembode pope julius i teresa of the andes zeno of verona april 12 eastern orthodox liturgics commemoration of first human in space by yuri gagarin cosmonautics day russia international day of human space flight yuris night international observance halifax day north carolina national redemption day liberia references external links bbc on this day historical events on april 12 days of the year april | 3,962 |
1010 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%2015 | April 15 | events pre1600 769 the lateran council ends by condemning the council of hieria and anathematizing its iconoclastic rulings 1071 bari the last byzantine possession in southern italy is surrendered to robert guiscard 1450 battle of formigny toward the end of the hundred years war the french attack and nearly annihilate english forces ending english domination in northern france 16011900 1632 battle of rain swedes under gustavus adolphus defeat the holy roman empire during the thirty years war 1642 irish confederate wars a confederate irish militia is routed in the battle of kilrush when it attempts to halt the progress of a royalist army 1715 the pocotaligo massacre triggers the start of the yamasee war in colonial south carolina 1736 foundation of the shortlived kingdom of corsica 1738 serse an italian opera by george frideric handel receives its premiere performance in london england 1755 samuel johnsons a dictionary of the english language is published in london 1817 thomas hopkins gallaudet and laurent clerc found the american school for the deaf then called the connecticut asylum for the education and instruction of deaf and dumb persons the first american school for deaf students in hartford connecticut 1861 president abraham lincoln calls for 75000 volunteers to quell the insurrection that soon became the american civil war 1865 president abraham lincoln dies after being shot the previous evening by actor john wilkes booth three hours later vice president andrew johnson is sworn in as president 1892 the general electric company is formed 1896 closing ceremony of the games of the i olympiad in athens greece 1900 philippineamerican war filipino guerrillas launch a surprise attack on us infantry and begin a fourday siege of catubig philippines 1901present 1912 the british passenger liner sinks in the north atlantic at 220 am two hours and forty minutes after hitting an iceberg only 710 of 2224 passengers and crew on board survive 1920 two security guards are murdered during a robbery in south braintree massachusetts anarchists sacco and vanzetti would be convicted of and executed for the crime amid much controversy 1922 us senator john b kendrick of wyoming introduces a resolution calling for an investigation of a secret land deal which leads to the discovery of the teapot dome scandal 1923 insulin becomes generally available for use by people with diabetes 1923 racially motivated nihon shōgakkō fire lit by a serial arsonist kills 10 children in sacramento california 1936 first day of the arab revolt in mandatory palestine 1941 in the belfast blitz two hundred bombers of the german luftwaffe attack belfast killing around one thousand people 1942 the george cross is awarded to the island fortress of malta by king george vi 1945 bergenbelsen concentration camp is liberated 1947 jackie robinson debuts for the brooklyn dodgers breaking baseballs color line 1952 first flight of the boeing b52 stratofortress 1955 mcdonalds restaurant dates its founding to the opening of a franchised restaurant by ray kroc in des plaines illinois 1960 at shaw university in raleigh north carolina ella baker leads a conference that results in the creation of the student nonviolent coordinating committee one of the principal organizations of the civil rights movement in the 1960s 1969 the ec121 shootdown incident north korea shoots down a united states navy aircraft over the sea of japan killing all 31 on board 1970 during the cambodian civil war massacre of the vietnamese minority results in 800 bodies flowing down the mekong river into south vietnam 1986 the united states launches operation el dorado canyon its bombing raids against libyan targets in response to a discotheque bombing in west germany that killed two us servicemen 1989 hillsborough disaster a human crush occurs at hillsborough stadium home of sheffield wednesday in the fa cup semifinal resulting in the deaths of 97 liverpool fans 1989 upon hu yaobangs death the tiananmen square protests of 1989 begin in china 1994 marrakesh agreement relating to foundation of world trade organization is adopted 2002 air china flight 129 crashes on approach to gimhae international airport in busan south korea killing 129 people 2013 two bombs explode near the finish line at the boston marathon in boston massachusetts killing three people and injuring 264 others 2013 a wave of bombings across iraq kills at least 75 people 2014 in the worst massacre of the south sudanese civil war at least 200 civilians are gunned down after seeking refuge in houses of worship as well as hospitals 2019 the cathedral of notredame de paris in france is seriously damaged by a large fire 2021 a mass shooting occurred at a fedex ground facility in indianapolis indiana killing nine and injuring seven births pre1600 68 bc gaius maecenas roman politician d 8 bc 1282 frederick iv duke of lorraine d 1329 1442 john paston english noble d 1479 1452 leonardo da vinci italian painter sculptor and architect d 1519 1469 guru nanak the first sikh guru d 1539 1552 pietro cataldi italian mathematician and astronomer d 1626 1563 guru arjan dev fifth sikh leader d 1606 1588 claudius salmasius french author and scholar d 1653 1592 francesco maria brancaccio catholic cardinal d 1675 16011900 1641 robert sibbald scottish physician and geographer d 1722 1642 suleiman ii ottoman sultan d 1691 1646 christian v of denmark d 1699 1684 catherine i of russia d 1727 1688 johann friedrich fasch german violinist and composer d 1758 1707 leonhard euler swiss mathematician and physicist d 1783 1710 william cullen scottish physician and chemist d 1790 1741 charles willson peale american painter and soldier d 1827 1771 nicolas chopin frenchpolish educator d 1844 1772 étienne geoffroy sainthilaire french biologist and zoologist d 1844 1793 friedrich georg wilhelm von struve german astronomer and academic d 1864 1795 maria schicklgruber mother of alois hitler and the paternal grandmother of adolf hitler d1847 1800 james clark ross english captain and explorer d 1862 1808 william champ englishaustralian politician 1st premier of tasmania d 1892 1809 hermann grassmann german linguist and mathematician d 1877 1817 william crowther dutchaustralian politician 14th premier of tasmania d 1885 1828 jean danjou french captain d 1863 1832 wilhelm busch german poet painter and illustrator d 1908 1841 mary grant roberts australian zoo owner d 1921 1841 joseph e seagram canadian businessman and politician founded the seagram company ltd d 1919 1843 henry james american novelist short story writer and critic d 1916 1856 jean moréas greek poet and critic d 1910 1858 émile durkheim french sociologist psychologist and philosopher d 1917 1861 bliss carman canadianbritish poet and playwright d 1929 1863 ida freund austrianborn chemist and educator d 1914 1874 george harrison shull american botanist and geneticist d 1954 1874 johannes stark german physicist and academic nobel prize laureate d 1957 1875 james j jeffries american boxer and promoter d 1953 1877 georg kolbe german sculptor d 1947 1877 william david ross scottish philosopher d 1971 1878 robert walser swiss author and playwright d 1956 1879 melville henry cane american lawyer and poet d 1980 1883 stanley bruce australian captain and politician 8th prime minister of australia d 1967 1885 tadeusz kutrzeba polish general d 1947 1886 nikolay gumilyov russian poet and critic d 1921 1887 felix pipes austrian tennis player d 1983 1887 william forgan smith scottishaustralian politician 24th premier of queensland d 1953 1888 maximilian kronberger german poet and author d 1904 1889 thomas hart benton american painter and educator d 1975 1889 a philip randolph american activist d 1979 1890 percy shaw english businessman invented the cats eye d 1976 1892 theo osterkamp german general and pilot d 1975 1892 corrie ten boom dutchamerican clocksmith nazi resister and author d 1983 1894 nikita khrushchev russian general and politician 7th premier of the soviet union d 1971 1894 bessie smith africanamerican singer and actress d 1937 1895 clark mcconachy new zealand snooker player d 1980 1895 abigail mejia dominican feminist activist nationalist literary critic and educator d 1941 1896 nikolay semyonov russian physicist and chemist nobel prize laureate d 1986 1898 harry edward guyaneseenglish sprinter d 1973 1900 ramón iribarren spanish civil engineer d 1967 1901present 1901 joe davis english snooker player d 1978 1901 ajoy mukherjee indian politician chief minister of west bengal d 1986 1901 rené pleven french businessman and politician prime minister of france d 1993 1902 fernando pessa portuguese journalist d 2002 1903 john williams englishamerican actor d 1983 1904 arshile gorky armenianamerican painter and illustrator d 1948 1907 nikolaas tinbergen dutchenglish ethologist and ornithologist nobel prize laureate d 1988 1908 eden ahbez scottishamerican songwriter and recording artist d 1995 1908 lita grey american actress d 1995 1909 robert edison fulton jr american inventor and adventurer d 2004 1910 sulo bärlund finnish shot putter d 1986 1910 miguel najdorf polishargentinian chess player and theoretician d 1997 1912 william congdon americanitalian painter and sculptor d 1998 1912 kim il sung north korean general and politician 1st supreme leader of north korea d 1994 1915 elizabeth catlett africanamerican sculptor and illustrator d 2012 1916 alfred s bloomingdale american businessman d 1982 1916 helene hanff american author and screenwriter d 1997 1917 hans conried american actor d 1982 1917 elmer gedeon american baseball player and bomber pilot d 1944 1917 james kee american lawyer and politician d 1989 1918 hans billian german film director screenwriter and actor d 2007 1919 alberto breccia uruguayanargentinian author and illustrator d 1993 1920 godfrey stafford englishsouth african physicist and academic d 2013 1920 thomas szasz hungarianamerican psychiatrist and academic d 2012 1920 richard von weizsäcker german soldier and politician 6th president of germany d 2015 1921 georgy beregovoy ukrainianrussian general pilot and astronaut d 1995 1921 angelo digeorge american physician and endocrinologist d 2009 1922 michael ansara syrianamerican actor d 2013 1922 hasrat jaipuri indian poet and songwriter d 1999 1922 harold washington american lawyer and politician 51st mayor of chicago d 1987 1922 graham whitehead english racing driver d 1981 1923 artur alliksaar estonian poet and author d 1966 1923 robert depugh american activist founded the minutemen an anticommunist organization d 2009 1924 m canagaratnam sri lankan politician d 1980 1924 rikki fulton scottish comedian d 2004 1924 neville marriner english violinist and conductor d 2016 1926 jurriaan schrofer dutch sculptor designer and educator d 1990 1927 robert mills american physicist and academic d 1999 1929 gérald beaudoin canadian lawyer and politician d 2008 1929 adrian cadbury english rower and businessman d 2015 1930 georges descrières french actor d 2013 1930 vigdís finnbogadóttir icelandic educator and politician 4th president of iceland 1931 kenneth bloomfield northern irish civil servant 1931 tomas tranströmer swedish poet translator and psychologist nobel prize laureate d 2015 1933 roy clark american musician and television personality d 2018 1933 david hamilton englishfrench photographer and director d 2016 1933 elizabeth montgomery american actress and producer d 1995 1935 stavros paravas greek actor and producer d 2008 1936 raymond poulidor french cyclist d 2019 1937 bob luman american singersongwriter and guitarist d 1978 1937 robert w gore american engineer and businessman coinventor of goretex d 2020 1938 claudia cardinale italian actress 1938 hso khan pha burmesecanadian geologist and politician d 2016 1939 marty wilde english singersongwriter and actor 1939 desiré ecaré ivorian filmmaker d 2009 1940 jeffrey archer english author playwright and politician 1940 penelope coelen south african actress model beauty queen and 1958 miss world 1940 willie davis american baseball player and actor d 2010 1940 robert lacroix canadian economist and academic 1940 robert walker american actor d 2019 1941 howard berman american lawyer and politician 1942 francis x dilorenzo american bishop d 2017 1942 walt hazzard american basketball player and coach d 2011 1942 kenneth lay american businessman and criminald 2006 1942 tim lankester english economist and academic 1943 pınar kür turkish author playwright and academic 1943 robert lefkowitz american physician and biochemist nobel prize laureate 1943 veronica linklater baroness linklater english politician 1943 hugh thompson jr american soldier and pilot d 2006 1944 dave edmunds welsh singersongwriter guitarist and producer 1946 john lloyd scottish journalist and author 1946 pete rouse american politician white house chief of staff 1947 linda bloodworththomason american screenwriter and producer 1947 martin broughton english businessman 1947 lois chiles american model and actress 1947 david omand english civil servant and academic 1947 cristina husmark pehrsson swedish nurse and politician swedish minister for social security 1948 christopher brown english historian curator and academic 1948 michael kamen american composer and conductor d 2003 1948 phil mogg english singersongwriter and musician 1949 alla pugacheva russian singersongwriter and actress 1949 craig zadan american director producer and screenwriter d 2018 1950 josiane balasko french actress director and screenwriter 1950 amy wright american actress 1950 karel kroupa czech football player 1951 heloise american journalist and author 1951 john l phillips american captain and astronaut 1951 stuart prebble english journalist and producer 1951 marsha ivins american engineer and astronaut 1952 kym gyngell australian actor comedian and screenwriter 1952 brian muir english sculptor and set designer 1952 avital ronell czechamerican philosopher and academic 1952 glenn shadix american actor d 2010 1955 dodi fayed egyptian film producer d 1997 1955 joice mujuru zimbabwean politician 1956 michael cooper american basketball player and coach 1957 evelyn ashford american runner and coach 1958 keith acton canadian ice hockey player and coach 1958 john bracewell new zealand cricketer 1958 memos ioannou greek basketball player and coach 1958 benjamin zephaniah english actor author poet and playwright 1959 fruit chan chinese director producer and screenwriter 1959 kevin lowe canadian ice hockey player coach and manager 1959 emma thompson english actress comedian author activist and screenwriter 1960 pierre aubry canadian ice hockey player 1960 susanne bier danish director and screenwriter 1960 pedro delgado spanish cyclist and sportscaster 1960 tony jones english snooker player 1961 neil carmichael english academic and politician 1961 carol w greider american molecular biologist 1961 dawn wright american geographer and oceanographer 1962 nawal el moutawakel moroccan athlete and politician 1962 tom kane american voice actor 1963 alex crawford nigeriansouth african journalist 1963 manzoor elahi pakistani cricketer 1963 manoj prabhakar indian cricketer and sportscaster 1964 andre joubert south african rugby player 1964 lee kernaghan australian singersongwriter and guitarist 1965 soichi noguchi japanese engineer and astronaut 1965 linda perry american singersongwriter musician and record producer 1965 kevin stevens american ice hockey player 1966 samantha fox english singersongwriter and actress 1966 mott green american businessman d 2013 1967 frankie poullain scottish bass player and songwriter 1967 dara torres american swimmer and journalist 1968 ben clarke english rugby player and coach 1968 brahim lahlafi moroccanfrench runner 1968 ed obrien english guitarist 1969 jeromy burnitz american baseball player 1969 kaisa roose estonian pianist and conductor 1969 jimmy waite canadiangerman ice hockey player and coach 1970 chris huffins american decathlete and coach 1971 philippe carbonneau french rugby player 1971 finidi george nigerian footballer 1971 jason sehorn american football player 1971 josia thugwane south african runner 1971 karl turner english lawyer and politician 1972 arturo gatti italiancanadian boxer d 2009 1972 lou romano american animator and voice actor 1974 kim minkyo south korean actor and director 1974 danny pino american actor and screenwriter 1974 mike quinn american football player 1974 douglas spain american actor director and producer 1974 tim thomas american ice hockey player 1975 sarah teichmann germanamerican biophysicist and immunologist 1976 jason bonsignore canadian ice hockey player and coach 1976 darius regelskis lithuanian footballer 1976 kęstutis šeštokas lithuanian basketball player 1976 steve williams english rower 1977 sudarsan pattnaik indian sculptor 1977 brian pothier american ice hockey player 1978 milton bradley american baseball player 1978 tim corcoran american baseball player 1978 luis fonsi puerto ricanamerican singersongwriter and dancer 1978 chris stapleton american country singersongwriter and guitarist 1979 luke evans welsh actor and singer 1980 patrick carney american drummer musician and producer 1980 james foster english cricketer 1980 raül lópez spanish basketball player 1980 willie mason new zealandaustralian rugby league player 1980 aida mollenkamp american chef and author 1980 billy yates american football player 1981 andrés dalessandro argentinian footballer 1982 michael aubrey american baseball player 1982 anthony green american singersongwriter 1982 seth rogen canadianamerican actor director producer and screenwriter 1983 alice braga brazilian actress 1983 matt cardle english singersongwriter and guitarist 1983 dudu cearense brazilian footballer 1983 andreas fransson swedish skier d 2014 1983 ilya kovalchuk russian ice hockey player 1983 martin pedersen danish cyclist 1984 antonio cromartie american football player 1984 cam janssen american ice hockey player 1984 daniel paille canadian ice hockey player 1985 ryan hamilton canadian ice hockey player 1986 tom heaton english footballer 1986 sylvain marveaux french footballer 1988 blake ayshford australian rugby league player 1988 steven defour belgian footballer 1988 chris tillman american baseball pitcher 1989 darren nicholls australian rugby league player 1990 emma watson english actress 1991 daiki arioka japanese idol singer and actor 1991 javier fernández lópez spanish figure skater 1992 jeremy mcgovern australian rules football player 1994 brodie grundy australian rules football player 1994 shaunae milleruibo bahamian sprinter 1995 leander dendoncker belgian footballer 1997 ashleigh gardner australian cricketer 1997 maisie williams english actress 1999 denis shapovalov canadian tennis player 2001 shanti dope filipino rapper deaths pre1600 628 suiko emperor of japan b 554 943 liu bin emperor of southern han b 920 956 lin yanyu chinese court official and eunuch 1053 godwin earl of wessex b 1001 1136 richard fitz gilbert de clare b 1094 1220 adolf of altena german archbishop b 1157 1237 richard poore english ecclesiastic 1415 manuel chrysoloras greek philosopher and translator b 1355 1446 filippo brunelleschi italian sculptor and architect b 1377 1502 john iv of chalonarlay prince of orange b 1443 1558 roxelana wife of suleiman the magnificent b c 1500 1578 wolrad ii count of waldeckeisenberg german nobleman b 1509 16011900 1610 robert persons english jesuit priest insurrectionist and author b 1546 1632 george calvert 1st baron baltimore english politician english secretary of state b 1580 1652 patriarch joseph of moscow russian patriarch 1659 simon dach german poet and hymnwriter b 1605 1719 françoise daubigné marquise de maintenon french wife of louis xiv of france b 1635 1754 jacopo riccati italian mathematician and academic b 1676 1757 rosalba carriera italian painter b 1673 1761 archibald campbell 3rd duke of argyll scottish lawyer and politician lord president of the court of session b 1682 1761 william oldys english historian and author b 1696 1764 peder horrebow danish astronomer and mathematician b 1679 1764 madame de pompadour mistress of king louis xv b 1721 1765 mikhail lomonosov russian chemist and physicist b 1711 1788 giuseppe bonno austrian composer b 1711 1793 ignacije szentmartony croatian priest mathematician and astronomer b 1718 1854 arthur aikin english chemist and mineralogist b 1773 1861 sylvester jordan austriangerman lawyer and politician b 1792 1865 abraham lincoln 16th president of the united states b 1809 1888 matthew arnold english poet and critic b 1822 1889 father damien belgian priest and saint b 1840 1898 te keepa te rangihiwinui new zealand commander and politician 1901present 1912 victims of the titanic disaster thomas andrews irish shipbuilder b 1873 john jacob astor iv american colonel businessman and author b 1864 archibald butt american general and journalist b 1865 jacques futrelle american journalist and author b 1875 benjamin guggenheim american businessman b 1865 henry b harris american producer and manager b 1866 wallace hartley english violinist and bandleader b 1878 charles melville hays american businessman b 1856 james paul moody english sixth officer b 1887 william mcmaster murdoch scottish first officer b 1873 jack phillips english telegraphist b 1887 edward smith english captain b 1850 william thomas stead english journalist b 1849 ida straus germanamerican businesswoman b 1849 isidor straus germanamerican businessman and politician b 1845 john b thayer american business and sportsman b 1862 henry tingle wilde english chief officer b 1872 1917 jános murkovics slovene author poet and educator b 1839 1927 gaston leroux french journalist and author b 1868 1938 césar vallejo peruvian journalist poet and playwright b 1892 1942 robert musil austrianswiss author and playwright b 1880 1943 aristarkh lentulov russian painter and set designer b 1882 1944 nikolai fyodorovich vatutin russian general b 1901 1945 hermann florstedt german ss officer b 1895 1948 radola gajda montenegrinczech general and politician b 1892 1949 wallace beery american actor director and screenwriter b 1885 1962 clara blandick american actress b 1880 1962 arsenio lacson filipino journalist and politician mayor of manila b 1912 1963 edward greeves jr australian footballer b 1903 1966 habibullah bahar chowdhury bengali politician writer journalist first health minister of east pakistan 1967 totò italian comedian b 1898 1971 gurgen boryan armenian poet and playwright b 1915 1971 friedebert tuglas estonian author and critic b 1886 1979 david brand australian politician 19th premier of western australia b 1912 1980 raymond bailey american actor and soldier b 1904 1980 jeanpaul sartre french philosopher and author nobel prize laureate b 1905 1982 arthur lowe english actor b 1915 1984 tommy cooper welsh comedian and magician b 1921 1986 jean genet french novelist poet and playwright b 1910 1988 kenneth williams english actor and screenwriter b 1926 1989 hu yaobang chinese soldier and politician former general secretary of the chinese communist party b 1915 1990 greta garbo swedishamerican actress b 1905 1993 leslie charteris english author and screenwriter b 1907 1993 john tuzo wilson canadian geophysicist and geologist b 1908 1998 william congdon americanitalian painter and sculptor b 1912 1998 pol pot cambodian general and politician 29th prime minister of cambodia b 1925 1999 harvey postlethwaite english engineer b 1944 2000 edward gorey american poet and illustrator b 1925 2001 joey ramone american singersongwriter b 1951 2002 damon knight american author and critic b 1922 2002 byron white american football player lawyer and jurist 4th united states deputy attorney general b 1917 2004 mitsuteru yokoyama japanese illustrator b 1934 2007 brant parker american illustrator b 1920 2008 krister stendahl swedish bishop theologian and scholar b 1921 2009 clement freud germanenglish journalist academic and politician b 1924 2009 lászló tisza hungarianamerican physicist and academic b 1907 2009 salih neftçi turkish economist and author b 1947 2010 jack herer american author and activist b 1939 2010 michael pataki american actor and director b 1938 2011 vittorio arrigoni italian journalist author and activist b 1975 2012 paul bogart american director and producer b 1919 2012 dwayne schintzius american basketball player b 1968 2013 benjamin fain ukrainianisraeli physicist and academic b 1930 2013 richard leparmentier americanenglish actor and screenwriter b 1946 2013 jeanfrançois paillard french conductor b 1928 2014 john houbolt american engineer and academic b 1919 2014 eliseo verón argentinian sociologist and academic b 1935 2015 jonathan crombie canadianamerican actor and screenwriter b 1966 2015 surya bahadur thapa nepalese politician 24th prime minister of nepal b 1928 2017 clifton james american actor b 1920 2017 emma morano italian supercentenarian last person verified born in the 1800s b 1899 2018 r lee ermey american actor b 1944 2018 vittorio taviani italian film director and screenwriter b 1929 2022 bilquis edhi pakistani philanthropist and wife of abdul sattar edhi b 1947 2022 henry plumb british politician and farmer b 1925 2022 liz sheridan american actress b 1929 holidays and observances christian feast day abbo ii of metz father damien the episcopal church hunna paternus of avranches april 15 eastern orthodox liturgics day of the sun north korea father damien day hawaii hillsborough disaster memorial liverpool england jackie robinson day united states national american sign language day united states pohela boishakh bengali new year india tax day the official deadline for filing an individual tax return or requesting an extension united states philippines universal day of culture world art day references external links bbc on this day historical events on april 15 days of the year april | 3,941 |
1011 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%2030 | April 30 | events pre1600 311 the diocletianic persecution of christians in the roman empire ends 1315 enguerrand de marigny is hanged at the instigation of charles count of valois 1492 spain gives christopher columbus his commission of exploration he is named admiral of the ocean sea viceroy and governor of any territory he discovers 1513 edmund de la pole yorkist pretender to the english throne is executed on the orders of henry viii 1557 mapuche leader lautaro is killed by spanish forces at the battle of mataquito in chile 1598 juan de oñate begins the conquest of santa fe de nuevo méxico 1598 henry iv of france issues the edict of nantes allowing freedom of religion to the huguenots 16011900 1636 eighty years war dutch republic forces recapture a strategically important fort from spain after a ninemonth siege 1789 on the balcony of federal hall on wall street in new york city george washington takes the oath of office to become the first president of the united states 1803 louisiana purchase the united states purchases the louisiana territory from france for 15 million more than doubling the size of the young nation 1812 the territory of orleans becomes the 18th us state under the name louisiana 1838 nicaragua declares independence from the central american federation 1863 a 65man french foreign legion infantry patrol fights a force of nearly 2000 mexican soldiers to nearly the last man in hacienda camarón mexico 1871 the camp grant massacre takes place in arizona territory 1885 governor of new york david b hill signs legislation creating the niagara reservation new yorks first state park ensuring that niagara falls will not be devoted solely to industrial and commercial use 1897 j j thomson of the cavendish laboratory announces his discovery of the electron as a subatomic particle over 1800 times smaller than a proton in the atomic nucleus at a lecture at the royal institution in london 1900 hawaii becomes a territory of the united states with sanford b dole as governor 1901present 1905 albert einstein completes his doctoral thesis at the university of zurich 1925 automaker dodge brothers inc is sold to dillon read co for us146 million plus 50 million for charity 1927 the federal industrial institute for women opens in alderson west virginia as the first womens federal prison in the united states 1937 the commonwealth of the philippines holds a plebiscite for filipino women on whether they should be extended the right to suffrage over 90 would vote in the affirmative 1939 the 193940 new york worlds fair opens 1939 nbc inaugurates its regularly scheduled television service in new york city broadcasting president franklin d roosevelts ny worlds fair opening day ceremonial address 1943 world war ii the british submarine surfaces near huelva to cast adrift a dead man dressed as a courier and carrying false invasion plans 1945 world war ii führerbunker adolf hitler and eva braun commit suicide after being married for less than 40 hours soviet soldiers raise the victory banner over the reichstag building 1945 world war ii stalag luft i prisonerofwar camp near barth germany is liberated by soviet soldiers freeing nearly 9000 american and british airmen 1947 in nevada boulder dam is renamed hoover dam 1948 in bogotá colombia the organization of american states is established 1956 former vice president and democratic senator alben barkley dies during a speech in virginia 1957 supplementary convention on the abolition of slavery entered into force 1961 k19 the first soviet nuclear submarine equipped with nuclear missiles is commissioned 1963 the bristol bus boycott is held in bristol to protest the bristol omnibus companys refusal to employ black or asian bus crews drawing national attention to racial discrimination in the united kingdom 1973 watergate scandal us president richard nixon fires white house counsel john dean other top aides most notably h r haldeman and john ehrlichman resign 1975 fall of saigon communist forces gain control of saigon the vietnam war formally ends with the unconditional surrender of south vietnamese president dương văn minh 1980 beatrix is inaugurated as queen of the netherlands following the abdication of juliana 1980 the iranian embassy siege begins in london 1982 the bijon setu massacre occurs in calcutta india 1993 cern announces world wide web protocols will be free 1994 formula one racing driver roland ratzenberger is killed in a crash during the qualifying session of the san marino grand prix run at autodromo enzo e dino ferrari outside imola italy 1999 neonazi david copeland carries out the last of his three nail bombings in london at the admiral duncan gay pub killing three people and injuring 79 others 2000 canonization of faustina kowalska in the presence of 200000 people and the first divine mercy sunday celebrated worldwide 2004 us media release graphic photos of american soldiers committing war crimes against iraqi prisoners at abu ghraib prison 2008 two skeletal remains found near yekaterinburg russia are confirmed by russian scientists to be the remains of alexei and anastasia two of the children of the last tsar of russia whose entire family was executed at yekaterinburg by the bolsheviks 2009 chrysler files for chapter 11 bankruptcy 2009 seven civilians and the perpetrator are killed and another ten injured at a queens day parade in apeldoorn netherlands in an attempted assassination on queen beatrix 2012 an overloaded ferry capsizes on the brahmaputra river in india killing at least 103 people 2013 willemalexander is inaugurated as king of the netherlands following the abdication of beatrix 2014 a bomb blast in ürümqi china kills three people and injures 79 others 2021 fortyfive men and boys are killed in the meron stampede in israel births pre1600 1310 king casimir iii of poland d 1368 1331 gaston iii count of foix d 1391 1383 anne of gloucester english countess granddaughter of king edward iii of england d 1438 1425 william iii landgrave of thuringia d 1482 1504 francesco primaticcio italian painter d 1570 1553 louise of lorraine d 1601 16011900 1623 françois de laval frenchcanadian bishop and saint d 1708 1651 jeanbaptiste de la salle french priest and saint d 1719 1662 mary ii of england d 1694 1664 françois louis prince of conti d 1709 1710 johann kaspar basselet von la rosée bavarian general d 1795 1723 mathurin jacques brisson french zoologist and philosopher d 1806 1758 emmanuel vitale maltese commander and politician d 1802 1770 david thompson englishcanadian cartographer and explorer d 1857 1777 carl friedrich gauss german mathematician and physicist d 1855 1799 joseph dart american businessman and entrepreneur d 1879 1803 albrecht von roon prussian soldier and politician 10th minister president of prussia d 1879 1829 ferdinand von hochstetter austrian geologist and academic d 1884 1848 eugène simon french naturalist d 1924 1857 eugen bleuler swiss psychiatrist and eugenicist d 1940 1857 walter simon german banker and philanthropist d 1920 1865 max nettlau german historian and academic d 1944 1866 mary haviland stilwell kuesel american pioneer dentist d 1936 1869 hans poelzig german architect designed the ig farben building and großes schauspielhaus d 1936 1870 franz lehár hungarian composer d 1948 1870 dadasaheb phalke indian director producer and screenwriter d 1944 1874 cyriel verschaeve flemish priest and author d 1949 1876 orso mario corbino italian physicist and politician d 1937 1877 léon flameng french cyclist d 1917 1877 alice b toklas american memoirist d 1967 1878 władysław witwicki polish psychologist philosopher translator historian of philosophy and art and artist d 1948 1879 richárd weisz hungarian olympic champion wrestler d 1945 1880 charles exeter devereux crombie scottish cartoonist d 1967 1883 jaroslav hašek czech soldier and author d 1923 1883 luigi russolo italian painter and composer d 1947 1884 olof sandborg swedish actor d 1965 1888 john crowe ransom american poet critic and academic d 1974 1893 harold breen australian public servant d 1966 1893 joachim von ribbentrop german soldier and politician 14th german reich minister for foreign affairs d 1946 1895 philippe panneton canadian physician academic and diplomat d 1960 1896 reverend gary davis american singer and guitarist d 1972 1896 hans list austrian scientist and businessman founded the avl engineering company d 1996 1897 humberto mauro brazilian director and screenwriter d 1983 1900 erni krusten estonian author and poet d 1984 1901present 1901 simon kuznets belarusianamerican economist statistician and academic nobel prize laureate d 1985 1902 theodore schultz american economist and academic nobel prize laureate d 1998 1905 sergey nikolsky russian mathematician and academic d 2012 1908 eve arden american actress d 1990 1908 bjarni benediktsson icelandic professor of law and politician 13th prime minister of iceland d 1970 1908 frank robert miller canadian air marshal and politician d 1997 1909 f e mcwilliam irish sculptor and educator d 1992 1909 juliana of the netherlands d 2004 1910 levi celerio filipino pianist violinist and composer d 2002 1914 charles beetham american middledistance runner d 1997 1914 dorival caymmi brazilian singersongwriter actor and painter d 2008 1916 paul kuusberg estonian journalist and author d 2003 1916 claude shannon american mathematician and engineer d 2001 1916 robert shaw american conductor d 1999 1917 bea wain american singer d 2017 1920 duncan hamilton irishenglish race car driver and pilot d 1994 1920 gerda lerner austrianamerican historian and womans history author d 2013 1920 tom moore british army officer and fundraiser d 2021 1921 roger l easton american scientist coinvented the gps d 2014 1922 anton murray south african cricketer d 1995 1923 percy heath american bassist d 2005 1923 kagamisato kiyoji japanese sumo wrestler the 42nd yokozuna d 2004 1924 sheldon harnick american lyricist d 2023 1924 uno laht estonian kgb officer and author d 2008 1925 corinne calvet french actress d 2001 1925 johnny horton american singersongwriter and guitarist d 1960 1926 shrinivas khale indian composer d 2011 1926 cloris leachman american actress and comedian d 2021 1928 hugh hood canadian author and academic d 2000 1928 orlando sirola italian tennis player d 1995 1930 félix guattari french psychotherapist and philosopher d 1992 1933 charles sanderson baron sanderson of bowden english politician 1934 jerry lordan english singersongwriter d 1995 1934 don mckenney canadian ice hockey player and coach d 2022 1937 tony harrison english poet and playwright 1938 gary collins american actor and talk show host d 2012 1938 juraj jakubisko slovak director and screenwriter d 2023 1938 larry niven american author and screenwriter 1940 jeroen brouwers dutch journalist and writer 1940 michael cleary australian rugby player and politician 1940 ülo õun estonian sculptor d 1988 1940 burt young american actor and painter d 2023 1941 stavros dimas greek lawyer and politician greek minister of foreign affairs 1941 max merritt new zealandaustralian singersongwriter d 2020 1942 sallehuddin of kedah sultan of kedah 1943 frederick chiluba zambian politician 2nd president of zambia d 2011 1943 bobby vee american pop singersongwriter d 2016 1944 jon bing norwegian author scholar and academic d 2014 1944 jill clayburgh american actress d 2010 1945 j michael brady british radiologist 1945 annie dillard american novelist essayist and poet 1945 mimi fariña american singersongwriter guitarist and activist d 2001 1945 michael j smith american pilot and astronaut d 1986 1946 king carl xvi gustaf of sweden 1946 bill plympton american animator producer and screenwriter 1946 don schollander american swimmer 1947 paul fiddes english theologian and academic 1947 finn kalvik norwegian singersongwriter and guitarist 1947 tom køhlert danish footballer and manager 1947 mats odell swedish economist and politician swedish minister for financial markets 1948 wayne kramer american guitarist and singersongwriter 1948 pierre pagé canadian ice hockey player and coach 1948 margit papp hungarian athlete 1949 phil garner american baseball player and manager 1949 antónio guterres portuguese academic and politician 114th prime minister of portugal and 9th secretarygeneral of the united nations 1949 karl meiler german tennis player d 2014 1952 jacques audiard french director and screenwriter 1952 jack middelburg dutch motorcycle racer d 1984 1953 merrill osmond american singer and bass player 1954 jane campion new zealand director producer and screenwriter 1954 kim darroch english diplomat uk permanent representative to the european union 1954 frankmichael marczewski german footballer 1955 nicolas hulot french journalist and environmentalist 1955 david kitchin english lawyer and judge 1955 pradeep sarkar indian director and screenwriter d 2023 1955 zlatko topčić bosnian writer and screenwriter 1956 lars von trier danish director and screenwriter 1957 wonder mike american rapper and songwriter 1958 charles berling french actor director and screenwriter 1959 stephen harper canadian economist and politician 22nd prime minister of canada 1960 geoffrey cox english lawyer and politician 1960 kerry healey american academic and politician 70th lieutenant governor of massachusetts 1961 arnór guðjohnsen icelandic footballer 1961 isiah thomas american basketball player coach and sportscaster 1963 andrew carwood english tenor and conductor 1963 michael waltrip american race car driver and sportscaster 1964 tony fernandes malaysianindian businessman cofounded tune group 1964 ian healy australian cricketer coach and sportscaster 1964 lorenzo staelens belgian footballer and manager 1964 abhishek chatterjee indian actor 1965 daniela costian romanianaustralian discus thrower 1965 adrian pasdar american actor 1966 jeff brown canadian ice hockey player and coach 1966 dave meggett american football player and coach 1967 phil chang taiwanese singersongwriter and actor 1967 philipp kirkorov bulgarianborn russian singer composer and actor 1967 turbo b american rapper 1969 warren defever american bass player and producer 1969 justine greening english accountant and politician secretary of state for international development 1969 paulo jr brazilian bass player 1972 takako tokiwa japanese actress 1973 leigh francis english comedian and actor 1974 christian tamminga dutch athlete 1975 johnny galecki american actor 1976 davian clarke jamaican sprinter 1976 amanda palmer american singersongwriter and pianist 1976 daniel wagon australian rugby league player 1976 victor j glover american astronaut 1977 jeannie haddaway american politician 1977 meredith l patterson american technologist journalist and author 1978 liljay taiwanese singer 1979 gerardo torrado mexican footballer 1980 luis scola argentinian basketball player 1980 jeroen verhoeven dutch footballer 1981 nicole kaczmarski american basketball player 1981 john oshea irish footballer 1981 kunal nayyar britishindian actor 1981 justin vernon american singersongwriter multiinstrumentalist and producer 1982 kirsten dunst american actress 1982 drew seeley canadianamerican singersongwriter dancer and actor 1983 chris carr american football player 1983 tatjana hüfner german luger 1983 marina tomić slovenian hurdler 1983 troy williamson american football player 1984 seimone augustus american basketball player 1984 shawn daivari american wrestler and manager 1984 risto mätas estonian javelin thrower 1984 lee roache english footballer 1985 brandon bass american basketball player 1985 gal gadot israeli actress and model 1985 ashley alexandra dupré american journalist singer and prostitute 1986 dianna agron american actress and singer 1986 martten kaldvee estonian biathlete 1987 alipate carlile australian footballer 1987 chris morris south african cricketer 1987 rohit sharma indian cricketer 1988 andy allen australian chef 1988 sander baart dutch field hockey player 1988 ana de armas cuban actress 1988 liu xijun chinese singer 1988 oh hyeri south korean taekwondo athlete 1989 jang wooyoung south korean singer and actor 1990 jonny brownlee english triathlete 1990 mac demarco canadian singersongwriter 1990 kaarel kiidron estonian footballer 1990 paula ribó spanish singersongwriter and actress 1991 chris kreider american ice hockey player 1991 travis scott american rapper and producer 1992 marcandré ter stegen german footballer 1993 dion dreesens dutch swimmer 1993 martin fuksa czech canoeist 1994 chae seojin south korean actress 1994 wang yafan chinese tennis player 1996 luke friend english singer 1997 adam ryczkowski polish footballer 1998 georgina amorós spanish actress 1999 jorden van foreest dutch chess grandmaster 1999 krit amnuaydechkorn thai actor and singer 2000 yui hiwatashi japanese singer 2002 anna cramling spanishswedish chess player 2002 teden mengi english footballer 2003 emily carey british actress 2003 jung yunseok south korean actor deaths pre1600 ad 65 lucan roman poet b 39 125 an chinese emperor b 94 535 amalasuntha ostrogothic queen and regent 783 hildegard of the vinzgau frankish queen 1002 eckard i german nobleman 1030 mahmud of ghazni ghaznavid emir b 971 1063 ren zong chinese emperor b 1010 1131 adjutor french knight and saint 1305 roger de flor italian military adventurer b 1267 1341 john iii duke of brittany b 1286 1439 richard de beauchamp 13th earl of warwick english commander b 1382 1524 pierre terrail seigneur de bayard french soldier b 1473 1544 thomas audley 1st baron audley of walden english lawyer and judge lord chancellor of england b 1488 1550 tabinshwehti burmese king b 1516 16011900 1632 johann tserclaes count of tilly bavarian general b 1559 1632 sigismund iii vasa swedishpolish son of john iii of sweden b 1566 1637 niwa nagashige japanese daimyō b 1571 1655 eustache le sueur french painter b 1617 1660 petrus scriverius dutch historian and scholar b 1576 1672 marie of the incarnation frenchcanadian nun and saint founded the ursulines of quebec b 1599 1696 robert plot english chemist and academic b 1640 1712 philipp van limborch dutch theologian and author b 1633 1733 rodrigo anes de sá almeida e meneses 1st marquis of abrantes portuguese diplomat b 1676 1736 johann albert fabricius german scholar and author b 1668 1758 françois dagincourt french organist and composer b 1684 1792 john montagu 4th earl of sandwich english politician secretary of state for the northern department b 1718 1795 jeanjacques barthélemy french archaeologist and author b 1716 1806 onogawa kisaburō japanese sumo wrestler the 5th yokozuna b 1758 1841 peter andreas heiberg danish philologist and author b 1758 1847 charles austrian commander and duke of teschen b 1771 1863 jean danjou french captain b 1828 1865 robert fitzroy english admiral meteorologist and politician 2nd governor of new zealand b 1805 1870 thomas cooke canadian bishop and missionary b 1792 1875 jeanfrédéric waldeck french explorer lithographer and cartographer b 1766 1879 emma smith american religious leader b 1804 1883 édouard manet french painter b 1832 1891 joseph leidy american paleontologist and author b 1823 1900 casey jones american railroad engineer b 1864 1901present 1903 emily stowe canadian physician and activist b 1831 1910 jean moréas greek poet and critic b 1856 1926 bessie coleman american pilot b 1892 1936 a e housman english poet and scholar b 1859 1939 frank haller american boxer b 1883 1943 eddy hamel american footballer b 1902 1943 otto jespersen danish linguist and academic b 1860 1943 beatrice webb english sociologist and economist b 1858 1945 eva braun german photographer and office and lab assistant wife of adolf hitler b 1912 1945 adolf hitler austriangerman politician and author dictator of nazi germany b 1889 1953 jacob linzbach estonian linguist and author b 1874 1956 alben w barkley american lawyer and politician 35th vice president of the united states b 1877 1970 jacques presser dutch historian writer and poet b 1899 1970 inger stevens swedishamerican actress b 1934 1972 gia scala englishamerican model and actress b 1934 1973 václav renč czech poet and playwright b 1911 1974 agnes moorehead american actress b 1900 1980 luis muñoz marín puerto rican journalist and politician 1st governor of puerto rico b 1898 1982 lester bangs american journalist and author b 1949 1983 george balanchine russian dancer and choreographer b 1904 1983 muddy waters american singersongwriter guitarist and bandleader b 1913 1983 edouard wyssdunant swiss physician and mountaineer b 1897 1986 robert stevenson english director producer and screenwriter b 1905 1989 sergio leone italian director producer and screenwriter b 1929 1993 tommy caton english footballer b 1962 1994 roland ratzenberger austrian race car driver b 1960 1994 richard scarry american author and illustrator b 1919 1995 maung maung kha burmese colonel and politician 8th prime minister of burma b 1920 1998 nizar qabbani syrianenglish poet publisher and diplomat b 1926 2000 poul hartling danish politician 36th prime minister of denmark b 1914 2002 charlotte von mahlsdorf german philanthropist founded the gründerzeit museum b 1928 2003 mark berger american economist and academic b 1955 2003 possum bourne new zealand race car driver b 1956 2005 phil rasmussen american lieutenant and pilot b 1918 2006 jeanfrançois revel french philosopher b 1924 2006 pramoedya ananta toer indonesian author and academic b 1925 2007 kevin mitchell american football player b 1971 2007 tom poston american actor comedian and game show panelist b 1921 2007 gordon scott american film and television actor b 1926 2008 juancho evertsz dutch antillean politician b 1923 2009 henk nijdam dutch cyclist b 1935 2011 dorjee khandu indian politician 6th chief minister of arunachal pradesh b 1955 2011 evald okas estonian painter b 1915 2011 ernesto sabato argentinian physicist author and painter b 1911 2012 tomás borge nicaraguan poet and politician cofounded the sandinista national liberation front b 1930 2012 alexander dale oen norwegian swimmer b 1985 2012 giannis gravanis greek footballer b 1958 2012 benzion netanyahu russianisraeli historian and academic b 1910 2013 roberto chabet filipino painter and sculptor b 1937 2013 shirley firth canadian skier b 1953 2013 viviane forrester french author and critic b 1925 2014 khaled choudhury indian painter and set designer b 1919 2014 julian lewis english biologist and academic b 1946 2014 carl e moses american businessman and politician b 1929 2014 ian ross australian journalist b 1940 2015 ben e king american singersongwriter and producer b 1938 2016 daniel berrigan american priest and activist b 1921 2016 harry kroto english chemist and academic nobel prize laureate b 1939 2017 belchior brazilian singer and composer b 1946 2019 peter mayhew englishamerican actor b 1944 2020 tony allen nigerian drummer and composer b 1940 2020 rishi kapoor indian actor film director and producer b 1952 2021 anthony payne english composer b 1936 2022 naomi judd american singersongwriter and actress b 1946 2022 mino raiola italian football agent b 1967 2023 jock zonfrillo scottish television presenter and chef b 1976 holidays and observances armed forces day georgia camarón day french foreign legion childrens day mexico christian feast day adjutor aimo amator peter and louis donatus of evorea eutropius of saintes marie guyart anglican church of canada marie of the incarnation ursuline maximus of rome blessed miles gerard pomponius of naples pope pius v quirinus of neuss sarah josepha hale episcopal church suitbert the younger april 30 eastern orthodox liturgics consumer protection day thailand honesty day united states international jazz day unesco martyrs day pakistan may eve the eve of the first day of summer in the northern hemisphere see may 1 beltane begins at sunset in the northern hemisphere samhain begins at sunset in the southern hemisphere neodruidic wheel of the year carodejnice czech republic and slovakia walpurgis night central and northern europe national persian gulf day iran reunification day vietnam rincon day bonaire russian state fire service day russia teachers day paraguay references external links bbc on this day historical events on april 30 days of the year april | 3,768 |
1012 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%2022 | August 22 | events pre1600 392 arbogast has eugenius elected western roman emperor 851 battle of jengland erispoe defeats charles the bald near the breton town of jengland 1138 battle of the standard between scotland and england 1485 the battle of bosworth field occurs richard iii dies marking the end of the house of plantagenet 1559 spanish archbishop bartolomé carranza is arrested for heresy 16011900 1614 fettmilch uprising jews are expelled from frankfurt holy roman empire following the plundering of the judengasse 1639 madras now chennai india is founded by the british east india company on a sliver of land bought from local nayak rulers 1642 charles i raises his standard in nottingham which marks the beginning of the english civil war 1654 jacob barsimson arrives in new amsterdam he is the first known jewish immigrant to america 1711 britains quebec expedition loses eight ships and almost nine hundred soldiers sailors and women to rocks at pointeauxanglais 1717 spanish troops land on sardinia 1770 james cook names and lands on possession island and claims the east coast of australia for britain as new south wales 1777 british forces abandon the siege of fort stanwix after hearing rumors of continental army reinforcements 1780 james cooks ship returns to england cook having been killed on hawaii during the voyage 1791 the haitian slave revolution begins in saintdomingue haiti 1798 french troops land at kilcummin county mayo ireland to aid the rebellion 1827 josé de la mar becomes president of peru 1846 the second federal republic of mexico is established 1849 passaleão incident joão maria ferreira do amaral the governor of portuguese macau is assassinated by a group of chinese locals triggering a military confrontation between china and portugal at the battle of passaleão three days after 1851 the first americas cup is won by the yacht america 1864 twelve nations sign the first geneva convention establishing the rules of protection of the victims of armed conflicts 1875 the treaty of saint petersburg between japan and russia is ratified providing for the exchange of sakhalin for the kuril islands 1894 mahatma gandhi forms the natal indian congress nic in order to fight discrimination against indian traders in natal 1901present 1902 the cadillac motor company is founded 1902 theodore roosevelt becomes the first president of the united states to make a public appearance in an automobile 1902 at least 6000 people are killed by the magnitude 77 kashgar earthquake in the tien shan mountains 1922 michael collins commanderinchief of the irish free state army is shot dead in an ambush during the irish civil war 1934 bill woodfull of australia becomes the only test cricket captain to twice regain the ashes 1941 world war ii german troops begin the siege of leningrad 1942 brazil declares war on germany japan and italy 1944 world war ii holocaust of kedros in crete by german forces 1949 the queen charlotte earthquake is canadas strongest since the 1700 cascadia earthquake 1953 the penal colony on devils island is permanently closed 1962 the oas attempts to assassinate french president charles de gaulle 1963 x15 flight 91 reaches the highest altitude of the x15 program 354200 feet 1966 labor movements nfwa and awoc merge to become the united farm workers organizing committee ufwoc the predecessor of the united farm workers 1968 pope paul vi arrives in bogotá colombia it is the first visit of a pope to latin america 1971 j edgar hoover and john mitchell announce the arrest of 20 of the camden 28 1972 rhodesia is expelled by the ioc for its racist policies 1973 the congress of chile votes in favour of a resolution condemning president salvador allendes government and demands that he resign or else be unseated through force and new elections 1978 nicaraguan revolution the flsn seizes the national congress of nicaragua along with over a thousand hostages 1978 the district of columbia voting rights amendment is passed by the us congress although it is never ratified by a sufficient number of states 1981 far eastern air transport flight 103 disintegrates in midair and crashes in sanyi township miaoli county taiwan all 110 people on board are killed 1985 british airtours flight 28m suffers an engine fire during takeoff at manchester airport the pilots abort but due to inefficient evacuation procedures 55 people are killed mostly from smoke inhalation 1989 nolan ryan strikes out rickey henderson to become the first major league baseball pitcher to record 5000 strikeouts 1991 iceland is the first nation in the world to recognize the independence of the baltic states 1992 fbi sniper lon horiuchi shoots and kills vicki weaver during an 11day siege at her home at ruby ridge idaho 1999 china airlines flight 642 crashes at hong kong international airport killing three people and injuring 208 more 2003 alabama chief justice roy moore is suspended after refusing to comply with a federal court order to remove a rock inscribed with the ten commandments from the lobby of the alabama supreme court building 2004 versions of the scream and madonna two paintings by edvard munch are stolen at gunpoint from a museum in oslo norway 2006 pulkovo aviation enterprise flight 612 crashes near the russian border over eastern ukraine killing all 170 people on board 2006 grigori perelman is awarded the fields medal for his proof of the poincaré conjecture in mathematics but refuses to accept the medal 2007 the texas rangers defeat the baltimore orioles 303 the most runs scored by a team in modern major league baseball history 2012 ethnic clashes over grazing rights for cattle in kenyas tana river district result in more than 52 deaths births pre1600 1412 frederick ii elector of saxony d 1464 1570 franz von dietrichstein roman catholic archbishop and cardinal d 1636 1599 agatha marie of hanau german noblewoman d 1636 16011900 1601 georges de scudéry french author poet and playwright d 1667 1624 jean regnault de segrais french author and poet d 1701 1647 denis papin french physicist and mathematician developed pressure cooking d 1712 1679 pierre guérin de tencin french cardinal d 1758 1760 pope leo xii d 1829 1764 charles percier french architect and interior designer d 1838 1771 henry maudslay english engineer d 1831 1773 aimé bonpland french botanist and explorer d 1858 1778 james kirke paulding american poet playwright and politician 11th united states secretary of the navy d 1860 1800 samuel david luzzatto italian poet and scholar d 1865 1818 rudolf von jhering german jurist d 1892 1827 ezra butler eddy canadian businessman and politician d 1906 1834 samuel pierpont langley american physicist and astronomer d 1906 1836 archibald willard american soldier and painter d 1918 1844 george w de long american naval officer and explorer d 1881 1845 william lewis douglas american businessman and politician 42nd governor of massachusetts d 1924 1847 john forrest australian politician 1st premier of western australia d 1918 1848 melville elijah stone american publisher founded the chicago daily news d 1929 1854 milan i of serbia d 1901 1857 ned hanlon american baseball player and manager d 1937 1860 paul gottlieb nipkow polishgerman technician and inventor created the nipkow disk d 1940 1860 alfred ploetz german physician biologist and eugenicist d 1940 1862 claude debussy french pianist and composer d 1918 1867 maximilian bircherbenner swiss physician and nutritionist d 1939 1867 charles francis jenkins american inventor d 1934 1868 willis r whitney american chemist d 1958 1873 alexander bogdanov russian physician and philosopher d 1928 1874 max scheler german philosopher and author d 1928 1880 gorch fock german author and poet d 1916 1880 george herriman american cartoonist d 1944 1881 james newland australian soldier and policeman d 1949 1882 raymonde de laroche french pilot d 1919 1887 lutz graf schwerin von krosigk german jurist and politician german minister of foreign affairs d 1977 1890 cecil kellaway south african actor d 1973 1891 henry bachtold australian soldier and railway engineer d 1983 1891 jacques lipchitz lithuanianitalian sculptor d 1973 1893 wilfred kitching english 7th general of the salvation army d 1977 1893 dorothy parker american poet short story writer critic and satirist d 1967 1893 ernest h volwiler american chemist d 1992 1895 lászló almásy hungarian captain pilot and explorer d 1951 1895 paul comtois canadian lawyer and politician 21st lieutenant governor of quebec d 1966 1896 laurence mckinley gould american geologist educator and polar explorer d 1995 1897 bill woodfull australian cricketer and educator d 1965 1900 lisy fischer swissborn pianist and child prodigy d 1999 1901present 1902 thomas pelly american lawyer and politician d 1973 1902 leni riefenstahl german actress film director and propagandist d 2003 1902 edward rowe snow american historian and author d 1982 1903 jerry iger american cartoonist cofounded eisner iger d 1990 1904 deng xiaoping chinese soldier and politician 1st vice premier of the peoples republic of china d 1997 1908 henri cartierbresson french photographer and painter d 2004 1908 erwin thiesies german rugby player and coach d 1993 1909 julius j epstein american screenwriter and producer d 2000 1909 mel hein american football player and coach d 1992 1913 leonard pagliero english businessman and pilot d 2008 1913 bruno pontecorvo italian physicist and academic d 1993 1914 jack dunphy american author and playwright d 1992 1914 connie b gay american businessman cofounded the country music hall of fame and museum d 1989 1915 david dellinger american activist d 2004 1915 james hillier canadianamerican scientist codesigned the electron microscope d 2007 1915 edward szczepanik polish economist and politician 15th prime minister of the polish republic in exile d 2005 1917 john lee hooker american singersongwriter and guitarist d 2001 1918 mary mcgrory american journalist and author d 2004 1920 ray bradbury american science fiction writer and screenwriter d 2012 1920 denton cooley american surgeon and scientist d 2016 1921 dinos dimopoulos greek director and screenwriter d 2003 1921 tony pawson english cricketer footballer and journalist d 2012 1922 roberto aizenberg argentine painter and sculptor d 1996 1922 theoni v aldredge greekamerican costume designer d 2011 1924 james kirkwood jr american playwright and author d 1989 1924 harishankar parsai indian writer satirist and humorist d 1995 1925 honor blackman english actress and republican d 2020 1926 marc bohan french fashion designer d 2023 1926 bob flanigan american pop singer d 2011 1928 tinga seisay sierra leonean academic and diplomat d 2015 1928 karlheinz stockhausen german composer and academic d 2007 1929 valery alekseyev russian anthropologist and author d 1991 1929 ulrich wegener german police officer and general d 2017 1930 gylmar dos santos neves brazilian footballer d 2013 1932 gerald p carr american engineer colonel and astronaut d 2020 1933 sylva koscina italian actress d 1994 1934 norman schwarzkopf jr american general and engineer d 2012 1935 annie proulx american novelist short story writer and journalist 1936 chuck brown american singersongwriter guitarist and producer d 2012 1936 john callaway american journalist and producer d 2009 1936 dale hawkins american singersongwriter and guitarist d 2010 1936 werner stengel german roller coaster designer and engineer designed the maverick roller coaster 1938 jean berkey american businesswoman and politician d 2013 1939 valerie harper american actress d 2019 1939 carl yastrzemski american baseball player 1941 bill parcells american football player and coach 1943 alun michael welsh police commissioner and politician inaugural first minister of wales 1943 masatoshi shima japanese computer scientist and engineer codesigned the intel 4004 1944 roger cashmore english physicist and academic 1945 david chase american screenwriter and producer 1945 ron dante american singersongwriter and producer 1947 cindy williams american actress and producer d 2023 1948 david marks american singersongwriter and guitarist 1949 diana nyad american swimmer and author 1949 joop donkervoort dutch businessman 1950 ray burris american baseball player and coach 1950 scooter libby american lawyer and politician chief of staff to the vice president of the united states 1952 peter laughner american singersongwriter and guitarist d 1977 1953 paul ellering american weightlifter wrestler and manager 1955 chiranjeevi indian film actor producer and politician 1956 paul molitor american baseball player and coach 1956 peter taylor australian cricketer 1957 steve davis english snooker player sportscaster and author 1957 holly dunn american country music singersongwriter d 2016 1958 colm feore americancanadian actor 1958 stevie ray american semiretired wrestler 1958 vernon reid englishborn american guitarist and songwriter 1959 juan croucier cubanamerican singersongwriter bass player and producer 1959 pia gjellerup danish lawyer and politician danish minister of finance 1959 mark williams english actor 1960 holger gehrke german footballer and manager 1960 collin raye american country music singer 1960 regina taylor american actress and playwright 1961 andrés calamaro argentine singersongwriter guitarist and producer 1961 roland orzabal english singer and musician 1961 debbi peterson american singersongwriter and drummer 1962 stefano tilli italian sprinter 1963 tori amos american singersongwriter pianist and producer 1963 james debarge american rbsoul singer 1963 terry catledge american basketball player 1964 trey gowdy american lawyer and us representative 1964 mats wilander swedishamerican tennis player and coach 1965 wendy botha south africanaustralian surfer 1965 david reimer canadian man born male but reassigned female and raised as a girl after a botched circumcision d 2004 1966 gza american rapper and producer 1966 rob witschge dutch footballer and manager 1967 adewale akinnuoyeagbaje english actor 1967 ty burrell american actor and comedian 1967 paul colman australian singersongwriter and guitarist 1967 alfred gough american screenwriter and producer 1967 layne staley american singersongwriter d 2002 1968 casper christensen danish comedian actor and screenwriter 1968 rich lowry american writer and magazine editor national review 1968 aleksandr mostovoi russian footballer 1968 elisabeth murdoch australian businesswoman 1968 horst skoff austrian tennis player d 2008 1970 charlie connelly english author and broadcaster 1970 giada de laurentiis italianamerican chef and author 1970 tímea nagy hungarian fencer 1971 richard armitage english actor 1971 craig finn american singersongwriter and guitarist 1971 melinda page hamilton american actress 1971 rick yune american actor 1972 okkert brits south african pole vaulter 1972 paul doucette american singersongwriter guitarist and drummer 1972 steve kline american baseball player and coach 1972 max wilson germanbrazilian race car driver 1973 roslina bakar malaysian sport shooter 1973 beenie man jamaican deejay 1973 howie dorough american singersongwriter and dancer 1973 kristen wiig american actress comedian and screenwriter 1973 eurelijus žukauskas lithuanian basketball player 1974 cory gardner american politician 1974 jenna leigh green american actress and singer 1974 agustín pichot argentinian rugby player 1975 clint bolton australian footballer 1975 rodrigo santoro brazilian actor 1976 marius bezykornovas lithuanian footballer 1976 bryn davies american bassist cellist and pianist 1976 laurent hernu french decathlete 1976 jeff weaver american baseball player 1976 randy wolf american baseball player 1977 heiðar helguson icelandic footballer 1977 keren cytter israeli visual artist and writer 1978 james corden english actor comedian writer and television presenter 1978 ioannis gagaloudis greek basketball player 1979 brandon adams american actor 1979 matt walters american football player 1980 roland benschneider german footballer 1980 nicolas macrozonaris canadian sprinter 1980 aya sumika american actress 1980 seiko yamamoto japanese wrestler 1981 alex holmes american football player 1981 jang hyunkyu south korean footballer d 2012 1981 christina obergföll german athlete 1983 theo bos dutch cyclist 1983 jahri evans american football player 1984 lee camp english footballer 1984 lawrence quaye ghanaianqatari footballer 1985 luke russert american journalist 1985 jey uso samoanamerican wrestler 1985 jimmy uso samoanamerican wrestler 1985 salih yoluç turkish automobile racer 1986 stephen ireland irish footballer 1986 tokushōryū makoto japanese sumo wrestler 1986 pac english wrestler 1987 leonardo moracci italian footballer 1987 apollo crews american wrestler 1989 giacomo bonaventura italian footballer 1990 randall cobb american football player 1990 drew hutchison american baseball player 1990 robbie rochow australian rugby league player 1990 adam thielen american football player 1991 federico macheda italian footballer 1991 brayden schenn canadian ice hockey player 1992 ema burgić bucko bosnian tennis player 1992 ari stidham american actor 1993 dillon danis american mixed martial artist 1994 israel broussard american actor 1994 olli määttä finnish ice hockey player 1995 dua lipa english singersongwriter 1996 jessicajane applegate british paralympic swimmer 1996 jeon somin south korean singersongwriter 1997 maxx crosby american football player 1997 lautaro martínez argentine footballer 2001 lamelo ball american basketball player deaths pre1600 408 stilicho roman general b 359 1155 emperor konoe of japan b 1139 1241 pope gregory ix b 1143 1280 pope nicholas iii b 1225 1304 john ii count of holland b 1247 1338 william ii duke of athens b 1312 1350 philip vi of france b 1293 1358 isabella of france b 1295 1425 eleanor princess of asturias b 1423 1456 vladislav ii of wallachia 1485 richard iii of england b 1452 1485 james harrington yorkist knight 1485 john howard 1st duke of norfolk b 1430 1485 richard ratcliffe supporter of richard iii 1485 william brandon supporter of henry vii b 1426 1532 william warham archbishop of canterbury b 1450 1545 charles brandon 1st duke of suffolk english politician and husband of mary tudor b c 1484 1553 john dudley 1st duke of northumberland english admiral and politician lord president of the council b 1504 1572 thomas percy 7th earl of northumberland english leader of the rising of the north b 1528 1584 jan kochanowski polish poet and playwright b 1530 1599 luca marenzio italian singersongwriter b 1553 16011900 1607 bartholomew gosnold english lawyer and explorer founded the london company b 1572 1652 jacob de la gardie estonianswedish soldier and politician lord high constable of sweden b 1583 1664 maria cunitz polish astronomer and author b 1610 1680 john george ii elector of saxony b 1613 1681 philippe delano dutch plymouth colony settler b 1602 1701 john granville 1st earl of bath english soldier and politician lord lieutenant of ireland b 1628 1711 louis françois duc de boufflers french general b 1644 1752 william whiston english mathematician historian and theologian b 1667 1773 george lyttelton 1st baron lyttelton english poet and politician chancellor of the exchequer b 1709 1793 louis de noailles french general b 1713 1797 dagobert sigmund von wurmser frenchaustrian field marshal b 1724 1806 jeanhonoré fragonard french painter and illustrator b 1732 1818 warren hastings english lawyer and politician 1st governorgeneral of bengal b 1732 1828 franz joseph gall austrian neuroanatomist and physiologist b 1758 1850 nikolaus lenau romanianaustrian poet and author b 1802 1861 xianfeng emperor of china b 1831 1888 ágoston trefort hungarian jurist and politician hungarian minister of education b 1817 1891 jan neruda czech journalist author and poet b 1834 1901present 1903 robert gascoynececil 3rd marquess of salisbury english academic and politician prime minister of the united kingdom b 1830 1904 kate chopin american novelist and poet b 1850 1909 henry radcliffe crocker english dermatologist and author b 1846 1914 giacomo radinitedeschi italian bishop and academic b 1859 1918 korbinian brodmann german neurologist and academic b 1868 1920 anders zorn swedish artist b 1860 1922 michael collins irish rebel counterintelligence and military tactician and politician 2nd irish minister of finance b 1890 1926 charles william eliot american academic b 1834 1933 alexandros kontoulis greek general and diplomat b 1858 1940 oliver lodge english physicist and academic b 1851 1940 gerald strickland 1st baron strickland maltese lawyer and politician 4th prime minister of malta b 1861 1942 michel fokine russian dancer and choreographer b 1880 1946 döme sztójay hungarian general and politician 35th prime minister of hungary b 1883 1950 kirk bryan american geologist and academic b 1888 1951 jack bickell canadian businessman and philanthropist b 1884 1953 jim tabor american baseball player b 1916 1958 roger martin du gard french novelist and paleographer nobel prize laureate b 1881 1960 johannes sikkar estonian soldier and politician prime minister of estonia in exile b 1897 1963 william morris 1st viscount nuffield english businessman and philanthropist founded morris motors b 1877 1967 gregory goodwin pincus american biologist and academic cocreated the birthcontrol pill b 1903 1970 vladimir propp russian philologist and scholar b 1895 1971 birger nerman swedish archaeologist b 1888 1974 jacob bronowski polishenglish mathematician biologist and author b 1908 1976 gina bachauer greek pianist and composer b 1913 1976 juscelino kubitschek brazilian physician and politician 21st president of brazil b 1902 1977 sebastian cabot english actor b 1918 1977 chunseong korean monk philosopher and writer b 1891 1977 rex connor australian politician b 1907 1978 jomo kenyatta kenyan politician 1st president of kenya b 1894 1979 james t farrell american novelist shortstory writer and poet b 1904 1980 james smith mcdonnell american pilot engineer and businessman founded mcdonnell aircraft b 1899 1981 vicente manansala filipino painter b 1910 1985 charles gibson historian historian of mexico and its indians president of the american historical association b 1920 1986 celâl bayar turkish lawyer and politician 3rd president of turkey b 1883 1987 joseph p lash american author and journalist b 1909 1989 robert grondelaers belgian cyclist b 1933 1989 huey p newton american activist cofounded the black panther party b 1942 1991 colleen dewhurst canadianamerican actress b 1924 1991 boris pugo russian soldier and politician soviet minister of interior b 1937 1994 gilles groulx canadian director and screenwriter b 1931 1994 allan houser american sculptor and painter b 1914 1995 johnny carey irish footballer and manager b 1919 1996 erwin komenda austrian car designer and engineer b 1904 2000 abulfaz elchibey 2nd president of azerbaijan b 1938 2003 arnold gerschwiler swiss figure skater and coach b 1914 2004 konstantin aseev russian chess player and trainer b 1960 2004 angus bethune australian soldier and politician 33rd premier of tasmania b 1908 2004 daniel petrie canadian director and producer b 1920 2005 luc ferrari frenchitalian director and composer b 1929 2005 ernest kirkendall american chemist and metallurgist b 1914 2007 grace paley american short story writer and poet b 1922 2008 gladys powers englishcanadian soldier b 1899 2009 muriel duckworth canadian pacifist feminist and activist b 1908 2009 elmer kelton american journalist and author b 1926 2010 stjepan bobek croatian footballer and manager b 1923 2011 nick ashford american singersongwriter and producer b 1942 2011 jack layton canadian academic and politician b 1950 2011 casey ribicoff american philanthropist b 1922 2012 nina bawden english author b 1925 2012 paul shan kuohsi chinese cardinal b 1923 2012 jeffrey stone american actor and screenwriter b 1926 2013 paul poberezny american pilot and businessman founded the experimental aircraft association b 1921 2013 andrea servi italian footballer b 1984 2014 u r ananthamurthy indian author poet and playwright b 1932 2014 emmanuel kriaras greek lexicographer and philologist b 1906 2014 pete ladygo american football player and coach b 1928 2014 noella leduc american baseball player b 1933 2014 john sperling american businessman founded the university of phoenix b 1921 2014 john s waugh american chemist and academic b 1929 2015 arthur morris australian cricketer and journalist b 1922 2015 ieng thirith cambodian academic and politician b 1932 2015 eric thompson english race car driver and book dealer b 1919 2016 s r nathan 6th president of singapore b 1924 2016 toots thielemans belgian and american jazz musician b 1922 2017 michael j c gordon british computer scientist b 1948 2018 ed king american musician b 1949 2018 krishna reddy indian printmaker sculptor and teacher b 1925 2021 rod gilbert canadian ice hockey player b 1941 holidays and observances christian feast day fabrizio guinefort the holy greyhound feast day traditionally immaculate heart of mary roman catholic calendar of 1960 queenship of mary symphorian and timotheus august 22 eastern orthodox liturgics earliest day on which national heroes day philippines can fall while august 28 is the latest celebrated on the fourth monday in august flag day russia madras day chennai and tamil nadu india end of filseta feast in the ethiopian orthodox tewahedo and eritrean orthodox tewahedo church international day commemorating the victims of acts of violence based on religion or belief international references external links days of the year august | 3,961 |
1013 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%2027 | August 27 | events pre1600 410 the sacking of rome by the visigoths ends after three days 1172 henry the young king and margaret of france are crowned junior king and queen of england 1232 shikken hojo yasutoki of the kamakura shogunate promulgates the goseibai shikimoku the first japanese legal code governing the samurai class 1557 the battle of st quentin results in emmanuel philibert becoming duke of savoy 1593 pierre barrière failed an attempt to assassinate henry iv of france 1597 jeongyu war battle of chilcheollyang a japanese fleet of 500 ships destroys joseon commander won gyuns fleet of 200 ships at chilcheollyang 1600 ishida mitsunaris western army commences the siege of fushimi castle which is lightly defended by a much smaller tokugawa garrison led by torii mototada 16011900 1689 the treaty of nerchinsk is signed by russia and the qing empire julian calendar 1776 american revolutionary war members of the 1st maryland regiment repeatedly charged a numerically superior british force during the battle of long island allowing general washington and the rest of the american troops to escape 1791 french revolution frederick william ii of prussia and leopold ii holy roman emperor issue the declaration of pillnitz declaring the joint support of the holy roman empire and prussia for the french monarchy agitating the french revolutionaries and contributing to the outbreak of the war of the first coalition 1793 french revolutionary wars the city of toulon revolts against the french republic and admits the british and spanish fleets to seize its port leading to the siege of toulon by french revolutionary forces 1798 wolfe tones united irish and french forces clash with the british army in the battle of castlebar part of the irish rebellion of 1798 resulting in the creation of the french puppet republic of connacht 1810 napoleonic wars the french navy defeats the british royal navy preventing them from taking the harbour of grand port on île de france 1813 french emperor napoleon i defeats a larger force of austrians russians and prussians at the battle of dresden 1828 brazil and argentina recognize the sovereignty of uruguay in the treaty of montevideo 1832 black hawk leader of the sauk tribe of native americans surrenders to us authorities ending the black hawk war 1859 petroleum is discovered in titusville pennsylvania leading to the worlds first commercially successful oil well 1881 the georgia hurricane makes landfall near savannah georgia resulting in an estimated 700 deaths 1883 eruption of krakatoa four enormous explosions almost completely destroy the island of krakatoa and cause years of climate change 1893 the sea islands hurricane strikes the united states near savannah georgia killing between 1000 and 2000 people 1895 japanese invasion of taiwan battle of baguashan the empire of japan decisively defeats a smaller formosan army at changhua crippling the shortlived republic of formosa and leading to its surrender two months later 1896 anglozanzibar war the shortest war in world history 0902 to 0940 between the united kingdom and zanzibar 1901present 1908 the qing dynasty promulgates the qinding xianfa dagang the first constitutional document in the history of china transforming the qing empire into a constitutional monarchy 1914 world war i battle of étreux a british rearguard action by the royal munster fusiliers during the great retreat 1914 world war i siege of tsingtao a japanese fleet commanded by vice admiral sadakichi kato imposes a blockade along the whole coastline of german tsingtao initiating the siege of tsingtao 1915 attempted assassination of bishop patrick heffron bishop of the diocese of winona by rev louis m lesches 1916 world war i the kingdom of romania declares war on austriahungary entering the war as one of the allied nations 1918 mexican revolution battle of ambos nogales us army forces skirmish against mexican carrancistas in the only battle of world war i fought on american soil 1922 grecoturkish war the turkish army takes the aegean city of afyonkarahisar from the kingdom of greece 1927 five canadian women file a petition to the supreme court of canada asking does the word persons in section 24 of the british north america act 1867 include female persons 1928 the kelloggbriand pact outlawing war is signed by fifteen nations ultimately sixtyone nations will sign it 1933 the first afrikaans bible is introduced during a bible festival in bloemfontein 1939 first flight of the turbojetpowered heinkel he 178 the worlds first jet aircraft 1942 first day of the sarny massacre perpetrated by germans and ukrainians 1943 world war ii japanese forces evacuate new georgia island in the pacific theater of operations during world war ii 1943 world war ii aerial bombardment by the luftwaffe razes to the ground the village of vorizia in crete 1955 the first edition of the guinness book of records is published in great britain 1956 the nuclear power station at calder hall in the united kingdom was connected to the national power grid becoming the worlds first commercial nuclear power station to generate electricity on an industrial scale 1962 the mariner 2 unmanned space mission is launched to venus by nasa 1963 an explosion at the cane creek potash mine near moab utah kills 18 miners 1964 south vietnamese junta leader nguyễn khánh enters into a triumvirate powersharing arrangement with rival generals trần thiện khiêm and dương văn minh who had both been involved in plots to unseat khánh 1971 an attempted coup détat fails in the african nation of chad the government of chad accuses egypt of playing a role in the attempt and breaks off diplomatic relations 1975 the governor of portuguese timor abandons its capital dili and flees to atauro island leaving control to a rebel group 1979 the troubles eighteen british soldiers are killed in an ambush by the provisional irish republican army near warrenpoint northern ireland in the deadliest attack on british forces during operation banner an ira bomb also kills british royal family member lord mountbatten and three others on his boat at mullaghmore republic of ireland 1980 south korean presidential election after successfully staging the coup détat of may seventeenth general chun doohwan running unopposed has the national conference for unification elect him president of the fourth republic of korea 1982 turkish military diplomat colonel atilla altıkat is shot and killed in ottawa justice commandos of the armenian genocide claim to be avenging the massacre of 1 million armenians in the 1915 armenian genocide 1985 major general muhammadu buhari chairman of the supreme military council of nigeria is ousted from power in a coup détat led by major general ibrahim babangida 1991 the european community recognizes the independence of the baltic states of estonia latvia and lithuania 1991 moldova declares independence from the ussr 2003 mars makes its closest approach to earth in nearly 60000 years passing distant 2003 the first sixparty talks involving south and north korea the united states china japan and russia convene to find a peaceful resolution to the security concerns of the north korean nuclear weapons program 2006 comair flight 5191 crashes on takeoff from blue grass airport in lexington kentucky bound for hartsfieldjackson atlanta international airport in atlanta of the passengers and crew 49 of 50 are confirmed dead in the hours following the crash 2009 internal conflict in myanmar the burmese military junta and ethnic armies begin three days of violent clashes in the kokang special region 2011 hurricane irene strikes the united states east coast killing 47 and causing an estimated 156 billion in damage births pre1600 865 rhazes persian polymath d 925 1407 ashikaga yoshikazu japanese shōgun d 1425 1471 george duke of saxony d 1539 1487 anna of brandenburg d 1514 1512 friedrich staphylus german theologian d 1564 1542 john frederick duke of pomerania and protestant bishop of cammin d 1600 1545 alexander farnese duke of parma d 1592 16011900 1624 koxinga chinesejapanese ming loyalist d 1662 1637 charles calvert 3rd baron baltimore english politician 2nd proprietor of maryland d 1715 1665 john hervey 1st earl of bristol english politician d 1751 1669 anne marie dorléans queen of sardinia d 1728 1677 otto ferdinand von abensberg und traun austrian general d 1748 1724 john joachim zubly swissamerican pastor planter and politician d 1781 1730 johann georg hamann german philosopher and author d 1788 1770 georg wilhelm friedrich hegel german philosopher and academic d 1831 1785 agustín gamarra peruvian general and politician 10th and 14th president of peru d 1841 1795 giorgio mitrovich maltese politician d 1885 1803 edward beecher american minister and theologian d 1895 1809 hannibal hamlin american publisher and politician 15th vice president of the united states d 1891 1812 bertalan szemere hungarian poet and politician 3rd prime minister of hungary d 1869 1822 william hayden english american politician us representative from indiana and democratic vicepresidential nominee d 1896 1827 charles lilley englishaustralian politician 4th premier of queensland d 1897 1845 ödön lechner hungarian architect designed the museum of applied arts and the church of st elisabeth d 1914 1845 friedrich martens estonianrussian historian lawyer and diplomat d 1909 1856 ivan franko ukrainian author and poet d 1916 1858 giuseppe peano italian mathematician and philosopher d 1932 1864 hermann weingärtner german gymnast d 1919 1865 james henry breasted american archaeologist and historian d 1935 1865 charles g dawes american general and politician 30th vice president of the united states nobel prize laureate d 1951 1868 hong beomdo korean general and activist d 1943 1870 amado nervo mexican journalist poet and diplomat d 1919 1871 theodore dreiser american novelist and journalist d 1945 1874 carl bosch german chemist and engineer nobel prize laureate d 1940 1875 katharine mccormick american biologist philanthropist and activist d 1967 1877 charles rolls english engineer and businessman cofounded rollsroyce limited d 1910 1877 ernst wetter swiss lawyer and politician 48th president of the swiss confederation d 1963 1878 pyotr nikolayevich wrangel russian general d 1928 1884 vincent auriol french lawyer and politician president of the french republic d 1966 1884 denis g lillie british biologist member of the 19101913 terra nova expedition d 1963 1886 rebecca clarke english viola player and composer d 1979 1890 man ray americanfrench photographer and painter d 1976 1895 andreas alföldi hungarian archaeologist and historian d 1981 1896 kenji miyazawa japanese author and poet d 1933 1898 gaspard fauteux canadian businessman and politician 19th lieutenant governor of quebec d 1963 1899 c s forester english novelist d 1966 1901present 1904 alar kotli estonian architect d 1963 1904 norah lofts english author d 1983 1904 john hay whitney american businessman publisher and diplomat founded jh whitney company d 1982 1905 aris velouchiotis greek soldier d 1945 1906 ed gein american murderer and body snatcher the butcher of plainfield d 1982 1908 don bradman australian cricketer and manager d 2001 1908 lyndon b johnson american commander and politician 36th president of the united states d 1973 1909 sylvère maes belgian cyclist d 1966 1909 charles pozzi french race car driver d 2001 1909 lester young american saxophonist and clarinet player d 1959 1911 kay walsh english actress and dancer d 2005 1912 gloria guinness mexican journalist d 1980 1915 norman foster ramsey jr american physicist and academic nobel prize laureate d 2011 1916 gordon bashford english engineer codesigned the range rover d 1991 1916 tony harris south african cricketer and rugby player d 1993 1916 martha raye american actress and comedian d 1994 1917 peanuts lowrey american baseball player coach and manager d 1986 1918 jelle zijlstra dutch economist and politician prime minister of the netherlands d 2001 1919 pee wee butts american baseball player and coach d 1972 1919 murray grand american singersongwriter and pianist d 2007 1920 baptiste manzini american football player d 2008 1920 james molyneaux baron molyneaux of killead northern irish soldier and politician d 2015 1921 georg alexander duke of mecklenburg d 1996 1921 leo penn american actor director and screenwriter d 1998 1922 roelof kruisinga dutch physician and politician minister of defence for the netherlands d 2012 1923 jimmy greenhalgh english footballer and manager d 2013 1924 david rowbotham australian journalist and poet d 2010 1924 rosalie e wahl american lawyer and jurist d 2013 1925 andrea cordero lanza di montezemolo italian cardinal d 2017 1925 nat lofthouse english footballer and manager d 2011 1925 saiichi maruya japanese author and critic d 2012 1925 bill neilson australian politician 34th premier of tasmania d 1989 1925 jaswant singh neki indian poet and academic d 2015 1925 carter stanley american bluegrass singersongwriter and guitarist d 1966 1926 george brecht americangerman chemist and composer d 2008 1926 kristen nygaard norwegian computer scientist and academic d 2002 1928 péter boross hungarian lawyer and politician 54th prime minister of hungary 1928 mangosuthu buthelezi south african politician chief minister of kwazulu d 2023 1928 joan kroc american philanthropist d 2003 1929 ira levin american novelist playwright and songwriter d 2007 1929 george scott canadianamerican wrestler and promoter d 2014 1930 gholamreza takhti iranian wrestler and politician d 1968 1931 sri chinmoy indianamerican guru and poet d 2007 1931 joe cunningham american baseball player and coach d 2021 1932 cor brom dutch footballer and manager d 2008 1932 antonia fraser english historian and author 1935 ernie broglio american baseball player d 2019 1935 michael holroyd english author 1935 frank yablans american screenwriter and producer d 2014 1936 joel kovel american scholar and author d 2018 1936 lien chan taiwanese politician vice president of the republic of china 1937 alice coltrane american pianist and composer d 2007 1937 tommy sands american pop singer and actor 1939 william least heatmoon american travel writer and historian 1939 edward patten american singersongwriter and producer d 2005 1939 nikola pilić yugoslav tennis player and coach 1940 fernest arceneaux american singer and accordion player d 2008 1940 sonny sharrock american guitarist d 1994 1941 cesária évora cape verdean singer d 2011 1941 jános konrád hungarian water polo player and swimmer d 2014 1941 harrison page american actor 1942 daryl dragon american keyboard player and songwriter d 2019 1942 brian peckford canadian educator and politician 3rd premier of newfoundland and labrador 1943 chuck girard american singersongwriter and pianist 1943 bob kerrey american lieutenant and politician medal of honor recipient 35th governor of nebraska 1943 tuesday weld american model and actress 1944 g w bailey american actor 1944 tim bogert american singer and bass player d 2021 1945 douglas r campbell canadian lawyer and judge 1945 marianne sägebrecht german actress 1946 tony howard barbadian cricketer and manager 1947 barbara bach american actress and model 1947 halil berktay turkish historian and academic 1947 kirk francis american engineer and producer 1947 peter krieg german director producer and screenwriter d 2009 1947 john morrison new zealand cricketer and politician 1947 gavin pfuhl south african cricketer and sportscaster d 2002 1948 john mehler american drummer 1948 sgt slaughter american wrestler 1948 deborah swallow english historian and curator 1948 philippe vallois french director and screenwriter 1949 jeff cook american singersongwriter and guitarist d 2022 1949 leah jamieson american computer scientist engineer and academic 1949 ann murray irish soprano 1950 charles fleischer american comedian and actor 1950 neil murray scottish bass player and songwriter 1950 edmund weiner english lexicographer and author 1951 buddy bell american baseball player and manager 1951 mack brown american football player and coach 1951 randall garrison americancanadian criminologist and politician 1952 paul reubens american actor and comedian d 2023 1953 tom berryhill american businessman and politician d 2020 1953 alex lifeson canadian singersongwriter guitarist and producer 1953 joan smith english journalist and author 1953 peter stormare swedish actor director and playwright 1954 john lloyd english tennis player and sportscaster 1954 rajesh thakker english physician and academic 1954 derek warwick english race car driver 1955 robert richardson american cinematographer 1955 diana scarwid american actress 1956 glen matlock english singersongwriter and bass player 1957 jeff grubb american game designer and author 1957 bernhard langer german golfer 1958 sergei krikalev russian engineer and astronaut 1958 tom lanoye belgian author poet and playwright 1958 hugh orde british police officer 1959 daniela romo mexican singer actress and tv hostess 1959 gerhard berger austrian race car driver 1959 juan fernando cobo colombian painter and sculptor 1959 denice denton american engineer and academic d 2006 1959 frode fjellheim norwegian pianist and composer 1959 andrás petőcz hungarian author and poet 1959 jeanette winterson english journalist and novelist 1961 yolanda adams american singer producer and actress 1961 mark curry english television host and actor 1961 tom ford american fashion designer and film director 1961 steve mcdowall new zealand rugby player 1961 helmut winklhofer german footballer 1962 adam oates canadian ice hockey player 1964 stephan elliott australian actor director and screenwriter 1964 paul bernardo canadian serial rapist and murderer 1965 scott dibble american lawyer and politician 1965 wayne james zimbabwean cricketer and coach 1965 ange postecoglou greekaustralian footballer and coach 1966 jeroen duyster dutch rower 1966 rené higuita colombian footballer 1966 juhan parts estonian lawyer and politician 14th prime minister of estonia 1967 ogie alcasid filipino singersongwriter producer and actor 1967 rob burnett american football player and sportscaster 1968 eric bobo correa american musician 1968 daphne koller israeliamerican computer scientist and academic 1968 michael long new zealand golfer 1968 matthew ridge new zealand rugby player and sportscaster 1969 mark ealham english cricketer 1969 cesar millan mexicanamerican dog trainer television personality and author 1969 reece shearsmith english actor comedian and writer 1969 chandra wilson american actress and director 1970 andy bichel australian cricketer and coach 1970 mark ilott english cricketer 1970 tony kanal britishamerican bass player songwriter and record producer 1970 jim thome american baseball player and manager 1970 karl unterkircher italian mountaineer d 2008 1971 ernest faber dutch footballer and manager 1971 kyung lah south koreanamerican journalist 1971 hisayuki okawa japanese runner 1971 aygül özkan german lawyer and politician 1972 jaapderk buma dutch field hockey player 1972 denise lewis english heptathlete 1972 jimmy pop american singersongwriter and guitarist 1972 the great khali indian professional wrestler 1973 danny coyne welsh footballer 1973 dietmar hamann german footballer and manager 1973 burak kut turkish singersongwriter 1973 johan norberg swedish historian and author 1974 aaron downey canadian ice hockey player and coach 1974 manny fernandez canadian ice hockey player 1974 michael mason new zealand cricketer 1974 josé vidro puerto ricanamerican baseball player 1974 mohammad yousuf pakistani cricketer 1975 blake adams american golfer 1975 mase american rapper songwriter and pastor 1975 jonny moseley puerto ricanamerican skier and television host 1975 mark rudan australian footballer and manager 1976 sarah chalke canadian actress 1976 audrey c delsanti french astronomer and biologist 1976 milano collection at japanese wrestler 1976 carlos moyá spanishswiss tennis player 1976 mark webber australian race car driver 1977 deco brazilianportuguese footballer 1977 justin miller american baseball player d 2013 1978 demetria mckinney american actress and singer 1979 sarah neufeld canadian violinist 1979 aaron paul american actor and producer 1979 karel rachůnek czech ice hockey player d 2011 1979 rusty smith american speed skater 1981 patrick j adams canadian actor 1981 maxwell cabelino andrade brazilian footballer 1981 alessandro gamberini italian footballer 1981 karla mosley american actress 1983 joanna mcgilchrist english rugby player and physiotherapist 1984 david bentley english footballer 1984 amanda fuller american actress 1984 sulley muntari ghanaian footballer 1985 kayla ewell american actress 1985 kevan hurst english footballer 1985 nikica jelavić croatian footballer 1985 alexandra nechita romanianamerican painter and sculptor 1986 lana bastašić serbianbosnian author and translator 1986 sebastian kurz austrian politician 25th chancellor of austria 1986 mario american singer and actor 1987 joel grant englishjamaican footballer 1987 darren mcfadden american football player 1988 alexa penavega american actress and singer 1989 romain amalfitano french footballer 1989 juliana cannarozzo american figure skater and actress 1990 tori bowie american athlete d 2023 1990 luuk de jong dutch footballer 1991 lee sungyeol south korean actor and singer 1992 blake jenner american actor and singer 1992 stephen morris american football player 1992 kim petras german singersongwriter 1992 ayame goriki japanese actress and singer 1993 sarah hecken german figure skater 1993 olivier le gac french cyclist 1994 ellar coltrane american actor 1994 breanna stewart american basketball player 1995 jessie mei li english actress 1995 sergey sirotkin russian race car driver 1998 kevin huerter american basketball player 2001 franz wagner german basketball player deaths pre1600 542 caesarius of arles french bishop and saint b 470 749 qahtaba ibn shabib altai persian general 827 pope eugene ii 923 ageltrude queen of italy and holy roman empress 1146 king eric iii of denmark 1255 little saint hugh of lincoln b 1247 1312 arthur ii duke of brittany b 1261 1394 emperor chōkei of japan b 1343 1450 reginald west 6th baron de la warr english politician b 1395 1521 josquin des prez flemish composer b 1450 1545 piotr gamrat polish archbishop b 1487 1576 titian italian painter and educator b 1488 1590 pope sixtus v b 1521 16011900 1611 tomás luis de victoria spanish composer b c 1548 1635 lope de vega spanish poet and playwright b 1562 1664 francisco de zurbarán spanish painter and educator b 1598 1748 james thomson scottish poet and playwright b 1700 1782 john laurens american revolutionary and abolitionist b 1754 1828 eise eisinga dutch astronomer and academic built the eisinga planetarium b 1744 1857 rufus wilmot griswold american anthologist poet and critic b 1815 1865 thomas chandler haliburton canadian judge and politician b 1796 1871 william whiting boardman american lawyer and politician b 1794 1875 william chapman ralston american businessman and financier founded the bank of california b 1826 1891 samuel c pomeroy american businessman and politician b 1816 1901present 1903 kusumoto ine first japanese female doctor of western medicine b 1827 1909 emil christian hansen danish physiologist and mycologist b 1842 1922 reşat çiğiltepe turkish colonel b 1879 1929 herman potočnik croatianaustrian engineer b 1892 1931 frank harris irishamerican journalist and author b 1856 1931 willem hubert nolens dutch priest and politician b 1860 1931 francis marion smith american miner and businessman b 1846 1935 childe hassam american painter and academic b 1859 1944 georg von boeselager german soldier b 1915 1945 hubert pál álgyay hungarian engineer designed the petőfi bridge b 1894 1948 charles evans hughes american lawyer and politician 11th chief justice of the united states b 1862 1950 cesare pavese italian author poet and critic b 1908 1956 pelageya shajn russian astronomer and academic b 1894 1958 ernest lawrence american physicist and academic nobel prize laureate b 1901 1963 w e b du bois american sociologist historian and activist b 1868 1963 inayatullah khan mashriqi pakistani mathematician and scholar b 1888 1964 gracie allen american actress and comedian b 1895 1965 le corbusier swissfrench architect and urban planner designed the philips pavilion b 1887 1967 brian epstein english businessman and manager b 1934 1968 princess marina of greece and denmark b 1906 1969 ivy comptonburnett english author b 1884 1969 erika mann german actress and author b 1905 1971 bennett cerf american publisher cofounded random house b 1898 1971 margaret bourkewhite american photographer and journalist b 1906 1975 haile selassie ethiopian emperor b 1892 1978 gordon mattaclark american painter and illustrator b 1943 1978 ieva simonaitytė lithuanian author and poet b 1897 1979 louis mountbatten 1st earl mountbatten of burma english admiral and politician 44th governorgeneral of india b 1900 1980 douglas kenney american actor producer and screenwriter b 1947 1981 valeri kharlamov russian ice hockey player b 1948 1990 avdy andresson estonian soldier and diplomat b 1899 1990 stevie ray vaughan american singersongwriter guitarist and producer b 1954 1992 bengt holbek danish folklorist b 1933 1994 frank jeske german footballer b 1960 1996 greg morris american actor b 1933 1998 essie summers new zealand author b 1912 1999 hélder câmara brazilian archbishop and theologian b 1909 2001 michael dertouzos greekamerican computer scientist and academic b 1936 2001 abu ali mustafa palestinian politician b 1938 2002 edwin louis cole american religious leader and author b 1922 2003 pierre poujade french soldier and politician b 1920 2004 willie crawford american baseball player b 1946 2005 giorgos mouzakis greek trumpet player and composer b 1922 2005 seán purcell irish footballer b 1929 2006 hrishikesh mukherjee indian director producer and screenwriter b 1922 2006 jesse pintado mexicanamerican guitarist b 1969 2007 emma penella spanish actress b 1930 2009 sergey mikhalkov russian author and poet b 1913 2010 anton geesink dutch martial artist b 1934 2010 luna vachon canadianamerican wrestler and manager b 1962 2012 neville alexander south african linguist and activist b 1936 2012 malcolm browne american journalist and photographer b 1931 2012 art heyman american basketball player b 1941 2012 ivica horvat croatian footballer and manager b 1926 2012 richard kingsland australian captain and pilot b 1916 2012 geliy korzhev russian painter b 1925 2013 chen liting chinese director and playwright b 1910 2013 bill peach australian journalist b 1935 2013 dave thomas welsh golfer and architect b 1934 2014 jacques friedel french physicist and academic b 1921 2014 valeri petrov bulgarian poet playwright and screenwriter b 1920 2014 benno pludra german author b 1925 2015 kazi zafar ahmed bangladeshi politician 8th prime minister of bangladesh b 1939 2015 pascal chaumeil french director and screenwriter b 1961 2015 darryl dawkins american basketball player and coach b 1957 2016 cookie australian major mitchells cockatoo oldest recorded parrot b 1933 holidays and observances christian feast day baculus of sorrento caesarius of arles decuman gebhard of constance euthalia john of pavia lycerius or glycerius lizier máel ruba or rufus scotland margaret the barefooted monica of hippo mother of augustine of hippo narnus our lady of la vang phanourios of rhodes rufus and carpophorus syagrius of autun thomas gallaudet and henry winter syle episcopal church august 27 eastern orthodox liturgics independence day republic of moldova celebrates the independence of moldova from the ussr in 1991 lyndon baines johnson day texas united states references external links days of the year august | 4,299 |
1014 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol%20%28chemistry%29 | Alcohol (chemistry) | in chemistry an alcohol is a type of organic compound that carries at least one hydroxyl functional group bound to a saturated carbon atom alcohols range from the simple like methanol and ethanol to complex like sucrose and cholesterol the presence of an oh group strongly modifies the properties of hydrocarbons conferring hydrophilic waterloving properties the oh group provides a site at which many reactions can occur history the flammable nature of the exhalations of wine was already known to ancient natural philosophers such as aristotle 384322 bce theophrastus 287 bce and pliny the elder 232479 ce however this did not immediately lead to the isolation of alcohol even despite the development of more advanced distillation techniques in second and thirdcentury roman egypt an important recognition first found in one of the writings attributed to jābir ibn ḥayyān ninth century ce was that by adding salt to boiling wine which increases the wines relative volatility the flammability of the resulting vapors may be enhanced the distillation of wine is attested in arabic works attributed to alkindī 873 ce and to alfārābī 950 and in the 28th book of alzahrāwīs latin abulcasis 9361013 kitāb altaṣrīf later translated into latin as liber servatoris in the twelfth century recipes for the production of aqua ardens burning water ie alcohol by distilling wine with salt started to appear in a number of latin works and by the end of the thirteenth century it had become a widely known substance among western european chemists the works of taddeo alderotti 12231296 describe a method for concentrating alcohol involving repeated fractional distillation through a watercooled still by which an alcohol purity of 90 could be obtained the medicinal properties of ethanol were studied by arnald of villanova 12401311 ce and john of rupescissa 1366 the latter of whom regarded it as a lifepreserving substance able to prevent all diseases the aqua vitae or water of life also called by john the quintessence of wine nomenclature etymology the word alcohol derives from the arabic kohl a powder used as an eyeliner the first part of the word is the arabic definite article equivalent to the in english the second part of the word has several antecedents in semitic languages ultimately deriving from the akkadian meaning stibnite or antimony like its antecedents in arabic and older languages the term alcohol was originally used for the very fine powder produced by the sublimation of the natural mineral stibnite to form antimony trisulfide it was considered to be the essence or spirit of this mineral it was used as an antiseptic eyeliner and cosmetic later the meaning of alcohol was extended to distilled substances in general and then narrowed again to ethanol when spirits was a synonym for hard liquor paracelsus and libavius both used the term alcohol to denote a fine powder the latter speaking of an alcohol derived from antimony at the same time paracelsus uses the word for a volatile liquid alcool or alcool vini occurs often in his writings bartholomew traheron in his 1543 translation of john of vigo introduces the word as a term used by barbarous authors for fine powder vigo wrote the barbarous auctours use alcohol or as i fynde it sometymes wryten alcofoll for moost fine poudre the 1657 lexicon chymicum by william johnson glosses the word as antimonium sive stibium by extension the word came to refer to any fluid obtained by distillation including alcohol of wine the distilled essence of wine libavius in alchymia 1594 refers to johnson 1657 glosses alcohol vini as the words meaning became restricted to spirit of wine the chemical known today as ethanol in the 18th century and was extended to the class of substances socalled as alcohols in modern chemistry after 1850 the term ethanol was invented in 1892 blending ethane with the ol ending of alcohol which was generalized as a libfix the term alcohol originally referred to the primary alcohol ethanol ethyl alcohol which is used as a drug and is the main alcohol present in alcoholic drinks the suffix ol appears in the international union of pure and applied chemistry iupac chemical name of all substances where the hydroxyl group is the functional group with the highest priority when a higher priority group is present in the compound the prefix hydroxy is used in its iupac name the suffix ol in noniupac names such as paracetamol or cholesterol also typically indicates that the substance is an alcohol however some compounds that contain hydroxyl functional groups have trivial names which do not include the suffix ol or the prefix hydroxy eg the sugars glucose and sucrose systematic names iupac nomenclature is used in scientific publications and where precise identification of the substance is important in naming simple alcohols the name of the alkane chain loses the terminal e and adds the suffix ol eg as in ethanol from the alkane chain name ethane when necessary the position of the hydroxyl group is indicated by a number between the alkane name and the ol propan1ol for propan2ol for if a higher priority group is present such as an aldehyde ketone or carboxylic acid then the prefix hydroxyis used eg as in 1hydroxy2propanone compounds having more than one hydroxy group are called polyols they are named using suffixes diol triol etc following a list of the position numbers of the hydroxyl groups as in propane12diol for ch3chohch2oh propylene glycol in cases where the hydroxy group is bonded to an sp2 carbon on an aromatic ring the molecule is classified separately as a phenol and is named using the iupac rules for naming phenols phenols have distinct properties and are not classified as alcohols common names in other less formal contexts an alcohol is often called with the name of the corresponding alkyl group followed by the word alcohol eg methyl alcohol ethyl alcohol propyl alcohol may be npropyl alcohol or isopropyl alcohol depending on whether the hydroxyl group is bonded to the end or middle carbon on the straight propane chain as described under systematic naming if another group on the molecule takes priority the alcohol moiety is often indicated using the hydroxy prefix in archaic nomenclature alcohols can be named as derivatives of methanol using carbinol as the ending for instance can be named trimethylcarbinol primary secondary and tertiary alcohols are then classified into primary secondary sec s and tertiary tert t based upon the number of carbon atoms connected to the carbon atom that bears the hydroxyl functional group the respective numeric shorthands 1 2 and 3 are sometimes used in informal settings the primary alcohols have general formulas the simplest primary alcohol is methanol for which rh and the next is ethanol for which the methyl group secondary alcohols are those of the form rrchoh the simplest of which is 2propanol for the tertiary alcohols the general form is rrrcoh the simplest example is tertbutanol 2methylpropan2ol for which each of r r and r is in these shorthands r r and r represent substituents alkyl or other attached generally organic groups examples applications alcohols have a long history of myriad uses for simple monoalcohols which is the focus on this article the following are most important industrial alcohols methanol mainly for the production of formaldehyde and as a fuel additive ethanol mainly for alcoholic beverages fuel additive solvent 1propanol 1butanol and isobutyl alcohol for use as a solvent and precursor to solvents c6c11 alcohols used for plasticizers eg in polyvinylchloride fatty alcohol c12c18 precursors to detergents methanol is the most common industrial alcohol with about 12 million tonsy produced in 1980 the combined capacity of the other alcohols is about the same distributed roughly equally toxicity with respect to acute toxicity simple alcohols have low acute toxicities doses of several milliliters are tolerated for pentanols hexanols octanols and longer alcohols ld50 range from 25 gkg rats oral ethanol is less acutely toxic all alcohols are mild skin irritants the metabolism of methanol and ethylene glycol is affected by the presence of ethanol which has a higher affinity for liver alcohol dehydrogenase in this way methanol will be excreted intact in urine physical properties in general the hydroxyl group makes alcohols polar those groups can form hydrogen bonds to one another and to most other compounds owing to the presence of the polar oh alcohols are more watersoluble than simple hydrocarbons methanol ethanol and propanol are miscible in water butanol with a fourcarbon chain is moderately soluble because of hydrogen bonding alcohols tend to have higher boiling points than comparable hydrocarbons and ethers the boiling point of the alcohol ethanol is 7829 c compared to 69 c for the hydrocarbon hexane and 346 c for diethyl ether occurrence in nature simple alcohols are found widely in nature ethanol is the most prominent because it is the product of fermentation a major energyproducing pathway other simple alcohols chiefly fusel alcohols are formed in only trace amounts more complex alcohols however are pervasive as manifested in sugars some amino acids and fatty acids production hydroxylation many alcohols are produced by hydroxylation ie the installation of a hydroxy group using oxygen or related oxidant hydroxylation is the means by which the body processes many poisons converting lipophilic compounds into hydrophilic derivatives that are more readily excreted enzymes called hydroxylases and oxidases facilitate these conversions many industrial alcohols such as cyclohexanol for the production of nylon are produced by hydroxylation ziegler and oxo processes in the ziegler process linear alcohols are produced from ethylene and triethylaluminium followed by oxidation and hydrolysis an idealized synthesis of 1octanol is shown alc2h53 9 c2h4 alc8h173 alc8h173 3o 3 h2o 3 hoc8h17 aloh3 the process generates a range of alcohols that are separated by distillation many higher alcohols are produced by hydroformylation of alkenes followed by hydrogenation when applied to a terminal alkene as is common one typically obtains a linear alcohol rchch2 h2 co rch2ch2cho rch2ch2cho 3 h2 rch2ch2ch2oh such processes give fatty alcohols which are useful for detergents hydration reactions some low molecular weight alcohols of industrial importance are produced by the addition of water to alkenes ethanol isopropanol 2butanol and tertbutanol are produced by this general method two implementations are employed the direct and indirect methods the direct method avoids the formation of stable intermediates typically using acid catalysts in the indirect method the alkene is converted to the sulfate ester which is subsequently hydrolyzed the direct hydration using ethylene ethylene hydration or other alkenes from cracking of fractions of distilled crude oil hydration is also used industrially to produce the diol ethylene glycol from ethylene oxide fermentation ethanol is obtained by fermentation of glucose which is often obtained from starch in the presence of yeast carbon dioxide is cogenerated like ethanol butanol can be produced by fermentation processes saccharomyces yeast are known to produce these higher alcohols at temperatures above the bacterium clostridium acetobutylicum can feed on cellulose also an alcohol to produce butanol on an industrial scale substitution primary alkyl halides react with aqueous naoh or koh to alcohols in nucleophilic aliphatic substitution secondary and especially tertiary alkyl halides will give the elimination alkene product instead grignard reagents react with carbonyl groups to secondary and tertiary alcohols related reactions are the barbier reaction and the nozakihiyama reaction reduction aldehydes or ketones are reduced with sodium borohydride or lithium aluminium hydride after an acidic workup another reduction by aluminiumisopropylates is the meerweinponndorfverley reduction noyori asymmetric hydrogenation is the asymmetric reduction of βketoesters hydrolysis alkenes engage in an acid catalysed hydration reaction using concentrated sulfuric acid as a catalyst that gives usually secondary or tertiary alcohols formation of a secondary alcohol via alkene reduction and hydration is shown on the right the hydroborationoxidation and oxymercurationreduction of alkenes are more reliable in organic synthesis alkenes react with nbromosuccinimide and water in halohydrin formation reaction amines can be converted to diazonium salts which are then hydrolyzed reactions deprotonation with aqueous pka values of around 1619 they are in general slightly weaker acids than water with strong bases such as sodium hydride or sodium they form salts called alkoxides with the general formula where r is an alkyl and m is a metal 2 roh 2 nah 2 rona 2 h2 2 roh 2 na 2 rona h2 the acidity of alcohols is strongly affected by solvation in the gas phase alcohols are more acidic than in water in dmso alcohols and water have a pka of around 2932 as a consequence alkoxides and hydroxide are powerful bases and nucleophiles eg for the williamson ether synthesis in this solvent in particular or in dmso can be used to generate significant equilibrium concentrations of acetylide ions through the deprotonation of alkynes see favorskii reaction nucleophilic substitution tertiary alcohols react with hydrochloric acid to produce tertiary alkyl chloride primary and secondary alcohols are converted to the corresponding chlorides using thionyl chloride and various phosphorus chloride reagents primary and secondary alcohols likewise convert to alkyl bromides phosphorus tribromide for example 3 roh pbr3 3 rbr h3po3 in the bartonmccombie deoxygenation an alcohol is deoxygenated to an alkane with tributyltin hydride or a trimethylboranewater complex in a radical substitution reaction dehydration meanwhile the oxygen atom has lone pairs of nonbonded electrons that render it weakly basic in the presence of strong acids such as sulfuric acid for example with methanol upon treatment with strong acids alcohols undergo the e1 elimination reaction to produce alkenes the reaction in general obeys zaitsevs rule which states that the most stable usually the most substituted alkene is formed tertiary alcohols eliminate easily at just above room temperature but primary alcohols require a higher temperature this is a diagram of acid catalysed dehydration of ethanol to produce ethylene a more controlled elimination reaction requires the formation of the xanthate ester protonolysis tertiary alcohols react with strong acids to generate carbocations the reaction is related to their dehydration eg isobutylene from tertbutyl alcohol a special kind of dehydration reaction involves triphenylmethanol and especially its aminesubstituted derivatives when treated with acid these alcohols lose water to give stable carbocations which are commercial dyes esterification alcohol and carboxylic acids react in the socalled fischer esterification the reaction usually requires a catalyst such as concentrated sulfuric acid roh rco2h rco2r h2o other types of ester are prepared in a similar manner for example tosyl tosylate esters are made by reaction of the alcohol with ptoluenesulfonyl chloride in pyridine oxidation primary alcohols can be oxidized either to aldehydes or to carboxylic acids the oxidation of secondary alcohols normally terminates at the ketone stage tertiary alcohols are resistant to oxidation the direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids normally proceeds via the corresponding aldehyde which is transformed via an aldehyde hydrate by reaction with water before it can be further oxidized to the carboxylic acid reagents useful for the transformation of primary alcohols to aldehydes are normally also suitable for the oxidation of secondary alcohols to ketones these include collins reagent and dessmartin periodinane the direct oxidation of primary alcohols to carboxylic acids can be carried out using potassium permanganate or the jones reagent see also enol ethanol fuel fatty alcohol index of alcoholrelated articles list of alcohols lucas test polyol rubbing alcohol sugar alcohol transesterification notes citations general references antiseptics functional groups | 2,548 |
1016 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achill%20Island | Achill Island | achill island is the largest of the irish isles and lies off the west coast of ireland in county mayo it has a population of 2345 its area is achill is attached to the mainland by michael davitt bridge between the villages of achill sound and polranny a bridge was first completed here in 1887 other centres of population include the villages of keel dooagh dooega dooniver and dugort the parishs main gaelic football pitch and secondary school are on the mainland at polranny early human settlements are believed to have been established on achill around 3000 bc the island is 87 peat bog the parish of achill consists of achill island achillbeg inishbiggle and the corraun peninsula roughly half of the island including the villages of achill sound and bunacurry are in the gaeltacht traditional irishspeaking region of ireland although the vast majority of the islands population speaks english as their daily language history it is believed that at the end of the neolithic period around 4000 bc achill had a population of 5001000 people the island would have been mostly forest until the neolithic people began crop cultivation settlement increased during the iron age and the dispersal of small promontory forts around the coast indicate the warlike nature of the times megalithic tombs and forts can be seen at slievemore along the atlantic drive and on achillbeg overlords achill island lies in the barony of burrishoole in the territory of ancient umhall umhall uactarach and umhall ioctarach that originally encompassed an area extending from the county galwaymayo border to achill head the hereditary chieftains of umhall were the omalleys recorded in the area in 814 ad when they successfully repelled an onslaught by the vikings in clew bay the anglonorman invasion of connacht in 1235 ad saw the territory of umhall taken over by the butlers and later by the de burgos the butler lordship of burrishoole continued into the late 14th century when thomas le botiller was recorded as being in possession of akkyll and owyll immigration in the 17th and 18th centuries there was much migration to achill from other parts of ireland particularly ulster due to the political and religious turmoil of the time for a while there were two different dialects of irish being spoken on achill this led to many townlands being recorded as having two names during the 1824 ordnance survey and some maps today give different names for the same place achill irish still has many traces of ulster irish in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries seasonal migration of farm workers to scotland to pick potatoes took place these squads of tattie howkers were known as achill workers although not all were from achill and were organised for potato merchants by gaffers or gangers squads travelled from farm to farm to harvest the crop and were allocated basic accommodation on 15 september 1937 ten young migrant potato pickers from achill died in a fire at kirkintilloch specific historical sites and events grace omalleys castle carrickkildavnet castle is a 15thcentury tower house associated with the omalley clan who were once a ruling family of achill grace o malley or granuaile the most famous of the omalleys was born on clare island around 1530 her father was the chieftain of the barony of murrisk the omalleys were a powerful seafaring family who traded widely grace became a fearless leader and gained fame as a sea captain and pirate she is reputed to have met with queen elizabeth i in 1593 she died around 1603 and is buried in the omalley family tomb on clare island achill mission one of achills most famous historical sites is that of the achill mission or the colony at dugort in 1831 the anglican church of ireland rev edward nangle founded a mission at dugort the mission included schools cottages an orphanage an infirmary and a guesthouse the colony gave rise to mixed assessments particularly during the great famine when charges of souperism were leveled against nangle the provision of food across the achill mission schools which also provided scriptural religious instruction was particularly controversial for almost forty years nangle edited a newspaper called the achill missionary herald and western witness which was printed in achill he expanded his mission into mweelin kilgeever west achill where a school church rectory cottages and a training school were built edwards wife eliza suffered poor health in achill and died in 1852 she is buried with six of the nangle children on the slopes of slievemore in north achill in 1848 at the height of the great famine the achill mission published a prospectus seeking to raise funds for the acquisition of significant additional lands from sir richard odonnell the document gives an overview from the missions perspective of its activities in achill over the previous decade and a half including considerable sectarian unrest in 1851 edward nangle confirmed the purchase of the land which made the achill mission the largest landowner on the island the achill mission began to decline slowly after nangle was moved from achill and closed in the 1880s when edward nangle died in 1883 there were opposing views on his legacy railway in 1894 the westport newport railway line was extended to achill sound the railway station is now a hostel the train provided a great service to achill but it also is said to have fulfilled an ancient prophecy brian rua o cearbhain had prophesied that carts on iron wheels would carry bodies into achill on their first and last journey in 1894 the first train on the achill railway carried the bodies of victims of the clew bay drowning this tragedy occurred when a boat overturned in clew bay drowning thirtytwo young people they had been going to meet the steamer which would take them to scotland for potato picking the kirkintilloch fire in 1937 almost fulfilled the second part of the prophecy when the bodies of ten victims were carried by rail to achill while it was not literally the last train the railway closed just two weeks later these people had died in a fire in a bothy in kirkintilloch this term referred to the temporary accommodation provided for those who went to scotland to pick potatoes a migratory pattern that had been established in the early nineteenth century kildamhnait kildamhnait on the southeast coast of achill is named after st damhnait or dymphna who founded a church there in the 7th century there is also a holy well just outside the graveyard the present church was built in the 1700s and the graveyard contains memorials to the victims of two of achills greatest tragedies the kirchintilloch fire 1937 and the clew bay drowning 1894 the monastery in 1852 dr john machale roman catholic archbishop of tuam purchased land in bunnacurry on which a franciscan monastery was established which for many years provided an education for local children the building of the monastery was marked by a conflict between the protestants of the mission colony and the workers building the monastery the dispute is known in the island folklore as the battle of the stones a notable monk who lived at the monastery for almost thirty years was brother paul carney he wrote a biography of james lynchehaun who rose to either fame or infamy depending on whom you spoke to following his conviction for the 1894 attack on an englishwoman named agnes macdonnell which left her face disfigured and the burning of her home valley house tonatanvally north achill the home was rebuilt and mrs macdonnell died there in 1923 while lynchehaun escaped to the usa after serving 7 years and successfully resisted extradition but spent his last years in scotland where he died brother carneysgreat grandniece patricia byrne write her own account of mrs macdonnell and lynchehaun entitled the veiled woman of achill brother carney also wrote accounts of his lengthy fundraising trips across the us at the start of the 20th century the ruins of this monastery are still to be seen in bunnacurry today valley house the historic valley house is located in tonatanvally the valley near dugort in the northeast of achill island the present building sits on the site of a hunting lodge built by the earl of cavan in the 19th century its notoriety arises from an incident in 1894 in which the then owner an englishwoman mrs agnes mcdonnell was savagely beaten and the house set alight by a local man james lynchehaun lynchehaun had been employed by mcdonnell as her land agent but the two fell out and he was sacked and told to quit his accommodation on her estate a lengthy legal battle ensued with lynchehaun refusing to leave at the time in the 1890s the issue of land ownership in ireland was politically charged after the events at the valley house in 1895 lynchehaun would falsely claim his actions were carried out on behalf of the irish republican brotherhood and motivated by politics he escaped custody after serving seven years and fled to the united states seeking political asylum although michael davitt refused to shake his hand calling lynchehaun a murderer where he successfully defeated legal attempts by the british authorities to have him extradited to face charges arising from the attack and the burning of the valley house agnes mcdonnell suffered terrible injuries from the attack but survived and lived for another 23 years dying in 1923 lynchehaun is said to have returned to achill on two occasions once in disguise as an american tourist and eventually died in girvan scotland in 1937 the valley house is now a hostel and bar the deserted village close by dugort at the base of slievemore mountain lies the deserted village there are approximately 80 ruined houses in the village the houses were built of unmortared stone which means that no cement or mortar was used to hold the stones together each house consisted of just one room and this room was used as a kitchen living room bedroom and even a stable if one looks at the fields around the deserted village and right up the mountain one can see the tracks in the fields of lazy beds which is the way crops like potatoes were grown in achill as in many areas of ireland a system called rundale was used for farming this meant that the land around a village was rented from a landlord this land was then shared by all the villagers to graze their cattle and sheep each family would then have two or three small pieces of land scattered about the village which they used to grow crops for many years people lived in the village and then in 1845 famine struck in achill as it did in the rest of ireland most of the families moved to the nearby village of dooagh which is beside the sea while some others emigrated living beside the sea meant that fish and shellfish could be used for food the village was completely abandoned which is where the name deserted village came from no one has lived in these houses since the time of the famine however the families that moved to dooagh and their descendants continued to use the village as a booley village this means that during the summer season the younger members of the family teenage boys and girls would take the cattle to graze on the hillside and they would stay in the houses of the deserted village this custom continued until the 1940s boolying was also carried out in other areas of achill including annagh on croaghaun mountain and in curraun at ailt kildownet the remains of a similar deserted village can be found this village was deserted in 1855 when the tenants were evicted by the local landlord so the land could be used for cattle grazing the tenants were forced to rent holdings in currane dooega and slievemore others emigrated to america archaeology recent archaeological research suggests the village was occupied yearround at least as early as the 19th century though it is known to have served as a seasonally occupied booley village by the first half of the 20th century a booley village a number of which exist in a ruined state on the island is a village occupied only during part of the year such as a resort community a lake community or as the case on achill a place to live while tending flocks or herds of ruminants during winter or summer pasturing specifically some of the people of dooagh and pollagh would migrate in the summer to slievemore and then go back to dooagh in the autumn the summer 2009 field school excavated round house 2 on slievemore mountain under the direction of archaeologist stuart rathbone only the outside north wall entrance way and inside of the round house were completely excavated from 2004 to 2006 the achill island maritime archaeology project directed by chuck meide was sponsored by the college of william and mary the institute of maritime history the achill folklife centre now the achill archaeology centre and the lighthouse archaeological maritime program lamp this project focused on the documentation of archaeological resources related to achills rich maritime heritage maritime archaeologists recorded a 19thcentury fishing station an ice house boat house ruins a number of anchors which had been salvaged from the sea 19thcentury and more recent currach pens a number of traditional vernacular watercraft including a possibly 100yearold achill yawl and the remains of four historic shipwrecks other places of interest the cliffs of croaghaun on the western end of the island are the third highest sea cliffs in europe but are inaccessible by road near the westernmost point of achill achill head is keem bay keel beach is quite popular with tourists and some locals as a surfing location south of keem beach is moytoge head which with its rounded appearance drops dramatically down to the ocean an old british observation post built during world war i to prevent the germans from landing arms for the irish republican army is still standing on moytoge during the second world war this post was rebuilt by the irish defence forces as a lookout post for the coast watching service wing of the defence forces it operated from 1939 to 1945 the mountain of slievemore 672 m rises dramatically in the north of the island and the atlantic drive along the southwest of the island has some scenic views on the slopes of slievemore there is an abandoned village the deserted village traditionally thought to be a remnant village from an gorta mór the great hunger of 18451849 just west of the deserted village is an old martello tower again built by the british to warn of any possible french invasion during the napoleonic wars the area also boasts an approximately 5000yearold neolithic tomb achillbeg little achill is a small island just off achills southern tip its inhabitants were resettled on achill in the 1960s a plaque to johnny kilbane is situated on achillbeg and was erected to celebrate 100 years since his first championship win the villages of dooniver and askill have picturesque scenery and the cycle route is popular with tourists caisleán ghráinne also known as kildownet castle is a small tower house built in the early 1400s it is located in cloughmore on the south of achill island it is noted for its associations with grace omalley along with the larger rockfleet castle in newport economy while a number of attempts at setting up small industrial units on the island have been made its economy is largely dependent on tourism subventions from achill people working abroad allowed many families to remain living in achill throughout the 19th and 20th centuries in the past fishing was a significant activity but this aspect of the economy is small now at one stage the island was known for its shark fishing basking shark in particular was fished for its valuable shark liver oil there was a big spurt of growth in tourism in the 1960s and 1970s before which life was tough and difficult on the island despite healthy visitor numbers each year the common perception is that tourism in achill has been slowly declining since its heyday currently the largest employers on achill are two hotels religion most people on achill are either roman catholic or anglican church of ireland overview of the churches catholic bunnacurry church saint josephs the valley church only open for certain events dookinella church currane church pollagh church derreens church dooega church belfarsed church achill sound church church of ireland dugort church st thomass church innisbiggle island church other house of prayer achill artists for almost two centuries a number of artists have had a close relationship with achill island including the landscape painter paul henry within the emerging irish free state paul henrys landscapes from achill and other areas reinforced a vision of ireland of communities living in harmony with the land he lived in achill for almost a decade with his wife artist grace henry and while using similar subjectmatter the pair developed very different styles this relationship of artists with achill was particularly intense in the early decades of the twentieth century when eva oflaherty 18741963 became a focal point for artistic networking on the island a network of over 200 artists linked to achill is charted in achill painters an island history and includes painters such as the belgian marie howet the american robert henri the modernist painter mainie jellett and contemporary artist camille souter the 2018 coming home art the great hunger exhibition in partnership with the great hunger museum of quinnipiac university usa featured achills deserted village and the island lazy beds prominently in works by geraldine oreilly and alanna okelly also included was an 1873 painting cottage achill island by alexander williams one of the first artists to open up the island to a wider audience education hedge schools existed in most villages of achill in various periods of history a university was started by the missions to achill in mweelin in the modern age there used to be two secondary schools in achill mc hale college and scoil damhnait however in august 2011 the two schools amalgamated to form coláiste pobail acla for primary education there are eight national schools including bullsmouth ns valley ns bunnacurry ns dookinella ns dooagh ns saula ns achill sound ns and tonragee ns national schools closed down include dooega ns crumpaun ns ashleam ns and currane ns transport rail achill railway station still on the mainland and not on the island was opened by the midland great western railway on 13 may 1895 the terminus of its line from westport via newport and mulranny the station and the line were closed by the great southern railways on 1 october 1937 the great western greenway created during 2010 and 2011 follows the lines route and has proved to be very successful in attracting visitors to achill and the surrounding areas road the r319 road is the main road onto the island bus bus éireanns route 450 operates several times daily to westport and louisburgh from the islands scattered villages bus éireann also provides transport for the areas secondary school children cuisine achill island has several bars cafes and restaurants the islands atlantic location means that seafood including lobster mussels salmon trout and winkles are common meals with a large sheep and cow populations lamb and beef are popular on the island too sport achill has a gaelic football club which competes in the junior championship and division 1e of the mayo league there are also achill rovers which play in the mayo association football league there is a 9hole links golf course on the island outdoor activities can be done through achill outdoor education centre achill islands rugged landscape and the surrounding ocean offers multiple locations for outdoor adventure activities like surfing kitesurfing and sea kayaking fishing and watersports are also common sailing regattas featuring a local vessel type the achill yawl have been popular since the 19th century though most presentday yawls unlike their traditional working boat ancestors have been structurally modified to promote greater speed under sail the islands waters and underwater sites are occasionally visited by scuba divers though achills unpredictable weather generally has precluded a commercially successful recreational diving industry population in 2016 the population was 2594 with 52 claiming they spoke irish on a daily basis outside the education system the islands population has declined from around 6000 before the great famine of the mid19th century demographics the table below reports data on achill islands population taken from discover the islands of ireland alex ritsema collins press 1999 and the census of ireland architecture few inhabited houses date from before the 20th century though there are many examples of abandoned stone structures dating to the 19th century the best known of these earlier can be seen in the deserted village ruins near the graveyard at the foot of slievemore even the houses in this village represent a relatively comfortable class of dwelling as even as recently as a hundred years ago some people still used beehive style houses small circular singleroomed dwellings with a hole in the ceiling to let out smoke many of the oldest inhabited cottages date from the activities of the congested districts board for irelanda body set up around the turn of the 20th century in ireland to improve the welfare of the inhabitants of small villages and towns most of the homes in achill at the time were very small and tightly packed together in villages the cdb subsidised the building of new more spacious though still small by modern standards homes outside of the traditional villages notable people heinrich böll german writer who spent several summers with his family and later lived several months per year on the island charles boycott 18321897 unpopular landowner from whom the term boycott arose nancy corrigan pioneer aviator second female commercial pilot in the us dermot freyer 18831970 writer who opened a hotel on the island paul henry artist stayed on the island for a number of years in the early 1900s james kilbane singer lives on the island johnny kilbane boxer saoirse mchugh former green party politician danny mcnamara musician richard mcnamara musician eva oflaherty nationalist model and milliner thomas patten from dooega died during the siege of madrid in december 1936 honor tracy author lived there until her death in 1989 literature heinrich böll irisches tagebuch berlin 1957 bob kingston the deserted village at slievemore castlebar 1990 theresa mcdonald achill 5000 bc to 1900 ad archeology history folklore ias publications 1992 rosa meehan the story of mayo castlebar 2003 james carney the playboy the yellow lady 1986 poolbeg hugo hamilton the island of talking 2007 kevin barry beatlebone 2015 mealla nī ghiobúin dugort achill island 18311861 the rise and fall of a missionary community 2001 patricia byrne the veiled woman of achill island outrage a playboy drama 2012 mary j murphy achills eva oflaherty forgotten island heroine 2011 patricia byrne the preacher and the prelate the achill mission colony and the battle for souls in famine ireland 2018 mary j murphy achill painters an island history 2020 michael gallagher stick on stone 2013 in popular culture the island is featured throughout the film the banshees of inisherin in various locations on the island including keem bay cloughmore and purteen pier the film my sailor my love features achill island the island is the primary setting of the visual novel if found see also achillbeg innisbiggle list of islands of county mayo references external links colaiste pobail acla students project on the achill area achill island maritime archaeology project visitachill multilingual visitors site islands of county mayo gaeltacht places in county mayo | 3,982 |
1017 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allen%20Ginsberg | Allen Ginsberg | irwin allen ginsberg june 3 1926 april 5 1997 was an american poet and writer as a student at columbia university in the 1940s he began friendships with lucien carr william s burroughs and jack kerouac forming the core of the beat generation he vigorously opposed militarism economic materialism and sexual repression and he embodied various aspects of this counterculture with his views on drugs sex multiculturalism hostility to bureaucracy and openness to eastern religions best known for his poem howl ginsberg denounced what he saw as the destructive forces of capitalism and conformity in the united states san francisco police and us customs seized copies of howl in 1956 and a subsequent obscenity trial in 1957 attracted widespread publicity due to the poems language and descriptions of heterosexual and homosexual sex at a time when sodomy laws made male homosexual acts a crime in every state the poem reflected ginsbergs own sexuality and his relationships with a number of men including peter orlovsky his lifelong partner judge clayton w horn ruled that howl was not obscene asking would there be any freedom of press or speech if one must reduce his vocabulary to vapid innocuous euphemisms ginsberg was a buddhist who extensively studied eastern religious disciplines he lived modestly buying his clothing in secondhand stores and residing in apartments in new york citys east village one of his most influential teachers was tibetan buddhist chögyam trungpa the founder of the naropa institute in boulder colorado at trungpas urging ginsberg and poet anne waldman started the jack kerouac school of disembodied poetics there in 1974 for decades ginsberg was active in political protests across a range of issues from the vietnam war to the war on drugs his poem september on jessore road drew attention to refugees fleeing the 1971 bangladeshi genocide exemplifying what literary critic helen vendler described as ginsbergs persistent opposition to imperial politics and the persecution of the powerless his collection the fall of america shared the annual national book award for poetry in 1974 in 1979 he received the national arts club gold medal and was inducted into the american academy of arts and letters he was a pulitzer prize finalist in 1995 for his book cosmopolitan greetings poems 19861992 biography early life and family ginsberg was born into a jewish family in newark new jersey and grew up in nearby paterson he was the second son of louis ginsberg also born in newark a schoolteacher and published poet and the former naomi levy born in nevel russia and a fervent marxist as a teenager ginsberg began to write letters to the new york times about political issues such as world war ii and workers rights he published his first poems in the paterson morning call while in high school ginsberg became interested in the works of walt whitman inspired by his teachers passionate reading in 1943 ginsberg graduated from eastside high school and briefly attended montclair state college before entering columbia university on a scholarship from the young mens hebrew association of paterson in 1945 he joined the merchant marine to earn money to continue his education at columbia while at columbia ginsberg contributed to the columbia review literary journal the jester humor magazine won the woodberry poetry prize served as president of the philolexian society literary and debate group and joined boars head society poetry society he was a resident of hartley hall where other beat generation poets such as jack kerouac and herbert gold also lived ginsberg has stated that he considered his required freshman seminar in great books taught by lionel trilling to be his favorite columbia course according to the poetry foundation ginsberg spent several months in a mental institution after he pleaded insanity during a hearing he was allegedly being prosecuted for harboring stolen goods in his dorm room it was noted that the stolen property was not his but belonged to an acquaintance ginsberg also took part in public readings at the episcopal st marks church inthebowery which would later hold a memorial service for him after his death relationship with his parents ginsberg referred to his parents in a 1985 interview as oldfashioned delicatessen philosophers his mother was also an active member of the communist party and took ginsberg and his brother eugene to party meetings ginsberg later said that his mother made up bedtime stories that all went something like the good king rode forth from his castle saw the suffering workers and healed them of his father ginsberg said my father would go around the house either reciting emily dickinson and longfellow under his breath or attacking t s eliot for ruining poetry with his obscurantism i grew suspicious of both sides naomi ginsberg had schizophrenia which often manifested as paranoid delusions disordered thinking and multiple suicide attempts she would claim for example that the president had implanted listening devices in their home and that her motherinlaw was trying to kill her her suspicion of those around her caused naomi to draw closer to young allen her little pet as bill morgan says in his biography of ginsberg titled i celebrate myself the somewhat private life of allen ginsberg she also tried to kill herself by slitting her wrists and was soon taken to greystone a mental hospital she would spend much of ginsbergs youth in mental hospitals his experiences with his mother and her mental illness were a major inspiration for his two major works howl and his long autobiographical poem kaddish for naomi ginsberg 18941956 when he was in junior high school he accompanied his mother by bus to her therapist the trip deeply disturbed ginsberghe mentioned it and other moments from his childhood in kaddish his experiences with his mothers mental illness and her institutionalization are also frequently referred to in howl for example pilgrim state rockland and grey stones foetid halls is a reference to institutions frequented by his mother and carl solomon ostensibly the subject of the poem pilgrim state hospital and rockland state hospital in new york and greystone park psychiatric hospital in new jersey this is followed soon by the line with mother finally ginsberg later admitted the deletion was the expletive fucked he also says of solomon in section three im with you in rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother once again showing the association between solomon and his mother ginsberg received a letter from his mother after her death responding to a copy of howl he had sent her it admonished ginsberg to be good and stay away from drugs she says the key is in the window the key is in the sunlight at the windowi have the keyget married allen dont take drugsthe key is in the bars in the sunlight in the window in a letter she wrote to ginsbergs brother eugene she said gods informers come to my bed and god himself i saw in the sky the sunshine showed too a key on the side of the window for me to get out the yellow of the sunshine also showed the key on the side of the window these letters and the absence of a facility to recite kaddish inspired ginsberg to write kaddish which makes references to many details from naomis life ginsbergs experiences with her and the letter including the lines the key is in the light and the key is in the window new york beats in ginsbergs first year at columbia he met fellow undergraduate lucien carr who introduced him to a number of future beat writers including jack kerouac william s burroughs and john clellon holmes they bonded because they saw in one another an excitement about the potential of american youth a potential that existed outside the strict conformist confines of postworld war ii mccarthyera america ginsberg and carr talked excitedly about a new vision a phrase adapted from yeats a vision for literature and america carr also introduced ginsberg to neal cassady for whom ginsberg had a long infatuation in the first chapter of his 1957 novel on the road kerouac described the meeting between ginsberg and cassady kerouac saw them as the dark ginsberg and light cassady side of their new vision a perception stemming partly from ginsbergs association with communism of which kerouac had become increasingly distrustful though ginsberg was never a member of the communist party kerouac named him carlo marx in on the road this was a source of strain in their relationship also in new york ginsberg met gregory corso in the pony stable bar corso recently released from prison was supported by the pony stable patrons and was writing poetry there the night of their meeting ginsberg claims he was immediately attracted to corso who was straight but understood homosexuality after three years in prison ginsberg was even more struck by reading corsos poems realizing corso was spiritually gifted ginsberg introduced corso to the rest of his inner circle in their first meeting at the pony stable corso showed ginsberg a poem about a woman who lived across the street from him and sunbathed naked in the window amazingly the woman happened to be ginsbergs girlfriend that he was living with during one of his forays into heterosexuality ginsberg took corso over to their apartment there the woman proposed sex with corso who was still very young and fled in fear ginsberg introduced corso to kerouac and burroughs and they began to travel together ginsberg and corso remained lifelong friends and collaborators shortly after this period in ginsbergs life he became romantically involved with elise nada cowen after meeting her through alex greer a philosophy professor at barnard college whom she had dated for a while during the burgeoning beat generations period of development as a barnard student elise cowen extensively read the poetry of ezra pound and t s eliot when she met joyce johnson and leo skir among other beat players as cowen had felt a strong attraction to darker poetry most of the time beat poetry seemed to provide an allure to what suggests a shadowy side of her persona while at barnard cowen earned the nickname beat alice as she had joined a small group of antiestablishment artists and visionaries known to outsiders as beatniks and one of her first acquaintances at the college was the beat poet joyce johnson who later portrayed cowen in her books including minor characters and come and join the dance which expressed the two womens experiences in the barnard and columbia beat community through his association with elise cowen ginsberg discovered that they shared a mutual friend carl solomon to whom he later dedicated his most famous poem howl this poem is considered an autobiography of ginsberg up to 1955 and a brief history of the beat generation through its references to his relationship to other beat artists of that time the blake vision in 1948 in an apartment in east harlem ginsberg experienced an auditory hallucination while masturbating and reading the poetry of william blake which he later referred to as his blake vision ginsberg claimed to have heard the voice of godalso described as the voice of the ancient of daysor of blake himself reading ah sunflower the sick rose and the little girl lost the experience lasted several days with him believing that he had witnessed the interconnectedness of the universe ginsberg recounted that after looking at latticework on the fire escape of the apartment and then at the sky he intuited that one had been crafted by human beings while the other had been crafted by itself he explained that this hallucination was not inspired by drug use but said he sought to recapture the feeling of interconnectedness later with various drugs san francisco renaissance ginsberg moved to san francisco during the 1950s before howl and other poems was published in 1956 by city lights he worked as a market researcher in 1954 in san francisco ginsberg met peter orlovsky 19332010 with whom he fell in love and who remained his lifelong partner selections from their correspondence have been published also in san francisco ginsberg met members of the san francisco renaissance james broughton robert duncan madeline gleason and kenneth rexroth and other poets who would later be associated with the beat generation in a broader sense ginsbergs mentor william carlos williams wrote an introductory letter to san francisco renaissance figurehead kenneth rexroth who then introduced ginsberg into the san francisco poetry scene there ginsberg also met three budding poets and zen enthusiasts who had become friends at reed college gary snyder philip whalen and lew welch in 1959 along with poets john kelly bob kaufman a d winans and william margolis ginsberg was one of the founders of the beatitude poetry magazine wally hedricka painter and cofounder of the six galleryapproached ginsberg in mid1955 and asked him to organize a poetry reading at the six gallery at first ginsberg refused but once he had written a rough draft of howl he changed his fucking mind as he put it ginsberg advertised the event as six poets at the six gallery one of the most important events in beat mythos known simply as the six gallery reading took place on october 7 1955 the event in essence brought together the east and west coast factions of the beat generation of more personal significance to ginsberg the reading that night included the first public presentation of howl a poem that brought worldwide fame to ginsberg and to many of the poets associated with him an account of that night can be found in kerouacs novel the dharma bums describing how change was collected from audience members to buy jugs of wine and ginsberg reading passionately drunken with arms outstretched ginsbergs principal work howl is well known for its opening line i saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness starving hysterical naked howl was considered scandalous at the time of its publication because of the rawness of its language shortly after its 1956 publication by san franciscos city lights bookstore it was banned for obscenity the ban became a cause célèbre among defenders of the first amendment and was later lifted after judge clayton w horn declared the poem to possess redeeming artistic value ginsberg and shig murao the city lights manager who was jailed for selling howl became lifelong friends biographical references in howl ginsberg claimed at one point that all of his work was an extended biography like kerouacs duluoz legend howl is not only a biography of ginsbergs experiences before 1955 but also a history of the beat generation ginsberg also later claimed that at the core of howl were his unresolved emotions about his schizophrenic mother though kaddish deals more explicitly with his mother howl in many ways is driven by the same emotions howl chronicles the development of many important friendships throughout ginsbergs life he begins the poem with i saw the best minds of my generation destroyed by madness which sets the stage for ginsberg to describe cassady and solomon immortalizing them into american literature this madness was the angry fix that society needed to functionmadness was its disease in the poem ginsberg focused on carl solomon im with you in rockland and thus turned solomon into an archetypal figure searching for freedom from his straightjacket though references in most of his poetry reveal much about his biography his relationship to other members of the beat generation and his own political views howl his most famous poem is still perhaps the best place to start to paris and the beat hotel tangier and india in 1957 ginsberg surprised the literary world by abandoning san francisco after a spell in morocco he and peter orlovsky joined gregory corso in paris corso introduced them to a shabby lodging house above a bar at 9 rue gîtlecœur that was to become known as the beat hotel they were soon joined by burroughs and others it was a productive creative time for all of them there ginsberg began his epic poem kaddish corso composed bomb and marriage and burroughs with help from ginsberg and corso put together naked lunch from previous writings this period was documented by the photographer harold chapman who moved in at about the same time and took pictures constantly of the residents of the hotel until it closed in 1963 during 19621963 ginsberg and orlovsky travelled extensively across india living half a year at a time in calcutta now kolkata and benares varanasi on his road to india he stayed two months in athens august 29 1961 october 31 1961 where he visited various cites such as delphi mycines crete and then he continued his journey to israel kenya and finally india also during this time he formed friendships with some of the prominent young bengali poets of the time including shakti chattopadhyay and sunil gangopadhyay ginsberg had several political connections in india most notably pupul jayakar who helped him extend his stay in india when the authorities were eager to expel him england and the international poetry incarnation in may 1965 ginsberg arrived in london and offered to read anywhere for free shortly after his arrival he gave a reading at better books which was described by jeff nuttall as the first healing wind on a very parched collective mind tom mcgrath wrote this could well turn out to have been a very significant moment in the history of englandor at least in the history of english poetry soon after the bookshop reading plans were hatched for the international poetry incarnation which was held at the royal albert hall in london on june 11 1965 the event attracted an audience of 7000 who heard readings and live and tape performances by a wide variety of figures including ginsberg adrian mitchell alexander trocchi harry fainlight anselm hollo christopher logue george macbeth gregory corso lawrence ferlinghetti michael horovitz simon vinkenoog spike hawkins and tom mcgrath the event was organized by ginsbergs friend the filmmaker barbara rubin peter whitehead documented the event on film and released it as wholly communion a book featuring images from the film and some of the poems that were performed was also published under the same title by lorrimer in the uk and grove press in us continuing literary activity though the term beat is most accurately applied to ginsberg and his closest friends corso orlovsky kerouac burroughs etc the term beat generation has become associated with many of the other poets ginsberg met and became friends with in the late 1950s and early 1960s a key feature of this term seems to be a friendship with ginsberg friendship with kerouac or burroughs might also apply but both writers later strove to disassociate themselves from the name beat generation part of their dissatisfaction with the term came from the mistaken identification of ginsberg as the leader ginsberg never claimed to be the leader of a movement he claimed that many of the writers with whom he had become friends in this period shared many of the same intentions and themes some of these friends include david amram bob kaufman diane di prima jim cohn poets associated with the black mountain college such as charles olson robert creeley and denise levertov poets associated with the new york school such as frank ohara and kenneth koch leroi jones before he became amiri baraka who after reading howl wrote a letter to ginsberg on a sheet of toilet paper barakas independent publishing house totem press published ginsbergs early work through a party organized by baraka ginsberg was introduced to langston hughes while ornette coleman played saxophone later in his life ginsberg formed a bridge between the beat movement of the 1950s and the hippies of the 1960s befriending among others timothy leary ken kesey hunter s thompson and bob dylan ginsberg gave his last public reading at booksmith a bookstore in the haightashbury neighborhood of san francisco a few months before his death in 1993 ginsberg visited the university of maine at orono to pay homage to the 90yearold great carl rakosi buddhism and krishna in 1950 kerouac began studying buddhism and shared what he learned from dwight goddards buddhist bible with ginsberg ginsberg first heard about the four noble truths and such sutras as the diamond sutra at this time ginsbergs spiritual journey began early on with his spontaneous visions and continued with an early trip to india with gary snyder snyder had previously spent time in kyoto to study at the first zen institute at daitokuji monastery at one point snyder chanted the prajnaparamita which in ginsbergs words blew my mind his interest piqued ginsberg traveled to meet the dalai lama as well as the karmapa at rumtek monastery continuing on his journey ginsberg met dudjom rinpoche in kalimpong who taught him if you see something horrible dont cling to it and if you see something beautiful dont cling to it after returning to the united states a chance encounter on a new york city street with chögyam trungpa rinpoche they both tried to catch the same cab a kagyu and nyingma tibetan buddhist master led to trungpa becoming his friend and lifelong teacher ginsberg helped trungpa and new york poet anne waldman in founding the jack kerouac school of disembodied poetics at naropa university in boulder colorado ginsberg was also involved with krishnaism he had started incorporating chanting the hare krishna mantra into his religious practice in the mid1960s after learning that a c bhaktivedanta swami prabhupada the founder of the hare krishna movement in the western world had rented a store front in new york he befriended him visiting him often and suggesting publishers for his books and a fruitful relationship began this relationship is documented by satsvarupa dasa goswami in his biographical account srila prabhupada lilamrta ginsberg donated money materials and his reputation to help the swami establish the first temple and toured with him to promote his cause despite disagreeing with many of bhaktivedanta swamis required prohibitions ginsberg often sang the hare krishna mantra publicly as part of his philosophy and declared that it brought a state of ecstasy he was glad that bhaktivedanta swami an authentic swami from india was now trying to spread the chanting in america along with other counterculture ideologists like timothy leary gary snyder and alan watts ginsberg hoped to incorporate bhaktivedanta swami and his chanting into the hippie movement and agreed to take part in the mantrarock dance concert and to introduce the swami to the haightashbury hippie community on january 17 1967 ginsberg helped plan and organize a reception for bhaktivedanta swami at san francisco international airport where fifty to a hundred hippies greeted the swami chanting hare krishna in the airport lounge with flowers in hands to further support and promote bhaktivendata swamis message and chanting in san francisco allen ginsberg agreed to attend the mantrarock dance a musical event 1967 held at the avalon ballroom by the san francisco hare krishna temple it featured some leading rock bands of the time big brother and the holding company with janis joplin the grateful dead and moby grape who performed there along with the hare krishna founder bhaktivedanta swami and donated proceeds to the krishna temple ginsberg introduced bhaktivedanta swami to some three thousand hippies in the audience and led the chanting of the hare krishna mantra music and chanting were both important parts of ginsbergs live delivery during poetry readings he often accompanied himself on a harmonium and was often accompanied by a guitarist it is believed that the hindi and buddhist poet nagarjun had introduced ginsberg to the harmonium in banaras according to malay roy choudhury ginsberg refined his practice while learning from his relatives including his cousin savitri banerjee when ginsberg asked if he could sing a song in praise of lord krishna on william f buckley jrs tv show firing line on september 3 1968 buckley acceded and the poet chanted slowly as he played dolefully on a harmonium according to richard brookhiser an associate of buckleys the host commented that it was the most unharried krishna ive ever heard at the 1967 human bein in san franciscos golden gate park the 1968 democratic national convention in chicago and the 1970 black panther rally at yale campus allen chanted om repeatedly over a sound system for hours on end ginsberg further brought mantras into the world of rock and roll when he recited the heart sutra in the song ghetto defendant the song appears on the 1982 album combat rock by british first wave punk band the clash ginsberg came in touch with the hungryalist poets of bengal especially malay roy choudhury who introduced ginsberg to the three fish with one head of indian emperor jalaluddin mohammad akbar the three fish symbolised coexistence of all thought philosophy and religion in spite of ginsbergs attraction to eastern religions the journalist jane kramer argues that he like whitman adhered to an american brand of mysticism that was rooted in humanism and in a romantic and visionary ideal of harmony among men the allen ginsberg estate and jewel heart international partnered to present transforming minds kyabje gelek rimpoche and friends a gallery and online exhibition of images of gelek rimpoche by allen ginsberg a student with whom he had an indissoluble bond in 2021 at tibet house us in new york city fifty negatives from ginsbergs stanford university photo archive celebrated the unique relationship between allen and rimpoche the selection of neverbefore presented images featuring great tibetan masters including the dalai lama tibetologists and students were guided by allens extensive notes on the contact sheets and images hed circled with the intention to print illness and death in 1960 he was treated for a tropical disease and it is speculated that he contracted hepatitis from an unsterilized needle administered by a doctor which played a role in his death 37 years later ginsberg was a lifelong smoker and though he tried to quit for health and religious reasons his busy schedule in later life made it difficult and he always returned to smoking in the 1970s ginsberg had two minor strokes which were first diagnosed as bells palsy which gave him significant paralysis and strokelike drooping of the muscles in one side of his face later in life he also had constant minor ailments such as high blood pressure many of these symptoms were related to stress but he never slowed down his schedule ginsberg won a 1974 national book award for the fall of america split with adrienne rich diving into the wreck in 1986 ginsberg was awarded the golden wreath by the struga poetry evenings international festival in macedonia the second american poet to be so awarded since w h auden at struga ginsberg met with the other golden wreath winners bulat okudzhava and andrei voznesensky in 1989 ginsberg appeared in rosa von praunheims awardwinning film silence death about the fight of gay artists in new york city for aidseducation and the rights of hiv infected people in 1993 the french minister of culture appointed ginsberg a chevalier des arts et des lettres ginsberg continued to help his friends as much as he could he gave money to herbert huncke out of his own pocket regularly supplied neighbor arthur russell with an extension cord to power his home recording setup and housed a broke drugaddicted harry smith with the exception of a special guest appearance at the nyu poetry slam on february 20 1997 ginsberg gave what is thought to be his last reading at the booksmith in san francisco on december 16 1996 after returning home from the hospital for the last time where he had been unsuccessfully treated for congestive heart failure ginsberg continued making phone calls to say goodbye to nearly everyone in his address book some of the phone calls were sad and interrupted by crying and others were joyous and optimistic ginsberg continued to write through his final illness with his last poem things ill not do nostalgias written on march 30 he died on april 5 1997 surrounded by family and friends in his east village loft in manhattan succumbing to liver cancer via complications of hepatitis at the age of 70 gregory corso roy lichtenstein patti smith and others came by to pay their respects he was cremated and his ashes were buried in his family plot in gomel chesed cemetery in newark he was survived by orlovsky in 1998 various writers including catfish mcdaris read at a gathering at ginsbergs farm to honor allen and the beats good will hunting released in december 1997 was dedicated to ginsberg as well as burroughs who died four months later social and political activism free speech ginsbergs willingness to talk about taboo subjects made him a controversial figure during the conservative 1950s and a significant figure in the 1960s in the mid1950s no reputable publishing company would even consider publishing howl at the time such sex talk employed in howl was considered by some to be vulgar or even a form of pornography and could be prosecuted under law ginsberg used phrases such as cocksucker fucked in the ass and cunt as part of the poems depiction of different aspects of american culture numerous books that discussed sex were banned at the time including lady chatterleys lover the sex that ginsberg described did not portray the sex between heterosexual married couples or even longtime lovers instead ginsberg portrayed casual sex for example in howl ginsberg praises the man who sweetened the snatches of a million girls ginsberg used gritty descriptions and explicit sexual language pointing out the man who lounged hungry and lonesome through houston seeking jazz or sex or soup in his poetry ginsberg also discussed the thentaboo topic of homosexuality the explicit sexual language that filled howl eventually led to an important trial on first amendment issues ginsbergs publisher was brought up on charges for publishing pornography and the outcome led to a judge going on record dismissing charges because the poem carried redeeming social importance thus setting an important legal precedent ginsberg continued to broach controversial subjects throughout the 1970s 1980s and 1990s from 1970 to 1996 ginsberg had a longterm affiliation with pen american center with efforts to defend free expression when explaining how he approached controversial topics he often pointed to herbert huncke he said that when he first got to know huncke in the 1940s ginsberg saw that he was sick from his heroin addiction but at the time heroin was a taboo subject and huncke was left with nowhere to go for help role in vietnam war protests ginsberg was a signer of the antiwar manifesto a call to resist illegitimate authority circulated among draft resistors in 1967 by members of the radical intellectual collective resist other signers and resist members included mitchell goodman henry braun denise levertov noam chomsky william sloane coffin dwight macdonald robert lowell and norman mailer in 1968 ginsberg signed the writers and editors war tax protest pledge vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the vietnam war and later became a sponsor of the war tax resistance project which practiced and advocated tax resistance as a form of antiwar protest he was present the night of the tompkins square park riot 1988 and provided an eyewitness account to the new york times relationship to communism ginsberg talked openly about his connections with communism and his admiration for past communist heroes and the labor movement at a time when the red scare and mccarthyism were still raging he admired fidel castro and many other marxist figures from the 20th century in america 1956 ginsberg writes america i used to be a communist when i was a kid im not sorry biographer jonah raskin has claimed that despite his often stark opposition to communist orthodoxy ginsberg held his own idiosyncratic version of communism on the other hand when donald manes a new york city politician publicly accused ginsberg of being a member of the communist party ginsberg objected i am not as a matter of fact a member of the communist party nor am i dedicated to the overthrow of the us government or any government by violence i must say that i see little difference between the armed and violent governments both communist and capitalist that i have observed ginsberg travelled to several communist countries to promote free speech he claimed that communist countries such as china welcomed him because they thought he was an enemy of capitalism but often turned against him when they saw him as a troublemaker for example in 1965 ginsberg was deported from cuba for publicly protesting the persecution of homosexuals the cubans sent him to czechoslovakia where one week after being named the král majálesu king of may a students festivity celebrating spring and student life ginsberg was arrested for alleged drug use and public drunkenness and the security agency stb confiscated several of his writings which they considered to be lewd and morally dangerous ginsberg was then deported from czechoslovakia on may 7 1965 by order of the stb václav havel points to ginsberg as an important inspiration gay rights one contribution that is often considered his most significant and most controversial was his openness about homosexuality ginsberg was an early proponent of freedom for gay people in 1943 he discovered within himself mountains of homosexuality he expressed this desire openly and graphically in his poetry he also struck a note for gay marriage by listing peter orlovsky his lifelong companion as his spouse in his whos who entry subsequent gay writers saw his frank talk about homosexuality as an opening to speak more openly and honestly about something often before only hinted at or spoken of in metaphor in writing about sexuality in graphic detail and in his frequent use of language seen as indecent he challengedand ultimately changedobscenity laws he was a staunch supporter of others whose expression challenged obscenity laws william s burroughs and lenny bruce for example association with nambla ginsberg was a supporter and member of the north american manboy love association nambla a pedophilia and pederasty advocacy organization in the united states that works to abolish age of consent laws and legalize sexual relations between adults and children saying that he joined the organization in defense of free speech ginsberg stated attacks on nambla stink of politics witchhunting for profit humorlessness vanity anger and ignorance im a member of nambla because i love boys tooeverybody does who has a little humanity in 1994 ginsberg appeared in a documentary on nambla called chicken hawk men who love boys playing on the gay male slang term chickenhawk in which he read a graphic ode to youth he read his poem sweet boy gimme yr ass from the book mind breaths in her 2002 book heartbreak andrea dworkin claimed ginsberg had ulterior motives for allying with nambla in reference to his onetime friend dworkin ginsberg stated demystification of drugs ginsberg talked often about drug use he organized the new york city chapter of lemar legalize marijuana throughout the 1960s he took an active role in the demystification of lsd and with timothy leary worked to promote its common use he remained for many decades an advocate of marijuana legalization and at the same time warned his audiences against the hazards of tobacco in his put down your cigarette rag dont smoke dont smoke dont smoke nicotine nicotine no no dont smoke the official dope smoke dope dope cia drug trafficking ginsberg worked closely with alfred w mccoy on the latters book the politics of heroin in southeast asia which claimed that the cia was knowingly involved in the production of heroin in the golden triangle of burma thailand and laos in addition to working with mccoy ginsberg personally confronted richard helms the director of the cia in the 1970s about the matter but helms denied that the cia had anything to do with selling illegal drugs ginsberg wrote many essays and articles researching and compiling evidence of the cias alleged involvement in drug trafficking but it took ten years and the publication of mccoys book in 1972 before anyone took him seriously in 1978 ginsberg received a note from the chief editor of the new york times apologizing for not having taken his allegations seriously the political subject is dealt with in his songpoem cia dope calypso the united states department of state responded to mccoys initial allegations stating that they were unable to find any evidence to substantiate them much less proof subsequent investigations by the inspector general of the cia united states house committee on foreign affairs and united states senate select committee to study governmental operations with respect to intelligence activities aka the church committee also found the charges to be unsubstantiated work most of ginsbergs very early poetry was written in formal rhyme and meter like that of his father and of his idol william blake his admiration for the writing of jack kerouac inspired him to take poetry more seriously in 1955 upon the advice of a psychiatrist ginsberg dropped out of the working world to devote his entire life to poetry soon after he wrote howl the poem that brought him and his beat generation contemporaries to national attention and allowed him to live as a professional poet for the rest of his life later in life ginsberg entered academia teaching poetry as distinguished professor of english at brooklyn college from 1986 until his death inspiration from friends ginsberg claimed throughout his life that his biggest inspiration was kerouacs concept of spontaneous prose he believed literature should come from the soul without conscious restrictions ginsberg was much more prone to revise than kerouac for example when kerouac saw the first draft of howl he disliked the fact that ginsberg had made editorial changes in pencil transposing negro and angry in the first line for example kerouac only wrote out his concepts of spontaneous prose at ginsbergs insistence because ginsberg wanted to learn how to apply the technique to his poetry the inspiration for howl was ginsbergs friend carl solomon and howl is dedicated to him solomon was a dada and surrealism enthusiast he introduced ginsberg to artaud who had bouts of clinical depression solomon wanted to commit suicide but he thought a form of suicide appropriate to dadaism would be to go to a mental institution and demand a lobotomy the institution refused giving him many forms of therapy including electroshock therapy much of the final section of the first part of howl is a description of this ginsberg used solomon as an example of all those ground down by the machine of moloch moloch to whom the second section is addressed is a levantine god to whom children were sacrificed ginsberg may have gotten the name from the kenneth rexroth poem thou shalt not kill a poem about the death of one of ginsbergs heroes dylan thomas moloch is mentioned a few times in the torah and references to ginsbergs jewish background are frequent in his work ginsberg said the image of moloch was inspired by peyote visions he had of the francis drake hotel in san francisco which appeared to him as a skull he took it as a symbol of the city not specifically san francisco but all cities ginsberg later acknowledged in various publications and interviews that behind the visions of the francis drake hotel were memories of the moloch of fritz langs film metropolis 1927 and of the woodcut novels of lynd ward moloch has subsequently been interpreted as any system of control including the conformist society of postworld war ii america focused on material gain which ginsberg frequently blamed for the destruction of all those outside of societal norms he also made sure to emphasize that moloch is a part of humanity in multiple aspects in that the decision to defy socially created systems of controland therefore go against molochis a form of selfdestruction many of the characters ginsberg references in howl such as neal cassady and herbert huncke destroyed themselves through excessive substance abuse or a generally wild lifestyle the personal aspects of howl are perhaps as important as the political aspects carl solomon the prime example of a best mind destroyed by defying society is associated with ginsbergs schizophrenic mother the line with mother finally fucked comes after a long section about carl solomon and in part iii ginsberg says im with you in rockland where you imitate the shade of my mother ginsberg later admitted that the drive to write howl was fueled by sympathy for his ailing mother an issue which he was not yet ready to deal with directly he dealt with it directly with 1959s kaddish which had its first public reading at a catholic worker friday night meeting possibly due to its associations with thomas merton inspiration from mentors and idols ginsbergs poetry was strongly influenced by modernism most importantly the american style of modernism pioneered by william carlos williams romanticism specifically william blake and john keats the beat and cadence of jazz specifically that of bop musicians such as charlie parker and his kagyu buddhist practice and jewish background he considered himself to have inherited the visionary poetic mantle handed down from the english poet and artist william blake the american poet walt whitman and the spanish poet federico garcía lorca the power of ginsbergs verse its searching probing focus its long and lilting lines as well as its new world exuberance all echo the continuity of inspiration that he claimed he corresponded with william carlos williams who was then in the middle of writing his epic poem paterson about the industrial city near his home after attending a reading by williams ginsberg sent the older poet several of his poems and wrote an introductory letter most of these early poems were rhymed and metered and included archaic pronouns like thee williams disliked the poems and told ginsberg in this mode perfection is basic and these poems are not perfect though he disliked these early poems williams loved the exuberance in ginsbergs letter he included the letter in a later part of paterson he encouraged ginsberg not to emulate the old masters but to speak with his own voice and the voice of the common american from williams ginsberg learned to focus on strong visual images in line with williams own motto no ideas but in things studying williams style led to a tremendous shift from the early formalist work to a loose colloquial free verse style early breakthrough poems include bricklayers lunch hour and dream record carl solomon introduced ginsberg to the work of antonin artaud to have done with the judgement of god and van gogh the man suicided by society and jean genet our lady of the flowers philip lamantia introduced him to other surrealists and surrealism continued to be an influence for example sections of kaddish were inspired by andré bretons free union ginsberg claimed that the anaphoric repetition of howl and other poems was inspired by christopher smart in such poems as jubilate agno ginsberg also claimed other more traditional influences such as franz kafka herman melville fyodor dostoevsky edgar allan poe and emily dickinson ginsberg also made an intense study of haiku and the paintings of paul cézanne from which he adapted a concept important to his work which he called the eyeball kick he noticed in viewing cézannes paintings that when the eye moved from one color to a contrasting color the eye would spasm or kick likewise he discovered that the contrast of two seeming opposites was a common feature in haiku ginsberg used this technique in his poetry putting together two starkly dissimilar images something weak with something strong an artifact of high culture with an artifact of low culture something holy with something unholy the example ginsberg most often used was hydrogen jukebox which later became the title of a song cycle composed by philip glass with lyrics drawn from ginsbergs poems another example is ginsbergs observation on bob dylan during dylans hectic and intense 1966 electricguitar tour fueled by a cocktail of amphetamines opiates alcohol and psychedelics as a dexedrine clown the phrases eyeball kick and hydrogen jukebox both show up in howl as well as a direct quote from cézanne pater omnipotens aeterna deus inspiration from music allen ginsberg also found inspiration in music he frequently included music in his poetry invariably composing his tunes on an old indian harmonium which he often played during his readings he wrote and recorded music to accompany william blakes songs of innocence and songs of experience he also recorded a handful of other albums to create music for howl and wichita vortex sutra he worked with the minimalist composer philip glass ginsberg worked with drew inspiration from and inspired artists such as bob dylan the clash patti smith phil ochs and the fugs he worked with dylan on various projects and maintained a friendship with him over many years in 1981 ginsberg recorded a song called birdbrain he was backed by the gluons and the track was released as a single in 1996 he recorded a song cowritten with paul mccartney and philip glass the ballad of the skeletons which reached number 8 on the triple j hottest 100 for that year style and technique from the study of his idols and mentors and the inspiration of his friendsnot to mention his own experimentsginsberg developed an individualistic style thats easily identified as ginsbergian ginsberg stated that whitmans long line was a dynamic technique few other poets had ventured to develop further and whitman is also often compared to ginsberg because their poetry sexualized aspects of the male form many of ginsbergs early long line experiments contain some sort of anaphora repetition of a fixed base for example who in howl america in america and this has become a recognizable feature of ginsbergs style he said later this was a crutch because he lacked confidence he did not yet trust free flight in the 1960s after employing it in some sections of kaddish caw for example he for the most part abandoned the anaphoric form latterday beat bob dylan is known for using anaphora as in tangled up in blue where the phrase returned to at the end of every verse takes the place of a chorus several of his earlier experiments with methods for formatting poems as a whole became regular aspects of his style in later poems in the original draft of howl each line is in a stepped triadic format reminiscent of william carlos williams he abandoned the stepped triadic when he developed his long line although the stepped lines showed up later most significantly in the travelogues of the fall of america howl and kaddish arguably his two most important poems are both organized as an inverted pyramid with larger sections leading to smaller sections in america he also experimented with a mix of longer and shorter lines ginsbergs mature style made use of many specific highly developed techniques which he expressed in the poetic slogans he used in his naropa teaching prominent among these was the inclusion of his unedited mental associations so as to reveal the mind at work first thought best thought mind is shapely thought is shapely he preferred expression through carefully observed physical details rather than abstract statements show dont tell no ideas but in things in these he carried on and developed traditions of modernism in writing that are also found in kerouac and whitman in howl and in his other poetry ginsberg drew inspiration from the epic free verse style of the 19thcentury american poet walt whitman both wrote passionately about the promise and betrayal of american democracy the central importance of erotic experience and the spiritual quest for the truth of everyday existence j d mcclatchy editor of the yale review called ginsberg the bestknown american poet of his generation as much a social force as a literary phenomenon mcclatchy added that ginsberg like whitman was a bard in the old manneroutsized darkly prophetic part exuberance part prayer part rant his work is finally a history of our eras psyche with all its contradictory urges mcclatchys barbed eulogies define the essential difference between ginsberg a beat poet whose writing was journalism raised by combining the recycling genius with a generous mimicempathy to strike audienceaccessible chords always lyrical and sometimes truly poetic and kerouac a poet of singular brilliance the brightest luminary of a beat generation he came to symbolise in popular culture though in reality he far surpassed his contemporaries kerouac is an originating genius exploring then answeringlike rimbaud a century earlier by necessity more than by choicethe demands of authentic selfexpression as applied to the evolving quicksilver mind of americas only literary virtuoso bibliography howl and other poems 1956 kaddish and other poems 1961 empty mirror early poems 1961 reality sandwiches 1963 the yage letters 1963with william s burroughs planet news 1968 indian journals 1970 first blues rags ballads harmonium songs 1971 1974 1975 the gates of wrath rhymed poems 19481951 1972 the fall of america poems of these states 1973 iron horse 1973 allen verbatim lectures on poetry politics consciousness by allen ginsberg 1974 edited by gordon ball sad dust glories poems during work summer in woods 1975 mind breaths 1978 plutonian ode poems 19771980 1981 collected poems 19471980 1984 republished with later material added as collected poems 19471997 new york harpercollins 2006 white shroud poems 19801985 1986 cosmopolitan greetings poems 19861993 1994 howl annotated 1995 illuminated poems 1996 selected poems 19471995 1996 death and fame poems 19931997 1999 deliberate prose 19521995 2000 howl other poems 50th anniversary edition 2006 the book of martyrdom and artifice first journals and poems 19371952 da capo press 2006 the selected letters of allen ginsberg and gary snyder counterpoint 2009 i greet you at the beginning of a great career the selected correspondence of lawrence ferlinghetti and allen ginsberg 19551997 city lights 2015 the best minds of my generation a literary history of the beats grove press 2017 honors his collection the fall of america shared the annual us national book award for poetry in 1974 in 1979 he received the national arts club gold medal and was inducted into the american academy and institute of arts and letters ginsberg was a pulitzer prize finalist in 1995 for his book cosmopolitan greetings poems 19861992 in 1993 he received a john jay award posthumously from columbia in 2014 ginsberg was one of the inaugural honorees in the rainbow honor walk a walk of fame in san franciscos castro neighborhood noting lgbtq people who have made significant contributions in their fields see also the life and times of allen ginsberg film categoryworks by allen ginsberg allen ginsberg live in london hungry generation howl 2010 film lgbt culture in new york city list of lgbt people from new york city central park bein trevor carolan counterculture of the 1960s burroughs the movie by howard brookner list of peace activists kill your darlings jewish buddhist american poetry notes references resources the allen ginsberg papers 19371994 1330 linear ft are housed in the department of special collections and university archives at stanford university libraries further reading boer charles charles olson in connecticut north carolina wesleyan college press 1991 1975 bullough vern l before stonewall activists for gay and lesbian rights in historical context harrington park press 2002 pp 304311 charters ann ed the portable beat reader penguin books new york 1992 hc pbk clark thomas allen ginsberg writers at workthe paris review interviews 31 1968 pp 279320 collins ronald skover david mania the story of the outraged outrageous lives that launched a cultural revolution topfive books march 2013 gifford barry ed as ever the collected letters of allen ginsberg neal cassady berkeley creative arts books 1977 ginsberg allen travels with ginsberg a postcard book san francisco city lights 2002 hrebeniak michael action writing jack kerouacs wild form carbondale il southern illinois up 2006 kashner sam when i was cool my life at the jack kerouac school new york harpercollins perennial 2005 podhoretz norman at war with allen ginsberg in exfriends free press 1999 2256 mcbride dick cometh with clouds memory allen ginsberg cherry valley editions 1982 morgan bill ed i greet you at the beginning of a great career the selected correspondence of lawrence ferlinghetti and allen ginsberg 19551997 san francisco city lights publishers 2015 schumacher michael ed family business selected letters between a father and son bloomsbury 2002 paperback 448 pages schumacher michael dharma lion a biography of allen ginsberg new york st martins press 1994 trigilio tony allen ginsbergs buddhist poetics carbondale il southern illinois university press 2007 trigilio tony strange prophecies anew rereading apocalypse in blake hd and ginsberg madison nj fairleigh dickinson university press 2000 tytell john naked angels kerouac ginsberg burroughs chicago ivan r dee 1976 warner simon ed howl for now a 50th anniversary celebration of allen ginsbergs epic protest poem west yorkshire uk route 2005 paperback 144 pages warner simon raising the consciousness revisiting allen ginsbergs 1965 trip to liverpool chapter in centre of the creative universe liverpool and the avant garde edited by christoph grunenberg and robert knifton liverpool chicago liverpool university press chicago university press 2007 pbk hc young allen gay sunshine interview with allen ginsberg grey fox press 1974 first thought is best thought an interview with allen ginsberg in scottish international volume 6 september 1973 pp 1823 external links archives george dowden papers on the allen ginsberg bibliography 19661971 at rare book and manuscripts library columbia university libraries materials related to allen ginsberg in the robert a wilson collection at special collections university of delaware library allen ginsberg papers at special collections and university archives stanford libraries audio recordings and interviews audio recordings of allen ginsberg from the woodberry poetry room harvard university audio recordings of allen ginsberg from maryland institute college of arts decker library internet archive modern american poetry interview other links the allen ginsberg trust case histories allen ginsberg at penorg honoring ginsbergs work from pen american center allen ginsberg on poetsorg with audio clips poems and related essays from the academy of american poets after 50 years ginsbergs howl still resonates npr october 27 2006 allen ginsberg photographs with handwritten captions at lensculture autobiographical article in shambhala sun magazine fbi agents were warned against interviewing allen ginsberg fearing it would result in embarrassment from muckrockcom allen ginsberg materials in beat visions and the counterculture online exhibition at special collections university of delaware library 1926 births 1997 deaths 20thcentury american male writers 20thcentury american poets 20thcentury buddhists activists from new york state american antinuclear weapons activists american antivietnam war activists american cannabis activists american expatriates in france american gay writers american lgbt poets american lgbt rights activists american male poets american pacifists american people of russianjewish descent american psychedelic drug advocates american sailors american spoken word artists american tax resisters beat generation poets brooklyn college faculty columbia college new york alumni converts to buddhism deaths from cancer in new york state deaths from liver cancer eastside high school paterson new jersey alumni englishlanguage haiku poets free speech activists gay academics gay poets harmonium players industrial workers of the world members jewish american military personnel jewish american poets lgbt buddhists lgbt jews lgbt people from colorado lgbt people from new jersey lgbt people from new york state locust music artists military personnel from new jersey montclair state university alumni national book award winners obscenity controversies in literature outlaw poets pedophile advocacy pedophilia in the united states writers from greenwich village writers from the east village manhattan poets from new jersey postmodern writers struga poetry evenings golden wreath laureates tibetan buddhists from the united states transatlantic records artists united states merchant mariners of world war ii writers from boulder colorado writers from newark new jersey writers from paterson new jersey yippies national arts club medal of honor recipients | 9,351 |
1018 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraically%20closed%20field | Algebraically closed field | in mathematics a field is algebraically closed if every nonconstant polynomial in the univariate polynomial ring with coefficients in has a root in examples as an example the field of real numbers is not algebraically closed because the polynomial equation has no solution in real numbers even though all its coefficients 1 and 0 are real the same argument proves that no subfield of the real field is algebraically closed in particular the field of rational numbers is not algebraically closed by contrast the fundamental theorem of algebra states that the field of complex numbers is algebraically closed another example of an algebraically closed field is the field of complex algebraic numbers no finite field f is algebraically closed because if a1 a2 an are the elements of f then the polynomial x a1x a2 x an 1 has no zero in f however the union of all finite fields of a fixed characteristic p is an algebraically closed field which is in fact the algebraic closure of the field with p elements equivalent properties given a field f the assertion f is algebraically closed is equivalent to other assertions the only irreducible polynomials are those of degree one the field f is algebraically closed if and only if the only irreducible polynomials in the polynomial ring fx are those of degree one the assertion the polynomials of degree one are irreducible is trivially true for any field if f is algebraically closed and px is an irreducible polynomial of fx then it has some root a and therefore px is a multiple of x a since px is irreducible this means that px kx a for some k f 0 on the other hand if f is not algebraically closed then there is some nonconstant polynomial px in fx without roots in f let qx be some irreducible factor of px since px has no roots in f qx also has no roots in f therefore qx has degree greater than one since every first degree polynomial has one root in f every polynomial is a product of first degree polynomials the field f is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial px of degree n 1 with coefficients in f splits into linear factors in other words there are elements k x1 x2 xn of the field f such that px kx x1x x2 x xn if f has this property then clearly every nonconstant polynomial in fx has some root in f in other words f is algebraically closed on the other hand that the property stated here holds for f if f is algebraically closed follows from the previous property together with the fact that for any field k any polynomial in kx can be written as a product of irreducible polynomials polynomials of prime degree have roots if every polynomial over f of prime degree has a root in f then every nonconstant polynomial has a root in f it follows that a field is algebraically closed if and only if every polynomial over f of prime degree has a root in f the field has no proper algebraic extension the field f is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper algebraic extension if f has no proper algebraic extension let px be some irreducible polynomial in fx then the quotient of fx modulo the ideal generated by px is an algebraic extension of f whose degree is equal to the degree of px since it is not a proper extension its degree is 1 and therefore the degree of px is 1 on the other hand if f has some proper algebraic extension k then the minimal polynomial of an element in k f is irreducible and its degree is greater than 1 the field has no proper finite extension the field f is algebraically closed if and only if it has no proper finite extension because if within the previous proof the term algebraic extension is replaced by the term finite extension then the proof is still valid finite extensions are necessarily algebraic every endomorphism of fn has some eigenvector the field f is algebraically closed if and only if for each natural number n every linear map from fn into itself has some eigenvector an endomorphism of fn has an eigenvector if and only if its characteristic polynomial has some root therefore when f is algebraically closed every endomorphism of fn has some eigenvector on the other hand if every endomorphism of fn has an eigenvector let px be an element of fx dividing by its leading coefficient we get another polynomial qx which has roots if and only if px has roots but if qx xn an 1xn 1 a0 then qx is the characteristic polynomial of the nn companion matrix decomposition of rational expressions the field f is algebraically closed if and only if every rational function in one variable x with coefficients in f can be written as the sum of a polynomial function with rational functions of the form ax bn where n is a natural number and a and b are elements of f if f is algebraically closed then since the irreducible polynomials in fx are all of degree 1 the property stated above holds by the theorem on partial fraction decomposition on the other hand suppose that the property stated above holds for the field f let px be an irreducible element in fx then the rational function 1p can be written as the sum of a polynomial function q with rational functions of the form ax bn therefore the rational expression can be written as a quotient of two polynomials in which the denominator is a product of first degree polynomials since px is irreducible it must divide this product and therefore it must also be a first degree polynomial relatively prime polynomials and roots for any field f if two polynomials pxqx fx are relatively prime then they do not have a common root for if a f was a common root then px and qx would both be multiples of x a and therefore they would not be relatively prime the fields for which the reverse implication holds that is the fields such that whenever two polynomials have no common root then they are relatively prime are precisely the algebraically closed fields if the field f is algebraically closed let px and qx be two polynomials which are not relatively prime and let rx be their greatest common divisor then since rx is not constant it will have some root a which will be then a common root of px and qx if f is not algebraically closed let px be a polynomial whose degree is at least 1 without roots then px and px are not relatively prime but they have no common roots since none of them has roots other properties if f is an algebraically closed field and n is a natural number then f contains all nth roots of unity because these are by definition the n not necessarily distinct zeroes of the polynomial xn 1 a field extension that is contained in an extension generated by the roots of unity is a cyclotomic extension and the extension of a field generated by all roots of unity is sometimes called its cyclotomic closure thus algebraically closed fields are cyclotomically closed the converse is not true even assuming that every polynomial of the form xn a splits into linear factors is not enough to assure that the field is algebraically closed if a proposition which can be expressed in the language of firstorder logic is true for an algebraically closed field then it is true for every algebraically closed field with the same characteristic furthermore if such a proposition is valid for an algebraically closed field with characteristic 0 then not only is it valid for all other algebraically closed fields with characteristic 0 but there is some natural number n such that the proposition is valid for every algebraically closed field with characteristic p when p n every field f has some extension which is algebraically closed such an extension is called an algebraically closed extension among all such extensions there is one and only one up to isomorphism but not unique isomorphism which is an algebraic extension of f it is called the algebraic closure of f the theory of algebraically closed fields has quantifier elimination notes references field mathematics | 1,417 |
1019 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%206 | August 6 | events pre1600 1284 the republic of pisa is defeated in the battle of meloria by the republic of genoa thus losing its naval dominance in the mediterranean 1538 bogotá colombia is founded by gonzalo jiménez de quesada 16011900 1661 the treaty of the hague is signed by portugal and the dutch republic 1777 american revolutionary war the bloody battle of oriskany prevents american relief of the siege of fort stanwix 1787 sixty proof sheets of the constitution of the united states are delivered to the constitutional convention in philadelphia pennsylvania 1806 francis ii holy roman emperor declares the moribund empire to be dissolved although he retains power in the austrian empire 1819 norwich university is founded in vermont as the first private military school in the united states 1824 peruvian war of independence patriot forces led by simón bolívar defeat the spanish royalist army in the battle of junín 1825 the bolivian declaration of independence is proclaimed 1861 britain imposes the lagos treaty of cession to suppress slavery in what is now nigeria 1862 american civil war the confederate ironclad is scuttled on the mississippi river after suffering catastrophic engine failure near baton rouge louisiana 1870 francoprussian war the battle of spicheren is fought resulting in a german victory 1870 francoprussian war the battle of wörth results in a decisive german victory 1890 at auburn prison in new york murderer william kemmler becomes the first person to be executed by electric chair 1901present 1901 kiowa land in oklahoma is opened for white settlement effectively dissolving the contiguous reservation 1914 world war i uboat campaign two days after the united kingdom had declared war on germany over the german invasion of belgium ten german uboats leave their base in heligoland to attack royal navy warships in the north sea 1914 world war i serbia declares war on germany austria declares war on russia 1915 world war i battle of sari bair the allies mount a diversionary attack timed to coincide with a major allied landing of reinforcements at suvla bay 1917 world war i battle of mărășești between the romanian and german armies begins 1926 gertrude ederle becomes the first woman to swim across the english channel 1940 estonia is annexed by the soviet union 1942 queen wilhelmina of the netherlands becomes the first reigning queen to address a joint session of the united states congress 1944 the warsaw uprising occurs on august 1 it is brutally suppressed and all ablebodied men in kraków are detained afterwards to prevent a similar uprising the kraków uprising that was planned but never carried out 1945 world war ii hiroshima japan is devastated when the atomic bomb little boy is dropped by the united states b29 enola gay around 70000 people are killed instantly and some tens of thousands die in subsequent years from burns and radiation poisoning 1956 after going bankrupt in 1955 the american broadcaster dumont television network makes its final broadcast a boxing match from st nicholas arena in new york in the boxing from st nicholas arena series 1958 law of permanent defense of democracy outlawing the communist party of chile and banning 26650 persons from the electoral lists is repealed in chile 1960 cuban revolution cuba nationalizes american and foreignowned property in the nation 1962 jamaica becomes independent from the united kingdom 1965 us president lyndon b johnson signs the voting rights act of 1965 into law 1986 a lowpressure system that redeveloped off the new south wales coast dumps a record 328 millimeters 13 inches of rain in a day on sydney new south wales australia 1990 gulf war the united nations security council orders a global trade embargo against iraq in response to iraqs invasion of kuwait 1991 tim bernerslee releases files describing his idea for the world wide web www makes its first appearance as a publicly available service on the internet 1991 takako doi chair of the social democratic party becomes japans first female speaker of the house of representatives 1996 nasa announces that the alh 84001 meteorite thought to originate from mars contains evidence of primitive lifeforms 1997 korean air flight 801 crashed at nimitz hill guam killing 229 of the 254 people on board 2001 erwadi fire incident twentyeight mentally ill persons tied to a chain are burnt to death at a faith based institution at erwadi tamil nadu 2008 a military junta led by mohamed ould abdel aziz stages a coup détat in mauritania overthrowing president sidi ould cheikh abdallahi 2010 flash floods across a large part of jammu and kashmir india damages 71 towns and kills at least 255 people 2011 war in afghanistan a united states military helicopter is shot down killing 30 american special forces members and a working dog seven afghan soldiers and one afghan civilian it was the deadliest single event for the united states in the war in afghanistan 2012 nasas curiosity rover lands on the surface of mars 2015 a suicide bomb attack kills at least 15 people at a mosque in the saudi city of abha births pre1600 1180 emperor gotoba of japan d 1239 1504 matthew parker english archbishop d 1575 1572 fakhraldin ii druze emir d 1635 16011900 1605 bulstrode whitelocke english lawyer d 1675 1609 richard bennett englishamerican politician colonial governor of virginia d 1675 1619 barbara strozzi italian composer and singersongwriter d 1677 1622 tjerk hiddes de vries dutch admiral d 1666 1638 nicolas malebranche french priest and philosopher d 1715 1644 louise de la vallière french mistress of louis xiv of france d 1710 1651 françois fénelon french archbishop and poet d 1715 1656 claude de forbin french general d 1733 1666 maria sophia of neuburg d 1699 1667 johann bernoulli swiss mathematician d 1748 1697 charles vii holy roman emperor d 1745 1715 luc de clapiers marquis de vauvenargues french author d 1747 1765 petros mavromichalis greek general and politician 2nd prime minister of greece d 1848 1766 william hyde wollaston english chemist and physicist d 1828 1768 jeanbaptiste bessières french general and politician d 1813 1775 daniel oconnell irish lawyer and politician lord mayor of dublin d 1847 1809 alfred lord tennyson english poet d 1892 1826 thomas alexander browne englishaustralian author d 1915 1835 hjalmar kiærskou danish botanist d 1900 1844 alfred duke of saxecoburg and gotha d 1900 1844 james henry greathead south africanenglish engineer d 1896 1848 susie taylor american writer and first black army nurse d 1912 1846 anna haining bates canadianamerican giant d 1888 1868 paul claudel french poet and playwright d 1955 1874 charles fort american author d 1932 1877 wallace h white jr american lawyer and politician d 1952 1880 hans moser austrian actor and singer d 1964 1881 leo carrillo american actor d 1961 1881 alexander fleming scottish biologist pharmacologist and botanist nobel prize laureate d 1955 1881 louella parsons american journalist d 1972 1883 constance georgina adams south african botanist d 1968 1883 scott nearing american economist and educator d 1983 1886 edward ballantine american composer and academic d 1971 1887 dudley benjafield english racing driver d 1957 1889 george kenney canadianamerican general d 1977 1889 john middleton murry english poet and author d 1957 1891 william slim 1st viscount slim english field marshal and politician 13th governorgeneral of australia d 1970 1895 frank nicklin australian politician 28th premier of queensland d 1978 1900 cecil howard green englishamerican geophysicist and businessman cofounded texas instruments d 2003 1901present 1901 dutch schultz american gangster d 1935 1903 virginia foster durr american civil rights activist d 1999 1904 jean dessès greekegyptian fashion designer d 1970 1904 henry iba american basketball player and coach d 1993 1906 vic dickenson american trombonist d 1984 1908 maria ludwika bernhard polish classical archaeologist and a member of wwii polish resistance d 1998 1908 helen jacobs american tennis player and commander d 1997 1908 lajos vajda hungarian painter and illustrator d 1941 1909 diana keppel countess of albemarle d 2013 1910 adoniran barbosa brazilian musician singer composer humorist and actor d 1982 1910 charles crichton english director producer and screenwriter d 1999 1911 lucille ball american actress television producer and businesswoman d 1989 1911 norman gordon south african cricketer d 2014 1911 constance heaven english author and actress d 1995 1912 richard c miller american photographer d 2010 1914 gordon freeth australian lawyer and politician 24th australian minister for foreign affairs d 2001 1916 richard hofstadter american historian and academic d 1970 1916 dom mintoff maltese journalist and politician 8th prime minister of malta d 2012 1917 barbara cooney american author and illustrator d 2000 1917 robert mitchum american actor d 1997 1918 norman granz americanswiss record producer and manager d 2001 1919 pauline betz american tennis player d 2011 1920 john graves american author d 2013 1920 ella raines american actress d 1988 1922 freddie laker english businessman founded laker airways d 2006 1922 dan walker american lawyer and politician 36th governor of illinois d 2015 1923 jess collins american painter d 2004 1923 paul hellyer canadian engineer and politician 16th canadian minister of defence d 2021 1924 samuel bowers american activist cofounded the white knights of the ku klux klan d 2006 1926 elisabeth beresford english journalist and author d 2010 1926 frank finlay english actor d 2016 1926 clem labine american baseball player and manager d 2007 1926 jános rózsás hungarian author d 2012 1926 norman wexler american screenwriter d 1999 1928 herb moford american baseball player d 2005 1928 andy warhol american painter photographer and film director d 1987 1929 mike elliott jamaican saxophonist 1929 roch la salle canadian politician 42nd canadian minister of public works d 2007 1930 abbey lincoln american singersongwriter and actress d 2010 1931 chalmers johnson american scholar and author d 2010 1932 michael deeley english screenwriter and producer 1932 howard hodgkin english painter d 2017 1932 charles wood english playwright and screenwriter d 2020 1933 a g kripal singh indian cricketer d 1987 1934 piers anthony englishamerican soldier and author 1934 chris bonington english mountaineer and author 1934 billy boston welsh rugby player and soldier 1935 fortunato baldelli italian cardinal d 2012 1935 octavio getino spanishargentinian director and screenwriter d 2012 1937 baden powell de aquino brazilian guitarist and composer d 2000 1937 charlie haden american bassist and composer d 2014 1937 barbara windsor english actress d 2020 1938 paul bartel american actor director and screenwriter d 2000 1938 peter bonerz american actor and director 1938 bert yancey american golfer d 1994 1940 mukhu aliyev russian philologist and politician 2nd president of dagestan 1940 egil kapstad norwegian pianist and composer d 2017 1940 louise sorel american actress 1941 ray culp american baseball player 1942 byard lancaster american saxophonist and flute player d 2012 1943 jon postel american computer scientist and academic d 1998 1944 inday badiday filipino journalist and actress d 2003 1944 michael mingos english chemist and academic 1944 martin wharton english bishop 1945 ron jones english director and production manager d 1993 1946 allan holdsworth english guitarist songwriter and producer d 2017 1947 radhia cousot french computer scientist and academic d 2014 1949 dino bravo italiancanadian wrestler d 1993 1950 dorian harewood american actor 1951 catherine hicks american actress 1951 daryl somers australian television host and singer 1952 pat macdonald american singersongwriter and guitarist 1952 david mcletchie scottish lawyer and politician d 2013 1952 ton scherpenzeel dutch keyboard player songwriter and producer 1954 mark hughes englishaustralian rugby league player 1956 bill emmott english journalist and author 1957 bob horner american baseball player 1957 jim mcgreevey american lawyer and politician 52nd governor of new jersey 1958 randy debarge american singersongwriter and bass player 1959 rajendra singh indian environmentalist 1959 joyce sims american singer d 2022 1960 dale ellis american basketball player 1961 mary ann sieghart english journalist and radio host 1962 michelle yeoh malaysianhong kong actress and producer 1963 charles ingram english soldier author and game show contestant 1963 kevin mitnick american computer security consultant author and convicted hacker d 2023 1964 kemi omololuolunloyo nigerian journalist activist social media expert and pharmacist 1965 stéphane peterhansel french racing driver 1965 yuki kajiura japanese pianist and composer 1965 david robinson american basketball player and lieutenant 1965 vince wells english cricketer 1967 lorna fitzsimons english businesswoman and politician 1967 mike greenberg american journalist and sportscaster 1967 julie snyder canadian talk show host and producer 1968 jack de gier dutch footballer 1969 simon doull new zealand cricketer and sportscaster 1969 elliott smith american singersongwriter and guitarist d 2003 1970 m night shyamalan indianamerican director producer and screenwriter 1972 geri halliwell english singersongwriter dancer and actress 1972 ray lucas american football player and sportscaster 1972 jason omara irish actor 1973 vera farmiga american actress 1973 stuart ogrady australian cyclist 1974 ever carradine american actress 1974 bobby petta dutch footballer 1974 luis vizcaíno dominican baseball player 1974 alvin williams american basketball player and coach 1975 jason crump englishaustralian motorcycle racer 1975 renate götschl austrian skier 1975 víctor zambrano venezuelan baseball player 1976 soleil moon frye american actress 1976 melissa george australianamerican actress 1977 leandro amaral brazilian footballer 1977 jimmy nielsen danish footballer and manager 1977 luciano zavagno argentinian footballer 1978 marvel smith american football player 1979 francesco bellotti italian cyclist 1979 jaime correa mexican footballer 1979 travis reed american basketball player 1981 leslie odom jr american actor and singer 1981 diána póth hungarian figure skater 1983 robin van persie dutch footballer 1984 vedad ibišević bosnian footballer 1984 maja ognjenović serbian volleyball player 1984 jesse ryder new zealand cricketer 1985 mickaël delage french cyclist 1985 bafétimbi gomis french footballer 1985 garrett webergale american swimmer 1986 raphael pyrasch german rugby player 1987 leanne crichton scottish footballer 1990 jonbenét ramsey american child beauty queen and victim of prominent unsolved murder case d 1996 1991 wilmer flores venezuelan baseball player 1991 jiao liuyang chinese swimmer 1995 rebecca peterson swedish tennis player 1999 rebeka masarova spanishswiss tennis player deaths pre1600 258 pope sixtus ii 523 pope hormisdas b 450 750 marwan ii umayyad general and caliph b 688 1027 richard iii duke of normandy 1162 ramon berenguer iv count of barcelona b 1113 1195 henry the lion duke of saxony and bavaria b 1129 1221 saint dominic spanish priest founded the dominican order b 1170 1272 stephen v of hungary b 1239 1384 francesco i of lesbos 1412 margherita of durazzo queen consort of charles iii of naples b 1347 1414 ladislaus of naples b 1377 1458 pope callixtus iii b 1378 1530 jacopo sannazaro italian poet b 1458 1553 girolamo fracastoro italian physician b 1478 1588 josias i count of waldeckeisenberg count of waldeckeisenberg 15781588 b 1554 16011900 1628 johannes junius german lawyer and politician b 1573 1637 ben jonson english poet and playwright b 1572 1645 lionel cranfield 1st earl of middlesex english merchant and politician b 1575 1657 bohdan khmelnytsky ukrainian soldier and politician 1st hetman of zaporizhian host b 1595 1660 diego velázquez spanish painter and educator b 1599 1666 tjerk hiddes de vries frisian naval hero and commander b 1622 1679 john snell scottishenglish soldier and philanthropist founded the snell exhibition b 1629 1694 antoine arnauld french mathematician and philosopher b 1612 1695 françois de harlay de champvallon french archbishop b 1625 1753 georg wilhelm richmann estonianrussian physicist and academic b 1711 1757 ádám mányoki hungarian painter b 1673 1794 henry bathurst 2nd earl bathurst english lawyer and politician lord high chancellor of great britain b 1714 1815 james a bayard american lawyer and politician b 1767 1828 konstantin von benckendorff russian general and diplomat b 1785 1850 edward walsh irish poet b 1805 1866 john mason neale english priest scholar and hymnwriter b 1818 1881 james springer white american religious leader cofounded the seventhday adventist church b 1821 1893 jeanjacques challetvenel swiss lawyer and politician b 1811 1901present 1904 eduard hanslick austrian author and critic b 1825 1906 george waterhouse englishnew zealand politician 7th prime minister of new zealand b 1824 1915 jennie de la montagnie lozier american physician b 1841 1920 stefan bastyr polish pilot and author b 1890 1925 surendranath banerjee indian academic and politician b 1848 1925 gregorio riccicurbastro italian mathematician b 1853 1931 bix beiderbecke american cornet player pianist and composer b 1903 1945 richard bong american soldier and pilot medal of honor recipient b 1920 1945 hiram johnson american lawyer and politician 23rd governor of california b 1866 1946 tony lazzeri american baseball player and coach b 1903 1952 betty allan australian statistician and biometrician b 1905 1959 preston sturges american director screenwriter and playwright b 1898 1964 cedric hardwicke english actor and director b 1893 1969 theodor w adorno german sociologist and philosopher b 1903 1970 nikos tsiforos greek director and screenwriter b 1912 1973 fulgencio batista cuban colonel and politician 9th president of cuba b 1901 1976 gregor piatigorsky russianamerican cellist and educator b 1903 1978 pope paul vi b 1897 1978 edward durell stone american architect designed radio city music hall and the kennedy center b 1902 1979 feodor felix konrad lynen german biochemist and academic nobel prize laureate b 1911 1983 klaus nomi german singersongwriter and actor b 1944 1985 forbes burnham guyanese politician 2nd president of guyana b 1923 1986 emilio fernández mexican actor director and screenwriter b 1904 1987 ira c eaker american general b 1896 1990 jacques soustelle french anthropologist and politician b 1912 1991 shapour bakhtiar iranian soldier and politician 74th prime minister of iran b 1915 1991 roland michener canadian lawyer and politician 20th governor general of canada b 1900 1991 harry reasoner american journalist cocreated 60 minutes b 1923 1992 leszek błażyński polish boxer b 1949 1993 tex hughson american baseball player b 1916 1994 domenico modugno italian singersongwriter and politician b 1928 1997 shin kiha south korean lawyer and politician b 1941 1998 andré weil frenchamerican mathematician and academic b 1906 2001 jorge amado brazilian novelist and poet b 1912 2001 adhar kumar chatterji indian naval officer b 1914 2001 wilhelm mohnke german general b 1911 2001 shan ratnam sri lankan physician and academic b 1928 2001 dorothy tutin english actress b 1930 2002 edsger w dijkstra dutch physicist computer scientist and academic b 1930 2003 julius baker american flute player and educator b 1915 2004 rick james american singersongwriter and producer b 1948 2004 donald justice american poet and academic b 1925 2005 robin cook scottish educator and politician secretary of state for foreign and commonwealth affairs b 1946 2005 creme puff tabby domestic cat oldest recorded cat b 1967 2007 zsolt daczi hungarian guitarist b 1969 2008 angelos kitsos greek lawyer and author b 1934 2009 riccardo cassin italian mountaineer and author b 1909 2009 willy deville american singersongwriter and guitarist b 1950 2009 john hughes american director producer and screenwriter b 1950 2011 fe del mundo filipino pediatrician and educator b 1911 2012 richard cragun americanbrazilian ballet dancer and choreographer b 1944 2012 marvin hamlisch american pianist composer and conductor b 1944 2012 robert hughes australianamerican author and critic b 1938 2012 bernard lovell english physicist and astronomer b 1913 2012 mark odonnell american playwright b 1954 2012 ruggiero ricci american violinist and educator b 1918 2012 dan roundfield american basketball player b 1953 2013 stan lynde american author and illustrator b 1931 2013 mava lee thomas american baseball player b 1929 2013 jerry wolman american businessman b 1927 2014 ralph bryans northern irish motorcycle racer b 1941 2014 ananda wp guruge sri lankan scholar and diplomat b 1928 2014 john woodland hastings american biochemist and academic b 1927 2015 ray hill american football player b 1975 2015 orna porat germanisraeli actress b 1924 2017 betty cuthbert australian sprinter b 1938 2017 darren daulton american baseball player b 1962 2018 joël robuchon french chef b 1945 2018 margaret heckler american politician b 1931 2018 anya krugovoy silver american poet b 1968 holidays and observances christian holidays and observances transfiguration of jesus anna maria rubatto hormisdas justus and pastor august 6 eastern orthodox liturgics sheikh zayed bin sultan al nahyans accession day united arab emirates independence day bolivia celebrates the independence of bolivia from spain in 1825 independence day jamaica celebrates the independence of jamaica from the united kingdom in 1962 hiroshima peace memorial ceremony hiroshima japan russian railway troops day russia references external links days of the year august | 3,377 |
1020 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoly%20Karpov | Anatoly Karpov | anatoly yevgenyevich karpov born may 23 1951 is a russian and former soviet chess grandmaster former world chess champion and politician he was the 12th world chess champion from 1975 to 1985 a threetime fide world champion 1993 1996 1998 twice world chess champion as a member of the ussr team 1985 1989 and a sixtime winner of chess olympiads as a member of the ussr team 1972 1974 1980 1982 1986 1988 the international association of chess press awarded him nine chess oscars 197377 1979 1980 1981 1984 karpovs chess tournament successes include over 160 firstplace finishes he had a peak elo rating of 2780 and his 102 total months at world number one is the thirdlongest of all time behind magnus carlsen and garry kasparov since the inception of the fide ranking list in 1970 karpov is also an elected member of the state duma in russia since 2006 he has chaired the commission for ecological safety and environmental protection of the civic chamber of the russian federation and since 2007 he has been a member of the public council under the ministry of defence early life karpov was born into a russian family on may 23 1951 in zlatoust in the urals region of the former soviet union and learned to play chess at the age of four his early rise in chess was swift as he became a candidate master by age 11 at 12 he was accepted into mikhail botvinniks prestigious chess school though botvinnik made the following remark about the young karpov the boy does not have a clue about chess and theres no future at all for him in this profession karpov acknowledged that his understanding of chess theory was very confused at that time and later wrote that the homework botvinnik assigned greatly helped him since it required that he consult chess books and work diligently karpov improved so quickly under botvinniks tutelage that he became the youngest soviet master in history at the age of fifteen in 1966 this tied the record established by boris spassky in 1952 career young master karpov finished first in his first international tournament in třinec several months later ahead of viktor kupreichik in 1967 he won the annual niemeyer tournament in groningen karpov won a gold medal for academic excellence in high school and entered moscow state university in 1968 to study mathematics he later transferred to leningrad state university eventually graduating from there in economics one reason for the transfer was to be closer to his coach grandmaster semyon furman who lived in leningrad in his writings karpov credits furman as a major influence on his development as a worldclass player in 1969 karpov became the first soviet player since spassky 1955 to win the world junior championship scoring an undefeated 1011 in the final a group at stockholm this victory earned him the international master title in 1970 karpov tied for fourth and fifth places with pal benko at an international tournament in caracas venezuela and earned the international grandmaster title fide awarded him the title during its 41st congress held during the chess olympiad in siegen west germany in september 1970 grandmaster karpov won the 1971 alekhine memorial tournament in moscow jointly with leonid stein ahead of a starstudded field for his first significant adult victory his elo rating shot from 2540 in 1971 to 2660 in 1973 during which he shared second place in the 1973 soviet championship one point behind spassky and qualified for the leningrad interzonal candidate karpovs world junior championship qualified him for one of the two interzonals a stage in the 1975 world championship cycle to choose the challenger to play world champion bobby fischer he finished equal first in the leningrad interzonal qualifying for the 1974 candidates matches karpov defeated lev polugaevsky by the score of 35 in the first candidates match earning the right to face former champion boris spassky in the semifinal round karpov was on record saying that he believed spassky would easily beat him and win the candidates cycle to face fischer and that he karpov would win the following candidates cycle in 1977 spassky won the first game as black in good style but tenacious aggressive play from karpov secured him overall victory by 416 the candidates final was played in moscow with victor korchnoi karpov took an early lead winning the second game against the sicilian dragon then scoring another victory in the sixth game following ten consecutive draws korchnoi threw away a winning position in the seventeenth game to give karpov a 30 lead in game 19 korchnoi succeeded in winning a long endgame then notched a speedy victory after a blunder by karpov two games later three more draws the last agreed by karpov when he was in a clearly better position closed the match with karpov prevailing 3219 entitling him to move on to challenge fischer for the world title match with fischer in 1975 though a world championship match between karpov and fischer was highly anticipated those hopes were never realised fischer not only insisted that the match be the first to ten wins draws not counting but also that the champion retain the crown if the score was tied 99 fide the international chess federation refused to allow this proviso and gave both players a deadline of april 1 1975 to agree to play the match under the fideapproved rules when fischer did not agree fide president max euwe declared on april 3 1975 that fischer had forfeited his title and karpov was the new world champion karpov later attempted to set up another match with fischer but the negotiations fell through this thrust the young karpov into the role of world champion without having faced the reigning champion garry kasparov argued that karpov would have had good chances because he had beaten spassky convincingly and was a new breed of tough professional and indeed had higher quality games while fischer had been inactive for three years this view is echoed by karpov himself spassky thought that fischer would have won in 1975 but karpov would have qualified again and beaten fischer in 1978 karpov has said that if he had had the opportunity to play fischer for the championship in his twenties he could have been a much better player as a result world champion determined to prove himself a legitimate champion karpov participated in nearly every major tournament for the next ten years he convincingly won the milan tournament in 1975 and captured his first of three soviet titles in 1976 he created a phenomenal streak of tournament wins against the strongest players in the world karpov held the record for most consecutive tournament victories 9 until it was shattered by garry kasparov 14 as a result most chess professionals soon agreed that karpov was a legitimate world champion in 1978 karpovs first title defence was against viktor korchnoi the opponent he had defeated in the 197375 candidates cycle the match was played at baguio philippines with the winner needing six victories as in 1974 karpov took an early lead winning the eighth game after seven draws to open the match when the score was 5220 in karpovs favour korchnoi staged a comeback and won three of the next four games to draw level with karpov karpov then won the very next game to retain the title 6521 three years later korchnoi reemerged as the candidates winner against german finalist robert hübner to challenge karpov in merano italy karpov handily won this match 117 6210 in what is remembered as the massacre in merano karpovs tournament career reached a peak at the montreal tournament of stars tournament in 1979 where he finished joint first 7110 with mikhail tal ahead of a field of strong grandmasters completed by jan timman ljubomir ljubojević boris spassky vlastimil hort lajos portisch robert hübner bent larsen and lubomir kavalek he dominated las palmas in 1977 with 13½15 he also won the prestigious bugojno tournament in 1978 shared 1980 and 1986 the linares tournament in 1981 shared with larry christiansen and 1994 the tilburg tournament in 1977 1979 1980 1982 and 1983 and the soviet championship in 1976 1983 and 1988 karpov represented the soviet union at six chess olympiads in all of which the ussr won the team gold medal he played as the first reserve at skopje 1972 winning the board prize with 1315 at nice 1974 he advanced to board one and again won the board prize with 1214 at la valletta 1980 he was again board one and scored 912 at lucerne 1982 he scored 6½8 on board one at dubai 1986 he scored 69 on board two his last was thessaloniki 1988 where on board two he scored 810 in olympiad play karpov lost only two games out of 68 played to illustrate karpovs dominance over his peers as champion his score was 13122 versus spassky 819 versus robert hübner 12129 versus ulf andersson 3110 versus vasily smyslov 119 versus mikhail tal 19723 versus ljubomir ljubojević rivalry with kasparov karpov had cemented his position as the worlds best player and world champion by the time garry kasparov arrived on the scene in their first match the world chess championship 1984 in moscow the first player to win six games would win the match karpov built a 40 lead after nine games the next 17 games were drawn setting a record for world title matches and it took karpov until game 27 to gain his fifth win in game 31 karpov had a winning position but failed to take advantage and settled for a draw he lost the next game after which 14 more draws ensued karpov held a solidly winning position in game 41 but again blundered and had to settle for a draw after kasparov won games 47 and 48 fide president florencio campomanes unilaterally terminated the match citing the players health karpov is said to have lost 10 kg over the course of the match the match had lasted an unprecedented five months with five wins for karpov three for kasparov and 40 draws a rematch was set for later in 1985 also in moscow the events of the socalled marathon match forced fide to return to the previous format with a match limited to 24 games with karpov remaining champion if the match finished 1212 karpov needed to win the final game to draw the match and retain his title but lost surrendering the title to his opponent the final score was 1311 3516 in favour of kasparov karpov remained a formidable opponent and the world no 2 until the mid1990s he fought kasparov in three more world championship matches in 1986 held in london and leningrad 1987 in seville and 1990 in new york city and lyon all three matches were extremely close the scores were 11½12½ 4515 1212 4416 and 11½12½ 3417 in all three matches karpov had winning chances up to the last games the ending of the 1987 seville match was particularly dramatic karpov won the 23rd game when kasparov miscalculated a combination in the final game needing only a draw to win the title karpov cracked under time pressure at the end of the first session of play missed a variation leading to an almost forced draw and allowed kasparov to adjourn the game with an extra pawn after a further mistake in the second session karpov was slowly ground down and resigned on move 64 ending the match and allowing kasparov to keep the title in their five world championship matches karpov scored 19 wins 21 losses and 104 draws in 144 games overall karpov played five matches against kasparov for the title from 1984 to 1990 without ever defeating him in a match fide champion again 19931999 in 1992 karpov lost a candidates match against nigel short but in the world chess championship 1993 karpov reacquired the fide world champion title when kasparov and short split from fide karpov defeated timman the loser of the candidates final against short the next major meeting of kasparov and karpov was the 1994 linares chess tournament the field in eventual finishing order was karpov kasparov shirov bareev kramnik lautier anand kamsky topalov ivanchuk gelfand illescas judit polgár and beliavsky with an average elo rating of 2685 the highest ever at that time impressed by the strength of the tournament kasparov had said several days before the tournament that the winner could rightly be called the world champion of tournaments perhaps spurred on by this comment karpov played the best tournament of his life he was undefeated and earned 11 points out of 13 the best worldclass tournament winning percentage since alekhine won san remo in 1930 finishing 2½ points ahead of secondplace kasparov and shirov many of his wins were spectacular in particular his win over topalov is considered possibly the finest of his career this performance against the best players in the world put his elo rating tournament performance at 2985 the highest performance rating of any player in history up until 2009 when magnus carlsen won the category xxi pearl spring chess tournament with a performance of 3002 chess statistician jeff sonas considers karpovs linares performance the best tournament result in history karpov defended his fide title against the rising star gata kamsky 639 in 1996 in 1998 fide largely scrapped the old system of candidates matches instead having a large knockout event in which a large number of players contested short matches against each other over just a few weeks in the first of these events the fide world chess championship 1998 champion karpov was seeded straight into the final defeating viswanathan anand 222 rapid tiebreak 20 in the subsequent cycle the format was changed with the champion having to qualify karpov refused to defend his title and ceased to be fide world champion after the fide world chess championship 1999 towards retirement karpovs classical tournament play has been seriously limited since 1997 since he prefers to be more involved in russian politics he had been a member of the supreme soviet commission for foreign affairs and the president of the soviet peace fund before the soviet union dissolved in addition he has been involved in several disputes with fide in the september 2009 fide rating list he dropped out of the worlds top 100 for the first time karpov usually limits his play to exhibition events and has revamped his style to specialize in rapid chess in 2002 he won a match against kasparov defeating him in a rapid time control match 2½1½ in 2006 he tied for first with kasparov in a blitz tournament ahead of korchnoi and judit polgár karpov and kasparov played a mixed 12game match from september 2124 2009 in valencia spain it consisted of four rapid or semirapid and eight blitz games and took place exactly 25 years after the two players legendary encounter at the world chess championship 1984 kasparov won the match 93 karpov played a match against yasser seirawan in 2012 in st louis missouri an important center of the north american chess scene winning 86 536 in november 2012 he won the cap dagde rapid tournament that bears his name anatoly karpov trophy beating vasyl ivanchuk ranked 9th in the october 2012 fide world rankings in the final professional and political career after retirement from chess in 2003 karpov opened his first american chess school in lindsborg kansas on march 2 2022 the school announced a name change to international school of chess of the midwest due to the russian invasion of ukraine karpov has been a member of the sixth seventh and eighth russian state dumas since 2005 he has been a member of the public chamber of russia he has involved himself in several humanitarian causes such as advocating the use of iodised salt on december 17 2012 karpov supported the law in the russian parliament banning adoption of russian orphans by us citizens karpov expressed support of the annexation of crimea by the russian federation and accused europe of trying to demonize putin in august 2019 maxim dlugy said that karpov had been waiting since march for the approval of a nonimmigrant visa to the united states despite frequently visiting the country since 1972 karpov had been scheduled to teach a summer camp at the chess max academy dlugy said that karpov had been questioned at the us embassy in moscow about whether he planned to communicate with american politicians karpov was among the russian state duma members placed under sanctions by the eu and uk during the russoukrainian war in march 2022 after the start of the russian invasion of ukraine the fide council suspended karpovs title of fide ambassador for life in november 2022 karpov received a head injury that left him concussed according to some sources he was placed in an induced coma sources vary on the cause of the injury including allegations that he was attacked while heavily intoxicated karpovs daughter sofia claimed that he had accidentally fallen this was echoed by the russian chess federation however he has made a full recovery since the incident candidate for fide presidency in march 2010 karpov announced that he would be a candidate for the presidency of fide the election took place in september 2010 at the 39th chess olympiad in may a fundraising event took place in new york with the participation of kasparov and magnus carlsen who both supported his bid and campaigned for him nigel short also supported karpovs candidacy on september 29 2010 kirsan ilyumzhinov was reelected as president of fide 95 votes to 55 style karpovs boa constrictor playing style is solidly positional taking minimal risks but reacting mercilessly to the slightest error by his opponent as a result he is often compared to josé raúl capablanca the third world champion karpov himself describes his style as followslet us say the game may be continued in two ways one of them is a beautiful tactical blow that gives rise to variations that dont yield to precise calculations the other is clear positional pressure that leads to an endgame with microscopic chances of victory i would choose the latter without thinking twice if the opponent offers keen play i dont object but in such cases i get less satisfaction even if i win than from a game conducted according to all the rules of strategy with its ruthless logic notable games viktor korchnoi vs anatoly karpov moscow 1973 karpov sacrifices a pawn for a strong center and attack anatoly karpov vs gyula sax linares 1983 karpov sacrifices for an attack that wins the game 20 moves later after another spectacular sacrifice from karpov and countersacrifice from sax it won the tournaments first this was not the first time karpov used the sharp keres attack 6g4 see his win in anatoly karpov vs vlastimil hort alekhine memorial tournament moscow 1971 anatoly karpov vs veselin topalov dos hermanas 1994 this game features a sham sacrifice of two pieces which karpov regains with a variation culminating in the win of an exchange with a technically won endgame hobbies karpovs extensive stamp collection of belgian philately and belgian congo stamps and postal history covering mail from 1742 through 1980 was sold by david feldmans auction company between december 2011 and 2012 he is also known to have large chess stamp and chess book collections his private chess library consists of 9000 books honours and awards order of merit for the fatherland 3rd class 2001 for outstanding contribution to the implementation of charitable programmes the strengthening of peace and friendship between the peoples order of friendship 2011 for his great contribution to strengthening peace and friendship between peoples and productive social activities order of lenin 1981 order of the red banner of labour 1978 order of merit 2nd class ukraine november 13 2006 for his contribution to the victims of the chernobyl disaster order of holy prince daniel of moscow 2nd class 1996 order of st sergius of radonezh 2nd class 2001 medal for outstanding contribution to the collector business in russia honorary member of the soviet philately society 1979 diploma of the state duma of the russian federation no 1 order for outstanding achievements in sport republic of cuba medal of tsiolkovsky cosmonautics federation of russia medal for strengthening the penal system 1st and 2nd class breastplate of the 1st degree of the interior ministry international association of chess press 9 times voted the best chess player of the year and awarded the chess oscar order of saint nestor the chronicler 1st class asteroid 90414 karpov is named after karpov anatoly karpov international chess tournament an annual roundrobin tournament held in his honour in poikovsky khantymansi autonomous okrug russia since 2000 books karpov has authored or coauthored several books most of which have been translated into english karpov ae ninth vertical 1978 moscow molodaya gvardia also a 1992 simon schuster edition references further reading fine rueben 1983 the worlds great chess games dover hurst sarah 2002 curse of kirsan adventures in the chess underworld russell enterprises karpov anatoly 2003 anatoly karpovs best games batsford winter edward g editor 1981world chess champions pergamon press external links karpovs official homepage edward winter books about korchnoi and karpov chess notes 25 minute video interview with karpov onlinechesslessonsnet june 19 2012 anatoly karpov tells all 2015 interview by sport express translated by chessbase part 1 part 2 part 3 part 4 1951 births 20thcentury russian male writers 21stcentury russian male writers chess grandmasters chess olympiad competitors communist party of the soviet union members sixth convocation members of the state duma russian federation seventh convocation members of the state duma russian federation eighth convocation members of the state duma russian federation honorary members of the russian academy of arts honoured masters of sport of the ussr living people members of the civic chamber of the russian federation people from zlatoust recipients of the order for merit to the fatherland 2nd class recipients of the order for merit to the fatherland 3rd class recipients of the order of holy prince daniel of moscow recipients of the order of lenin recipients of the order of merit ukraine 2nd class recipients of the order of merit ukraine 3rd class recipients of the order of the red banner of labour russian book and manuscript collectors russian individuals subject to united kingdom sanctions russian chess players russian chess writers russian male journalists russian male writers russian philatelists russian sportspersonpoliticians saint petersburg state university alumni soviet chess players soviet chess writers soviet journalists soviet male writers unicef goodwill ambassadors world chess champions world junior chess champions | 3,786 |
1021 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspect%20ratio | Aspect ratio | the aspect ratio of a geometric shape is the ratio of its sizes in different dimensions for example the aspect ratio of a rectangle is the ratio of its longer side to its shorter sidethe ratio of width to height when the rectangle is oriented as a landscape the aspect ratio is most often expressed as two integer numbers separated by a colon xy less commonly as a simple or decimal fraction the values x and y do not represent actual widths and heights but rather the proportion between width and height as an example 85 1610 161 and 16 are all ways of representing the same aspect ratio in objects of more than two dimensions such as hyperrectangles the aspect ratio can still be defined as the ratio of the longest side to the shortest side applications and uses the term is most commonly used with reference to graphic image image aspect ratio display aspect ratio paper size standard photographic print sizes motion picture film formats standard ad size pixel aspect ratio photolithography the aspect ratio of an etched or deposited structure is the ratio of the height of its vertical side wall to its width harmst high aspect ratios allow the construction of tall microstructures without slant tire code tire sizing turbocharger impeller sizing wing aspect ratio of an aircraft or bird astigmatism of an optical lens nanorod dimensions shape factor image analysis and microscopy finite element analysis aspect ratios of simple shapes rectangles for a rectangle the aspect ratio denotes the ratio of the width to the height of the rectangle a square has the smallest possible aspect ratio of 11 examples 43 1 some not all 20th century computer monitors vga xga etc standarddefinition television international paper sizes iso 216 32 15 35mm still camera film iphone until iphone 5 displays 1610 16 commonly used widescreen computer displays wxga φ1 1618 golden ratio close to 1610 53 1 super 16 mm a standard film gauge in many european countries 169 1 widescreen tv and most laptops 21 2 dominoes 6427 2 ultrawidescreen 219 329 3 super ultrawidescreen ellipses for an ellipse the aspect ratio denotes the ratio of the major axis to the minor axis an ellipse with an aspect ratio of 11 is a circle aspect ratios of general shapes in geometry there are several alternative definitions to aspect ratios of general compact sets in a ddimensional space the diameterwidth aspect ratio dwar of a compact set is the ratio of its diameter to its width a circle has the minimal dwar which is 1 a square has a dwar of the cubevolume aspect ratio cvar of a compact set is the dth root of the ratio of the dvolume of the smallest enclosing axesparallel dcube to the sets own dvolume a square has the minimal cvar which is 1 a circle has a cvar of an axisparallel rectangle of width w and height h where wh has a cvar of if the dimension d is fixed then all reasonable definitions of aspect ratio are equivalent to within constant factors notations aspect ratios are mathematically expressed as xy pronounced xtoy cinematographic aspect ratios are usually denoted as a rounded decimal multiple of width vs unit height while photographic and videographic aspect ratios are usually defined and denoted by whole number ratios of width to height in digital images there is a subtle distinction between the display aspect ratio the image as displayed and the storage aspect ratio the ratio of pixel dimensions see distinctions see also axial ratio ratio equidimensional ratios in 3d list of film formats squeeze mapping scale ratio vertical orientation references ratios | 610 |
1022 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto%20racing | Auto racing | auto racing also known as car racing motor racing or automobile racing is a motorsport involving the racing of automobiles for competition auto racing has existed since the invention of the automobile races of various sorts were organised with the first recorded as early as 1867 many of the earliest events were effectively reliability trials aimed at proving these new machines were a practical mode of transport but soon became an important way for automobile makers to demonstrate their machines by the 1930s specialist racing cars had developed there are now numerous different categories each with different rules and regulations history the first prearranged match race of two selfpowered road vehicles over a prescribed route occurred at 430 am on august 30 1867 between ashtonunderlyne and old trafford england a distance of it was won by the carriage of isaac watt boulton internal combustion auto racing events began soon after the construction of the first successful gasolinefueled automobiles the first organized contest was on april 28 1887 by the chief editor of paris publication monsieur fossier it ran from neuilly bridge to the bois de boulogne on july 22 1894 the parisian magazine organized what is considered to be the worlds first motoring competition from paris to rouen one hundred and two competitors paid a 10franc entrance fee the first american automobile race is generally held to be the thanksgiving day chicago timesherald race of november 28 1895 press coverage of the event first aroused significant american interest in the automobile the targa florio was an open road endurance automobile race held in the mountains of sicily italy near the islands capital of palermo founded in 1906 it was the oldest sports car racing event part of the world sportscar championship between 1955 and 1973 the oldest surviving sports car racing event is the 24 hours of le mans begun in 1923 it is run by the automobile club of the west aco team ferrari won the race in 2023 with auto construction and racing dominated by france the french automobile club acf staged a number of major international races usually from or to paris connecting with another major city in france or elsewhere in europe aspendale racecourse in australia was the worlds first purposebuilt motor racing circuit opening in january 1906 the pearshaped track was close to a mile in length with slightly banked curves and a gravel surface of crushed cement brooklands in surrey england was the first purposebuilt banked motor racing venue opening in june 1907 it featured a concrete track with highspeed banked corners one of the oldest existing purposebuilt automobile racing circuits in the united states still in use is the indianapolis motor speedway in speedway indiana it is the largest capacity sports venue of any variety worldwide with a top capacity of some 257000 seated spectators nascar was founded by bill france sr on february 21 1948 with the help of several other drivers of the time the first nascar strictly stock race ever was held on june 19 1949 at daytona beach florida us from 1962 sports cars temporarily took a back seat to gt cars with the fia replacing the world championship for sports cars with the international championship for gt manufacturers from 1962 through 2003 nascars premier series was called the winston cup series sponsored by r j reynolds tobacco company cigarette brand winston the changes that resulted from rjrs involvement as well as the reduction of the schedule from 56 to 34 races a year established 1972 as the beginning of nascars modern era the imsa gt series evolved into the american le mans series which ran its first season in 1998 the european races eventually became the closely related european le mans series both of which mix prototypes and gts tc is a popular touring car racing series in argentina and one of the oldest car racing series still active in the world the first tc competition took place in 1931 with 12 races each in a different province future formula one star juan manuel fangio chevrolet won the 1940 and 1941 editions of the tc it was during this time that the series chevroletford rivalry began with ford acquiring most of its historical victories over the last few years auto racing has seen a transformative shift echoing past pivots the industry much like the cars it champions has had to navigate through the hairpin turns of a global pandemic and a persistent chip shortage each threatening to derail production schedules at the same time a new course is being charted towards an electric future a dramatic change in direction thats challenging the old guard of gasoline engines there is also a growing number of events for electric racing cars such as the formula ethe eco grand prix or the electric gt championship categories openwheel racing in singleseater openwheel racing the wheels are not covered and the cars often have aerofoil wings front and rear to produce downforce and enhance adhesion to the track the two most popular varieties of openwheel road racing are formula one and the indycar series in europe and asia openwheeled racing is commonly referred to as formula with appropriate hierarchical suffixes in north america the formula terminology is not followed with the exception of f1 the sport is usually arranged to follow an international format such as f1 a regional format such as the formula 3 euro series andor a domestic or countryspecific format such as the german formula 3 championship or the british formula ford f1 is a worldwide series that runs only street circuit and race tracks these cars are heavily based on technology and their aerodynamics the speed record was set in 2005 by juan pablo montoya hitting 373 kmh 232 mph some of the most prominent races are the monaco grand prix the italian grand prix and the british grand prix the season ends with the crowning of the world championship for drivers and constructors in the united states the most popular series is the indycar series the cars have traditionally been similar to though less technologically sophisticated than f1 cars with more restrictions on technology aimed at controlling costs while these cars are not as technologically advanced they are faster mainly because they compete on oval race tracks being able to average a lap at 388 kmh 241 mph the series biggest race is the indianapolis 500 which is commonly referred to as the greatest spectacle in racing due to being the longest continuously run race and having the largest crowd for a singleday sporting event 350000 the other major international singleseater racing series is formula 2 formerly known as formula 3000 and gp2 series regional series include super formula and formula v6 asia specifically in asia formula renault 35 also known as the world series by renault succession series of world series by nissan formula three formula palmer audi and formula atlantic in 2009 the fia formula two championship brought about the revival of the f2 series domestic or countryspecific series include formula three and formula renault with the leading introductory series being formula ford singleseater racing is not limited merely to professional teams and drivers there exist many amateur racing clubs in the uk the major club series are the monoposto racing club brscc f3 formerly clubf3 formerly arp f3 formula vee and club formula ford each series caters to a section of the market with some primarily providing lowcost racing while others aim for an authentic experience using the same regulations as the professional series brscc f3 there are other categories of singleseater racing including kart racing which employs a small lowcost machine on small tracks many of the current top drivers began their careers in karts formula ford represents the most popular first openwheel category for upandcoming drivers stepping up from karts the series is still the preferred option as it has introduced an aero package and slicks allowing the junior drivers to gain experience in a race car with dynamics closer to f1 the star mazda series is another entrylevel series students at colleges and universities can also take part in singleseater racing through the formula sae competition which involves designing and building a singleseater car in a multidisciplinary team and racing it at the competition this also develops other soft skills such as teamwork while promoting motorsport and engineering the worlds first allfemale formula racing team was created in 2006 the group was an assemblage of drivers from different racing disciplines and formed for an mtv reality pilot which was shot at mazda raceway laguna seca in december 2005 the fia gave approval to superleague formula racing which debuted in 2008 whereby the racing teams are owned and run by prominent sports clubs such as ac milan and liverpool fc after 25 years away from the sport former formula 2 champion jonathan palmer reopened the f2 category again most drivers have graduated from the formula palmer audi series the category is officially registered as the fia formula two championship most rounds have two races and are support races to the fia world touring car championship touring car racing touring car racing is a style of road racing that is run with productionderived fourseat race cars the lesser use of aerodynamics means following cars have a much easier time passing than in openwheel racing it often features fullcontact racing with subtle bumping and nudging due to the small speed differentials and large grids the major touring car championships conducted worldwide are the supercars championship australia british touring car championship deutsche tourenwagen masters dtm world touring car championship and the world touring car cup the european touring car cup is a oneday event open to super 2000 specification touring cars from europes many national championships the sports car club of americas speed world challenge touring car and gt championships are dominant in north america americas historic transam series is undergoing a period of transition but is still the longestrunning road racing series in the us the national auto sport association also provides a venue for amateurs to compete in homebuilt factoryderived vehicles on various local circuits sports car racing in sports car racing productionderived versions of twoseat sports cars also known as grand tourers gts and purposebuilt sports prototype cars compete within their respective classes on closed circuits the premier championship series of sports car racing is the fia world endurance championship the main series for gt car racing is the gt world challenge europe divided into two separate championships the gt world challenge europe sprint cup and the gt world challenge europe endurance cup this series has formed after the folding of the various fia gt championships other major gt championships include the gt world challenge america gt world challenge asia super gt and the international gt open there are minor regional and national gt series using mainly gt4 and gt3 cars featuring both amateur and professional drivers sports prototypes unlike gt cars do not rely on roadlegal cars as a base they are closedwheel and often closedcockpit purposebuilt race cars intended mainly for endurance racing they have much lower weight and more downforce compared to gt cars making them much faster they are raced in the 24 hours of le mans held annually since 1923 and in the european le mans series asian le mans series and the weathertech sportscar championship these cars are referred to as lmp le mans prototype cars with lmp1 being run mainly by manufacturers and the slightly less powerful lmp2 cars run by privateer teams all three le mans series run gt cars in addition to le mans prototypes these cars have different restrictions than the fia gt cars another prototype and gt racing championship exists in the united states the grandam which began in 2000 sanctions its own endurance series the rolex sports car series which consists of slower and lowercost race cars compared to lmp and fia gt cars the rolex sports car series and american le mans series announced a merger between the two series forming the weathertech sportscar championship starting in 2014 these races are often conducted over long distances at least and cars are driven by teams of two or more drivers switching every few hours due to the performance difference between productionbased sports cars and purposebuilt sports prototypes one race usually involves several racing classes each fighting for its own championship famous sports car races include the 24 hours of le mans the rolex 24 at daytona 24 hours of spafranchorchamps the 12 hours of sebring the 6 hours of watkins glen and the petit le mans at road atlanta there is also the 24 hours of the nürburgring on the infamous nordschleife track and the dubai 24 hour which is aimed at gt3 and below cars with a mixture of professional and proam drivers productioncar racing productioncar racing otherwise known as showroom stock in the us is an economical and rulesrestricted version of touringcar racing mainly used to restrict costs numerous production racing categories are based on particular makes of cars most series with a few exceptions follow the group n regulation there are several different series that are run all over the world most notably japans super taikyu and imsas firehawk series which ran in the 1980s and 1990s all over the united states stock car racing in north america stock car racing is the most popular form of auto racing primarily raced on oval tracks stock cars vaguely resemble production cars but are in fact purposebuilt racing machines that are built to tight specifications and together with touring cars also called silhouette racing cars the largest stock car racing governing body is nascar national association for stock car auto racing nascars premier series is the nascar cup series its most famous races being the daytona 500 the southern 500 the cocacola 600 and the brickyard 400 nascar also runs several feeder series including the xfinity series and gander rv outdoors truck series a pickup truck racing series the series conduct races across the entire continental united states the nascar pintys series conducts races across canada and the nascar peak mexico series conducts races across mexico nascar also governs several smaller regional series such as the whelen modified tour modified cars are best described as openwheel cars modified cars have no parts related to the stock vehicle for which they are named after a number of modified cars display a manufacturers logo and vehicle name yet use components produced by another automobile manufacturer there are also other stock car governing bodies most notably the automobile racing club of america arca in the uk british stock car racing is also referred to as short circuit racing uk stock car racing started in the 1950s and grew rapidly through the 1960s and 1970s events take place on shale or tarmac tracks usually around 14 mile long there are around 35 tracks in the uk and upwards of 7000 active drivers the sport is split into three basic divisions distinguished by the rules regarding car contact during racing the most famous championship are the brisca f1 stock cars fullcontact formulas include bangers bombers and rookie bangers and racing features demolition derbies figure of eight and oval racing semi contact formulas include brisca f1 f2 and superstox where bumpers are used tactically noncontact formulas include national hot rods stock rods and lightning rods onemake racing onemake or single marque championships often employ productionbased cars from a single manufacturer or even a single model from a manufacturers range there are numerous notable onemake formulae from various countries and regions some of which such as the porsche supercup and previously iroc have fostered many distinct national championships single marque series are often found at the club level to which the productionbased cars limited modifications and close parity in performance are very well suited some of the betterknown singlemake series are the mini 7 championship europes longestrunning onemake championship the radical european masters john cooper mini challenge clio cup ginettas caterhams bmws and mx5s there are also singlechassis single seater formulae such as formula renault and formula bmw usually as feeder series for senior race formula in the fashion of farm teams drag racing in drag racing the objective is to complete a given straightline distance from a standing start ahead of a vehicle in a parallel lane this distance is traditionally though has become popular since the 1990s the vehicles may or may not be given the signal to start at the same time depending on the class of racing vehicles range from the everyday car to the purposebuilt dragster speeds and elapsed time differ from class to class average street cars cover the mile in 12 to 16 seconds whereas a top fuel dragster takes 45 seconds or less reaching speeds of up to drag racing was organized as a sport by wally parks in the early 1950s through the national hot rod association nhra the nhra was formed to discourage street racing when launching a top fuel dragster will accelerate at 34 g 33 ms2 and when braking parachutes are deployed the deceleration is 4 g 39 ms2 more than the space shuttle experiences a top fuel car can be heard over away and can generate a reading from 15 to 39 on the richter scale drag racing is two cars headtohead the winner proceeding to the next round professional classes are all first to the finish line wins sportsman racing is handicapped slower car getting a head start using an index a lowest et allowed and cars running under quicker than their index break out and lose the slowest cars bracket racers are also handicapped but rather than an index they use a dialin offroad racing in offroad racing various classes of specially modified vehicles including cars compete in races through offroad environments in north america these races often take place in the desert such as the famous baja 1000 another format for offroad racing happens on closedcourse short course tracks such as crandon international offroad raceway in the 1980s and 1990s the short course was extended to racing inside stadiums in the mickey thompson entertainment group this format was revived by robby gordon in 2013 with his stadium super trucks series in europe offroad refers to events such as autocross or rallycross while desert races and rallyraids such as the parisdakar master rallye or european bajas are called crosscountry rallies kart racing the modern kart was invented by art ingels a fabricator at the indianapoliscar manufacturer kurtiskraft in southern california in 1956 ingels took a small chainsaw engine and mounted it to a simple tubeframe chassis weighing less than 100 lb ingels and everyone else who drove the kart were startled at its performance capabilities the sport soon blossomed in southern california and quickly spread around the world although often seen as the entry point for serious racers into the sport kart racing or karting can be an economical way for amateurs to try racing and is also a fullyfledged international sport in its own right a large proportion of professional racing drivers began in karts often from a very young age such as michael schumacher and fernando alonso several former motorcycle champions have also taken up the sport notably wayne rainey who was paralysed in a racing accident and now races a handcontrolled kart as one of the cheapest ways to race karting is seeing its popularity grow worldwide despite their diminutive size karts of the most powerful class superkart assuming a weight of 205 kg 452 lb and a power output of 100 hp 75 kw can have a powertoweight ratio including the driver of 490 hptonne 022 hplb without the driver this figure doubles to almost 980 hptonne 044 hplb historical racing historic motorsport or vintage motorsport uses vehicles limited to a particular era only safety precautions are modernized in these hobbyist races a historical event can be of various types of motorsport disciplines from road racing to rallying because it is based on a particular era it is more hobbyistoriented reducing corporate sponsorship the only modern equipment used is related to safety and timing a historical event can be of a number of different motorsport disciplines some of the most famous events include the goodwood festival of speed and goodwood revival in britain and monterey historic in the united states championships range from grass root austin seven racing to the fia thoroughbred grand prix championship for classic formula one chassis while there are several professional teams and drivers in historical racing this branch of auto sport tends to be contested by wealthy car owners and is thus more amateur and less competitive in its approach other categories use of flags in many types of auto races particularly those held on closed courses flags are displayed to indicate the general status of the track and to communicate instructions to competitors while individual series have different rules and the flags have changed from the first years eg red used to start a race these are generally accepted accidents the worst accident in racing history is the 1955 le mans disaster where more than 80 people died including the french driver pierre levegh racingcar setup in auto racing the racing setup or car setup is the set of adjustments made to the vehicle to optimize its behaviour performance handling reliability etc adjustments can occur in suspensions brakes transmissions engines tires and many others aerodynamics aerodynamics and airflow play big roles in the setup of a race car aerodynamic downforce improves the race cars handling by lowering the center of gravity and distributing the weight of the car equally on each tire once this is achieved fuel consumption decreases and the forces against the car are significantly lowered many aerodynamic experiments are conducted in wind tunnels to simulate reallife situations while measuring the various drag forces on the car these rolling roads produce many wind situations and direct air flow at certain speeds and angles when a diffuser is installed under the car the amount of drag force is significantly lowered and the overall aerodynamics of the vehicle is positively adjusted wings and canards channel the airflow in the most efficient way to get the least amount of drag from the car it is experimentally proven that downforce is gained and the vehicles handling is considerably changed when aerodynamic wings on the front and rear of the vehicle are installed suspension suspension plays a huge part in giving the race car the ability to be driven optimally shocks are mounted vertically or horizontally to prevent the body from rolling in the corners the suspension is important because it makes the car stable and easier to control and keeps the tires on the road when driving on uneven terrain it works in three different ways including vertically longitudinally and laterally to control movement when racing on various tracks tyres tyres called rcompounds are commonly used in motorsports for high amounts of traction the soft rubber allows them to expand when they are heated up making more surface area on the pavement therefore producing the most traction these types of tyres do not have grooves on them tyre pressure is dependent on the temperature of the tyre and track when racing each time a driver pulls into the pits the tyre pressure and temperature should be tested for optimal performance when the tyres get too hot they will swell or inflate and need to be deflated to the correct pressure when the tyres are not warmed up they will not perform as well brakes brakes on a race car are imperative in slowing and stopping the car at precise times and wear quickly depending on the road or track on which the car is being raced how many laps are being run track conditions due to weather and how many caution runs require more braking there are three variables to consider in racing brake pedal displacement brake pedal force and vehicle deceleration various combinations of these variables work together to determine the stiffness sensitivity and pedal force of the brakes when using the brakes effectively the driver must go through a buildup phase and end with a modulating phase these phases include attaining maximum deceleration and modulating the brake pressure brake performance is measured in bite and consistency bite happens when the driver first applies the brakes and they have not warmed up to the correct temperature to operate efficiently consistency is measured in how consistent the friction is during the entire time of braking these two measurements determine the wear of the brakes engine the race cars engine needs a considerable amount of air to produce maximum power the air intake manifold sucks the air from scoops on the hood and front bumper and feeds it into the engine many engine modifications to increase horsepower and efficiency are commonly used in many racingsanctioning bodies engines are tuned on a machine called a dynamometer which is commonly known in the racing world as a dyno the car is driven onto the dyno and many gauges and sensors are hooked up to the car that are controlled by an online program to test force torque or power through the testing the cars engine maps can be changed to get the most horsepower and ultimately speed out of the vehicle racing drivers racing drivers at the highest levels are usually paid by the team or by sponsors and can command very substantial salaries contrary to what may be popularly assumed racing drivers as a group do not have unusually better reflexes or peripheral response time during repeated physiological and psychological evaluations of professional racing drivers the two characteristics that stand out are racers nearobsessive need to control their surroundings the psychological aspect and an unusual ability to process fastmoving information physiological in this researchers have noted a strong correlation between racers psychological profiles and those of fighter pilots in tests comparing racers to members of the general public the greater the complexity of the information processing matrix the greater the speed gap between racers and the public due partly to the performance capabilities of modern racing cars racing drivers require a high level of fitness focus and the ability to concentrate at high levels for long periods in an inherently difficult environment racing drivers mainly complain about pains in the lumbar shoulder and neck regions racing drivers experience extremely large gforces because formula cars and sports prototypes generate more downforce and are able to corner at significantly higher speeds formula 1 drivers routinely experience gloadings in excess of 45 g see also outline of auto racing list of auto racing tracks motorcycle racing race track list of auto racing films racing video game references external links sanctioning bodies motorsports uk association american le mans series alms indy racing league irl fédération internationale de lautomobile fia grand american road racing association international conference of sports car clubs icscc international hot rod association ihra international motor sports association imsa national auto sport association national association for stock car auto racing nascar national hot rod association nhra no prep racing score international offroad racing sports car club of america scca united states auto club usac formula one f1 confederation of australian motorsport cams best in the desert offroad racing | 4,560 |
1023 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anarcho-capitalism | Anarcho-capitalism | anarchocapitalism colloquially ancap or ancap is an antistatist libertarian political philosophy and economic theory that seeks to abolish centralized states in favor of stateless societies with systems of private property enforced by private agencies the nonaggression principle free markets and selfownership which extends the concept to include control of private property as part of the self in the absence of statute anarchocapitalists hold that society tends to contractually selfregulate and civilize through participation in the free market which they describe as a voluntary society involving the voluntary exchange of goods and services in a theoretical anarchocapitalist society the system of private property would still exist and be enforced by private defense agencies andor insurance companies selected by customers which would operate competitively in a market and fulfill the roles of courts and the police according to its proponents various historical theorists have espoused philosophies similar to anarchocapitalism while the earliest extant attestation of anarchocapitalism sic is in karl hesss essay the death of politics published by playboy in march 1969 the person credited with coining the terms anarchocapitalism and anarchocapitalist is murray rothbard rothbard a leading figure in the 20thcentury american libertarian movement synthesized elements from the austrian school classical liberalism and 19thcentury american individualist anarchists and mutualists lysander spooner and benjamin tucker while rejecting the labor theory of value rothbards anarchocapitalist society would operate under a mutually agreedupon legal code which would be generally accepted and which the courts would pledge themselves to follow this legal code would recognize contracts between individuals private property selfownership and tort law in keeping with the nonaggression principle rothbard views the power of the state as unjustified arguing that it restricts individual rights and prosperity and creates social and economic problems anarchocapitalists and rightlibertarians cite several historical precedents of what they believe to be examples of quasianarchocapitalism including the republic of cospaia acadia anglosaxon england medieval iceland the american old west gaelic ireland and merchant law admiralty law and early common law anarchocapitalism is distinguished from minarchism which advocates a nightwatchman state limited to protecting individuals from aggression and enforcing private property unlike most anarchists anarchocapitalists support private property and private institutions classification anarchocapitalism developed from radical american antistate libertarianism and individualist anarchism a strong current within anarchism does not consider anarchocapitalism to be part of the anarchist movement because they argue that anarchism has historically been an anticapitalist movement and for definitional reasons which see anarchism as incompatible with capitalist forms according to several scholars anarchocapitalism lies outside the tradition of the vast majority of anarchist schools of thought and is more closely affiliated with capitalism rightlibertarianism and neoliberalism social anarchists oppose and reject capitalism and consider anarchocapitalism to be a contradiction in terms although some including anarchocapitalists and rightlibertarians consider anarchocapitalism to be a form of anarchism according to the encyclopædia britannicaanarchocapitalism is occasionally seen as part of the new right philosophy author j michael oliver says that during the 1960s a philosophical movement arose in the united states that championed reason ethical egoism and freemarket capitalism according to oliver anarchocapitalism is a political theory which logically follows the philosophical conclusions of objectivism a philosophical system developed by russianamerican writer ayn rand but oliver acknowledges that his advocacy of anarchocapitalism is quite at odds with rands ardent defense of limited government professor lisa duggan also says that rands antistatist profree market stances went on to shape the politics of anarchocapitalism according to patrik schumacher the political ideology and programme of anarchocapitalism envisages the radicalization of the neoliberal rollback of the state and calls for the extension of entrepreneurial freedom and competitive market rationality to the point where the scope for private enterprise is allencompassing and leaves no space for state action whatsoever on the state anarchocapitalists oppose the state and seek to privatize any useful service the government presently provides such as education infrastructure or the enforcement of law they see capitalism and the free market as the basis for a free and prosperous society murray rothbard stated that the difference between freemarket capitalism and state capitalism is the difference between peaceful voluntary exchange and a collusive partnership between business and government that uses coercion to subvert the free market rothbard argued that all government services including defense are inefficient because they lack a marketbased pricing mechanism regulated by the voluntary decisions of consumers purchasing services that fulfill their highestpriority needs and by investors seeking the most profitable enterprises to invest in maverick edwards of the liberty university describes anarchocapitalism as a political social and economic theory that places markets as the central governing body and where government no longer grants rights to its citizenry nonaggression principle writer stanisław wójtowicz says that although anarchocapitalists are against centralized states they hold that all people would naturally share and agree to a specific moral theory based on the nonaggression principle while the friedmanian formulation of anarchocapitalism is robust to the presence of violence and in fact assumes some degree of violence will occur anarchocapitalism as formulated by rothbard and others holds strongly to the central libertarian nonaggression axiom sometimes nonaggression principle rothbard wrote rothbards defense of the selfownership principle stems from what he believed to be his falsification of all other alternatives namely that either a group of people can own another group of people or that no single person has full ownership over ones self rothbard dismisses these two cases on the basis that they cannot result in a universal ethic ie a just natural law that can govern all people independent of place and time the only alternative that remains to rothbard is selfownership which he believes is both axiomatic and universal in general the nonaggression axiom is described by rothbard as a prohibition against the initiation of force or the threat of force against persons in which he includes direct violence assault and murder or property in which he includes fraud burglary theft and taxation the initiation of force is usually referred to as aggression or coercion the difference between anarchocapitalists and other libertarians is largely one of the degree to which they take this axiom minarchist libertarians such as libertarian political parties would retain the state in some smaller and less invasive form retaining at the very least public police courts and military however others might give further allowance for other government programs in contrast rothbard rejects any level of state intervention defining the state as a coercive monopoly and as the only entity in human society excluding acknowledged criminals that derives its income entirely from coercion in the form of taxation which rothbard describes as compulsory seizure of the property of the states inhabitants or subjects some anarchocapitalists such as rothbard accept the nonaggression axiom on an intrinsic moral or natural law basis it is in terms of the nonaggression principle that rothbard defined his interpretation of anarchism a system which provides no legal sanction for such aggression against person and property and wrote that what anarchism proposes to do then is to abolish the state ie to abolish the regularized institution of aggressive coercion in an interview published in the american libertarian journal the new banner rothbard stated that capitalism is the fullest expression of anarchism and anarchism is the fullest expression of capitalism property private property anarchocapitalists postulate the privatization of everything including cities with all their infrastructures public spaces streets and urban management systems central to rothbardian anarchocapitalism are the concepts of selfownership and original appropriation that combines personal and private property hanshermann hoppe wrote rothbard however rejected the lockean proviso and followed the rule of first come first served without any consideration of how much resources are left for other individuals anarchocapitalists advocate private ownership of the means of production and the allocation of the product of labor created by workers within the context of wage labour and the free market that is through decisions made by property and capital owners regardless of what an individual needs or does not need original appropriation allows an individual to claim any neverbeforeused resources including land and by improving or otherwise using it own it with the same absolute right as their own body and retaining those rights forever regardless of whether the resource is still being used by them according to rothbard property can only come about through labor therefore original appropriation of land is not legitimate by merely claiming it or building a fence around itit is only by using land and by mixing ones labor with it that original appropriation is legitimized any attempt to claim a new resource that someone does not use would have to be considered invasive of the property right of whoever the first user will turn out to be rothbard argued that the resource need not continue to be used in order for it to be the persons property as for once his labor is mixed with the natural resource it remains his owned land his labor has been irretrievably mixed with the land and the land is therefore his or his assigns in perpetuity rothbard also spoke about a theory of justice in property rights in justice and property rights rothbard wrote that any identifiable owner the original victim of theft or his heir must be accorded his property in the case of slavery rothbard claimed that in many cases the old plantations and the heirs and descendants of the former slaves can be identified and the reparations can become highly specific indeed rothbard believed slaves rightfully own any land they were forced to work on under the homestead principle if property is held by the state rothbard advocated its confiscation and return to the private sector writing that any property in the hands of the state is in the hands of thieves and should be liberated as quickly as possible rothbard proposed that state universities be seized by the students and faculty under the homestead principle rothbard also supported the expropriation of nominally private property if it is the result of stateinitiated force such as businesses that receive grants and subsidies rothbard further proposed that businesses who receive at least 50 of their funding from the state be confiscated by the workers writing what we libertarians object to then is not government per se but crime what we object to is unjust or criminal property titles what we are for is not private property per se but just innocent noncriminal private property similarly karl hess wrote that libertarianism wants to advance principles of property but that it in no way wishes to defend willy nilly all property which now is called private much of that property is stolen much is of dubious title all of it is deeply intertwined with an immoral coercive state system by accepting an axiomatic definition of private property and property rights anarchocapitalists deny the legitimacy of a state on principle hanshermann hoppe argues anarchists view capitalism as an inherently authoritarian and hierarchical system and seek the abolishment of private property there is disagreement between anarchists and anarchocapitalists as the former generally rejects anarchocapitalism as a form of anarchism and considers anarchocapitalism a contradiction in terms while the latter holds that the abolishment of private property would require expropriation which is counterproductive to order and would require a state common property as opposed to anarchists most anarchocapitalists reject the commons however some of them propose that nonstate public or community property can also exist in an anarchocapitalist society for anarchocapitalists what is important is that it is acquired and transferred without help or hindrance from what they call the compulsory state deontological anarchocapitalists believe that the only just and most economically beneficial way to acquire property is through voluntary trade gift or laborbased original appropriation rather than through aggression or fraud anarchocapitalists state that there could be cases where common property may develop in a lockean natural rights framework anarchocapitalists make the example of a number of private businesses which may arise in an area each owning the land and buildings that they use but they argue that the paths between them become cleared and trodden incrementally through customer and commercial movement these thoroughfares may become valuable to the community but according to them ownership cannot be attributed to any single person and original appropriation does not apply because many contributed the labor necessary to create them in order to prevent it from falling to the tragedy of the commons anarchocapitalists suggest transitioning from common to private property wherein an individual would make a homesteading claim based on disuse acquire title by the assent of the community consensus form a corporation with other involved parties or other means randall g holcombe see challenges stemming from the idea of common property under anarchocapitalism such as whether an individual might claim fishing rights in the area of a major shipping lane and thereby forbid passage through it in contrast hoppes work on anarchocapitalist theory is based on the assumption that all property is privately held including all streets rivers airports and harbors which forms the foundation of his views on immigration intellectual property some anarchocapitalists strongly oppose intellectual property ie trademarks patents copyrights stephan n kinsella argues that ownership only relates to tangible assets contractual society the society envisioned by anarchocapitalists has been labelled by them as a contractual society which rothbard described as a society based purely on voluntary action entirely unhampered by violence or threats of violence the system relies on contracts between individuals as the legal framework which would be enforced by private police and security forces as well as private arbitrations rothbard argues that limited liability for corporations could also exist through contract arguing that corporations are not at all monopolistic privileges they are free associations of individuals pooling their capital on the purely free market those men would simply announce to their creditors that their liability is limited to the capital specifically invested in the corporation there are limits to the right to contract under some interpretations of anarchocapitalism rothbard believes that the right to contract is based in inalienable rights and because of this any contract that implicitly violates those rights can be voided at will preventing a person from permanently selling himself or herself into unindentured slavery that restriction aside the right to contract under anarchocapitalist order would be pretty broad for example rothbard went as far as to justify stork markets arguing that a market in guardianship rights would facilitate the transfer of guardianship from abusive or neglectful parents to those more interested or suited to raising children other anarchocapitalists have also suggested the legalization of organ markets as in irans renal market other interpretations conclude that banning such contracts would in itself be an unacceptably invasive interference in the right to contract included in the right of contract is the right to contract oneself out for employment by others while anarchists criticize wage labour describing it as wage slavery anarchocapitalists view it as a consensual contract some anarchocapitalists prefer to see selfemployment prevail over wage labor david d friedman has expressed a preference for a society where almost everyone is selfemployed and instead of corporations there are large groups of entrepreneurs related by trade not authority each sells not his time but what his time produces law and order and the use of violence different anarchocapitalists propose different forms of anarchocapitalism and one area of disagreement is in the area of law in the market for liberty morris and linda tannehill object to any statutory law whatsoever they argue that all one has to do is ask if one is aggressing against another in order to decide if an act is right or wrong however while also supporting a on force and fraud rothbard supports the establishment of a mutually agreedupon centralized libertarian legal code which private courts would pledge to follow as he presumes a high degree of convergence amongst individuals about what constitutes natural justice unlike both the tannehills and rothbard who see an ideological commonality of ethics and morality as a requirement david d friedman proposes that the systems of law will be produced for profit on the open market just as books and bras are produced today there could be competition among different brands of law just as there is competition among different brands of cars friedman says whether this would lead to a libertarian society remains to be proven he says it is a possibility that very unlibertarian laws may result such as laws against drugs but he thinks this would be rare he reasons that if the value of a law to its supporters is less than its cost to its victims that law will not survive in an anarchocapitalist society anarchocapitalists only accept the collective defense of individual liberty ie courts military or police forces insofar as such groups are formed and paid for on an explicitly voluntary basis however their complaint is not just that the states defensive services are funded by taxation but that the state assumes it is the only legitimate practitioner of physical forcethat is they believe it forcibly prevents the private sector from providing comprehensive security such as a police judicial and prison systems to protect individuals from aggressors anarchocapitalists believe that there is nothing morally superior about the state which would grant it but not private individuals a right to use physical force to restrain aggressors if competition in security provision were allowed to exist prices would also be lower and services would be better according to anarchocapitalists according to molinari under a regime of liberty the natural organization of the security industry would not be different from that of other industries proponents believe that private systems of justice and defense already exist naturally forming where the market is allowed to compensate for the failure of the state namely private arbitration security guards neighborhood watch groups and so on these private courts and police are sometimes referred to generically as private defense agencies pdas the defense of those unable to pay for such protection might be financed by charitable organizations relying on voluntary donation rather than by state institutions relying on taxation or by cooperative selfhelp by groups of individuals edward stringham argues that private adjudication of disputes could enable the market to internalize externalities and provide services that customers desire rothbard stated that the american revolutionary war and the war of southern secession were the only two just wars in american military history some anarchocapitalists such as rothbard feel that violent revolution is counterproductive and prefer voluntary forms of economic secession to the extent possible retributive justice is often a component of the contracts imagined for an anarchocapitalist society according to matthew okeefee some anarchocapitalists believe prisons or indentured servitude would be justifiable institutions to deal with those who violate anarchocapitalist property relations while others believe exile or forced restitution are sufficient rothbard stressed the importance of restitution as the primary focus of a libertarian legal order and advocated for corporal punishment for petty vandals and the death penalty for murders bruce l benson argues that legal codes may impose punitive damages for intentional torts in the interest of deterring crime benson gives the example of a thief who breaks into a house by picking a lock even if caught before taking anything benson argues that the thief would still owe the victim for violating the sanctity of his property rights benson opines that despite the lack of objectively measurable losses in such cases standardized rules that are generally perceived to be fair by members of the community would in all likelihood be established through precedent allowing judgments to specify payments that are reasonably appropriate for most criminal offenses morris and linda tannehill raise a similar example saying that a bank robber who had an attack of conscience and returned the money would still owe reparations for endangering the employees and customers lives and safety in addition to the costs of the defense agency answering the tellers call for help however they believe that the robbers loss of reputation would be even more damaging they suggest that specialized companies would list aggressors so that anyone wishing to do business with a man could first check his record provided they trust the veracity of the companies records they further theorise that the bank robber would find insurance companies listing him as a very poor risk and other firms would be reluctant to enter into contracts with him influences murray rothbard has listed different ideologies of which his interpretations he said have influenced anarchocapitalism this includes his interpretation of anarchism and more precisely individualist anarchism classical liberalism and the austrian school of economic thought scholars additionally associate anarchocapitalism with neoclassical liberalism radical neoliberalism and rightlibertarianism anarchism in both its social and individualist forms anarchism is usually considered an anticapitalist and radical leftwing or farleft movement that promotes libertarian socialist economic theories such as collectivism communism individualism mutualism and syndicalism because anarchism is usually described alongside libertarian marxism as the libertarian wing of the socialist movement and as having a historical association with anticapitalism and socialism anarchists believe that capitalism is incompatible with social and economic equality and therefore do not recognize anarchocapitalism as an anarchist school of thought in particular anarchists argue that capitalist transactions are not voluntary and that maintaining the class structure of a capitalist society requires coercion which is incompatible with an anarchist society the usage of libertarian is also in dispute while both anarchists and anarchocapitalists have used it libertarian was synonymous with anarchist until the mid20th century when anarchocapitalist theory developed anarchocapitalists are distinguished from the dominant anarchist tradition by their relation to property and capital while both anarchism and anarchocapitalism share general antipathy towards government authority anarchocapitalism favors freemarket capitalism anarchists including egoists such as max stirner have supported the protection of an individuals freedom from powers of both government and private property owners in contrast while condemning governmental encroachment on personal liberties anarchocapitalists support freedoms based on private property rights anarchocapitalist theorist murray rothbard argued that protesters should rent a street for protest from its owners the abolition of public amenities is a common theme in some anarchocapitalist writings as anarchocapitalism puts laissezfaire economics before economic equality it is commonly viewed as incompatible with the anticapitalist and egalitarian tradition of anarchism although anarchocapitalist theory implies the abolition of the state in favour of a fully laissezfaire economy it lies outside the tradition of anarchism while using the language of anarchism anarchocapitalism only shares anarchisms antipathy towards the state and not anarchisms antipathy towards hierarchy as theorists expect from anarchocapitalist economic power relations it follows a different paradigm from anarchism and has a fundamentally different approach and goals in spite of the anarcho in its title anarchocapitalism is more closely affiliated with capitalism rightlibertarianism and liberalism than with anarchism some within this laissezfaire tradition reject the designation of anarchocapitalism believing that capitalism may either refer to the laissezfaire market they support or the governmentregulated system that they oppose rothbard argued that anarchocapitalism is the only true form of anarchismthe only form of anarchism that could possibly exist in reality as he maintained that any other form presupposes authoritarian enforcement of a political ideology such as redistribution of private property which he attributed to anarchism according to this argument the capitalist free market is the natural situation that would result from people being free from state authority and entails the establishment of all voluntary associations in society such as cooperatives nonprofit organizations businesses and so on moreover anarchocapitalists as well as classical liberal minarchists argue that the application of anarchist ideals as advocated by what they term leftwing anarchists would require an authoritarian body of some sort to impose it based on their understanding and interpretation of anarchism in order to forcefully prevent people from accumulating capital which they believe is a goal of anarchists there would necessarily be a redistributive organization of some sort which would have the authority to in essence exact a tax and reallocate the resulting resources to a larger group of people they conclude that this theoretical body would inherently have political power and would be nothing short of a state the difference between such an arrangement and an anarchocapitalist system is what anarchocapitalists see as the voluntary nature of organization within anarchocapitalism contrasted with a centralized ideology and a paired enforcement mechanism which they believe would be necessary under what they describe as a coercively egalitariananarchist system rothbard also argued that the capitalist system of today is not properly anarchistic because it often colludes with the state according to rothbard what marx and later writers have done is to lump together two extremely different and even contradictory concepts and actions under the same portmanteau term these two contradictory concepts are what i would call freemarket capitalism on the one hand and state capitalism on the other the difference between freemarket capitalism and state capitalism writes rothbard is precisely the difference between on the one hand peaceful voluntary exchange and on the other violent expropriation he continues state capitalism inevitably creates all sorts of problems which become insoluble traditional anarchists reject the notion of capitalism hierarchies and private property albert meltzer argued that anarchocapitalism simply cannot be anarchism because capitalism and the state are inextricably interlinked and because capitalism exhibits domineering hierarchical structures such as that between an employer and an employee anna morgenstern approaches this topic from the opposite perspective arguing that anarchocapitalists are not really capitalists because mass concentration of capital is impossible without the state according to jeremy jennings it is hard not to conclude that these ideas referring to anarchocapitalism have roots deep in classical liberalism and are described as anarchist only on the basis of a misunderstanding of what anarchism is for jennings anarchism does not stand for the untrammelled freedom of the individual as the anarchocapitalists appear to believe but as we have already seen for the extension of individuality and community similarly barbara goodwin emeritus professor of politics at the university of east anglia norwich argues that anarchocapitalisms true place is in the group of rightwing libertarians not in anarchism some rightlibertarian scholars like michael huemer who identify with the ideology describe anarchocapitalism as a variety of anarchism british author andrew heywood also believes that individualist anarchism overlaps with libertarianism and is usually linked to a strong belief in the market as a selfregulating mechanism most obviously manifest in the form of anarchocapitalism frank h brooks author of the individualist anarchists an anthology of liberty 18811908 believes that anarchism has always included a significant strain of radical individualism from the hyperrationalism of godwin to the egoism of stirner to the libertarians and anarchocapitalists of today while both anarchism and anarchocapitalism are in opposition to the state it is a necessary but not sufficient condition because anarchists and anarchocapitalists interpret staterejection differently austrian school economist david prychitko in the context of anarchocapitalism says that while society without a state is necessary for fullfledged anarchy it is nevertheless insufficient according to ruth kinna anarchocapitalists are antistatists who draw more on rightwing liberal theory and the austrian school than anarchist traditions kinna writes that in order to highlight the clear distinction between the two positions anarchists describe anarchocapitalists as propertarians anarchocapitalism is usually seen as part of the new right some anarchocapitalists argue that according to them anarchists consider the word anarchy as to be the antithesis of hierarchy and therefore that anarchocapitalism is sometimes considered to be a term with differences philosophically to what they personally consider to be true anarchism as an anarchocapitalist society would inherently contain hierarchy additionally rothbard discusses the difference between government and governance thus proponents of anarchocapitalism think the philosophys common name is indeed consistent as it promotes private governance but is vehemently antigovernment classical liberalism historian and libertarian ralph raico argued that what liberal philosophers had come up with was a form of individualist anarchism or as it would be called today anarchocapitalism or market anarchism he also said that gustave de molinari was proposing a doctrine of the private production of security a position which was later taken up by murray rothbard some anarchocapitalists consider molinari to be the first proponent of anarchocapitalism in the preface to the 1977 english translation by murray rothbard called the production of security the first presentation anywhere in human history of what is now called anarchocapitalism although admitting that molinari did not use the terminology and probably would have balked at the name hanshermann hoppe said that the 1849 article the production of security is probably the single most important contribution to the modern theory of anarchocapitalism according to hanshermann hoppe one of the 19th century precursors of anarchocapitalism were philosopher herbert spencer classical liberal auberon herbert and liberal socialist franz oppenheimer ruth kinna credits murray rothbard with coining the term anarchocapitalism which is kinna proposes to describe a commitment to unregulated private property and laissezfaire economics prioritizing the libertyrights of individuals unfettered by government regulation to accumulate consume and determine the patterns of their lives as they see fit according to kinna anarchocapitalists will sometimes label themselves market anarchists because they recognize the negative connotations of capitalism but the literature of anarchocapitalism draws on classical liberal theory particularly the austrian school friedrich von hayek and ludwig von mises rather than recognizable anarchist traditions ayn rands laissezfaire antigovernment corporate philosophy objectivism is sometimes associated with anarchocapitalism other scholars similarly associate anarchocapitalism with antistate classical liberalism neoclassical liberalism radical neoliberalism and rightlibertarianism paul dragos aligica writes that there is a foundational difference between the classical liberal and the anarchocapitalist positions classical liberalism while accepting critical arguments against collectivism acknowledges a certain level of public ownership and collective governance as necessary to provide practical solutions to political problems in contrast anarchocapitalism according to aligica denies any requirement for any form of public administration and allows no meaningful role for the public sphere which is seen as suboptimal and illegitimate individualist anarchism murray rothbard a student of ludwig von mises stated that he was influenced by the work of the 19thcentury american individualist anarchists in the winter of 1949 rothbard decided to reject minimal state laissezfaire and embrace his interpretation of individualist anarchism in 1965 rothbard wrote that lysander spooner and benjamin r tucker were unsurpassed as political philosophers and nothing is more needed today than a revival and development of the largely forgotten legacy they left to political philosophy however rothbard thought that they had a faulty understanding of economics as the 19thcentury individualist anarchists had a labor theory of value as influenced by the classical economists while rothbard was a student of austrian school economics which does not agree with the labor theory of value rothbard sought to meld 19thcentury american individualist anarchists advocacy of economic individualism and free markets with the principles of austrian school economics arguing that there is in the body of thought known as austrian economics a scientific explanation of the workings of the free market and of the consequences of government intervention in that market which individualist anarchists could easily incorporate into their political and social weltanschauung rothbard held that the economic consequences of the political system they advocate would not result in an economy with people being paid in proportion to labor amounts nor would profit and interest disappear as they expected tucker thought that unregulated banking and money issuance would cause increases in the money supply so that interest rates would drop to zero or near to it peter marshall states that anarchocapitalism overlooks the egalitarian implications of traditional individualist anarchists like spooner and tucker stephanie silberstein states that while spooner was no freemarket capitalist nor an anarchocapitalist he was not as opposed to capitalism as most socialists were in the spoonertucker doctrine an economists view rothbard explained his disagreements rothbard disagreed with tucker that it would cause the money supply to increase because he believed that the money supply in a free market would be selfregulating if it were not then rothbard argued inflation would occur so it is not necessarily desirable to increase the money supply in the first place rothbard claimed that tucker was wrong to think that interest would disappear regardless because he believed people in general do not wish to lend their money to others without compensation so there is no reason why this would change just because banking was unregulated tucker held a labor theory of value and thought that in a free market people would be paid in proportion to how much labor they exerted and that exploitation or usury was taking place if they were not as tucker explained in state socialism and anarchism his theory was that unregulated banking would cause more money to be available and that this would allow the proliferation of new businesses which would in turn raise demand for labor this led tucker to believe that the labor theory of value would be vindicated and equal amounts of labor would receive equal pay as an austrian school economist rothbard did not agree with the labor theory and believed that prices of goods and services are proportional to marginal utility rather than to labor amounts in the free market as opposed to tucker he did not think that there was anything exploitative about people receiving an income according to how much buyers of their services value their labor or what that labor produces without the labor theory of value some argue that 19thcentury individualist anarchists approximate the modern movement of anarchocapitalism although this has been contested or rejected as economic theory changed the popularity of the labor theory of classical economics was superseded by the subjective theory of value of neoclassical economics and rothbard combined mises austrian school of economics with the absolutist views of human rights and rejection of the state he had absorbed from studying the individualist american anarchists of the 19th century such as tucker and spooner in the mid1950s rothbard wrote an unpublished article named are libertarians anarchists under the pseudonym aubrey herbert concerned with differentiating himself from communist and socialistic economic views of anarchists including the individualist anarchists of the 19th century concluding that we are not anarchists and that those who call us anarchists are not on firm etymological ground and are being completely unhistorical on the other hand it is clear that we are not archists either we do not believe in establishing a tyrannical central authority that will coerce the noninvasive as well as the invasive perhaps then we could call ourselves by a new name nonarchist joe peacott an american individualist anarchist in the mutualist tradition criticizes anarchocapitalists for trying to hegemonize the individualist anarchism label and make appear as if all individualist anarchists are in favor of capitalism peacott states that individualists both past and present agree with the communist anarchists that presentday capitalism is based on economic coercion not on voluntary contract rent and interest are the mainstays of modern capitalism and are protected and enforced by the state without these two unjust institutions capitalism could not exist anarchist activists and scholars do not consider anarchocapitalism as a part of the anarchist movement arguing that anarchism has historically been an anticapitalist movement and see it as incompatible with capitalist forms although some regard anarchocapitalism as a form of individualist anarchism many others disagree or contest the existence of an individualistsocialist divide in coming to terms that anarchists mostly identified with socialism rothbard wrote that individualist anarchism is different from anarchocapitalism and other capitalist theories due to the individualist anarchists retaining the labor theory of value and socialist doctrines similarly many writers deny that anarchocapitalism is a form of anarchism or that capitalism is compatible with anarchism the palgrave handbook of anarchism writes that as benjamin franks rightly points out individualisms that defend or reinforce hierarchical forms such as the economicpower relations of anarchocapitalism are incompatible with practices of social anarchism based on developing immanent goods which contest such as inequalities laurence davis cautiously asks is anarchocapitalism really a form of anarchism or instead a wholly different ideological paradigm whose adherents have attempted to expropriate the language of anarchism for their own antianarchist ends davis cites iain mckay whom franks cites as an authority to support his contention that academic analysis has followed activist currents in rejecting the view that anarchocapitalism has anything to do with social anarchism as arguing quite emphatically on the very pages cited by franks that anarchocapitalism is by no means a type of anarchism mckay writes that it is important to stress that anarchist opposition to the socalled capitalist anarchists does not reflect some kind of debate within anarchism as many of these types like to pretend but a debate between anarchism and its old enemy capitalism equally given that anarchists and anarchocapitalists have fundamentally different analyses and goals it is hardly sectarian to point this out davis writes that franks asserts without supporting evidence that most major forms of individualist anarchism have been largely anarchocapitalist in content and concludes from this premise that most forms of individualism are incompatible with anarchism davis argues that the conclusion is unsustainable because the premise is false depending as it does for any validity it might have on the further assumption that anarchocapitalism is indeed a form of anarchism if we reject this view then we must also reject the individual anarchist versus the communal anarchist chasm style of argument that follows from it davis maintains that the ideological core of anarchism is the belief that society can and should be organised without hierarchy and domination historically anarchists have struggles against a wide range of regimes of domination from capitalism the state system patriarchy heterosexism and the domination of nature to colonialism the war system slavery fascism white supremacy and certain forms of organised religion according to davis while these visions range from the predominantly individualistic to the predominantly communitarian features common to virtually all include an emphasis on selfmanagement and selfregulatory methods of organisation voluntary association decentralised society based on the principle of free association in which people will manage and govern themselves finally davis includes a footnote stating that individualist anarchism may plausibly be re regarded as a form of both socialism and anarchism whether the individualist anarchists were consistent anarchists and socialists is another question entirely mckay comments as follows any individualist anarchism which supports wage labour is inconsistent anarchism it can easily be made consistent anarchism by applying its own principles consistently in contrast anarchocapitalism rejects so many of the basic underlying principles of anarchism that it cannot be made consistent with the ideals of anarchism historical precedents several anarchocapitalists and rightlibertarians have discussed historical precedents of what they believe were examples of anarchocapitalism free cities of medieval europe economist and libertarian scholar bryan caplan considers the free cities of medieval europe as examples of anarchist or nearly anarchistic societies further arguing medieval iceland according to the libertarian theorist david d friedman medieval icelandic institutions have several peculiar and interesting characteristics they might almost have been invented by a mad economist to test the lengths to which market systems could supplant government in its most fundamental functions while not directly labeling it anarchocapitalist friedman argues that the legal system of the icelandic commonwealth comes close to being a realworld anarchocapitalist legal system although noting that there was a single legal system friedman argues that enforcement of the law was entirely private and highly capitalist providing some evidence of how such a society would function friedman further wrote that even where the icelandic legal system recognized an essentially public offense it dealt with it by giving some individual in some cases chosen by lot from those affected the right to pursue the case and collect the resulting fine thus fitting it into an essentially private system friedman and bruce l benson argued that the icelandic commonwealth saw significant economic and social progress in the absence of systems of criminal law an executive or bureaucracy this commonwealth was led by chieftains whose position could be bought and sold like that of private property being a member of the chieftainship was also completely voluntary american old west according to terry l anderson and p j hill the old west in the united states in the period of 1830 to 1900 was similar to anarchocapitalism in that private agencies provided the necessary basis for an orderly society in which property was protected and conflicts were resolved and that the common popular perception that the old west was chaotic with little respect for property rights is incorrect since squatters had no claim to western lands under federal law extralegal organizations formed to fill the void benson explains according to anderson defining anarchocapitalist to mean minimal government with property rights developed from the bottom up the western frontier was anarchocapitalistic people on the frontier invented institutions that fit the resource constraints they faced gaelic ireland in his work for a new liberty murray rothbard has claimed ancient gaelic ireland as an example of nearly anarchocapitalist society in his depiction citing the work of professor joseph peden the basic political unit of ancient ireland was the tuath which is portrayed as a body of persons voluntarily united for socially beneficial purposes with its territorial claim being limited to the sum total of the landed properties of its members civil disputes were settled by private arbiters called brehons and the compensation to be paid to the wronged party was insured through voluntary surety relationships commenting on the kings of tuaths rothbard stated law merchant admiralty law and early common law some libertarians have cited law merchant admiralty law and early common law as examples of anarchocapitalism in his work power and market rothbard stated somalia from 1991 to 2006 economist alex tabarrok argued that somalia in its stateless period provided a unique test of the theory of anarchy in some aspects near of that espoused by anarchocapitalists david d friedman and murray rothbard nonetheless both anarchists and some anarchocapitalists argue that somalia was not an anarchist society analysis and criticism state justice and defense anarchists such as brian morris argue that anarchocapitalism does not in fact get rid of the state he says that anarchocapitalists simply replaced the state with private security firms and can hardly be described as anarchists as the term is normally understood in libertarianism bogus anarchy anarchist peter sabatini notes similarly bob black argues that an anarchocapitalist wants to abolish the state to his own satisfaction by calling it something else he states that they do not denounce what the state does they just object to whos doing it paul birch argues that legal disputes involving several jurisdictions and different legal systems will be too complex and costly he therefore argues that anarchocapitalism is inherently unstable and would evolve entirely through the operation of free market forces into either a single dominant private court with a natural monopoly of justice over the territory a de facto state a society of multiple city states each with a territorial monopoly or a pure anarchy that would rapidly descend into chaos randall g holcombe argues that anarchocapitalism turns justice into a commodity as private defense and court firms would favour those who pay more for their services he argues that defense agencies could form cartels and oppress people without fear of competition philosopher albert meltzer argued that since anarchocapitalism promotes the idea of private armies it actually supports a limited state he contends that it is only possible to conceive of anarchism which is free communistic and offering no economic necessity for repression of countering it libertarian robert nozick argues that a competitive legal system would evolve toward a monopoly governmenteven without violating individuals rights in the process in anarchy state and utopia nozick defends minarchism and argues that an anarchocapitalist society would inevitably transform into a minarchist state through the eventual emergence of a monopolistic private defense and judicial agency that no longer faces competition he argues that anarchocapitalism results in an unstable system that would not endure in the real world while anarchocapitalists such as roy childs and murray rothbard have rejected nozicks arguments with rothbard arguing that the process described by nozick with the dominant protection agency outlawing its competitors in fact violates its own clients rights john jefferson actually advocates nozicks argument and states that such events would best operate in laissezfaire robert ellickson presented a hayekian case against anarchocapitalism calling it a pipedream and stating that anarchocapitalists by imagining a stable system of competing private associations ignore both the inevitability of territorial monopolists in governance and the importance of institutions to constrain those monopolists abuses some libertarians argue that anarchocapitalism would result in different standards of justice and law due to relying too much on the market friedman responded to this criticism by arguing that it assumes the state is controlled by a majority group that has similar legal ideals if the populace is diverse different legal standards would therefore be appropriate rights and freedom negative and positive rights are rights that oblige either action positive rights or inaction negative rights anarchocapitalists believe that negative rights should be recognized as legitimate but positive rights should be rejected as an intrusion some critics reject the distinction between positive and negative rights peter marshall also states that the anarchocapitalist definition of freedom is entirely negative and that it cannot guarantee the positive freedom of individual autonomy and independence about anarchocapitalism anarchosyndicalist and anticapitalist intellectual noam chomsky says economics and property social anarchists argue that anarchocapitalism allows individuals to accumulate significant power through free markets and private property friedman responded by arguing that the icelandic commonwealth was able to prevent the wealthy from abusing the poor by requiring individuals who engaged in acts of violence to compensate their victims financially anarchists argue that certain capitalist transactions are not voluntary and that maintaining the class structure of a capitalist society requires coercion which violates anarchist principles anthropologist david graeber noted his skepticism about anarchocapitalism along the same lines arguing some critics argue that the anarchocapitalist concept of voluntary choice ignores constraints due to both human and nonhuman factors such as the need for food and shelter as well as active restriction of both used and unused resources by those enforcing property claims if a person requires employment in order to feed and house himself the employeremployee relationship could be considered involuntary another criticism is that employment is involuntary because the economic system that makes it necessary for some individuals to serve others is supported by the enforcement of coercive private property relations some philosophies view any ownership claims on land and natural resources as immoral and illegitimate objectivist philosopher harry binswanger criticizes anarchocapitalism by arguing that capitalism requires government questioning who or what would enforce treaties and contracts some rightlibertarian critics of anarchocapitalism who support the full privatization of capital such as geolibertarians argue that land and the raw materials of nature remain a distinct factor of production and cannot be justly converted to private property because they are not products of human labor some socialists including market anarchists and mutualists adamantly oppose absentee ownership anarchocapitalists have strong abandonment criteria namely that one maintains ownership until one agrees to trade or gift it antistate critics of this view posit comparatively weak abandonment criteria arguing that one loses ownership when one stops personally occupying and using it as well as the idea of perpetually binding original appropriation is anathema to traditional schools of anarchism literature the following is a partial list of notable nonfiction works discussing anarchocapitalism bruce l benson the enterprise of law justice without the state to serve and protect privatization and community in criminal justice david d friedman the machinery of freedom edward p stringham anarchy and the law the political economy of choice george h smith justice entrepreneurship in a free market gerard casey libertarian anarchy against the state hanshermann hoppe anarchocapitalism an annotated bibliography a theory of socialism and capitalism democracy the god that failed the economics and ethics of private property linda and morris tannehill the market for liberty michael huemer the problem of political authority murray rothbard founder of anarchocapitalism for a new liberty man economy and state power and market the ethics of liberty see also agorism anarchocapitalism and minarchism consequentialist libertarianism countereconomics creative disruption cryptoanarchism definition of anarchism and libertarianism issues in anarchism leftwing market anarchism naturalrights libertarianism privatization in criminal justice propertarianism stateless society the libertarian forum voluntaryism notes references further reading brown susan love 1997 the free market as salvation from government the anarchocapitalist view in carrier james g ed meanings of the market the free market in western culture illustrated ed oxford berg publishers p 99 external links anarchocapitalist faq lewrockwellcom website run by lew rockwell mises institute research and educational center of classical liberalism including anarchocapitalism austrian school of economics and american libertarian political theory property and freedom society international anarchocapitalist society strike the root an anarchocapitalist website featuring essays news and a forum austrian school capitalist systems economic ideologies anarchocapitalism ideologies of capitalism classical liberalism libertarianism by form political ideologies rightlibertarianism syncretic political movements murray rothbard | 8,191 |
1027 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%209 | August 9 | events pre1600 48 bc caesars civil war battle of pharsalus julius caesar decisively defeats pompey at pharsalus and pompey flees to egypt 378 gothic war battle of adrianople a large roman army led by emperor valens is defeated by the visigoths valens is killed along with over half of his army 1173 construction of the campanile of the cathedral of pisa now known as the leaning tower of pisa begins it will take two centuries to complete 1329 quilon the first indian christian diocese is erected by pope john xxii the frenchborn jordanus is appointed the first bishop 1428 sources cite biggest caravan trade between podvisoki and republic of ragusa vlachs committed to ragusan lord tomo bunić that they will with 600 horses deliver 1500 modius of salt delivery was meant for dobrašin veseoković and vlachs price was half of delivered salt 1500 ottomanvenetian war 14991503 the ottomans capture methoni messenia 16011900 1610 the first anglopowhatan war begins in colonial virginia 1810 napoleon annexes westphalia as part of the first french empire 1814 american indian wars the creek sign the treaty of fort jackson giving up huge parts of alabama and georgia 1830 louis philippe becomes the king of the french following abdication of charles x 1842 the websterashburton treaty is signed establishing the united statescanada border east of the rocky mountains 1854 american transcendentalist philosopher henry david thoreau publishes his memoir walden 1855 åland war the battle of suomenlinna begins 1862 american civil war battle of cedar mountain at cedar mountain virginia confederate general stonewall jackson narrowly defeats union forces under general john pope 1877 american indian wars battle of the big hole a small band of nez percé indians clash with the united states army 1892 thomas edison receives a patent for a twoway telegraph 1897 the first international congress of mathematicians is held in zürich switzerland 1901present 1902 edward vii and alexandra of denmark are crowned king and queen of the united kingdom of great britain and ireland 1907 the first boy scout encampment concludes at brownsea island in southern england 1925 a train robbery takes place in kakori near lucknow india by the indian independence revolutionaries against british government 1936 summer olympics jesse owens wins his fourth gold medal at the games 1942 world war ii battle of savo island allied naval forces protecting their amphibious forces during the initial stages of the battle of guadalcanal are surprised and defeated by an imperial japanese navy cruiser force 1942 dmitri shostakovichs 7th symphony is premiered in a besieged leningrad 1944 the united states forest service and the wartime advertising council release posters featuring smokey bear for the first time 1944 world war ii continuation war the vyborgpetrozavodsk offensive the largest offensive launched by soviet union against finland during the second world war ends to a strategic stalemate both finnish and soviet troops at the finnish front dug to defensive positions and the front remains stable until the end of the war 1945 world war ii nagasaki is devastated when an atomic bomb fat man is dropped by the united states b29 bockscar thirtyfive thousand people are killed outright including 2320028200 japanese war workers 2000 korean forced workers and 150 japanese soldiers 1945 the red army invades japaneseoccupied manchuria 1960 south kasai secedes from the congo 1965 singapore is expelled from malaysia and becomes the only country to date to gain independence unwillingly 1969 tatelabianca murders followers of charles manson murder pregnant actress sharon tate wife of roman polanski coffee heiress abigail folger polish actor wojciech frykowski mens hairstylist jay sebring and recent highschool graduate steven parent 1970 lansa flight 502 crashes after takeoff from alejandro velasco astete international airport in cusco peru killing 99 of the 100 people on board as well as two people on the ground 1971 the troubles in northern ireland the british authorities launch operation demetrius the operation involves the mass arrest and internment without trial of individuals suspected of being affiliated with the irish republican army pira mass riots follow and thousands of people flee or are forced out of their homes 1973 mars 7 is launched from the ussr 1974 as a direct result of the watergate scandal richard nixon becomes the first president of the united states to resign from office vice president gerald ford becomes president 1991 the italian prosecuting magistrate antonino scopelliti is murdered by the ndrangheta on behalf of the sicilian mafia while preparing the governments case in the final appeal of the maxi trial 1993 the liberal democratic party of japan loses a 38year hold on national leadership 1995 aviateca flight 901 crashes into the san vicente volcano in el salvador killing all 65 people on board 1999 russian president boris yeltsin fires his prime minister sergei stepashin and for the fourth time fires his entire cabinet 2006 at least 21 suspected terrorists are arrested in the 2006 transatlantic aircraft plot that happened in the united kingdom the arrests are made in london birmingham and high wycombe in an overnight operation 2007 air moorea flight 1121 crashes after takeoff from moorea airport in french polynesia killing all 20 people on board 2012 shannon eastin becomes the first woman to officiate an nfl game 2013 gunmen open fire at a sunni mosque in the city of quetta killing at least ten people and injuring 30 2014 michael brown an 18yearold african american male in ferguson missouri is shot and killed by a ferguson police officer after reportedly assaulting the officer and attempting to steal his weapon sparking protests and unrest in the city 2021 the tampere light rail officially starts operating births pre1600 1201 arnold fitz thedmar english historian and merchant d 1274 1537 francesco barozzi italian mathematician and astronomer d 1604 1544 bogislaw xiii duke of pomerania d 1606 1590 john webster colonial settler and governor of connecticut d 1661 16011900 1603 johannes cocceius germandutch theologian and academic d 1669 1611 henry of nassausiegen german count officer in the dutch army diplomat for the dutch republic b 1611 1648 johann michael bach german composer d 1694 1653 john oldham english poet and translator d 1683 1674 františek maxmilián kaňka czech architect designed the veltrusy mansion d 1766 1696 joseph wenzel i prince of liechtenstein d 1772 1722 prince augustus william of prussia d 1758 1726 francesco cetti italian priest zoologist and mathematician d 1778 1748 bernhard schott german music publisher d 1809 1757 elizabeth schuyler hamilton american humanitarian wife of alexander hamilton d 1854 1757 thomas telford scottish architect and engineer designed the menai suspension bridge d 1834 1776 amedeo avogadro italian physicist and chemist d 1856 1783 grand duchess alexandra pavlovna of russia d 1801 1788 adoniram judson american missionary and lexicographer d 1850 1797 charles robert malden english lieutenant and surveyor d 1855 1805 joseph locke english engineer and politician d 1860 1845 andré bessette canadian saint d 1937 1847 maria vittoria dal pozzo frenchitalian wife of amadeo i of spain d 1876 1848 alfred david benjamin australianborn businessman and philanthropist d 1900 1861 dorothea klumpke american astronomer and academic d 1942 1867 evelina haverfield scottish nurse and activist d 1920 1872 archduke joseph august of austria d 1962 1874 reynaldo hahn venezuelan composer and conductor d 1947 1875 albert ketèlbey english pianist composer and conductor d 1959 1878 eileen gray irish architect and furniture designer d 1976 1879 john willcock australian politician 15th premier of western australia d 1956 1881 prince antônio gastão of orléansbraganza brazilian prince d 1918 1890 eino kaila finnish philosopher and psychologist attendant of the vienna circle d 1958 1896 erich hückel german physicist and chemist d 1980 1896 jean piaget swiss psychologist and philosopher d 1980 1899 p l travers australianenglish author and actress d 1996 1900 charles farrell american actor and singer d 1990 1901present 1902 zino francescatti french violinist d 1991 1902 panteleimon ponomarenko russian general and politician d 1984 1905 leo genn british actor and barrister d 1978 1909 vinayaka krishna gokak indian scholar author and academic d 1992 1909 willa beatrice player american educator first black woman college president d 2003 1909 adam von trott zu solz german lawyer and diplomat d 1944 1911 william alfred fowler american astronomer and astrophysicist nobel laureate d 1996 1911 eddie futch american boxer and trainer d 2001 1911 john mcquade northern irish soldier boxer and politician d 1984 1913 wilbur norman christiansen australian astronomer and engineer d 2007 1914 ferenc fricsay hungarianaustrian conductor and director d 1963 1914 tove jansson finnish author and illustrator d 2001 1914 joe mercer english footballer and manager d 1990 1915 mareta west american astronomer and geologist d 1998 1918 kermit beahan american colonel d 1989 1918 giles cooper irish soldier and playwright d 1966 1918 albert seedman american police officer d 2013 1919 joop den uyl dutch journalist economist and politician deputy prime minister of the netherlands d 1987 1919 ralph houk american baseball player and manager d 2010 1920 enzo biagi italian journalist and author d 2007 1921 ernest angley american evangelist and author d 2021 1921 j james exon american soldier and politician 33rd governor of nebraska d 2005 1922 philip larkin english poet and novelist d 1985 1924 mathews mar barnabas indian metropolitan d 2012 1924 frank martínez american soldier and painter d 2013 1925 david a huffman american computer scientist developed huffman coding d 1999 1926 denis atkinson barbadian cricketer d 2001 1927 daniel keyes american short story writer and novelist d 2014 1927 robert shaw english actor and screenwriter d 1978 1928 bob cousy american basketball player and coach 1928 camilla wicks american violinist and educator d 2020 1928 dolores wilson american soprano and actress d 2010 1929 abdi i̇pekçi turkish journalist and activist d 1979 1930 milt bolling american baseball player and scout d 2013 1930 jacques parizeau canadian economist and politician 26th premier of quebec d 2015 1931 chuck essegian american baseball player and lawyer 1931 james freeman gilbert american geophysicist and academic d 2014 1931 paula kent meehan american businesswoman cofounded redken d 2014 1931 mário zagallo brazilian footballer and coach 1932 tam dalyell scottish academic and politician d 2017 1932 john gomery canadian lawyer and jurist d 2021 1933 tetsuko kuroyanagi japanese actress talk show host and author 1935 beverlee mckinsey american actress d 2008 1936 julián javier dominicanamerican baseball player 1936 patrick tse chinesehong kong actor director producer and screenwriter 1938 leonid kuchma ukrainian engineer and politician 2nd president of ukraine 1938 rod laver australian tennis player and coach 1938 otto rehhagel german footballer coach and manager 1939 hércules brito ruas brazilian footballer 1939 vincent hanna northern irish journalist d 1997 1939 the mighty hannibal american singersongwriter and producer d 2014 1939 billy henderson american singer d 2007 1939 bulle ogier french actress and screenwriter 1939 romano prodi italian academic and politician 52nd prime minister of italy 1939 butch warren american bassist d 2013 1940 linda keen american mathematician and academic 1942 david steinberg canadian actor director producer and screenwriter 1943 ken norton american boxer and actor d 2013 1944 george armstrong english footballer d 2000 1944 patrick depailler french racing driver d 1980 1944 sam elliott american actor and producer 1944 patricia mckissack american soldier engineer and author d 2017 1945 barbara delinsky american author 1945 aleksandr gorelik russian figure skater and sportscaster d 2012 1945 posy simmonds english author and illustrator 1946 rinus gerritsen dutch rock bass player 1947 roy hodgson english footballer and manager 1947 barbara mason american rbsoul singersongwriter 1947 john varley american author 1948 bill campbell american baseball player and coach d 2023 1949 jonathan kellerman american psychologist and author 1949 ted simmons american baseball player and coach 1951 james naughtie scottish journalist and radio host 1951 steve swisher american baseball player and manager 1952 prateep ungsongtham hata thai activist and politician 1953 kay stenshjemmet norwegian speed skater 1953 jean tirole french economist and academic nobel prize laureate 1954 ray jennings south african cricketer and coach 1954 pete thomas english drummer 1955 john e sweeney american lawyer and politician 1956 gordon singleton canadian olympic cyclist 1957 melanie griffith american actress and producer 1958 amanda bearse american actress comedian and director 1958 calie pistorius south african engineer and academic 1959 kurtis blow american rapper producer and actor 1959 michael kors american fashion designer 1961 brad gilbert american tennis player and sportscaster 1961 john key new zealand businessman and politician 38th prime minister of new zealand 1962 louis lipps american football player and radio host 1962 kevin mack american football player 1962 john hot rod williams american basketball player d 2015 1963 whitney houston american singersongwriter producer and actress d 2012 1963 jay leggett american actor director producer and screenwriter d 2013 1963 barton lynch australian surfer 1964 brett hull canadianamerican ice hockey player and manager 1964 hoda kotb american journalist and television personality 1965 nitin chandrakant desai indian art director production designer and film and television producer d 2023 1966 vinny del negro american basketball player and coach 1966 linn ullmann norwegian journalist and author 1967 deion sanders american football and baseball player 1968 gillian anderson americanbritish actress activist and writer 1968 eric bana australian actor comedian producer and screenwriter 1968 sam fogarino american drummer 1968 mcg american director and producer 1969 troy percival american baseball player and coach 1970 rod brindamour canadian ice hockey player and coach 1970 chris cuomo american lawyer and journalist 1970 thomas lennon american actor and comedian 1972 juanes colombian singer and songwriter 1973 filippo inzaghi italian footballer and manager 1973 kevin mckidd scottish actor and director 1973 gene luen yang american author and illustrator 1974 derek fisher american basketball player and coach 1974 stephen fung hong kong actor singer director and screenwriter 1974 lesley mckenna scottish snowboarder 1974 matt morris american baseball player 1974 kirill reznik american lawyer and politician 1974 raphaël poirée french biathlete 1975 mahesh babu indian actor and producer 1975 valentin kovalenko uzbek football referee 1975 mike lamb american baseball player 1975 robbie middleby australian soccer player 1976 rhona mitra english actress and singer 1976 audrey tautou french model and actress 1976 jessica capshaw american actress 1977 jason frasor american baseball player 1977 chamique holdsclaw american basketball player 1977 ravshan irmatov uzbek football referee 1977 adewale ogunleye american football player 1977 ime udoka american basketball player and coach 1977 mikaël silvestre french footballer 1978 dorin chirtoacă moldavian lawyer and politician mayor of chișinău 1978 ana serradilla mexican actress and producer 1978 wesley sonck belgian footballer 1979 michael kingma australian basketball player 1979 lisa nandy british politician 1979 tony stewart american football player 1981 jarvis hayes american basketball player 1981 li jiawei singaporean table tennis player 1982 joel anthony american basketball player 1982 tyson gay american sprinter 1982 yekaterina samutsevich russian singer and activist 1982 kanstantsin sivtsov belarusian cyclist 1983 dan levy canadian actor and comedian 1983 hamilton masakadza zimbabwean cricketer 1983 shane obrien canadian ice hockey player 1983 alicja smietana polishenglish violinist 1984 paul gallagher scottish footballer 1985 luca filippi italian racing driver 1985 filipe luís brazilian footballer 1985 anna kendrick american actress and singer 1985 hayley peirsol american swimmer 1985 jamarcus russell american football player 1985 chandler williams american football player d 2013 1986 michael lerchl german footballer 1986 daniel preussner german rugby player 1986 tyler smith american singersongwriter and bass player 1987 marek niit estonian sprinter 1988 anthony castonzo american football player 1988 willian brazilian footballer 1988 vasilios koutsianikoulis greek footballer 1989 jason heyward american baseball player 1989 stefano okaka italian footballer 1989 kento ono japanese actor and model 1990 i̇shak doğan turkish footballer 1990 sarah mcbride american lgbt activist 1990 stuart mcinally scottish rugby player 1990 brice roger french skier 1990 darcy short australian cricketer 1990 bill skarsgård swedish actor 1991 alice barlow english actress 1991 alexa bliss american bodybuilder and wrestler 1991 hansika motwani indian actress 1992 farahnaz forotan afghan journalist 1993 junq south korean singer and actor 1993 dipa karmakar indian gymnast 1994 kelli hubly american soccer player 1994 king von american rapper d 2020 1995 eli apple american football player 1995 justice smith american actor 1996 sanya lopez filipino actress and model 1999 deniss vasiļjevs latvian figure skater 2000 arlo parks british singersongwriter 2005 victoria jiménez kasintseva andorran tennis player deaths pre1600 378 traianus roman general 378 valens roman emperor b 328 803 irene of athens byzantine ruler b 752 833 almamun iraqi caliph b 786 1048 pope damasus ii 1107 emperor horikawa of japan b 1079 1173 najm addin ayyub kurdish soldier and politician 1211 william de braose 4th lord of bramber exiled anglonorman baron b 114453 1260 walter of kirkham bishop of durham 1296 hugh count of brienne french crusader 1341 eleanor of anjou queen consort of sicily b 1289 1354 stephen duke of slavonia hungarian prince b 1332 1420 pierre dailly french theologian and cardinal b 1351 1516 hieronymus bosch early netherlandish painter b circa 1450 1534 thomas cajetan italian cardinal and philosopher b 1470 1580 metrophanes iii of constantinople b 1520 16011900 1601 michael the brave romanian prince b 1558 1634 william noy english lawyer and judge b 1577 1720 simon ockley english orientalist and academic b 1678 1744 james brydges 1st duke of chandos english academic and politician lord lieutenant of radnorshire b 1673 1816 johann august apel german jurist and author b 1771 1861 vincent novello english composer and publisher b 1781 1886 samuel ferguson irish lawyer and poet b 1810 1901present 1910 huo yuanjia chinese martial artist cofounded the chin woo athletic association b 1868 1919 ruggero leoncavallo italian composer and educator b 1857 1920 samuel griffith welshaustralian politician 9th premier of queensland b 1845 1932 john charles fields canadian mathematician founder of the fields medal b 1863 1941 richard goss executed irish republican b 1915 1942 edith stein german nun and saint b 1891 1943 chaïm soutine belarusianfrench painter and educator b 1893 1945 robert hampton gray canadian lieutenant and pilot victoria cross recipient b 1917 1945 harry hillman american runner and coach b 1881 1946 bert vogler south african cricketer b 1876 1948 hugo boss german fashion designer founded hugo boss b 1885 1949 edward thorndike american psychologist and academic b 1874 1957 carl clauberg german nazi physician b 1898 1962 hermann hesse germanborn swiss poet novelist and painter nobel prize laureate b 1877 1963 patrick bouvier kennedy american son of john f kennedy b 1963 1967 joe orton english author and playwright b 1933 1969 wojciech frykowski polishamerican actor and author b 1936 1969 sharon tate american model and actress b 1943 1969 c f powell english physicist and academic nobel prize laureate b 1903 1972 sıddık sami onar turkish lawyer and academic b 1897 1974 bill chase american trumpet player and bandleader b 1934 1975 dmitri shostakovich russian pianist and composer b 1906 1978 james gould cozzens american novelist and short story writer b 1903 1979 walter omalley american businessman b 1903 1979 raymond washington american gang leader founded the crips b 1953 1980 jacqueline cochran american pilot b 1906 1980 ruby hurley american civil rights activist b 1909 1981 max hoffman austrianborn car importer and businessman b 1904 1985 clive churchill australian rugby league player and coach b 1927 1988 m carl holman american author educator poet and playwright b 1919 1988 giacinto scelsi italian composer b 1905 1990 joe mercer english footballer and manager b 1914 1992 fereydoun farrokhzad iranian singer and actor b 1938 1995 jerry garcia american singersongwriter and guitarist b 1942 1996 frank whittle english soldier and engineer invented the jet engine b 1907 1999 helen rollason english sports journalist and sportscaster b 1956 1999 fouad serageddin egyptian journalist and politician b 1910 2000 john harsanyi hungarianamerican economist and academic nobel prize laureate b 1920 2000 nicholas markowitz american murder victim b 1984 2002 paul samson english guitarist b 1953 2003 jacques deray french director and screenwriter b 1929 2003 ray harford english footballer and manager b 1945 2003 gregory hines american actor dancer and choreographer b 1946 2003 r sivagurunathan sri lankan lawyer journalist and academic b 1931 2004 robert lecourt french lawyer and politician lord chancellor of france b 1908 2004 tony mottola american guitarist and composer b 1918 2004 david raksin american composer and educator b 1912 2005 judith rossner american author b 1935 2006 philip e high english author b 1914 2006 james van allen american physicist and academic b 1914 2007 joe odonnell american photographer and journalist b 1922 2008 bernie mac american comedian actor screenwriter and producer b 1957 2008 mahmoud darwish palestinian author and poet b 1941 2010 calvin fuzz jones american singer and bass player b 1926 2010 ted stevens american soldier lawyer and politician b 1923 2012 carl davis american record producer b 1934 2012 gene f franklin american engineer theorist and academic b 1927 2012 al freeman jr american actor director and educator b 1934 2012 david rakoff canadianamerican actor and journalist b 1964 2012 carmen belen richardson puerto ricanamerican actress b 1930 2012 mel stuart american director and producer b 1928 2013 harry elliott american baseball player and coach b 1923 2013 eduardo falú argentinian guitarist and composer b 1923 2013 william lynch jr american lawyer and politician b 1947 2014 j f ade ajayi nigerian historian and academic b 1929 2014 andriy bal ukrainian footballer and coach b 1958 2014 arthur g cohen american businessman and philanthropist cofounded arlen realty and development corporation b 1930 2014 ed nelson american actor b 1928 2015 frank gifford american football player sportscaster and actor b 1930 2015 john henry holland american computer scientist and academic b 1929 2015 walter nahún lópez honduran footballer b 1977 2015 david nobbs english author and screenwriter b 1935 2015 kayyar kinhanna rai indian journalist author and poet b 1915 2015 fikret otyam turkish painter and journalist b 1926 2016 gerald grosvenor 6th duke of westminster thirdrichest british citizen b 1951 2021 pat hitchcock english actress and producer b 1928 2021 killer kau south african rapper dancer and record producer b 1998 2021 zairaini sarbini malaysian voice actress b 1972 2023 robbie robertson canadian singersongwriter guitarist producer and actor b 1943 holidays and observances battle of gangut day russia christian feast day candida maria of jesus edith stein st teresa benedicta of the cross firmus and rusticus herman of alaska russian orthodox church and related congregations episcopal church usa john vianney 1950s currently august 4 mary sumner church of england nath í of achonry romanus ostiarius secundian marcellian and verian august 9 eastern orthodox liturgics international day of the worlds indigenous peoples united nations meyboom brussels and leuven belgium national day celebrates the independence of singapore from malaysia in 1965 national peacekeepers day celebrated on sunday closest to the day canada national womens day south africa references external links days of the year august | 3,792 |
1028 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristophanes | Aristophanes | aristophanes c 446 c 386 bc son of philippus of the deme kydathenaion was a comic playwright or comedywriter of ancient athens and a poet of old attic comedy eleven of his forty plays survive virtually complete these provide the most valuable examples of a genre of comic drama known as old comedy and are used to define it along with fragments from dozens of lost plays by aristophanes and his contemporaries also known as the father of comedy and the prince of ancient comedy aristophanes has been said to recreate the life of ancient athens more convincingly than any other author his powers of ridicule were feared and acknowledged by influential contemporaries plato singled out aristophanes play the clouds as slander that contributed to the trial and subsequent condemning to death of socrates although other satirical playwrights had also caricatured the philosopher aristophanes second play the babylonians now lost was denounced by cleon as a slander against the athenian polis it is possible that the case was argued in court but details of the trial are not recorded and aristophanes caricatured cleon mercilessly in his subsequent plays especially the knights the first of many plays that he directed himself in my opinion he says through that plays chorus the authordirector of comedies has the hardest job of all etymology aristophaness name means one who appears best from the greek ἄριστος aristos meaning best and φαίνομαι meaning appear biography less is known about aristophanes than about his plays in fact his plays are the main source of information about him and his life it was conventional in old comedy for the chorus to speak on behalf of the author during an address called the parabasis and thus some biographical facts can be found there however these facts relate almost entirely to his career as a dramatist and the plays contain few clear and unambiguous clues about his personal beliefs or his private life he was a comic poet in an age when it was conventional for a poet to assume the role of teacher didaskalos and though this specifically referred to his training of the chorus in rehearsal it also covered his relationship with the audience as a commentator on significant issues aristophanes claimed to be writing for a clever and discerning audience yet he also declared that other times would judge the audience according to its reception of his plays he sometimes boasts of his originality as a dramatist yet his plays consistently espouse opposition to radical new influences in athenian society he caricatured leading figures in the arts notably euripides whose influence on his own work however he once grudgingly acknowledged in politics especially the populist cleon and in philosophyreligion where socrates was the most obvious target such caricatures seem to imply that aristophanes was an oldfashioned conservative yet that view of him leads to contradictions it has been argued that aristophanes produced plays mainly to entertain the audience and to win prestigious competitions his plays were written for production at the great dramatic festivals of athens the lenaia and city dionysia where they were judged and awarded prizes in competition with the works of other comic dramatists an elaborate series of lotteries designed to prevent prejudice and corruption reduced the voting judges at the city dionysia to just five these judges probably reflected the mood of the audiences yet there is much uncertainty about the composition of those audiences the theatres were certainly huge with seating for at least 10000 at the theatre of dionysus the days program at the city dionysia for example was crowded with three tragedies and a satyr play ahead of a comedy but it is possible that many of the poorer citizens typically the main supporters of demagogues like cleon occupied the festival holiday with other pursuits the conservative views expressed in the plays might therefore reflect the attitudes of the dominant group in an unrepresentative audience the production process might also have influenced the views expressed in the plays throughout most of aristophanes career the chorus was essential to a plays success and it was recruited and funded by a choregus a wealthy citizen appointed to the task by one of the archons a choregus could regard his personal expenditure on the chorus as a civic duty and a public honour but aristophanes showed in the knights that wealthy citizens might regard civic responsibilities as punishment imposed on them by demagogues and populists like cleon thus the political conservatism of the plays may reflect the views of the wealthiest section of athenian society on whose generosity all dramatists depended for putting on their plays when aristophanes first play the banqueters was produced athens was an ambitious imperial power and the peloponnesian war was only in its fourth year his plays often express pride in the achievement of the older generation the victors at marathon yet they are not jingoistic and they are staunchly opposed to the war with sparta the plays are particularly scathing in criticism of war profiteers among whom populists such as cleon figure prominently by the time his last play was produced around 386 bc athens had been defeated in war its empire had been dismantled and it had undergone a transformation from being the political to the intellectual centre of greece aristophanes was part of this transformation and he shared in the intellectual fashions of the periodthe structure of his plays evolves from old comedy until in his last surviving play wealth ii it more closely resembles new comedy however it is uncertain whether he led or merely responded to changes in audience expectations aristophanes won second prize at the city dionysia in 427 bc with his first play the banqueters now lost he won first prize there with his next play the babylonians also now lost it was usual for foreign dignitaries to attend the city dionysia and the babylonians caused some embarrassment for the athenian authorities since it depicted the cities of the delian league as slaves grinding at a mill some influential citizens notably cleon reviled the play as slander against the polis and possibly took legal action against the author the details of the trial are unrecorded but speaking through the hero of his third play the acharnians staged at the lenaia where there were few or no foreign dignitaries the poet carefully distinguishes between the polis and the real targets of his acerbic wit aristophanes repeatedly savages cleon in his later plays but these satirical diatribes appear to have had no effect on cleons political careera few weeks after the performance of the knightsa play full of anticleon jokescleon was elected to the prestigious board of ten generals cleon also seems to have had no real power to limit or control aristophanes the caricatures of him continued up to and even beyond his death in the absence of clear biographical facts about aristophanes scholars make educated guesses based on interpretation of the language in the plays inscriptions and summaries or comments by hellenistic and byzantine scholars can also provide useful clues we know from a combination of these sources and especially from comments in the knights and the clouds that aristophanes first three plays were not directed by him they were instead directed by callistratus and philoneides an arrangement that seemed to suit aristophanes since he appears to have used these same directors in many later plays as well philoneides for example later directed the frogs and he was also credited perhaps wrongly with directing the wasps aristophaness use of directors complicates our reliance on the plays as sources of biographical information because apparent selfreferences might have been made with reference to his directors instead thus for example a statement by the chorus in the acharnians seems to indicate that the poet had a close personal association with the island of aegina similarly the hero in the acharnians complains about cleon dragging me into court over last years play comments made by the chorus referring to aristophanes in the clouds have been interpreted as evidence that he can hardly have been more than 18 years old when his first play the banqueters was produced the second parabasis in wasps appears to indicate that he reached some kind of temporary accommodation with cleon following either the controversy over the babylonians or a subsequent controversy over the knights it has been inferred from statements in the clouds and peace that aristophanes was prematurely bald aristophanes was probably victorious at least once at the city dionysia with babylonians in 427 and at least three times at the lenaia with the acharnians in 425 knights in 424 and frogs in 405 frogs in fact won the unique distinction of a repeat performance at a subsequent festival a son of aristophanes araros was also a comic poet and he could have been heavily involved in the production of his fathers play wealth ii in 388 araros is also thought to have been responsible for the posthumous performances of the now lost plays aeolosicon ii and cocalus and it is possible that the last of these won the prize at the city dionysia in 387 it appears that a second son philippus was twice victorious at the lenaia and he could have directed some of eubulus comedies a third son was called either nicostratus or philetaerus and a man by the latter name appears in the catalogue of lenaia victors with two victories the first probably in the late 370s platos the symposium appears to be a useful source of biographical information about aristophanes but its reliability is open to doubt it purports to be a record of conversations at a dinner party at which both aristophanes and socrates are guests held some seven years after the performance of the clouds the play in which socrates was cruelly caricatured one of the guests alcibiades even quotes from the play when teasing socrates over his appearance and yet there is no indication of any illfeeling between socrates and aristophanes platos aristophanes is in fact a genial character and this has been interpreted as evidence of platos own friendship with him their friendship appears to be corroborated by an epitaph for aristophanes reputedly written by plato in which the playwrights soul is compared to an eternal shrine for the graces plato was only a boy when the events in the symposium are supposed to have occurred and it is possible that his aristophanes is in fact based on a reading of the plays for example conversation among the guests turns to the subject of love and aristophanes explains his notion of it in terms of an amusing allegory a device he often uses in his plays he is represented as suffering an attack of hiccups and this might be a humorous reference to the crude physical jokes in his plays he tells the other guests that he is quite happy to be thought amusing but he is wary of appearing ridiculous this fear of being ridiculed is consistent with his declaration in the knights that he embarked on the career of comic playwright warily after witnessing the public contempt and ridicule that other dramatists had incurred aristophanes survived the peloponnesian war two oligarchic revolutions and two democratic restorations this has been interpreted as evidence that he was not actively involved in politics despite his highly political plays he was probably appointed to the council of five hundred for a year at the beginning of the fourth century but such appointments were very common in democratic athens use of language the language of aristophanes plays and in old comedy generally was valued by ancient commentators as a model of the attic dialect the orator quintilian believed that the charm and grandeur of the attic dialect made old comedy an example for orators to study and follow and he considered it inferior in these respects only to the works of homer a revival of interest in the attic dialect may have been responsible for the recovery and circulation of aristophanes plays during the fourth and fifth centuries ad resulting in their survival today in aristophanes plays the attic dialect is couched in verse and his plays can be appreciated for their poetic qualities for aristophanes contemporaries the works of homer and hesiod formed the cornerstones of hellenic history and culture thus poetry had a moral and social significance that made it an inevitable topic of comic satire aristophanes was very conscious of literary fashions and traditions and his plays feature numerous references to other poets these include not only rival comic dramatists such as eupolis and hermippus and predecessors such as magnes crates and cratinus but also tragedians notably aeschylus sophocles and euripides all three of whom are mentioned in eg the frogs aristophanes was the equal of these great tragedians in his subtle use of lyrics he appears to have modelled his approach to language on that of euripides in particular so much so that the comic dramatist cratinus labelled him a euripidaristophanist addicted to hairsplitting niceties a full appreciation of aristophanes plays requires an understanding of the poetic forms he employed with virtuoso skill and of their different rhythms and associations there were three broad poetic forms iambic dialogue tetrameter verses and lyrics iambic dialogue aristophanes achieves an effect resembling natural speech through the use of the iambic trimeter corresponding to the effects achieved by english poets such as shakespeare using iambic pentameters his realistic use of the meter makes it ideal for both dialogue and soliloquy as for instance in the prologue before the arrival of the chorus when the audience is introduced to the main issues in the plot the acharnians opens with these three lines by the hero dikaiopolis rendered here in english as iambic pentameters how many are the things that vex my heart pleasures are few so very few just four but stressful things are manysandthousandsandheaps here aristophanes employs a frequent device arranging the syntax so that the final word in a line comes as a comic climax the heros pleasures are so few he can number them four but his causes for complaint are so many they beggar numerical description and he must invent his own word for them literally sandhundredheaps here paraphrased manysandthousandsandheaps the use of invented compound words is another comic device frequently found in the plays tetrameter catalectic verses these are long lines of anapests trochees or iambs where each line is ideally measured in four dipodes or pairs of feet used in various situations within each play such as formal debates or agons between characters typically in anapestic rhythm excited dialogue or heated argument typically trochaic rhythm the same as in early tragedy long speeches declaimed by the chorus in parabases in either anapestic or trochaic rhythms informal debates barely above the level of ordinary dialogue typically iambic anapestic rhythms are naturally jaunty as in many limericks and trochaic meter is suited to rapid delivery the word trochee is in fact derived from trechein to run as demonstrated for example by choruses who enter at speed often in aggressive mood however even though both these rhythms can seem to bowl along aristophanes often varies them through use of complex syntax and substituted meters adapting the rhythms to the requirements of serious argument in an anapestic passage in the frogs for instance the character aeschylus presents a view of poetry that is supposed to be serious but which leads to a comic interruption by the god dionysus aesit was orpheus singing who taught us religion and how wrong people are when they kill and we learned from musaeus medicinal cures and the science of divination if its farming you want hesiod knows it all when to plant when to harvest how godlike homer got to be famous ill tell if you ask he taught us what all good men should know discipline fortitude battlereadiness dio but noone taught pantocles yesterday he was marching his men up and down on parade when the crest of his helmet fell off the rhythm begins at a typical anapestic gallop slows down to consider the revered poets hesiod and homer then gallops off again to its comic conclusion at the expense of the unfortunate pantocles such subtle variations in rhythm are common in the plays allowing for serious points to be made while still whetting the audiences appetite for the next joke lyrics almost nothing is known about the music that accompanied greek lyrics and the meter is often so varied and complex that it is difficult for modern readers or audiences to get a feel for the intended effects yet aristophanes still impresses with the charm and simplicity of his lyrics some of the most memorable and haunting lyrics are dignified hymns set free of the comic action in the example below taken from the wasps the lyric is merely a comic interlude and the rhythm is steadily trochaic the syntax in the original greek is natural and unforced and it was probably accompanied by brisk and cheerful music gliding to a concluding pun at the expense of amynias who is thought to have lost his fortune gambling though to myself i often seem a bright chap and not awkward none comes close to amynias son of sellos of the bigwig clan a man i once saw dine with rich leogorus now as poor as antiphon he lives on apples and pomegranates yet he got himself appointed ambassador to pharsalus way up there in thessaly home of the poor penestes happy to be where everyone is as penniless as he is the pun here in english translation penestespenniless is a weak version of the greek pun penéstaisipenéstĕs destitute many of the puns in the plays are based on words that are similar rather than identical and it has been observed that there could be more of them than scholars have yet been able to identify others are based on double meanings sometimes entire scenes are constructed on puns as in the acharnians with the megarian farmer and his pigs the megarian farmer defies the athenian embargo against megarian trade and tries to trade his daughters disguised as pigs except pig was ancient slang for vagina since the embargo against megara was the pretext for the peloponnesian war aristophanes naturally concludes that this whole mess happened because of three cunts it can be argued that the most important feature of the language of the plays is imagery particularly the use of similes metaphors and pictorial expressions in the knights for example the ears of a character with selective hearing are represented as parasols that open and close in the frogs aeschylus is said to compose verses in the manner of a horse rolling in a sandpit some plays feature revelations of human perfectibility that are poetic rather than religious in character such as the marriage of the hero pisthetairos to zeuss paramour in the birds and the recreation of old athens crowned with roses at the end of the knights rhetoric it is widely believed that aristophanes condemned rhetoric on both moral and political grounds he states a speaker trained in the new rhetoric may use his talents to deceive the jury and bewilder his opponents so thoroughly that the trial loses all semblance of fairness he is speaking to the art of flattery and evidence points towards the fact that many of aristophanes plays were actually created with the intent to attack the view of rhetoric the most noticeable attack can be seen in his play banqueters in which two brothers from different educational backgrounds argue over which education is better one brother comes from a background of oldfashioned education while the other brother appears to be a product of the sophistic education the chorus was mainly used by aristophanes as a defense against rhetoric and would often talk about topics such as the civic duty of those who were educated in classical teachings in aristophanes opinion it was the job of those educated adults to protect the public from deception and to stand as a beacon of light for those who were more gullible than others one of the main reasons why aristophanes was so against the sophists came into existence from the requirements listed by the leaders of the organization money was essential which meant that roughly all of the pupils studying with the sophists came from upperclass backgrounds and excluded the rest of the polis aristophanes believed that education and knowledge was a public service and that anything that excluded willing minds was nothing but an abomination he concludes that all politicians that study rhetoric must have doubtful citizenships unspeakable morals and too much arrogance aristophanes and old comedy the plays of aristophanes are among the defining examples of old comedy aristophanes plays are also the only full length old comedy plays that have survived from antiquity thus making them literally among the most defining elements for defining old comedy for this reason an understanding of old comedy and aristophanes place in it is useful to comprehend his plays in their historical and cultural context the themes of old comedy included inclusive comedy old comedy provided a variety of entertainments for a diverse audience it accommodated a serious purpose light entertainment hauntingly beautiful lyrics the buffoonery of puns and invented words obscenities disciplined verse wildly absurd plots and a formal dramatic structure fantasy and absurdity fantasy in old comedy is unrestricted and impossibilities are ignored situations are developed logically to absurd conclusions an approach to humour that is echoed for instance in the works of lewis carroll and eugène ionesco the theatre of the absurd the crazy costume worn by dionysus in the frogs is typical of an absurd result obtained on logical groundshe wears a womans saffroncoloured tunic because effeminacy is an aspect of his divinity buskin boots because he is interested in reviving the art of tragedy and a lion skin cape because like heracles his mission leads him into hades absurdities develop logically from initial premises in a plot in the knights for instance cleons corrupt service to the people of athens is originally depicted as a household relationship in which the slave dupes his master the introduction of a rival who is not a member of the household leads to an absurd shift in the metaphor so that cleon and his rival become erastai competing for the affections of an eromenos hawkers of oracles competing for the attention of a credulous public athletes in a race for approval and orators competing for the popular vote the resourceful hero in aristophanic comedy the hero is an independentminded and selfreliant individual he has something of the ingenuity of homers odysseus and much of the shrewdness of the farmer idealized in hesiods works and days subjected to corrupt leaders and unreliable neighbours typically he devises a complicated and highly fanciful escape from an intolerable situation thus dikaiopolis in the acharnians contrives a private peace treaty with the spartans bdelucleon in the wasps turns his own house into a private law court in order to keep his juryaddicted father safely at home trygaeus in peace flies to olympus on a giant dung beetle to obtain an end to the peloponnesian war pisthetairus in birds sets off to establish his own colony and becomes instead the ruler of the bird kingdom and a rival to the gods the resourceful cast the numerous surprising developments in an aristophanic plot the changes in scene and the farcical comings and goings of minor characters towards the end of a play were managed according to theatrical convention with only three principal actors a fourth actor often the leader of the chorus was permitted to deliver short speeches songs and addresses to the audience by the chorus gave the actors hardly enough time offstage to draw breath and to prepare for changes in scene complex structure the action of an aristophanic play obeyed a crazy logic of its own and yet it always unfolded within a formal dramatic structure that was repeated with minor variations from one play to another the different structural elements are associated with different poetic meters and rhythms and these are generally lost in english translations dramatic structure of aristophanes plots the structural elements of a typical aristophanic plot can be summarized as follows prologue an introductory scene with a dialogue andor soliloquy addressed to the audience expressed in iambic trimeter and explaining the situation that is to be resolved in the play parodos the arrival of the chorus dancing and singing sometimes followed by a choreographed skirmish with one or more actors often expressed in long lines of tetrameters symmetrical scenes passages featuring songs and declaimed verses in long lines of tetrameters arranged symmetrically in two sections such that each half resembles the other in meter and line length the agon and parabasis can be considered specific instances of symmetrical scenes parabasis verses through which the chorus addresses the audience directly firstly in the middle of the play and again near the end see the section below parabasis agon a formal debate that decides the outcome of the play typically in anapestic tetrameter though iambs are sometimes used to delineate inferior arguments episodes sections of dialogue in iambic trimeter often in a succession of scenes featuring minor characters towards the end of a play songs strophesantistrophes or odesantodes often in symmetrical pairs where each half has the same meter and number of lines as the other used as transitions between other structural elements or between scenes while actors change costume and often commenting on the action exodus the departure of the chorus and the actors in song and dance celebrating the heros victory and sometimes celebrating a symbolic marriage the rules of competition did not prevent a playwright arranging and adjusting these elements to suit his particular needs in the acharnians and peace for example there is no formal agon whereas in the clouds there are two agons parabasis the parabasis is an address to the audience by the chorus or chorus leader while the actors leave or have left the stage in this role the chorus is sometimes out of character as the authors voice and sometimes in character although these capacities are often difficult to distinguish generally the parabasis occurs somewhere in the middle of a play and often there is a second parabasis towards the end the elements of a parabasis have been defined and named by scholars but it is probable that aristophanes own understanding was less formal the selection of elements can vary from play to play and it varies considerably within plays between first and second parabasis the early plays the acharnians to the birds are fairly uniform in their approach however and the following elements of a parabasis can be found within them kommation this is a brief prelude comprising short lines and often including a valediction to the departing actors such as go rejoicing parabasis proper this is usually a defense of the authors work and it includes criticism of the audiences attitude it is declaimed in long lines of anapestic tetrameters aristophanes himself refers to the parabasis proper only as anapests pnigos sometimes known as a choker it comprises a few short lines appended to the parabasis proper as a kind of rapid patter it has been suggested that some of the effects achieved in a pnigos can be heard in the lord chancellors nightmare song in act 2 of gilbert and sullivans iolanthe epirrhematic syzygies these are symmetrical scenes that mirror each other in meter and number of lines they form part of the first parabasis and they often comprise the entire second parabasis they are characterized by the following elements strophe or ode these are lyrics in a variety of meters sung by the chorus in the first parabasis as an invocation to the gods and as a comic interlude in the second parabasis epirrhema these are usually long lines of trochaic tetrameters broadly political in their significance they were probably spoken by the leader of the chorus in character antistrophe or antode these are songs that mirror the stropheode in meter length and function antepirrhema this is another declaimed passage and it mirrors the epirrhema in meter length and function the wasps is thought to offer the best example of a conventional approach and the elements of a parabasis can be identified and located in that play as follows classwikitable stylemargin 1em auto 1em auto backgroundcolor ffffff elements in the wasps 1st parabasis 2nd parabasis kommation lines 10091014 parabasis proper lines 10151050 pnigos lines 10511059 strophe lines 10601070 lines 12651274 epirrhema lines 10711090 lines 12751283 antistrophe lines 10911101 missing antepirrhema lines 11021121 lines 12841291 textual corruption is probably the reason for the absence of the antistrophe in the second parabasis however there are several variations from the ideal even within the early plays for example the parabasis proper in the clouds lines 518562 is composed in eupolidean meter rather than in anapests and the second parabasis includes a kommation but it lacks strophe antistrophe and antepirrhema the clouds lines 11131130 the second parabasis in the acharnians lines 971999 can be considered a hybrid parabasissong ie the declaimed sections are merely continuations of the strophe and antistrophe and unlike the typical parabasis it seems to comment on actions that occur on stage during the address an understanding of old comedy conventions such as the parabasis is necessary for a proper understanding of aristophanes plays on the other hand a sensitive appreciation of the plays is necessary for a proper understanding of the conventions influence and legacy the tragic dramatists sophocles and euripides died near the end of the peloponnesian war and the art of tragedy thereafter ceased to develop yet comedy did continue to evolve after the defeat of athens and it is possible that it did so because in aristophanes it had a master craftsman who lived long enough to help usher it into a new age indeed according to one ancient source platonius c9th century ad one of aristophaness last plays aioliskon had neither a parabasis nor any choral lyrics making it a type of middle comedy while kolakos anticipated all the elements of new comedy including a rape and a recognition scene aristophanes seems to have had some appreciation of his formative role in the development of comedy as indicated by his comment in clouds that his audience would be judged by other times according to its reception of his plays clouds was awarded third ie last place after its original performance and the text that has come down to the modern age was a subsequent draft that aristophanes intended to be read rather than acted the circulation of his plays in manuscript extended their influence beyond the original audience over whom in fact they seem to have had little or no practical influence they did not affect the career of cleon they failed to persuade the athenians to pursue an honourable peace with sparta and it is not clear that they were instrumental in the trial and execution of socrates whose death probably resulted from public animosity towards the philosophers disgraced associates such as alcibiades exacerbated of course by his own intransigence during the trial the plays in manuscript form have been put to some surprising usesas indicated earlier they were used in the study of rhetoric on the recommendation of quintilian and by students of the attic dialect in the fourth and fifth centuries ad it is possible that plato sent copies of the plays to dionysius of syracuse so that he might learn about athenian life and government latin translations of the plays by andreas divus venice 1528 were circulated widely throughout europe in the renaissance and these were soon followed by translations and adaptations in modern languages racine for example drew les plaideurs 1668 from the wasps goethe who turned to aristophanes for a warmer and more vivid form of comedy than he could derive from readings of terence and plautus adapted a short play die vögel from the birds for performance in weimar aristophanes has appealed to both conservatives and radicals in the nineteenth and twentieth centuriesanatoly lunacharsky first commissar of enlightenment for the ussr in 1917 declared that the ancient dramatist would have a permanent place in proletarian theatre and yet conservative prussian intellectuals interpreted aristophanes as a satirical opponent of social reform the avantgardist stagedirector karolos koun directed a version of the birds under the acropolis in 1959 that established a trend in modern greek history of breaking taboos through the voice of aristophanes the plays have a significance that goes beyond their artistic function as historical documents that open the window on life and politics in classical athens in which respect they are perhaps as important as the writings of thucydides the artistic influence of the plays is immeasurable they have contributed to the history of european theatre and that history in turn shapes our understanding of the plays thus for example the operettas of gilbert and sullivan can give us insights into aristophanes plays and similarly the plays can give us insights into the operettas the plays are a source of famous sayings such as by words the mind is winged listed below are some of the many works influenced more or less by aristophanes drama 1909 wasps original greek cambridge university undergraduate production music by vaughan williams 2004 julyoctober the frogs musical adapted by nathan lane music and lyrics by stephen sondheim performed at the vivian beaumont theater broadway 19622006 various plays by students and staff kings college london in the original greek frogs 1962 1971 1988 thesmophoriazusae 1965 1974 1985 the acharnians 1968 1992 2004 clouds 1977 1990 birds 1982 2000 ecclesiazusae 2006 peace 1970 wasps 1981 2002 lysistrata adapted by robert brustein music by galt macdermot performed by american repertory theatre boston us 2008 mayjune frogs adapted by david greenspan music by thomas cabaniss performed by classic stage company new york us 2023 may the wasps adapted by the nsw arts unit drama company directed by genevieve de souza nida literature the romantic poet percy shelley wrote a comic lyrical drama swellfoot the tyrant in imitation of aristophanes play the frogs after he was reminded of the chorus in that play by a herd of pigs passing to market under the window of his lodgings in san giuliano italy aristophanes particularly in reference to the clouds is mentioned frequently by the character menedemos in the hellenic traders series of novels by h n turteltaub a liberal version of the comedies have been published in comic book format initially by agrotikes ekdoseis during the 1980s and republished over the years by other companies the plot was written by tasos apostolidis and the sketches were of george akokalidis the stories feature either aristophanes narrating them directing the play or even as a character inside one of his stories radio shows acropolis now is a comedy radio show for the bbc set in ancient greece it features aristophanes socrates and many other famous greeks not to be confused with the australian sitcom of the same name aristophanes is characterised as a celebrity playwright and most of his plays have the title formula one of our eg slaves has an enormous knob a reference to the exaggerated appendages worn by greek comic actors aristophanes against the world was a radio play by martyn wade and broadcast on bbc radio 4 loosely based on several of his plays it featured clive merrison as aristophanes the wasps radio play adapted by david pountney music by vaughan williams recorded 2628 july 2005 albert halls bolten in association with bbc under halle label music satiric dances for a comedy by aristophanes is a threemovement piece for concert band composed by norman dello joio it was commissioned in commemoration of the bicentennial of 19 april 1775 the start of the american revolutionary war by the concord massachusetts band the commission was funded by the town of concord and assistance was given by the eastern national park and monument association in cooperation with the national park service ralph vaughan williams wrote the wasps for a 1909 cambridge university production of the play translation of aristophanes alan h sommerstein believes that although there are good translations of aristophanes comedies none could be flawless for there is much truth in the paradox that the only really perfect translation is the original nevertheless there are competent respectable translations in many languages despite the fact that translations of aristophanes may not be perfect the reception of aristophanes has gained extraordinary momentum as a topic of academic interest in the last few years works surviving plays most of these are traditionally referred to by abbreviations of their latin titles latin remains a customary language of scholarship in classical studies the acharnians akharneis attic 425 bc the knights hippeis attic latin 424 bc the clouds nephelai latin original 423 bc uncompleted revised version from 419 to 416 bc survives the wasps sphekes latin 422 bc peace eirene latin first version 421 bc the birds ornithes latin 414 bc lysistrata lysistrate 411 bc thesmophoriazusae or the women celebrating the thesmophoria thesmophoriazousai first version the frogs batrakhoi latin 405 bc ecclesiazusae or the assemblywomen ekklesiazousai wealth ploutos latin plutus second version 388 bc datable nonsurviving lost plays the standard modern edition of the fragments is rudolf kassel and colin françois lloyd austins poetae comici graeci iii2 banqueters δαιταλεῖς daitaleis 427 bc babylonians βαβυλώνιοι babylonioi 426 bc farmers γεωργοί georgoi 424 bc merchant ships ὁλκάδες holkades 423 bc clouds first version 423 bc proagon προάγων 422 bc amphiaraus ἀμφιάραος 414 bc plutus wealth first version 408 bc gerytades γηρυτάδης uncertain probably 407 bc cocalus κώκαλος 387 bc aiolosicon αἰολοσίκων second version 386 bc undated nonsurviving lost plays aiolosicon first version anagyrus ἀνάγυρος fryingpan men ταγηνισταί tagenistai daedalus δαίδαλος danaids δαναΐδες danaides centaur κένταυρος kentauros heroes ἥρωες lemnian women λήμνιαι lemniai old age γῆρας geras peace second version phoenician women φοίνισσαι phoinissai polyidus πολύιδος seasons ὧραι horai storks πελαργοί pelargoi telmessians τελμησσεῖς telmesseis triphales τριφάλης thesmophoriazusae women at the thesmophoria festival second version women in tents σκηνὰς καταλαμβάνουσαι skenas katalambanousai attributed doubtful possibly by archippus see also agathon ancient greek comedy asteroid 2934 aristophanes named after the dramatist greek literature onomasti komodein the witty personal attack made with total freedom against the most notable individuals hubert parry wrote music for the birds theatre of ancient greece codex ravennas 429 notes references reviewed by w j slater phoenix vol 30 no 3 autumn 1976 pp 291293 lee jae num scatology in continental satirical writings from aristophanes to rabelais and english scatological writings from skelton to pope swift and scatological satire albuquerque u of new mexico p 1971 722 2353 aristophanes and the comic hero by cedric h whitman authors of review h lloyd stow the american journal of philology vol 87 no 1 jan 1966 pp 111113 g m sifakis the structure of aristophanic comedy the journal of hellenic studies vol 112 1992 1992 pp 123142 van steen gonda 2000 venom in verse aristophanes in modern greece princeton university press jstororg the american journal of philology 1996 life death and aristophanes concept of eros in saul bellows ravelstein further reading the eleven comedies in translation at the university of adelaide library external links 440s bc births year of birth unknown 380s bc deaths year of death unknown 4thcentury bc athenians 4thcentury bc writers 5thcentury bc athenians 5thcentury bc writers ancient athenians ancient athenian dramatists and playwrights ancient greek satirists old comic poets writers of lost works | 6,609 |
1029 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Schweitzer | Albert Schweitzer | ludwig philipp albert schweitzer 14 january 1875 4 september 1965 was an alsatian polymath he was a theologian organist musicologist writer humanitarian philosopher and physician a lutheran minister schweitzer challenged both the secular view of jesus as depicted by the historicalcritical method current at this time as well as the traditional christian view his contributions to the interpretation of pauline christianity concern the role of pauls mysticism of being in christ as primary and the doctrine of justification by faith as secondary he received the 1952 nobel peace prize for his philosophy of reverence for life becoming the eighth frenchman to be awarded that prize his philosophy was expressed in many ways but most famously in founding and sustaining the hôpital albert schweitzer in lambaréné french equatorial africa now gabon as a music scholar and organist he studied the music of german composer johann sebastian bach and influenced the organ reform movement orgelbewegung early years schweitzer was born 14 january 1875 in kaysersberg in alsace in what had less than four years previously become the imperial territory of alsacelorraine in the german empire after being french for more than two centuries he later became a citizen of france after world war i when alsace became french territory again he was the son of louis schweitzer and adèle schillinger he spent his childhood in gunsbach also in alsace where his father the local lutheranevangelical pastor of the epcaal taught him how to play music the tiny village would become home to the association internationale albert schweitzer aias the medieval parish church of gunsbach was shared by the protestant and catholic congregations which held their prayers in different areas at different times on sundays this compromise arose after the protestant reformation and the thirty years war schweitzer the pastors son grew up in this exceptional environment of religious tolerance and developed the belief that true christianity should always work towards a unity of faith and purpose schweitzers first language was the alsatian dialect of german at the mulhouse gymnasium he received his abitur the certificate at the end of secondary education in 1893 he studied organ in mulhouse from 1885 to 1893 with eugène munch organist at the protestant cathedral who inspired schweitzer with his enthusiasm for the music of german composer richard wagner in 1893 he played for the french organist charlesmarie widor at saintsulpice paris for whom johann sebastian bachs organ music contained a mystic sense of the eternal widor deeply impressed agreed to teach schweitzer without fee and a great and influential friendship thus began from 1893 schweitzer studied protestant theology at the kaiser wilhelm university in strasbourg there he also received instruction in piano and counterpoint from professor gustav jacobsthal and associated closely with ernest munch the brother of his former teacher organist of st william church who was also a passionate admirer of j s bachs music schweitzer served his oneyear compulsory military service in 1894 schweitzer saw many operas of richard wagner in strasbourg under otto lohse and in 1896 he managed to afford a visit to the bayreuth festival to see wagners der ring des nibelungen and parsifal both of which impressed him in 1898 he returned to paris to write a phd dissertation on the religious philosophy of kant at the sorbonne and to study in earnest with widor here he often met with the elderly aristide cavaillécoll he also studied piano at that time with marie jaëll in 1899 schweitzer spent the summer semester at the university of berlin and eventually obtained his theology degree at the university of strasbourg he published his phd thesis at the university of tübingen in 1899 in 1905 schweitzer began his study of medicine at the university of strasbourg culminating in the degree of md in 1913 music schweitzer rapidly gained prominence as a musical scholar and organist dedicated also to the rescue restoration and study of historic pipe organs with theological insight he interpreted the use of pictorial and symbolical representation in j s bachs religious music in 1899 he astonished widor by explaining figures and motifs in bachs chorale preludes as painterlike tonal and rhythmic imagery illustrating themes from the words of the hymns on which they were based they were works of devotional contemplation in which the musical design corresponded to literary ideas conceived visually widor had not grown up with knowledge of the old lutheran hymns the exposition of these ideas encouraged by widor and munch became schweitzers last task and appeared in the masterly study j s bach le musicienpoète written in french and published in 1905 there was great demand for a german edition but instead of translating it he decided to rewrite it the result was two volumes j s bach which were published in 1908 and translated into english by ernest newman in 1911 ernst cassirer a contemporaneous german philosopher called it one of the best interpretations of bach during its preparation schweitzer became a friend of cosima wagner then resident in strasbourg with whom he had many theological and musical conversations exploring his view of bachs descriptive music and playing the major chorale preludes for her at the temple neuf schweitzers interpretative approach greatly influenced the modern understanding of bachs music he became a welcome guest at the wagners home wahnfried he also corresponded with composer clara faisst who became a good friend his pamphlet the art of organ building and organ playing in germany and france 1906 republished with an appendix on the state of the organbuilding industry in 1927 effectively launched the 20thcentury orgelbewegung which turned away from romantic extremes and rediscovered baroque principlesalthough this sweeping reform movement in organ building eventually went further than schweitzer had intended in 1909 he addressed the third congress of the international society of music at vienna on the subject having circulated a questionnaire among players and organbuilders in several european countries he produced a very considered report this provided the basis for the international regulations for organ building he envisaged instruments in which the french lateromantic fullorgan sound should work integrally with the english and german romantic reed pipes and with the classical alsace silbermann organ resources and baroque flue pipes all in registers regulated by stops to access distinct voices in fugue or counterpoint capable of combination without loss of distinctness different voices singing the same music together schweitzer also studied piano under isidor philipp head of the piano department at the paris conservatory in 1905 widor and schweitzer were among the six musicians who founded the paris bach society a choir dedicated to performing j s bachs music for whose concerts schweitzer took the organ part regularly until 1913 he was also appointed organist for the bach concerts of the orféo català at barcelona spain and often travelled there for that purpose he and widor collaborated on a new edition of bachs organ works with detailed analysis of each work in three languages english french german schweitzer who insisted that the score should show bachs notation with no additional markings wrote the commentaries for the preludes and fugues and widor those for the sonatas and concertos six volumes were published in 191214 three more to contain the chorale preludes with schweitzers analyses were to be worked on in africa but these were never completed perhaps because for him they were inseparable from his evolving theological thought on departure for lambaréné in 1913 he was presented with a pedal piano a piano with pedal attachments to operate like an organ pedalkeyboard built especially for the tropics it was delivered by river in a huge dugout canoe to lambaréné packed in a zinclined case at first he regarded his new life as a renunciation of his art and fell out of practice but after some time he resolved to study and learn by heart the works of bach mendelssohn widor césar franck and max reger systematically it became his custom to play during the lunch hour and on sunday afternoons schweitzers pedal piano was still in use at lambaréné in 1946 according to a visitor dr gaine cannon of balsam grove nc the old dilapidated pianoorgan was still being played by dr schweitzer in 1962 and stories told that his fingers were still lively on the old instrument at 88 years of age sir donald tovey dedicated his conjectural completion of bachs the art of fugue to schweitzer schweitzers recordings of organmusic and his innovative recording technique are described below one of his pupils was conductor and composer hans münch theology in 1899 schweitzer became a deacon at the church of saint nicholas in strasbourg in 1900 with the completion of his licentiate in theology he was ordained as curate and that year he witnessed the oberammergau passion play in the following year he became provisional principal of the theological college of saint thomas from which he had just graduated and in 1903 his appointment was made permanent in 1906 he published geschichte der lebenjesuforschung history of lifeofjesus research this book which established his reputation was first published in english in 1910 as the quest of the historical jesus under this title the book became famous in the englishspeaking world a second german edition was published in 1913 containing theologically significant revisions and expansions this revised edition did not appear in english until 2001 in 1931 he published mystik des apostels paulus the mysticism of paul the apostle a second edition was published in 1953 the quest of the historical jesus 1906 in the quest schweitzer criticised the liberal view put forward by liberal and romantic scholars during the first quest for the historical jesus schweitzer maintained that the life of jesus must be interpreted in the light of jesus own convictions which reflected late jewish eschatology and apocalypticism schweitzer writes instead of these liberal and romantic views schweitzer wrote that jesus and his followers expected the imminent end of the world schweitzer crossreferenced the many new testament verses declaring imminent fulfilment of the promise of the worlds ending within the lifetime of jesuss original followers he wrote that in his view in the gospel of mark jesus speaks of a tribulation with his coming in the clouds with great power and glory st mark and states that it will happen but it has not this generation shall not pass till all these things be fulfilled st matthew 2434 or have taken place luke 2132 similarly in 1st peter 120 christ who verily was foreordained before the foundation of the world but was manifest in these last times for you as well as but the end of all things is at hand 1 peter 47 and surely i come quickly revelation 2220 schweitzer concluded his treatment of jesus with what has been called the most famous words of twentiethcentury theology he comes to us as one unknown without a name as of old by the lakeside he came to those men who knew him not he speaks to us the same word follow thou me and sets us to the task which he has to fulfill for our time he commands and to those who obey him whether they be wise or simple he will reveal himself in the toils the conflicts the sufferings which they shall pass through in his fellowship and as an ineffable mystery they shall learn in their own experience who he is the mysticism of paul the apostle 1931 in the mysticism of paul the apostle schweitzer first distinguishes between two categories of mysticism primitive and developed primitive mysticism has not yet risen to a conception of the universal and is still confined to naive views of earthly and superearthly temporal and eternal additionally he argues that this view of a union with the divinity brought about by efficacious ceremonies is found even in quite primitive religions on the other hand a more developed form of mysticism can be found in the greek mysterycults that were popular in firstcentury ad society these included the cults of attis osiris and mithras a developed form of mysticism is attained when the conception of the universal is reached and a man reflects upon his relation to the totality of being and to being in itself schweitzer claims that this form of mysticism is more intellectual and can be found among the brahmans and in the buddha in platonism in stoicism in spinoza schopenhauer and hegel next schweitzer poses the question of what precise kind then is the mysticism of paul he locates paul between the two extremes of primitive mysticism and developed mysticism paul stands high above primitive mysticism due to his intellectual writings but never speaks of being one with god or being in god instead he conceives of sonship to god as mediated and effected by means of the mystical union with christ he summarizes pauline mysticism as being in christ rather than being in god pauls imminent eschatology from his background in jewish eschatology causes him to believe that the kingdom of god has not yet come and that christians are now living in the time of christ christmysticism holds the field until godmysticism becomes possible which is in the near future therefore schweitzer argues that paul is the only theologian who does not claim that christians can have an experience of beingingod rather paul uses the phrase beinginchrist to illustrate how jesus is a mediator between the christian community and god additionally schweitzer explains how the experience of beinginchrist is not a static partaking in the spiritual being of christ but as the real coexperiencing of his dying and rising again the realistic partaking in the mystery of jesus is only possible within the solidarity of the christian community one of schweitzers major arguments in the mysticism of paul the apostle is that pauls mysticism marked by his phrase being in christ gives the clue to the whole of pauline theology rather than reading justification by faith as the main topic of pauline thought which has been the most popular argument set forward by martin luther schweitzer argues that pauls emphasis was on the mystical union with god by being in christ jaroslav pelikan in his foreword to the mysticism of paul the apostle points out that pauls realism versus hellenistic symbolism schweitzer contrasts pauls realistic dying and rising with christ to the symbolism of hellenism although paul is widely influenced by hellenistic thought he is not controlled by it schweitzer explains that paul focused on the idea of fellowship with the divine being through the realistic dying and rising with christ rather than the symbolic hellenistic act of becoming like christ through deification after baptism christians are continually renewed throughout their lifetimes due to participation in the dying and rising with christ most notably through the sacraments on the other hand the hellenist lives on the store of experience which he acquired in the initiation and is not continually affected by a shared communal experience another major difference between pauls realism and hellenistic symbolism is the exclusive nature of the former and the inclusive nature of the latter schweitzer unabashedly emphasizes the fact that pauls thought follows predestinarian lines he explains only the man who is elected thereto can enter into relation with god although every human being is invited to become a christian only those who have undergone the initiation into the christian community through baptism can share in the realistic dying and rising with christ medicine at the age of 30 in 1905 schweitzer answered the call of the society of the evangelist missions of paris which was looking for a physician the committee of this missionary society was not ready to accept his offer considering his lutheran theology to be incorrect he could easily have obtained a place in a german evangelical mission but wished to follow the original call despite the doctrinal difficulties amid a hail of protests from his friends family and colleagues he resigned his post and reentered the university as a student in a threeyear course towards the degree of doctorate in medicine a subject in which he had little knowledge or previous aptitude he planned to spread the gospel by the example of his christian labour of healing rather than through the verbal process of preaching and believed that this service should be acceptable within any branch of christian teaching even in his study of medicine and through his clinical course schweitzer pursued the ideal of the philosopherscientist by extreme application and hard work he completed his studies successfully at the end of 1911 his medical degree dissertation was another work on the historical jesus die psychiatrische beurteilung jesu darstellung und kritik the psychiatric evaluation of jesus description and criticism published in english in 1948 as the psychiatric study of jesus exposition and criticism he defended jesus mental health in it in june 1912 he married helene bresslau municipal inspector for orphans and daughter of the jewish pangermanist historian harry bresslau in 1912 now armed with a medical degree schweitzer made a definite proposal to go as a physician to work at his own expense in the paris missionary societys mission at lambaréné on the ogooué river in what is now gabon in africa then a french colony he refused to attend a committee to inquire into his doctrine but met each committee member personally and was at last accepted through concerts and other fundraising he was ready to equip a small hospital in early 1913 he and his wife set off to establish a hospital the hôpital albert schweitzer near an existing mission post the site was nearly 200 miles 14 days by raft upstream from the mouth of the ogooué at port gentil cape lopez and so accessible to external communications but downstream of most tributaries so that internal communications within gabon converged towards lambaréné in the first nine months he and his wife had about 2000 patients to examine some travelling many days and hundreds of kilometres to reach him in addition to injuries he was often treating severe sandflea and crawcraw infections yaws tropical eating sores heart disease tropical dysentery tropical malaria sleeping sickness leprosy fevers strangulated hernias necrosis abdominal tumours and chronic constipation and nicotine poisoning while also attempting to deal with deliberate poisonings fetishism and fear of cannibalism among the mbahouin schweitzers wife helene schweitzer served as an anaesthetist for surgical operations after briefly occupying a shed formerly used as a chicken hut in late 1913 they built their first hospital of corrugated iron with a consulting room and operating theatre and with a dispensary and sterilising room the waiting room and dormitory were built like native huts of unhewn logs along a path leading to the boat landing the schweitzers had their own bungalow and employed as their assistant joseph a frenchspeaking mpongwe who first came to lambaréné as a patient after world war i broke out in july 1914 schweitzer and his wife german citizens in a french colony when the countries were at war were put under supervision by the french military at lambaréné where schweitzer continued his work in 1917 exhausted by over four years work and by tropical anaemia they were taken to bordeaux and interned first in garaison and then from march 1918 in saintrémydeprovence in july 1918 after being transferred to his home in alsace he was a free man again at this time schweitzer born a german citizen had his parents former pre1871 french citizenship reinstated and became a french citizen then working as medical assistant and assistantpastor in strasbourg he advanced his project on the philosophy of civilization which had occupied his mind since 1900 by 1920 his health recovering he was giving organ recitals and doing other fundraising work to repay borrowings and raise funds for returning to gabon in 1922 he delivered the dale memorial lectures in the university of oxford and from these in the following year appeared volumes i and ii of his great work the decay and restoration of civilization and civilization and ethics the two remaining volumes on the worldview of reverence for life and a fourth on the civilized state were never completed in 1924 schweitzer returned to africa without his wife but with an oxford undergraduate noel gillespie as his assistant everything was heavily decayed and building and doctoring progressed together for months he now had salvarsan for treating syphilitic ulcers and framboesia additional medical staff nurse miss kottmann and dr victor nessmann joined him in 1924 and dr mark lauterberg in 1925 the growing hospital was manned by native orderlies later dr trensz replaced nessmann and martha lauterberg and hans muggenstorm joined them joseph also returned in 19256 new hospital buildings were constructed and also a ward for white patients so that the site became like a village the onset of famine and a dysentery epidemic created fresh problems much of the building work was carried out with the help of local people and patients drug advances for sleeping sickness included germanin and trensz conducted experiments showing that the nonamoebic strain of dysentery was caused by a paracholera vibrion facultative anaerobic bacteria with the new hospital built and the medical team established schweitzer returned to europe in 1927 this time leaving a functioning hospital at work he was there again from 1929 to 1932 gradually his opinions and concepts became acknowledged not only in europe but worldwide there was a further period of work in 1935 in january 1937 he returned again to lambaréné and continued working there throughout world war ii hospital conditions the journalist james cameron visited lambaréné in 1953 when schweitzer was 78 and found significant flaws in the practices and attitudes of schweitzer and his staff the hospital suffered from squalor and was without modern amenities and schweitzer had little contact with the local people cameron did not make public what he had seen at the time according to a bbc dramatisation he made the unusual journalistic decision to withhold the story and resisted the expressed wish of his employers to publish an exposé the poor conditions of the hospital in lambaréné were also famously criticized by nigerian professor and novelist chinua achebe in his essay on joseph conrads novel heart of darkness in a comment which has often been quoted schweitzer says the african is indeed my brother but my junior brother and so he proceeded to build a hospital appropriate to the needs of junior brothers with standards of hygiene reminiscent of medical practice in the days before the germ theory of disease came into being schweitzers biographer edgar berman who was a volunteer surgeon at lambarene for several months and had extended conversations with schweitzer has a different perspective schweitzer felt that patients were better off and the hospital functioned better given the severe lack of funding if patients families lived on the hospital grounds during treatment surgical survival rates were berman asserts as high as in many fullyequipped western hospitals the volume of patients needing care the difficulty of obtaining materials and supplies and the scarcity of trained medical staff willing to work long hours in the remote setting for almost no pay all argued for a spartan setting with an emphasis on high medical standards nevertheless schweitzers views colonialism schweitzer considered his work as a medical missionary in africa to be his response to jesus call to become fishers of men schweitzer was one of colonialisms harshest critics in a sermon that he preached on 6 january 1905 before he had told anyone of his plans to dedicate the rest of his life to work as a physician in africa he said paternalism schweitzer was nonetheless still sometimes accused of being paternalistic in his attitude towards africans for instance he thought that gabonese independence came too early without adequate education or accommodation to local circumstances edgar berman quotes schweitzer as having said in 1960 no society can go from the primeval directly to an industrial state without losing the leavening that time and an agricultural period allow schweitzer believed dignity and respect must be extended to blacks while also sometimes characterizing them as children he summarized his views on europeanafrican relations by saying with regard to the negroes then i have coined the formula i am your brother it is true but your elder brother chinua achebe has criticized him for this characterization though achebe acknowledges that schweitzers use of the word brother at all was for a european of the early 20th century an unusual expression of human solidarity between europeans and africans schweitzer eventually emended and complicated this notion with his later statement that the time for speaking of older and younger brothers has passed american journalist john gunther visited lambaréné in the 1950s and reported schweitzers patronizing attitude towards africans he also noted the lack of africans trained to be skilled workers by comparison his english contemporary albert ruskin cook in uganda had been training nurses and midwives since the 1910s and had published a manual of midwifery in the local language of luganda after three decades in africa schweitzer still depended on europe for nurses reverence for life the keynote of schweitzers personal philosophy which he considered to be his greatest contribution to mankind was the idea of reverence for life ehrfurcht vor dem leben he thought that western civilization was decaying because it had abandoned affirmation of life as its ethical foundation in the preface to civilization and ethics 1923 he argued that western philosophy from descartes to kant had set out to explain the objective world expecting that humanity would be found to have a special meaning within it but no such meaning was found and the rational lifeaffirming optimism of the age of enlightenment began to evaporate a rift opened between this worldview as material knowledge and the lifeview understood as will expressed in the pessimist philosophies from schopenhauer onward scientific materialism advanced by herbert spencer and charles darwin portrayed an objective world process devoid of ethics entirely an expression of the willtolive schweitzer wrote true philosophy must start from the most immediate and comprehensive fact of consciousness and this may be formulated as follows i am life which wills to live and i exist in the midst of life which wills to live in nature one form of life must always prey upon another however human consciousness holds an awareness of and sympathy for the will of other beings to live an ethical human strives to escape from this contradiction so far as possible though we cannot perfect the endeavour we should strive for it the willtolive constantly renews itself for it is both an evolutionary necessity and a spiritual phenomenon life and love are rooted in this same principle in a personal spiritual relationship to the universe ethics themselves proceed from the need to respect the wish of other beings to exist as one does towards oneself even so schweitzer found many instances in world religions and philosophies in which the principle was denied not least in the european middle ages and in the indian brahminic philosophy for schweitzer mankind had to accept that objective reality is ethically neutral it could then affirm a new enlightenment through spiritual rationalism by giving priority to volition or ethical will as the primary meaning of life mankind had to choose to create the moral structures of civilization the worldview must derive from the lifeview not vice versa respect for life overcoming coarser impulses and hollow doctrines leads the individual to live in the service of other people and of every living creature in contemplation of the willtolife respect for the life of others becomes the highest principle and the defining purpose of humanity such was the theory which schweitzer sought to put into practice in his own life according to some authors schweitzers thought and specifically his development of reverence for life was influenced by indian religious thought and in particular the jain principle of ahimsa or nonviolence albert schweitzer noted the contribution of indian influence in his book indian thought and its development further on ahimsa and the reverence for life in the same book he elaborates on the ancient indian didactic work of the tirukkural which he observed that like the buddha and the bhagavad gita stands for the commandment not to kill and not to damage translating several couplets from the work he remarked that the kural insists on the idea that good must be done for its own sake and said there hardly exists in the literature of the world a collection of maxims in which we find so much lofty wisdom later life after the birth of their daughter rhena schweitzer miller alberts wife helene schweitzer was no longer able to live in lambaréné due to her health in 1923 the family moved to königsfeld im schwarzwald badenwürttemberg where he was building a house for the family this house is now maintained as a schweitzer museum from 1939 to 1948 he stayed in lambaréné unable to go back to europe because of the war three years after the end of world war ii in 1948 he returned for the first time to europe and kept travelling back and forth and once to the us as long as he was able during his return visits to his home village of gunsbach schweitzer continued to make use of the family house which after his death became an archive and museum to his life and work his life was portrayed in the 1952 movie il est minuit docteur schweitzer starring pierre fresnay as albert schweitzer and jeanne moreau as his nurse marie schweitzer inspired actor hugh obrian when obrian visited in africa obrian returned to the united states and founded the hugh obrian youth leadership foundation hoby schweitzer was awarded the nobel peace prize of 1952 accepting the prize with the speech the problem of peace with the 33000 prize money he started the leprosarium at lambaréné from 1952 until his death he worked against nuclear tests and nuclear weapons with albert einstein otto hahn and bertrand russell in 1957 and 1958 he broadcast four speeches over radio oslo which were published in peace or atomic war in 1957 schweitzer was one of the founders of the committee for a sane nuclear policy on 23 april 1957 schweitzer made his declaration of conscience speech it was broadcast to the world over radio oslo pleading for the abolition of nuclear weapons his speech ended the end of further experiments with atom bombs would be like the early sunrays of hope which suffering humanity is longing for weeks prior to his death an american film crew was allowed to visit schweitzer and drs muntz and friedman both holocaust survivors to record his work and daily life at the hospital the film the legacy of albert schweitzer narrated by henry fonda was produced by warner brothers and aired once it resides in their vault today in deteriorating condition although several attempts have been made to restore and reair the film all access has been denied in 1955 he was made an honorary member of the order of merit om by queen elizabeth ii he was also a chevalier of the military and hospitaller order of saint lazarus of jerusalem schweitzer died on 4 september 1965 at his beloved hospital in lambaréné now in independent gabon his grave on the banks of the ogooué river is marked by a cross he made himself his cousin annemarie schweitzer sartre was the mother of jeanpaul sartre her father charles schweitzer was the older brother of albert schweitzers father louis théophile schweitzer is often cited in vegetarian literature as being an advocate of vegetarianism in his later years schweitzer was not a vegetarian in his earlier life for example in 1950 biographer magnus c ratter commented that schweitzer never committed himself to the antivivisection vegetarian or pacifist positions though his thought leads in this direction biographer james bentley has written that schweitzer became a vegetarian after his wifes death in 1957 and he was living almost entirely on lentil soup in contrast to this historian david n stamos has written that schweitzer was not a vegetarian in his personal life nor imposed it on his missionary hospital but he did help animals and was opposed to hunting stamos noted that schweitzer held the view that evolution ingrained humans with an instinct for meat so it was useless in trying to deny it the albert schweitzer fellowship was founded in 1940 by schweitzer to unite us supporters in filling the gap in support for his hospital when his european supply lines were cut off by war and continues to support the lambaréné hospital today schweitzer considered his ethic of reverence for life not his hospital his most important legacy saying that his lambaréné hospital was just my own improvisation on the theme of reverence for life everyone can have their own lambaréné today asf helps large numbers of young americans in healthrelated professional fields find or create their own lambaréné in the us or internationally asf selects and supports nearly 250 new us and africa schweitzer fellows each year from over 100 of the leading us schools of medicine nursing public health and every other field with some relation to health including music law and divinity the peersupporting lifelong network of schweitzer fellows for life numbered over 2000 members in 2008 and is growing by nearly 1000 every four years nearly 150 of these schweitzer fellows have served at the hospital in lambaréné for threemonth periods during their last year of medical school international albert schweitzer prize the prize was first awarded on 29 may 2011 to eugen drewermann and the physician couple rolf and raphaela maibach in königsfeld im schwarzwald where schweitzers former residence now houses the albert schweitzer museum sound recordings recordings of schweitzer playing the music of bach are available on cd during 1934 and 1935 he resided in britain delivering the gifford lectures at edinburgh university and those on religion in modern civilization at oxford and london he had originally conducted trials for recordings for hmv on the organ of the old queens hall in london these records did not satisfy him the instrument being too harsh in middecember 1935 he began to record for columbia records on the organ of all hallows barkingbythetower london then at his suggestion the sessions were transferred to the church of ste aurélie in strasbourg on a mid18thcentury organ by johann andreas silbermann brother of gottfried an organbuilder greatly revered by bach which had been restored by the lorraine organbuilder frédéric härpfer shortly before the first world war these recordings were made in the course of a fortnight in october 1936 schweitzer technique schweitzer developed a technique for recording the performances of bachs music known as the schweitzer technique it is a slight improvement on what is commonly known as midside the midside sees a figure8 microphone pointed offaxis perpendicular to the sound source then a single cardioid microphone is placed on axis bisecting the figure8 pattern the signal from the figure8 is muted panned hard left and right one of the signals being flipped out of polarity in the schweitzer method the figure8 is replaced by two small diaphragm condenser microphones pointed directly away from each other the information that each capsule collects is unique unlike the identical outofpolarity information generated from the figure8 in a regular midside the onaxis microphone is often a large diaphragm condenser the technique has since been used to record many modern instruments columbia recordings altogether his early columbia discs included 25 records of bach and eight of césar franck the bach titles were mainly distributed as follows queens hall organ prelude and fugue in e minor edition peters vol 3 10 bwv 727 vol 7 58 leipzig 18 all hallows prelude and fugue in c major fantasia and fugue in g minor the great prelude and fugue in g major prelude and fugue in f minor little fugue in g minor toccata and fugue in d minor ste aurélie prelude and fugue in c minor prelude and fugue in e minor toccata and fugue in d minor chorale preludes peters vol 7 49 leipzig 4 vol 5 45 vol 7 48 leipzig 6 vol 5 8 vol 5 9 vol 6 12b vol 5 6 vol 5 app 5 vol 5 4 var 11 vol 5 app 3 vol 6 31 leipzig 15 christ lag in todesbanden vol 5 5 erschienen ist der herrlich tag vol 5 15 later recordings were made at parish church günsbach these recordings were made by c robert fine during the time dr schweitzer was being filmed in günsbach for the documentary albert schweitzer fine originally selfreleased the recordings but later licensed the masters to columbia fugue in a minor peters vol 2 8 fantasia and fugue in g minor great vol 2 4 toccata adagio and fugue in c major vol 3 8 prelude in c major vol 4 1 prelude in d major vol 4 3 canzona in d minor vol 4 10 with mendelssohn sonata in d minor op 656 choralepreludes 1st and 2nd versions peters vol 5 45 vol 7 58 leipzig 18 vol 5 30 vol 5 17 vol 5 27 vol 7 45 bwv 659a the above were released in the united states as columbia masterworks boxed set sl175 philips recordings j s bach prelude and fugue in a major bwv 536 prelude and fugue in f minor bwv 534 prelude and fugue in b minor bwv 544 toccata and fugue in d minor bwv 538 j s bach passacaglia in c minor bwv 582 prelude and fugue in e minor bwv 533 prelude and fugue in a minor bwv 543 prelude and fugue in g major bwv 541 toccata and fugue in d minor bwv 565 césar franck organ chorales no 1 in e major no 2 in b minor no 3 in a minor portrayals dramatisations of schweitzers life include the 1952 biographical film il est minuit docteur schweitzer with pierre fresnay as schweitzer the 1957 biographical film albert schweitzer in which schweitzer appears as himself and phillip eckert portrays him the 1962 tv remake of il est minuit docteur schweitzer with jeanpierre marielle as schweitzer the 1990 biographical film the light in the jungle with malcolm mcdowell as schweitzer two 1992 episodes of the television series the young indiana jones chronicles german east africa december 1916 and congo january 1917 with friedrich von thun as schweitzer the episodes were later combined to create oganga giver and taker of life the 1995 biographical film le grand blanc de lambaréné with andré wilms as schweitzer the 2006 tv biographical film albert schweitzer called to africa with jeff mccarthy as schweitzer the 2009 biographical film with jeroen krabbé as schweitzer bibliography english translation by ernest newman with authors alterations and additions london 1911 fulltext scans english vol 1 vol 2 first printed in musik vols 13 and 14 5th year translation of zwischen wasser und urwald 1921 the decay and the restoration of civilization and civilization and ethics the philosophy of civilization vols i ii of the projected but not completed fourvolume work a c black london 1923 material from these volumes is rearranged in a modern compilation the philosophy of civilization prometheus books 1987 translated as afrikanische geschichten felix meiner leipzig and hamburg 1938 tr mrs c e b russell as from my african notebook george allen and unwin london 1938henry holt new york 1939 modern edition with foreword by l forrow syracuse university press 2002 see also list of peace activists cultural depictions of albert schweitzer helene bresslau schweitzer notes references citations sources translation of zwischen wasser und urwald 1921 further reading bartolf christian gericke marion miething dominique 2020 dr albert schweitzer my address to the people commitment against nuclear war berlin freie universität berlin gandhiinformationszentrum notes external links awardwinning documentary about him albert schweitzer info at internet archive albert schweitzer papers at syracuse university john d regester collection on albert schweitzer the helfferich collection collected by reginald h helfferich on albert schweitzer is at the harvard divinity school library at harvard divinity school in cambridge massachusetts what jesus was thinking an interpretation and restatement of schweitzers last book the kingdom of god and primitive christianity 1875 births 1965 deaths people from kaysersbergvignoble people from alsacelorraine 20thcentury german protestant theologians 19thcentury french people 19thcentury german lutheran clergy french biblical scholars bach scholars critics of the christ myth theory french antinuclear weapons activists french lutheran missionaries french christian pacifists french classical organists french male organists french humanitarians french lutherans french nobel laureates french medical writers french tropical physicians french unitarians french evangelicals german antinuclear weapons activists german lutheran missionaries german christian pacifists lutheran pacifists lutheran philosophers german lutheran theologians german classical organists german humanitarians 20thcentury german lutheran clergy german nobel laureates german medical writers german unitarians german evangelicals honorary members of the order of merit honorary members of the royal philharmonic society german music historians nobel peace prize laureates recipients of the pour le mérite civil class university of tübingen alumni christian medical missionaries environmental philosophers pupils of isidor philipp german male nonfiction writers lutheran missionaries in africa protestant missionaries in gabon healthcare in gabon german writers in french french writers in german 19thcentury french writers 19thcentury german writers 19thcentury german male writers 20thcentury french writers 20thcentury german writers translators to german tamilgerman translators animal rights scholars antiimperialism in europe german male organists tirukkural translators missionary linguists corresponding fellows of the british academy celebrity doctors male classical organists | 6,936 |
1030 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian%20school%20of%20economics | Austrian school of economics | the austrian school is a heterodox school of economic thought that advocates strict adherence to methodological individualism the concept that social phenomena result exclusively from the motivations and actions of individuals austrian school theorists hold that economic theory should be exclusively derived from basic principles of human action the austrian school originated in vienna with the work of carl menger eugen von böhmbawerk friedrich von wieser and others it was methodologically opposed to the historical school based in germany in a dispute known as methodenstreit or methodology struggle currentday economists working in this tradition are located in many different countries but their work is still referred to as austrian economics among the theoretical contributions of the early years of the austrian school are the subjective theory of value marginalism in price theory and the formulation of the economic calculation problem each of which has become an accepted part of mainstream economics in the 1970s the austrian school attracted some renewed interest after friedrich hayek shared the 1974 nobel memorial prize in economic sciences with gunnar myrdal history etymology the austrian school owes its name to members of the german historical school of economics who argued against the austrians during the late 19thcentury methodenstreit methodology struggle in which the austrians defended the role of theory in economics as distinct from the study or compilation of historical circumstance in 1883 menger published investigations into the method of the social sciences with special reference to economics which attacked the methods of the historical school gustav von schmoller a leader of the historical school responded with an unfavorable review coining the term austrian school in an attempt to characterize the school as outcast and provincial the label endured and was adopted by the adherents themselves first wave the school originated in vienna in the austrian empire carl mengers 1871 book principles of economics is generally considered the founding of the austrian school the book was one of the first modern treatises to advance the theory of marginal utility the austrian school was one of three founding currents of the marginalist revolution of the 1870s with its major contribution being the introduction of the subjectivist approach in economics despite such claim john stuart mill had used value in use in this sense in 1848 in principles of political economy where he wrote value in use or as mr de quincey calls it teleologic value is the extreme limit of value in exchange the exchange value of a thing may fall short to any amount of its value in use but that it can ever exceed the value in use implies a contradiction it supposes that persons will give to possess a thing more than the utmost value which they themselves put upon it as a means of gratifying their inclinations while marginalism was generally influential there was also a more specific school that began to coalesce around mengers work which came to be known as the psychological school vienna school or austrian school mengers contributions to economic theory were closely followed by those of eugen böhm von bawerk and friedrich von wieser these three economists became what is known as the first wave of the austrian school böhmbawerk wrote extensive critiques of karl marx in the 1880s and 1890s and was part of the austrians participation in the late 19thcentury methodenstreit during which they attacked the hegelian doctrines of the historical school early 20th century frank albert fetter 18631949 was a leader in the united states of austrian thought he obtained his phd in 1894 from the university of halle and then was made professor of political economy and finance at cornell university in 1901 several important austrian economists trained at the university of vienna in the 1920s and later participated in private seminars held by ludwig von mises these included gottfried haberler friedrich hayek fritz machlup karl menger son of carl menger oskar morgenstern paul rosensteinrodan abraham wald and michael a heilperin among others as well as the sociologist alfred schütz later 20th century by the mid1930s most economists had embraced what they considered the important contributions of the early austrians fritz machlup quoted hayeks statement that the greatest success of a school is that it stops existing because its fundamental teachings have become parts of the general body of commonly accepted thought sometime during the middle of the 20th century austrian economics became disregarded or derided by mainstream economists because it rejected model building and mathematical and statistical methods in the study of economics mises student israel kirzner recalled that in 1954 when kirzner was pursuing his phd there was no separate austrian school as such when kirzner was deciding which graduate school to attend mises had advised him to accept an offer of admission at johns hopkins because it was a prestigious university and fritz machlup taught there after the 1940s austrian economics can be divided into two schools of economic thought and the school split to some degree in the late 20th century one camp of austrians exemplified by mises regards neoclassical methodology to be irredeemably flawed the other camp exemplified by friedrich hayek accepts a large part of neoclassical methodology and is more accepting of government intervention in the economy henry hazlitt wrote economics columns and editorials for a number of publications and wrote many books on the topic of austrian economics from the 1930s to the 1980s hazlitts thinking was influenced by mises his book economics in one lesson 1946 sold over a million copies and he is also known for the failure of the new economics 1959 a linebyline critique of john maynard keyness general theory the reputation of the austrian school rose in the late 20th century due in part to the work of israel kirzner and ludwig lachmann at new york university and to renewed public awareness of the work of hayek after he won the 1974 nobel memorial prize in economic sciences hayeks work was influential in the revival of laissezfaire thought in the 20th century split among contemporary austrians economist leland yeager discussed the late 20thcentury rift and referred to a discussion written by murray rothbard hanshermann hoppe joseph salerno and others in which they attack and disparage hayek yeager stated to try to drive a wedge between mises and hayek on the role of knowledge in economic calculation especially to the disparagement of hayek is unfair to these two great men unfaithful to the history of economic thought he went on to call the rift subversive to economic analysis and the historical understanding of the fall of eastern european communism in a 1999 book published by the ludwig von mises institute hoppe asserted that rothbard was the leader of the mainstream within austrian economics and contrasted rothbard with nobel laureate friedrich hayek whom he identified as a british empiricist and an opponent of the thought of mises and rothbard hoppe acknowledged that hayek was the most prominent austrian economist within academia but stated that hayek was an opponent of the austrian tradition which led from carl menger and böhmbawerk through mises to rothbard austrian economist walter block says that the austrian school can be distinguished from other schools of economic thought through two categorieseconomic theory and political theory according to block while hayek can be considered an austrian economist his views on political theory clash with the libertarian political theory which block sees as an integral part of the austrian school both criticism from hoppe and block to hayek apply to carl menger the founder of the austrian school hoppe emphasizes that hayek which for him is from the english empirical tradition is an opponent of the supposed rationalist tradition of the austrian school menger made strong critiques to rationalism in his works in similar vein as hayeks he emphasized the idea that there are several institutions which were not deliberately created have a kind of superior wisdom and serve important functions to society he also talked about burke and the english tradition to sustain these positions when saying that the libertarian political theory is an integral part of the austrian school and supposing hayek is not a libertarian block excludes menger from the austrian school too since menger seems to defend broader state activity than hayekfor example progressive taxation and extensive labour legislation economists of the hayekian view are affiliated with the cato institute george mason university gmu and new york university among other institutions they include peter boettke roger garrison steven horwitz peter leeson and george reisman economists of the misesrothbard view include walter block hanshermann hoppe jesús huerta de soto and robert p murphy each of whom is associated with the mises institute and some of them also with academic institutions according to murphy a truce between for lack of better terms the gmu austrolibertarians and the auburn austrolibertarians was signed around 2011 influence many theories developed by first wave austrian economists have long been absorbed into mainstream economics these include carl mengers theories on marginal utility friedrich von wiesers theories on opportunity cost and eugen böhm von bawerks theories on time preference as well as menger and böhmbawerks criticisms of marxian economics former american federal reserve chairman alan greenspan said that the founders of the austrian school reached far into the future from when most of them practiced and have had a profound and in my judgment probably an irreversible effect on how most mainstream economists think in this country in 1987 nobel laureate james m buchanan told an interviewer i have no objections to being called an austrian hayek and mises might consider me an austrian but surely some of the others would not currently universities with a significant austrian presence are george mason university new york university grove city college loyola university new orleans monmouth college and auburn university in the united states king juan carlos university in spain and universidad francisco marroquín in guatemala austrian economic ideas are also promoted by privately funded organizations such as the mises institute and the cato institute theory the austrian school theorizes that the subjective choices of individuals including individual knowledge time expectation and other subjective factors cause all economic phenomena austrians seek to understand the economy by examining the social ramifications of individual choice an approach called methodological individualism it differs from other schools of economic thought which have focused on aggregate variables equilibrium analysis and societal groups rather than individuals in the 20th and 21st centuries economists with a methodological lineage to the early austrian school developed many diverse approaches and theoretical orientations ludwig von mises organized his version of the subjectivist approach which he called praxeology in a book published in english as human action in 1949 in it mises stated that praxeology could be used to deduce a priori theoretical economic truths and that deductive economic thought experiments could yield conclusions which follow irrefutably from the underlying assumptions he wrote that conclusions could not be inferred from empirical observation or statistical analysis and argued against the use of probabilities in economic models since mises time some austrian thinkers have accepted his praxeological approach while others have adopted alternative methodologies for example fritz machlup friedrich hayek and others did not take mises strong a priori approach to economics ludwig lachmann a radical subjectivist also largely rejected mises formulation of praxeology in favor of the verstehende methode interpretive method articulated by max weber in the 20th century various austrians incorporated models and mathematics into their analysis austrian economist steven horwitz argued in 2000 that austrian methodology is consistent with macroeconomics and that austrian macroeconomics can be expressed in terms of microeconomic foundations austrian economist roger garrison writes that austrian macroeconomic theory can be correctly expressed in terms of diagrammatic models in 1944 austrian economist oskar morgenstern presented a rigorous schematization of an ordinal utility function the von neumannmorgenstern utility theorem in theory of games and economic behavior fundamental tenets in 1981 fritz machlup listed the typical views of austrian economic thinking as such methodological individualism in the explanation of economic phenomena we have to go back to the actions or inaction of individuals groups or collectives cannot act except through the actions of individual members groups do not think people think methodological subjectivism the judgments and choices made by individuals on the basis of whatever knowledge they have or believe to have and whatever expectations they have regarding external developments and the consequences of their actions tastes and preferences subjective valuations of goods and services determine the demand for them so that their prices are influenced by consumers opportunity costs the costs of the alternative opportunities that must be foregone as productive services are employed for one purpose all alternative uses have to be sacrificed marginalism in all economic designs the values costs revenues productivity and so on are determined by the significance of the last unit added to or subtracted from the total time structure of production and consumption decisions to save reflect time preferences regarding consumption in the immediate distant or indefinite future and investments are made in view of larger outputs expected to be obtained if more timetaking production processes are undertaken he included two additional tenets held by the mises branch of austrian economics consumer sovereignty the influence consumers have on the effective demand for goods and services and through the prices which result in free competitive markets on the production plans of producers and investors is not merely a hard fact but also an important objective attainable only by complete avoidance of governmental interference with the markets and of restrictions on the freedom of sellers and buyers to follow their own judgment regarding quantities qualities and prices of products and services political individualism only when individuals are given full economic freedom will it be possible to secure political and moral freedom restrictions on economic freedom lead sooner or later to an extension of the coercive activities of the state into the political domain undermining and eventually destroying the essential individual liberties which the capitalistic societies were able to attain in the 19th century contributions to economic thought opportunity cost the opportunity cost doctrine was first explicitly formulated by the austrian economist friedrich von wieser in the late 19th century opportunity cost is the cost of any activity measured in terms of the value of the next best alternative foregone that is not chosen it is the sacrifice related to the second best choice available to someone or group who has picked among several mutually exclusive choices although a more ephemeral scarcity expectations of the future must also be considered quantified as time preference opportunity cost must also be valued with respect to ones preference for present versus future investments opportunity cost is a key concept in mainstream economics and has been described as expressing the basic relationship between scarcity and choice the notion of opportunity cost plays a crucial part in ensuring that resources are used efficiently capital and interest the austrian theory of capital and interest was first developed by eugen böhm von bawerk he stated that interest rates and profits are determined by two factors namely supply and demand in the market for final goods and time preference böhmbawerks theory equates capital intensity with the degree of roundaboutness of production processes böhmbawerk also argued that the law of marginal utility necessarily implies the classical law of costs some austrian economists therefore entirely reject the notion that interest rates are affected by liquidity preference inflation in misess definition inflation is an increase in the supply of money hayek pointed out that inflationary stimulation exploits the lag between an increase in money supply and the consequent increase in the prices of goods and services economic calculation problem the economic calculation problem refers to a criticism of planned economies which was first stated by max weber in 1920 mises subsequently discussed webers idea with his student friedrich hayek who developed it in various works including the road to serfdom what the calculation problem essentially states is that without price signals the factors of production cannot be allocated in the most efficient way possible rendering planned economies inefficacious austrian theory emphasizes the organizing power of markets hayek stated that market prices reflect information the totality of which is not known to any single individual which determines the allocation of resources in an economy because socialist systems lack the individual incentives and price discovery processes by which individuals act on their personal information hayek argued that socialist economic planners lack all of the knowledge required to make optimal decisions those who agree with this criticism view it as a refutation of socialism showing that socialism is not a viable or sustainable form of economic organization the debate rose to prominence in the 1920s and 1930s and that specific period of the debate has come to be known by historians of economic thought as the socialist calculation debate mises argued in a 1920 essay economic calculation in the socialist commonwealth that the pricing systems in socialist economies were necessarily deficient because if the government owned the means of production then no prices could be obtained for capital goods as they were merely internal transfers of goods in a socialist system and not objects of exchange unlike final goods therefore they were unpriced and hence the system would be necessarily inefficient since the central planners would not know how to allocate the available resources efficiently this led him to write that rational economic activity is impossible in a socialist commonwealth business cycles the austrian theory of the business cycle abct focuses on banks issuance of credit as the cause of economic fluctuations although later elaborated by hayek and others the theory was first set forth by mises who posited that fractional reserve banks extend credit at artificially low interest rates causing businesses to invest in relatively roundabout production processes which leads to an artificial boom mises stated that this artificial boom then led to a misallocation of resources which he called malinvestment which eventually must end in a bust mises surmised how government manipulation of money and credit in the banking system throws savings and investment out of balance resulting in misdirected investment projects that are eventually found to be unsustainable at which point the economy has to rebalance itself through a period of corrective recession austrian economist fritz machlup summarized the austrian view by stating monetary factors cause the cycle but real phenomena constitute it for austrians the only prudent strategy for government is to leave money and the financial system to the free markets competitive forces to eradicate the business cycles inflationary booms and recessionary busts allowing markets to keep peoples saving and investment decisions in place for wellcoordinated economic stability and growth a keynesian would suggest government intervention during a recession to inject spending into the economy when people will not however the heart of austrian macroeconomic theory states the government fine tuning through expansions and contractions in the money supply orchestrated by the government are actually the cause of business cycles because of the differing impact of the resulting interest rate changes on different stages in the structure of production austrian economist thomas woods further supports this view by arguing it is not consumption but rather production that should be emphasized a country cannot become rich by consuming and therefore by using up all their resources instead production is what enables consumption as a possibility in the first place since a producer would be working for nothing if not for the desire to consume central banks according to ludwig von mises central banks enable the commercial banks to fund loans at artificially low interest rates thereby inducing an unsustainable expansion of bank credit and impeding any subsequent contraction and argued for a gold standard to constrain growth in fiduciary media friedrich hayek took a different perspective not focusing on gold but focusing on regulation of the banking sector via strong central banking criticism general mainstream economists generally reject modernday austrian economics and argue that modernday austrian economists are excessively averse to the use of mathematics and statistics in economics austrian opposition to mathematization extends to economic theorizing only as they argue that human behavior is too variable for overarching mathematical models to hold true across time and context austrians do however support analyzing revealed preference via mathematization to aid business and finance economist paul krugman has stated that austrians are unaware of holes in their own thinking because they do not use explicit models economist benjamin klein has criticized the economic methodological work of austrian economist israel m kirzner while praising kirzner for highlighting shortcomings in traditional methodology klein argued that kirzner did not provide a viable alternative for economic methodology economist tyler cowen has written that kirzners theory of entrepreneurship can ultimately be reduced to a neoclassical search model and is thus not in the radical subjectivist tradition of austrian praxeology cowen states that kirzners entrepreneurs can be modeled in mainstream terms of search economist jeffrey sachs argues that among developed countries those with high rates of taxation and high social welfare spending perform better on most measures of economic performance compared to countries with low rates of taxation and low social outlays he concludes that friedrich hayek was wrong to argue that high levels of government spending harms an economy and a generous socialwelfare state is not a road to serfdom but rather to fairness economic equality and international competitiveness economist bryan caplan has noted that mises has been criticized for overstating the strength of his case in describing socialism as impossible rather than as something that would need to establish nonmarket institutions to deal with the inefficiency methodology critics generally argue that austrian economics lacks scientific rigor and rejects scientific methods and the use of empirical data in modelling economic behavior some economists describe austrian methodology as being a priori or nonempirical economist mark blaug has criticized overreliance on methodological individualism arguing it would rule out all macroeconomic propositions that cannot be reduced to microeconomic ones and hence reject almost the whole of received macroeconomics economist thomas mayer has stated that austrians advocate a rejection of the scientific method which involves the development of empirically falsifiable theories furthermore economists have developed numerous experiments that elicit useful information about individual preferences although economist leland yeager is sympathetic to austrian economics he rejects many favorite views of the misesian group of austrians in particular the specifics of their businesscycle theory ultrasubjectivism in value theory and particularly in interestrate theory their insistence on unidirectional causality rather than general interdependence and their fondness for methodological brooding pointless profundities and verbal gymnastics economist paul a samuelson wrote in 1964 that most economists believe that economic conclusions reached by pure logical deduction are limited and weak according to samuelson and caplan mises deductive methodology also embraced by murray rothbard and to a lesser extent by mises student israel kirzner was not sufficient in and of itself business cycle theory mainstream economic research regarding austrian business cycle theory finds that it is inconsistent with empirical evidence noted economists such as gordon tullock milton friedman and paul krugman have said that they regard the theory as incorrect austrian economist ludwig lachmann noted that the austrian theory was rejected during the 1930s theoretical objections some economists have argued that austrian business cycle theory requires bankers and investors to exhibit a kind of irrationality because the austrian theory posits that investors will be fooled repeatedly by temporarily low interest rates into making unprofitable investment decisions milton friedman objected to the policy implications of the theory stating the following in a 1998 interview empirical objections in 1969 milton friedman examined the history of business cycles in the united states and wrote that there appears to be no systematic connection between the size of an expansion and of the succeeding contraction contradicting business cycle theories such as the austrian business cycle theory which rely on that premise he analyzed the issue using newer data in 1993 and again reached the same conclusion referring to friedmans discussion of the business cycle austrian economist roger garrison argued that friedmans empirical findings are broadly consistent with both monetarist and austrian views and goes on to argue that although friedmans model describes the economys performance at the highest level of aggregation austrian theory offers an insightful account of the market process that might underlie those aggregates see also carl menger chicago school of economics criticism of the federal reserve eugen von böhmbawerk friedrich hayek hanshermann hoppe hard money policy henry hazlitt israel kirzner list of austrian intellectual traditions list of austrian school economists ludwig von mises new institutional economics perspectives on capitalism by school of thought school of salamanca notes and references further reading boettke peter j coyne christopher j 2023 new thinking in austrian economics annual review of economics 15 1 pdf excerpt via amazon external links understanding austrian economics by henry hazlitt schools of economic thought libertarian theory | 4,153 |
1032 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abscess | Abscess | an abscess is a collection of pus that has built up within the tissue of the body signs and symptoms of abscesses include redness pain warmth and swelling the swelling may feel fluidfilled when pressed the area of redness often extends beyond the swelling carbuncles and boils are types of abscess that often involve hair follicles with carbuncles being larger they are usually caused by a bacterial infection often many different types of bacteria are involved in a single infection in many areas of the world the most common bacteria present is methicillinresistant staphylococcus aureus rarely parasites can cause abscesses this is more common in the developing world diagnosis of a skin abscess is usually made based on what it looks like and is confirmed by cutting it open ultrasound imaging may be useful in cases in which the diagnosis is not clear in abscesses around the anus computer tomography ct may be important to look for deeper infection standard treatment for most skin or soft tissue abscesses is cutting it open and drainage there appears to be some benefit from also using antibiotics a small amount of evidence supports not packing the cavity that remains with gauze after drainage closing this cavity right after draining it rather than leaving it open may speed healing without increasing the risk of the abscess returning sucking out the pus with a needle is often not sufficient skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years risk factors include intravenous drug use with rates reported as high as 65 among users in 2005 32 million people went to american emergency departments for abscesses in australia around 13000 people were hospitalized in 2008 with the condition signs and symptoms abscesses may occur in any kind of tissue but most frequently within the skin surface where they may be superficial pustules known as boils or deep skin abscesses in the lungs brain teeth kidneys and tonsils major complications may include spreading of the abscess material to adjacent or remote tissues and extensive regional tissue death gangrene the main symptoms and signs of a skin abscess are redness heat swelling pain and loss of function there may also be high temperature fever and chills if superficial abscesses may be fluctuant when palpated this wavelike motion is caused by movement of the pus inside the abscess an internal abscess is more difficult to identify but signs include pain in the affected area a high temperature and generally feeling unwell internal abscesses rarely heal themselves so prompt medical attention is indicated if such an abscess is suspected an abscess can potentially be fatal depending on where it is located causes risk factors for abscess formation include intravenous drug use another possible risk factor is a prior history of disc herniation or other spinal abnormality though this has not been proven abscesses are caused by bacterial infection parasites or foreign substances bacterial infection is the most common cause particularly staphylococcus aureus the more invasive methicillinresistant staphylococcus aureus mrsa may also be a source of infection though is much rarer among spinal subdural abscesses methicillinsensitive staphylococcus aureus is the most common organism involved rarely parasites can cause abscesses and this is more common in the developing world specific parasites known to do this include dracunculiasis and myiasis perianal abscess surgery of the anal fistula to drain an abscess treats the fistula and reduces likelihood of its recurrence and the need for repeated surgery there is no evidence that fecal incontinence is a consequence of this surgery for abscess drainage perianal abscesses can be seen in people with for example inflammatory bowel disease such as crohns disease or diabetes often the abscess will start as an internal wound caused by ulceration hard stool or penetrative objects with insufficient lubrication this wound typically becomes infected as a result of the normal presence of feces in the rectal area and then develops into an abscess this often presents itself as a lump of tissue near the anus which grows larger and more painful with time like other abscesses perianal abscesses may require prompt medical treatment such as an incision and debridement or lancing incisional abscess an incisional abscess is one that develops as a complication secondary to a surgical incision it presents as redness and warmth at the margins of the incision with purulent drainage from it if the diagnosis is uncertain the wound should be aspirated with a needle with aspiration of pus confirming the diagnosis and availing for gram stain and bacterial culture pathophysiology an abscess is a defensive reaction of the tissue to prevent the spread of infectious materials to other parts of the body organisms or foreign materials destroy the local cells which results in the release of cytokines the cytokines trigger an inflammatory response which draws large numbers of white blood cells to the area and increases the regional blood flow the final structure of the abscess is an abscess wall or capsule that is formed by the adjacent healthy cells in an attempt to keep the pus from infecting neighboring structures however such encapsulation tends to prevent immune cells from attacking bacteria in the pus or from reaching the causative organism or foreign object diagnosis an abscess is a localized collection of pus purulent inflammatory tissue caused by suppuration buried in a tissue an organ or a confined space lined by the pyogenic membrane ultrasound imaging can help in a diagnosis classification abscesses may be classified as either skin abscesses or internal abscesses skin abscesses are common internal abscesses tend to be harder to diagnose and more serious skin abscesses are also called cutaneous or subcutaneous abscesses iv drug use for those with a history of intravenous drug use an xray is recommended before treatment to verify that no needle fragments are present if there is also a fever present in this population infectious endocarditis should be considered differential abscesses should be differentiated from empyemas which are accumulations of pus in a preexisting rather than a newly formed anatomical cavity other conditions that can cause similar symptoms include cellulitis a sebaceous cyst and necrotising fasciitis cellulitis typically also has an erythematous reaction but does not confer any purulent drainage treatment the standard treatment for an uncomplicated skin or soft tissue abscess is the act of opening and draining there does not appear to be any benefit from also using antibiotics in most cases a small amount of evidence did not find a benefit from packing the abscess with gauze incision and drainage the abscess should be inspected to identify if foreign objects are a cause which may require their removal if foreign objects are not the cause incising and draining the abscess is standard treatment in critical areas where surgery presents a high risk it may be delayed or used as a last resort the drainage of a lung abscess may be performed by positioning the affected individual in a way that enables the contents to be discharged via the respiratory tract warm compresses and elevation of the limb may be beneficial for a skin abscess antibiotics most people who have an uncomplicated skin abscess should not use antibiotics antibiotics in addition to standard incision and drainage is recommended in persons with severe abscesses many sites of infection rapid disease progression the presence of cellulitis symptoms indicating bacterial illness throughout the body or a health condition causing immunosuppression people who are very young or very old may also need antibiotics if the abscess does not heal only with incision and drainage or if the abscess is in a place that is difficult to drain such as the face hands or genitals then antibiotics may be indicated in those cases of abscess which do require antibiotic treatment staphylococcus aureus bacteria is a common cause and an antistaphylococcus antibiotic such as flucloxacillin or dicloxacillin is used the infectious diseases society of america advises that the draining of an abscess is not enough to address communityacquired methicillinresistant staphylococcus aureus mrsa and in those cases traditional antibiotics may be ineffective alternative antibiotics effective against communityacquired mrsa often include clindamycin doxycycline minocycline and trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole the american college of emergency physicians advises that typical cases of abscess from mrsa get no benefit from having antibiotic treatment in addition to the standard treatment if the condition is thought to be cellulitis rather than an abscess consideration should be given to the possibility of the strep species as a cause that are still sensitive to traditional antistaphylococcus agents such as dicloxacillin or cephalexin this would be in the case of people that are able to tolerate penicillin antibiotic therapy alone without surgical drainage of the abscess is seldom effective due to antibiotics often being unable to get into the abscess and their ineffectiveness at low ph levels culturing the wound is not needed if standard followup care can be provided after the incision and drainage performing a wound culture is unnecessary because it rarely gives information which can be used to guide treatment packing in north america after drainage an abscess cavity is usually packed often with special iodoformtreated cloth this is done to absorb and neutralize any remaining exudate as well as to promote draining and prevent premature closure prolonged draining is thought to promote healing the hypothesis is that though the hearts pumping action can deliver immune and regenerative cells to the edge of an injury an abscess is by definition a void in which no blood vessels are present packing is thought to provide a wicking action that continuously draws beneficial factors and cells from the body into the void that must be healed discharge is then absorbed by cutaneous bandages and further wicking promoted by changing these bandages regularly however evidence from emergency medicine literature reports that packing wounds after draining especially smaller wounds causes pain to the person and does not decrease the rate of recurrence nor bring faster healing or fewer physician visits loop drainage more recently several north american hospitals have opted for lessinvasive loop drainage over standard drainage and wound packing in one study of 143 pediatric outcomes a failure rate of 14 was reported in the loop group versus 105 in the packing group p030 while a separate study reported a 55 failure rate among the loop group primary closure closing an abscess immediately after draining it appears to speed healing without increasing the risk of recurrence this may not apply to anorectal abscesses as while they may heal faster there may be a higher rate of recurrence than those left open prognosis even without treatment skin abscesses rarely result in death as they will naturally break through the skin other types of abscess are more dangerous brain abscesses may be fatal if untreated when treated the mortality rate reduces to 510 but is higher if the abscess ruptures epidemiology skin abscesses are common and have become more common in recent years risk factors include intravenous drug use with rates reported as high as 65 among users in 2005 in the united states 32 million people went to the emergency department for an abscess in australia around 13000 people were hospitalized in 2008 for the disease society and culture the latin medical aphorism ubi pus ibi evacua expresses where there is pus there evacuate it and is classical advice in the culture of western medicine needle exchange programmes often administer or provide referrals for abscess treatment to injection drug users as part of a harm reduction public health strategy etymology an abscess is so called abscess because there is an abscessus a going away or departure of portions of the animal tissue from each other to make room for the suppurated matter lodged between them the word carbuncle is believed to have originated from the latin carbunculus originally a small coal diminutive of carbon carbo charcoal or ember but also a carbuncle stone precious stones of a red or fiery colour usually garnets other types the following types of abscess are listed in the medical dictionary references external links general surgery cutaneous lesion wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate | 2,023 |
1036 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aalborg%20Municipality | Aalborg Municipality | aalborg municipality is a municipality in north jutland region on the jutland peninsula in northern denmark the municipality straddles the limfjord the waterway which connects the north sea and the kattegat easttowest and which separates the main body of the jutland peninsula from the island of vendsysselthy northtosouth it has a land area of and a population of 222571 1 january 2023 it is also the name of the municipalitys main city aalborg and the site of its municipal council as well as the name of a seaport the municipality and the town have chosen to retain the traditional spelling of the name as aalborg although the new spelling ålborg is used in other contexts such as ålborg bight ålborg bugt the body of water which lies to the east of the jutland peninsula municipal reform of 2007 as of 1 january 2007 aalborg municipality joined with the municipalities of hals nibe and sejlflod to form a new aalborg municipality the former aalborg municipality including the island of egholm covered an area of with a total population of 192353 2005 its last mayor was henning g jensen a member of the social democrats political party the former municipality was bordered by sejlflod and hals to the east dronninglund and brønderslev to the north aabybro and nibe to the west and støvring and skørping to the south it belonged to north jutland county geography surroundings the waters in the limfjord splitting the municipality are called langerak to the east and gjøl bredning to the west the island of egholm is located in gjøl bredning and is connected by ferry to the city of aalborg at its southern shore the area is typical for the north of jutland to the west the limfjord broadens into an irregular lake salt water with low marshy shores and many islands northwest is store vildmose greater wild bog a swamp where a mirage is sometimes seen in summer southeast lies the similar lille vildmose lesser wild bog store vildmose was drained and farmed in the beginning of the 20th century and lille vildmose is now the largest moor in denmark urban areas in aalborg municipality aalborg city has a total population of 123432 the metropolitan area is a conurbation of the aalborg urban area in himmerland 102312 and the urban area in 21120 economy north flying has its head office on the property of aalborg airport in aalborg municipality politics municipal council aalborgs municipal council consists of 31 members elected every four years below are the municipal councils elected since the municipal reform of 2007 twin towns sister cities aalborg is twinned with 34 cities more than any other city in denmark every four years aalborg gathers young people from most of its twin towns for a week of sports known as ungdomslegene youth games netherlands antibes france büdelsdorf germany edinburgh scotland united kingdom norway fuglafjørður faroe islands galway ireland gdynia poland haifa israel hefei china austria greenland karlskoga sweden lancaster england lerum sweden liperi finland iceland orsa sweden orust sweden ośno lubuskie poland russia racine united states rapperswiljona switzerland rendalen norway rendsburg germany riga latvia riihimäki finland greenland solvang united states romania bulgaria vilnius lithuania germany references municipal statistics netborger kommunefakta delivered from kmd aka kommunedata municipal data municipal mergers and neighbors eniro map with named municipalities aalborg in figures 2008 a publication from aalborg municipality external links about aalborg from nordjyske medier aalborg municipalitys official website visitaalborg aalborg tourist office website for aalborg municipalitys former municipality reformation board public transport in aalborg and surroundings searchable map aalborg municipalities of the north jutland region municipalities of denmark populated places established in 2007 | 607 |
1038 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarhus | Aarhus | aarhus officially spelled århus from 1948 until 1 january 2011 is the secondlargest city in denmark and the seat of aarhus municipality it is located on the eastern shore of jutland in the kattegat sea and approximately northwest of copenhagen dating back to the late 8th century aarhus was founded as a harbour settlement at the mouth of the aarhus river and quickly became a trade hub the first christian church was built here around the year 900 and later in the viking age the town was fortified with defensive ramparts the bishopric of aarhus grew steadily stronger and more prosperous building several religious institutions in the town during the early middle ages trade continued to improve although it was not until 1441 that aarhus was granted market town privileges and the population of aarhus remained relatively stable until the 19th century the city began to grow significantly as trade prospered in the mid18th century but not until the mid19th century did the industrial revolution bring real growth in population the first railway line in jutland was built here in 1862 in 1928 the first university in jutland was founded in aarhus and today it is a university city and the largest centre for trade services industry and tourism in jutland aarhus cathedral is the longest cathedral in denmark with a total length of the church of our lady vor frue kirke was originally built in 1060 making it the oldest stone church in scandinavia the city hall designed by arne jacobsen and erik møller was completed in 1941 in a modern functionalist style aarhus theatre the largest provincial theatre in denmark opposite the cathedral on bispetorvet was built by hack kampmann in the art nouveau style and completed in 1916 musikhuset aarhus concert hall and det jyske musikkonservatorium royal academy of music aarhusaalborg are also of note as are its museums including the openair museum den gamle by the art museum aros aarhus kunstmuseum the moesgård museum and the womens museum kvindemuseet the citys major cultural institutions include den gamle by aros aarhus kunstmuseum the moesgård museum gender museum denmark musikhuset aarhus and aarhus theatre known as lit city of smiles it is the danish city with the youngest demographics and home to scandinavias largest university aarhus university commercially the city is the principal container port in the country and major danish companies such as vestas arla foods salling group and jysk have their headquarters there etymology the name originates from the citys location at the mouth of aarhus river it is a compound of the two words genitive of river modern danish and mouth in modern icelandic this word spelt is still used for river delta in valdemars census book 1231 the city was called arus and in icelandic it was known as later written as aars spelling the spelling aarhus is first found in 1406 and gradually became the norm in the 17th century with the danish spelling reform of 1948 aa was changed to å some danish cities resisted the change but aarhus city council opted to change the name in 2010 the city council voted to change the name back from to again with effect from 1 january 2011 it is still grammatically correct to write geographical names with the letter å and local councils are allowed to use the aa spelling as an alternative and most newspapers and public institutions will accept either some official authorities such as the danish language committee publisher of the danish orthographic dictionary still retain as the main name providing as a second option in brackets and some institutions are still using explicitly in their official name such as the local newspaper and the schools and aa was used by some major institutions between 1948 and 2011 as well such as aarhus university or the largest local sports club agf which has never used the åspelling certain geographically affiliated names have been updated to reflect the name of the city such as the aarhus river changed from to history early history founded in the early viking age aarhus is one of the oldest cities in denmark along with ribe and hedeby the original aros settlement was situated on the northern shores of a fjord by the mouth of the aarhus river right where the city center is today it quickly became a hub for seagoing trade due to its position on intersecting trade routes in the danish straits and the fertile countryside the trade however was not nearly as prominent as that in ribe and hedeby during the viking age and it was primarily linked to norway as evidenced by archaeological finds a shipbuilding yard from the viking age was uncovered upriver in 2002 by archaeologists it was located at a place formerly known as snekkeeng or snekke meadow in english snekke is a type of longship east of the brabrand lake close to viby and it was in use for more than 400 years from the late 700s till around the mid1200s archaeological evidence indicates that aarhus was a town as early as the last quarter of the 8th century discoveries after a 2003 archaeological dig included halfburied longhouses firepits glass pearls and a road dated to the late 700s several excavations in the inner city since the 1960s have revealed wells streets homes and workshops and inside the buildings and adjoining archaeological layers everyday utensils like combs jewellery and basic multipurpose tools from approximately the year 900 have been unearthed the early town was fortified with defensive earthen ramparts in the first part of the 900s possibly in the year 934 on order from king gorm the old the fortifications were later improved and expanded by his son harald bluetooth encircling the settlement much like the defence structures found at viking ring fortresses elsewhere together with the towns geographical placement this suggests that aros became an important military centre in the viking age there are also strong indications of a former royal residence from the same period in viby a few kilometres south of the aarhus city centre the centre of aarhus was originally a pagan burial site until aarhuss first christian church holy trinity church a timber structure was built upon it during the reign of frode king of jutland around 900 the bishopric of aarhus dates back to at least 948 when adam of bremen reported that the missionary bishop reginbrand of aros attended the synod of ingelheim in germany but the late viking age during the christianization of scandinavia was a turbulent and violent time with several naval attacks on the town such as harald hardradas assault around 1050 when the holy trinity church was burned to the ground despite the conflicts aarhus continued to prosper from the trade and the finding of six runestones in and around aarhus indicates the city had some significance around the year 1000 as only wealthy nobles traditionally used them the bishopric diocese was obliterated for almost a hundred years after reginbrand in 988 but in 1060 a new bishop christian was ordained and he founded a new church in aarhus sankt nicolai domkirke st nicholas cathedral this time in stone it was erected outside the town fortifications and stood finished in 1070 at the site where church of our lady stands today but only an underground crypt remains middle ages the growing influence of the church during the middle ages gradually turned aarhus with its bishopric into a prosperous religious centre many public and religious buildings were built in and around the town notably aarhus cathedral was initiated in the late 12th century by the influential bishop peder vognsen and around 1200 aros had a total of four churches the 13th century also marks a thorough reorganisation erasing most of the towns original layout with new streets relocations dismantling and new constructions the church clearly had the upper hand in the aarhus region during medieval times and the large bishopric of aarhus prospered and expanded territory reaching as far as viborg in extent in 1441 christopher iii issued the oldest known charter granting market town status although similar privileges may have existed as far back as the 12th century the charter is the first official recognition of the town as a regional power and is by some considered aarhuss birth certificate the commercial and religious status spurred town growth and in 1477 the defensive earthen ramparts which had ringed the town since the viking age were abandoned to accommodate expansion parts of the ramparts still exist today and can be experienced as steep slopes at the riverside and they have also survived in some place names of the inner city including the streets of volden the rampart and graven the moat aarhus grew to become one of the largest cities in the country by the early 16th century in 1657 octroi was imposed in larger danish cities which changed the layout and face of aarhus over the following decades wooden city walls were erected to prevent smuggling with gates and toll booths on the major thoroughfares mejlgade and studsgade the city gates funnelled most traffic through a few streets where merchant quarters were built in the 17th century aarhus entered a period of recession as it suffered blockades and bombardments during the swedish wars and trade was dampened by the preferential treatment of the capital by the state not until the middle of the 18th century did growth return in large part due to trade with the large agricultural catchment areas around the city grain particularly proved to be a remunerative export the first factories were established at this time as the industrial revolution reached the country and in 1810 the harbour was expanded to accommodate growing trade industrialisation aarhus began to prosper in the 1830s as the industrial revolution reached the city and factories with steamdriven machinery became more productive in 1838 the electoral laws were reformed leading to elections for the 15 seats on the city council the rules were initially very strict allowing only the wealthiest citizens to run in the 1844 elections only 174 citizens qualified out of a total population of more than 7000 the first city council mainly composed of wealthy merchants and industrialists quickly looked to improve the harbour situated along the aarhus river larger ships and growing freight volumes made a river harbour increasingly impractical in 1840 the harbour was moved to the coast north of the river where it became the largest industrial harbour outside copenhagen over the following 15 years from the outset the new harbour was controlled by the city council as it is to this day during the first schleswig war aarhus was occupied by german troops from 21 june to 24 july 1849 the city was spared any fighting but in vejlby north of the city a cavalry skirmish known as rytterfægtningen took place which stopped the german advance through jutland the war and occupation left a notable impact on the city as many streets particularly on frederiksbjerg are named after danish officers of the time fifteen years later in 1864 the city was occupied again this time for seven months during the second schleswig war in spite of wars and occupation the city continued to expand and develop in 1851 the octroi was abolished and the city walls were removed to provide easier access for trade regular steamship links with copenhagen had begun with the jylland in 182526 and the dania 182736 and in 1862 jutlands first railway was established between aarhus and randers in the second half of the 19th century industrialisation came into full effect and a number of new industries emerged around production and refinement of agricultural products especially oil and butter many companies from this time would come to leave permanent iconic marks on aarhus the ceres brewery was established in 1856 and served as aarhuss local brewery for more than 150 years gradually expanding into an industrial district known as ceresgrunden lit the ceresground in 1896 local farmers and businessmen created korn og foderstof kompagniet kfk focused on grain and feedstuffs kfk established departments all over the country while its headquarters remained in aarhus where its large grain silos still stand today otto mønsted created the danish preserved butter company in 1874 focusing on butter export to england china and africa and later founded the aarhus butterine company in 1883 the first danish margarine factory his company became an important local employer with factory employees increasing from 100 in 1896 to 1000 in 1931 partaking in the effective transformation of the city from a regional trade hub to an industrial centre other new factories of note included the dockyard aarhus flydedok and the oil mill århus oliefabrik aarhus became the largest provincial city in the country by the turn of the century and the city marketed itself as the capital of jutland the population increased from 15000 in 1870 to 52000 in 1901 and in response the city annexed large land areas to develop new residential quarters such as trøjborg frederiksbjerg and marselisborg many of its cultural institutions were also established at this time such as aarhus theatre 1900 the original state library 1902 aarhus university 1928 and several hospitals second world war on 9 april 1940 nazi germany invaded denmark occupying aarhus the following day the occuption lasted for five years this was a destructive period with major disasters loss of life and economic depression the port of aarhus became a hub for supplies to the baltics and norway while the surrounding rail network supplied the atlantic wall in west jutland and cargo headed for germany combined these factors resulted in a strong german presence especially in 194445 small resistance groups first appeared in 194142 but the first to coordinate with the freedom council was the samsing group responsible for most operations from early 1943 the samsing group along with others in and around aarhus was dismantled in june 1944 when grethe thora bartram turned her family and acquaintances over to german authorities in response requests for assistance were sent to contacts in england and in october 1944 the royal air force bombed the gestapo headquarters successfully destroying archives and obstructing the ongoing investigation in the summer of 1944 the copenhagenbased resistance group holger danske helped establish the 5 kolonne group and an soe agent arrived from england to liaison with the lgroups subsequently resistance operations escalated which was countered with schalburgtage terror operations by the peter group the increasingly destructive occupation was compounded when an ammunition barge exploded in july 1944 destroying much of the harbour area on 5 may 1945 german forces in denmark surrendered but during the transitional period fighting broke out resulting in 22 dead on 8 may the british royal dragoons entered the city postworld war ii years in the 1970s and 1980s the city entered a period of rapid economic growth and the service sector overtook trade industry and crafts as the leading sector of employment for the first time workers gradually began commuting to the city from most of east and central jutland as the region became more interconnected the student population tripled between 1965 and 1977 turning the city into a danish centre of research and education the growing and comparably young population initiated a period of creativity and optimism gaffa and the kaospilot school were founded in 1983 and 1991 respectively and aarhus was at the centre of a renaissance in danish rock and pop music launching bands and musicians such as tv2 gnags thomas helmig bamses venner anne dorte michelsen mek pek and shit chanel the 2000s since the turn of the millennium aarhus has seen an unprecedented building boom with many new institutions infrastructure projects city districts and recreational areas several of the construction projects are among the largest in europe such as the new university hospital dnu and the harbourfront redevelopment both the skyline and land use of the inner city is changing as former industrial sites are being redeveloped into new city districts and neighbourhoods starting in 2008 the former docklands known as de bynære havnearealer the periurban harbourareas and closest to the city seaside are being converted to new mixeduse districts it is among the largest harbourfront projects in europe the northern part dubbed aarhus ø aarhus docklands is almost finished as of 2018 while the southern district dubbed sydhavnskvarteret the southharbour neighbourhood is only starting to be developed the adjacent site of frederiks plads at the former dsb repair facilities have been under construction since 2014 as a new business and residential quarter the main bus terminal close by is planned to be moved to the central railway station and the site will be redeveloped to a new residential neighbourhood elsewhere in the inner city the site of the former ceres breweries was redeveloped in 20122019 as a new mixed use neighbourhood known as ceresbyen construction of aarhus letbane the first light rail system in the country commenced in 2013 and the first increment was finished in december 2017 since then the lightrail service has been expanded with two intercity sections to the towns of odder and grenå respectively and also includes a northward leg to the suburb of lisbjerg the light rail system is planned to tie many other suburbs closer to central aarhus in the future with the next phase including local lines to brabrand in the east and hinnerup to the north accelerating growth since the early 2000s brought the inner urban area to roughly 260000 inhabitants by 2014 the rapid growth is expected to continue until at least 2030 when aarhus municipality has set an ambitious target for 375000 inhabitants geography aarhus is located at the bay of aarhus facing the kattegat sea in the east with the peninsulas of mols and helgenæs across the bay to the northeast mols and helgenæs are both part of the larger regional peninsula of djursland a number of larger cities and towns is within easy reach from aarhus by road and rail including randers by road north grenå northeast horsens south and silkeborg east topography at aarhuss location the bay of aarhus provides a natural harbour with a depth of quite close to the shore aarhus was founded at the mouth of a brackish water fjord but the original fjord no longer exists as it has gradually narrowed into what is now the aarhus river and the brabrand lake due to natural sedimentation the land around aarhus was once covered by forests remains of which exist in parts of marselisborg forest to the south and riis skov to the north several lakes extend west from the inner city as the landscape merges with the larger region of søhøjlandet with heights exceeding at himmelbjerget between skanderborg and silkeborg the highest natural point in aarhus municipality is jelshøj at 128 metres above sea level in the southern district of højbjerg the hilltop is home to a bronze age barrow shrouded in local myths and legends the hilly area around aarhus consists of a morainal plateau from the last ice age broken by a complex system of tunnel valleys the most prominent valleys of this network are the aarhus valley in the south stretching inland eastwest with the aarhus river brabrand lake årslev lake and tåstrup lake and the egå valley to the north with the stream of egåen egå engsø the bog of gedingkasted mose and geding lake most parts of the two valleys have been drained and subsequently farmed but in the early 2000s some of the drainage was removed and parts of the wetlands were restored for environmental reasons the valley system also includes the stream of lyngbygård å in the west and valleys to the south of the city following erosion channels from the prequaternary by contrast the aarhus river valley and the giber river valley are late glacial meltwater valleys the coastal cliffs along the bay of aarhus consist of shallow tertiary clay from the eocene and oligocene 57 to 24 million years ago climate aarhus has a temperate oceanic climate köppen cfb and the weather is constantly influenced by major weather systems from all four ordinal directions resulting in unstable conditions throughout the year temperature varies a great deal across the seasons with a mild spring in april and may warmer summer months from june to august frequently rainy and windy autumn months in october and september and cooler winter months often with frost and occasional snow from december to march the city centre experiences the same climatic effects as other larger cities with higher wind speeds more fog less precipitation and higher temperatures than the surrounding open land western winds from the atlantic and north sea are dominant resulting in more precipitation in western denmark in addition jutland rises sufficiently in the centre to lift air to higher colder altitudes contributing to increased precipitation in eastern jutland combined these factors make east and south jutland comparatively wetter than other parts of the country average temperature over the year is with february being the coldest month and august the warmest temperatures in the sea can reach in june to august but it is not uncommon for beaches to register locally the geography in the area affects the local climate of the city with the aarhus bay imposing a temperate effect on the lowlying valley floor where central aarhus is located brabrand lake to the west further contributes to this effect and as a result the valley has a comparably mild temperate climate the sandy ground on the valley floor dries up quickly after winter and warms faster in the summer than the surrounding hills of moistretaining boulder clay these conditions affect crops and plants that often bloom 12 weeks earlier in the valley than on the northern and southern hillsides because of the northern latitude the number of daylight hours varies considerably between summer and winter on the summer solstice the sun rises at 0426 and sets at 2158 providing 17 hours 32 minutes of daylight on the winter solstice it rises at 0837 and sets at 1539 with 7 hours and 2 minutes of daylight the difference in length of days and nights between summer and winter solstices is 10 hours and 30 minutes politics and administration aarhus is the seat of aarhus municipality and aarhus city council aarhus byråd is also the municipal government with headquarters in aarhus city hall the mayor of aarhus since 2010 is jacob bundsgaard of the social democrats municipal elections are held every fourth year on the third tuesday of november with the next election in 2021 the city council consists of 31 members elected for fouryear terms when an election has determined the composition of the council it elects a mayor two deputy mayors and five aldermen from their ranks anyone who is eligible to vote and who resides within the municipality can run for a seat on the city council provided they can secure endorsements and signatures from 50 inhabitants of the municipality the first publicly elected mayor of aarhus was appointed in 1919 in the 1970 danish municipal reform the current aarhus municipality was created by merging 20 municipalities aarhus was the seat of aarhus county until the 2007 danish municipal reform which substituted the danish counties with five regions and replaced aarhus county with central denmark region region midtjylland seated in viborg subdivisions aarhus municipality has 45 electoral wards and polling stations in four electoral districts for the folketing national parliament the diocese of aarhus has four deaneries composed of 60 parishes within aarhus municipality aarhus municipality contains 21 postal districts and some parts of another 9 the urban area of aarhus and the immediate suburbs are divided into the districts aarhus c aarhus n aarhus v viby j højbjerg and brabrand environmental planning aarhus has increasingly been investing in environmental planning and in accordance with national policy aims to be neutral and independent of fossil fuels for heating by 2030 the municipal power plants were adapted for this purpose in the 2010s in 2015 the municipality took over three private strawfired heating plants and the year after a new 77 mw combined heat and power biomass plant at lisbjerg power station was completed while studstrup power station finished a refit to move from coal to wood chips in conjunction with the development of the docklands district there are plans for a utilityscale seawater heat pump which will take advantage of fluctuating electricity prices to supply the district heating system since 2015 the city has been implementing energysaving led technology in street lighting by january 2019 about half of the municipal street lighting had been changed apart from reducing the citys co2 emissions it saves 30 on the electricity bill thereby making it a selffinanced project over a 20year period the municipality aims for a coherent and holistic administration of the water cycle to protect against or clean up previous pollution and encourage green growth and selfsufficiency the main issues are excessive nutrients adapting to increased and increasing levels of precipitation brought on by climate change and securing the water supply these goals have manifested in a number of large water treatment projects often in collaboration with private partners in the 2000s underground rainwater basins were built across the city while the two lakes årslev engsø and egå engsø were created in 2003 and 2006 respectively the number of sewage treatment plants is planned to be reduced from 17 to 2 by 2025 as the treatment plants in marselisborg and egå are scheduled for expansion to take over all waste water treatment they have already been refitted for biogas production to become net producers of electricity and heat to aid the new treatment plants and avoid floodings sewage and stormwater throughout the municipality is planned to be separated into two different drainage systems construction began in 2017 in several areas but it is a long process that is scheduled to be finished by 2085 afforestation projects have been undertaken to prevent groundwater pollution secure drinking water sequester increase biodiversity create an attractive countryside provide easy access to nature and offer outdoor activities to the public in 2000 the first project the new forests of aarhus was completed which aimed to double the forest cover in the municipality and in 2009 another phase was announced to double forest cover once more before the year 2030 the afforestation plans were realised as a local project in collaboration with private landowners under a larger national agenda other projects to expand natural habitats include a rewilding effort in gedingkasted bog and continuous monitoring of the four natura 2000 areas in the municipality demographics aarhus has a population of 261570 on for a density of 2874km2 7444sq mi aarhus municipality has a population of 330639 on 468 km2 with a density of 706km2 1829sq mi less than a fifth of the municipal population resides beyond city limits and almost all live in an urban area the population of aarhus is both younger and bettereducated than the national average which can be attributed to the high concentration of educational institutions more than 40 of the population have an academic degree while only some 14 have no secondary education or trade the largest age group is 20 to 29yearolds and the average age is 375 making it the youngest city in the country and one of its youngest municipalities women have slightly outnumbered men for many years the city is home to 75 different religious groups and denominations most of which are christian or muslim with a smaller number of buddhist hindu and jewish communities since the 1990s there has been a marked growth in diverse new spiritual groups although the total number of followers remains small the majority of the population are members of the protestant state church church of denmark which is by far the largest religious institution both in the city and the country as a whole some 20 of the population are not officially affiliated with any religion a percentage that has been slowly rising for many years during the 1990s there was significant immigration from turkey and in the 2000s there was a fast growth in the overall immigrant community from 27783 people in 1999 to 40431 in 2008 the majority of immigrants have roots outside europe and the developed world comprising some 25000 people from 130 different nationalities with the largest groups coming from the middle east and north africa some 15000 have come from within europe with poland germany romania and norway being the largest contributors many immigrants have established themselves in the suburbs of brabrand hasle and viby where the percentage of inhabitants with foreign origins has risen by 66 since 2000 this has resulted in a few socalled ghettos defined as residential areas with more than half of inhabitants from nonwestern countries and with relatively high levels of poverty andor crime gellerup is the most notable neighbourhood in that respect the ghettolabelling has been criticized as unnecessarily stigmatising and counterproductive for social and economical development of the related areas economy the economy of aarhus is predominantly knowledge and servicebased strongly influenced by the university of aarhus and the large healthcare industry the service sector dominates the economy and is growing as the city transitions away from manufacturing trade and transportation remain important sectors benefiting from the large port and central position on the rail network manufacturing has been in slow but steady decline since the 1960s while agriculture has long been a marginal sector within the municipality the municipality is home to 175000 jobs with some 100000 in the private sector and the rest split between state region and municipality the region is a major agricultural producer with many large farms in the outlying districts people commute to aarhus from as far away as randers silkeborg and skanderborg and almost a third of those employed within the aarhus municipality commute from neighbouring communities aarhus is a centre for retail in the nordic and baltic countries with expansive shopping centres the busiest commercial street in the country and a dense urban core with many speciality shops the job market is knowledge and servicebased and the largest employment sectors are healthcare and social services trade education consulting research industry and telecommunications the municipality has more high and middleincome jobs and fewer lowincome jobs than the national average today te majority of the largest companies in the municipality are in the sectors of trade transport and media the wind power industry has strong roots in aarhus and the larger region of central jutland and nationally most of the revenue in the industry is generated by companies in the greater aarhus area the wind industry employs about a thousand people within the municipality making it a central component in the local economy the biotech industry is wellestablished in the city with many small and mediumsized companies mainly focused on research and development there are multiple big tech companies with offices in the city including uber and google several major companies are headquartered in aarhus including four of the ten largest in the country these include arla foods one of the largest dairy groups in europe salling group denmarks largest retailer jysk a worldwide retailer of household goods vestas a global wind turbine manufacturer terma as a major defence and aerospace manufacturer per aarsleff a civil engineering company and several large retail companies other large employers of note include krifa systematic as and bestseller as since the early 2000s the city has experienced an influx of larger companies moving from other parts of the jutland peninsula port of aarhus the port of aarhus is one of the largest industrial ports in northern europe with the largest container terminal in denmark processing more than 50 of denmarks container traffic and accommodating the largest container vessels in the world it is a municipal selfgoverning port with independent finances the facilities handle some 95 million tonnes of cargo a year 2012 grain is the principal export while feedstuffs stone cement and coal are among the chief imports since 2012 the port has faced increasing competition from the port of hamburg and freight volumes have decreased somewhat from the peak in 2008 the ferry terminal presents the only alternative to the great belt link for passenger transport between jutland and zealand it has served different ferry companies since the first steamship route to copenhagen opened in 1830 currently molslinien operates the route and annually transports some two million passengers and a million vehicles additional rollonrolloff cargo ferries serve finland and kalundborg on a weekly basis and smaller outlying danish ports at irregular intervals since the early 2000s the port has increasingly become a destination for cruise lines operating in the baltic sea tourism the aros art museum the old town museum and tivoli friheden are among denmarks top tourist attractions with a combined total of almost 14 million visitors they represent the driving force behind tourism but other venues such as moesgård museum and kvindemuseet are also popular the citys extensive shopping facilities are also said to be a major attraction for tourists as are festivals especially northside and spot many visitors arrive on cruise ships in 2012 18 vessels visited the port with over 38000 passengers in the 2010s there was a significant expansion of tourist facilities culminating in the opening of the 240room comwell hotel in july 2014 which increased the number of hotel rooms in the city by 25 some estimates put the number of visitors spending at least one night as high as 750000 a year most of them danes from other regions with the remainder coming mainly from norway sweden northern germany and the united kingdom overall they spend roughly dkk 3 billion 402 million in the city each year the primary motivation for tourists choosing aarhus as a destination is experiencing the city and culture family and couples vacation or as a part of a round trip in denmark the average stay is little more than three days on average there are more than 30 tourist information spots across the city some of them are staffed while others are online publicly accessible touchscreens the official tourist information service in aarhus is organised under visitaarhus a corporate foundation initiated in 1994 by aarhus municipality and local commercial interest organisations research parks the largest research park in aarhus is incuba science park focused on it and biomedical research it is based on denmarks first research park forskerpark aarhus research park aarhus founded in 1986 which in 2007 merged with another research park to form incuba science park the organisation is owned partly by aarhus university and private investors and aims to foster close relationships between public institutions and startup companies it is physically divided across 4 locations after a new department was inaugurated in navitas park in 2015 which it will share with the aarhus school of marine and technical engineering and au engineering another major centre for knowledge is agro food park in skejby established to facilitate cooperation between companies and public institutions working within food science and agriculture in january 2017 arla foods will open the global innovation centre arla nativa in agro food park and in 2018 aarhus university is moving the danish centre for food and agriculture there as well in 2016 some 1000 people worked at agro food park spread across 50 companies and institutions and in august 2016 agro food park management published plans to expand facilities from 92000 m2 to in addition aarhus is home to the aarhus school of architecture one of two danish ministry of education institutions that provide degree programs in architecture and some of the largest architecture firms in the nordic countries such as schmidt hammer lassen architects arkitema architects and c f møller architects taken together these organisations form a unique concentration of expertise and knowledge in architecture outside copenhagen which the danish ministry of business and growth refers to as the architecture cluster to promote the cluster the school of architecture will be given new school buildings centrally in the new freight station neighborhood planned for development in the 2020s in the interim the city council supports a culture business and education centre in the area which may continue in the future neighbourhood in some form the future occupants of the neighbourhood will be businesses and organisations selected for their ability to be involved in the local community and it is hoped that the area will evolve into a hotspot for creativity and design cityscape aarhus has developed in stages from the viking age to modern times all visible in the city today many architectural styles are represented in different parts of the city such as romanesque gothic renaissance baroque rococo national romantic nordic classicism neoclassical empire and functionalism the city has developed around the main transport hubs the river the harbour and later the railway station and as a result the oldest parts are also the most central and busiest today the streets of volden the rampart and graven the moat testify to the defences of the initial viking town and allégaderingen in midtbyen roughly follows the boundaries of that settlement the street network in the inner city formed during the middle ages with narrow curved streets and low dense housing by the river and the coast vesterport westward gate still bears the name of the medieval city gate and the narrow alleyways posthussmøgen and telefonsmøgen are remnants of toll stations from that time the inner city has the oldest preserved buildings especially the latin quarter with houses dating back to the early 17th century in mejlgade and skolegade medieval merchants mansions with courtyards can be seen in klostergade studsgade and skolegade by far the largest part of the presentday city was built during and after the industrialization of the late 1800s and the most represented architectural styles today are historicism and modernism especially the subgenre of danish functionalism of which there are many fine examples the building boom of the 2000s has imprinted itself on aarhus with a redeveloped harbourfront many new neighbourhoods also in the inner city and a revitalized public space it is also beginning to change the skyline with several dominating highrises developments in recent years aarhus has experienced a large demand in housing and offices spurring a construction boom in some parts of the city the newly built city district of aarhus ø formerly docklands includes major housing developments mostly consisting of privately owned apartments designed by architects such as cebra and jds architects in the second quarter of 2012 the population of the area stood at only 5 however that number had risen to 3940 by october 2019 the main public transportation service is bus line 23 as well as østbanetorvet train station plans to service the area by the light rail line aarhus letbane have now been shelved landmarks aarhus cathedral århus domkirke in the centre of aarhus is the longest and tallest church in denmark at and in length and height respectively originally built as a romanesque basilica in the 13th century it was rebuilt and enlarged as a gothic cathedral in the late 15th and early 16th centuries even though the cathedral stood finished around 1300 it took more than a century to build the associated cathedral school of aarhus katedralskole was already founded in 1195 and ranks as the 44th oldest school in the world another important and historic landmark in the inner city is the church of our lady vor frue kirke also from the 13th century in romanesque and gothic style it is smaller and less impressive but it was the first cathedral of aarhus and founded on an even older church constructed in 1060 the oldest stone church in scandinavia langelandsgade kaserne in national romantic style from 1889 is the oldest former military barracks left in the country home to the university department of aesthetics and communication since 1989 marselisborg palace marselisborg slot designed by hack kampmann in neoclassical and art nouveau styles was donated by the city to prince christian and princess alexandrine as a wedding present in 1898 the aarhus custom house toldkammeret from 1898 is said to be hack kampmanns finest work tivoli friheden tivoli freedom opened in 1903 and has since been the largest amusement park in the city and a tourist attraction aarhus theatre from 1916 in the art nouveau style is the largest provincial theatre in denmark the early buildings of aarhus university especially the main building completed in 1932 designed by kay fisker povl stegmann and by cf møller have gained an international reputation for their contribution to functionalist architecture the city hall aarhus rådhus from 1941 with an iconic tower clad in marble was designed by arne jacobsen and erik møller in a modern functionalist style culture aarhus is home to many annual cultural events and festivals museums theatres and sports events of both national and international importance and presents some of the largest cultural attractions in denmark there is a long tradition of music from all genres and many danish bands have emerged from aarhus libraries cultural centres and educational institutions present free or easy opportunities for the citizens to participate in engage in or be creative with cultural events and productions of all kinds since 1938 aarhus has marketed itself as smilets by city of smiles which has become both an informal moniker and official slogan in 2011 the city council opted to change the slogan to aarhus danish for progress but it was unpopular and abandoned after just a few years other slogans that have occasionally been used are byen ved havet city by the sea mellem bugt og bøgeskov between bay and beechwood and verdens mindste storby worlds smallest big city aarhus is featured in popular songs such as hjem til aarhus by på slaget 12 lav sol over aarhus by gnags 8000 aarhus c by flemming jørgensen pigen ud af aarhus by tina dickow and slingrer ned ad vestergade by gnags in 1919 the number sangen til aarhus song to aarhus had become a popular hit for a time but the oldest and perhaps best known national anthem for the city is the classical aarhus tappenstreg from 1872 by carl christian møller which is occasionally played at official events or at performances by local marching bands and orchestras museums aarhus has a range of museums including two of the largest in the country measured by the number of paying guests den gamle by and aros aarhus kunstmuseum den gamle by the old town officially danmarks købstadmuseum denmarks market town museum presents danish townscapes from the 16th century to the 1970s with individual areas focused on different time periods 75 historic buildings collected from different parts of the country have been brought here to create a small town in its own right aros aarhus kunstmuseum the citys main art museum is one of the largest art museums in scandinavia with a collection covering danish art from the 18th century to the present day as well as paintings installations and sculptures representing international art movements and artists from all over the world the iconic glass structure on the roof your rainbow panorama was designed by olafur eliasson and features a promenade offering a colourful panorama of the city the moesgård museum specialises in archaeology and ethnography in collaboration with aarhus university with exhibits on denmarks prehistory including weapon sacrifices from illerup ådal and the grauballe man kvindemuseet the womens museum from 1984 contains collections of the lives and works of women in danish cultural history the occupation museum besættelsesmuseum presents exhibits illustrating the german occupation of the city during the second world war the university park on the campus of aarhus university includes the natural history museum with 5000 species of animals many in their natural surroundings and the steno museum is a museum of the history of science and medicine with a planetarium kunsthal aarhus aarhus art hall hosts exhibitions of contemporary art including painting sculpture photography performance art film and video strictly speaking it is not a museum but an arts centre one of the oldest in europe built and founded in 1917 libraries and community centres public libraries in denmark are also cultural and community centres they play an active role in cultural life and host many events exhibitions discussion groups workshops educational courses and facilitate everyday cultural activities for and by the citizens in june 2015 the large central library and cultural centre of dokk1 opened at the harbour front dokk1 also includes civil administrations and services commercial office rentals and a large underground robotic car park and aims to be a landmark for the city and a public meeting place the building of dokk1 and the associated squares and streetscape is also collectively known as urban mediaspace aarhus and it is the largest construction project aarhus municipality has yet undertaken apart from this large main library some neighbourhoods in aarhus have a local library engaged in similar cultural and educational activities but on a more local scale the state library statsbiblioteket at the university campus has status of a national library the city is a member of the icorn organisation international cities of refuge network in an effort to provide a safe haven to authors and writers persecuted in their countries of origin there are several cultural and community centres throughout the city this includes folkestedet in the central åparken facilitating events for and by noncommercial associations organisations and clubs and activities for the elderly the nearby godsbanen at the railway yard with workshops events and exhibitions and globus1 in brabrand facilitating sports and various cultural activities performing arts the city enjoys strong musical traditions both classical and alternative underground and popular with educational and performance institutions such as the concert halls of musikhuset the opera of den jyske opera aarhus symfoniorkester aarhus symphony orchestra and det jyske musikkonservatorium royal academy of music aarhusaalborg musikhuset is the largest concert hall in scandinavia with seating for more than 3600 people other major music venues include voxhall rebuilt in 1999 and the associated venue of atlas train nightclub at the harbourfront and godsbanen a former rail freight station the acting scene in aarhus is diverse with many groups and venues engaged in a broad span of genres from animation theatre and childrens theatre to classical theatre and improvisational theatre aarhus teater is the oldest and largest venue with mostly professional classical acting performances svalegangen the second largest theatre is more experimental with its performances and other notable groups and venues includes entréscenen katapult gruppe 38 helsingør teater det andet teater and teater refleksion as well as dance venues like bora bora the cultural center of godsbanen includes several scenes and stages and the concert halls of musikhuset also stage theatrical plays regularly and is home to the childrens theatre filuren and a comedy club the city hosts a biannual international theatre festival international living theatre ilt with the next event being scheduled for 2021 since 2010 the music production centre of promus produktionscentret for rytmisk musik has supported the rock scene in the city along with the publicly funded rosa dansk rock samråd which promotes danish rock music in general aarhus is known for its musical history fuelled by a relatively young population jazz clubs sprang up in the 1950s which became a tour stop for many iconic american jazz musicians by the 1960s the music scene diversified into rock and other genres and in the 1970s and 1980s aarhus became a centre for rock music fostering iconic bands such as kliché tv2 and gnags and artists such as thomas helmig and anne linnet acclaimed bands since the 1970s include under byen michael learns to rock nephew carpark north spleen united veto hatesphere and illdisposed in addition to individual performers such as medina and tina dico events and festivals aarhus hosts many annual or recurring festivals concerts and events with the festival of aarhus festuge as the most popular and wideranging along with large sports events aarhus festuge is the largest multicultural festival in scandinavia always based on a special theme and takes place every year for ten days between late august and early september transforming the inner city with festive activities and decorations of all kinds there are numerous music festivals the eightday aarhus jazz festival features jazz in many venues across the city it was founded in 1988 and usually takes place in july every year occasionally august or september there are several annually recurring music festivals for contemporary popular music in aarhus northside festival presents wellknown bands every year in midjune on large outdoor scenes it is a relatively new event founded in 2010 but grew from a oneday event to a threeday festival in its first three years now with 35000 paying guests in 2015 spot festival is aiming to showcase upandcoming danish and scandinavian talents at selected venues of the inner city the outdoor grøn koncert music festival takes place every year in many cities across denmark including aarhus danmarks grimmeste festival lit denmarks ugliest festival is a small summer music festival held in skjoldhøjkilen brabrand aarhus also hosts recurring events dedicated to specific art genres international living theatre ilt is a biannual festival established in 2009 with performing arts and stage art on a broad scale the festival has a vision of showing the best plays and stage art experiences of the world while at the same time attracting thespians and stage art interested people from both aarhus and europe at large literaturexchange is a new annual festival from 2018 focused on literature from around the world as well as regional talents the city actively promotes its gay and lesbian community and celebrates the annual aarhus pride gay pride festival while aarhus festuge usually includes exhibits concerts and events designed for the lgbt communities notable events of a local scope include the university boatrace held in the university park since 1991 which has become a local spectator event attracting some 20000 people the boat race pits costumed teams from the university departments against each other in inflatable boats in a challenge to win the gyldne bækken golden chamber pot trophy the annual lighting of the christmas lights on the salling department store in søndergade has also become an attraction in recent times packing the pedestrianised city centre with thousands of revellers significant dates such as saint lucys day sankt hans saint johns eve and fastelavn are traditionally celebrated with numerous events across the city parks nature and recreation the beech forests of riis skov and marselisborg occupy the hills along the coast to the north and south and apart from the city centre sandy beaches form the coastline of the entire municipality there are two public sea baths the northern den permanente below riis skov and close to the harbour area and the southern ballehage beach in the marselisborg forests as in most of denmark there are no private beaches in the municipality but access to den permanente requires a membership except in the summer the relatively mild temperate marine climate allows for outdoor recreation year round including walking hiking cycling and outdoor team sports mountain biking is usually restricted to marked routes watersports like sailing kayaking motor boating etc are also popular and since the bay rarely freezes up in winter they can also be practised most of the year recreational and transportational pathways for pedestrians and cyclists radiate from the city centre to the countryside providing safety from motorised vehicles and a more tranquil experience this includes the 19 kilometre long pathway of brabrandstien encircling the brabrand lake the longrange hiking route aarhussilkeborg starts off from brabrandstien aarhus has an unusually high number of parks and green spaces 134 of them covering a total area of around the central botanical gardens botanisk have from 1875 are a popular destination as they include the old town openair museum and host a number of events throughout the year originally used to cultivate fruit trees and other useful plants for the local citizens there are now a significant collection of trees and bushes from different habitats and regions of the world including a section devoted to native danish plants recently renovated tropical and subtropical greenhouses exhibit exotic plants from throughout the world also in the city centre is the undulating university park recognised for its unique landscaped design with large old oak trees the memorial park mindeparken at the coast below marselisborg palace offers a panoramic view across the bay of aarhus and is popular with locals for outings picnics or events other notable parks include the small central city hall park rådhusparken and marienlyst park marienlystparken marienlyst park is a relatively new park from 1988 situated in hasle out of the inner city and is less crowded but it is the largest park in aarhus including woodlands large open grasslands and soccer fields marselisborg forests and riis skov has a long history of recreational activities of all kinds including several restaurants hotels and opportunities for green exercise there are marked routes here for jogging running and mountain biking and large events are hosted regularly this includes running events cycle racing and orienteering the annual classic race aarhus with historic racing cars all attracting thousands of people marselisborg deer park marselisborg dyrehave in marselisborg forests comprises of fenced woodland pastures with freeroaming sika and roe deer below the moesgård museum in the southern parts of the marselisborg forests is a large historical landscape of pastures and woodlands presenting different eras of denmarks prehistory sections of the forest comprise trees and vegetation representing specific climatic epochs from the last ice age to the present dotted across the landscape are reconstructed stone age and bronze age graves buildings from the iron age viking age and medieval times with grazing goats sheep and horses in between food drink and nightlife aarhus has a large variety of restaurants and eateries offering food from cultures all over the world especially mediterranean and asian but also international gourmet cuisine traditional danish food and new nordic cuisine among the oldest restaurants are rådhuscafeen lit the city hall café opened in 1924 serving a menu of traditional danish meals and peter gift from 1906 a tavern with a broad beer selection and a menu of smørrebrød and other danish dishes in aarhus new nordic can be experienced at kähler villa dining hærværk and domestic but local produce can be had at many places especially at the twiceweekly food markets in frederiksbjerg aarhus and central denmark region was selected as european region of gastronomy in 2017 the city and municipality is a member of the délice network an international nonprofit organization nurturing and facilitating knowledge exchange in gastronomy appraised highend restaurants serving international gourmet cuisine include frederikshøj substans gastromé det glade vanvid nordisk spisehus restaurant varna restaurant et gäst brasserie belli møf restaurants in aarhus were the first in provincial denmark to receive michelin stars since 2015 when michelin inspectors ventured outside copenhagen for the first time vendors of street food are numerous throughout the centre often selling from small trailers on permanent locations formally known as pølsevogne lit sausage wagons traditionally serving a danish variety of hot dogs sausages and other fast food there are increasingly more outlets inspired by other cultural flavours such as sushi kebab and currywurst the city centre is packed with cafés especially along the river and the latin quarter some of them also include an evening restaurant such as café casablanca café carlton café cross and gyngen aarhus street food and aarhus central food market are two indoor food courts from 2016 in the city centre comprising a variety of street food restaurants cafés and bars aarhus has a robust and diverse nightlife the action tends to concentrate in the inner city with the pedestrianised riverside frederiksgade the latin quarter and jægergårdsgade on frederiksbjerg as the most active centres at night but things are stirring elsewhere around the city too the nightlife scene offers everything from small joints with cheap alcohol and a homely atmosphere to fashionable nightclubs serving champagne and cocktails or small and large music venues with bars dance floors and lounges a short selection of wellestablished places where you can have a drink and socialise include the fashionable lounge and night club kupé at the harbourfront the relaxed ris ras filliongongong offering waterpipes and an awardwinning beer selection fatter eskild with a broad selection of danish bands playing mostly blues and rock the wine and book café løves in nørregade sherlock holmes a britishstyle pub with live music and the brew pub of sct clemens with a hereford beefstouw restaurant across the cathedral a few nightlife spots are aimed at gays and lesbians specifically including gbar nightclub and café sappho the århus set danish århus sæt is a set of drinks often ordered together named for the city and consisting of two beverages one ceres top beer and one shot arnbitter both originally from aarhus ordering a set suffices in most bars and pubs aarhus bryghus is a local craft brewery with a sizeable production the brewery is located in the southern district of viby and a large variety of their craft brews are available there in most larger wellassorted stores in the city and in some bars and restaurants as well they also export local dialect the aarhus dialect commonly called aarhusiansk aarhusian in english is a jutlandic dialect in the mideastern jutland dialect area traditionally spoken in and around aarhus aarhusian as with most local dialects in denmark has diminished in use through the 20th century and most danes today speak some version of standard danish with slight regional features aarhusian however still has a strong presence in older segments of the population and in areas with high numbers of immigrants some examples of common traditional and unique aarhusian words are træls tiresome noller silly or dumb and dælme excl damn me the dialect is notable for singlesyllable words ending in d being pronounced with stød while the same letter in multiplesyllable words is pronounced as j ie odder is pronounced ojjer like other dialects in east jutland it has two grammatical genders similar to standard danish but different from west jutlandic dialects which have only one in 2009 the university of aarhus compiled a list of contemporary public figures who best exemplify the dialect including jacob haugaard thomas helmig steffen brandt stig tøfting flemming jørgensen tina dickow and camilla martin in popular culture the dialect features prominently in niels malmross movie aarhus by night and in 90s comedy sketches by jacob haugaard and finn nørbygaard sports aarhus has three major mens professional sports teams the superliga team aarhus gymnastikforening agf danish handball leagues aarhus gf håndbold and danish basketball leagues bakken bears notable or historic clubs include aarhus 1900 aarhus fremad idrætsklubben skovbakken and aarhus sejlklub aarhus idrætspark has hosted matches in the premiere danish soccer league since it was formed in 1920 and matches for the national mens soccer team in 2006 and 2007 the five sailing clubs routinely win national and international titles in a range of disciplines and the future national watersports stadium will be located on the aarhus docklands in the city centre the bakken bears won the danish basketball championships in 2011 2012 2013 and 2014 the municipality actively supports sports organisations in and around the city providing public organisations that aim to attract major sporting events and strengthen professional sports the national olympic committee and sports confederation of denmark counts some 380 sports organisations within the municipality and about one third of the population are members of one soccer is by far the most popular sport followed by gymnastics handball and badminton in recent decades many free and public sports facilities have sprung up across the city such as street football basketball climbing walls skateboarding and beach volley several natural sites also offer green exercise with exercise equipment installed along the paths and tracks reserved for mountain biking the newly reconstructed area of skjoldhøjkilen is a prime example aarhus has hosted many sporting events including the 2010 european womens handball championship the 2014 european mens handball championship the 2013 mens european volleyball championships the 2005 european table tennis championships the denmark open in badminton the uci womens road cycling world cup the 2006 world orienteering championships the 2006 world artistic gymnastics championships and the gf world cup womens handball on average aarhus is hosting one or two international sailing competitions every year in 2008 the city hosted the isaf youth sailing world championships and in 2018 it was host to the isaf sailing world championships the world championship for the 12 olympic sailing disciplines aarhus is an important qualifier for the 2020 olympics education aarhus is the principal centre for education in the jutland region it draws students from a large area especially from the western and southern parts of the peninsula the relatively large influx of young people and students creates a natural base for cultural activities aarhus has the greatest concentration of students in denmark fully 12 of citizens attending short medium or long courses of study in addition to around 25 institutions of higher education several research forums have evolved to assist in the transfer of expertise from education to business the city is home to more than 52000 students since 2012 aarhus university au has been the largest university in denmark by number of students enrolled it is ranked among the top 100 universities in the world by several of the most influential and respected rankings the university has approximately 41500 bachelor and master students enrolled as well as about 1500 phd students it is possible to engage in higher academic studies in many areas from the traditional spheres of natural science humanities and theology to more vocational academic areas like engineering and dentistry aarhus tech is one of the largest technical colleges in denmark teaching undergraduate study programmes in english including vocational education and training vet continuing vocational training cvt and human resource development business academy aarhus is among the largest business academies in denmark and offers undergraduate and some academic degrees in it business and technical fields the academic level technical aspects are covered in a collaboration with aarhus tech aarhus school of marine and technical engineering and aarhus educational centre for agriculture the danish school of media and journalism dmjx is the oldest and largest of the colleges offering journalism courses since 1946 with approximately 1700 students as of 2014 dmjx has been an independent institution since 1974 conducting research and teaching at undergraduate level and in 2004 masters courses in journalism was established in a collaboration with aarhus university the latter is offered through the centre for university studies in journalism granting degrees through the university the royal academy of music in aarhus det jyske musikkonservatorium is a conservatoire established under the auspices of the danish ministry of culture in 1927 in 2010 it merged administratively with the royal academy of music in aalborg which was founded in 1930 under the patronage of his royal highness crown prince frederik it offers graduate level studies in areas such as music teaching and solo and professional musicianship via university college was established in january 2008 and is one of eight new regional organisations offering bachelor courses of all kinds throughout the central denmark region it offers over 50 higher educations taught in danish or sometimes in english with vocational education and it participates in various research and development projects aarhus school of architecture arkitektskolen aarhus was founded in 1965 along with the royal danish academy of fine arts of copenhagen it is responsible for the education of architects in denmark with an enrolment of approximately 900 students it teaches in five main departments architecture and aesthetics urban and landscape architectonic heritage design and architectural design transport aarhus has two ring roads ring 1 roughly encircling the central district of aarhus c and the outlying ring 2 six major intercity motorways radiate from the city centre connecting with nearby cities grenå randers viborg silkeborg skanderborg and odder in the inner city motorised traffic is highly regulated larger parts are pedestrianised and in the 2000s a system of roads prioritised for cyclists have been implemented connecting to suburban areas the main railway station in aarhus is aarhus central station located in the city centre dsb has connections to destinations throughout denmark and also services to flensburg and hamburg in germany aarhus letbane is a local electric light rail or tram system that opened in december 2017 connecting the central station and the inner city with the university hospital in skejby and also replaced local railway services to grenaa and odder in late 2018 it is the first electric light rail system in denmark and more routes are planned to open in coming years tickets for the light rail are also available in local yellow bus lines most city bus lines go through the inner city and pass through either park allé or banegårdspladsen or both right at the central station regional and intercity buses terminate at aarhus bus terminal just east of the central station flixbus provides longdistance buses that travel to other cities in denmark and europe ferries administered by danish ferry company molslinien transports passengers and motorvehicles between aarhus and sjællands odde on zealand the ferries comprises hsc katexpress 1 and hsc katexpress 2 the worlds largest dieselpowered catamarans and hsc max mols aarhus airport is located on djursland northeast of aarhus near tirstrup and provides links to both copenhagen and international destinations the larger billund airport is situated southwest of aarhus there has been much discussion about constructing a new airport closer to the city for many years but so far no plans have been realised in august 2014 the city council officially initiated a process to assert the viability of a new international airport a small seaplane now operates four flights daily between aarhus harbour and copenhagen harbour aarhus has a free bike sharing system aarhus bycykler aarhus city bikes the bicycles are available from 1 april to 30 october at 57 stands throughout the city and can be obtained by placing a dkk 20 coin in a release slot like caddies in a supermarket the coin can be retrieved when the bike is returned at a random stand bicycles can also be hired from many shops healthcare aarhus is home to aarhus university hospital one of six danish super hospitals officially established in 2007 when the regions reformed the danish healthcare sector the university hospital is the result of a series of mergers in the 2000s between the local hospitals of skejby sygehus the municipal hospital the county hospital marselisborg hospital and risskov psychiatric hospital it is today the largest hospital in denmark with a combined staff of some 10000 and 1150 patient beds and has been ranked the best hospital in denmark consecutively since 2008 in 2012 construction of a new large hospital building began known as det nye universitetshospital dnu or the new university hospital in english and it is centralising and accommodating all of the former departments ending in 2019 the new hospital is divided in four clinical centres a service centre and one administrative unit along with twelve research centres private hospitals specialised in different areas from plastic surgery to fertility treatments operate in aarhus as well ciconia aarhus private hospital founded in 1984 is a leading danish fertility clinic and the first of its kind in denmark ciconia has provided for the birth of 6000 children by artificial insemination and continually conducts research into the field of fertility aagaard clinic established in 2004 is another private fertility and gynaecology clinic which since 2004 has undertaken fertility treatments that has resulted in 1550 births aarhus municipality also offers a number of specialised services in the areas of nutrition exercise sex smoking and drinking activities for the elderly health courses and lifestyle media the first daily newspaper to appear in aarhus was århus stiftstidende established in 1794 as aarhuus stifts adressecontoirs tidender with a moderately conservative approach once one of denmarks largest it was a leading provincial newspaper for a time but after the second world war it increasingly faced competition from demokraten 18841974 and both published in aarhus in 1998 it merged with randers amtsavis and is now run by midtjyske medier part of berlingske media the daily newspaper of was established in 1871 in aarhus and takes a generally rightwing editorial approach with a reputation as a serious news publication the paper has always included news from jutland in particular but somewhat less so since its promotion as a national newspaper in the 1960s today it is one of the three bestselling serious newspapers in denmark the others being berlingske and politiken jyllandsposten publishes jp aarhus a section dedicated to news in and around aarhus and hosted a free cityguide website from 2010 to 2016 the copenhagenbased media company of politiken also publishes several free local papers once a week in parts of denmark and sweden in aarhus they publish a total of five local newspapers aarhus midt aarhus nord aarhus vest aarhus syd and aarhus onsdag aarhus onsdag aarhus wednesday is financed completely by advertisements and available in both paperform and online it was bought from århus stiftstidende in june 2017 but has been published for many years previous danmarks radio has a large department in aarhus with over 200 employees it runs the dr østjylland radio programme provides local contributions to dr p4 and produces local regional television programmes in 1999 tv 2 moved its jutland headquarters from randers to skejby in northern aarhus the station broadcasts regional news and current affairs television and radio programmes since 2012 it has run its own tv channel tv 2 østjylland aarhus has its own local tv channel tvaarhus transmitting since 1984 after an agreement on 1 july 2014 tvaarhus can be watched by 130000 households in aarhus making it the largest cabletransmitted local tv channel in denmark with over 1700 students the danish school of media and journalism danmarks medie og journalisthøjskole is the countrys largest and oldest school of journalism the school works closely with aarhus university where the first journalism course was established in 1946 in 2004 the two institutions established the centre for university studies in journalism which offers masters courses international relations aarhus is home to 32 consulates aarhus practices twinning on the municipal level for the twin towns see twin towns of aarhus municipality notable people citations notes references publications further reading external links aarhus kommune official municipal and city portal visit aarhus official tourist site cities and towns in the central denmark region cities and towns in aarhus municipality municipal seats of the central denmark region municipal seats of denmark port cities and towns in denmark viking age populated places | 11,815 |
1043 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern%20cavefish | Northern cavefish | the northern cavefish or northern blindfish amblyopsis spelaea is found in caves through kentucky and southern indiana it is under review for possible listing under the endangered species act of 1973 in the united states as of 2023 and the iucn lists the species as near threatened during a 2013 study of amblyopsis spelaea scientists found that the species was divided into two distinct evolutionary lineages one north of the ohio river in indiana and one south of the river in kentucky the southern population retained the name a spelaea and the northern was redesignated amblyopsis hoosieri in a 2014 paper published in the journal zookeys neither species is found north of the white river flowing east to west south of bedford indiana references amblyopsidae cave fish cavefish northern fish of the united states fish described in 1842 taxa named by james ellsworth de kay mammoth cave national park | 149 |
1046 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abatement | Abatement | abatement refers generally to a lessening diminution reduction or moderation specifically it may refer to 421a tax abatement property tax exemption in the us state of new york abatement of debts and legacies a common law doctrine of wills abatement in pleading a legal defense to civil and criminal actions abatement heraldry a modification of the shield or coat of arms imposed by authority for misconduct asbestos abatement removal of asbestos from structures bird abatement driving or removing undesired birds from an area dust abatement the process of inhibiting the creation of excess soil dust graffiti abatement a joint effort between groups to eliminate graffiti marginal abatement cost the marginal cost of reducing pollution noise abatement strategies to reduce noise pollution or its impact nuisance abatement regulatory compliance methodology tax abatement temporary reduction or elimination of a tax see also abate disambiguation | 142 |
1049 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur | Amateur | an amateur is generally considered a person who pursues an avocation independent from their source of income amateurs and their pursuits are also described as popular informal selftaught usergenerated diy and hobbyist history historically the amateur was considered to be the ideal balance between pure intent open mind and the interest or passion for a subject that ideology spanned many different fields of interest it may have its roots in the ancient greek philosophy of amateur athletes competing in the olympics the ancient greek citizens spent most of their time in other pursuits but competed according to their natural talents and abilities the gentleman amateur was a phenomenon among the gentry of great britain from the 17th century until the 20th century with the start of the age of reason with people thinking more about how the world works around them see science in the age of enlightenment things like the cabinets of curiosities and the writing of the book the christian virtuoso started to shape the idea of the gentleman amateur he was vastly interested in a particular topic and studied observed and collected things and information on his topic of choice the royal society in great britain was generally composed of these gentleman amateurs and is one of the reasons science today exists the way it does a few examples of these gentleman amateurs are francis bacon isaac newton and sir robert cotton 1st baronet of connington amateurism can be seen in both a negative and positive light since amateurs often lack formal training and are selftaught some amateur work may be considered subpar for example amateur athletes in sports such as basketball baseball or football are regarded as possessing a lower level of ability than professional athletes on the other hand an amateur may be in a position to approach a subject with an open mind as a result of the lack of formal training and in a financially disinterested manner an amateur who dabbles in a field out of interest rather than as a profession or possesses a general but superficial interest in any art or a branch of knowledge is often referred to as a dilettante amateur athletics olympics through most of the 20th century the olympics allowed only amateur athletes to participate and this amateur code was strictly enforced jim thorpe was stripped of track and field medals for having taken expense money for playing baseball in 1912 later on the nations of the communist bloc entered teams of olympians who were all nominally students soldiers or working in a profession but many of whom were in reality paid by the state to train on a fulltime basis near the end of the 1960s the canadian amateur hockey association caha felt their amateur players could no longer be competitive against the soviet teams fulltime athletes and the other constantly improving european teams they pushed for the ability to use players from professional leagues but met opposition from the international ice hockey federation iihf and the international olympic committee ioc at the iihf congress in 1969 the iihf decided to allow canada to use nine nonnhl professional hockey players at the 1970 world championships in montreal and winnipeg manitoba canada the decision was reversed in january 1970 after ioc president avery brundage said that ice hockeys status as an olympic sport would be in jeopardy if the change was made in response canada withdrew from all international ice hockey competitions and officials stated that they would not return until open competition was instituted günther sabetzki became president of the iihf in 1975 and helped to resolve the dispute with the caha in 1976 the iihf agreed to allow open competition between all players in the world championships however nhl players were still not allowed to play in the olympics because of the unwillingness of the nhl to take a break midseason and the iocs amateuronly policy before the 1984 winter olympics a dispute formed over what made a player a professional the ioc had adopted a rule that made any player who had signed an nhl contract but played less than ten games in the league eligible however the united states olympic committee maintained that any player contracted with an nhl team was a professional and therefore not eligible to play the ioc held an emergency meeting that ruled nhlcontracted players were eligible as long as they had not played in any nhl games this made five players on olympic rostersone austrian two italians and two canadiansineligible players who had played in other professional leaguessuch as the world hockey associationwere allowed to play canadian hockey official alan eagleson stated that the rule was only applied to the nhl and that professionally contracted players in european leagues were still considered amateurs murray costello of the caha suggested that a canadian withdrawal was possible in 1986 the ioc voted to allow all athletes to compete in olympic games starting in 1988 but let the individual sport federations decide if they wanted to allow professionals after the 1972 retirement of ioc president brundage the olympic amateurism rules were steadily relaxed amounting only to technicalities and lip service until being completely abandoned in the 1990s in the united states the amateur sports act of 1978 prohibits national governing bodies from having more stringent standards of amateur status than required by international governing bodies of respective sports the act caused the breakup of the amateur athletic union as a wholesale sports governing body at the olympic level olympic regulations regarding amateur status of athletes were eventually abandoned in the 1990s with the exception of wrestling where the amateur fight rules are used due to the fact that professional wrestling is largely staged with predetermined outcomes starting from the 2016 summer olympics professionals were allowed to compete in boxing though amateur fight rules are still used for the tournament contribution of amateurs many amateurs make valuable contributions in the field of computer programming through the open source movement amateur dramatics is the performance of plays or musical theater often to high standards but lacking the budgets of professional west end or broadway performances astronomy chemistry history linguistics and the natural sciences are among the fields that have benefited from the activities of amateurs gregor mendel was an amateur scientist who never held a position in his field of study radio astronomy was founded by grote reber an amateur radio operator radio itself was greatly advanced by guglielmo marconi a young italian man who started out by tinkering with a coherer and a spark coil as an amateur electrician pierre de fermat was a highly influential mathematician whose primary vocation was law in the 2000s and 2010s the distinction between amateur and professional has become increasingly blurred especially in areas such as computer programming music and astronomy the term amateur professionalism or proam is used to describe these activities list of amateur pursuits amateur astronomy including a list of notable amateur astronomers amateur chemistry including a list of notable amateur chemists amateur film amateur geology or rockhounding including a list of notable amateur geologists amateur journalism amateur radio amateur sports amateur theatre amateur pornography arts and crafts or handicraft including a list of handicrafts carried out by amateurs fan fiction fan art independent scholar independent scientist or gentleman scientist including a list of notable amateur scientists see also professional semiprofessional amateurism in the ncaa amateur professionalism hobby list of amateur chess players list of amateur mathematicians list of amateur wrestlers volunteering references further reading occupations | 1,253 |
1051 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexis%20Carrel | Alexis Carrel | alexis carrel 28 june 1873 5 november 1944 was a french surgeon and biologist who was awarded the nobel prize in physiology or medicine in 1912 for pioneering vascular suturing techniques he invented the first perfusion pump with charles lindbergh opening the way to organ transplantation carrel was also a pioneer in transplantology and thoracic surgery he is known for his leading role in implementing eugenic policies in vichy france biography born in saintefoylèslyon rhône carrel was raised in a devout catholic family and was educated by jesuits though he had become an agnostic by the time he became a university student he was a member of learned societies in the us spain russia sweden the netherlands belgium france vatican city germany italy and greece and was elected twice in 1924 and 1927 as an honorary member of the academy of sciences of the ussr he also received honorary doctorates from queens university of belfast princeton university california new york brown university and columbia university in 1902 he was claimed to have witnessed the miraculous cure of marie bailly at lourdes which became famous in part because she named carrel as a witness of her cure after the notoriety surrounding the event carrel could not obtain a hospital appointment because of the pervasive anticlericalism in the french university system at the time in 1903 he emigrated to montreal canada but soon relocated to chicago illinois to work for hull laboratory while there he collaborated with american physician charles claude guthrie in work on vascular suture and the transplantation of blood vessels and organs as well as the head and carrel was awarded the 1912 nobel prize in physiology or medicine for these efforts in 1906 he joined the newly formed rockefeller institute of medical research in new york where he spent the rest of his career there he did significant work on tissue cultures with pathologist montrose thomas burrows in the 1930s carrel and charles lindbergh became close friends not only because of the years they worked together but also because they shared personal political and social views lindbergh initially sought out carrel to see if his sisterinlaws heart damaged by rheumatic fever could be repaired when lindbergh saw the crudeness of carrels machinery he offered to build new equipment for the scientist eventually they built the first perfusion pump an invention instrumental to the development of organ transplantation and open heart surgery lindbergh considered carrel his closest friend and said he would preserve and promote carrels ideals after his death due to his close proximity with jacques doriots fascist parti populaire français ppf during the 1930s and his role in implementing eugenics policies during vichy france he was accused after the liberation of collaboration but died before the trial in his later life he returned to his catholic roots in 1939 he met with trappist monk alexis presse on a recommendation although carrel was skeptical about meeting with a priest presse ended up having a profound influence on the rest of carrels life in 1942 he said i believe in the existence of god in the immortality of the soul in revelation and in all the catholic church teaches he summoned presse to administer the catholic sacraments on his death bed in november 1944 for much of his life carrel and his wife spent their summers on the which they owned after he and lindbergh became close friends carrel persuaded him to also buy a neighboring island the ile illiec where the lindberghs often resided in the late 1930s contributions to science vascular suture carrel was a young surgeon who was deeply affected by the 1894 assassination of the french president sadi carnot who died from a severed portal vein that surgeons believed was irreparable this tragedy inspired carrel to develop new techniques for suturing blood vessels such as the triangulation technique using three staysutures to minimize damage to the vascular wall during suturing carrel learned this technique from an embroideress and later incorporated it into his work according to julius comroe carrel performed every feat and developed every technique in vascular surgery using experimental animals between 1901 and 1910 leading to his great success in reconnecting arteries and veins and performing surgical grafts these achievements earned him the nobel prize in 1912 wound antisepsis during world war i 19141918 carrel and the english chemist henry drysdale dakin developed the carreldakin method of treating wounds with an antiseptic solution based on chlorine known as dakins solution this method which involved wound debridement and irrigation with a high volume of antiseptic fluid was a significant medical advancement in the absence of antibiotics for his contributions carrel was awarded the légion dhonneur the carreldakin method became widely used in hospitals the mechanical irrigation technique developed by carrel is still used todayref namedakin3h d dakin 1915 comptes rendues de la academie des sciences clxi p 150 cited by marcel dufresne presse médicale 1916ref organ transplants carrel coauthored a book with pilot charles lindbergh the culture of organs together they developed the perfusion pump in the mid1930s which made it possible for organs to remain viable outside of the body during surgical procedures this innovation is considered to be a significant advancement in the fields of openheart surgery and organ transplantation and it paved the way for the development of the artificial heart which became a reality many years later although some critics accused carrel of exaggerating lindberghs contributions to gain publicity other sources indicate that lindbergh played a significant role in the devices development in recognition of their groundbreaking work both carrel and lindbergh appeared on the cover of time magazine on june 13 1938 cellular senescence carrel was interested in the phenomenon of senescence or aging he believed that all cells continued to grow indefinitely which became a widely accepted view in the early 20th century in 1912 carrel began an experiment at the rockefeller institute for medical research where he cultured tissue from an embryonic chicken heart in a stoppered pyrex flask of his own design he supplied the culture with nutrients regularly and maintained it for over 20 years longer than a chickens normal lifespan this experiment received significant popular and scientific attention but it was never successfully replicated in the 1960s leonard hayflick and paul moorhead proposed the concept of the hayflick limit which states that differentiated cells undergo only a limited number of divisions before dying hayflick suggested that carrels daily feeding of nutrients continually introduced new living cells to the culture resulting in anomalous results j a witkowski argued that the deliberate introduction of new cells into the culture possibly without carrels knowledge could also explain the results despite the doubts surrounding carrels experiment it remains an important part of scientific history and his work on tissue culture had a significant impact on the development of modern medicine honors in 1972 the swedish post office honored carrel with a stamp that was part of its nobel stamp series seven years later in 1979 the lunar crater carrel was named after him as a tribute to his breakthroughs in february 2002 to celebrate the 100th anniversary of charles lindberghs birth the lindberghcarrel prize was established by the medical university of south carolina at charleston michael debakey and nine other scientists were the first recipients of the prise a bronze statuette named elisabeth after elisabeth morrow the sister of lindberghs wife anne morrow who died from heart disease lindberghs frustration with the limitations of medical technology specifically the lack of an artificial heart pump for heart surgery led him to reach out to carrel alexis carrel and lourdes in 1902 carrel underwent a transformative experience that led him from being a skeptic of the reported visions and miracles at lourdes to a believer in spiritual cures this conversion came about after he witnessed the inexplicable healing of marie bailly the catholic journal le nouvelliste reported that she identified carrel as the principal witness of her cure despite facing opposition from his peers in the medical community carrel refused to dismiss a supernatural explanation for the event and went on to publish his account of the experience in the book the voyage to lourdes which was released four years after his death however his beliefs proved to be a hindrance to his career and reputation in academic medicine in france as a result carrel moved to canada with plans of farming and raising cattle but shortly after he accepted a position at the university of chicago where he remained for two years before taking up a post at the rockefeller institute of medical research man the unknown 1935 1939 in 1935 carrels book lhomme cet inconnu man the unknown became a bestseller the book attempted to comprehensively outline what is known and unknown of the human body and human life in light of discoveries in biology physics and medicine to shed light on the problems of the modern world and to provide possible routes to a better life for human beings in the book carrel advocated for an elite group of intellectuals to guide mankind and to incorporate eugenics into the social framework he argued for an aristocracy that would come from individuals of potential and advocated for euthanasia for criminals and the criminally insane notably carrels endorsement of euthanasia for criminals and the criminally insane was published in the mid1930s prior to the implementation of death camps and gas chambers in nazi germany in the 1936 german introduction of his book carrel added praise for the nazi regime at the publishers request which did not appear in other language editions after the second world war the book and his role with the vichy regime would stain his reputation such that his name was removed from streets in more than 20 french cities and the alexis carrel medical faculty in lyon was renamed in 1996 french foundation for the study of human problems in 1937 carrel joined the centre detudes des problèmes humains which was led by jean coutrot coutrots goal was to develop what he called an economic humanism through collective thinking however in 1941 carrel went on to advocate for the creation of the french foundation for the study of human problems fondation française pour letude des problèmes humains this foundation was created by decree of the vichy regime in 1941 and carrel served as a regent carrels connections to the cabinet of vichy france president philippe pétain specifically french industrial physicians andré gros and jacques ménétrier helped pave the way for the creation of the foundation the foundation played a significant role in the establishment of the field of occupational medicine which was institutionalized by the provisional government of the french republic gprf through the 11 october 1946 law the foundations efforts were not limited to occupational medicine and extended to other areas such as demographics economics nutrition habitation and opinion polls notable figures associated with the foundations work include robert gessain paul vincent jean bourgeoispichat françois perroux jean sutter and jean stoetzel the foundation achieved several notable accomplishments throughout its history it played a crucial role in the promotion of the 16 december 1942 act which mandated the use of a prenuptial certificate before marriage this certificate aimed to ensure the good health of spouses particularly regarding sexually transmitted diseases stds and life hygiene additionally the institute created the livret scolaire a document that recorded the grades of french secondary school students allowing for the classification and selection of students based on academic performance gwen terrenoires book eugenics in france 19131941 a review of research findings describes the foundation for the study of human problems as a pluridisciplinary center that employed approximately 300 researchers primarily statisticians psychologists and physicians from the summer of 1942 until the end of autumn 1944 following the liberation of paris alexis carrel the founder was suspended by the minister of health and he died in november 1944 however the foundation underwent a purge and emerged shortly afterward as the institut national détudes démographiques ined which is still active today although carrel had passed away most of his team transferred to ined which was headed by demographer alfred sauvy who coined the term third world other team members joined the institut national dhygiène national hygiene institute later known as inserm see also hela notes references citations cited sources further reading etienne lepicard lhomme cet inconnu dalexis carrel 1935 anatomie dun succès analyse dun échec paris classiques garnier littérature histoire politique 38 2019 feuerwerker elie alexis carrel et leugénisme le monde 1er juillet 1986 bonnafé lucien and tort patrick lhomme cet inconnu alexis carrel jeanmarie le pen et les chambres a gaz editions syllepse 1996 david zane mairowitz fascism à la mode in france the far right presses for national purity harpers magazine 1011997 berman paul terror and liberalism w w norton 2003 walther rudolph die seltsamen lehren des doktor carrel die zeit 31072003 nr 32 terrenoire gwen cnrs eugenics in france 19131941 a review of research findings joint programmatic commission unescoong science and ethics 24 march 2003 comité de liaison ongunesco borghi l 2015 heart matters the collaboration between surgeons and engineers in the rise of cardiac surgery in pisano r eds a bridge between conceptual frameworks history of mechanism and machine science vol 27 springer dordrecht pp 5368 external links including the nobel lecture on 11 december 1912 suture of bloodvessels and transplantation of organs research foundation entitled to alexis carrel time 16 october 1944 death of alexis carrel time 13 november 1944 1873 births 1944 deaths french eugenicists converts to roman catholicism from atheism or agnosticism french nobel laureates nobel laureates in physiology or medicine french roman catholics french collaborators with nazi germany knights of the legion of honour members of the pontifical academy of sciences corresponding members of the russian academy of sciences 19171925 corresponding members of the ussr academy of sciences honorary members of the ussr academy of sciences people from saintefoylèslyon french vascular surgeons history of transplant surgery rockefeller university people 20thcentury french physicians | 2,338 |
1055 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All%20Souls%27%20Day | All Souls' Day | all souls day also called the commemoration of all the faithful departed is a day of prayer and remembrance for the faithful departed observed by certain christian denominations on 2 november through prayer intercessions alms and visits to cemeteries people commemorate the poor souls in purgatory and gain them indulgences in western christianity including roman catholicism and certain parts of lutheranism and anglicanism all souls day is the third day of allhallowtide after all saints day 1 november and all hallows eve october 31 before the standardization of western christian observance on 2 november by st odilo of cluny in the 10th century many catholic congregations celebrated all souls day on various dates during the easter season as it is still observed in some eastern orthodox church eastern catholic and eastern lutheran churches churches of the east syriac rite syromalabar catholic church chaldean catholic church assyrian church of the east ancient church of the east commemorate all the faithful departed on the friday before lent in other languages known in latin as commemoratio omnium fidelium defunctorum all souls day is known in other germanic languages as allerseelen german allerzielen dutch alla själars dag swedish and alle sjæles dag danish in the romance languages as dia de finados or dia dos fiéis defuntos portuguese commémoration de tous les fidèles défunts french día de los fieles difuntos spanish commemorazione di tutti i fedeli defunti italian and ziua morților or luminația romanian in the slavic languages as wspomnienie wszystkich wiernych zmarłych or zaduszki polish vzpomínka na všechny věrné zesnulé památka zesnulých or dušičky czech pamiatka zosnulých or dušičky slovak spomen svih vjernih mrtvih croatian and день всех усопших верных or день поминовения всех усопшихden vsekh usopshikh vernykh den pominoveniya vsekh usopshih russian in the or and in background in the catholic church the faithful refers essentially to baptized catholics all souls commemorates the church penitent of souls in purgatory whereas all saints commemorates the church triumphant of saints in heaven in the liturgical books of the latin church it is called the commemoration of all the faithful departed the catholic church teaches that the purification of the souls in purgatory can be assisted by the actions of the faithful on earth its teaching is based also on the practice of prayer for the dead mentioned as far back as 2 maccabees 124246 the theological basis for the feast is the doctrine that the souls which on departing from the body are not perfectly cleansed from venial sins or have not fully atoned for past transgressions are debarred from the beatific vision and that the faithful on earth can help them by prayers alms deeds and especially by the sacrifice of the holy mass religious observance by denomination byzantine greek catholic and eastern orthodox saturday of souls or soul saturday is a day set aside for the commemoration of the dead within the liturgical year of the eastern orthodox and byzantine catholic churches saturday is a traditional day of prayer for the dead because christ lay dead in the tomb on saturday these days are devoted to prayer for departed relatives and others among the faithful who would not be commemorated specifically as saints the divine services on these days have special hymns added to them to commemorate the departed there is often a panikhida memorial service either after the divine liturgy on saturday morning or after vespers on friday evening for which koliva a dish made of boiled wheatberries or rice and honey is prepared and placed on the panikhida table after the service the priest blesses the koliva it is then eaten as a memorial by all present radonitsa another memorial day in the east radonitsa does not fall on a saturday but on either monday or tuesday of the second week after pascha easter radonitsa does not have special hymns for the dead at the divine services instead a panikhida will follow the divine liturgy and then all will bring paschal foods to the cemeteries to greet the departed with the joy of the resurrection east syriac tradition east syriac churches including the syro malabar church and chaldean catholic church commemorates the feast of departed faithful on the last friday of epiphany season which means friday just before start of great lent the season of epiphany remembers the revelation of christ to the world each friday of epiphany season the church remembers important evangelistic figures in the syro malabar church the friday before the parish festival is also celebrated as feast of departed faithful when the parish remembers the activities of forebears who worked for the parish and faithful they also request the intercession of all departed souls for the faithful celebration of parish festival in east syriac liturgy the church remembers departed souls including saints on every friday throughout the year since the christ was crucified and died on friday latin catholicism history in western christianity there is ample evidence of the custom of praying for the dead in the inscriptions of the catacombs with their constant prayers for the peace of the souls of the departed and in the early liturgies which commonly contain commemorations of the dead tertullian cyprian and other early western fathers witness to the regular practice of praying for the dead among the early christians in the sixth century it was customary in benedictine monasteries to hold a commemoration of the deceased members at whitsuntide in the time of st isidore of seville d 636 who lived in what is today spain the monday after pentecost was designated to remember the deceased at the beginning of the ninth century abbot eigil of fulda set 17 december as commemoration of all deceased in part of what is today germany according to widukind of corvey c 975 there also existed a ceremony praying for the dead on 1 october in saxony but it was the day after all saints day that saint odilo of cluny chose when in the 11th century he instituted for all the monasteries dependent on the abbey of cluny an annual commemoration of all the faithful departed to be observed with alms prayers and sacrifices for the relief of the suffering souls in purgatory odilo decreed that those requesting a mass be offered for the departed should make an offering for the poor thus linking almsgiving with fasting and prayer for the dead the 2 november date and customs spread from the cluniac monasteries to other benedictine monasteries and thence to the western church in general the diocese of liège was the first diocese to adopt the practice under bishop notger d 1008 2 november was adopted in italy and rome in the thirteenth century in the 15th century the dominicans instituted a custom of each priest offering three masses on the feast of all souls during world war i given the great number of war dead and the many destroyed churches where mass could no longer be said pope benedict xv granted all priests the privilege of offering three masses on all souls day liturgical practice if 2 november falls on a sunday all souls day is observed on that day in the liturgy of the hours of all souls day the sequence dies irae can be used ad libitum every priest is allowed to celebrate three holy masses on all souls day in divine worship the missal the minor propers introit gradual tract sequence offertory and communion are those used for renaissance and classical musical requiem settings including the dies irae this permits the performance of traditional requiem settings in the context of the divine worship form of the roman rite on all souls day as well as at funerals votive celebrations of all faithful departed and anniversaries of deaths in the ordinary form of the roman rite as well as in the personal ordinariates established by benedict xvi for former anglicans it remains on 2 november if this date falls on a sunday in the 19621969 form of the roman rite use of which is still authorized it is transferred to monday 3 november all souls indulgence according to the enchiridion of indulgences an indulgence applicable only to the souls in purgatory commonly called the poor souls is granted to the faithful who devoutly visit on all souls day a church or chapel and pray the our father and the credo or the lauds or vespers of the office of the dead and the eternal rest prayer for the dead the indulgence can be gained from noon of all saints day on as well as a plenary indulgence is each day from the first to the eighth of november a partial indulgence is granted on other days of the year lutheran churches among continental protestants its tradition has been more tenaciously maintained during luthers lifetime all souls day was widely observed in saxony although the roman catholic meaning of the day was discarded ecclesiastically in the lutheran church the day was merged with and is often seen as an extension of all saints day with many lutherans still visiting and decorating graves on all the days of allhallowtide including all souls day just as it is the custom of french people of all ranks and creeds to decorate the graves of their dead on the jour des morts germans stream to the graveyards once a year with offerings of flowers and special grave lights in 1816 prussia introduced a new date for the remembrance of the dead among its lutheran citizens totensonntag the last sunday before advent anglican communion in the church of england it is called the commemoration of the faithful departed and is an optional celebration anglicans view all souls day as an extension of the observance of all saints day and it serves to remember those who have died in connection with the theological doctrines of the resurrection of the body and the communion of saints in the anglican communion all souls day is known liturgically as the commemoration of all faithful departed and is an optional observance seen as an extension of all saints day the latter of which marks the second day of allhallowtide historically and at present several anglican churches are dedicated to all souls during the english reformation the observance of all souls day lapsed although a new anglican theological understanding of the day has led to a widespread acceptance of this commemoration among anglicans patricia bays with regard to the anglican view of all souls day wrote that as such anglican parishes now commemorate all the faithful departed in the context of the all saints day celebration in keeping with this fresh perspective contributing to the revival was the need to help anglicans mourn the deaths of millions of soldiers in world war i members of the guild of all souls an anglican devotional society founded in 1873 are encouraged to pray for the dying and the dead to participate in a requiem of all souls day and say a litany of the faithful departed at least once a month at the reformation the celebration of all souls day was fused with all saints day in the church of england or in the judgement of some it was deservedly abrogated it was reinstated in certain parishes in connection with the oxford movement of the 19th century and is acknowledged in united states anglicanism in the holy women holy men calendar and in the church of england with the 1980 alternative service book it features in common worship as a lesser festival called commemoration of the faithful departed all souls day methodist churches in the methodist church saints refer to all christians and therefore on all saints day the church universal as well as the deceased members of a local congregation are honoured and remembered in methodist congregations that celebrate the liturgy on all souls day the observance as with anglicanism and lutheranism is viewed as an extension of all saints day and as such methodists remember our loved ones who had died in their observance of this feast popular customs many all souls day traditions are associated with popular notions about purgatory bell tolling is meant to comfort those being cleansed lighting candles serves to kindle a light for the poor souls languishing in the darkness soul cakes are given to children coming to sing or pray for the dead cf trickortreating giving rise to the traditions of going souling and the baking of special types of bread or cakes cf pãopordeus europe all souls day is celebrated in many european countries with vigils candles the decoration of graves and special prayers as well as many regional customs examples of regional customs include leaving cakes for departed loved ones on the table and keeping the room warm for their comfort in tirol and the custom in brittany where people flock to the cemeteries at nightfall to kneel bareheaded at the graves of their loved ones and anoint the hollow of the tombstone with holy water or to pour libations of milk on it at bedtime supper is left on the table for the souls all souls day is known in maltese as jum ilmejtin and is accompanied a traditional supper including roasted pig based on a custom of letting a pig loose on the streets with a bell around its neck to be fed by the entire neighborhood and cooked on that day to feed the poor in linz funereal musical pieces known as aequales were played from tower tops on all souls day and the evening before in the czech republic and slovakia all souls day is called dušičky or little souls traditionally candles are left on graves on dušičky in sicily and other regions of southern italy all souls day is celebrated as the festa dei morti or u juornu rii morti the commemoration of the dead or the day of the dead which according to joshua nicolosi of the sicilian post could be seen halfway between christian and pagan traditions families visit and clean grave sites home altars are decorated with family photos and votive candles and children are gifted a special basket or cannistru of chocolates pomegranate and other gifts from their ancestors because of the gifting of sugary sweets and the emphasis on sugar puppet decorations the commemoration day has spurred local sicilian events such as the notte di zucchero night of sugar in which communities celebrate the dead philippines in the philippines hallow mas is variously called undás todos los santos spanish all saints and sometimes araw ng mga patay yumao tagalog day of the dead those who have passed away which incorporates all saints day and all souls day filipinos traditionally observe this day by visiting the family dead to clean and repair their tombs offerings of prayers flowers candles and food chinese filipinos additionally burn incense and kim many also spend the day and ensuing night holding reunions at the cemetery with feasts and merriment see also day of the dead festival of the dead zaduszki flowering sunday decoration day appalachia and liberia cemetery sunday totensonntag references citations sources further reading tracey osm liam the liturgy of all souls day catholic ireland 30 november 1999 external links notes on russian orthodox observance by n bulgakov n bulgakov pope offers mass for faithful departed on all souls day vatican radio 2 november 2016 allhallowtide christianity and death eastern orthodox liturgical days holidays based on the date of easter november observances observances honoring the dead | 2,579 |
1057 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatole%20France | Anatole France | born 16 april 1844 12 october 1924 was a french poet journalist and novelist with several bestsellers ironic and skeptical he was considered in his day the ideal french man of letters he was a member of the académie française and won the 1921 nobel prize in literature in recognition of his brilliant literary achievements characterized as they are by a nobility of style a profound human sympathy grace and a true gallic temperament france is also widely believed to be the model for narrator marcels literary idol bergotte in marcel prousts in search of lost time early years the son of a bookseller france a bibliophile spent most of his life around books his fathers bookstore specialized in books and papers on the french revolution and was frequented by many writers and scholars france studied at the collège stanislas a private catholic school and after graduation he helped his father by working in his bookstore after several years he secured the position of cataloguer at bachelinedeflorenne and at lemerre in 1876 he was appointed librarian for the french senate literary career france began his literary career as a poet and a journalist in 1869 le parnasse contemporain published one of his poems in 1875 he sat on the committee in charge of the third parnasse contemporain compilation as a journalist from 1867 he wrote many articles and notices he became known with the novel 1881 its protagonist skeptical old scholar sylvester bonnard embodied frances own personality the novel was praised for its elegant prose and won him a prize from the académie française in 1893 france ridiculed belief in the occult and in 1893 france captured the atmosphere of the he was elected to the académie française in 1896 france took a part in the dreyfus affair he signed émile zolas manifesto supporting alfred dreyfus a jewish army officer who had been falsely convicted of espionage france wrote about the affair in his 1901 novel monsieur bergeret frances later works include penguin island 1908 which satirizes human nature by depicting the transformation of penguins into humans after the birds have been baptized by mistake by the almostblind abbot mael it is a satirical history of france starting in medieval times going on to the authors own time with special attention to the dreyfus affair and concluding with a dystopian future the gods are athirst 1912 is a novel set in paris during the french revolution about a truebelieving follower of maximilien robespierre and his contribution to the bloody events of the reign of terror of 179394 it is a wakeup call against political and ideological fanaticism and explores various other philosophical approaches to the events of the time the revolt of the angels 1914 is often considered frances most profound and ironic novel loosely based on the christian understanding of the war in heaven it tells the story of arcade the guardian angel of maurice desparvieu bored because bishop desparvieu is sinless arcade begins reading the bishops books on theology and becomes an atheist he moves to paris meets a woman falls in love and loses his virginity causing his wings to fall off joins the revolutionary movement of fallen angels and meets the devil who realizes that if he overthrew god he would become just like god arcade realizes that replacing god with another is meaningless unless in ourselves and in ourselves alone we attack and destroy ialdabaoth ialdabaoth according to france is gods secret name and means the child who wanders he was awarded the nobel prize in 1921 he died in 1924 and is buried in the neuillysurseine old communal cemetery near paris on 31 may 1922 frances entire works were put on the index librorum prohibitorum list of prohibited books of the catholic church he regarded this as a distinction this index was abolished in 1966 personal life in 1877 france married valérie guérin de sauville a granddaughter of jeanurbain guérin a miniaturist who painted louis xvi their daughter suzanne was born in 1881 and died in 1918 frances relations with women were always turbulent and in 1888 he began a relationship with madame arman de caillavet who conducted a celebrated literary salon of the third republic the affair lasted until shortly before her death in 1910 after his divorce in 1893 france had many liaisons notably with a madame gagey who committed suicide in 1911 in 1920 france married for the second time to emma laprévotte france was a socialist and an outspoken supporter of the 1917 russian revolution in 1920 he gave his support to the newly founded french communist party in his book the red lily france famously wrote the law in its majestic equality forbids rich and poor alike to sleep under bridges to beg in the streets and to steal loaves of bread reputation the english writer george orwell defended france and declared that his work remained very readable and that it is unquestionable that he was attacked partly from political motives works poetry poem published in 1867 in the gazette rimée 1873 the bride of corinth 1876 prose fiction jocasta and the famished cat 1879 the crime of sylvestre bonnard 1881 the aspirations of jean servien 1882 honeybee 1883 1889 1890 mother of pearl 1892 at the sign of the reine pédauque 1892 our children scenes from the country and the town 1886 illustrated by louismaurice boutet de monvel the opinions of jerome coignard 1893 the red lily 1894 the well of saint clare 1895 a chronicle of our own times 1 the elmtree on the mall1897 2 the wickerwork woman 1897 3 the amethyst ring 1899 4 monsieur bergeret in paris 1901 clio 1900 a mummers tale 1903 the white stone 1905 1901 penguin island 1908 the merrie tales of jacques tournebroche 1908 the seven wives of bluebeard and other marvelous tales 1909 bee the princess of the dwarfs 1912 the gods are athirst 1912 the revolt of the angels 1914 1920 illustrated by fernand siméon memoirs my friends book 1885 1899 little pierre 1918 the bloom of life 1922 plays 1898 crainquebille 1903 the man who married a dumb wife 1908 the wicker woman 1928 historical biography the life of joan of arc 1908 literary criticism alfred de vigny 1869 1888 the latin genius 1909 social criticism the garden of epicurus 1895 1902 1904 1906 1915 in four volumes 1949 1953 1964 1973 references external links list of works anatole france nobel prize winner by herbert s gorman the new york times 20 november 1921 correspondence with architect jeanpaul oury at syracuse university anatole france his work in audio version 1844 births 1924 deaths writers from paris french bibliophiles collège stanislas de paris alumni french fantasy writers french nobel laureates 19thcentury french poets french satirists members of the académie française nobel laureates in literature dreyfusards 19thcentury french novelists 20thcentury french novelists french socialists french male poets french male novelists 19thcentury male writers french historical novelists burials at neuillysurseine community cemetery 19thcentury pseudonymous writers 20thcentury pseudonymous writers | 1,169 |
1058 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andr%C3%A9%20Gide | André Gide | andré paul guillaume gide 22 november 1869 19 february 1951 was a french author whose writings spanned a wide variety of styles and topics he was awarded the 1947 nobel prize in literature gides career ranged from his beginnings in the symbolist movement to criticising imperialism between the two world wars the author of more than fifty books he was described in his obituary in the new york times as frances greatest contemporary man of letters and judged the greatest french writer of this century by the literary cognoscenti known for his fiction as well as his autobiographical works gide expressed the conflict and eventual reconciliation of the two sides of his personality characterized by a protestant austerity and a transgressive sexual adventurousness respectively he suggested that a strict and moralistic education had helped set these facets at odds gides work can be seen as an investigation of freedom and empowerment in the face of moralistic and puritanical constraints he worked to achieve intellectual honesty as a selfprofessed pederast he used his writing to explore his struggle to be fully oneself including owning ones sexual nature without betraying ones values his political activity was shaped by the same ethos while sympathetic to communism in the early 1930s as were many intellectuals after his 1936 journey to the ussr he supported the antistalinist left during the 1940s he shifted towards more traditional values and repudiated communism as an idea that breaks up with the traditions of the christian civilization early life gide was born in paris on 22 november 1869 into a middleclass protestant family his father jean paul guillaume gide was a professor of law at university of paris he died in 1880 when the boy was eleven years old his mother was juliette maria rondeaux his uncle was political economist charles gide his paternal family traced its roots to italy the ancestral guidos had moved to france and other western and northern european countries after converting to protestantism during the 16th century and facing persecution in catholic italy gide was brought up in isolated conditions in normandy he became a prolific writer at an early age publishing his first novel the notebooks of andré walter french les cahiers dandré walter in 1891 at the age of twentyone in 1893 and 1894 gide traveled in northern africa there he came to accept his attraction to boys and youths gide befriended irish playwright oscar wilde in paris where the latter was in exile in 1895 the two men met in algiers wilde had the impression that he had introduced gide to homosexuality but gide had already discovered this on his own the middle years in 1895 after his mothers death gide married his cousin madeleine rondeaux but the marriage remained unconsummated in 1896 he was elected mayor of la roquebaignard a commune in normandy in 1901 gide rented the property maderia in st brélades bay and lived there while residing on the island of jersey this period 190107 is commonly seen as a time of apathy and turmoil for him in 1908 gide helped found the literary magazine nouvelle revue française the new french review during the great war gide visited england one of his friends there was artist william rothenstein rothenstein described gides visit to his gloucestershire home in his autobiography in 1916 gide was about 47 years old when he took marc allégret 15 years old as a lover marc was one of five children of élie allégret and his wife gide had become friends with the senior allégret during his own school years when gides mother had hired allégret as a tutor for her son élie allégret had been best man at gides wedding after gide fled with marc to london his wife madeleine burned all his correspondence in retaliation the best part of myself gide later commented in 1918 gide met and befriended dorothy bussy they were friends for more than thirty years and she translated many of his works into english gide also became close friends with the critic charles du bos together they were part of the foyer francobelge in which capacity they worked to find employment food and housing for francobelgian refugees who arrived in paris following the 1914 german invasion of belgium their friendship later declined due to du boss perception that gide had disavowed or betrayed his spiritual faith in contrast to du boss own return to faith du boss essay dialogue avec andré gide was published in 1929 the essay informed by du boss catholic convictions condemned gides homosexuality gide and du boss mutual friend ernst robert curtius criticised the book in a letter to gide writing that he du bos judges you according to catholic morals suffices to neglect his complete indictment it can only touch those who think like him and are convinced in advance he has abdicated his intellectual liberty in the 1920s gide became an inspiration for such writers as albert camus and jeanpaul sartre in 1923 he published a book on fyodor dostoyevsky but when he defended homosexuality in the public edition of corydon 1924 he received widespread condemnation he later considered this his most important work in 1923 gide sired a daughter catherine by elisabeth van rysselberghe a much younger woman he had known her for a long time as she was the daughter of his friends maria monnom and théo van rysselberghe a belgian neoimpressionist painter this caused the only crisis in the longstanding relationship between allégret and gide and damaged his friendship with van rysselberghe this was possibly gides only sexual relationship with a woman and it was brief in the extreme catherine was his only descendant by blood he liked to call elisabeth la dame blanche the white lady elisabeth eventually left her husband to move to paris and manage the practical aspects of gides life they had adjoining apartments built on the rue vavin she worshipped him but evidently they no longer had a sexual relationship in 1924 he published an autobiography if it die french si le grain ne meurt in the same year he produced the first frenchlanguage editions of joseph conrads heart of darkness and lord jim after 1925 gide began to campaign for more humane conditions for convicted criminals his legal wife madeleine gide died in 1938 later he explored their unconsummated marriage in his memoir of madeleine et nunc manet in te and now it remains in you published in english in the united states in 1952 africa from july 1926 to may 1927 gide traveled through the colony of french equatorial africa with his lover marc allégret they went successively to middle congo now the republic of the congo ubangishari now the central african republic briefly to chad and then to cameroon before returning to france he kept a journal which he published as travels in the congo french voyage au congo and return from chad french retour du tchad in this work he criticized the behavior of french business interests in the congo and inspired reform in particular he strongly criticized the large concessions regime french régime des grandes concessions the government had essentially conceded part of the colony to french companies allowing them to exploit the areas natural resources in particular rubber he related that native workers were forced to leave their village for several weeks to collect rubber in the forest and compared their exploitation by the companies to slavery the book contributed to the growing anticolonialism movements in france and helped thinkers to reevaluate the effects of colonialism in africa political views and the soviet union during the 1930s gide briefly became a communist or more precisely a fellow traveler he never formally joined any communist party although he an individualist himself advocated the idea of communist individualism despite supporting the soviet union he acknowledged the political repression in the ussr gide insisted on the release of victor serge a soviet writer and a memeber of the left opposition who was prosecuted by the stalinist regime for his views as a distinguished writer sympathizing with the cause of communism he was invited to speak at maxim gorkys funeral and to tour the soviet union as a guest of the soviet union of writers he encountered censorship of his speeches and was particularly disillusioned with the state of culture under soviet communism in his work retour de lurss return from the ussr 1936 he broke with such socialist friends as jeanpaul sartre the book was adressed to prosoviet readers so the purpose was to expose a reader to doubts instead of presenting harsh criticism while admitting the economic and social achievements of the ussr compared to the russian empire he noted the decay of culture the erasure of the individuality of soviet citizens and the suppression of any dissent gide does not express his attitude towards stalin but he describes the signs of his personality cult in each home the same portrait of stalin and nothing else portrait of stalin in the same place no doubt where the icon used to be is it adoration love or fear i do not know always and everywhere he is present however gide wrote that these problems could be solved by raising the cultural level of the soviet society when gide began preparing his manuscript for publication the kremlin was immediately informed about it and the soon gide would be visited by the soviet author ilya ehrenburg who said that he agreed with gide but asked to postpone the publication as the soviet union assisted the republicans in spain two days later louis aragon delivered a letter from jef last asking to postpone the publication these measures didnt help and as the book was published gide was condemned in the soviet press and by the friends of the ussr nordahl grieg wrote that the reason of writing the book was gides impatience and that with his book he made a favour to the fascists who greeted it with joy in 1937 in response gide published afterthoughts on the u s s r earlier gide read trotskys the revolution betrayed and met victor serge who provided him more information about the soviet union in afterthoughts gide is more direct in his criticism of the soviet society citrine trotsky mercier yvon victor serge leguay rudolf and many others have helped me with their documentation everything they have taught me so far i had only suspected it has confirmed and reinforced my fears the main points of afterthoughts were that the dictatorship of the proletariat became the dictatorship of stalin and that the privileged bureaucracy became the new ruling class which profited by the workers surplus labour spending the state budget on projects like the palace of soviets or to raise its own standards of living while the working class lived in extreme poverty gide cited the official soviet newspapers to prove his statements during the world war ii gide came to a conclusion that absolute liberty destroys the individual and also society unless it be closely linked to tradition and discipline he rejected the revolutionary idea of communism as breaking with the traditions and wrote that if civilization depended solely on those who initiated revolutionary theories then it would perish since culture needs for its survival a continuous and developing tradition in thesee written in 1946 he showed that an individual may safely leave the maze only if he had clung tightly to the thread which linked him with the past in 1947 he said that although during the human history the civilizations rose up and died the christian civilization may be saved from doom if we accepted the responsibility of the sacred charge laid on us by our traditions and our past he also said that he remained an individualist and protested against the submersion of individual responsibility in organized authority in that escape from freedom which is characteristic of our age gide contributed to the 1949 anthology the god that failed he could not write an essay because of his state of health so the text was written by enid starkie based on paraphrases of return from the ussr afterthoughts from a discussion held in paris at lunion pour la verite in 1935 and from his journal the text was approved by gide 1930s and 1940s in 1930 gide published a book about the blanche monnier case called la séquestrée de poitiers changing little but the names of the protagonists monnier was a young woman who was kept captive by her own mother for more than 25 years in 1939 gide became the first living author to be published in the prestigious bibliothèque de la pléiade he left france for africa in 1942 and lived in tunis from december 1942 until it was retaken by french british and american forces in may 1943 and he was able to travel to algiers where he stayed until the end of world war ii in 1947 he received the nobel prize in literature for his comprehensive and artistically significant writings in which human problems and conditions have been presented with a fearless love of truth and keen psychological insight he devoted much of his last years to publishing his journal gide died in paris on 19 february 1951 the roman catholic church placed his works on the index of forbidden books in 1952 gides life as a writer gides biographer alan sheridan summed up gides life as a writer and an intellectual gides fame rested ultimately of course on his literary works but unlike many writers he was no recluse he had a need of friendship and a genius for sustaining it but his capacity for love was not confined to his friends it spilled over into a concern for others less fortunate than himself writings andré gides writings spanned many genres as a master of prose narrative occasional dramatist and translator literary critic letter writer essayist and diarist andré gide provided twentiethcentury french literature with one of its most intriguing examples of the man of letters but as gides biographer alan sheridan points out it is the fiction that lies at the summit of gides work here as in the oeuvre as a whole what strikes one first is the variety here too we see gides curiosity his youthfulness at work a refusal to mine only one seam to repeat successful formulasthe fiction spans the early years of symbolism to the comic more inventive even fantastic pieces to the later serious heavily autobiographical firstperson narrativesin france gide was considered a great stylist in the classical sense with his clear succinct spare deliberately subtly phrased sentences gides surviving letters run into the thousands but it is the journal that sheridan calls the preeminently gidean mode of expression his first novel emerged from gides own journal and many of the firstperson narratives read more or less like journals in les fauxmonnayeurs edouards journal provides an alternative voice to the narrators in 1946 when pierre herbert asked gide which of his books he would choose if only one were to survive gide replied i think it would be my journal beginning at the age of eighteen or nineteen gide kept a journal all of his life and when these were first made available to the public they ran to thirteen hundred pages struggle for values each volume that gide wrote was intended to challenge itself what had preceded it and what could conceivably follow it this characteristic according to daniel moutote in his cahiers de andré gide essay is what makes gides work essentially modern the perpetual renewal of the values by which one lives gide wrote in his journal in 1930 the only drama that really interests me and that i should always be willing to depict anew is the debate of the individual with whatever keeps him from being authentic with whatever is opposed to his integrity to his integration most often the obstacle is within him and all the rest is merely accidental as a whole the works of andré gide reveal his passionate revolt against the restraints and conventions inherited from 19thcentury france he sought to uncover the authentic self beneath its contradictory masks sexuality in his journal gide distinguishes between adultattracted sodomites and boyloving pederasts categorizing himself as the latter gides journal documents his behavior in the company of oscar wilde gides novel corydon which he considered his most important work includes a defense of pederasty at that time the age of consent for any type of sexual activity was set at thirteen bibliography see also colonialism mise en abyme pederasty references citations works cited edmund white andré gide a life in the present cambridge ma harvard university press 1998 further reading noel i garde edgar h leoni jonathan to gide the homosexual in history new yorkvangard 1964 for a chronology of gides life see pp 1315 in thomas cordle andré gide the griffin authors series twayne publishers inc 1969 for a detailed bibliography of gides writings and works about gide see pp 655678 in alan sheridan andré gide a life in the present harvard 1999 external links website of the catherine gide foundation held by catherine gide his daughter center for gidian studies list of works andré gide at goodreads amis dandré gide in french period newspaper articles on gide interface in french andré gide 1947 nobel laureate for literature andré gide a brief introduction gide at maderia in jersey 190107 1869 births 1951 deaths writers from paris french novelists french protestants french travel writers french anticommunists french communists nobel laureates in literature french nobel laureates writers about the soviet union modernist writers fyodor dostoyevsky scholars lycée henriiv alumni french male essayists french male novelists french people of italian descent antistalinist left nouvelle revue française editors lgbt nobel laureates | 2,965 |
1063 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithms%20for%20calculating%20variance | Algorithms for calculating variance | algorithms for calculating variance play a major role in computational statistics a key difficulty in the design of good algorithms for this problem is that formulas for the variance may involve sums of squares which can lead to numerical instability as well as to arithmetic overflow when dealing with large values naïve algorithm a formula for calculating the variance of an entire population of size n is using bessels correction to calculate an unbiased estimate of the population variance from a finite sample of n observations the formula is therefore a naïve algorithm to calculate the estimated variance is given by the following let for each datum this algorithm can easily be adapted to compute the variance of a finite population simply divide by n instead of n 1 on the last line because and can be very similar numbers cancellation can lead to the precision of the result to be much less than the inherent precision of the floatingpoint arithmetic used to perform the computation thus this algorithm should not be used in practice and several alternate numerically stable algorithms have been proposed this is particularly bad if the standard deviation is small relative to the mean computing shifted data the variance is invariant with respect to changes in a location parameter a property which can be used to avoid the catastrophic cancellation in this formula with any constant which leads to the new formula the closer is to the mean value the more accurate the result will be but just choosing a value inside the samples range will guarantee the desired stability if the values are small then there are no problems with the sum of its squares on the contrary if they are large it necessarily means that the variance is large as well in any case the second term in the formula is always smaller than the first one therefore no cancellation may occur if just the first sample is taken as the algorithm can be written in python programming language as def shifted_data_variancedata if lendata 2 return 00 k data0 n ex ex2 00 for x in data n 1 ex x k ex2 x k 2 variance ex2 ex2 n n 1 use n instead of n1 if want to compute the exact variance of the given data use n1 if data are samples of a larger population return variance this formula also facilitates the incremental computation that can be expressed as k ex ex2 00 n 0 def add_variablex global k n ex ex2 if n 0 k x n 1 ex x k ex2 x k 2 def remove_variablex global k n ex ex2 n 1 ex x k ex2 x k 2 def get_mean global k n ex return k ex n def get_variance global n ex ex2 return ex2 ex2 n n 1 twopass algorithm an alternative approach using a different formula for the variance first computes the sample mean and then computes the sum of the squares of the differences from the mean where s is the standard deviation this is given by the following code def two_pass_variancedata n lendata mean sumdata n variance sumx mean 2 for x in data n 1 return variance this algorithm is numerically stable if n is small however the results of both of these simple algorithms naïve and twopass can depend inordinately on the ordering of the data and can give poor results for very large data sets due to repeated roundoff error in the accumulation of the sums techniques such as compensated summation can be used to combat this error to a degree welfords online algorithm it is often useful to be able to compute the variance in a single pass inspecting each value only once for example when the data is being collected without enough storage to keep all the values or when costs of memory access dominate those of computation for such an online algorithm a recurrence relation is required between quantities from which the required statistics can be calculated in a numerically stable fashion the following formulas can be used to update the mean and estimated variance of the sequence for an additional element xn here denotes the sample mean of the first n samples their biased sample variance and their unbiased sample variance these formulas suffer from numerical instability as they repeatedly subtract a small number from a big number which scales with n a better quantity for updating is the sum of squares of differences from the current mean here denoted this algorithm was found by welford and it has been thoroughly analyzed it is also common to denote and an example python implementation for welfords algorithm is given below for a new value new_value compute the new count new mean the new m2 mean accumulates the mean of the entire dataset m2 aggregates the squared distance from the mean count aggregates the number of samples seen so far def updateexisting_aggregate new_value count mean m2 existing_aggregate count 1 delta new_value mean mean delta count delta2 new_value mean m2 delta delta2 return count mean m2 retrieve the mean variance and sample variance from an aggregate def finalizeexisting_aggregate count mean m2 existing_aggregate if count 2 return floatnan else mean variance sample_variance mean m2 count m2 count 1 return mean variance sample_variance this algorithm is much less prone to loss of precision due to catastrophic cancellation but might not be as efficient because of the division operation inside the loop for a particularly robust twopass algorithm for computing the variance one can first compute and subtract an estimate of the mean and then use this algorithm on the residuals the parallel algorithm below illustrates how to merge multiple sets of statistics calculated online weighted incremental algorithm the algorithm can be extended to handle unequal sample weights replacing the simple counter n with the sum of weights seen so far west 1979 suggests this incremental algorithm def weighted_incremental_variancedata_weight_pairs w_sum w_sum2 mean s 0 for x w in data_weight_pairs w_sum w_sum w w_sum2 w_sum2 w2 mean_old mean mean mean_old w w_sum x mean_old s s w x mean_old x mean population_variance s w_sum bessels correction for weighted samples frequency weights sample_frequency_variance s w_sum 1 reliability weights sample_reliability_variance s w_sum w_sum2 w_sum parallel algorithm chan et al note that welfords online algorithm detailed above is a special case of an algorithm that works for combining arbitrary sets and this may be useful when for example multiple processing units may be assigned to discrete parts of the input chans method for estimating the mean is numerically unstable when and both are large because the numerical error in is not scaled down in the way that it is in the case in such cases prefer def parallel_variancen_a avg_a m2_a n_b avg_b m2_b n n_a n_b delta avg_b avg_a m2 m2_a m2_b delta2 n_a n_b n var_ab m2 n 1 return var_ab this can be generalized to allow parallelization with avx with gpus and computer clusters and to covariance example assume that all floating point operations use standard ieee 754 doubleprecision arithmetic consider the sample 4 7 13 16 from an infinite population based on this sample the estimated population mean is 10 and the unbiased estimate of population variance is 30 both the naïve algorithm and twopass algorithm compute these values correctly next consider the sample which gives rise to the same estimated variance as the first sample the twopass algorithm computes this variance estimate correctly but the naïve algorithm returns 29333333333333332 instead of 30 while this loss of precision may be tolerable and viewed as a minor flaw of the naïve algorithm further increasing the offset makes the error catastrophic consider the sample again the estimated population variance of 30 is computed correctly by the twopass algorithm but the naïve algorithm now computes it as 17066666666666666 this is a serious problem with naïve algorithm and is due to catastrophic cancellation in the subtraction of two similar numbers at the final stage of the algorithm higherorder statistics terriberry extends chans formulae to calculating the third and fourth central moments needed for example when estimating skewness and kurtosis here the are again the sums of powers of differences from the mean giving for the incremental case ie this simplifies to by preserving the value only one division operation is needed and the higherorder statistics can thus be calculated for little incremental cost an example of the online algorithm for kurtosis implemented as described is def online_kurtosisdata n mean m2 m3 m4 0 for x in data n1 n n n 1 delta x mean delta_n delta n delta_n2 delta_n2 term1 delta delta_n n1 mean mean delta_n m4 m4 term1 delta_n2 n2 3n 3 6 delta_n2 m2 4 delta_n m3 m3 m3 term1 delta_n n 2 3 delta_n m2 m2 m2 term1 note you may also calculate variance using m2 and skewness using m3 caution if all the inputs are the same m2 will be 0 resulting in a division by 0 kurtosis n m4 m22 3 return kurtosis pébaÿ further extends these results to arbitraryorder central moments for the incremental and the pairwise cases and subsequently pébaÿ et al for weighted and compound moments one can also find there similar formulas for covariance choi and sweetman offer two alternative methods to compute the skewness and kurtosis each of which can save substantial computer memory requirements and cpu time in certain applications the first approach is to compute the statistical moments by separating the data into bins and then computing the moments from the geometry of the resulting histogram which effectively becomes a onepass algorithm for higher moments one benefit is that the statistical moment calculations can be carried out to arbitrary accuracy such that the computations can be tuned to the precision of eg the data storage format or the original measurement hardware a relative histogram of a random variable can be constructed in the conventional way the range of potential values is divided into bins and the number of occurrences within each bin are counted and plotted such that the area of each rectangle equals the portion of the sample values within that bin where and represent the frequency and the relative frequency at bin and is the total area of the histogram after this normalization the raw moments and central moments of can be calculated from the relative histogram where the superscript indicates the moments are calculated from the histogram for constant bin width these two expressions can be simplified using the second approach from choi and sweetman is an analytical methodology to combine statistical moments from individual segments of a timehistory such that the resulting overall moments are those of the complete timehistory this methodology could be used for parallel computation of statistical moments with subsequent combination of those moments or for combination of statistical moments computed at sequential times if sets of statistical moments are known for then each can be expressed in terms of the equivalent raw moments where is generally taken to be the duration of the timehistory or the number of points if is constant the benefit of expressing the statistical moments in terms of is that the sets can be combined by addition and there is no upper limit on the value of where the subscript represents the concatenated timehistory or combined these combined values of can then be inversely transformed into raw moments representing the complete concatenated timehistory known relationships between the raw moments and the central moments are then used to compute the central moments of the concatenated timehistory finally the statistical moments of the concatenated history are computed from the central moments covariance very similar algorithms can be used to compute the covariance naïve algorithm the naïve algorithm is for the algorithm above one could use the following python code def naive_covariancedata1 data2 n lendata1 sum1 sumdata1 sum2 sumdata2 sum12 sumi1 i2 for i1 i2 in zipdata1 data2 covariance sum12 sum1 sum2 n n return covariance with estimate of the mean as for the variance the covariance of two random variables is also shiftinvariant so given any two constant values and it can be written and again choosing a value inside the range of values will stabilize the formula against catastrophic cancellation as well as make it more robust against big sums taking the first value of each data set the algorithm can be written as def shifted_data_covariancedata_x data_y n lendata_x if n 2 return 0 kx data_x0 ky data_y0 ex ey exy 0 for ix iy in zipdata_x data_y ex ix kx ey iy ky exy ix kx iy ky return exy ex ey n n twopass the twopass algorithm first computes the sample means and then the covariance the twopass algorithm may be written as def two_pass_covariancedata1 data2 n lendata1 mean1 sumdata1 n mean2 sumdata2 n covariance 0 for i1 i2 in zipdata1 data2 a i1 mean1 b i2 mean2 covariance a b n return covariance a slightly more accurate compensated version performs the full naive algorithm on the residuals the final sums and should be zero but the second pass compensates for any small error online a stable onepass algorithm exists similar to the online algorithm for computing the variance that computes comoment the apparent asymmetry in that last equation is due to the fact that so both update terms are equal to even greater accuracy can be achieved by first computing the means then using the stable onepass algorithm on the residuals thus the covariance can be computed as def online_covariancedata1 data2 meanx meany c n 0 for x y in zipdata1 data2 n 1 dx x meanx meanx dx n meany y meany n c dx y meany population_covar c n bessels correction for sample variance sample_covar c n 1 a small modification can also be made to compute the weighted covariance def online_weighted_covariancedata1 data2 data3 meanx meany 0 wsum wsum2 0 c 0 for x y w in zipdata1 data2 data3 wsum w wsum2 w w dx x meanx meanx w wsum dx meany w wsum y meany c w dx y meany population_covar c wsum bessels correction for sample variance frequency weights sample_frequency_covar c wsum 1 reliability weights sample_reliability_covar c wsum wsum2 wsum likewise there is a formula for combining the covariances of two sets that can be used to parallelize the computation weighted batched version a version of the weighted online algorithm that does batched updated also exists let denote the weights and write the covariance can then be computed as see also kahan summation algorithm squared deviations from the mean yamartino method references external links statistical algorithms statistical deviation and dispersion articles with example pseudocode articles with example python programming language code | 2,447 |
1064 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almond | Almond | the almond prunus amygdalus syn prunus dulcis is a species of small tree from the genus prunus cultivated worldwide for its seed a culinary nut along with the peach it is classified in the subgenus amygdalus distinguished from the other subgenera by corrugations on the shell endocarp surrounding the seed the fruit of the almond is a drupe consisting of an outer hull and a hard shell with the seed which is not a true nut shelling almonds refers to removing the shell to reveal the seed almonds are sold shelled or unshelled blanched almonds are shelled almonds that have been treated with hot water to soften the seedcoat which is then removed to reveal the white embryo once almonds are cleaned and processed they can be stored over time almonds are used in many cuisines often featuring prominently in desserts such as marzipan the almond tree prospers in a moderate mediterranean climate with cool winter weather native to iran and surrounding countries including the levant today it is rarely found wild in its original setting almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees due to the ability to produce quality offspring entirely from seed without using suckers and cuttings evidence of domesticated almonds in the early bronze age has been found in the archeological sites of the middle east and subsequently across the mediterranean region and similar arid climates with cool winters california produces over half of the worlds almond supply due to high acreage and water demand for almond cultivation and need for pesticides california almond production may be unsustainable especially during the persistent drought and heat from climate change in the 21st century droughts in california have caused some producers to leave the industry leading to lower supply and increased prices description the almond is a deciduous tree growing to in height with a trunk of up to in diameter the young twigs are green at first becoming purplish where exposed to sunlight then gray in their second year the leaves are long with a serrated margin and a petiole the flowers are white to pale pink diameter with five petals produced singly or in pairs and appearing before the leaves in early spring almond grows best in mediterranean climates with warm dry summers and mild wet winters the optimal temperature for their growth is between and the tree buds have a chilling requirement of 200 to 700 hours below to break dormancy almonds begin bearing an economic crop in the third year after planting trees reach full bearing five to six years after planting the fruit matures in the autumn 78 months after flowering the almond fruit is long it is not a nut but a drupe the outer covering consisting of an outer exocarp or skin and mesocarp or flesh fleshy in other members of prunus such as the plum and cherry is instead a thick leathery graygreen coat with a downy exterior called the hull inside the hull is a woody endocarp which forms a reticulated hard shell like the outside of a peach pit called the pyrena inside the shell is the edible seed commonly called a nut generally one seed is present but occasionally two occur after the fruit matures the hull splits and separates from the shell and an abscission layer forms between the stem and the fruit so that the fruit can fall from the tree taxonomy sweet and bitter almonds the seeds of prunus dulcis var dulcis are predominantly sweet but some individual trees produce seeds that are somewhat more bitter the genetic basis for bitterness involves a single gene the bitter flavor furthermore being recessive both aspects making this trait easier to domesticate the fruits from prunus dulcis var amara are always bitter as are the kernels from other species of genus prunus such as apricot peach and cherry although to a lesser extent the bitter almond is slightly broader and shorter than the sweet almond and contains about 50 of the fixed oil that occurs in sweet almonds it also contains the enzyme emulsin which in the presence of water acts on the two soluble glucosides amygdalin and prunasin yielding glucose cyanide and the essential oil of bitter almonds which is nearly pure benzaldehyde the chemical causing the bitter flavor bitter almonds may yield 49 milligrams of hydrogen cyanide per almond and contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds the origin of cyanide content in bitter almonds is via the enzymatic hydrolysis of amygdalin p450 monooxygenases are involved in the amygdalin biosynthetic pathway a point mutation in a bhlh transcription factor prevents transcription of the two cytochrome p450 genes resulting in the sweet kernel trait etymology the word almond comes from old french or late latin derived from from the ancient greek cf amygdala an almondshaped portion of the brain late old english had amygdales almonds the adjective amygdaloid literally like an almond is used to describe objects which are roughly almondshaped particularly a shape which is part way between a triangle and an ellipse for example the amygdala of the brain uses a direct borrowing of the greek term distribution and habitat almond is native to iran and its surrounding regions including the levant area it was spread by humans in ancient times along the shores of the mediterranean into northern africa and southern europe and more recently transported to other parts of the world notably california united states the wild form of domesticated almond grows in parts of the levant selection of the sweet type from the many bitter types in the wild marked the beginning of almond domestication it is unclear as to which wild ancestor of the almond created the domesticated species the species prunus fenzliana may be the most likely wild ancestor of the almond in part because it is native to armenia and western azerbaijan where it was apparently domesticated wild almond species were grown by early farmers at first unintentionally in the garbage heaps and later intentionally in their orchards cultivation almonds were one of the earliest domesticated fruit trees due to the ability of the grower to raise attractive almonds from seed thus in spite of the fact that this plant does not lend itself to propagation from suckers or from cuttings it could have been domesticated even before the introduction of grafting domesticated almonds appear in the early bronze age 30002000 bc such as the archaeological sites of numeira jordan or possibly earlier another wellknown archaeological example of the almond is the fruit found in tutankhamuns tomb in egypt c 1325 bc probably imported from the levant an article on almond tree cultivation in spain is brought down in ibn alawwams 12thcentury agricultural work book on agriculture of the european countries that the royal botanic garden edinburgh reported as cultivating almonds germany is the northernmost though the domesticated form can be found as far north as iceland varieties almond trees are small to medium sized but commercial cultivars can be grafted onto a different rootstock to produce smaller trees varieties include originates in the 1800s a large tree that produces large smooth thinshelled almonds with 6065 edible kernel per nut requires pollination from other almond varieties for good nut production originates in italy has thicker hairier shells with only 32 of edible kernel per nut the thicker shell gives some protection from pests such as the navel orangeworm does not require pollination by other almond varieties mariana used as a rootstock to result in smaller trees breeding breeding programmes have found the high shellseal trait pollination the most widely planted varieties of almond are selfincompatible hence these trees require pollen from a tree with different genetic characters to produce seeds almond orchards therefore must grow mixtures of almond varieties in addition the pollen is transferred from flower to flower by insects therefore commercial growers must ensure there are enough insects to perform this task the large scale of almond production in the us creates a significant problem of providing enough pollinating insects additional pollinating insects are therefore brought to the trees the pollination of californias almonds is the largest annual managed pollination event in the world with 14 million hives nearly half of all beehives in the us being brought to the almond orchards each february much of the supply of bees is managed by pollination brokers who contract with migratory beekeepers from at least 49 states for the event this business was heavily affected by colony collapse disorder at the turn of the 21st century causing a nationwide shortage of honey bees and increasing the price of insect pollination to partially protect almond growers from these costs researchers at the agricultural research service part of the united states department of agriculture usda developed selfpollinating almond trees that combine this character with quality characters such as a flavor and yield selfpollinating almond varieties exist but they lack some commercial characters however through natural hybridisation between different almond varieties a new variety that was selfpollinating with a high yield of commercial quality nuts was produced diseases almond trees can be attacked by an array of damaging microbes fungal pathogens plant viruses and bacteria pests pavement ants tetramorium caespitum southern fire ants solenopsis xyloni and thief ants solenopsis molesta are seed predators bryobia rubrioculus mites are most known for their damage to this crop sustainability almond production in california is concentrated mainly in the central valley where the mild climate rich soil abundant sunshine and water supply make for ideal growing conditions due to the persistent droughts in california in the early 21st century it became more difficult to raise almonds in a sustainable manner the issue is complex because of the high amount of water needed to produce almonds a single almond requires roughly of water to grow properly regulations related to water supplies are changing so some growers have destroyed their current almond orchards to replace with either younger trees or a different crop such as pistachio that needs less water sustainability strategies implemented by the almond board of california and almond farmers include tree and soil health and other farming practices minimizing dust production during the harvest bee health irrigation guidelines for farmers food safety use of waste biomass as coproducts with a goal to achieve zero waste use of solar energy during processing job development support of scientific research to investigate potential health benefits of consuming almonds international education about sustainability practices production in 2020 world production of almonds was 41 million tonnes led by the united states providing 57 of the world total table other leading producers were spain australia and iran united states in the united states production is concentrated in california where and six different almond varieties were under cultivation in 2017 with a yield of of shelled almonds california production is marked by a period of intense pollination during late winter by rented commercial bees transported by truck across the us to almond groves requiring more than half of the total us commercial honeybee population the value of total us exports of shelled almonds in 2016 was 32 billion all commercially grown almonds sold as food in the us are sweet cultivars the us food and drug administration reported in 2010 that some fractions of imported sweet almonds were contaminated with bitter almonds which contain cyanide spain spain has diverse commercial cultivars of almonds grown in catalonia valencia murcia andalusia and aragón regions and the balearic islands production in 2016 declined 2 nationally compared to 2015 production data the marcona almond cultivar is recognizably different from other almonds and is marketed by name the kernel is short round relatively sweet and delicate in texture its origin is unknown and has been grown in spain for a long time the tree is very productive and the shell of the nut is very hard australia australia is the largest almond production region in the southern hemisphere most of the almond orchards are located along the murray river corridor in new south wales victoria and south australia toxicity bitter almonds contain 42 times higher amounts of cyanide than the trace levels found in sweet almonds extract of bitter almond was once used medicinally but even in small doses effects are severe or lethal especially in children the cyanide must be removed before consumption the acute oral lethal dose of cyanide for adult humans is reported to be of body weight approximately 50 bitter almonds so that for children consuming 510 bitter almonds may be fatal symptoms of eating such almonds include vertigo and other typical cyanide poisoning effects almonds may cause allergy or intolerance crossreactivity is common with peach allergens lipid transfer proteins and tree nut allergens symptoms range from local signs and symptoms eg oral allergy syndrome contact urticaria to systemic signs and symptoms including anaphylaxis eg urticaria angioedema gastrointestinal and respiratory symptoms almonds are susceptible to aflatoxinproducing molds aflatoxins are potent carcinogenic chemicals produced by molds such as aspergillus flavus and aspergillus parasiticus the mold contamination may occur from soil previously infested almonds and almond pests such as navelorange worm high levels of mold growth typically appear as gray to black filamentlike growth it is unsafe to eat moldinfected tree nuts some countries have strict limits on allowable levels of aflatoxin contamination of almonds and require adequate testing before the nuts can be marketed to their citizens the european union for example introduced a requirement since 2007 that all almond shipments to the eu be tested for aflatoxin if aflatoxin does not meet the strict safety regulations the entire consignment may be reprocessed to eliminate the aflatoxin or it must be destroyed breeding programs have found the trait high shellseal provides resistance against these aspergillus species and so against the development of their toxins mandatory pasteurization in california after tracing cases of salmonellosis to almonds the usda approved a proposal by the almond board of california to pasteurize almonds sold to the public after publishing the rule in march 2007 the almond pasteurization program became mandatory for california companies effective 1 september 2007 raw untreated california almonds have not been available in the us since then california almonds labeled raw must be steampasteurized or chemically treated with propylene oxide ppo this does not apply to imported almonds or almonds sold from the grower directly to the consumer in small quantities the treatment also is not required for raw almonds sold for export outside of north america the almond board of california states ppo residue dissipates after treatment the us environmental protection agency has reported propylene oxide has been detected in fumigated food products consumption of contaminated food is another possible route of exposure ppo is classified as group 2b possibly carcinogenic to humans the usdaapproved marketing order was challenged in court by organic farmers organized by the cornucopia institute a wisconsinbased farm policy research group which filed a lawsuit in september 2008 according to the institute this almond marketing order has imposed significant financial burdens on smallscale and organic growers and damaged domestic almond markets a federal judge dismissed the lawsuit in early 2009 on procedural grounds in august 2010 a federal appeals court ruled that the farmers have a right to appeal the usda regulation in march 2013 the court vacated the suit on the basis that the objections should have been raised in 2007 when the regulation was first proposed uses nutrition almonds are 4 water 22 carbohydrates 21 protein and 50 fat table in a reference amount almonds supply of food energy the almond is a nutritionally dense food table providing a rich source 20 or more of the daily value dv of the b vitamins riboflavin and niacin vitamin e and the essential minerals calcium copper iron magnesium manganese phosphorus and zinc almonds are a moderate source 1019 dv of the b vitamins thiamine vitamin b6 and folate choline and the essential mineral potassium they also contain substantial dietary fiber the monounsaturated fat oleic acid and the polyunsaturated fat linoleic acid typical of nuts and seeds almonds are a source of phytosterols such as betasitosterol stigmasterol campesterol sitostanol and campestanol health almonds are included as a good source of protein among recommended healthy foods by the us department of agriculture usda a 2016 review of clinical research indicated that regular consumption of almonds may reduce the risk of heart disease by lowering blood levels of ldl cholesterol culinary while the almond is often eaten on its own raw or toasted it is also a component of various dishes almonds are available in many forms such as whole slivered and ground into flour almond pieces around in size called nibs are used for special purposes such as decoration almonds are a common addition to breakfast muesli or oatmeal desserts a wide range of classic sweets feature almonds as a central ingredient marzipan was developed in the middle ages since the 19th century almonds have been used to make bread almond butter cakes and puddings candied confections almond creamfilled pastries nougat cookies macaroons biscotti and qurabiya and cakes financiers esterházy torte and other sweets and desserts the young developing fruit of the almond tree can be eaten whole green almonds when they are still green and fleshy on the outside and the inner shell has not yet hardened the fruit is somewhat sour but is a popular snack in parts of the middle east eaten dipped in salt to balance the sour taste also in the middle east they are often eaten with dates they are available only from midapril to midjune in the northern hemisphere pickling or brining extends the fruits shelf life marzipan marzipan a smooth sweetened almond paste is used in a number of elegant cakes and desserts princess cake is covered by marzipan similar to fondant as is battenberg cake in sicily sponge cake is covered with marzipan to make cassatella di santagata and cassata siciliana and marzipan is dyed and crafted into realistic fruit shapes to make frutta martorana the andalusian christmas pastry pan de cádiz is filled with marzipan and candied fruit world cuisines in french cuisine alternating layers of almond and hazelnut meringue are used to make the dessert dacquoise pithivier is one of many almond creamfilled pastries in germany easter bread called deutsches osterbrot is baked with raisins and almonds in greece almond flour is used to make amygdalopita a glyka tapsiou dessert cake baking in a tray almonds are used for kourabiedes a greek version of the traditional quarabiya almond biscuits a soft drink known as soumada is made from almonds in various regions in saudi arabia almonds are a typical embellishment for the rice dish kabsa in iran green almonds are dipped in sea salt and eaten as snacks on street markets they are called chaqale bâdam candied almonds called noghl are served alongside tea and coffee also sweet almonds are used to prepare special food for babies named harire badam almonds are added to some foods cookies and desserts or are used to decorate foods people in iran consume roasted nuts for special events for example during new year nowruz parties in italy colomba di pasqua is a traditional easter cake made with almonds bitter almonds are the base for amaretti cookies a common dessert almonds are also a common choice as the nuts to include in torrone in morocco almonds in the form of sweet almond paste are the main ingredient in pastry fillings and several other desserts fried blanched whole almonds are also used to decorate sweet tajines such as lamb with prunes southwestern berber regions of essaouira and souss are also known for amlou a spread made of almond paste argan oil and honey almond paste is also mixed with toasted flour and among others honey olive oil or butter anise fennel sesame seeds and cinnamon to make sellou also called zamita in meknes or slilou in marrakech a sweet snack known for its long shelf life and high nutritive value in indian cuisine almonds are the base ingredients of pasandastyle and mughlai curries badam halva is a sweet made from almonds with added coloring almond flakes are added to many sweets such as sohan barfi and are usually visible sticking to the outer surface almonds form the base of various drinks which are supposed to have cooling properties almond sherbet or sherbetebadaam is a popular summer drink almonds are also sold as a snack with added salt in israel almonds are used as a topping for tahini cookies or eaten as a snack in spain marcona almonds are usually toasted in oil and lightly salted they are used by spanish confectioners to prepare a sweet called turrón in arabian cuisine almonds are commonly used as garnishing for mansaf certain natural food stores sell bitter almonds or apricot kernels labeled as such requiring significant caution by consumers for how to prepare and eat these products milk almonds can be processed into a milk substitute called almond milk the nuts soft texture mild flavor and light coloring when skinned make for an efficient analog to dairy and a soyfree choice for lactose intolerant people and vegans raw blanched and lightly toasted almonds work well for different production techniques some of which are similar to that of soy milk and some of which use no heat resulting in raw milk almond milk along with almond butter and almond oil are versatile products used in both sweet and savoury dishes in moroccan cuisine sharbat billooz a common beverage is made by blending blanched almonds with milk sugar and other flavorings flour and skins almond flour or ground almond meal combined with sugar or honey as marzipan is often used as a glutenfree alternative to wheat flour in cooking and baking almonds contain polyphenols in their skins consisting of flavonols flavan3ols hydroxybenzoic acids and flavanones analogous to those of certain fruits and vegetables these phenolic compounds and almond skin prebiotic dietary fiber have commercial interest as food additives or dietary supplements syrup historically almond syrup was an emulsion of sweet and bitter almonds usually made with barley syrup orgeat syrup or in a syrup of orange flower water and sugar often flavored with a synthetic aroma of almonds orgeat syrup is an important ingredient in the mai tai and many other tiki drinks due to the cyanide found in bitter almonds modern syrups generally are produced only from sweet almonds such syrup products do not contain significant levels of hydrocyanic acid so are generally considered safe for human consumption oils almonds are a rich source of oil with 50 of kernel dry mass as fat whole almond nutrition table in relation to total dry mass of the kernel almond oil contains 32 monounsaturated oleic acid an omega9 fatty acid 13 linoleic acid a polyunsaturated omega6 essential fatty acid and 10 saturated fatty acid mainly as palmitic acid linolenic acid a polyunsaturated omega3 fat is not present table almond oil is a rich source of vitamin e providing 261 of the daily value per 100 millilitres when almond oil is analyzed separately and expressed per 100 grams as a reference mass the oil provides of food energy 8 grams of saturated fat 81 of which is palmitic acid 70 grams of oleic acid and 17 grams of linoleic acid oil table oleum amygdalae the fixed oil is prepared from either sweet or bitter almonds and is a glyceryl oleate with a slight odour and a nutty taste it is almost insoluble in alcohol but readily soluble in chloroform or ether almond oil is obtained from the dried kernel of almonds sweet almond oil is used as a carrier oil in aromatherapy and cosmetics while bitter almond oil containing benzaldehyde is used as a food flavouring and in perfume in culture the almond is highly revered in some cultures the tree originated in the middle east in the bible the almond is mentioned ten times beginning with genesis 4311 where it is described as among the best of fruits in numbers 17 levi is chosen from the other tribes of israel by aarons rod which brought forth almond flowers the almond blossom supplied a model for the menorah which stood in the holy temple three cups shaped like almond blossoms were on one branch with a knob and a flower and three cups shaped like almond blossoms were on the other on the candlestick itself were four cups shaped like almond blossoms with its knobs and flowers exodus 253334 371920 many sephardic jews give five almonds to each guest before special occasions like weddings similarly christian symbolism often uses almond branches as a symbol of the virgin birth of jesus paintings and icons often include almondshaped haloes encircling the christ child and as a symbol of mary the word luz which appears in genesis 3037 sometimes translated as hazel may actually be derived from the aramaic name for almond luz and is translated as such in the new international version and other versions of the bible the arabic name for almond is لوز lauz or lūz in some parts of the levant and north africa it is pronounced loz which is very close to its aramaic origin the entrance of the flower la entrada de la flor is an event celebrated on 1 february in torrent spain in which the clavarios and members of the confrerie of the mother of god deliver a branch of the firstblooming almondtree to the virgin see also fruit tree forms fruit tree propagation fruit tree pruning list of almond dishes list of edible seeds references external links university of california fruit and nut research and information center benefits of soaked almonds almond edible nuts and seeds flora of asia pollination management snack foods almond oil crops fruit trees symbols of california flora of lebanon and syria | 4,308 |
1069 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics%20of%20Antigua%20and%20Barbuda | Demographics of Antigua and Barbuda | this article is a demography of the population of antigua and barbuda including population density ethnicity religious affiliations and other aspects of the population population according to the 2011 census the estimated resident population of antigua and barbuda was 86295 the estimated population of is vital statistics structure of the population ethnic groups the population of antigua and barbuda is predominantly black 910 or mixed 44 19 of the population is white and 07 east indian there is also a small amerindian population 177 in 1991 and 214 in 2001 03 of the total population the remaining 16 of the population includes people from the middle east 06 and china 02 the 2001 census disclosed that 19425 or 30 per cent of the total population of antigua and barbuda reported their place of birth as a foreign country over 15000 of these persons were from other caribbean states representing 80 of the total foreign born the main countries of origin were guyana dominica and jamaica approximately 4500 or 23 per cent of all foreign born came from guyana 3300 or 17 per cent came from dominica and 2800 or 14 per cent came from jamaica the largest single group from a country outside the region came from the united states of the total of 1715 persons nine per cent of the foreign born came from the united states while three per cent and one per cent came from the united kingdom and canada respectively many of these are the children of antiguans and barbudans who had emigrated to these countries mainly during the 1980s and subsequently returned other demographics statistics demographic statistics according to the world population review in 2019 one birth every 360 minutes one death every 720 minutes one net migrant every infinity minutes net gain of one person every 720 minutes demographic statistics according to the cia world factbook unless otherwise indicated population 99287 feb 2022 est nationality noun antiguans barbudans adjective antiguan barbudan ethnic groups african descent 873 mixed 47 hispanic 27 white 16 other 27 unspecified 09 2011 est note data represent population by ethnic group age structure 014 years 2252 male 11243female 10871 1524 years 1615 male 7891female 7961 2554 years 4168 male 18757female 22167 5564 years 1074 male 4693female 5848 65 years and over 891 male 3736female 5012 2020 est median age total 327 years country comparison to the world 106th male 307 years female 344 years 2020 est birth rate 153 births1000 population 2021 est country comparison to the world 113th death rate 563 deaths1000 population 2021 est country comparison to the world 177th total fertility rate 196 children bornwoman 2021 est country comparison to the world 117th net migration rate 206 migrants1000 population 2021 est country comparison to the world 49th population growth rate 117 2021 est country comparison to the world 84th population distribution the island of antigua is home to approximately 97 of the population nearly the entire population of barbuda lives in codrington languages english official antiguan creole religions protestant 683 anglican 176 seventh day adventist 124 pentecostal 122 moravian 83 methodist 56 wesleyan holiness 45 church of god 41 baptist 36 roman catholic 82 other 122 unspecified 55 none 59 2011 est life expectancy at birth total population 776 years country comparison to the world 92nd male 754 years female 799 years 2021 est urbanization urban population 244 of total population 2020 rate of urbanization 055 annual rate of change 201520 est dependency ratios total dependency ratio 453 2020 est youth dependency ratio 318 2020 est elderly dependency ratio 136 2020 est potential support ratio 74 2020 est education expenditures 25 of gdp 2009 country comparison to the world 160th obesity adult prevalence rate 189 2016 country comparison to the world 113rd literacy definition age 15 and over has completed five or more years of schooling total population 99 male 984 female 994 2015 school life expectancy primary to tertiary education total 15 years male 14 years female 16 years 2012 references society of antigua and barbuda | 670 |
1070 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics%20of%20Antigua%20and%20Barbuda | Politics of Antigua and Barbuda | the politics of antigua and barbuda takes place in a framework of a unitary parliamentary representative democratic monarchy wherein the sovereign of antigua and barbuda is the head of state appointing a governorgeneral to act as viceregal representative in the nation a prime minister is appointed by the governorgeneral as the head of government and of a multiparty system the prime minister advises the governorgeneral on the appointment of a council of ministers executive power is exercised by the government legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of the parliament the bicameral parliament consists of the senate seventeenmember body appointed by the governorgeneral and the house of representatives seventeen seats members are elected by proportional representation to serve fiveyear terms antigua and barbuda has a long history of free elections three of which have resulted in peaceful changes of government since the 1951 general election the party system has been dominated by the antigua and barbuda labour party ablp for a long time was dominated by the bird family particularly prime ministers vere and lester bird the opposition claimed to be disadvantaged by the ablps longstanding monopoly on patronage and its control of the media especially in the 1999 general election the opposition united progressive party upp won the 2004 election and its leader winston baldwin spencer was prime minister of antigua and barbuda from 2004 to 2014 the elections to the house of representatives were held on 12 june 2014 the antigua and barbuda labour party government was elected with fourteen seats the united progressive party had three seats in the house of representatives ablp won 15 of the 17 seats in the 2018 snap election under the leadership of incumbent prime minister gaston browne constitutional safeguards include freedom of speech press worship movement and association antigua and barbuda is a member of the eastern caribbean court system the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature jurisprudence is based on english common law executive branch ministers parliamentary secretaries permanent secretaries executive branch leadership as head of state king charles iii is represented in antigua and barbuda by a governorgeneral who acts on the advice of the prime minister and the cabinet legislative branch antigua and barbuda elects on national level a legislature parliament has two chambers the house of representatives has 19 members 17 members elected for a fiveyear term in singleseat constituencies and 2 ex officio members president and speaker the senate has 17 appointed members the prime minister is the leader of the majority party in the house and conducts affairs of state with the cabinet the prime minister and the cabinet are responsible to the parliament elections must be held at least every five years but may be called by the prime minister at any time there are special legislative provisions to account for barbudas low population relative to that of antigua barbuda is guaranteed one member of the house of representatives and two members of the senate in addition there is a barbuda council to govern the internal affairs of the island political parties and elections administrative divisions the country is divided into six parishes saint george john mary paul peter and phillip which are all on the island of antigua additionally the islands of barbuda and redonda are considered dependencies judicial branch antigua and barbuda is a member of the eastern caribbean supreme court this court is headquartered in saint lucia but at least one judge of the supreme court resides in antigua and barbuda and presides over the high court of justice the current high court judges are jennifer remy and keith thom antigua is also a member of the caribbean court of justice although it has not yet acceded to part iii of the 2001 agreement establishing a caribbean court of justice its supreme appellate court therefore remains the british judicial committee of the privy council indeed of the signatories to the agreement as of december 2010 only barbados has replaced appeals to her majesty in council with the caribbean court of justice in addition to the eastern caribbean supreme court antigua and barbuda has a magistrates court which deals with lesser civil and criminal cases movements republicanism in antigua and barbuda political pressure groups and leaders antigua trades and labour union peoples democratic movement international organisation participation organisation of african caribbean and pacific states alba caribbean community caribbean development bank community of latin american and caribbean states commonwealth of nations united nations economic commission for latin america and the caribbean food and agriculture organization group of 77 international bank for reconstruction and development international civil aviation organization international criminal court international confederation of free trade unions international red cross and red crescent movement international fund for agricultural development international finance corporation international federation of red cross and red crescent societies international labour organization international monetary fund international maritime organization intelsat nonsignatory user interpol international olympic committee international telecommunication union nonaligned movement observer organization of american states organisation of eastern caribbean states opanal united nations united nations conference on trade and development unesco universal postal union world confederation of labour world federation of trade unions world health organization world meteorological organization world trade organization references | 870 |
1072 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunications%20in%20Antigua%20and%20Barbuda | Telecommunications in Antigua and Barbuda | telecommunications in antigua and barbuda are via media in the telecommunications industry telephone telephones main lines in use 37500 2006 country comparison to the world 168 telephones mobile cellular 110200 2006 apua pcs cable wireless digicel country comparison to the world 177 telephone system domestic good automatic telephone system international 3 fiber optic submarine cables 2 to saint kitts and 1 to guadeloupe satellite earth station 1 intelsat atlantic ocean radio radio broadcast stations am 4 fm 6 shortwave 0 2002 radios 36000 1997 television television broadcast stations 2 1997 including abstv televisions 31000 1997 internet internet service providers isps cable wireless antigua computer technologies act antigua public utilities authority apua inet internet hosts 2215 2008 country comparison to the world 140 internet users 60000 2007 country comparison to the world 158 country codes ag demographics see also antigua and barbuda history of telecommunication list of telecommunications terminology outline of telecommunication references external links antigua and barbuda submarinecablemapcom antigua and barbuda antigua | 162 |
1074 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua%20and%20Barbuda%20Defence%20Force | Antigua and Barbuda Defence Force | the antigua and barbuda defence force abdf is the armed forces of antigua and barbuda the abdf has responsibility for several different roles internal security prevention of drug smuggling the protection and support of fishing rights prevention of marine pollution search and rescue ceremonial duties assistance to government programs provision of relief during natural disasters assistance in the maintenance of essential services and support of the police in maintaining law and order the abdf is one of the worlds smallest militaries consisting of 245 personnel it is much better equipped for fulfilling its civil roles as opposed to providing a deterrence against wouldbe aggressors or in defending the nation during a war organisation the abdf consists of five major units regiment comprises four line companies and is the infantry unit and fighting arm of the defence force service and support unit provides administrative logistic and engineer support to the rest of the defence force coast guard the maritime element of the defence force and is divided into four units commanding officers office engineer unit administration unit flotilla the flotilla is the operational part of the coast guard and consists of the following watercraft 1 swiftships shipbuilders 1981metre commercial cruiserclass patrol boat p01 liberta in service since 1984 1 seaark boats dauntlessclass patrol boat p02 palmetto in service since 1995 1 pointclass cutter p03 hermitage transferred from the us coast guard in 1998 1 defender 380xclass allweather interceptor d8 date of acquisition unknown 2 boston whaler 823metre launches 071 and 072 in service since 1988 1 zodiac marine pool 823metre hurricanetype rigidhulled inflatable boat in service since 1998 air wing cadet corps former deployments in 1983 fourteen men of the antigua and barbuda defence force were deployed to grenada during the operation urgent fury in 1990 twelve soldiers were sent to trinidad and tobago after a failed coup attempt by a radical group against the constitutionally elected government headed by prime minister anr robinson in 1995 members of the antigua and barbuda defence force were deployed in haiti as a part of operation uphold democracy future deployments in 2024 multinational security support mission in haiti alliances mercian regiment see also regional security system references external links antigua and barbuda defence force official website antigua and barbuda defence force on facebook article on the abdf by dr dion phillips national security of antigua and barbuda military units and formations established in 1981 | 400 |
1078 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisemitism | Antisemitism | antisemitism also spelled antisemitism or antisemitism is hostility to prejudice towards or discrimination against jews this sentiment is a form of racism and a person who harbours it is called an antisemite though antisemitism is overwhelmingly perpetrated by nonjews it may occasionally be perpetrated by jews in a phenomenon known as autoantisemitism ie selfhating jews primarily antisemitic tendencies may be motivated by negative sentiment towards jews as a people or by negative sentiment towards jews with regard to judaism in the former case usually presented as racial antisemitism a persons hostility is driven by the belief that jews constitute a distinct race with inherent traits or characteristics that are repulsive or inferior to the preferred traits or characteristics within that persons society in the latter case known as religious antisemitism a persons hostility is driven by their religions perception of jews and judaism typically encompassing doctrines of supersession that expect or demand jews to turn away from judaism and submit to the religion presenting itself as judaisms successor faith this is a common theme within the other abrahamic religions the development of racial and religious antisemitism has historically been encouraged by antijudaism though the concept itself is distinct from antisemitism there are various ways in which antisemitism is manifested ranging in the level of severity of jewish persecution on the more subtle end it consists of expressions of hatred or discrimination against individual jews and may or may not be accompanied by violence on the most extreme end it consists of pogroms or genocide which may or may not be statesponsored although the term antisemitism did not come into common usage until the 19th century it is also applied to previous and later antijewish incidents notable instances of antisemitic persecution include the rhineland massacres in 1096 the edict of expulsion in 1290 the european persecution of jews during the black death between 1348 and 1351 the massacre of spanish jews in 1391 the crackdown of the spanish inquisition and the expulsion of jews from spain in 1492 the cossack massacres in ukraine between 1648 and 1657 various antijewish pogroms in the russian empire between 1821 and 1906 the dreyfus affair between 1894 and 1906 the holocaust by the axis powers during world war ii and various soviet antijewish policies historically most of the worlds violent antisemitic events have taken place in christian europe however since the early 20th century there has been a sharp rise in antisemitic incidents across the arab world largely due to the surge in arab antisemitic conspiracy theories which have been cultivated to an extent under the aegis of european antisemitic conspiracy theories in the contemporary era a manifestation known as new antisemitism was identified this concept addresses the exploitation of the arabisraeli conflict by a large number of concealed antisemites who may attempt to gain traction or legitimacy for their antisemitic hoaxes by portraying themselves as criticizing the israeli governments actions this is distinct from people who view israeli government policies negatively which is not inherently antisemitic likewise as the state of israel has a jewishmajority population it is common for antisemitic rhetoric to be manifested in expressions of sentiments against the form or existence of israel as a state or sentiments against the need or right to a state for jewish people antizionism particularly around jerusalem though this is not always the case and such expressions may sometimes be part of wider antimiddle eastern sentiment without an exclusively antisemitic motive due to the root word semite the term is prone to being invoked as a misnomer by those who interpret it as referring to racist hatred directed at all semitic people ie those who speak semitic languages such as arabs assyrians and arameans this usage is erroneous the compound word was first used in print in germany in 1879 as a scientificsounding term for and it has since been used to refer to antijewish sentiment alone origin and usage etymology the origin of antisemitic terminologies is found in the responses of moritz steinschneider to the views of ernest renan as alex bein writes the compound antisemitism appears to have been used first by steinschneider who challenged renan on account of his antisemitic prejudices ie his derogation of the semites as a race avner falk similarly writes the german word was first used in 1860 by the austrian jewish scholar moritz steinschneider 18161907 in the phrase antisemitische vorurteile antisemitic prejudices steinschneider used this phrase to characterise the french philosopher ernest renans false ideas about how semitic races were inferior to aryan races pseudoscientific theories concerning race civilization and progress had become quite widespread in europe in the second half of the 19th century especially as prussian nationalistic historian heinrich von treitschke did much to promote this form of racism he coined the phrase the jews are our misfortune which would later be widely used by nazis according to avner falk treitschke uses the term semitic almost synonymously with jewish in contrast to renans use of it to refer to a whole range of peoples based generally on linguistic criteria according to jonathan m hess the term was originally used by its authors to stress the radical difference between their own antisemitism and earlier forms of antagonism toward jews and judaism in 1879 german journalist wilhelm marr published a pamphlet the victory of the jewish spirit over the germanic spirit observed from a nonreligious perspective in which he used the word semitismus interchangeably with the word judentum to denote both jewry the jews as a collective and jewishness the quality of being jewish or the jewish spirit this use of semitismus was followed by a coining of antisemitismus which was used to indicate opposition to the jews as a people and opposition to the jewish spirit which marr interpreted as infiltrating german culture his next pamphlet the way to victory of the germanic spirit over the jewish spirit 1880 presents a development of marrs ideas further and may present the first published use of the german word antisemitism the pamphlet became very popular and in the same year marr founded the antisemitenliga league of antisemites apparently named to follow the antikanzlerliga antichancellor league the league was the first german organization committed specifically to combating the alleged threat to germany and german culture posed by the jews and their influence and advocating their forced removal from the country so far as can be ascertained the word was first widely printed in 1881 when marr published zwanglose antisemitische hefte and wilhelm scherer used the term antisemiten in the january issue of neue freie presse the jewish encyclopedia reports in february 1881 a correspondent of the allgemeine zeitung des judentums speaks of antisemitism as a designation which recently came into use allg zeit d jud 1881 p 138 on 19 july 1882 the editor says this quite recent antisemitism is hardly three years old the word antisemitism was borrowed into english from german in 1881 oxford english dictionary editor james murray wrote that it was not included in the first edition because antisemite and its family were then probably very new in english use and not thought likely to be more than passing noncewords would that antisemitism had had no more than a fleeting interest the related term philosemitism was used by 1881 usage from the outset the term antisemitism bore special racial connotations and meant specifically prejudice against jews the term is confusing for in modern usage semitic designates a language group not a race in this sense the term is a misnomer since there are many speakers of semitic languages eg arabs ethiopians and arameans who are not the objects of antisemitic prejudices while there are many jews who do not speak hebrew a semitic language though antisemitism could be construed as prejudice against people who speak other semitic languages this is not how the term is commonly used the term may be spelled with or without a hyphen antisemitism or antisemitism many scholars and institutions favor the unhyphenated form shmuel almog argued if you use the hyphenated form you consider the words semitism semite semitic as meaningful in antisemitic parlance semites really stands for jews just that emil fackenheim supported the unhyphenated spelling in order to dispel the notion that there is an entity semitism which antisemitism opposes others endorsing an unhyphenated term for the same reason include the international holocaust remembrance alliance historian deborah lipstadt padraic ohare professor of religious and theological studies and director of the center for the study of jewishchristianmuslim relations at merrimack college and historians yehuda bauer and james carroll according to carroll who first cites ohare and bauer on the existence of something called semitism the hyphenated word thus reflects the bipolarity that is at the heart of the problem of antisemitism the associated press and its accompanying ap stylebook adopted the unhyphenated spelling in 2021 style guides for other news organizations such as the new york times and wall street journal later adopted this spelling as well it has also been adopted by many holocaust museums such as the united states holocaust memorial museum and yad vashem definition though the general definition of antisemitism is hostility or prejudice against jews and according to olaf blaschke has become an umbrella term for negative stereotypes about jews a number of authorities have developed more formal definitions holocaust scholar and city university of new york professor helen fein defines it as a persisting latent structure of hostile beliefs towards jews as a collective manifested in individuals as attitudes and in culture as myth ideology folklore and imagery and in actionssocial or legal discrimination political mobilization against the jews and collective or state violencewhich results in andor is designed to distance displace or destroy jews as jews elaborating on feins definition dietz bering of the university of cologne writes that to antisemites jews are not only partially but totally bad by nature that is their bad traits are incorrigible because of this bad nature 1 jews have to be seen not as individuals but as a collective 2 jews remain essentially alien in the surrounding societies 3 jews bring disaster on their host societies or on the whole world they are doing it secretly therefore the antisemites feel obliged to unmask the conspiratorial bad jewish character for sonja weinberg as distinct from economic and religious antijudaism antisemitism in its modern form shows conceptual innovation a resort to science to defend itself new functional forms and organisational differences it was antiliberal racialist and nationalist it promoted the myth that jews conspired to judaise the world it served to consolidate social identity it channeled dissatisfactions among victims of the capitalist system and it was used as a conservative cultural code to fight emancipation and liberalism bernard lewis defined antisemitism as a special case of prejudice hatred or persecution directed against people who are in some way different from the rest according to lewis antisemitism is marked by two distinct features jews are judged according to a standard different from that applied to others and they are accused of cosmic evil thus it is perfectly possible to hate and even to persecute jews without necessarily being antisemitic unless this hatred or persecution displays one of the two features specific to antisemitism there have been a number of efforts by international and governmental bodies to define antisemitism formally the united states department of state states that while there is no universally accepted definition there is a generally clear understanding of what the term encompasses for the purposes of its 2005 report on global antisemitism the term was considered to mean hatred toward jewsindividually and as a groupthat can be attributed to the jewish religion andor ethnicity in 2005 the european monitoring centre on racism and xenophobia now the fundamental rights agency then an agency of the european union developed a more detailed working definition which states antisemitism is a certain perception of jews which may be expressed as hatred toward jews rhetorical and physical manifestations of antisemitism are directed toward jewish or nonjewish individuals andor their property toward jewish community institutions and religious facilities it also adds that such manifestations could also target the state of israel conceived as a jewish collectivity but that criticism of israel similar to that leveled against any other country cannot be regarded as antisemitic it provides contemporary examples of ways in which antisemitism may manifest itself including promoting the harming of jews in the name of an ideology or religion promoting negative stereotypes of jews holding jews collectively responsible for the actions of an individual jewish person or group denying the holocaust or accusing jews or israel of exaggerating it and accusing jews of dual loyalty or a greater allegiance to israel than their own country it also lists ways in which attacking israel could be antisemitic and states that denying the jewish people their right to selfdetermination eg by claiming that the existence of a state of israel is a racist endeavor can be a manifestation of antisemitismas can applying double standards by requiring of israel a behavior not expected or demanded of any other democratic nation or holding jews collectively responsible for the actions of the state of israel the definition wrong and negative perception of people with jewish descent has been adopted by the european parliament working group on antisemitism in 2010 a similar definition that avoided using the word wrong was adopted by the united states department of state in 2014 that definition was adopted in the operational hate crime guidance of the uk college of policing and was also adopted by the campaign against antisemitism in 2016 the us state department definition was adopted by the international holocaust remembrance alliance the working definition of antisemitism is among the most controversial documents related to opposition to antisemitism and critics argue that it has been used to censor criticism of israel evolution of usage in 1879 wilhelm marr founded the antisemitenliga antisemitic league identification with antisemitism and as an antisemite was politically advantageous in europe during the late 19th century for example karl lueger the popular mayor of fin de siècle vienna skillfully exploited antisemitism as a way of channeling public discontent to his political advantage in its 1910 obituary of lueger the new york times notes that lueger was chairman of the christian social union of the parliament and of the antisemitic union of the diet of lower austria in 1895 a c cuza organized the alliance antisemitique universelle in bucharest in the period before world war ii when animosity towards jews was far more commonplace it was not uncommon for a person an organization or a political party to selfidentify as an antisemite or antisemitic the early zionist pioneer leon pinsker a professional physician preferred the clinicalsounding term judeophobia to antisemitism which he regarded as a misnomer the word judeophobia first appeared in his pamphlet autoemancipation published anonymously in german in september 1882 where it was described as an irrational fear or hatred of jews according to pinsker this irrational fear was an inherited predisposition in the aftermath of the kristallnacht pogrom in 1938 german propaganda minister goebbels announced the german people is antisemitic it has no desire to have its rights restricted or to be provoked in the future by parasites of the jewish race after 1945 victory of the allies over nazi germany and particularly after the full extent of the nazi genocide against the jews became known the term antisemitism acquired pejorative connotations this marked a full circle shift in usage from an era just decades earlier when jew was used as a pejorative term yehuda bauer wrote in 1984 there are no antisemites in the world nobody says i am antisemitic you cannot after hitler the word has gone out of fashion eternalismcontextualism debate the study of antisemitism has become politically controversial because of differing interpretations of the holocaust and the israelipalestinian conflict there are two competing views of antisemitism eternalism and contextualism the eternalist view sees antisemitism as separate from other forms of racism and prejudice and an exceptionalist transhistorical force teleologically culminating in the holocaust hannah arendt criticized this approach writing that it provoked the uncomfortable question why the jews of all people with the question begging reply eternal hostility zionist thinkers and antisemites draw different conclusions from what they perceive as the eternal hatred of jews according to antisemites it proves the inferiority of jews while for zionists it means that jews need their own state as a refuge most zionists do not believe that antisemitism can be combatted with education or other means the contextual approach treats antisemitism as a type of racism and focuses on the historical context in which hatred of jews emerges some contextualists restrict the use of antisemitism to refer exclusively to the era of modern racism treating antijudaism as a separate phenomenon historian david engel has challenged the project to define antisemitism arguing that it essentializes jewish history as one of persecution and discrimination engel argues that the term antisemitism is not useful in historical analysis because it implies that there are links between antijewish prejudices expressed in different contexts without evidence of such a connection manifestations antisemitism manifests itself in a variety of ways rené könig mentions social antisemitism economic antisemitism religious antisemitism and political antisemitism as examples könig points out that these different forms demonstrate that the origins of antisemitic prejudices are rooted in different historical periods könig asserts that differences in the chronology of different antisemitic prejudices and the irregular distribution of such prejudices over different segments of the population create serious difficulties in the definition of the different kinds of antisemitism these difficulties may contribute to the existence of different taxonomies that have been developed to categorize the forms of antisemitism the forms identified are substantially the same it is primarily the number of forms and their definitions that differ bernard lazare identifies three forms of antisemitism christian antisemitism economic antisemitism and ethnologic antisemitism william brustein names four categories religious racial economic and political the roman catholic historian edward flannery distinguished four varieties of antisemitism political and economic antisemitism giving as examples cicero and charles lindbergh theological or religious antisemitism also called traditional antisemitism and sometimes known as antijudaism nationalistic antisemitism citing voltaire and other enlightenment thinkers who attacked jews for supposedly having certain characteristics such as greed and arrogance and for observing customs such as kashrut and shabbat racial antisemitism with its extreme form resulting in the holocaust by the nazis louis harap separates economic antisemitism and merges political and nationalistic antisemitism into ideological antisemitism harap also adds a category of social antisemitism religious jew as christkiller economic jew as banker usurer moneyobsessed social jew as social inferior pushy vulgar therefore excluded from personal contact racist jews as an inferior race ideological jews regarded as subversive or revolutionary cultural jews regarded as undermining the moral and structural fiber of civilization cultural antisemitism louis harap defines cultural antisemitism as that species of antisemitism that charges the jews with corrupting a given culture and attempting to supplant or succeeding in supplanting the preferred culture with a uniform crude jewish culture similarly eric kandel characterizes cultural antisemitism as being based on the idea of jewishness as a religious or cultural tradition that is acquired through learning through distinctive traditions and education according to kandel this form of antisemitism views jews as possessing unattractive psychological and social characteristics that are acquired through acculturation niewyk and nicosia characterize cultural antisemitism as focusing on and condemning the jews aloofness from the societies in which they live an important feature of cultural antisemitism is that it considers the negative attributes of judaism to be redeemable by education or by religious conversion religious antisemitism religious antisemitism also known as antijudaism is antipathy towards jews because of their perceived religious beliefs in theory antisemitism and attacks against individual jews would stop if jews stopped practicing judaism or changed their public faith especially by conversion to the official or right religion however in some cases discrimination continues after conversion as in the case of marranos christianized jews in spain and portugal in the late 15th century and 16th century who were suspected of secretly practising judaism or jewish customs although the origins of antisemitism are rooted in the judeochristian conflict other forms of antisemitism have developed in modern times frederick schweitzer asserts that most scholars ignore the christian foundation on which the modern antisemitic edifice rests and invoke political antisemitism cultural antisemitism racism or racial antisemitism economic antisemitism and the like william nichols draws a distinction between religious antisemitism and modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds the dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion a jew ceased to be a jew upon baptism from the perspective of racial antisemitism however the assimilated jew was still a jew even after baptism from the enlightenment onward it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards jews once jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance without leaving behind the old christian hostility towards jews the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable even before explicitly racist doctrines appear some christians such as the catholic priest ernest jouin who published the first french translation of the protocols combined religious and racial antisemitism as in his statement that from the triple viewpoint of race of nationality and of religion the jew has become the enemy of humanity the virulent antisemitism of édouard drumont one of the most widely read catholic writers in france during the dreyfus affair likewise combined religious and racial antisemitism drumont founded the antisemitic league of france economic antisemitism the underlying premise of economic antisemitism is that jews perform harmful economic activities or that economic activities become harmful when they are performed by jews linking jews and money underpins the most damaging and lasting antisemitic canards antisemites claim that jews control the world finances a theory promoted in the fraudulent protocols of the elders of zion and later repeated by henry ford and his dearborn independent in the modern era such myths continue to be spread in books such as the secret relationship between blacks and jews published by the nation of islam and on the internet derek penslar writes that there are two components to the financial canards a jews are savages that are temperamentally incapable of performing honest labor b jews are leaders of a financial cabal seeking world domination abraham foxman describes six facets of the financial canards all jews are wealthy jews are stingy and greedy powerful jews control the business world jewish religion emphasizes profit and materialism it is okay for jews to cheat nonjews jews use their power to benefit their own kind gerald krefetz summarizes the myth as jews control the banks the money supply the economy and businessesof the community of the country of the world krefetz gives as illustrations many slurs and proverbs in several different languages which suggest that jews are stingy or greedy or miserly or aggressive bargainers during the nineteenth century jews were described as scurrilous stupid and tightfisted but after the jewish emancipation and the rise of jews to the middle or upperclass in europe were portrayed as clever devious and manipulative financiers out to dominate world finances léon poliakov asserts that economic antisemitism is not a distinct form of antisemitism but merely a manifestation of theologic antisemitism because without the theological causes of economic antisemitism there would be no economic antisemitism in opposition to this view derek penslar contends that in the modern era economic antisemitism is distinct and nearly constant but theological antisemitism is often subdued an academic study by francesco dacunto marcel prokopczuk and michael weber showed that people who live in areas of germany that contain the most brutal history of antisemitic persecution are more likely to be distrustful of finance in general therefore they tended to invest less money in the stock market and make poor financial decisions the study concluded that the persecution of minorities reduces not only the longterm wealth of the persecuted but of the persecutors as well racial antisemitism racial antisemitism is prejudice against jews as a racialethnic group rather than judaism as a religion racial antisemitism is the idea that the jews are a distinct and inferior race compared to their host nations in the late 19th century and early 20th century it gained mainstream acceptance as part of the eugenics movement which categorized noneuropeans as inferior it more specifically claimed that northern europeans or aryans were superior racial antisemites saw the jews as part of a semitic race and emphasized their noneuropean origins and culture they saw jews as beyond redemption even if they converted to the majority religion racial antisemitism replaced the hatred of judaism with the hatred of jews as a group in the context of the industrial revolution following the jewish emancipation jews rapidly urbanized and experienced a period of greater social mobility with the decreasing role of religion in public life tempering religious antisemitism a combination of growing nationalism the rise of eugenics and resentment at the socioeconomic success of the jews led to the newer and more virulent racist antisemitism according to william nichols religious antisemitism may be distinguished from modern antisemitism based on racial or ethnic grounds the dividing line was the possibility of effective conversion a jew ceased to be a jew upon baptism however with racial antisemitism now the assimilated jew was still a jew even after baptism from the enlightenment onward it is no longer possible to draw clear lines of distinction between religious and racial forms of hostility towards jews once jews have been emancipated and secular thinking makes its appearance without leaving behind the old christian hostility towards jews the new term antisemitism becomes almost unavoidable even before explicitly racist doctrines appear in the early 19th century a number of laws enabling the emancipation of the jews were enacted in western european countries the old laws restricting them to ghettos as well as the many laws that limited their property rights rights of worship and occupation were rescinded despite this traditional discrimination and hostility to jews on religious grounds persisted and was supplemented by racial antisemitism encouraged by the work of racial theorists such as joseph arthur de gobineau and particularly his essay on the inequality of the human race of 18531855 nationalist agendas based on ethnicity known as ethnonationalism usually excluded the jews from the national community as an alien race allied to this were theories of social darwinism which stressed a putative conflict between higher and lower races of human beings such theories usually posited by northern europeans advocated the superiority of white aryans to semitic jews political antisemitism william brustein defines political antisemitism as hostility toward jews based on the belief that jews seek national or world power yisrael gutman characterizes political antisemitism as tending to lay responsibility on the jews for defeats and political economic crises while seeking to exploit opposition and resistance to jewish influence as elements in political party platforms derek j penslar wrote political antisemitism identified the jews as responsible for all the anxietyprovoking social forces that characterized modernity according to viktor karády political antisemitism became widespread after the legal emancipation of the jews and sought to reverse some of the consequences of that emancipation conspiracy theories holocaust denial and jewish conspiracy theories are also considered forms of antisemitism zoological conspiracy theories have been propagated by arab media and arabic language websites alleging a zionist plot behind the use of animals to attack civilians or to conduct espionage new antisemitism starting in the 1990s some scholars have advanced the concept of new antisemitism coming simultaneously from the left the right and radical islam which tends to focus on opposition to the creation of a jewish homeland in the state of israel and they argue that the language of antizionism and criticism of israel are used to attack jews more broadly in this view the proponents of the new concept believe that criticisms of israel and zionism are often disproportionate in degree and unique in kind and they attribute this to antisemitism jewish scholar gustavo perednik posited in 2004 that antizionism in itself represents a form of discrimination against jews in that it singles out jewish national aspirations as an illegitimate and racist endeavor and proposes actions that would result in the death of millions of jews it is asserted that the new antisemitism deploys traditional antisemitic motifs including older motifs such as the blood libel critics of the concept view it as trivializing the meaning of antisemitism and as exploiting antisemitism in order to silence debate and to deflect attention from legitimate criticism of the state of israel and by associating antizionism with antisemitism misusing it to taint anyone opposed to israeli actions and policies history many authors see the roots of modern antisemitism in both pagan antiquity and early christianity jerome chanes identifies six stages in the historical development of antisemitism prechristian antijudaism in ancient greece and rome which was primarily ethnic in nature christian antisemitism in antiquity and the middle ages which was religious in nature and has extended into modern times traditional muslim antisemitism which wasat least in its classical formnuanced in that jews were a protected class political social and economic antisemitism of enlightenment and postenlightenment europe which laid the groundwork for racial antisemitism racial antisemitism that arose in the 19th century and culminated in nazism in the 20th century contemporary antisemitism which has been labeled by some as the new antisemitism chanes suggests that these six stages could be merged into three categories ancient antisemitism which was primarily ethnic in nature christian antisemitism which was religious and the racial antisemitism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries ancient world the first clear examples of antijewish sentiment can be traced to the 3rd century bce to alexandria the home to the largest jewish diaspora community in the world at the time and where the septuagint a greek translation of the hebrew bible was produced manetho an egyptian priest and historian of that era wrote scathingly of the jews his themes are repeated in the works of chaeremon lysimachus poseidonius apollonius molon and in apion and tacitus agatharchides of cnidus ridiculed the practices of the jews and the absurdity of their law making a mocking reference to how ptolemy lagus was able to invade jerusalem in 320 bce because its inhabitants were observing the shabbat one of the earliest antijewish edicts promulgated by antiochus iv epiphanes in about 170167 bce sparked a revolt of the maccabees in judea in view of manethos antijewish writings antisemitism may have originated in egypt and been spread by the greek retelling of ancient egyptian prejudices the ancient jewish philosopher philo of alexandria describes an attack on jews in alexandria in 38 ce in which thousands of jews died the violence in alexandria may have been caused by the jews being portrayed as misanthropes tcherikover argues that the reason for hatred of jews in the hellenistic period was their separateness in the greek cities the poleis bohak has argued however that early animosity against the jews cannot be regarded as being antijudaic or antisemitic unless it arose from attitudes that were held against the jews alone and that many greeks showed animosity toward any group they regarded as barbarians statements exhibiting prejudice against jews and their religion can be found in the works of many pagan greek and roman writers edward flannery writes that it was the jews refusal to accept greek religious and social standards that marked them out hecataetus of abdera a greek historian of the early third century bce wrote that moses in remembrance of the exile of his people instituted for them a misanthropic and inhospitable way of life manetho an egyptian historian wrote that the jews were expelled egyptian lepers who had been taught by moses not to adore the gods edward flannery describes antisemitism in ancient times as essentially cultural taking the shape of a national xenophobia played out in political settings there are examples of hellenistic rulers desecrating the temple and banning jewish religious practices such as circumcision shabbat observance the study of jewish religious books etc examples may also be found in antijewish riots in alexandria in the 3rd century bce the jewish diaspora on the nile island elephantine which was founded by mercenaries experienced the destruction of its temple in 410 bce relationships between the jewish people and the occupying roman empire were at times antagonistic and resulted in several rebellions according to suetonius the emperor tiberius expelled from rome jews who had gone to live there the 18thcentury english historian edward gibbon identified a more tolerant period in romanjewish relations beginning in about 160 ce however when christianity became the state religion of the roman empire the states attitude towards the jews gradually worsened james carroll asserted jews accounted for 10 of the total population of the roman empire by that ratio if other factors such as pogroms and conversions had not intervened there would be 200 million jews in the world today instead of something like 13 million persecutions during the middle ages in the late 6th century ce the newly catholicised visigothic kingdom in hispania issued a series of antijewish edicts which forbade jews from marrying christians practicing circumcision and observing jewish holy days continuing throughout the 7th century both visigothic kings and the church were active in creating social aggression and towards jews with civic and ecclesiastic punishments ranging between forced conversion slavery exile and death from the 9th century the medieval islamic world classified jews and christians as dhimmis and allowed jews to practice their religion more freely than they could do in medieval christian europe under islamic rule there was a golden age of jewish culture in spain that lasted until at least the 11th century it ended when several muslim pogroms against jews took place on the iberian peninsula including those that occurred in córdoba in 1011 and in granada in 1066 several decrees ordering the destruction of synagogues were also enacted in egypt syria iraq and yemen from the 11th century in addition jews were forced to convert to islam or face death in some parts of yemen morocco and baghdad several times between the 12th and 18th centuries the almohads who had taken control of the almoravids maghribi and andalusian territories by 1147 were far more fundamentalist in outlook compared to their predecessors and they treated the dhimmis harshly faced with the choice of either death or conversion many jews and christians emigrated some such as the family of maimonides fled east to more tolerant muslim lands while some others went northward to settle in the growing christian kingdoms in medieval europe jews were persecuted with blood libels expulsions forced conversions and massacres these persecutions were often justified on religious grounds and reached a first peak during the crusades in 1096 hundreds or thousands of jews were killed during the first crusade this was the first major outbreak of antijewish violence in christian europe outside spain and was cited by zionists in the 19th century as indicating the need for a state of israel in 1147 there were several massacres of jews during the second crusade the shepherds crusades of 1251 and 1320 both involved attacks as did the rintfleisch massacres in 1298 expulsions followed such as the 1290 banishment of jews from england the expulsion of 100000 jews from france in 1394 and the 1421 expulsion of thousands of jews from austria many of the expelled jews fled to poland in medieval and renaissance europe a major contributor to the deepening of antisemitic sentiment and legal action among the christian populations was the popular preaching of the zealous reform religious orders the franciscans especially bernardino of feltre and dominicans especially vincent ferrer who combed europe and promoted antisemitism through their often fiery emotional appeals as the black death epidemics devastated europe in the mid14th century causing the death of a large part of the population jews were used as scapegoats rumors spread that they caused the disease by deliberately poisoning wells hundreds of jewish communities were destroyed in numerous persecutions although pope clement vi tried to protect them by issuing two papal bulls in 1348 the first on 6 july and an additional one several months later 900 jews were burned alive in strasbourg where the plague had not yet affected the city reformation martin luther an ecclesiastical reformer whose teachings inspired the reformation wrote antagonistically about jews in his pamphlet on the jews and their lies written in 1543 he portrays the jews in extremely harsh terms excoriates them and provides detailed recommendations for a pogrom against them calling for their permanent oppression and expulsion at one point he writes we are at fault in not slaying them a passage that according to historian paul johnson may be termed the first work of modern antisemitism and a giant step forward on the road to the holocaust 17th century during the midtolate 17th century the polishlithuanian commonwealth was devastated by several conflicts in which the commonwealth lost over a third of its population over 3 million people and jewish losses were counted in the hundreds of thousands the first of these conflicts was the khmelnytsky uprising when bohdan khmelnytskys supporters massacred tens of thousands of jews in the eastern and southern areas he controlled todays ukraine the precise number of dead may never be known but the decrease of the jewish population during that period is estimated at 100000 to 200000 which also includes emigration deaths from diseases and captivity in the ottoman empire called jasyr european immigrants to the united states brought antisemitism to the country as early as the 17th century peter stuyvesant the dutch governor of new amsterdam implemented plans to prevent jews from settling in the city during the colonial era the american government limited the political and economic rights of jews it was not until the american revolutionary war that jews gained legal rights including the right to vote however even at their peak the restrictions on jews in the united states were never as stringent as they had been in europe in the zaydi imamate of yemen jews were also singled out for discrimination in the 17th century which culminated in the general expulsion of all jews from places in yemen to the arid coastal plain of tihamah and which became known as the mawza exile enlightenment in 1744 archduchess of austria maria theresa ordered jews out of bohemia but soon reversed her position on the condition that jews pay for their readmission every ten years this extortion was known among the jews as malkegeld queens money in yiddish in 1752 she introduced the law limiting each jewish family to one son in 1782 joseph ii abolished most of these persecution practices in his toleranzpatent on the condition that yiddish and hebrew were eliminated from public records and that judicial autonomy was annulled moses mendelssohn wrote that such a tolerance is even more dangerous play in tolerance than open persecution voltaire according to arnold ages voltaires lettres philosophiques dictionnaire philosophique and candide to name but a few of his better known works are saturated with comments on jews and judaism and the vast majority are negative paul h meyer adds there is no question but that voltaire particularly in his latter years nursed a violent hatred of the jews and it is equally certain that his animositydid have a considerable impact on public opinion in france thirty of the 118 articles in voltaires dictionnaire philosophique concerned jews and described them in consistently negative ways louis de bonald and the catholic counterrevolution the counterrevolutionary catholic royalist louis de bonald stands out among the earliest figures to explicitly call for the reversal of jewish emancipation in the wake of the french revolution bonalds attacks on the jews are likely to have influenced napoleons decision to limit the civil rights of alsatian jews bonalds article sur les juifs 1806 was one of the most venomous screeds of its era and furnished a paradigm which combined antiliberalism a defense of a rural society traditional christian antisemitism and the identification of jews with bankers and finance capital which would in turn influence many subsequent rightwing reactionaries such as roger gougenot des mousseaux charles maurras and édouard drumont nationalists such as maurice barrès and paolo orano and antisemitic socialists such as alphonse toussenel bonald furthermore declared that the jews were an alien people a state within a state and should be forced to wear a distinctive mark to more easily identify and discriminate against them under the french second empire the popular counterrevolutionary catholic journalist louis veuillot propagated bonalds arguments against the jewish financial aristocracy along with vicious attacks against the talmud and the jews as a deicidal people driven by hatred to enslave christians between 1882 and 1886 alone french priests published twenty antisemitic books blaming frances ills on the jews and urging the government to consign them back to the ghettos expel them or hang them from the gallows gougenot des mousseauxs le juif le judaïsme et la judaïsation des peuples chrétiens 1869 has been called a bible of modern antisemitism and was translated into german by nazi ideologue alfred rosenberg imperial russia thousands of jews were slaughtered by cossack haidamaks in the 1768 massacre of uman in the kingdom of poland in 1772 the empress of russia catherine ii forced the jews into the pale of settlement which was located primarily in presentday poland ukraine and belarus and to stay in their shtetls and forbade them from returning to the towns that they occupied before the partition of poland from 1804 jews were banned from their villages and began to stream into the towns a decree by emperor nicholas i of russia in 1827 conscripted jews under 18 years of age into the cantonist schools for a 25year military service in order to promote baptism policy towards jews was liberalised somewhat under czar alexander ii however his assassination in 1881 served as a pretext for further repression such as the may laws of 1882 konstantin pobedonostsev nicknamed the black czar and tutor to the czarevitch later crowned czar nicholas ii declared that onethird of the jews must die onethird must emigrate and one third be converted to christianity islamic antisemitism in the 19th century historian martin gilbert writes that it was in the 19th century that the position of jews worsened in muslim countries benny morris writes that one symbol of jewish degradation was the phenomenon of stonethrowing at jews by muslim children morris quotes a 19thcentury traveler i have seen a little fellow of six years old with a troop of fat toddlers of only three and four teaching them to throw stones at a jew and one little urchin would with the greatest coolness waddle up to the man and literally spit upon his jewish gaberdine to all this the jew is obliged to submit it would be more than his life was worth to offer to strike a mahommedan in the middle of the 19th century j j benjamin wrote about the life of persian jews describing conditions and beliefs that went back to the 16th century they are obliged to live in a separate part of town under the pretext of their being unclean they are treated with the greatest severity and should they enter a street inhabited by mussulmans they are pelted by the boys and mobs with stones and dirt in jerusalem at least conditions for some jews improved moses montefiore on his seventh visit in 1875 noted that fine new buildings had sprung up and surely were approaching the time to witness gods hallowed promise unto zion muslim and christian arabs participated in purim and passover arabs called the sephardis jews sons of arabs the ulema and the rabbis offered joint prayers for rain in time of drought at the time of the dreyfus trial in france muslim comments usually favoured the persecuted jew against his christian persecutors secular or racial antisemitism in 1850 the german composer richard wagner who has been called the inventor of modern antisemitism published das judenthum in der musik roughly jewishness in music under a pseudonym in the neue zeitschrift für musik the essay began as an attack on jewish composers particularly wagners contemporaries and rivals felix mendelssohn and giacomo meyerbeer but expanded to accuse jews of being a harmful and alien element in german culture who corrupted morals and were in fact parasites incapable of creating truly german art the crux was the manipulation and control by the jews of the money economy although originally published anonymously when the essay was republished 19 years later in 1869 the concept of the corrupting jew had become so widely held that wagners name was affixed to it antisemitism can also be found in many of the grimms fairy tales by jacob and wilhelm grimm published from 1812 to 1857 it is mainly characterized by jews being the villain of a story such as in the good bargain der gute handel and the jew among thorns der jude im dorn the middle 19th century saw continued official harassment of the jews especially in eastern europe under czarist influence for example in 1846 80 jews approached the governor in warsaw to retain the right to wear their traditional dress but were immediately rebuffed by having their hair and beards forcefully cut at their own expense even such influential figures as walt whitman tolerated bigotry toward the jews in america during his time as editor of the brooklyn eagle 18461848 the newspaper published historical sketches casting jews in a bad light the dreyfus affair was an infamous antisemitic event of the late 19th century and early 20th century alfred dreyfus a jewish artillery captain in the french army was accused in 1894 of passing secrets to the germans as a result of these charges dreyfus was convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment on devils island the actual spy marie charles esterhazy was acquitted the event caused great uproar among the french with the public choosing sides on the issue of whether dreyfus was actually guilty or not émile zola accused the army of corrupting the french justice system however general consensus held that dreyfus was guilty 80 of the press in france condemned him this attitude among the majority of the french population reveals the underlying antisemitism of the time period adolf stoecker 18351909 the lutheran court chaplain to kaiser wilhelm i founded in 1878 an antisemitic antiliberal political party called the christian social party this party always remained small and its support dwindled after stoeckers death with most of its members eventually joining larger conservative groups such as the german national peoples party some scholars view karl marxs essay on the jewish question as antisemitic and argue that he often used antisemitic epithets in his published and private writings these scholars argue that marx equated judaism with capitalism in his essay helping to spread that idea some further argue that the essay influenced national socialist as well as soviet and arab antisemites marx himself had jewish ancestry and albert lindemann and hyam maccoby have suggested that he was embarrassed by it others argue that marx consistently supported prussian jewish communities struggles to achieve equal political rights these scholars argue that on the jewish question is a critique of bruno bauers arguments that jews must convert to christianity before being emancipated and is more generally a critique of liberal rights discourses and capitalism iain hamphshermonk wrote that this work on the jewish question has been cited as evidence for marxs supposed antisemitism but only the most superficial reading of it could sustain such an interpretation david mclellan and francis wheen argue that readers should interpret on the jewish question in the deeper context of marxs debates with bruno bauer author of the jewish question about jewish emancipation in germany wheen says that those critics who see this as a foretaste of mein kampf overlook one essential point in spite of the clumsy phraseology and crude stereotyping the essay was actually written as a defense of the jews it was a retort to bruno bauer who had argued that jews should not be granted full civic rights and freedoms unless they were baptised as christians according to mclellan marx used the word judentum colloquially as meaning commerce arguing that germans must be emancipated from the capitalist mode of production not judaism or jews in particular mclellan concludes that readers should interpret the essays second half as an extended pun at bauers expense 20th century between 1900 and 1924 approximately 175 million jews migrated to america the bulk from eastern europe escaping the pogroms before 1900 american jews had always amounted to less than 1 of americas total population but by 1930 jews formed about 35 this increase combined with the upward social mobility of some jews contributed to a resurgence of antisemitism in the first half of the 20th century in the us jews were discriminated against in employment access to residential and resort areas membership in clubs and organizations and in tightened quotas on jewish enrolment and teaching positions in colleges and universities the lynching of leo frank by a mob of prominent citizens in marietta georgia in 1915 turned the spotlight on antisemitism in the united states the case was also used to build support for the renewal of the ku klux klan which had been inactive since 1870 at the beginning of the 20th century the beilis trial in russia represented modern incidents of bloodlibels in europe during the russian civil war close to 50000 jews were killed in pogroms antisemitism in america reached its peak during the interwar period the pioneer automobile manufacturer henry ford propagated antisemitic ideas in his newspaper the dearborn independent published by ford from 1919 to 1927 the radio speeches of father coughlin in the late 1930s attacked franklin d roosevelts new deal and promoted the notion of a jewish financial conspiracy some prominent politicians shared such views louis t mcfadden chairman of the united states house committee on banking and currency blamed jews for roosevelts decision to abandon the gold standard and claimed that in the united states today the gentiles have the slips of paper while the jews have the lawful money in germany shortly after adolf hitler and the nazi party came to power in 1933 the government instituted repressive legislation which denied jews basic civil rights in september 1935 the nuremberg laws prohibited sexual relations and marriages between aryans and jews as rassenschande race disgrace and stripped all german jews even quarter and halfjews of their citizenship their official title became subjects of the state it instituted a pogrom on the night of 910 november 1938 dubbed kristallnacht in which jews were killed their property destroyed and their synagogues torched antisemitic laws agitation and propaganda were extended to germanoccupied europe in the wake of conquest often building on local antisemitic traditions in 1940 the famous aviator charles lindbergh and many prominent americans led the america first committee in opposing any involvement in a european war lindbergh alleged that jews were pushing america to go to war against germany lindbergh adamantly denied being antisemitic and yet he refers numerous times in his private writings his letters and diary to jewish control of the media being used to pressure the us to get involved in the european war in one diary entry in november 1938 he responded to kristallnacht by writing i do not understand these riots on the part of the germans they have undoubtedly had a difficult jewish problem but why is it necessary to handle it so unreasonably acknowledgement on lindberghs part that he agreed with the nazis that germany had a jewish problem an article by jonathan marwil in antisemitism a historical encyclopedia of prejudice and persecution claims that no one who ever knew lindbergh thought him antisemitic and that claims of his antisemitism were solely tied to the remarks he made in that one speech in the east the third reich forced jews into ghettos in warsaw in kraków in lvov in lublin and in radom after the beginning of the war between nazi germany and the soviet union in 1941 a campaign of mass murder conducted by the einsatzgruppen culminated from 1942 to 1945 in systematic genocide the holocaust eleven million jews were targeted for extermination by the nazis and some six million were eventually killed contemporary antisemitism postwwii antisemitism there have continued to be antisemitic incidents since wwii some of which had been statesponsored in the soviet union antisemitism has been used as an instrument for settling personal conflicts starting with the conflict between joseph stalin and leon trotsky and continuing through numerous conspiracy theories spread by official propaganda antisemitism in the ussr reached new heights after 1948 during the campaign against the rootless cosmopolitan euphemism for jew in which numerous yiddishlanguage poets writers painters and sculptors were killed or arrested this culminated in the socalled doctors plot in 1952 similar antisemitic propaganda in poland resulted in the flight of polish jewish survivors from the country after the war the kielce pogrom and the march 1968 events in communist poland represented further incidents of antisemitism in europe the antijewish violence in postwar poland had a common theme of blood libel rumours 21stcentury european antisemitism physical assaults against jews in europe have included beatings stabbings and other violence which increased markedly sometimes resulting in serious injury and death a 2015 report by the us state department on religious freedom declared that european antiisrael sentiment crossed the line into antisemitism this rise in antisemitic attacks is associated with both muslim antisemitism and the rise of farright political parties as a result of the economic crisis of 2008 this rise in the support for farright ideas in western and eastern europe has resulted in the increase of antisemitic acts mostly attacks on jewish memorials synagogues and cemeteries but also a number of physical attacks against jews in eastern europe the dissolution of the soviet union and the instability of the new states brought the rise of nationalist movements and the accusation against jews for the economic crisis taking over the local economy and bribing the government along with traditional and religious motives for antisemitism such as blood libels writing on the rhetoric surrounding the 2022 russian invasion of ukraine jason stanley relates these perceptions to broader historical narratives the dominant version of antisemitism alive in parts of eastern europe today is that jews employ the holocaust to seize the victimhood narrative from the real victims of the nazis who are russian christians or other nonjewish eastern europeans he calls out the myths of contemporary eastern european antisemitism that a global cabal of jews were and are the real agents of violence against russian christians and the real victims of the nazis were not the jews but rather this group most of the antisemitic incidents in eastern europe are against jewish cemeteries and buildings community centers and synagogues nevertheless there were several violent attacks against jews in moscow in 2006 when a neonazi stabbed 9 people at the bolshaya bronnaya synagogue the failed bomb attack on the same synagogue in 1999 the threats against jewish pilgrims in uman ukraine and the attack against a menorah by extremist christian organization in moldova in 2009 according to paul johnson antisemitic policies are a sign of a state which is poorly governed while no european state currently has such policies the economist intelligence unit notes the rise in political uncertainty notably populism and nationalism as something that is particularly alarming for jews 21stcentury arab antisemitism robert bernstein founder of human rights watch says that antisemitism is deeply ingrained and institutionalized in arab nations in modern times in a 2011 survey by the pew research center all of the muslimmajority middle eastern countries polled held significantly negative opinions of jews in the questionnaire only 2 of egyptians 3 of lebanese muslims and 2 of jordanians reported having a positive view of jews muslimmajority countries outside the middle east similarly held markedly negative views of jews with 4 of turks and 9 of indonesians viewing jews favorably according to a 2011 exhibition at the united states holocaust memorial museum in washington united states some of the dialogue from middle east media and commentators about jews bear a striking resemblance to nazi propaganda according to josef joffe of newsweek antisemitismthe real stuff not just badmouthing particular israeli policiesis as much part of arab life today as the hijab or the hookah whereas this darkest of creeds is no longer tolerated in polite society in the west in the arab world jew hatred remains culturally endemic muslim clerics in the middle east have frequently referred to jews as descendants of apes and pigs which are conventional epithets for jews and christians according to professor robert wistrich director of the vidal sassoon international center for the study of antisemitism sicsa the calls for the destruction of israel by iran or by hamas hezbollah islamic jihad or the muslim brotherhood represent a contemporary mode of genocidal antisemitism black hebrew israelite antisemitism in 2022 the american jewish committee stated that the black hebrew israelite claim that we are the real jews is a troubling antisemitic trope with dangerous potential black hebrew israelite followers have sought out and attacked jewish people in the united states on more than one occasion between 2019 and 2022 individuals motivated by black hebrew israelitism committed five religiously motivated murders black hebrew israelites believe that jewish people are imposters who have stolen black americans true racial and religious identity black hebrew israelites promote the khazar theory about ashkenazi jewish origins in 2019 4 of africanamericans selfidentified as being black hebrew israelites causes antisemitism has been explained in terms of racism xenophobia projected guilt displaced aggression and the search for a scapegoat some explanations assign partial blame to the perception of jewish people as unsociable such a perception may have arisen by many jews having strictly kept to their own communities with their own practices and laws it has also been suggested that parts of antisemitism arose from a perception of jewish people as greedy as often used in stereotypes of jews and this perception has probably evolved in europe during medieval times where a large portion of money lending was operated by jews factors contributing to this situation included that jews were restricted from other professions while the christian church declared for their followers that money lending constituted immoral usury prevention through education education plays an important role in addressing and overcoming prejudice and countering social discrimination however education is not only about challenging the conditions of intolerance and ignorance in which antisemitism manifests itself it is also about building a sense of global citizenship and solidarity respect for and enjoyment of diversity and the ability to live peacefully together as active democratic citizens education equips learners with the knowledge to identify antisemitism and biased or prejudiced messages and raises awareness about the forms manifestations and impact of antisemitism faced by jews and jewish communities geographical variation a march 2008 report by the us state department found that there was an increase in antisemitism across the world and that both old and new expressions of antisemitism persist a 2012 report by the us bureau of democracy human rights and labor also noted a continued global increase in antisemitism and found that holocaust denial and opposition to israeli policy at times was used to promote or justify blatant antisemitism in 2014 the antidefamation league conducted a study titled global 100 an index of antisemitism which also reported high antisemitism figures around the world and among other findings that as many as 27 of people who have never met a jew nevertheless harbor strong prejudices against him see also 1968 polish political crisis antiantisemitism antijewish violence in eastern europe 19441946 antimiddle eastern sentiment antisemite and jew antisemitism around the world antisemitism in the antiglobalization movement antisemitism in the arab world antisemitism in japan antisemitism in the united states history of antisemitism in the united states criticism of judaism farhud 1941 baghdad pogrom host desecration jacob barnet affair jewish deicide christ killers judeomasonic conspiracy theory martyrdom in judaism universities and antisemitism secondary antisemitism stabintheback myth timeline of antisemitism xenophobia notes references citations sources deutsch gotthard antisemitism jewish encyclopedia vol 1 pp 6419 new york funk wagnalls 1901 at internet archive poliakov léon the history of antisemitism volume 1 from the time of christ to the court jews university of pennsylvania press 2003 poliakov léon the history of antisemitism volume 2 from mohammad to the marranos university of pennsylvania press 2003 poliakov léon the history of antisemitism volume 3 from voltaire to wagner university of pennsylvania press 2003 poliakov léon the history of antisemitism volume 4 suicidal europe 18701933 university of pennsylvania press 2003 poliakov léon 1997 antisemitism encyclopaedia judaica cdrom edition version 10 ed cecil roth keter publishing house tausch arno 2018 the return of religious antisemitism the evidence from world values survey data 17 november 2018 available at ssrn tausch arno 2015 islamism and antisemitism preliminary evidence on their relationship from crossnational opinion data 14 august 2015 available at ssrn or islamism and antisemitism preliminary evidence on their relationship from crossnational opinion data tausch arno 2014 the new global antisemitism implications from the recent adl100 data 14 january 2015 middle east review of international affairs vol 18 no 3 fall 2014 available at ssrn or the new global antisemitism implications from the recent adl100 data attribution further reading brustein william i and ryan d king antisemitism in europe before the holocaust international political science review 251 2004 3553 online carr steven alan hollywood and antisemitism a cultural history up to world war ii cambridge university press 2001 cohn norman warrant for genocide eyre spottiswoode 1967 serif 1996 fischer klaus p the history of an obsession german judeophobia and the holocaust the continuum publishing company 1998 freudmann lillian c antisemitism in the new testament university press of america 1994 gerber jane s 1986 antisemitism and the muslim world in history and hate the dimensions of antisemitism ed david berger jewish publications society goldberg sol ury scott weiser kalman eds key concepts in the study of antisemitism palgrave macmillan 2021 online review hanebrink paul a specter haunting europe the myth of judeobolshevism harvard university press 2018 hilberg raul the destruction of the european jews holmes meier 1985 3 volumes isser natalie antisemitism during the french second empire 1991 mckain mark antisemitism at issue greenhaven press 2005 marcus kenneth l the definition of antisemitism 2015 oxford university press michael robert and philip rosen dictionary of antisemitism the scarecrow press inc 2007 michael robert holy hatred christianity antisemitism and the holocaust nirenberg david antijudaism the western tradition new york w w norton company 2013 610 pp roth philip the plot against america 2004 selzer michael ed kike a documentary history of antisemitism in america new york 1972 small charles asher ed the yale papers antisemitism in comparative perspective institute for the study of global antisemitism and policy 2015 online scholarly studies stav arieh 1999 peace the arabian caricature a study of antisemitic imagery gefen publishing house steinweis alan e studying the jew scholarly antisemitism in nazi germany harvard university press 2006 stillman norman the jews of arab lands a history and source book philadelphia jewish publication society of america 1979 stillman na 2006 yahud encyclopaedia of islam eds pj bearman th bianquis ce bosworth e van donzel and wp heinrichs brill brill online united states department of state 2008 retrieved 25 november 2010 see html version vital david people apart the jews in europe 17891939 1999 930pp highly detailed bibliographies calendars etc jewish journal of greater los angeles experts explore effects of ahmadinejad antisemitism 9 march 2007 lazare bernard antisemitism its history and causes antidefamation league arab antisemitism why the jews a perspective on causes of antisemitism coordination forum for countering antisemitism with up to date calendar of antisemitism today annotated bibliography of antisemitism hosted by the hebrew university of jerusalems center for the study of antisemitism sicsa council of europe ecri countrybycountry reports porat dina what makes an antisemite haaretz 27 january 2007 retrieved 24 november 2010 yehoshua ab an attempt to identify the root cause of antisemitism azure spring 2008 antisemitism in modern ukraine antisemitism and special relativity external links prejudice and discrimination by type racism orientalism | 10,773 |
1081 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20of%20Azerbaijan | Economy of Azerbaijan | the economy of azerbaijan has completed its postsoviet transition into a major oilbased economy with the completion of the bakutbilisiceyhan pipeline from one where the state played the major role the transition to oil production led to remarkable growth figures as projects came online reaching 264 in 2005 second highest gdp growth in the world in 2005 only to equatorial guinea and 346 in 2006 world highest before subsiding to 108 and 93 in 2008 and 2009 respectively the real gdp growth rate for 2011 was expected at 37 but had dropped to 01 large oil reserves are a major contributor to azerbaijans economy the national currency the azerbaijani manat was stable in 2000 depreciating 38 against the dollar the budget deficit equaled 13 of gdp in 2000 progress on economic reform has generally lagged behind macroeconomic stabilization the government has undertaken regulatory reforms in some areas including the substantial opening of trade policy but inefficient public administration in which commercial and regulatory interests are commingled limit the impact of these reforms the government has largely completed privatization of agricultural lands and small and mediumsized enterprises in august 2000 the government launched a secondstage privatization program in which many large state enterprises will be privatized since 2001 the economic activity in the country is regulated by the ministry of economy of azerbaijan republic economic history of azerbaijan modern era throughout the soviet period azerbaijan had always been more developed industrially than armenia and georgia two neighboring transcaucasia countries but also less diversified as a result of slow investment in the nonoil sector in this context azerbaijan had relevance in the soviet economy also in the soviet era azerbaijan was known for its production of cotton grain and fruits with a history of industrial development of more than 100 years azerbaijan proved to be a leading nation in the southern caucasus throughout the turmoil of the soviet union collapse in the early 1990s until nowadays republic era oil remains the most prominent product of azerbaijans economy with cotton natural gas and agriculture products contributing to its economic growth over the last five years more than 60 billion was invested into azerbaijans oil by major international oil companies in aioc consortium operated by bp oil production under the first of these psas with the azerbaijan international operating company began in november 1997 and now is about 500000 barrels per day people visit petroleum spas or oil spas to bathe in the local crude in naftalan a leading caviar producer and exporter in the past azerbaijans fishing industry today is concentrated on the dwindling stocks of sturgeon and beluga in the caspian sea azerbaijan shares all the problems of the former soviet republics in making the transition from a command to a market economy but its energy resources brighten its longterm prospects azerbaijan has begun making progress on economic reform and old economic ties and structures are slowly being replaced an obstacle to economic progress including stepped up foreign investment is the continuing conflict with armenia over the nagornokarabakh region in 1992 azerbaijan became member of the economic cooperation organization in 2002 the azerbaijani merchant marine had 54 ships in march 2001 azerbaijan concluded a natural gas agreement with turkey providing a future export market for azerbaijan azerbaijan has concluded 21 productionsharing agreements with various oil companies an export pipeline that transports caspian oil to the mediterranean from baku through tbilisi georgia to ceyhan turkey the bakutbilisiceyhan pipeline became operational in 2006 the pipeline is expected to generate as much as 160 billion in revenues for the country over the next 30 years the recent high price of oil is highly beneficial to azerbaijans economy as the nation is in the midst of an oil boom eastern caspian producers in kazakhstan also have expressed interest in accessing this pipeline to transport a portion of their production in 2010 azerbaijan entered into the top eight biggest oil suppliers to eu countries with 946 billion in 2011 the amount of foreign investments in azerbaijan was 20 billion a 61 increase from 2010 according to minister of economic development of azerbaijan shahin mustafayev in 2011 157 billion was invested in the nonoil sector while the restin the oil sector in 2012 because of its economic performance after the soviet breakup azerbaijan was predicted to become tiger of caucasus in 2012 globalization and world cities research network study ranked baku as a gammalevel global city in 2015 turkey and azerbaijan agreed to boost mutual trade to us15 billion by 2023 macroeconomic trend the following is a chart of trend of gross domestic product of azerbaijan at market prices with figures in usd for purchasing power parity comparisons the us dollar was exchanged at 156588 manats only currently the new manat is in use with an exchange rate of about 1 manat 110 mean graduate pay was 576 per manhour in 2010 the following table shows the main economic indicators in 19802017 source imf for more than a century the backbone of the azerbaijani economy has been petroleum which represented 50 percent of azerbaijans gdp in 2005 and is projected to double to almost 125 percent of gdp in 2007 now that western oil companies are able to tap deepwater oilfields untouched by the soviets because of poor technology azerbaijan is considered one of the most important areas in the world for oil exploration and development proven oil reserves in the caspian basin which azerbaijan shares with russia kazakhstan iran and turkmenistan are comparable in size to the north sea although exploration is still in the early stages sectors of the economy agriculture azerbaijan has the largest agricultural basin in the region about 549 percent of azerbaijan is agricultural lands at the beginning of 2007 there were of utilized agricultural area in the same year the total wood resources counted azerbaijans agricultural scientific research institutes are focused on meadows and pastures horticulture and subtropical crops leaf vegetables viticulture and winemaking cotton growing and medicinal plants in some lands it is profitable to grow grain potatoes sugar beets cotton and tobacco livestock dairy products and wine and spirits are also important farm products the caspian fishing industry is concentrated on the dwindling stocks of sturgeon and beluga some portions of most products that were previously imported from abroad have begun to be produced locally among them are cocacola by cocacola bottlers ltd beer by bakikastel parquet by nehir and oil pipes by eupec pipe coating azerbaijan a new program which is prepared by the european union is aimed to support the economic diversification of azerbaijan program is considered for southern region lankaran which has the lowest economic indicator and the lowest income per capita as well as the lowest level of investment but at the same time high potential for the production of garden products in high quality the program will be focused on the development of the region at the local and international levels azerbaijan produced in 2018 20 million tons of wheat 916 thousand tons of barley 898 thousand tons of potato 609 thousand tons of tomato 307 thousand tons of watermelon 277 thousand tons of sugar beet 277 thousand tons of apple 247 thousand tons of maize 235 thousand tons of onion 233 thousand tons of cotton 223 thousand tons of cucumber 167 thousand tons of grape 160 thousand tons of persimmon 5th largest world producer 108 thousand tons of cabbage in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products like melon 94 thousand tons pear 52 thousand tons and apricot 28 thousand tons manufacturing in 2007 mining and hydrocarbon industries accounted for well over 95 percent of the azerbaijani economy diversification of the economy into manufacturing industries remains a longterm issue as of late 2000s the defense industry of azerbaijan has emerged as an autonomous entity with a growing defense production capability the ministry is cooperating with the defense sectors of ukraine belarus and pakistan along with other contracts azerbaijani defence industries and turkish companies azerbaijan will produce 40 mm revolver grenade launchers 107 mm and 122 mm mlrs systems cobra 44 vehicles and joint modernization of btr vehicles in baku services in 2023 there were 1708 registered companies in the services sector financial and business services the gdp growth rates observed in azerbaijan during the last years made the country one of the fastest growing economies in the world but the banking sector of azerbaijan has yet to tap the vast growth potential that should be achievable due to the continuation of the high economic growth for this reason the banking sector remains small in relation to the size of the azerbaijani economy since 2002 important stages of restructuring of the banking system have started to be carried out taking into consideration the entry of big oil revenues in the country as a logical result of successful oil strategy and in this base as the banks were ready to an effective transfer of their financial resources to the strategic goals development strategy was made for 20022005 by 1 april 2010 47 banks 631 bank branches function in azerbaijan one of the banks was founded with the participation of state capital 23 of foreign capital to the same date 98 nonbank credit organizations operate in the republic along with banks growth of real money incomes of population development of trust in the bank system improving the legal bases of protection of interests of creditors and depositors in particular launch of deposits insurance fund were the criteria characterizing rapid growth of deposits of population as of 1 april 2010 bank deposits of population were equal to 24 billion azn 333 of them were longterm deposits higher than a year as of 1 april 2010 bank credits to customers is 85 bn azn which makes 705 of bank assets special weight of private sector in structure of credit investments is higher than 82 7 bn azn telecommunications in the 21st century a new oil and gas boom helped to improve the situation in azerbaijans science and technology sectors and the government launched a campaign aimed at modernization and innovation the government estimates that profits from the information technology and communication industry will grow and become comparable with those from oil production azerbaijan has a large and steadily growing internet sector mostly uninfluenced by the financial crisis of 20072008 rapid growth is forecast for at least five more years the country has also been making progress in developing its telecoms sector the ministry of communications information technologies mcit as well as being an operator through its role in aztelekom is both a policymaker and regulator public payphones are available for local calls and require the purchase of a token from the telephone exchange or some shops and kiosks tokens allow a call of indefinite duration as of 2009 there were 1397000 main telephone lines and 1485000 internet users there are five gsm providers azercell bakcell azerfon nar mobile aztrank catel mobile network operators and one cdma tourism tourism is an important part of the economy of azerbaijan the country was a wellknown tourist spot in the 1980s however the fall of the soviet union and the first nagornokarabakh war during the 19881994 period damaged the tourist industry and the image of azerbaijan as a tourist destination it was not until the 2000s that the tourism industry began to recover and the country has since experienced a high rate of growth in the number of tourist visits and overnight stays in recent years azerbaijan has also become a popular destination for religious spa and health care tourism during winter the shahdag winter complex offers skiing the government of azerbaijan has set the development of azerbaijan as an elite tourist destination a top priority it is a national strategy to make tourism a major if not the single largest contributor to the azerbaijani economy these activities are regulated by the state tourism agency and the ministry of culture the formula one grand prix is held in baku the capital city and has been held here for years currency system the azerbaijani manat is the currency of azerbaijani denominated as the manat subdivided into 100 qapik the manat is issued by the central bank of azerbaijan the monetary authority of azerbaijan the iso 4217 abbreviation is azn the latinised symbol is the manat is held in a floating exchangerate system managed primarily against the us dollar the rate of exchange azerbaijani manat per us1 for 28 january 2016 was azn 160 there is a complex relationship between azerbaijans balance of trade inflation measured by the consumer price index and the value of its currency despite allowing the value of the manat to float azerbaijans central bank has decisive ability to control its value with relationship to other currencies infrastructure energy twothirds of azerbaijan is rich in oil and natural gas the region of the lesser caucasus accounts for most of the countrys gold silver iron copper titanium chromium manganese cobalt molybdenum complex ore and antimony in september 1994 a 30year contract was signed between the state oil company of azerbaijan republic socar and 13 oil companies among them amoco bp exxonmobil lukoil and statoil as western oil companies are able to tap deepwater oilfields untouched by the soviet exploitation azerbaijan is considered one of the most important spots in the world for oil exploration and development meanwhile the state oil fund of azerbaijan was established as an extrabudgetary fund to ensure the macroeconomic stability transparency in the management of oil revenue and the safeguarding of resources for future generations azeriqaz a subcompany of socar intends to ensure full gasification of the country by 2021 transportation the convenient location of azerbaijan on the crossroad of major international traffic arteries such as the silk road and the southnorth corridor highlights the strategic importance of the transportation sector for the countrys economy the transport sector in the country includes roads railways aviation and maritime transport azerbaijan is also an important economic hub in the transportation of raw materials the bakutbilisiceyhan pipeline btc became operational in may 2006 and extends more than 1774 kilometers through the territories of azerbaijan georgia and turkey the btc is designed to transport up to 50 million tons of crude oil annually and carries oil from the caspian sea oilfields to global markets the south caucasus pipeline also stretching through the territory of azerbaijan georgia and turkey became operational at the end of 2006 and offers additional gas supplies to the european market from the shah deniz gas field shah deniz is expected to produce up to 296 billion cubic meters of natural gas per year azerbaijan also plays a major role in the eusponsored silk road project in 2002 the azerbaijani government established the ministry of transport with a broad range of policy and regulatory functions in the same year the country became a member of the vienna convention on road traffic the highest priority being upgrading the transport network and transforming transportation services into one of the key comparative advantages of the country as this would be highly conducive to the development of other sectors of the economy in 2012 the construction of karstbilisibaku railway expected to provide transportation between asia and europe through connecting the railways of china and kazakhstan in the east with turkeys marmaray to the european railway system in the west broad gauge railways in 2010 stretched for and electrified railways numbered by 2010 there were 35 airports and one heliport regulation single window system shares needed information through a single gateway with all organizations serving in trade field as well as abolishes useless processes and raises the effectiveness of cooperation among different parties 73 economies implement single window system in the world azerbaijan started to implement this system in 2009 it implemented an egovernment portal as well a singlewindow system was established by a decree of the azerbaijani president issued in 2007 30 april in order to simplify exportimport procedures innovate customs services and improve the trade environment according to the decree ministry of justice ministry of economic development ministry of taxes ministry of labor and social protection state social protection fund and state statistics committee should present a proposal on the organization of entrepreneurial activities by single registration body based on single window principle the president appointed the state customs committee as the leading body of controlling goods and transportation passing through the borders of the country in 2008 a single authority principle requires customs officials to be more responsible in dealing with all types of border control operations for other authorities the netherlands and sweden were the countries of which practice studied a single system works on and then shares standardized information accumulated from traders to all entities taking part in international trade the practice of us was explored in this phase an automated system provides a single electronic statement to responsible agencies submitted by traders to be worked on and confirmed and after that these authorities send electronic confirmations and announcements in this case practice of mauritius and singapore was studied the customs committee formed a commission to realize the new system ministry of agriculture ministry of healthcare ministry of internal affairs ministry of taxes ministry of transportation central bank state road police state committee for standardization metrology and patents state maritime administration were selected as important agencies to implement single window system along with the state customs committee the government supported customs committee in preparing its staff to deal with the new system by improving recruitment of local customs offices providing with software and hardware upgrades for the system azerbaijani government supports financially single window system in the first phase the government realized customs clearance system on the process of border crossing to country beginning from 1 january 2009 this system was free to all users then it was expanded to baku and sumgayit in 2011 customs code of the republic of azerbaijan was amended based on the inclusion of the article on single window system which became operative on 1 january 2012 after this amendment all of azerbaijans 29 customs checkpoints started to implement new single window system according to the presidential decree 11 november 2008 the single window principle started to be applied from 1 january 2009 on the inspection of goods and transportation at the border checkpoints customs committee established a commission working on the implementation of single window principle in customs agencies on 18 november 2008 based on the presidential decree of 11 november 2008 technological scheme determining the sequence of issuance of permit certificates was approved by the customs committee on 22 december 2009 scheme provided customs officers to issue permit certificates at border checkpoints to vehicles which perform customs veterinary photosanitary and sanitary quarantine control activities and international automobile transportation in accordance with legislation the state migration service issues appropriate permits for foreigners and stateless persons coming to azerbaijan to live and work on legal grounds simplifying the procedure of their registration at the place of residence and ensuring transparency in these processes the single window principle has been applied on migration management processes starting from 1 july 2009 according to the decree business environment as of october 2014 azerbaijan holds the highest foreign investment per capita among the commonwealth of independent states cis countries germany for example has invested approximately 760 million into the azerbaijani economy and approximately 177 german companies operate within azerbaijan since gaining its independence companies have invested 174 billion into azerbaijan foreign investment accounts for around half of that amount in 2008 azerbaijan was cited as the top reformer by the world banks doing business report according to world banks doing business report 2019 azerbaijan improved its position in the ease of doing business rank from 57 to 25 as well as ranked 4th among the top 10 improvers implementing a record number of reforms mainly involving institutional changes have made it easier to do business in azerbaijan in 20172018 period as a result time and cost to get construction permit reduced significantly time by 80 days and cost by 12563 azn process of connecting electricity grid rationalized as well as getting credit simplified poverty other economic indicators data from cia world factbook unless noted otherwise investment gross fixed 17 of gdp 2011 est household income or consumption by percentage share lowest 10 34 highest 10 274 2008 inflation rate consumer prices 11 2012 est agriculture utilized agricultural land 2011 total wood resources 1442 million cubic metres crops cotton grain rice grapes fruit vegetables tea tobacco livestock products beef mutton poultry milk eggs industrial production growth rate 3 2011 est electricity production 2255 billion kwh 2008 consumption 188 billion kwh 2008 exports 812 million kwh 2008 imports 596 million kwh 2008 current account balance 1112 billion 2011 est exports commodities petroleum and natural gas petroleum products oilfield equipment steel iron ore cement chemicals petrochemicals textiles machinery cotton foodstuffs reserves of foreign exchange and gold 7146 billion 2011 est debt external 389 billion 2011 est currency 1 manat 100 gepik exchange rates azerbaijani manat per us dollar 17 for 22 november 2020 azerbaijani manat per euro 201 for 22 november 2020 fiscal year calendar year see also azerbaijan and the international monetary fund list of companies of azerbaijan bakutbilisiceyhan pipeline state oil company of azerbaijan petroleum industry in azerbaijan agriculture in azerbaijan tourism in azerbaijan baku military of azerbaijan judiciary of azerbaijan references further reading habibov nazim poverty in azerbaijan in the caucasus analytical digest no 34 external links hübner gerald as if nothing happened how azerbaijans economy manages to sail through stormy weather in the caucasus analytical digest no 18 azerbaijan | 3,603 |
1082 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography%20of%20Azerbaijan | Geography of Azerbaijan | azerbaijan is a country in the caucasus region situated at the juncture of eastern europe and west asia three physical features dominate azerbaijan the caspian sea whose shoreline forms a natural boundary to the east the greater caucasus mountain range to the north and the extensive flatlands at the countrys center about the size of portugal or the us state of maine azerbaijan has a total land area of approximately 86600 square kilometers less than 1 of the land area of the former soviet union of the three transcaucasian states azerbaijan has the greatest land area special administrative subdivisions are the nakhchivan autonomous republic which is separated from the rest of azerbaijan by a strip of armenian territory and the nagornokarabakh autonomous region entirely within azerbaijan the status of nagornokarabakh is disputed by armenia but is internationally recognized as territory of azerbaijan located in the region of the southern caucasus mountains azerbaijan borders the caspian sea to the east georgia and russia to the north iran to the south and armenia to the southwest and west a small part of nakhchivan also borders turkey to the northwest the capital of azerbaijan is the ancient city of baku which has the largest and best harbor on the caspian sea and has long been the center of the republics oil industry topography and drainage the elevation changes over a relatively short distance from lowlands to highlands nearly half the country is considered mountainous notable physical features are the gently undulating hills of the subtropical southeastern coast which are covered with tea plantations orange groves and lemon groves numerous mud volcanoes and mineral springs in the ravines of kobustan mountain near baku and coastal terrain that lies as much as twentyeight meters below sea level except for its eastern caspian shoreline and some areas bordering georgia and iran azerbaijan is ringed by mountains to the northeast bordering russias dagestan autonomous republic is the greater caucasus range to the west bordering armenia is the lesser caucasus range to the extreme southeast the talysh mountains form part of the border with iran the highest elevations occur in the greater caucasus where mount bazardüzü rises 4466 meters above sea level eight large rivers flow down from the caucasus ranges into the central kuraaras lowlands alluvial flatlands and low delta areas along the seacoast designated by the azerbaijani name for the mtkvari river kura and its main tributary the aras the mtkvari the longest river in the caucasus region forms the delta and drains into the caspian a short distance downstream from the confluence with the aras the mingechaur reservoir with an area of 605 square kilometers that makes it the largest body of water in azerbaijan was formed by damming the kura in western azerbaijan the waters of the reservoir provide hydroelectric power and irrigation of the kuraaras plain most of the countrys rivers are not navigable about 15 of the land in azerbaijan is arable mountains the countrys highest peak bazardüzü rises to 4485 m in this range at the azerbaijanrussia border climate temperature the climate varies from subtropical and humid in the southeast to subtropical and dry in central and eastern azerbaijan continental and humid in the mountains and continental and dry in nakhchivan baku on the caspian enjoys mild weather that averages in january and in july precipitation physiographic conditions and different atmosphere circulations admit 8 types of air currents including continental sea arctic tropical currents of air that formulates the climate of the republic the maximum annual precipitation falls in lenkeran 1600 to 1800 mm and the minimum in absheron 200 to 350 mm the maximum daily precipitation of 334 mm was observed at the bilieser station in 1955 environmental problems air and water pollution are widespread and pose great challenges to economic development major sources of pollution include oil refineries and chemical and metallurgical industries which in the early 1990s continued to operate as inefficiently as they had in the soviet era air quality is extremely poor in baku the center of oil refining some reports have described bakus air as the most polluted in the former soviet union and other industrial centers suffer similar problems the caspian sea including baku bay has been polluted by oil leakages and the dumping of raw or inadequately treated sewage reducing the yield of caviar and fish in the soviet period azerbaijan was pressed to use extremely heavy applications of pesticides to improve its output of scarce subtropical crops for the rest of the soviet union the continued regular use of the pesticide ddt in the 1970s and 1980s was an egregious lapse although that chemical was officially banned in the soviet union because of its toxicity to humans excessive application of pesticides and chemical fertilizers has caused extensive groundwater pollution and has been linked by azerbaijani scientists to birth defects and illnesses rising water levels in the caspian sea mainly caused by natural factors exacerbated by manmade structures have reversed the decadeslong drying trend and now threaten coastal areas the average level rose 15 meters between 1978 and 1993 because of the nagornokarabakh conflict large numbers of trees were felled roads were built through pristine areas and large expanses of agricultural land were occupied by military forces like other former soviet republics azerbaijan faces a gigantic environmental cleanup complicated by the economic uncertainties left in the wake of the moscowcentered planning system the committee for the protection of the natural environment is part of the azerbaijani government but in the early 1990s it was ineffective at targeting critical applications of limited funds establishing pollution standards or monitoring compliance with environmental regulations early in 1994 plans called for azerbaijan to participate in the international caspian sea forum sponsored by the european union eu natural hazards droughts and floods some lowland areas threatened by rising levels of the caspian sea environmentcurrent issues local scientists consider the abseron yasaqligi apsheron peninsula including baky and sumqayit and the caspian sea to be the ecologically most devastated area in the world because of severe air water and soil pollution soil pollution results from the use of ddt as a pesticide and also from toxic defoliants used in the production of cotton environment international agreements party to air pollution biodiversity climate change desertification endangered species hazardous wastes marine dumping ozone layer protection ship pollution wetlands area and boundaries area total 86600 km² country comparison to the world 113 land 82629 km² water 3971 km² note includes the exclave of nakhchivan autonomous republic and the nagornokarabakh region the regions autonomy was abolished by azerbaijani supreme soviet on november 26 1991 area comparative australia comparative larger than tasmania canada comparative larger than new brunswick united kingdom comparative slightly larger than scotland united states comparative slightly smaller than maine eu comparative slightly smaller than portugal land boundaries total 2468 km border countries armenia with azerbaijanproper 566 km armenia with azerbaijannakhchivan exclave 221 km georgia 428 km iran with azerbaijanproper 432 km iran with azerbaijannakhchivan exclave 700 km russia 338 km turkey 17 km coastline mostly landlocked but has a 713 km coastline with the caspian sea maritime claims none terrain large flat lowland much of it below sealevel with great caucasus mountains to the north uplands in the west elevation extremes lowest point caspian sea 28 m highest point bazardüzü 4466 m on the border with russia highest peak entirely within azeri territory shah dagi 4243 m islands resources and land use natural resources petroleum natural gas iron ore nonferrous metals bauxite land use arable land 2295 permanent crops 279 other 7426 2012 est irrigated land 14250 km² 2010 total renewable water resources 3468 km3 2011 freshwater withdrawal domesticindustrialagricultural total 1221 km3yr 41878 per capita 1384 cu myr 2010 see also references general references | 1,292 |
1087 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign%20relations%20of%20Azerbaijan | Foreign relations of Azerbaijan | the republic of azerbaijan is a member of the united nations the nonaligned movement the organization for security and cooperation in europe natos partnership for peace the euroatlantic partnership council the world health organization the european bank for reconstruction and development the council of europe cfe treaty the community of democracies the international monetary fund and the world bank the major trends in the foreign relations of the republic of azerbaijan toward both global and regional powers active in caucasus area external variables are categorized depending on their original nature into two groups global and regional the former category includes global players such as moscow and washington while the latter category rival regional players namely ankara and tehran azerbaijan has formal involvement with senior exus government officials including james baker and henry kissinger as they serve on the honorary council of advisors of the usazerbaijan chamber of commerce usacc usacc is cochaired by tim cejka president of exxonmobil and reza vaziri president of rv investment group and chairman of the anglo asian mining plc lse ticker aaz diplomatic relations azerbaijan maintains diplomatic relations with 185 united nations member states the state of palestine and the holy see azerbaijan does not have diplomatic relations with the following countries armenia botswana central african republic cyprus kiribati federated states of micronesia tonga azerbaijan also maintains good relations with the european union in the framework of its eastern european neighbourhood policy see azerbaijan and the european union list list of countries with which azerbaijan maintains diplomatic relations with information on some of the countries with which azerbaijan maintains formal relations multilateral africa americas asia europe oceania international organizations asdb bsec ce cis eapc ebrd ece eco escap fao guam iaea ibrd icao icrm ida idb ifad ifc ifrcs ilo imf imo interpol ioc iom iso correspondent itu ituc oas observer oic opcw osce pfp united nations unctad unesco unido upu wco wftu who wipo wmo wtoo wtoobserver other entities sovereign military order of malta there are no relations states with limited recognition disputes nagornokarabakhazerbaijan the frozen conflict over currently largely armenianpopulated region of nagornokarabakh within the republic of azerbaijan began when in 1988 the armenian majority of nagornokarabakh demanded autonomy with demonstrations and persecutions against ethnic azeris following in armenia this led to antiarmenian rioting in azerbaijan with azerbaijani militias beginning their effort to expel armenians from the enclave in 1992 a war broke out and pogroms of armenians and azeris forced both groups to flee their homes in 1994 a russianbrokered ceasefire ended the war but more than 1 million ethnic armenians and azeris are still not able to return home the conflict over nagornokarabakh remains unresolved despite negotiations that are ongoing since 1992 under the aegis of the minsk group of the osce to resolve the conflict peacefully caviar diplomacy the european stability initiative esi has revealed in a report from 2012 with the title caviar diplomacy how azerbaijan silenced the council of europe that since azerbaijans entry into the council of europe each year 30 to 40 deputies are invited to azerbaijan and generously paid with expensive gifts including caviar worth up to 1400 euro silk carpets gold silver and large amounts of money in return they become lobbyists for azerbaijan this practice has been widely referred to as caviar diplomacy esi also published a report on 2013 presidential elections in azerbaijan titled disgraced azerbaijan and the end of election monitoring as we know it the report revealed the ties between azerbaijani government and the members of certain observation missions who praised the elections azerbaijans caviar diplomacy at 2013 presidential elections sparked a major international scandal as the reports of two authoritative organizations parliamentary assembly of the council of europeeuropean parliament and osceodihr completely contradicted one another in their assessments of elections nongovernmental anticorruption organization transparency international has regularly judged azerbaijan to be one of the most corrupt countries in the world and has also criticized azerbaijan for the caviar diplomacy at june 2016 the public prosecutor of milan has accused the former leader of the christian union of the center and of the european peoples party of the parliamentary assembly of the council of europe luca volonte of accepting large bribes from representatives of the azerbaijani government two people with highlevel experience of the council of europes parliamentary assembly pace have told the guardian they believe its members have been offered bribes for votes by azerbaijan former azerbaijani diplomat arif mammadov alleged that a member of azerbaijans delegation at the council of europe had 30m 25m to spend on lobbying its institutions including the council of europe assembly pace ratified the terms of reference of an independent external investigation body to carry out a detailed independent inquiry into the allegations of corruption at the council involving azerbaijan esisc report on 6 march 2017 esisc european strategic intelligence and security center published a scandalous report called the armenian connection where it veraciously attacked human rights ngos and research organisations criticising human rights violations and corruption in azerbaijan turkey and russia esisc in that report asserted that caviar diplomacy report elaborated by esi aimed to create climate of suspicion based on slander to form a network of mps that would engage in a political war against azerbaijan in the second chapter of the report called the armenian connection mr x nils muižnieks council of europe commissioner for human rights that was published on 18 april 2017 esisc asserted that the network composed of european pms armenian officials and some ngos human rights watch amnesty international human rights house foundation open dialog european stability initiative and helsinki committee for human rights was financed by the soros foundation according to esisc the key figure of the network since 2012 has been nils muižnieks commissioner for human rights of the council of europe and the network has served to the interests of george soros and the republic of armenia the report is written in the worst traditions of authoritarian propaganda makes absurd claims and is clearly aimed at deflecting the wave of criticism against coverup of unethical lobbying and corruption in pace and demands for change in the assembly said freedom files analytical centre according robert coalson radio free europe esisc is a part of bakus lobbying efforts to extend to the use of front think tanks to shift public opinion european stability initiative said that esisc report is full of lies such as claiming that german pace member strasser holds proarmenian views and citing as evidence that he went to yerevan in 2015 to commemorate the armenian genocide when strasser has never in his life been to independent armenia see also azerbaijaneuropean union relations azerbaijannato relations azerbaijan and the international monetary fund list of diplomatic missions in azerbaijan list of diplomatic missions of azerbaijan visa requirements for azerbaijani citizens further reading valiyev anar azerbaijan and the north caucasus a pragmatic relationship in the caucasus analytical digest no 27 hübner gerald foreign direct investment in azerbaijanthe quality of quantity in the caucasus analytical digest no 28 abbasov shahin azerbaijans eurovision story great chances to improve but no political will in the caucasus analytical digest no 32 mazziotti marius sauerborn djan scianna bastian matteo multipolarity is key assessing azerbaijans foreign policy references cia world factbook 2000 and the 2003 us department of state website external links us embassy in azerbaijan in baku embassy of the republic of azerbaijan in washington tajikistan kyrgyzstan relations | 1,237 |
1088 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azerbaijani%20Armed%20Forces | Azerbaijani Armed Forces | the azerbaijani armed forces is the military of the republic of azerbaijan it was reestablished according to the countrys law of the armed forces on 9 october 1991 the original azerbaijan democratic republics armed forces were dissolved after azerbaijan was absorbed into the soviet union as the azerbaijan soviet socialist republic from 28 april 1920 after the soviet union dissolved in 199192 azerbaijans armed forces were reformed based on soviet bases and equipment left on azerbaijani soil the armed forces have three branches the azerbaijani land forces the azerbaijani air and air defence force and the azerbaijani navy associated forces include the azerbaijani national guard the internal troops of azerbaijan and the state border service which can be involved in state defense under certain circumstances according to the azerbaijani media sources the military expenditures of azerbaijan for 2009 were set at us246 billion however according to stockholm international peace research institute only 1473 billion was spent in that year iiss also suggests that the defence budget in 2009 was 15 billion the ministry of defence industry of azerbaijan supervises the design manufacturing regulation and maintenance of military equipment in the future azerbaijan hopes to start building tanks armored vehicles military planes and military helicopters overview since the fall of the soviet union azerbaijan has been trying to further develop its armed forces into a professional well trained and mobile military azerbaijan has been undergoing extensive modernization and capacity expanding programs with the military budget increasing from around 300 million in 2005 to 246 billion in 2009 the total armed forces number 56840 men in the land forces 7900 men in the air force and air defence force and 2200 men in the navy there are also 19500 personnel in the national guard state border service and internal troops in addition there are 300000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years the military hardware of azerbaijan consists of 220 main battle tanks an additional 162 t80s were acquired between 2005 and 2010 595 armored combat vehicles and 270 artillery systems the air force has about 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters azerbaijan has acceded to the nuclear nonproliferation treaty as a nonnuclear weapons state azerbaijan participates in natos partnership for peace azerbaijan joined the multinational force in 2003 it sent 150 troops to iraq and later troops to kosovo azerbaijani troops also served in afghanistan despite the rise in azerbaijans defence budget the armed forces were assessed in 2008 as not having a high state of battle readiness and being illprepared for wide scale combat operations the second karabakh war demonstrated how azerbaijans military capabilities had risen history of the azerbaijani armed forces azerbaijan democratic republic the history of the modern azerbaijan army dates back to azerbaijan democratic republic in 1918 when the armed forces of the republic of azerbaijan were created on 26 june 1918 first de facto minister of defense of adr was dr khosrov bey sultanov when the ministry was formally established gen samedbey mehmandarov became the minister and then ltgen aliagha shikhlinski his deputy chiefs of staff of adr army were ltgen maciej sulkiewicz march 1919 10 december 1919 and majgen abdulhamid bey gaitabashi 10 december 1919 april 1920 the red army invaded azerbaijan on 28 april 1920 although the bulk of the newly formed azerbaijani army was engaged in putting down an armenian revolt that had just broken out in karabakh the azerbaijanis did not surrender their brief independence of 191820 quickly or easily as many as 20000 of the total 30000 soldiers died resisting what was effectively a russian reconquest the national army of azerbaijan was abolished by the bolshevik government 15 of the 21 army generals were executed by the bolsheviks russian civil war after the sovietisation of azerbaijan the newly formed azerbaijani red army replaced the previous army taking part in the russian civil war and the invasion of georgia world war ii during world war ii azerbaijan played a crucial role in the strategic energy policy of soviet union much of the soviet unions oil on the eastern front was supplied by baku by a decree of the supreme soviet of the ussr in february 1942 the commitment of more than 500 workers and employees of the oil industry of azerbaijan was recognised with orders and medals operation edelweiss carried out by the german wehrmacht targeted baku because of the importance of its oil fields to the ussr some 800000 azerbaijanis fought within the ranks of the soviet army of which 400000 died azerbaijani national formations of the red army included the 223rd 227th 396th 402nd and 416th rifle divisions azerbaijani majorgeneral hazi aslanov was awarded a second hero of the soviet union after a long postwar fight for recognition of his accomplishments dissolution of the soviet armed forces during the cold war azerbaijan had been the deployment area of units of the soviet 4th army whose principal formations in 1988 included four motor rifle divisions 23rd guards 60th 75th and 295th the 75th motor rifle division was isolated in nakhchivan the 4th army also included missile and air defense brigades and artillery and rocket regiments the 75th divisions stores and equipment were apparently transferred to the nakhchivan authorities azerbaijan also hosted the 49th arsenal of the soviet main agency of missiles and artillery which contained over 7000 traincar loads of ammunition to the excess of one billion units the first president of azerbaijan ayaz mutallibov did not wish to build an independent army wanting to rely instead largely on soviet troops even when the parliament decided that an army should be formed in september 1991 disagreements between the government and the opposition azerbaijani popular front party impeded creation of a unified force around this time the first unit of the new army was formed on the basis of the 18110 military unit of mechanized infantry of the soviet ground forces probably part of the 4th army located in shikhov south of baku at the time of the parliamentary decision lieutenantgeneral valeh barshadli became the first minister of defense of azerbaijan from 5 september to 11 december 1991 later from may to 4 september 1992 he served as chief of general staff of azerbaijani armed forces newly formed military in summer 1992 the nascent defense ministry received a resolution by the azerbaijani president on the takeover of units and formations in azerbaijani territory it then forwarded an ultimatum to moscow demanding control over vehicles and armaments of the 135th and 139th motor rifle regiments of the 295th motor rifle division in july 1992 azerbaijan ratified the treaty on conventional armed forces in europe cfe which establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of conventional military equipment azerbaijan approved the cfe flank agreement in may 1997 the transfer of the property of the 4th army except for part of the property of the 366th motor rifle regiment of the 23rd guards motor rifle division captured by armenian armed formations in 1992 during the regiments withdrawal from stepanakert and the 49th arsenal was completed in 1992 thus by the end of 1992 azerbaijan received arms and military hardware sufficient for approximately four motor rifle divisions with prescribed army units it also inherited naval ships there are also reports that 50 combat aircraft from the disbanded 19th army of the soviet air defence forces came under azerbaijani control the azerbaijani armed forces took a series of devastating defeats by armenian forces during the 19921994 nagornokarabakh war which resulted in the loss of control of nagornokarabakh proper and seven surrounding rayons comprising roughly 20 of the territory of azerbaijan azerbaijani sources insist that armenian victory was largely due to military help from russia and the wealthy armenian diaspora armenians partially deny the allegation claiming that russian side was equally supplying armenian and azerbaijani sides with weapons and mercenaries during the war the azerbaijani armed forces were also aided by turkish military advisers and russian ukrainian chechen and afghan mercenaries 21st century a number of azerbaijani human rights groups have been tracking noncombat deaths and have noted an upward trend in early 2010s based on defense ministry statistics that had not been released to the public the group of monitoring compliance with human rights in the army gmchra has recorded the deaths of 76 soldiers to date in noncombat incidents for 2011 and the injury of 91 others in comparison there were 62 noncombat deaths and 71 cases of injury in 2010 the string of noncombat deaths raises questions about the reform progress of the military factors behind the deaths include bullying hazing and the systemic corruption within the azerbaijani military in 2017 azerbaijani authorities used large scale torture the tartar case on azerbaijani military personnel accused of treason generals nacmeddin sadikhov and hikmet hasanov were accused of torturing azerbaijani officers and soldiers and according to the authorities and human rights defenders more than 400 people were subjected to torture in the course of the case the azerbaijani authorities claimed one person was killed as a result while human rights defenders say the number is about 13 and many were wrongfully convicted and given hefty prison sentences second karabakh war the second karabakh war also known in azerbaijan as the patriotic war or operation iron fist began on the morning of 27 september 2020 when azerbaijan launched an offensive along the line of contact on the seventh day of the war a major offensive was launched by the ground forces advancing in the north making some territorial gains while the fighting gradually shifted to the south following the capture of shusha the secondlargest settlement in nagornokarabakh by azerbaijani forces a ceasefire agreement was signed between azerbaijan and armenia ending all hostilities in the area under the agreement armenia returned the surrounding territories it occupied in 1994 to azerbaijan while azerbaijan gained land access to its nakhchivan exclave total casualties were in the low thousands during the war the azerbaijani army was widely accused of committing war crimes against armenian soldiers and civilians human rights watch and amnesty international both condemned azerbaijans indiscriminate shelling of armenian civilians including the use of cluster munitions in addition videos of azerbaijani soldiers mistreating or executing captive armenians were circulated online and received widespread condemnation on 10 december a victory parade was held in honor of the azerbaijani army on azadliq square with 3000 soldiers marching alongside military equipment unmanned aerial vehicles and aircraft in august 2022 the un committee on the elimination of racial discrimination expressed deep concern regarding severe and grave human rights violations committed during 2020 hostilities and beyond by the azerbaijani military forces against prisoners of war and other protected persons of armenian ethnic or national origin including extrajudicial killings torture and other illtreatment and arbitrary detention as well as the destruction of houses schools and other civilian facilities structure command since the fall of the soviet union there have been attempts in the defence ministry to reform the military to be more in line with the turkishnato model resulting in sovietlegacy officers such as rovshan akbarov and najmeddin sadikov being removed from power azerbaijan periodically holds drills to improve interaction and combat coordination between the servicemen during operations its military personnels combat readiness as well as to develop commanders military decisionmaking and unit management skills land forces the azerbaijani land forces number 85000 strong according to uk advanced research and assessment group estimates the 2500 men of the national guard are also part of the ground forces in addition there are 300000 former service personnel who have had military service in the last 15 years other paramilitary agencies consist of interior ministry internal troops of azerbaijan 12000 strong and the land component of the state border service 5000 strong azerbaijan has signed numerous contracts to strengthen its armed forces and to train its military with turkeys assistance over the last 15 years azerbaijan has been preparing its military for possible action against armenian forces in nagornokarabakh the land forces consist of five army corps 1st army corps also known as barda army corps concentrated near ganja 2nd army corps also known as beylagan army corps concentrated against armenian occupied territories and part is deployed on the azerbaijaniranian border 3rd army corps also known as shamkir army corps concentrated against armenian occupied territories 4th army corps also known as baku army corps covers absheron peninsula and the coast nakhchivan separate combined arms army deployed in nakhchivan the land forces include 23 motor rifle brigades an artillery brigade a multiple rocket launcher brigade and an antitank regiment the iiss military balance reported in 2007 that the land forces had an estimated 40 sa13 gopher sa4 ganef and sa8 gecko air defence missile systems with 80240 eff to support the army in the battlefield iiss 2007 p 157 the peacekeeping forces of azerbaijan are mostly supplied from the land forces though the internal troops of azerbaijan do also supply some as of march 2011 94 peacekeepers were deployed with the international security assistance force isaf in afghanistan in the past it also actively supported the peacekeeping operation in kosovo and iraq the azerbaijani peacekeeping unit deployed in iraq consisted of 14 officers 16 sergeants and 120 privates a total of 150 troops the unit secured the hydroelectric power station and reservoir in al haditha from august 2003 in december 2008 azerbaijan withdrew the unit from iraq reportedly in december 2014 azerbaijan created the separate combined arms army in nakhchivan karam mustafayev became commander of the corps the army was created based on the nakhchivan 5th army corps to strengthen defense capability of nakhchivan autonomous republic increase of combat capability of military units and formations of the armed forces improve central control reports quoting the defence ministry said air forces the azerbaijani air and air defence force is a single unified service branch some 8000 men serve in the air force and air defence force the air and air defence force has around 106 aircraft and 35 helicopters the country has four major airbases nasosnaya air base has fighters kyurdamir air base a bomber regiment ganja air base transports and baku kala air base the helicopter unit there are also four other airbases which do not appear to have aircraft based there these are dollyar air base nakhchivan airport sanqacal air base and sitalcay air base the azerbaijani air force using mig21 su24 and su25 aircraft as well as the mig29 purchased from ukraine in 2006 and il76 transport aircraft the mig29 have been designated as the standard aircraft for the azaf azerbaijan is holding talks with either the peoples republic of china or pakistan to purchase jf17 thunder aircraft mig25s previously in service have been retired seemingly in the 200709 period azerbaijans helicopter force is concentrated at baku kala air base and according to the iiss consists of a single regiment with around 1415 mi24 1213 mi8 and 7 mi2 janes information group and the iiss give figures which agree with only a single aircrafts difference recently end of 2010 russian rosvertol announced that azerbaijan armed forces signed a deal for 24 pieces of mi35m hinde gunships what would further enhance the azerbaijani ground attack formations the air force has l39 advanced training aircraft in store the azerbaijan border guard and voluntary society of defense patriotism and sport have yakovlev light training aircraft azerbaijan has missile and radar systems intended to defend azerbaijani airspace there are at least 2 divisions of s300pmu2 thereby the country has one of the most capable sam surfacetoair missile system in the region azerbaijan also operates two s200 sa5 gammon batteries near baku and mingachevir the s300pmu2 represents a logical replacement for these systems offering coverage of the majority of the nation the country also has about 100 nato designated sa2 guideline original name s75 sa3 goa s125 pechora2m and the sa5 gammon s200 are in static installations these may be around baku and the central part to cover the whole azerbaijani aerospace however august 2011 investigations shows that after purchase of s300 surfacetoair missiles the largest apparent gap in azerbaijans air defense system may have been filled also in azerbaijan there was a former soviet early warning radar the gabala radar station was a bistatic phasedarray installation operated by the russian space forces the contract was signed in 2002 and was due to expire in 2012 where it was to be given back to the azerbaijani government the contract costed russia 7 million per year the radar station had a range of up to and was designed to detect intercontinental ballistic missile launches as far as from the indian ocean in december 2012 russia announced that negotiations had been unsuccessful and that they had stopped using the radar station the site was given back to azerbaijan and all the equipment dismantled and transported to russia nowadays russia covers the area from the armavir radar station navy the main naval base of the soviet union in the caspian sea was based in baku when the soviet union collapsed azerbaijan inherited the naval base and parts of the caspian sea flotilla the azerbaijan navy has about 2200 personnel in 2010 the navy had a petya class light frigate qusar g 121 and a number of patrol craft including one turk class araz p 223 one brya project 722 class p 218 one shelon project 1388m class p 212 one poluchat class project 368 p 219 one luga class project 888 t 710 and four petrushka polish uk3 class p 213 p 214 p 215 and p 216 there are four minesweepers consisting of 2 sonya class minesweeper and 2 yevgenya class minesweepers janes fighting ships 2010 the navy is also attributed with 5 landing craft 3 polnochny and 2 vydra iiss 2007 plus three research ships 1 project 10470 a 671 ex svyaga 1 balerian uryvayev class survey vessel ag and one vadim popov class survey vessel ag the us navy has helped train the azerbaijani navy there is also an agreement to provide us support to refurbish azerbaijani warships in the caspian sea in 2006 the us government donated 3 motorboats to the azerbaijani navy in 2007 an agreement between the azerbaijani navy and a us military company was concluded which stated that a part of the azerbaijani navy would be equipped with advanced laser marksmanship systems the us company specialists were also to give training on the use of the new equipment a number of separate us programmes are underway under the caspian guard initiative focused mostly on enhancing azerbaijani and kazakh maritime border security in may 2011 the president of the state oil company of azerbaijan republic rovnag abdullayev stated that azerbaijan would start production of national warships after 2013 the naval intelligence of azerbaijan maintains the 641st special warfare naval unit the special forces were trained by the us navy seals unit 641 has several midget submarines such as triton1m and triton 2 at their disposal as well as underwater tool motion for individual divers the special unit is composed of 3 reconnaissance groups 2 groups for mountainous warfare and one diving group obligatory training includes parachute jumping day and night on land and on water special forces the special forces of azerbaijan are part of the ministry of defence it was established in april 1999 with officers and warrant officers who had participated in the first nagornokarabakh war of 19911994 the turkish special forces command played a role in the formation of the unit during the 2020 nagornokarabakh war personnel of the special forces reclaimed the city of jebrayil and nine surrounding villages from the armenian army on november 8 aliyev congratulated the commander of the special forces on their liberation of shusha the war was considered to be first time azerbaijan has actively used all of its special forces units defense industry the ministry of defence industry of azerbaijan directs domestic military supplies for azerbaijan it was established in 2005 the defence industries ministry subsumed the state department for military industry and for armaments and the military science center each of which was formerly a separate agency within the azerbaijani defense ministry the defense industry has emerged as an autonomous entity with a growing production capability the ministry is cooperating with the defense sectors of ukraine belarus and pakistan along with other contracts azerbaijani defence industries and turkish companies azerbaijan will produce 40mm revolver grenade launchers 107mm and 122mm mlrs systems cobra 44 vehicles and joint modernization of btr vehicles in baku the major military companies of azerbaijan are rpe iglim aviation and shipbuilding radiogurashdirma communication means and radioelectronic rpe neftgazavtomat devices and automation systems for monitoring technological processes rpe automatic lines nonstandard equipment and products for application in electrotechnical and machine engineering aviaagregat multipurpose aviation equipment various airdrome conditioners universal container of board conductor airtoair radiators fueloil airtoair heat exchangers and ventilators in early 2008 reports indicated that an agreement with turkey had been signed which would lead to azerbaijan producing armoured personnel carriers infantry fighting vehicles and small calibre artillery pieces international cooperation azerbaijan cooperates with about 60 countries in the militarytechnical sphere and has an agreement on militarytechnical cooperation with more than 30 countries turkey in december 2009 an agreement on military assistance was signed by turkey and azerbaijan the agreement envisions ankara supplying azerbaijan with weapons military equipment and if necessary soldiers in case war with armenia over karabakh resumes turkey has provided azerbaijan with infantry weapons tactical vehicles jeeps trucks etc professional training military organization technology transfer licensed military hardware production and other services due to help from turkish specialists and instructors thousands of azerbaijani officers have been trained to western standards the military position as international importance of azerbaijan increased with an agreement between azerbaijan and turkey on the participation an azerbaijani peacekeeping platoon in the staff of the turkish battalion in kosovo since 1992 azerbaijan and turkey have signed more than 100 military protocols some of the major protocols include cooperation of staff members national security cooperation in the topographical area forming and training of professional school of forces in baku carrying out of the material and technical purchasing military industry cooperation development of the 5th army corps also known as nakhchivan army corps in nakhchivan cooperation in the area of military history military archives and museum work and military publication assistance on training material and technical between the azerbaijan border guard and the turkish armed forces longterm economical and military cooperation and application of the financial aid application of material and technical provision in may 2011 azerbaijan had discussed the purchase of longrange rockets from two chinese companies the minister of the defence industry has said other arms deals were signed with turkey turkish defence minister vecdi gonul and yaver jamalov signed a protocol of intent on future joint production of two types of output 107mm rockets and the national rifle possibly the mehmetçik1 a protocol of intent was signed the same day with the mechanical and chemical industry corporation mkek on the joint production of 120mm mortar launchers this project will come into force in a few months time agreement has also been reached with turkish company aselsan on the production of some types of defence output in azerbaijan specifically the latest types of weapons sights these projects will probably happen in the near future too recently turkish defense industries secretariat told that an export version of the t155 firtina selfpropelled howitser is almost done and could start production t155 has been powered by a german mtu power pack which restricts the sale to some countries like azerbaijan the turkish manufacturer mkek has announced that they have found an alternate supplier for the power pack where azerbaijan showed interest to buy the high tech more capable 155mm 52 caliber from turkish authorities united states section 907 of the united states freedom support act bans any kind of direct united states aid to the azerbaijani government since a waiver was made in 2001 there has been extensive us military cooperation with azerbaijan this has included special forces and naval aid consultations with united states european command and linkages through the us national guard state partnership program on 19 may 2006 azerbaijani defense minister safar abiyev and the then commander of united states air forces in europe general tom hobbins met in baku to discuss military cooperation he said the objective of his visit was to become familiar with the state of azerbaijani armed forces hobbins pointed to the progress made in the natoazerbaijan relations saying that the successful implementation of the nato partnership for peace program in azerbaijan has brought the country even closer to the alliance he said that the two countries air forces will expand cooperation the us state of oklahoma is linked with azerbaijan through the us national guard state partnership program spp oklahoma national guard troops have been sent on training and humanitarian missions to baku russia russia is one of azerbaijans main suppliers of arms as of today military and technical cooperation with russia is measured at 4 billion and it tends to grow further president ilham aliyev said after meeting with russian president vladimir putin in baku in 2013 israel azerbaijan and israel cooperate on numerous areas of the defense industry israel is azerbaijans largest weapon supplier with 485 billion in sales during 2016 alone azerbaijan has shown great interest in israeli technology over the years in particular an agreement was reached over the construction of the factory of intelligence and combat drones in azerbaijan the israeli defense company elta systems ltd has had cooperation from azerbaijan in building the tecsar reconnaissance satellite system which can take highdefinition photos of ground surfaces in all weather conditions according to azerbaijani military experts the tecsar system will be indispensable for military operations in the mountainous terrains of azerbaijan as of june 2009 israel and azerbaijan had been negotiating on the production of namer armoured infantry fighting vehicles in azerbaijan there is no further information as to whether any agreement has been made nato the north atlantic treaty organization nato and azerbaijan actively cooperate on defence institutional reforms and have developed practical cooperation in many other areas azerbaijans individual partnership action plan ipap and its partnership for peace pfp linkages lay out the programme of cooperation between azerbaijan and nato the azerbaijani government has however delayed implementing ipaprecommended reforms however in part at least because no decision had been taken to seek nato membership this is because azerbaijans foreign policy seeks to balance interests with the us eu russia and iran according to a nato diplomatic source some key officials at nato headquarters in brussels were pushing hard for engaging azerbaijan on the membership question turkey romania italy poland the united kingdom and the baltic states are among the memberstates also backing a fast track for azerbaijans nato membership however azerbaijan made its policy of not being aligned with a geopoliticalmilitary structure official when it became a full member of the nonaligned movement in 2011 there is also a limited amount of military cooperation with the other countries of guam georgia ukraine azerbaijan and moldova personnel educational system the purpose of azerbaijani military education training is to train soldiers officers and noncommissioned officers to have independent and creative thinking and commitment to the azerbaijani people and the government military education in the azerbaijani armed forces have been described as either being secondary education further education or higher education azerbaijani pilots were formerly trained in the azerbaijan air force school where they would then develop their skills in operational units azerbaijan has an experience exchange with turkey ukraine the united states and a number of nato countries the turkish air force school has a great role in the training of azerbaijani military pilots azerbaijani pilots are also trained in ukraines pilot training school the following is a list of educational institutions in the armed forces under the auspices of the national defense university military academies war college of the armed forces training and education center of the armed forces azerbaijan higher military academy azerbaijan higher naval academy former independent institution azerbaijan high military aviation school former independent institution other educational institutions secondary military medical school of azerbaijan military medical faculty of azerbaijan medical university military lyceums jamshid nakhchivanski military lyceum heydar aliyev military lyceum conscription military justice military courts act as courts of first instance deals the military court is composed of a president and judges the following military courts exist in azerbaijan military court of nakhchivan autonomous republic baku military court formed in august 1992 ganja military court lankaran military court fuzuligubadli military court tartar military court agdam military court gazakh military court sumgait military court women and ethnic minorities in the armed forces during the first war russians who were a large minority in azerbaijan at the time served in the units of the azerbaijani army many of whom formerly served in the soviet army according to the russian ministry of defence more than 300 officers of the 7th army based in the capital of baku refused to leave azerbaijan at the outset of the war during the second karabakh war the death of an ethnic russian azerbaijani soldier dmitry solntsev was reported there was also denis aliyev born as denis pronin from the xətai raion who was killed in jabrayil he was later posthumously awarded the medal for the liberation of jabrayil in december cossacks associated with the association of cossacks of azerbaijan often join the azerbaijani armed forces female military personnel in the military are generally involved in education office work medical care and the development of international cooperation they also serve in the rear signal troops and intelligence forces women are exempt from conscription which means that female service is purely on a voluntary basis there are currently 1000 female personnel in the azerbaijani military accounting for 3 of the armed forces during the karabakh conflict 2000 of the 74000 azerbaijani soldiers were women and 600 of them directly took part in military operations with a womens battalion being established in 1992 the enrollment of females in azerbaijani higher military schools began in 1999 according to soldier tehrana bahruzi in her book zakir hasanov the ideal minister defence minister zakir hasanov was responsible for launching the first female unit in the special forces of azerbaijan in october 2020 the first female military casualty was reported a combat medic who died while taking wounded soldiers from the battlefield personnel medals and awards medal for bravery medal for fatherland medal for faultless service medal for blameless service medal for distinction in military service medal for distinction in the border medal for merit in military collaboration medal for military merit veteran of the armed forces medal brave warrior medal for distinction in battle medal for heroism medal for military services medal herbi xidmlete gore medal anniversary medals 10th anniversary of the armed forces of azerbaijan 19912001 medal 90th anniversary of the armed forces of azerbaijan 19182008 medal 95th anniversary of the armed forces of azerbaijan 19182013 medal azerbaijani army 100th anniversary medal battlewar awards hero of the patriotic war hero of the patriotic war medal participant of the patriotic war medal for services in the rear in the patriotic war medal for the liberation of aghdam medal for the liberation of fuzuli medal for the liberation of gubadly medal for the liberation of jabrayil medal for the liberation of kalbajar medal for the liberation of khojavend medal for the liberation of lachin medal for the liberation of shusha medal for the liberation of sugovushan medal for the liberation of zangilan medal today national hero of azerbaijan is the highest national title in the country awarded for outstanding services of national importance to azerbaijan in defense as well as other deeds in other spheres traditions and military institutions military oath the military oath is taken by conscripts as a legal basis of the beginning of their military service the oath is administered by the commanding officer of the unit the following is the text for the current version of the oath battle flags and pennants a battle flag for a military unit is a symbol of honor which remains forever in the unit unless it is dissolved by military law if the battle flag is lost in battle the commander of the military unit and the servicemen under its command are brought to court and the unit is abolished battle flags have the color of the state flag with the slogan for azerbaijan being embroidered with golden silk on a blue stripe along the upper edge of the fabric outside the battle flag the azerbaijani military also utilizes the turkish military tradition of pennants as symbols military holidays these are the military holidays observed by all service personnel the armed forces 14 february air force day 9 may victory day great patriotic war 26 june day of the armed forces 5 august day of the azerbaijani navy 27 september memorial day 18 october day of the first military unit 8 november victory day azerbaijan military history museum azerbaijan military history museum is a structure under the ministry of defense it was established on 10 december 1992 by the order of the minister of defense and in accordance with a decree signed on 29 october 1992 on the transfer of the museum of combat glory of the vi army garrison of the commonwealth of independent states today the museum displays 5 tanks 9 armored personnel carriers 16 artillery pieces 6 aircraft 4 helicopters 6 different military equipment of the air force currently the number of exhibits totals 11000 republican veterans organization after the second world war veterans movements were launched in azerbaijan with the baku veterans committee being established on 10 june 1960 the activity of the committee was limited to baku until the early 1970s during the leadership of first secretary heydar aliyev there was a revival in the veteran movement during which the committee gradually expanded to the republic the establishment of the republican veterans organization took place on 21 march 1987 despite the official registration of the rvo with the ministry of justice the activity of the organization was largely formal due to the tensions in the country with the karabakh war as well as the attitude of the government towards red army veterans in general one of the first laws signed by the president aliyev was the law on veterans 28 june 1994 which restored the mandate for the rvo see also judiciary of azerbaijan special purpose police unit references further reading us army war college center for strategic leadership transformation of the azerbaijani armed forces october 2008 external links official youtube channel of azerbaijani soldier program 1918 establishments in azerbaijan | 5,789 |
1091 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography%20of%20Armenia | Geography of Armenia | armenia is a landlocked country in the south caucasus region of the caucasus the country spans eastern europe and west asia with cultural ties to both regions armenia is bordered on the north and east by georgia and azerbaijan and on the south and west by iran azerbaijans exclave nakhchivan and turkey the terrain is mostly mountainous and flat with fast flowing rivers and few forests but with many trees the climate is highland continental hot summers and cold winters the land rises to above sealevel at mount aragats physical environment armenia is located in the southern caucasus the region southwest of russia between the black sea and the caspian sea modern armenia occupies part of historical armenia whose ancient centers were in the valley of the araks river and the region around lake van in turkey armenia is bordered on the north by georgia on the east by azerbaijan on the south by iran and on the west by turkey topography and drainage twentyfive million years ago a geological upheaval pushed up the earths crust to form the armenian plateau creating the complex topography of modern armenia the lesser caucasus range extends through northern armenia runs southeast between lake sevan and azerbaijan then passes roughly along the armenianazerbaijani border to iran thus situated the mountains make travel from north to south difficult geological turmoil continues in the form of devastating earthquakes which have plagued armenia in december 1988 the second largest city in the republic leninakan now gyumri was heavily damaged by a massive quake that killed more than 25000 people about half of armenias area of approximately has an elevation of at least and only 3 of the country lies below the lowest points are in the valleys of the araks river and the debed river in the far north which have elevations of respectively elevations in the lesser caucasus vary between to the southwest of the range is the armenian plateau which slopes southwestward toward the araks river on the turkish border the plateau is masked by intermediate mountain ranges and extinct volcanoes the largest of these mount aragats high is also the highest point in armenia most of the population lives in the western and northwestern parts of the country where the two major cities yerevan and gyumri are located the valleys of the debed and akstafa rivers form the chief routes into armenia from the north as they pass through the mountains lake sevan across at its widest point and long is by far the largest lake it lies above sea level on the plateau and is large other main lakes are arpi sev akna terrain is most rugged in the extreme southeast which is drained by the bargushat river and most moderate in the araks river valley to the extreme southwest most of armenia is drained by the araks or its tributary the hrazdan which flows from lake sevan the araks forms most of armenias border with turkey and iran while the zangezur mountains form the border between armenias southern province of syunik and azerbaijans adjacent nakhchivan autonomous republic climate temperatures in armenia generally depend upon elevation mountain formations block the moderating climatic influences of the mediterranean sea and the black sea creating wide seasonal variations with cold snowy winters and warm to hot summers on the armenian plateau the mean midwinter temperature is to and the mean midsummer temperature is to average precipitation ranges from per year in the lower araks river valley to at the highest altitudes despite the harshness of winter in most parts with frosts reaching and lower in shirak region the fertility of the plateaus volcanic soil made armenia one of the worlds earliest sites of agricultural activity area and boundaries areatotal 29743 km2 country comparison to the world 143 land 28203 km2water 1540 km2 area comparative australia comparative about one third 33 the size of tasmania canada comparative greater than half 56 the size of nova scotia turkey comparative about a quarter 24 smaller than the size of konya province united kingdom comparative about one third larger 30 than wales united states comparative slightly smaller 7 than maryland eu comparative slightly smaller 8 than belgium land boundariestotal 1570 kmborder countries azerbaijan 566 km azerbaijannakhchivan exclave 221 km georgia 219 km iran 44 km turkey 311 km coastline 0 km landlocked elevation extremeslowest point 375mhighest point mount aragats 4090 m extreme points of armenianorth tavush south syunik west shirak east syunik resources and land use natural resources deposits of gold copper molybdenum zinc bauxite armenia has significant deposits of copper molybdenum and gold as well as smaller deposits of zinc lead and silver some coppermolybdenum and polymetallic ore deposits are rich in elements such as bismuth tellurium selenium gallium indium thallium rhenium and germanium land use arable land4456 km² 158permanent crops 19permanent pastures 42forest 2018 112other 312 2011 irrigated land 2084 km2 2018 total renewable water resources 777 m³ 2011 armenia is considered to be a big water supplier in the caspian basin as a result the country lacks water especially in summer when the rate of evaporation exceeds the amount of precipitation that is the main reason why since ancient times inhabitants have built water reservoirs and irrigation canals in the area lake sevan contains the largest amount of water in the country freshwater withdrawal domesticindustrialagriculturaltotal 286 km³yr 40654per capita 9297 m³yr 2010 see also atlas of armenia biogeographic regions of europe geography of asia geography of europe geology of armenia references | 914 |
1092 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics%20of%20Armenia | Demographics of Armenia | after registering steady increases during the soviet period the population of armenia declined from its peak value of 3633 million in 1992 to 2986 million in 2017 whilst the countrys population increased steadily during the soviet union as a result of periods of repatriation and low emigration rates it has declined in recent times due to the exodus of peoples following the soviet breakup the rates of emigration and population decline however have decreased in recent years and there has been a moderate influx of armenians returning to armenia historical statistics citing armenias conquest and occupation by the seljuks 11th century and mongols 13th15th centuries historians edmund herzig and marina kurkchiyan write the combination of progressive turkish and kurdish immigration and armenian decline through massacre famine and emigration changed the demographic balance in a way that arab immigration had never done as a result of deliberate relocation policies employed by both the ottomans and safavids during the ottomansafavid war there was a largescale displacement of armenians armenians also emigrated to escape the insecurity and hardship of life in wartorn armenia whilst shah abbas i relocated armenians to isfahan and armenian colonies in other parts of iran in 16041605 the ottomans also removed armenian artisans to their capital following the russian annexation 45000 armenians from persia and 100000 from the ottoman empire migrated to eastern armenia with another 25000 migrating following the 1878 russoturkish war as a result of the repatriation armenians had regained a majority in their homeland for the first time in several hundred years as a result of persecution and massacres in the ottoman empire some 100000 armenians immigrated to eastern armenia between 1870 and 1910 the areas with armenianmajorities would later form the nucleus in the twentieth century of an independent armenian state historian sen hovhannisian writes that during the 80 years of peace during which eastern armenia was part of russia there was unprecedented population growth it tripled from 161700 to 496100 between 18311873 and doubled in the following forty years until it reached 1000100 in 1913 the population between 1831 and 1913 increased 618 times yielding an average annual growth rate of 10200 people following the outbreak of world war i the population which was 1014300 in 1914 fell by 20500 in 1916 due to the christian population being drafted as a result of wars and civil clashes hunger and diseases of 19181920 432000 people 358 percent of the population were exterminated upon its sovietisation the territory of modernday armenia had a population of some 720000 a decline of nearly 30 percentalmost half consisted of refugees american historian richard pipes states that according to soviet estimates the armenian population of transcaucasia declined between 1914 and 1920 by one half million 200000 in consequence of turkish and presumably communist massacres and 300000 from other causes mostly famine and disease the drastic decline of the population was addressed by the soviet armenian government by repatriating displaced azerbaijanis to districts where they had formed a significant population in armenia the azerbaijani population of armenia which numbered some 10000 in 1920 attributed to the arf governments expulsion of at least 200000 turks and kurds rose to 72596 in 1922 as a result of the return of 60000 refugees in addition to this the soviet government welcomed 44000 armenian refugees from greece iraq turkey and elsewhere throughout the 1920s and 1930s in 19461948 86000 armenians were repatriated to soviet armenia to offset the countrys wartime losses at the same time by agreement of armenian and azerbaijani soviet leaderships tens of thousands of azerbaijanis in armenia were resettled to azerbaijan to make room for the repatriates human development according to the 2018 hdi statistical update with data for 2017 compared to all its neighbouring countries armenia has the lowest coefficient of human inequality the lowest gender inequality ranked 55th on gender inequality index highest percentage of men and highest percentage of women with at least some secondary education highest share of seats in parliament held by women highest share of women who reported to feel safe highest gdp growth rate since 1990 armenia recorded steady growth of average annual hdi scores in every reported period 19902000 20002010 20102017 according to the 2016 sustainable society index armenia has a higher rank of human wellbeing than all its neighbours at the same time its economic wellbeing rank is below neighbouring countries the 2011 census counted 539394 persons 194 percent of the population above 6 years of age with higher professional education vital statistics life expectancy according to the 2018 hdi statistical update compared to all its neighbouring countries armenia has the highest health expenditures as percentage of its gdp and the highest healthy life expectancy at birth in 2016 the average life expectancy at birth for males was 716 years and for females was 783 years with the average at 750 years after a setback during 19861996 mostly due to the spitak earthquake and the first nagornokarabakh war armenia regained its position and was consistently among the top three former soviet republics during 19972016 topping the list in 2007 during the soviet period life expectancy was traditionally high in armenia and topped all other republics of the ussr and most other countries in eastern europe between 19781980 source un reproduction indicators in 2016 natural increase of population comprised 12366 persons and the crude rate of natural increase reached 41 per 1000 population decreasing by 04 percent compared to the previous year after doubledigit crude natural increase rates between 19821992 rates did not exceed 55 after 1998 at a regional level slightly better rates were recorded in the capital yerevan where the value of 55 is consistently being surpassed since 2009 particularly weak is natural increase in tavush and syunik provinces not much better off are lori and vayots dzor provinces fertility rate tfr wanted fertility rate and cbr crude birth rate armenias total fertility rate at 16 was lowest in the caucasus region in 2017 tfr is expected to stay at 16 between 20152020 less from 17 in years 20102015 the mean age of mothers at birth was 268 years and at first birth it was 247 years in 2016 adolescent birth rate as well as share of women married aged 18 was lowest in armenia compared to its neighbouring countries in 2016 infant mortality rate in the first year of their life was 86 per 1000 live births a study revealed that population growth rate changes were more favourable in armenia than in its surrounding countries between 20052015 structure of the population the median age in 2020 was 366 years male 351 female 383 363 percent of women who gave birth in 2016 had higher education population by sex and age group census 12102011 population estimates by sex and age group 01vii2019 in 2016 households with up to four members prevailed in urban areas throughout armenia with the share of such households coming to 702 percent in urban communities compared to 601 percent in rural communities since the 1960s armenia has the highest share of urban population among south caucasus countries vital statistics summary data 1 the numbers of life births and deaths until 1959 were calculated from the birth rate and death rate respectively 2 the high number of deaths in 1988 is related to the spitak earthquake while in the rest of the 20th century the death rate was equal to the rate of other european countries excluding england 3 the population estimate for 2012 has been recalculated on the basis of the 2011 census current vital statistics ethnic groups in 2002 ethnic minorities included russians assyrians ukrainians yazidis kurds iranians greeks georgians and belarusians there were also smaller communities of vlachs mordvins ossetians udis and tats minorities of poles and caucasus germans also exist though they are heavily russified languages armenian is the sole official language as per 2001 census data armenian is most widely spoken at 977 kurdish at 1 russian at 09 among others at 04 as per 2011 census data native languages were reported as follows armenian 2956615 yezidian 30973 russian 23484 assyrian 2402 kurdish 2030 armenia is a member of la francophonie and hosted its annual summit in 2018 the largest communities of the armenian diaspora are fluent in russian and english religions most armenians are christians primarily of the apostolic church rite armenia is considered the first nation to officially adopt christianity which was first preached in armenia by two apostles of jesus st bartholomew and st thaddeus in the 1st century the armenian apostolic church can trace its roots back to the 3rd and 4th centuries the country formally adopted the christian faith in 301 ad over 90 percent of armenians belong to the armenian apostolic church armenia also has a population of catholics and evangelical protestants according to the census of 2011 the primary religions in armenia is the following christianity 2862366 948 of whom 2797187 armenian apostolic 925 29280 evangelical 13996 armenian and roman latin catholic 8695 jehovahs witness 8587 eastern orthodox russian ukrainian georgian greek 2874 molokan nonorthodox russians 1733 assyrian church of the east nestorian 733 protestant 241 mormon yazidism 08 paganism 02 812 islam 5299 other religion 02 121587 no response 4 migration compared to its neighbouring countries armenia has the highest share of immigrants 65 percent of total population 2017 data the estimated number of population net migration is 248 thousand persons according to the integrated living conditions survey of households of 2016 for urban population 138 thousand and for rural population 110 thousand persons 249 of households were involved in external and internal migration processes over the period of 2013 2016 migration directions were distributed as follows 12 internal 105 republic of artsakh rest 764 international of which 898 russia among household members of age 15 and above who left their permanent residence in 20132016 for 3 months and longer and had not returned as of 2016 119 were in armenia 130 in artsakh and 751 in other countries predominantly in russia more than 54 of migrant household members of the age 15 years and above sent money and or goods to their familiesrelativesfriends within 12 months preceding the survey according to 2019 un data the emigration rate averaged annually around 17 per 1000 inhabitants in years 20152020 and is expected to remain the same until year 2045 these are below average emigration rate of 115 per 1000 in years 20002010 and even below the emigration rate of 32 per 1000 in years 19801985 migration during postsoviet period it is estimated that 7400001300000 people left armenia between 1988 and 2005 economically recessed situation in armenia during the 1990s enhanced the emigration of 125000 refugees and displaced persons human and natural disasters also caused approximately 192000 individuals to become internally displaced persons in armenia among the disasters the major impact was the 1988 spitak earthquake after the collapse of the soviet union borders that were once formal now assumed real significance nonetheless increased political interethnic and social tensions prompted more and more people to migrate between armenia and its neighbouring countries as a result approximately 100000 persons or 3 percent of the countrys population emigrated during the beginning of 1990s refugees and forcibly displaced persons started arriving to armenia in spring 1988 and continued coming until late 1991 during this time armenia gave shelter to approximately 419000 refugees and displaced persons 360000 of whom migrated from azerbaijan the rest immigrated from other regions of the former soviet union migration flows during the postsoviet period can be divided into 3 stages the first stage prior to 1995 was characterized by mass emigration due to economic reasons a drop in living standards and a rapid deterioration in the delivery and quality of public utilities it is estimated that over 800000 people emigrated from armenia during this period and that only 400000 of them have returned since then during the second stage from 1995 to 2001 emigration decreased with most of those leaving to be labour migrants in search of better economic and social opportunities 180000 people 6 per cent of the population emigrated from armenia during these six years these emigrants tended to resettle abroad permanently and were later joined by relatives through family reunification the third stage from 2002 to the present is marked by a constant yearly increase in the number of persons travelling to and from armenia this stage was also characterized by a shift to a positive migration balance according to government records over 55 per cent of all emigrants are unmarried and 60 per cent are males between the ages of 20 and 44 very few are children and even fewer are elderly people most have an educational level far higher than the national average and have no intention of returning to armenia although no hard data exists emigrant families appear to be even less likely to return the emigration of the major part of the armenian population has brought about important changes for example a decrease in the number of people of reproductive age in armenia has led to a progressive drop in marriages and birth rates there has also been a considerable change in the ethnic composition of the population in armenia due to a higher rate of emigration among ethnic minorities wealth and poverty inequality out of 41 emerging economies armenia was among only four which recorded rising inequality measured by gini coefficient in years 20072015 wealth according to global wealth report prepared by credit suisse mean wealth per adult in armenia in 2019 is estimated at 19517 rising 9 times from estimated 2177 in year 2000 mean wealth per adult in armenia surpasses corresponding values for neighboring countries georgia and azerbaijan by over 50 all cis countries except russia and kazakhstan and neighboring iran growth rate of mean wealth per adult between 2000 and 2019 with the value of 9 times beats all neighboring countries most of cis countries as well as estonia latvia and lithuania median wealth per adult is reported at 8309 in 2019 above the world average rising 96 times from 862 in year 2000 between 2000 and 2019 average debts per adult grew 287 times to 1261 or 65 of wealth per adult below the 119 world average 55 of adults own less than 10000 427 10000100000 22 1000001 million and 01 over 1 million the share of adults owning less than 10000 with the value of 55 is less than corresponding value in each of cis countries neighboring iran and turkey as well as the world average gini coefficient for wealth is reported at 663 less than 824 the european average and 885 the world average poverty as much as 535 of the countrys population was officially considered poor in 2004 poverty fell significantly in the following years amid doubledigit economic growth that came to an end with the onset of the global financial crisis in late 2008 it soared to almost 36 in 2010 one year after armenias gross domestic product shrunk by over 14 afterwards there was a decreasing trend throughout the last years reaching 235 in 2018 down from 257 in 2017 the poverty indicators in shirak lori kotayk tavush and armavir provinces are higher than the country average the highest poverty rate in the country has been recorded in shirak province where 46 of the population is below the poverty line to overcome poverty armenia would need amd 632 billion or an amount equal to 12 of gdp in addition to the resources already allocated for social assistance assuming that such assistance would be efficiently targeted to the poor in terms of the international poverty line corresponding to us125 in 2005 ppp poverty in armenia went down from 193 in the year 2001 to 15 in the year 2008 and remained nearly unchanged until the year 2015 moving in the range of 15 27 see also assyrians in armenia censuses of armenia demographics of the republic of artsakh ethnic minorities in armenia greeks in armenia health in armenia list of european countries by population lom people peoples of the caucasus russians in armenia social protection in armenia yazidis in armenia notes references bibliography external links population cartogram of armenia khachatryan anush karapetyan arsen public green space in armenian cities a legal analysis in the ccaucasus analytical digest no 23 | 2,718 |
1093 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics%20of%20Armenia | Politics of Armenia | the politics of armenia take place in the framework of the parliamentary representative democratic republic of armenia whereby the president of armenia is the head of state and the prime minister of armenia the head of government and of a multiparty system executive power is exercised by the president and the government legislative power is vested in both the government and parliament history armenia became independent from the russian empire on 28 may 1918 as the republic of armenia later referred as first republic of armenia about a month before its independence armenia was part of short lived transcaucasian democratic federative republic suffering heavy losses during the turkish invasion of armenia and after the soviet invasion of armenia the government of the first republic resigned on 2 december 1920 soviet russia reinstalled its control over the country which later became part of the transcaucasian sfsr the tsfsr was dissolved in 1936 and armenia became a constituent republic of the soviet union known as the armenian ssr later also referred as the second republic of armenia during the dissolution of the soviet union the population of armenia voted overwhelmingly for independence following the 1991 armenian independence referendum it was followed by a presidential election in october 1991 that gave 83 of the votes to levon terpetrosyan earlier in 1990 when the national democratic union party defeated the armenian communist party he was elected chairman of the supreme council of armenia terpetrosyan was reelected in 1996 following public discontent and demonstrations against his policies on nagornokarabakh the president resigned in january 1998 and was replaced by prime minister robert kocharyan who was elected as second president in march 1998 following the assassination of prime minister vazgen sargsyan parliament speaker karen demirchyan and six other officials during parliament seating on 27 october 1999 a period of political instability ensued during which an opposition headed by elements of the former armenian national movement government attempted unsuccessfully to force kocharyan to resign in may 2000 andranik margaryan replaced aram sargsyan a brother of assassinated vazgen sargsyan as prime minister kocharyans reelection as president in 2003 was followed by widespread allegations of ballotrigging he went on to propose controversial constitutional amendments on the role of parliament these were rejected in a referendum the following may concurrent parliamentary elections left kocharyans party in a very powerful position in the parliament there were mounting calls for the presidents resignation in early 2004 with thousands of demonstrators taking to the streets in support of demands for a referendum of confidence in him the government of armenias stated aim is to build a westernstyle parliamentary democracy however international observers have questioned the fairness of armenias parliamentary and presidential elections and constitutional referendum between 1995 and 2018 citing polling deficiencies lack of cooperation by the electoral commission and poor maintenance of electoral lists and polling places armenia is considered one of the most democratic nations of the commonwealth of independent states the observance of human rights in armenia is uneven and is marked by shortcomings police brutality allegedly still goes largely unreported while observers note that defendants are often beaten to extract confessions and are denied visits from relatives and lawyers public demonstrations usually take place without government interference though one rally in november 2000 by an opposition party was followed by the arrest and imprisonment for a month of its organizer freedom of religion is not always protected under existing law nontraditional churches especially the jehovahs witnesses have been subjected to harassment sometimes violently all churches apart from the armenian apostolic church must register with the government and proselytizing was forbidden by law though since 1997 the government has pursued more moderate policies the governments policy toward conscientious objection is in transition as part of armenias accession to the council of europe armenia boasts a good record on the protection of national minorities for whose representatives assyrians kurds russians and yazidis four seats are reserved in the national assembly the government does not restrict internal or international travel transition to a parliamentary republic in december 2015 the country held a referendum which approved transformation of armenia from a semipresidential to a parliamentary republic as a result the president was stripped of his veto faculty and the presidency was downgraded to a figurehead position elected by parliament every seven years the president is not allowed to be a member of any political party and reelection is forbidden skeptics saw the constitutional reform as an attempt of third president serzh sargsyan to remain in control by becoming prime minister after fulfilling his second presidential term in 2018 in march 2018 the armenian parliament elected armen sarkissian as the new president of armenia the controversial constitutional reform to reduce presidential power was implemented while the authority of the prime minister was strengthened in may 2018 parliament elected opposition leader nikol pashinyan as the new prime minister his predecessor serzh sargsyan resigned two weeks earlier following widespread antigovernment demonstrations in june 2021 early parliamentary elections were held nikol pashinyans civil contract party won 71 seats while 29 went to the armenia alliance headed by former president robert kocharyan the i have honor alliance which formed around another former president serzh sargsyan won seven seats after the election armenias acting prime minister nikol pashinyan was officially appointed to the post of prime minister by the countrys president armen sarkissian in january 2022 armenian president armen sarkissian resigned from office stating that the constitution does no longer give the president sufficient powers or influence on 3 march 2022 vahagn khachaturyan was elected as the fifth president of armenia in the second round of parliamentary vote government president vahagn khachaturyan independent 13 march 2022 prime minister nikol pashinyan civil contract 8 may 2018 legislative branch the unicameral national assembly of armenia azgayin zhoghov is the legislative branch of the government of armenia before the 2015 armenian constitutional referendum it was initially made of 131 members elected for fiveyear terms 41 members in singleseat constituencies and 90 by proportional representation the proportionalrepresentation seats in the national assembly are assigned on a partylist basis among those parties that receive at least 5 of the total of the number of the votes following the 2015 referendum the number of mps was reduced from the original 131 members to 101 and singleseat constituencies were removed political parties and elections the electoral threshold is currently set at 5 for single parties and 7 for blocs latest national elections latest presidential elections independent agencies independent of three traditional branches are the following independent agencies each with separate powers and responsibilities the constitutional court of armenia the central electoral commission of armenia the human rights defender of armenia the central bank of armenia the prosecutor general of armenia the audit chamber of armenia corruption transparency internationals 2021 corruption perceptions index ranked armenia 58th out of 180 in the world with 49 points the same number of points as 2020 this has pushed the country up from being ranked at 60th in 2020 according to transparency international armenia has improved significantly on the corruption perception index since 2012 especially since the 2018 revolution the country has taken steps to counter corruption further mentioning that armenia has taken a gradual approach to reform resulting in steady and positive improvements in anticorruption however safeguarding judicial independence and ensuring checks and balances remain critical first steps in its anticorruption efforts the effectiveness of those efforts is additionally challenged by the current political and economic crisis as a result of the recent nagorno karabakh conflict and the subsequent protests against prime minister nikol pashinyan over a ceasefire deal in 2008 transparency international reduced its corruption perceptions index for armenia from 30 in 2007 to 29 out of 10 a lower score means more perceived corruption armenia slipped from 99th place in 2007 to 109th out of 180 countries surveyed on a par with argentina belize moldova solomon islands and vanuatu see also constitution of armenia constitutional economics elections in armenia foreign relations of armenia list of political parties in armenia politics of artsakh programs of political parties in armenia rule according to higher law notes references external links global integrity report armenia has information on anticorruption efforts petrosyan david the political system of armenia form and content in the caucasus analytical digest no 17 control chamber of the republic of armenia armenian language document national assembly of the republic of armenia official web site parliamentam | 1,406 |
1094 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20of%20Armenia | Economy of Armenia | the economy of armenia grew by 126 in 2022 according to the countrys statistical committee and the international monetary fund total output amounted to 85 trillion armenian drams or 195 billion at the same time armenias foreign trade turnover significantly accelerated in growth from 177 in 2021 to 686 in 2022 gdp contracted sharply in 2020 by 72 mainly due to the covid19 recession and the war against azerbaijan in contrast it grew by 76 per cent in 2019 the largest recorded growth since 2007 while between 2012 and 2018 gdp grew 407 and key banking indicators like assets and credit exposures almost doubled while part of the soviet union the economy of armenia was based largely on industrychemicals electronic products machinery processed food synthetic rubber and textiles it was highly dependent on outside resources armenian mines produce copper zinc gold and lead the vast majority of energy is produced with imported fuel from russia including gas and nuclear fuel for armenias metsamor nuclear power plant the main domestic energy source is hydroelectric small amounts of coal gas and petroleum have not yet been developed the severe trade imbalance has been offset somewhat by international aid remittances from armenians abroad and foreign direct investment armenia is a member of the eurasian economic union and ties with russia remain close especially in the energy sector overview under the old soviet central planning system armenia had developed a modern industrial sector supplying machine tools textiles and other manufactured goods to sister republics in exchange for raw materials and energy since the implosion of the ussr in december 1991 armenia has switched to smallscale agriculture away from the large agroindustrial complexes of the soviet era the agricultural sector has longterm needs for more investment and updated technology armenia began borrowing soon after declaring independence in 2000 armenian governmental debt reached its greatest level relative to gdp 493 percent of gdp armenia is a food importer and its mineral deposits gold and bauxite are small the ongoing conflict with azerbaijan over the ethnic armeniandominated region of nagornokarabakh and the breakup of the centrally directed economic system of the former soviet union contributed to a severe economic decline in the early 1990s political instability and the threat of war placed a significant strain on economic development despite robust growth in recent years the problem of geopolitical uncertainty resurfaced during the 2020 war contributing to a 72 drop in gdp armenias public debt rose to 674 in 2020 but fell below 50 again in 2022 global competitiveness in the 2020 report of index of economic freedom by heritage foundation armenia is classified as mostly free and ranks 34th improving by 13 positions and ahead of all other eurasian economic union countries and several eu countries including cyprus bulgaria romania poland belgium spain france portugal and italy in the 2019 report data for 2017 of economic freedom of the world published by fraser institute armenia ranks 27th classified most free out of 162 economies in the 2019 report of global competitiveness index armenia ranks 69th out of 141 economies in the 2020 report data for 2019 of doing business index armenia ranks 47th with 10th rank on starting business subindex in the 2019 report data for 2018 of human development index by undp armenia ranked 81st and is classified into high human development group in the 2021 report data for 2020 of corruption perceptions index by transparency international armenia ranked 60 of 179 countries history of the modern armenian economy at the beginning of the 20th century the territory of presentday armenia was an agricultural region with some copper mining and cognac production from 1914 through 1921 caucasian armenia suffered from genocide of about 15 million armenian inhabitants on their own homeland which obviously caused total property and financial collapse when all their assets and belongings were forcibly taken away by the turks the consequences of which after 105 years to this day remain incalculable revolution the influx of refugees from turkish armenia disease hunger and economic misery about 200000 people died in 1919 alone at that point only american relief efforts saved armenia from total collapse thus armenians went from being one of the wealthiest ethnic groups in the region to suffering from poverty and famine armenians were the second richest ethnic group in anatolia after the greeks and they were heavily involved in very high productive sectors such as banking architecture and trade however after the mass killings of armenian intellectuals in april 1915 and the genocide targeted towards the whole armenian population left the people and the country in ruins the genocide was responsible for the loss of many highquality skills that the armenians possessed the first soviet armenian government regulated economic activity stringently nationalizing all economic enterprises requisitioning grain from peasants and suppressing most private market activity this first experiment of state control ended with the advent of soviet leader vladimir lenins new economic policy nep of 19211927 this policy continued state control of the large enterprises and banks but peasants could market much of their grain and small businesses could function in armenia the nep years brought partial recovery from the economic disaster of the postworld war i period by 1926 agricultural production in armenia had reached nearly threequarters of its prewar level by the end of the 1920s stalins regime had revoked the nep and reestablished the centralised state monopoly on all economic activity once this occurred the main goal of the soviet economic policy in armenia was to turn a predominantly agrarian and rural republic into an industrial and urban one among other restrictions peasants now were forced to sell nearly all of their output to state procurement agencies rather than at the open market from the 1930s through the 1960s an industrial infrastructure has been constructed besides hydroelectric plants and canals roads were built and gas pipelines were laid to bring fuel and food from azerbaijan and russia the stalinist command economy in which market forces were suppressed and all orders for production and distribution came from the state authorities survived in all its essential features until the fall of the soviet regime in 1991 in the early stages of the communist economic revolution armenia underwent a fundamental transformation into a proletarian society between 1929 and 1939 the percentage of armenias work force categorised as industrial workers grew from 13 to 31 by 1935 industry supplied 62 of armenias economic production highly integrated and sheltered within artificial barter economy of the soviet system from the 1930s until the end of the communist era the armenian economy showed few signs of selfsufficiency at any time during that period in 1988 armenia produced only 09 of the net material product of the soviet union 12 of industry 07 of agriculture the republic retained 14 of total state budget revenue delivered 637 of its nmp to other republics and exported only 14 of what it produced to markets outside the soviet union agriculture accounted for only 20 of net material product and 10 of employment before the breakup of the soviet union in 1991 armenias industry was especially dependent on the soviet militaryindustrial complex about 40 of all enterprises in the republic were devoted to defense and some factories lost 60 to 80 of their business in the last years of the soviet union when massive cuts were made in the national defense expenditures as the republics economy faced the prospects of competing in world markets in the mid 1990s the great liabilities of armenias industry were its outdated equipment and infrastructure and the pollution emitted by many of the countrys heavy industrial plants the economic downturn that began in 1989 worsened dramatically in 1992 according to statistics the gdp declined by 375 percent in 1991 compared to 1990 and all sectors contributing to the gdp decreased in production the collapse of industry in favor of agriculture whose products were mostly imported throughout the soviet period changed the structure of sectoral contributions to gdp in 1991 armenias last year as a soviet republic national income fell 12 from the previous year while per capita gross national product was 4920 rubles only 68 of the soviet average in large part due to the earthquake of 1988 the azerbaijani blockade that began in 1989 and the collapse of the international trading system of the soviet union the armenian economy of the early 1990s remained far below its 1980 production levels in the first years of independence 199293 inflation was extremely high productivity and national income dropped dramatically and the national budget ran large deficits a period of chronic shortages was the first stage of price deregulation which allowed goods to stay in armenia as opposed to being exported for better prices the inflation rates were 10 percent in 1990 100 percent in 1991 and 6425 percent during the first four months of 1992 compared with the first four months of 1991 thus there were two opposing dynamics price increases in response to shortages and falling incomes due to the recession and unemployment postcommunist economic reforms armenia introduced elements of the free market and privatisation into their economic system in the late 1980s when mikhail gorbachev began advocating economic reform to supply the countrys basic needs the first decision was land reform and the privatization of land this allowed for the emergence of smallparcel agriculture supplying markets and supporting selfsustenance during the period of shortages cooperatives were set up in the service sector particularly in restaurants although substantial resistance came from the communist party of armenia cpa and other groups that had enjoyed privileged position in the old economy in the late 1980s much of armenias economy already was opening either semiofficially or illegally with widespread corruption and bribery the socalled mafia made up of interconnected groups of powerful officials and their relatives and friends sabotaged the efforts of reformers to create a lawful market system when the december 1988 earthquake brought millions of dollars of foreign aid to the devastated regions of armenia much of the money went to corrupt and criminal elements beginning in 1991 the democratically elected government pushed vigorously for privatisation and market relations although its efforts were frustrated by the old ways of doing business in armenia the azerbaijani blockade and the costs of the first nagornokarabakh war in 1992 the law on the programme of privatisation and decentralisation of incompletely constructed facilities established a state privatisation committee with members from all political parties in middle 1993 the committee announced a twoyear privatisation programme whose first stage would be privatisation of 30 of state enterprises mostly services and light industries the remaining 70 including many bankrupt nonfunctional enterprises were to be privatised in a later stage with a minimum of government restriction to encourage private initiative for all enterprises the workers would receive 20 of their firms property free of charge 30 would be distributed to all citizens by means of vouchers and the remaining 50 was to be distributed by the government with preference given to members of the labour organisations a major problem of this system however was the lack of supporting legislation covering foreign investment protection bankruptcy monopoly policy and consumer protection in the first postcommunist years efforts to interest foreign investors in joint enterprises were only moderately successful because of the blockade and the energy shortage only in late 1993 was a department of foreign investment established in the ministry of economy to spread information about armenias investment opportunities and improve the legal infrastructure for investment activity a specific goal of this agency was creating a market for scientific and technical intellectual property a few armenians living abroad made largescale investments besides a toy factory and construction projects diaspora armenians built a cold storage plant which in its first years had little produce to store and established the american university of armenia in yerevan to teach the techniques necessary to run a market economy armenia was admitted to the international monetary fund in may 1992 and to the world bank in september a year later the government complained that those organisations were holding back financial assistance and announced its intention to move toward fuller price liberalisation and the removal of all tariffs quotas and restrictions of foreign trade although privatisation had slowed because of catastrophic collapse of the economy prime minister hrant bagratyan informed the united states officials in the fall of 1993 that plans had been made to embark on a renewed privatisation programme by the end of the year like other former states armenias economy suffers from the legacy of a centrally planned economy and the breakdown of former soviet trading patterns soviet investment in and support of armenian industry has virtually disappeared so that few major enterprises are still able to function in addition the effects of the 1988 earthquake which killed more than 25000 people and made 500000 homeless are still being felt although a ceasefire has held since 1994 the conflict with azerbaijan over nagornokarabakh has not been resolved the consequent blockade along both the azerbaijani and turkish borders has devastated the economy because of armenias dependence on outside supplies of energy and most raw materials land routes through azerbaijan and turkey are closed routes through georgia and iran are adequate and reliable in 199293 the gdp had fallen nearly 60 from its 1989 level the national currency the dram suffered hyperinflation for the first few years after its introduction in 1993 armenia has registered strong economic growth since 1995 and inflation has been negligible for the past several years new sectors such as precious stone processing and jewelry making and communication technology primarily armentel which is left from the ussr era and is owned by external investors this steady economic progress has earned armenia increasing support from international institutions the international monetary fund imf world bank ebrd as well as other international financial institutions ifis and foreign countries are extending considerable grants and loans total loans extended to armenia since 1993 exceed 800 million these loans are targeted at reducing the budget deficit stabilizing the local currency developing private businesses energy the agriculture food processing transportation and health and education sectors and ongoing rehabilitation work in the earthquake zone by 1994 however the armenian government had launched an ambitious imfsponsored economic liberalization program that resulted in positive growth rates in 19952005 the economic growth of armenia expressed in gdp per capita was one of strongest in the cis gdp went from 350 to more than 800 on average between 1995 and 2003 three principal factors explain this result the credibility of the macroeconomic policies of stabilization the correction effect following the depression and the importance of external transfers in particular since 2000 armenia became a member of the world trade organization wto in january 2003 armenia also has managed to slash inflation stabilize its currency and privatize most small and mediumsized enterprises armenias unemployment rate however remains high despite strong economic growth the chronic energy shortages armenia suffered in the early and mid1990s have been offset by the energy supplied by one of its nuclear power plants at metsamor armenia is now a net energy exporter although it does not have sufficient generating capacity to replace the metsamor nuclear plant which is under international pressure to close due to its old design the european union had classified the vver 440 model v230 lightwatercooled reactors as the oldest and least reliable category of all the 66 soviet reactors built in the former eastern bloc however the iaea has found that the metsamor npp has adequate safety and can function beyond its design lifespan the countrys electricity distribution system was privatized in 2002 outperforming gdp growth according to official preliminary data gdp grew by 76 per cent in 2019 largest recording growth since 2008 nominal gdp per capita was approximately 4196 in 2018 and is expected to reach 8283 in 2023 surpassing neighbouring azerbaijan and georgia with 83 armenia recorded highest degree of gdp growth among eurasian economic union countries in 2018 januaryjune against the same period of 2017 earlier the economy of armenia grew by 75 in 2017 and reached a nominal gdp of 115 billion per annum while per capita figure grew by 101 and reached 3880 with 729 armenia was second best in gdp per capita growth terms in europe and central asia in 2017 armenian gdp ppp measured in current international dollar grew total of 316 per capita in the years 20002017 becoming 6th best worldwide in these terms gdp grew 407 between 2012 and 2018 and key banking indicators like assets and credit exposures almost doubled 2020 recession the armenian economy performed poorly in 2020 and contracted by 72 after years of consecutive growth the two biggest contributing factors were the covid19 recession and the second nagornokarabakh war in the first half of 2020 the armenian economy was negatively impacted by the economic restrictions that were implemented in response to the covid19 pandemic these restrictions included a stayathome order an indoor social distancing requirement and a mask mandate these restrictions had a negative impact on businesses according to the world bank individual consumption dropped by 9 in the first six months of 2020 due to the stayathome order the economy was further impacted by the war against azerbaijan later in the year early in the war the central government mobilized the country by converting private businesses into public ones producing masks and military equipment during this time many factories were converted from privateuse to public which further negatively impacted the nations economic output main sectors of economy agricultural sector armenia produced in 2018 415 thousand tons of potato 199 thousand tons of vegetable 187 thousand tons of wheat 179 thousand tons of grape 138 thousand tons of tomato 126 thousand tons of watermelon 124 thousand tons of barley 109 thousand tons of apple 104 thousand tons of apricot 12th largest world producer 89 thousand tons of cabbage 54 thousand tons of sugar beet 52 thousand tons of peach 50 thousand tons of cucumber 39 thousand tons of onion in addition to smaller productions of other agricultural products as of 2010 the agricultural production comprises on average 25 percent of armenias gdp in 2006 the agricultural sector accounted for about 20 percent of armenias gdp armenias agricultural output dropped by 179 percent in the period of januaryseptember 2010 this was owing to bad weather a lack of a government stimulus package and the continuing effects of decreased agricultural subsidies by the armenian government per wto requirements in addition the share of agriculture in armenias gdp hovered around 179 until 2012 according to the world bank then already in 2013 the share of it was a bit higher comprising 1843 afterwards a declining trend was registered in the period of 20132017 reaching to around 1490 in 2017 by comparing the share of agriculture as a component of gdp with the neighboring countries georgia azerbaijan turkey iran one can notice that the percentage is highest for armenia as of 2017 the contribution of agriculture to the gdp for the neighboring countries was 688 563 608 and 905 respectively in 2022 the industry with the highest number of companies registered in armenia is services with 1907 companies followed by wholesale trade and manufacturing with 510 and 408 companies respectively mining in 2017 mining industry output with grew by 142 to 172 billion amd at current prices and run at 31 of armenias gdp in 2017 mineral product without precious metals and stones exports grew by 469 and run at us692 million which comprised 301 of all exports construction sector real estate transactions count grew by 36 in september 2019 compared to september 2018 also the average market value of one square meter of housing in apartment buildings in yerevan in september 2019 grew by 108 from september 2018 in 2017 construction output increased by 22 reaching 416 billion amd armenia experienced a construction boom during the latter part of the 2000s according to the national statistical service armenias booming construction sector generated about 20 percent of armenias gdp during the first eight months of 2007 according to a world bank official 30 percent of armenias economy in 2009 came from the construction sector however during the january to september 2010 period the sector experienced a 52 percent yearonyear decrease which according to the civilitas foundation is an indication of the unsustainability of a sector based on an elite market with few products for the median or low budgets this decrease comes despite the fact that an important component of the government stimulus package was to support the completion of ongoing construction projects energy in 2017 electricity generation increased by 61 reaching 78 billion kwh digital economy the digital economy is a branch of the economy based on digital computing technologies the digital economy is sometimes referred to as the internet economy or the web economy the digital economy is often intertwined with the traditional economy making it difficult to distinguish between them aimed at the sectors development on november 15 2021 the silicon mountains summit dedicated to introducing intelligent solutions in the economy was held in yerevan the main topic of the summit was the prospect of digitalization of the economy in armenia the main driving force of this sphere in armenia is the banks digital transformation is a necessity for banks and financial institutions at the moment acba bank is the leader industrial sector in 2017 industrial output increased by 126 annually reaching 1661 billion amd industrial output was relatively positive throughout 2010 with yearonyear average growth of 109 percent in the period january to september 2010 due largely to the mining sector where higher global demand for commodities led to higher prices according to the national statistical service during the januaryaugust 2007 period armenias industrial sector was the single largest contributor to the countrys gdp but remained largely stagnant with industrial output increasing only by 17 percent per year in 2005 armenias industrial output including electricity made up about 30 percent of gdp services sector in the 2000s along with the construction sector the services sector was the driving force behind armenias recent high economic growth rate between 2017 and 2019 armenias economy increased fast with annual rate of gdp growth averaging 68 percent following the political realignment of 2018 prudent macroeconomic policy helped develop a track record of macroeconomic stability and an enhanced business environment in armenia the service sector in 2020 reduced volumes by 147 against 15 growth a year earlier amounting to 17 trillion drams 35 billion according to the statistical committee a negative trend was recorded in all service segments except finance as well as information and communication retail trade in 2010 retail trade turnover was largely unaltered compared to 2009 the existing monopolies throughout the retail sector have made the sector nonresponsive to the crisis and resulted in near zero growth the aftermath of the crisis has started to shift the structure in the retail sector in favor of food products nowadays2019 armenia has improved standards of living and growing income which brought to the improvement of retail sector in armenia retail sector has the highest employment level while the sector improves currently the major sector is still in yerevan and not in the other cities of armenia the development that happened in this sector was the opening of dalma garden mall and later yerevan mall rio mall and rossia mall which dramatically increased the quality of retail in yerevan currently there is a new development as in gyumri there is a new mall opened called shirak mall another reason for the development of the retail is the development that happened in the banking industry today people can easily get financial assistance from the banks right to their credit cards without visiting the bank information and communication technologies as of february 2019 nearly 23 thousand employees were counted in ict sector with 404 thousand amd they enjoyed highest pay rate among surveyed sectors of economy average salaries in pure it sector excluding communications subsector stood at 582 thousand amd financial services in january 2019 there were 205 thousand employees registered in the financial sector according to moodys robust economic growth will benefit banks with gdp growth remaining robust at around 45 in 201920 industry report on banking sector prepared by amrating presents slightly varying figures for some of above data tourism tourism in armenia has been a key sector to the armenian economy since the 1990s when tourist numbers exceeded half a million people visiting the country every year mostly ethnic armenians from the diaspora the armenian ministry of economy reports that most international tourists come from russia eu states the united states and iran though relatively small in size armenia has four unesco world heritage sites despite internal and external problems the number of incoming tourists has been continually increasing 2018 saw a record high of over 16 million inbound tourists in 2018 receipts from international tourism amounted to 12 billion nearly twice the value for 2010 in per capita terms these stood at 413 ahead of turkey and azerbaijan but behind georgia in 2019 the largest growth at 272 was shown by accommodation and catering sector which came as a result of the growth of tourist flows financial system foreign debt the amount of interest paid on the public debt rose significantly from amd 11 billion in 2008 to amd 465 billion in 2013 as did the amount of principle repayments from annual repayments of us1516 million in 20052008 exceeding us150 million in 2013 this is a significant financial load on the state budget because of additional borrowings and lower concessionality of new loans the burden might rise in the future years in 2019 the armenian government planned to obtain about 490 million in fresh loans rising public debt to about 75 billion just over 69 billion of that would be the governments debt after reaching nearly 600 per cent of gdp the public debt to gdp ratio decreased by approximately three percentage points in 2018 compared with a year before and stood at 557 per cent at the end of 2018 the governments public debt at the end of 2019 stood at 694 billion making 503 of its gdp in march 2019 sovereign debt comprised 5488 million 865 million about 2 less than a year ago other sources quote armenias debt at 108 billion in september 2018 possibly including nonpublic debt too in 2018 debttogdp ratio stood at 557 down from 587 in 2017 armenia revised the countrys fiscal rules in 2018 setting a permissible threshold for public debt in the amount of 40 50 and 60 of gdp at the same time it established that in case of force majeure situations such as natural disasters wars the government will be allowed to exceed this threshold the debt rose by 8635 million in 2016 and by another 8325 million in 2017 it totalled just 19 billion before the 20082009 135 of gdp global financial crisis that plunged the county into a severe recession exchange rate of national currency national statistics office publishes official reference exchange rates for each year inflation for 2023 the imf forecasts inflation at 35 which is below most neighbouring countries the armenian government projects inflation at 27 in 2019 the inflation rate in armenia in 2020 was 121 percent a 023 percent decrease over 2019 in 2019 was 144 percent a 108 percent decrease over 2018 in 2018 was 252 percent up 155 percent from 2017 and in 2017 was 097 percent a 237 percent rise from 2016 cash remittances cash remittances sent back home from armenians working abroad mostly in russia and the united states contribute significantly to armenias gross domestic product making up 14 of gdp in 2018 they help armenia sustain doubledigit economic growth and finance its massive trade deficit in 2008 transfers reached record high of 23 billion in 2015 they reached 10year low at 16 billion in 2018 they run at round 18 billion 08 billion were transferred in first half of 2019 according to cba their impact on economy is decreasing as gdp grows at outperforming rate net private transfers decreased in 2009 but saw a continuous increase during the first six months of 2010 since private transfers from the diaspora tend to be mostly injected into consumption of imports and not in high valueadded sectors the transfers have not resulted in sizeable increases in productivity according to the central bank of armenia during the first half of 2008 cash remittances sent back to armenia by armenians working abroad rose by 575 percent and totaled us6686 million equivalent to 15 percent of the countrys firsthalf gross domestic product however the latter figures only represent cash remittances processed through armenian commercial banks according to rferl comparable sums are believed to be transferred through nonbank systems implying that cash remittances make up approximately 30 percent of armenias gdp in the first half of 2008 in 2007 cash remittances through bank transfers rose by 37 percent to a recordhigh level of us132 billion according to the central bank of armenia in 2005 cash remittances from armenians working abroad reached a recordhigh level of 1 billion which is worth more than one fifth of the countrys 2005 gdp banking the central bank has set additional capital buffers in the banking sector in force since april 2019 the regulator set three buffers exceeding the current capital adequacy requirement compliant with the basel iii regulation a capital conservation buffer a countercyclical capital buffer and a systemic risk buffer full implementation of the buffers over the course of the next few years will strengthen the financial sectors resistance to economic shocks and help increase the efficiency of macroprudential policies armenian banks lending grew by 10 percent in 2019 microfinance the establishment of microfinance institutions in armenia was dependent on them making a complementary effort to fill the gap in the financial services sector its primary goal was to deal with the rising unemployment and poverty brought on by transitory shock in this context selfemployment in the country emerged as one of the best options to unemployment commercial banking institutions in armenia overlooked microbusiness enterprises that lacked credit histories and sufficient funding microfinance has been proposed as an adaptable instrument to assist people in transition economies take advantage of new opportunities government revenues and taxation government revenues in august 2019 moodys investors service upgraded armenia to ba3 rating with stable outlook according to the national statistical service armenias government debt stood at amd 31 trillion about 64 billion including 51 billion of external debt as of november 30 2017 armenias debttogdp ratio will drop by 1 in 2018 according to finance minister in armenias external debt 55 billion as of january 1 2018 the arrears for multicountry credit programs dominate 662 or 36 billion followed by debt on bilateral loan programs 175 or 9589 million and investments of nonresidents in armenian eurobonds 154 or 8449 million for the whole armenian economy and international commerce 2020 was a year of decline in a variety of areas armenian commodities are being exported and imported at a lower rate according to the armenian statistical committee armenia exported goods worth 2544 billion in 2020 a fall of 39 percent from 2019 armenia imported items worth 4559 billion dollars in 2020 down 177 from the previous yearthe volume of armenias international trade has varied throughout the previous 10 years taxation employee income tax from january 1 2020 armenia will switch to a flat income taxation system which regardless of the amount will tax wages at 23 moreover until 2023 the taxation rate will gradually decrease from 23 to 20 corporate income tax the reform adopted in june 2019 aims to boost mediumterm economic activity and to increase tax compliance among other measures the corporate income tax was reduced by two percentage points to 180 per cent and the tax on dividends for nonresident organisations halved to 50 per cent special taxation for small business from january 1 2020 the republic will abandon two alternative tax systems selfemployed and family entrepreneurship they will be replaced by microentrepreneurship with a nontaxable threshold of up to 24 million drams business entities that carry out specialized activities in particular accounting advocacy and consulting will not be considered as microbusiness entities micro business will be exempted from all types of taxes other than income tax which will be 5 thousand drams per employee valueadded tax over half of the tax revenues in the januaryaugust 2008 time period were generated from valueadded taxes vat of 20 by comparison corporate profit tax generated less than 16 percent of the revenues this suggests that tax collection in armenia is improving at the expense of ordinary citizens rather than wealthy citizens who have been the main beneficiaries of armenias doubledigit economic growth in recent years vat value added tax in armenia vatpaying individuals subtract the vat paid on their inputs from the vat levied on their sales and account to the tax authorities for the difference the standard rate of vat on domestic sales of goods and services as well as imports importation is 20 exports of products and services are not taxed foreign trade direct investments and aid foreign trade exports according to the national statistical committee in 2018 exports amounted to 24119 billion having grown by 78 from the previous year after a boom of almost 93 in 2022 the imf expects exports of goods and services to grow by 22 in 2023 and 8 in 2024 the goods export structure changed considerably in 2018 as the export of the traditional mining sector decreased while the share of textiles agriculture and precious metals increased geographical location of the country and relatively low electricity costs are comparative advantages supporting to boost the production of the textile and leather products in armenia proximity to europe in comparison with manufacturers in east asia creates opportunity to strengthen armenias position as contract manufacturing destination for european brands foreign companies that put orders to armenian companies are mainly famous european brands particularly from italy la perla sartis versace etc and germany lebek international fashion kubler bekliedungswerk with the armenias entry into eurasian economic commission the opportunity to increase its presence with textile and leather production raised also in the countries of eurasian economic commission as no customs duty applies to armenian products in the export markets within the customs union according to the study regional and international trade of armenia perspectives and potentials authors investigated the trade potential of armenia for different product groups by employing a gravity model of trade approach the study explored armenias trade flows to 139 countries for the period of 2003 to 2007 according to the results of the paper the authors concluded that armenia has exceeded its export potential almost with all the cis countries in addition the authors concluded that the most perspective product groups of armenian export tend to be industrial products food and beverages and consumer goods on the other hand the paper the effects of exchange rate volatility on exports evidence from armenia analyzes the effect of armenian floating exchange rate regime and exchange rate volatility on armenian exports to russia according to the paper exchange rate volatility has longrun and shortrun negative effects on exports moreover authors stated that high exchange rate risk resulted in decreasing exports to russia according to most recent 2019 janfeb compared to 2018 janfeb armstat calculations biggest growth in export quantities was measured towards turkmenistan by 236 times from 37k to 912k estonia by 15 times from 84k to 1365k and canada by 115 times from 623k to 78 mln meanwhile exports to russia germany usa and uae dropped imports in 2017 armenia imported 396b making it the 133rd largest importer in the world during the last five years the imports of armenia have decreased at an annualized rate of 12 from 382b in 2012 to 396b in 2017 the most recent imports are led by petroleum gas which represent 821 of the total imports of armenia followed by refined petroleum which account for 546 armenias main imports are oil natural gas cereals rubber manufactures cork and wood and electrical machinery armenias main imports partners are russia china ukraine iran germany italy turkey france and japan the european union 287 of total exports russia 269 switzerland 141 and iraq 141 are armenias largest export partners 63 percent the russian federation is the most important import partner 262 followed by the eu 226 china 138 and iran 138 56 percent after the 2008 russiangeorgian conflict which briefly halted the nations hydrocarbon supply and exposed the countrys energy vulnerabilities the country has been looking for other energy sources tensions with its neighbors notably azerbaijan and turkey continue to exist affecting commerce armenias ties to russia as well as its membership in the eurasian economic union constrain the countrys potential to integrate further with the eu imports in 2017 amounted to 4183 billion up 278 from 2016 in 2018 the countrys structural trade imbalance was predicted to be 157 percent of gdp world bank according to world trade organization data armenia exported commodities worth us24 billion in 2018 up 7 from the previous year and imported goods worth us49 billion up 18 in terms of services the country exported us2 billion in 2018 and imported us21 billion the global economic crisis has had less impact on imports because the sector is more diversified than exports in the first nine months of 2010 imports grew about 19 percent just about equal to the decline of the same sector in 2009 deficit according to the national statistical service foreign trade deficit amounted to us194 billion in 2017 the current account deficit represented 24 percent of gdp in 2017 and increased up to 81 percent of gdp during the first three quarters of 2018 this was a result of about 8 percent increase in goods export and 21 percent increase on goods import in nominal terms year on year in 2018 armenias foreign trade turnover increased by 116 percent in januarymay 2021 compared to an 112 percent decline a year earlier owing to a reversal of the yoy dynamics of exports and imports from 81 to 128 percent decline to 20867 percent growth according to preliminary data from the ra statistical committee as a consequence armenias foreign trade turnover reached 15 trillion drams 29 billion with exports totaling 5674 billion drams 11 billion and imports being 9318 billion drams 18 billion resulting in a 3644 billion drams 695 million international trade deficit foreign trade turnover climbed by 39 percent in may 2021resulting to a 79 increase in exports and a minimal 15 percent increase in imports as a consequence armenias international trade deficit in may 2021 was 834 billion drams 160 million decreasing 74 from the same month in 2020 by 211 percent foreign trade turnover increased by 13 year over year in may 2020 due to a 307 percent increase in exports and a moderate 43 percent increase in imports partners european union in 2022 armenias bilateral trade with the eu topped 23 billion making the eu one of armenias biggest and most important economic partners euarmenia trade increased by 15 in 2018 reaching a total value of 11 billion in 2017 eu countries accounted for 243 percent of armenias foreign trade whereby exports to eu countries grew by 322 to 633 million in 2010 eu countries accounted for 321 percent of armenias foreign trade germany is armenias largest trading partner among eu member states accounting for 72 percent of trade this is due largely to mining exports armenian exports to eu countries have skyrocketed by 659 percent making up more than half of all 2010 january to september exports imports from eu countries increased by 171 percent constituting 225 percent of all imports during januaryfebruary 2007 armenias trade with the european union totaled 200 million during the first 11 months of 2006 the european union remained armenias largest trading partner accounting for 344 percent of its 285 billion commercial exchange during the 11month period russia and former soviet republics in the first quarter of 2019 share of russia in foreign trade turnover fell to 11 from 29 from the previous year 2017 cis countries accounted for 30 percent of armenias foreign trade exports to cis countries rose by 403 to 5795 million bilateral trade with russia stood at more than 700 million for the first nine months of 2010 on track to rebound to 1 billion mark first reached in 2008 prior to the global economic crisis during januaryfebruary 2007 armenias trade with russia and other former soviet republics was 2056 million double the amount from the same period the previous year making them the countrys number one trading partner during the first 11 months of 2006 the volume of armenias trade with russia was 3768 million or 132 percent of the total commercial exchange china in 2017 trade with china grew by 333 percent as of early 2011 trade with china is dominated by imports of chinese goods and accounts for about 10 percent of armenias foreign trade the volume of chinesearmenian trade soared by 55 percent to 390 million in januarynovember 2010 armenian exports to china though still modest in absolute terms nearly doubled in that period iran armenias trade with iran grew significantly from 2015 and 2020 because armenias land borders to the east and west have been closed by the governments of turkey and azerbaijan domestic firms have looked to iran as a key economic partner in 2020 trade between the countries exceeded 300 million the number of iranian tourists has risen in recent years with an estimated 80000 iranian tourists in 2010 in january 2021 irans finance minister farhad dejpasand said that trade between the two countries could reach 1 billion annually as iran looks to become a regional economic force united states from januaryseptember 2010 bilateral trade with the united states measured approximately 150 million on track for about a 30 percent increase over 2009 an increase in armenias exports to the us in 2009 and 2010 has been due to shipments of aluminum foil during the first 11 months of 2006 usarmenian trade totaled 1526 million georgia the volume of georgianarmenian trade remains modest in both relative and absolute terms according to official armenian statistics it rose by 11 percent to 916 million in januarynovember 2010 the figure was equivalent to just over 2 percent of armenias overall foreign trade turkey in 2019 the volume of bilateral trade with turkey was about 255 million with trade taking place across georgian territory this figure is not expected to increase significantly so long as the land border between the armenia and turkey remains closed foreign direct investments foreign direct investment fdi into armenia decreased by us27 million in december 2020 compared to a reduction of us103 million the previous quarter armenia foreign direct investment usd mn net flows data is available from march 1993 through december 2020 and is updated quarterly the statistics ranged from a high of us4259 million in december 2008 to a low of 676 usd mn in december 2014 armenias current account surplus is us517 million in december 2020 according to the most recent statistics in june 2021 armenian direct investment abroad increased by 128 million dollars in june 2021 it boosted its foreign portfolio investment by 146 million in december 2020 the countrys nominal gdp was reported to be 38 billion dollars yearly fdi figures despite robust economic growth foreign direct investment fdi in armenia remain low as of 2018 in januaryseptember 2019 the net flow of direct foreign investment in the real sector of the armenian economy stood at about 267 million jersey was the main source of fdi in 2017 moreover combined net fdi from all other sources was negative indicating capital outflow the tax haven jersey is home to an angloamerican company lydian international which is currently building a controversial massive gold mine in the southeastern vayots dzor province lydian has pledged to invest a total of 370 million in the amulsar gold mine negative values indicate investments of armenian corporations to foreign country exceeding investments from that country in armenia stock fdi fdi stock to gdp ratio grew continuously during 20142016 and reached 441 in 2016 surpassing average figures for commonwealth of independent states countries transition economies and the world by the end of 2017 stock net fdi for the period 19882017 reached 1824 billion amd while gross flow of fdi for the same period reached 3869 billion amd as of february 2019 the european investment bank eib has invested about 380 million euros in the various projects implemented in armenia fdi in founding capital of financial institutions during the sector consolidation process in 20142017 the share of foreign capital in the authorized capital of the armenian commercial banks decreased from 746 to 618 net fdi in founding capital of financial institutions accumulated by end of september 2017 is presented in pie chart below foreign aid united states the armenian government receives foreign aid from the government of the united states through the united states agency for international development and the millennium challenge corporation on march 27 2006 the millennium challenge corporation signed a fiveyear 23565 million compact with the government of armenia the single stated goal of the armenian compact is the reduction of rural poverty through a sustainable increase in the economic performance of the agricultural sector the compact includes a 67 million to rehabilitate up to 943 kilometers of rural roads more than a third of armenias proposed lifeline road network the compact also includes a 146 million project to increase the productivity of approximately 250000 farm households through improved water supply higher yields highervalue crops and a more competitive agricultural sector in 2010 the volume of us assistance to armenia remained near 2009 levels however longerterm decline continued the original millennium challenge account commitment for 235 million had been reduced to about 175 million due to armenias poor governance record thus the mcc would not complete road construction instead the irrigated agriculture project was headed for completion with apparently no prospects for extension beyond 2011 on may 8 2019 conditioned with the political events in armenia since april 2018 united states agency for international development signed an extension of usarmenia bilateral agreement in the area of governance and public administration which would add additional us85 million to the agreement by signing another document on the same day usaid increased the aid by additional us75 million in support for more competitive and diversified private sector in armenia the financial allocations will be directed to the financing of the usaidfunded project in infrastructures agriculture tourism after the signing of the new bilateral agreements the total amount of the us grants to armenia amounted to around us81 million european union according to the agreement signed in 2020 eu will provide armenia with 65 million euros for implementation of three programs in such areas as energy efficiency environment and community development and formation of tools for implementation of the comprehensive and enhanced partnership agreement with curtailment of the mcc funding the european union may replace the us as armenias chief source of foreign aid for the first time since independence from 2011 to 2013 the european union is expected to advance at least 1573 million 208 million in aid to armenia domestic business environment since transition of power to new leadership in 2018 armenian government works on improving domestic business environment numerous formerly privileged business are now required to pay taxes and officially register all workers mainly due to this there were 97 more payroll employees registered in january 2019 as compared to january 2018 in april 2019 armenian parliament approved reforms of management of joint stock companies effectively enacting a blocking minority shareholders stake of 25 to cope with shareholder oppression following the advice of economic advisers who cautioned armenias leadership against the consolidation of economic power in the hands of a few in january 2001 the government of armenia established the state commission for the protection of economic competition its members cannot be dismissed by the government foreign trade facilitation in june 2011 armenia adopted a law on free economic zones fez and developed several key regulations at the end of 2011 to attract foreign investments into fezs exemptions from vat value added tax profit tax customs duties and property tax the alliance fez was opened in august 2013 and currently has nine businesses taking advantage of its facilities the focus of alliance fez is on hightech industries which include information and communication technologies electronics pharmaceuticals and biotechnology architecture and engineering industrial design and alternative energy in 2014 the government expanded operations in the alliance fez to include industrial production as long as there is no similar production already occurring in armenia in 2015 another meridian fez focused on jewelry production watchmaking and diamondcutting opened in yerevan with six businesses operating in it the investment programs for these companies must still be approved by government the armenian government approved the program to construct the meghri free economic zone at the border with iran which is expected to open in 2017 controversial issues monopolies major monopolies in armenia include natural gas import and distribution held by gazprom armenia formerly named armrosgazprom controlled by russian monopoly gazprom armenias railway south caucasus railway owned by russian railways rzd electricity transmission and distribution see electricity sector in armenia newspaper distribution held by haymamul former notable monopolies in armenia wireless mobile telephony held by armentel until 2004 internet access held by armentel until september 2006 fixedline telephony held by armentel until august 2007 assumed unofficial monopolies until 2018 velvet revolution oil import and distribution claimed by armenian opposition parties to belonging to a handful of governmentlinked individuals one of which mika limited is owned by mikhail baghdasarian while the other flash is owned by barsegh beglarian a prominent representative of the karabakh clan aviation kerosene supplying to zvartnots airport held by mika limited various basic foodstuffs such as rice sugar wheat cooking oil and butter the salex group enjoys a de facto monopoly on imports of wheat sugar flour butter and cooking oil its owner was a parliament deputy samvel aleksanian aka lfik samo and close to the countrys leadership according to one analyst armenias economic system in 2008 was anticompetitive due to the structure of the economy being a type of monopoly or oligopoly the result is the prices with us do not drop even if they do on international market or they do quite belated and not to the size of the international market according to 2008 estimate of a former prime minister hrant bagratyan 55 percent of armenias gdp is controlled by 44 families in early 2008 the state commission for the protection of economic competition named 60 companies having dominant positions in armenia in october 2009 when visiting yerevan the world banks managing director ngozi okonjoiweala warned that armenia will not reach a higher level of development unless its leadership changes the oligopolistic structure of the national economy bolsters the rule of law and shows zero tolerance towards corruption i think you can only go so far with this economic model ngozi okonjoiweala told a news conference in yerevan armenia is a lower middleincome country if it wants to become a highincome or upper middleincome country it can not do so with this kind of economic structure that is clear she also called for a sweeping reform of tax and customs administration the creation of a strong and independent judicial system as well as a tough fight against government corruption the warning was echoed by the international monetary fund takeover of armenian industrial property by the russian state and russian companies since 2000 the russian state has acquired several key assets in the energy sector and sovietera industrial plants propertyfordebt or equityfordebt swaps acquiring ownership by simply writing off the armenian governments debts to russia are usually the method of acquiring assets the failure of market reforms clanbased economics and official corruption in armenia have allowed the success of this process in august 2002 the armenian government sold an 80 percent stake in the armenian electricity network aen to midland resources a british offshoreregistered firm which is said to have close russian connections in september 2002 the armenian government handed over armenias largest cement factory to the russian itera gas exporter in payment for its 10 million debt for past gas deliveries on november 5 2002 armenia transferred control of 5 state enterprises to russia in an assetsfordebts transaction which settled 100 million of armenian state debts to russia the document was signed for russia by prime minister mikhail kasyanov and industry minister ilya klebanov while prime minister andranik markarian and national security council secretary serge sarkisian signed for armenia the five enterprises which passed to 100 percent russian state ownership are armenias largest thermal gasburning power plant which is in the town of hrazdan mars electronics and robotics plant in yerevan a sovietera flagship for both civilian and military production three researchandproduction enterprises for mathematical machines for the study of materials and for automated control equipment these being sovietera militaryindustrial plants in january 2003 the armenian government and united company rusal signed an investment cooperation agreement under which united company rusal which already owned a 76 stake acquired the armenian governments remaining 26 share of rusal armenal aluminum foil mill giving rusal 100 ownership of rusal armenal on november 1 2006 the armenian government handed de facto control of the iranarmenia gas pipeline to russian company gazprom and increased gazproms stake in the russianarmenian company armrosgazprom from 45 to 58 by approving an additional issue of shares worth 119 million this left the armenian government with a 32 stake in armrosgazprom the transaction will also help finance armrosgazproms acquisition of the hrazdan electricity generating plants fifth power bloc hrazdan5 the leading unit in the country in october 2008 the russian bank gazprombank the banking arm of gazprom acquired 100 percent of armenian bank areximbank after previously buying 80 percent of said bank in november 2007 and 9415 percent in july of the same year in december 2017 government transferred natural gas distribution networks in cities meghri and agarak to gazprom armenia for costfree use construction of these was funded by foreign aid and costed about 13 billion amd nontransparent deals critics of the robert kocharyan government in office until 2008 say that the armenian administration never considered alternative ways of settling the russian debts according to economist eduard aghajanov armenia could have repaid them with lowinterest loans from other presumably western sources or with some of its hard currency reserves which then totaled about 450 million furthermore aghajanov points to the armenian governments failure to eliminate widespread corruption and mismanagement in the energy sector abuses that cost armenia at least 50 million in losses each year according to one estimate political observers say that armenias economic cooperation with russia has been one of the least transparent areas of the armenian governments work the debt arrangements have been personally negotiated by then defense minister and later president serge sarkisian initially kocharyans closest political associate other top government officials including former prime minister andranik markarian had little say on the issue furthermore all of the controversial agreements have been announced after sarkisians frequent trips to moscow without prior public discussion finally while armenia is not the only exsoviet state that has incurred multimilliondollar debts to russia over the past decades it is the only state to have so far given up such a large share of its economic infrastructure to russia for example prowestern ukraine and georgia both of which owe russia more than armenia have managed to reschedule repayment of their debts transportation routes and energy lines internal since early 2008 armenias entire rail network is managed by the russian state railway under brand south caucasus railways metros yerevan metro was launched in 1981 it serves 11 active stations buses yerevan central bus station also known as kilikia bus station is yerevans primary bus terminal linking buses to both domestic and foreign destinations roadways total length 8140 km world ranking 112 7700 km paved including 1561 km of expressways through georgia russian natural gas reaches armenia via a pipeline through georgia the only operational rail link into armenia is from georgia during soviet times armenias rail network connected to russias via georgia through abkhazia along the black sea however the rail link between abkhazia and other georgian regions has been closed for a number of years forcing armenia to receive rail cars laden with cargo only through the relatively expensive railferry services operating between georgian and other black sea ports the georgian black sea ports of batumi and poti process more than 90 percent of freight shipped to and from landlocked armenia the georgian railway which runs through the town of gori in central georgia is the main transport link between armenia and the aforementioned georgian seaports fuel wheat and other basic commodities are transported to armenia by rail armenias main rail and road bordercrossing with georgia at is at the debed river near the armenian town of bagratashen and the georgian town of sadakhlo the upper lars border crossing at darial gorge between georgia and russia across the caucasus mountains serves as armenias sole overland route to the former soviet union and europe it was controversially shut down by the russian authorities in june 2006 at the height of a russiangeorgian spy scandal upper lars is the only land border crossing that does not go through georgias russianbacked breakaway regions of south ossetia and abkhazia the other two roads linking georgia and russia run through south ossetia and abkhazia effectively barring them to international traffic through iran a new gas pipeline to iran has been completed and a road to iran through the southern city of meghri allows trade with that country an oil pipeline to pump iranian oil products is also in the planning stages as of october 2008 the armenian government was considering implementing an ambitious project to build a railway to iran the 400 kilometer railway would pass through armenias mountainous southern province of syunik which borders iran economic analysts say that the project would cost at least 1 billion equivalent to about 40 percent of armenias 2008 state budget as of 2010 the project has been continuously delayed with the rail link estimated to cost as much as 4 billion and stretch in june 2010 transport minister manuk vartanian revealed that yerevan is seeking as much as 1 billion in loans from china to finance the railways construction through turkey and azerbaijan the border closures by turkey and azerbaijan have severed armenias rail link between gyumri and kars the rail link with iran through the azeri exclave of nakhichevan and a natural gas and oil pipeline with azerbaijan also closed are road links with turkey and azerbaijan despite the economic blockade of turkey on armenia every day dozens of turkish trucks laden with goods enter armenia through georgia in 2010 it was confirmed that turkey will keep the border closed for the foreseeable future after the turkeyarmenia normalization process collapsed labor market labor occupation according to the 2018 hdi statistical update armenia had the highest percentage of employment in services 497 and lowest share in agriculture 344 among the south caucasus countries unionization in 2018 about 30 of wage workers were organized in unions at the same time rate of unionization was dropping at average rate of 1 since 1993 monthly wages according to preliminary figures from statistical committee of armenia monthly wages averaged to 172 thousand amd in february 2019 it is estimated that wages rise at 08 for each additional year of experience and the ability to solve problems and learn new skills yields a wage premium of nearly 20 percent unemployment it is reported that in 2020 there was a drop in the unemployment rate in armenia from 1699 in 2019 to 1663 in 2020 the statistical committee of armenia reported that in 2020 the unemployment rate has been volatile reaching to 198 during the first quarter of the year and then decreasing to 16 during the fourth quarter according to the latest reports on population of armenia in december 2020 the population consisted of 296million people and the average monthly earning during february 2021 was us36605 according to prime minister nikol pashinyan in january 2019 562043 payroll jobs were recorded against of 511902 in january 2018 an increase of 97statistical committee of armenia publication based on data retrieved from employers and national income service cites 560586 payroll positions in january 2019 an increase of 99 against previous year this however does not match survey data published by the statistical committee of armenia according to which in 4th quarter of 2018 there were 8701 thousand persons employed against 8967 thousand employed persons in 4th quarter of 2017 the mismatch was highlighted by former pm hrant bagratyan for the whole year of 2018 statistical committee of armenia survey counted 9155 thousand employed persons an increase of 14 against previous year in the same period unemployment rate of economically active population dropped from 208 to 204 the unemployment rate increased to 19 in 2018 before dropping to 183 in 2019 and 182 in 2020 having remained basically unchanged since 2009 at the same time an estimated 60 of workers were employed in the informal economy in 2019 the strong economic growth of 2021 and 2022 led to a significant drop in unemployment to 153 and 13 respectively causing a substantial reduction in the proportion of the population living below the world bank uppermiddle income economy poverty threshold of 685 per day from 517 in 2021 to 376 in 2023 world bank research also reveals that employment rate fell in years 20002015 in middle and lowskill occupations while it grew highskill occupations see also statistical committee of armenia publication in english labour market in the republic of armenia 2018 female unemployment in armenia worldwide womens unemployment rate is higher than mens by approximately 08 and equals 6 according to international labor organization armenia has the highest womens unemployment rate in postsoviet countries equaling 173 for women above 25 if we compare this rate to those of the neighboring countries latvia 86 georgia 77 azerbaijan 48 we can see that it is very high in 2017 the national statistical service of armenia stated that more than 60 of officially registered unemployed people in armenia are women one of the lecturers of yerevan state university ani kojoyan mentioned that even though there is no issue in the legislation that becomes a reason for womens unemployment however there are some issues that are not mentioned in the legislation some of those issues are the fact that potential employers consider womens marital status how many children they have or if they are planning to get pregnant any time soon moreover some women are not allowed to work by their husbands after graduating from higher educational institutions she mentions that the most crucial problem affecting this phenomenon is the fact women do not stand up for their rights it is also mentioned that according to various sources there is an inequality in mens and womens monthly wages in all the sectors the average monthly salary of men is much higher than women even with the same years of education it is stated that eliminating the discrimination between two genders would positively impact the countrys economy ani kojoyan mentions that this is a crucial problem for the economy except for being a womens rights violation thus the armenian government should take care that unemployed women can find jobs and become taxpayers migrant workers since gaining independence in 1991 hundreds of thousands of armenias residents have gone abroad mainly to russia in search of work unemployment has been the major cause of this massive labor emigration osce experts estimate that between 116000 and 147000 people left armenia for economic reasons between 2002 and 2004 with twothirds of them returning home by february 2005 according to estimates by the national statistical survey the rate of labor emigration was twice as higher in 2001 and 2002 according to an osce survey a typical armenian migrant worker is a married man aged between 41 and 50 years who began looking for work abroad at the age of 3233 for armenians another feature of migration was an increase in a variety of threats the journey itself was extremely dangerous to pay their way may departing migrants took out loans failed the whole familys future was put at a risk as a consequence the practice of delaying or refusing to pay part or all of a migrant workers wages has become common the risks were also heightened by many emigrants failure this type of migration inherited almost all of the negative characteristics that described pretransition labor migration during the workshop participants addressed the increasing importance of migration as a growth factor as well as the significance of sdg target 107 on anticipated and wellmanaged migration policies for armenia natural environment protection environmental project implementation unit implements projects related to natural environment protection armenias greenhouse gas emissions decreased 62 from 1990 to 2013 averaging 13 annually armenia is working on addressing its environmental problems ministry of environment has introduced a pollution fee system by which taxes are levied on air and water emissions and solid waste disposal see also armenia securities exchange diamond industry in armenia eurasian economic union geographical issues in armenia list of banks in armenia list of companies of armenia mercantilism in armenia notes sources books external links investment council of armenia fund for rural economic development armenia securities exchange armenia armenia | 10,978 |
1096 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport%20in%20Armenia | Transport in Armenia | this article considers transport in armenia railways total in common carrier service does not include industrial lines broad gauge 825 km of gauge 825 km electrified 1995 there is no service south of yerevan city with metro system yerevan international links azerbaijan closed same gauge georgia yes same gauge iran via azerbaijan closed break of gauge turkey closed break of gauge most of the crossborder lines are currently closed due to political problems however there are daily inbound and outbound trains connecting tbilisi and yerevan departing from yerevan railway station trains connect to both tbilisi and batumi from neighboring georgia trains depart to yerevan from tbilisi railway station within armenia new electric trains connect passengers from yerevan to armenias secondlargest city of gyumri the new trains run four times a day and the journey takes approximately two hours there is also discussion to establish a rail link between yerevan and tehran armenia is pursuing funding from the asian development bank to launch the construction of this infrastructure project the completion of the project could establish a major commodities transit corridor and would serve as the shortest transportation route between europe and the persian gulf in june 2019 iranian president hassan rouhani backed this project and stated that we want the persian gulf and the gulf of oman to be connected to the black sea and one of the ways to make this happen is through iran armenia and georgia metros the capital city of armenia yerevan is serviced by the yerevan metro the system was launched in 1981 and like most former soviet metros its stations are very deep 2070 meters underground and intricately decorated with national motifs the metro runs on a 134 kilometers 83 mi line and currently serves 10 active stations trains run every five minutes from 630 am until 11 pm local amt time as of 2017 the annual ridership of the metro is 162 million passengers free wifi is available at all stations and some trains buses international connections land borders are open with both georgia and iran yerevan central bus station also known as kilikia bus station is the main bus terminal in yerevan with buses connecting to both internal and international destinations there are daily bus connections between yerevan and tbilisi and yerevan and tehran approximately three times daily buses depart from yerevan central bus station to stepanakert the capital of the partially recognized state of artsakh there are also scheduled bus routes which connect yerevan with kyiv moscow saint petersburg as well as several other cities across russia it is also possible to connect to chișinău moldova minsk belarus and other cities in eastern europe from yerevan through connecting bus routes via georgia and ukraine in addition there is a once a week bus service to istanbul via georgia in june 2019 a new bus route from baghdad to yerevan via iran began local connections the armenian bus network connects all major cities towns and villages throughout the country in larger cities and towns such as yerevan gyumri vanadzor and armavir bus stations are equipped with a waiting room and a ticket office in other towns bus stations may not have shelters most of the routes are operated by gazelle minivans with a capacity of 15 passengers some routes are operated by soviet bus producer liaz russia yerevan itself has a large integrated bus network with a newly acquired bus fleet passengers are able to connect from one end of the city to the other wifi is available on most city buses despite this buses often have difficulty meeting the demand for capacity mainly in yerevan where vehicles are typically overcrowded there are no night services between 11 pm and 6 am there is no ticket system in the country passengers pay in cash to drivers passengers on the national bus network pay before boarding passengers on the yerevan bus network pay after the ride while leaving the vehicle timetables and fares are published on transport for armenia from yeritasardakan metro station in downtown yerevan travelers can take the 201 airport shuttle which goes directly to zvartnots international airport which takes approximately 20 minutes from the city center roadways since independence armenia has been developing its internal highway network the northsouth road corridor investment program is a major infrastructure project which aims at connecting the southern border of armenia with its northern by means of a 556 kmlong meghriyerevanbavra highway it is a major us15 billion infrastructure project funded by the asian development bank european investment bank and the eurasian development bank when completed the highway will provide access to european countries via the black sea it could also eventually interconnect the black sea ports of georgia with the major ports of iran thus positioning armenia in a strategic transport corridor between europe and asia armenia is pursuing further loans from china as part of the belt and road initiative to complete the northsouth highway armenia connects to european road networks via the international eroad network through various routes such as european route e117 european route e691 european route e001 and european route e60 armenia also connects to the asian highway network through routes ah81 ah82 and ah83 the number of insured registered cars in armenia has grown from 390457 in 2011 to 457878 in 2015 total 8140 km world ranking 112 paved 7700 km including 1561 km of expressways unpaved 0 km 2006 est pipelines natural gas 3838 km 2017 ports and harbors cargo shipments to landlocked armenia are routed through ports in georgia and turkey airports air transportation in armenia is the most convenient and comfortable means of getting into the country there are large international airports that accept both external and domestic flights throughout the republic as of 2020 11 airports operate in armenia however only yerevans zvartnots international airport and gyumris shirak airport are in use for commercial aviation there are three additional civil airports currently under reconstruction in armenia including syunik airport stepanavan airport and goris airport the leading armenian airlines in operation are armenia aircompany and armenia airways there are plenty of air connections between yerevan and other regional cities including athens barcelona beirut berlin bucharest brussels damascus doha dubai istanbul kyiv kuwait city london milan minsk moscow paris prague riga rome tehran telaviv tbilisi vienna venice and warsaw as well as daily connections to most major cities within the cis region statistics show that the number of tourists arriving in the country by air transportation increases yearly in 2018 passenger flow at the two main airports of armenia reached a record high of 2856673 million people in december 2019 yearly passenger flow exceeded 3000000 million people for the first time in armenias history in november 2019 the creation of a free route airspace fra between armenia and georgia was announced the process has been carried out through the joint efforts of the general department of civil aviation of armenia the georgian civil aviation administration and eurocontrol the free route airspace between the two south caucasus countries will increase flights to around 40000 annually country comparison to the world 153 airports with paved runways total 10 over 3047 m 9900 feet 2 1524 to 2437 m 7920 feet 2 914 to 1523 m 4950 feet 4 under 914 m 2 as of 2008 airports with unpaved runways total 1 1524 to 2437 m 0 914 to 1523 m 1 under 914 m 0 as of 2008 heliports armenia maintains a number of both military and civilian heliports the main military heliport is located on the premises of erebuni airport in yerevan meanwhile the company armenian helicopters based at zvartnots airport in yerevan offers charter flights within armenia and to certain neighboring countries including georgia russia and turkey helicopter services are delivered with the usmade robinson r66 and the european airbus ec130t2 choppers flights can be carried out as scheduled or on individual routes aerial tramways the wings of tatev is currently the worlds longest reversible aerial tramway which holds the record for longest nonstop doubletrack cable car and is located in the town of halidzor in october 2019 it was announced that investors were interested in creating an aerial tramway in the capital yerevan international transport agreements armenia cooperates in various international transportrelated organizations and agreements including the following eurocontrol european aviation safety agency paneuropean partner european civil aviation conference european common aviation area international civil aviation organization international road transport union international transport forum international union of railways associate member montreal convention tir convention traceca transeuropean transport networks see also economy of armenia general department of civil aviation of armenia ministry of transport and communication armenia tourism in armenia transport in europe transport in georgia country transport in the nagornokarabakh republic transport in the soviet union references external links | 1,464 |
1097 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armed%20Forces%20of%20Armenia | Armed Forces of Armenia | the armed forces of armenia sometimes referred to as the armenian army is the national military of armenia it consists of personnel branches under the general staff of the armenian armed forces which can be divided into two general branches the ground forces and the air force although it was partially formed out of the former soviet army forces stationed in the armenian ssr mostly units of the 7th guards army of the transcaucasian military district the military of armenia can be traced back to the founding of the first republic of armenia in 1918 being a landlocked country armenia has no navy the commanderinchief of the military is the president of armenia vahagn khachaturyan the ministry of defence is in charge of political leadership headed by suren papikyan while military command remains in the hands of the general staff headed by the chief of staff who is majorgeneral eduard asryan border guards subject to the ministry of defence until 2001 patrol armenias borders with georgia and azerbaijan while russian troops continue to monitor its borders with iran and turkey since 2002 armenia has been a member of the collective security treaty organization armenia signed a military cooperation plan with lebanon on 27 november 2015 history early armenian army an armenian military corps was established to fight against the ottomans during the turkisharmenian war in early 1918 in accordance with the treaty of batum of 4 june 1918 the ottoman empire demobilized most of the armenian army ethnic armenian conscripts and volunteers in the imperial russian army would later become the core of the military of the first armenian republic soviet era the 7th guards army was based in yerevan from 1946 to 1992 in the late 1980s the army consisted of directorate yerevan 15th motor rifle division kirovakan now vanadzor 75th motor rifle division nakhichevan 127th motor rifle division leninakan now gyumri 164th motor rifle division yerevan on 1 june 1992 itartass reported that general fyodor reut said that some units of the 7th guards army would begin leaving armenia in 1015 days the army was disbanded later that summer the former soviet air defense forces in armenia were drawn from the 14th air defense corps of the 19th separate air defense army 19881992 the modern armenian military entered its first stage at the beginning of the nagornokarabakh conflict when armenian militias were formed to combat azerbaijani units in artsakh on 20 september 1990 the first military unit was created the yerevan special regiment with the first oath being held in the republican assembly point and was attended by the first president of armenia levon terpetrosyan prime minister vazgen manukyan and defence minister vazgen sargsyan five battalions were also formed in ararat goris vardenis ijan and meghri in 1991 by the decision of the government the state committee of defense under the council of ministers which facilitated the task of coordinating the defense operations of armenia becoming the basis on which the ministry of defense was to be established later on post1992 armenia established a ministry of defence on 28 january 1992 the first military unit of the defence ministry to be formed was the 1st airborne regiment where the first armenian soldier took the oath to the nation that march since a significant part of the officers of the armed forces were fighters of the selfdefense volunteer detachments a center for raising the qualification of officers was established for their qualification and training which during its activity it provided about 1500 officergraduates the school of noncommissioned officers produced about 1000 graduates the treaty on conventional armed forces in europe was ratified by the armenian parliament in july 1992 the treaty establishes comprehensive limits on key categories of military equipment such as tanks artillery armored combat vehicles combat aircraft and combat helicopters and provides for the destruction of weaponry in excess of those limits armenian officials have consistently expressed determination to comply with its provisions and thus armenia has provided data on armaments as required under the cfe treaty despite this azerbaijan accuses armenia of diverting a large part of its military forces to nagornokarabakh and thus circumventing these international regulations in march 1993 armenia signed the multilateral chemical weapons convention which calls for the eventual elimination of chemical weapons armenia acceded to the nuclear nonproliferation treaty as a nonnuclear weapons state in july 1993 in addition to the branches of services listed above armenia established its own internal troops from the former soviet interior troops after the dissolution of the soviet union up until december 2002 armenia maintained a ministry of internal affairs but along with the ministry of national security it was reorganized as a nonministerial institution the two organizations became the police of armenia and the national security service organization and service branches the armenian armed forces are headquartered in yerevan where most of the general staff is based the general staff is responsible for operational command of the armenian military and its two major branches the armed forces also has the following personnel branches department of military preparedness department of military apparatus department of aviation department of missile troops department of air defence department of rear services department of signal troops department of the engineer troops department of armaments department of the rnbc defence troops medical department personnel department intelligence department strategic planning department mobilization department operative department department of military service security department of military commissars financial department human resources department ground forces according to iiss 2010 armenia has 20 t80 tanks 137 t72 tanks 8 t5455 tanks and 80 bmp1s 7 bmp1k 55 bmp2 and 12 brm1k wheeled apcs reported included 11 btr60s 21 btr70s 4 btr80s 145 mtlbs 5 bmd1s and 120 brdm2 scout vehicles although the russians have supplied newer equipment to armenia over the years the numbers have never been sufficient to upgrade all ground force formations and many of the lower readiness units still have older sovietlegacy systems that have not been upgraded or in many cases effectively maintained these older systems are placing great demands on the logistics system for service maintenance replacement parts and necessary upgrades costing the army both financially and in overall readiness the ground force is engaged in an effort of reassessment reorganisation and restructuring as the future of armenias defence needs a revised force structure and unit mix the army sees the need to maintain much of its traditional mechanised formations but is looking to lighten and make more mobile and selfsustainable a small number of other formations it must develop these newer formations to support its international requirements and effectively operate in mountainous and other rugged terrain but it must do this without affecting the mechanised capability that is needed to confront azerbaijans conventional forces since the fall of the soviet union armenia has followed a policy of developing its armed forces into a professional well trained and mobile military in 2000 the centre for international studies and research reported that at that time the armenian army had the strongest combat capability of the three south caucasus countries armies the other two being georgia and azerbaijan csto secretary nikolay bordyuzha came to a similar conclusion after collective military drills in 2007 when he stated that the armenian army is the most efficient one in the postsoviet space this was echoed more recently by igor korotchenko a member of the public council russian ministry of defense in a march 2011 interview with voice of russia radio the army is functionally divided into active and reserve forces their main functions include deterrence defense peace support and crisis management humanitarian and rescue missions as well as social functions within armenian society the active forces mainly have peacekeeping and defensive duties and are further divided into deployment forces immediate reaction and main defense forces the reserve forces consists of enhancement forces territorial defense forces and training grounds they deal with planning and reservist preparation armaments and equipment storage training of formations for active forces rotation or increase in personnel during peacetime the army maintains permanent combat and mobilization readiness they become part of multinational military formations in compliance with international treaties armenia is a signatory to participate in the preparation of the population the national economy and the maintenance of wartime reserves and the infrastructure of the country for defense in times of crisis the armys main tasks relate to participation in operations countering terrorist activities and defense of strategic facilities such as nuclear power plants and major industrial facilities assisting the security forces in proliferation of weapons of mass destruction illegal armaments traffic and international terrorism in case of low and mediumintensity military conflict the active forces that are part of the army participate in carrying out the initial tasks for the defense of the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country in case of a high intensity conflict the land forces together with the air force air defense and border guards form the defense group of the armenian armed forces aiming at countering aggression and protect the territorial integrity and sovereignty of the country experiments in developing small arms have been undertaken in armenia producing the k3 assault rifle but janes infantry weapons estimates that the program has ceased and the rifle is not in widespread service with the army the ak74 is the standard issue rifle of the armenian army with older akms in reserve use beside ak rifles armenian forces use mostly russian small arms like the makarov pistol svd sniper rifle and the pkm general purpose machine gun air force and air defense the armenian air force consists of 15 su25 ground attack planes 18 su30 jet fighters 1 mig 25 16 mil mi24 helicopter gunships 6 l39 trainer and attack aircraft 16 yak52 trainer aircraft 3 il76 cargo planes 18 mil mi8 transport helicopters and 10 mil mi2 light utility helicopters there are an additional 18 mig29 fighter jets of the russian 102nd military base stationed in gyumri the armenian antiaircraft branch was equipped and organized as part of the military reform program of lieutenantgeneral norat tergrigoryants it consists of an antiaircraft missile brigade and two regiments armed with 100 antiaircraft complexes of various models and modifications including the sa8 krug s75 s125 sa7 sa10 sa13 sa16 and sa18 russia has sa6 and s300 long range surfacetoair missiles at the russian 102nd military base there are also 24 scud ballistic missiles with eight launchers numerical strength is estimated at 3000 servicemen with plans for further expansion in late december 2010 the armenian defense minister seyran ohanyan officially acknowledged that the army are equipped with the russianmade s300 surfacetoair missiles the statement was made while the minister was inspecting a new airdefense command point that maintains stateoftheart equipment built specifically for the operation of the s300s russian specialist started to train armenian teams on sophisticated missiles and defensive systems the s300 was paraded for the first time in the 2011 parade and the only s300 missile system sa10 grumble which likes mobility the s300 is the main air defensive system that protects armenias air security in the 2016 armenian parade celebrating the armenian independence bukm2 air defense systems were shown these systems were not part of the 200 million dollar contract agreement between yerevan and moscow but an agreement between csto partners other devices such as stem of electronic warfare ew infauna and p325u consist in the armenian armed forces military of artsakh in addition to forces mentioned above there are around 20000 active soldiers defending nagornokarabakh a disputed territory which seceded from azerbaijan in 1991 and is now a de facto independent state they are well trained and well equipped with the latest in military software and hardware the karabakh armys heavy military hardware includes 316 tanks 324 armored vehicles 322 artillery pieces of calibers over 122 mm 44 multiple rocket launchers and a new antiaircraft defense system in addition the nkr defence army maintains a small airforce of 2 su25s 5 mi24s and 5 other helicopters personnel the armed forces of armenia is constitutionally a conscript force but there is also a growing number of professional officers there were roughly 19000 conscripts and 23000 professionals serving in 2017 enlistment which is performed twice a year is handled by military commissariats male draftees between the ages of 18 and 27 are obliged to present themselves in the commissariats for registration people who have changed their citizenship or have dual citizenship are also subject to conscription unless they have already served in the armed forces of another country since 2003 conscientious objectors can apply for alternative service draft evaders can not be appointed to public service positions citizens who have completed military service are registered in the reserve and are divided into rank and file noncommissioned and commissioned staff of the reserve reservists can be called up to training musters and exercises in peacetime reserve obligation lasts up to the age of 50 educational institutions national defense research university vazgen sargsyan military university monte melkonian military academy armenak khanperyants military aviation university yerevan state medical university military faculty foreign institutions for armenian soldiers military academy of modena école spéciale militaire de saintcyr hellenic military academy military university of the ministry of defense of the russian federationcollege of military finance higher military education is provided by the national defense research university in yerevan it was established in 2016 on the basis of the institute for national strategic studies the i have the honour state program is an educational program of the ministry of defence that serves conscripts in the army participants of the program are given the right to defer conscription in favor of education in postsecondary institutions with full reimbursement of tuition fees after which the conscript is awarded the rank of lieutenant and is appointed to the service for a period of 2 years and 3 months contract service a contractual military service is a service last for 312 months or for a term of three or five years males under 36 who have not previously served as contract servicemen and are registered in the reserve can be enrolled in contractual military service as privates felons and those not fit for service are ineligible for contract service since 2008 sergeant training courses for contract servicemen have operated in the armed forces and since 2013 the duration of the courses has three months the courses are open to reservist privates under the age of 25 conscription military service in armenia is mandatory citizens aged 27 to 50 are registered in the reserve and may be drafted if a national mobilization was declared the enlistment process is handled by the military commissariats in january and may dual citizens are not be exempt from the draft if one fails to follow through with their obligations a criminal case is then instituted which could lead to 3 years in jail the following military commissariats operate in armenia yerevan conscription and mobilization service no1 territorial subdivision no2 territorial subdivision no3 territorial subdivision no4 territorial subdivision ashtarak aragatsotn regional subdivision artashat ararat regional subdivision armavir armavir regional subdivision martuni gegharkunik regional subdivision abovyan kotayk regional subdivision vanadzor lori regional subdivision gyumri shirak regional subdivision goris syunik regional subdivision ijevan tavush regional subdivision yeghegnadzor vayots dzor province regional subdivision the armed forces also sport the following volunteer units sisakan regiment erato detachment vanadzor volunteer detachment homeland detachment arf battalion tigran the great international military regiment women in the armed forces during the first nagornokarabakh war in the early 90s at least 115 armenian women were known to have taken part in combat operations many women from the diaspora arrived to serve in noncombat missions the first woman to have been given a significant position in the military was zhanna galstyan who was appointed deputy commander of the central district defensive unit after the formation of the artsakh defense army more than 2000 women currently serve in the army with most working in administrative positions or in liaison and medical units in october 2016 a program approved by the national assembly committed the military to creating additional opportunities for women serving in the army or seeking military service defense minister vigen sargsyan at the time told the mps that it would be wrong not to let them women reach their full potential the erato detachment was the first allwomen military unit in the armenian armed forces being created after of clashes between the azerbaijani army and armenia occurred in july 2020 anna hakobyan the wife of the current prime minister of armenia nikol pashinyan underwent a week long combat readiness program with women from the republic of artsakh who joined the unit minorities during the 2020 war a group of yazidi reservists formed a reserve military unit that joined the frontline in karabakh the unit was led by rzgan sarhangyan and is composed of 50 soldiers aged between 18 and 55 equipment the armenian army operates a wide variety of older equipment mostly of soviet origin there is also some newer equipment from russia in 2015 a us200m loan was ratified by russia for the purchase of modern weapons between 2015 and 2017 armenia produces its own combat helmets and body armors through the works of a joint armenianpolish company some personal equipment used by special units future assault shell technology helmets plate carriers and special pouches is imported armenia also produces most of its small arms with only specialised units being imported following the 2016 nagornokarabakh clashes the helsinki citizens assembly released a report which detailed the circumstances of death of armenian servicemen among the contributing factors were stated to be malfunctioning equipment and lack of necessary materiel especially ammunition this was followed by plans to increase armenian defense spending to purchase more weapons and ammunition armenia is not a significant exporter of conventional weapons but it has provided support including material to the armenians of nagornokarabakh during the nagornokarabakh conflict international military cooperation russia russia is one of the closest allies of armenia the russian 102nd military base the former 127th motor rifle division is stationed in gyumri the military alliance of the two nations and in particular the presence of russian troops on armenian soil has been a key element of armenias national security doctrine since armenia gained independence in 1991 russia stations an estimated 5000 soldiers of all types in armenia including 3000 officially reported to be based at the 102nd military base in 1997 the two countries signed a farreaching friendship treaty which calls for mutual assistance in the event of a military threat to either party and allows russian border guards to patrol armenias frontiers with turkey and iran in early 2005 the 102nd military base had 74 tanks 17 battle infantry vehicles 148 armored personnel carriers 84 artillery pieces 18 mig29 fighters one battery of sa6 and two batteries of s300 antiaircraft missiles however in 20052007 following an agreement on the withdrawal of two russian military bases from georgia a great deal of military hardware was moved to the 102nd base from the russian 12th military base in batumi and the 62nd military base at akhalkalaki georgia russia also supplies weapons at the relatively lower prices of the russian domestic market as part of a collective security agreement since january 2004 according to unconfirmed reports by the azeri media russia has supplied 1 billion worth of arms and ammunitions to armenia in 1996 and handed over an additional 800 million worth of arms to armenia in 20082009 according to azernews the weapons in this latest transfer include 21 tanks 12 armored vehicles five other battle machines a great number of rocket launchers over 1050 cases of grenades nearly 7900 types of ammunition 120 grenade launchers over 4000 submachine guns tnt fuses mines of various types 14 minelaunchers 9 grad launchers five cannons and other weapons officer training is another sphere of russianarmenian military cooperation in the first years of sovereignty when armenia lacked a military educational establishment of its own officers of its army were trained in russia even now when armenia has a military college on its own territory the armenian officer corps honors the tradition and is trained at russian military educational establishments in 1997 600 armenian servicemen were being trained at russian military academies the training was conducted by the marshal bagramyan training brigade at the first meeting of the joint russianarmenian government panel for militarytechnical cooperation that took place during autumn 2005 prime minister mikhail fradkov reported that russian factories will participate in the armenian program of military modernization and that russia is prepared to supply the necessary spare parts and equipment in accordance with this agreement armenia and russia agreed to work together in exporting weapons and other military equipment to third countries in december 2009 the export agreement was signed by defense minister seyran ohanyan and a visiting senior russian official konstantin biryulin during a meeting of a russianarmenian intergovernmental commission on bilateral militarytechnical cooperation the agreement envisages the two countries interaction in exporting military production to third countries which will help to strengthen the armed forces of the two states and further cement the already close russianarmenian military cooperation a russianarmenian defense agreement signed in august 2010 extends russias military presence in armenia till 2044 and commits russia to supplying armenia with modern and compatible weaponry and special military hardware at reduced prices at the beginning of 2009 azerbaijani media published allegations that russia had made extensive weapons transfers to armenia throughout 2008 costing about 800 million on 12 january 2009 the russian ambassador was invited to the azerbaijani ministry of foreign affairs and asked about this information on 21 january 2009 russian ministry of foreign relations officially denied the transfers according to the materials published by wikileaks in december 2010 azerbaijani defence minister safar abiyev claimed that in january 2009 during his visit to moscow his russian counterpart anatoly serdyukov unofficially had admitted to weapons transfers after the second bottle of vodka that evening although officially it was denied in june 2013 it was revealed that russia has deployed in armenia several iskanderm ballistic missiles systems which are stationed at undisclosed locations in the country collective security treaty organisation on 7 october 2002 the presidents of armenia belarus kazakhstan kyrgyzstan russia and tajikistan signed a charter in tashkent founding the collective security treaty organisation csto russian организация договора о коллективной безопасности одкбodkb or simply ташкентский договор the tashkent treaty nikolai bordyuzha was appointed secretary general of the new organisation on 23 june 2006 uzbekistan became a full participant in the csto and its membership was formally ratified by its parliament on 28 march 2008 furthermore the csto is an observer organisation at the united nations general assembly the charter reaffirmed the desire of all participating states to abstain from the use or threat of force signatories would not be able to join other military alliances or other groups of states while aggression against one signatory would be perceived as an aggression against all to this end the csto holds yearly military command exercises for the csto nations to have an opportunity to improve interorganisation cooperation the largestscale csto military exercise held to date were the rubezh 2008 exercises hosted in armenia where a combined total of 4000 troops from all 7 constituent csto member countries conducted operative strategic and tactical training with an emphasis towards furthering the efficiency of the collective security element of the csto partnership the ministry of defense of armenia has repeatedly stated that it would expect direct military assistance from the csto in case war with azerbaijan resumes as recently as december 2009 defense minister ohanyan made the same statement in august 2009 nikolay bordyuzha the cstos secretarygeneral confirmed that official yerevan can count on such support on 4 february 2009 an agreement to create the collective rapid reaction force ksor was reached by five of the seven csto members with plans finalized on 14 june 2009 armenia is one of the five member states the force is intended to be used to repulse military aggression conduct antiterrorist operations fight transnational crime and drug trafficking and neutralize the effects of natural disasters nato armenia participates in natos partnership for peace pip program and it is in a nato organization called euroatlantic partnership council eapc armenia is in the process of implementation of individual partnership action plans ipaps which is a program for those countries that have the political will and ability to deepen their relationship with nato cooperative best effort exercise the first where russia was represented was run on armenian territory in 2003 france on 5 october 2023 following the 2023 azerbaijani offensive in nagornokarabakh france announced that it would send defense aid to the armenian military greece greece is armenias closest ally in nato and the two cooperate on multiple issues a number of armenian officers are trained in greece every year and military aidmaterial assistance has been provided to armenia in 2003 the two countries signed a military cooperation accord under which greece will increase the number of armenian servicemen trained at the military and militarymedical academies in athens in february 2003 armenia sent 34 peacekeepers to kosovo where they became part of the greek contingent officials in yerevan have said the armenian military plans to substantially increase the size of its peacekeeping detachment and counts on greek assistance to the effort in june 2008 armenia sent 72 peacekeepers to kosovo for a total of 106 peacekeepers baltic states lithuania has been sharing experience and providing consultations to the armenian defense ministry in the field of democratic control of armed forces military and defense concepts and public relations since 2002 since 2004 armenian officers have been invited to study at the lithuanian war academy and the baltic defence college in tartu estonia lithuania covers all study expenditures in early 2007 two armenian officers for the first time took part in a baltic lead international exercise amber hope which was held in lithuania united states the united states has been steadily upping its military clout in the region in early 2003 the united states department of defense announced several major military programs in the caucasus washingtons military aid to armenia in 2005 amounted to 5 million and in april 2004 the two sides signed a militarytechnical cooperation accord in late 2004 armenia deployed a unit of 46 soldiers which included bombdisposal experts doctors and transport specialists to iraq as part of the americanled multinational force iraq in 2005 the united states allocated 7 million to modernize the military communications of the armenian armed forces since 2003 armenia and the kansas national guard have exchanged military delegations as part of a national guard bureau program to promote better relations between the united states and developing nations the program has largely consisted of mutual visits to each others countries in an effort to share ideas and the best practices for military and emergency management eagle partner 2023 was a military exercise which took place in armenia from 11 september to 20 september 2023 the main goal of the exercise was the fortifying of the alliance between the united states with armenia and also the training of the 12th peacekeeping brigade of the armed forces of armenia for future peacekeeping missions peacekeeping operations as of 2022 armenia is involved in peacekeeping operations in kosovo afghanistan lebanon mali and kazakhstan kosovo there are 70 armenian soldiers serving in kosovo as peacekeepers armenia joined the kosovo force in kosovo in 2004 armenian blue helmets serve within the greek army battalion the relevant memorandum was signed on 3 september 2003 in yerevan and ratified by the armenian parliament on 13 december 2003 the sixth deployment of armenian peacekeepers departed for kosovo on 14 november 2006 in 2008 the armenian national assembly voted unanimously to double the peacekeeping force in kosovo by sending an extra 34 peacekeepers to the region increasing the total number of peacekeepers in the region to 68 armenia temporarily withdrew its peacekeepers from kosovo in february 2012 as a result of the reduction of the greek subdivisions armenia redeployed them in july to serve alongside american soldiers in kosovo iraq after the end of the invasion of iraq armenia deployed a unit of 46 peacekeepers under polish command armenian peacekeepers were based in alkut from the capital of baghdad on 23 july 2006 the fourth shift of armenian peacekeepers departed for iraq the shift included 3 staff commanders 2 medical officers 10 combat engineers and 31 drivers throughout the length of the deployment there was one armenian wounded and no deaths the armenian government extended the small troop presence in iraq by one year at the end of 2005 and 2006 on 7 october 2008 armenia withdrew its contingent of 46 peacekeepers this coincided with the withdrawal of the polish contingent in iraq afghanistan armenia deployed 130 soldiers in afghanistan as part of the natoled international security assistance force isaf they were serving under german command protecting an airport in kunduz lebanon in 2014 armenia deployed 33 peacekeepers to lebanon as part of unifil they currently serve under the italian contingent and fulfill headquarter security functions mali in 2015 one peacekeeper was dispatched to mali on a monitoringpeacekeeping mission kazakhstan in 2022 armenia sent around 100 servicemen to kazakhstan as part of the collective security treaty organization peacekeeping forces nikol pashinyan who serves as the csto chairman confirmed that the alliance will send peacekeepers to kazakhstan for a limited period given the threat to national security and the sovereignty of kazakhstan due to the 2022 kazakh protests references external links armenian ministry of defense | 4,934 |
1098 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign%20relations%20of%20Armenia | Foreign relations of Armenia | since its independence armenia has maintained a policy of trying to have positive and friendly relations with iran russia and the west including the united states and the european union it has full membership status in a number of international organizations such as the council of europe and the eurasian economic union and observer status etc in some others however the dispute over the armenian genocide of 1915 and the ongoing nagornokarabakh conflict have created tense relations with two of its immediate neighbors azerbaijan and turkey the ministry of foreign affairs implements the foreign policy agenda of the government of armenia and organizes and manages diplomatic services abroad since august 2021 ararat mirzoyan serves as the minister of foreign affairs of armenia foreign relations armenia is a member of more than 70 different international organizations including the following asian development bank collective security treaty organization and the commonwealth of independent states council of europe the eus eastern partnership and the euronest parliamentary assembly the uns eastern european group eurocontrol european bank for reconstruction and development european political community eurasian economic union eurasian development bank and the eurasian customs union federation of euroasian stock exchanges international bank for reconstruction and development international monetary fund interpol la francophonie natos euroatlantic partnership council individual partnership action plan and partnership for peace organization for security and cooperation in europe organization of the black sea economic cooperation traceca united nations world bank the world customs organization and the world trade organization armenia is also an observer member of the asean interparliamentary assembly the community of democratic choice the nonaligned movement the organization of american states the pacific alliance the arab league the community of democracies a dialogue partner in the shanghai cooperation organisation and a regional member of the asian infrastructure investment bank armenian genocide recognition as of 2023 34 states have officially recognized the historical events as genocide parliaments of countries that recognize the armenian genocide include argentina armenia austria belgium bolivia brazil bulgaria canada chile cyprus czech republic france germany greece italy latvia lebanon libya lithuania luxembourg mexico the netherlands paraguay poland portugal russia slovakia sweden switzerland syria united states uruguay vatican city and venezuela additionally some regional governments of countries recognize the armenian genocide too such as new south wales and south australia in australia as well as scotland northern ireland and wales in the united kingdom us house resolution 106 was introduced on 30 january 2007 and later referred to the house committee on foreign affairs the bill has 225 cosponsors the bill called for former president george w bush to recognize and use the word genocide in his annual 24 april speech which he never used his successor president barack obama expressed his desire to recognize the armenian genocide during the electoral campaigns but after being elected did not use the word genocide to describe the events that occurred in 1915 the us house of representatives formally recognized the armenian genocide with house resolution 296 on 29 october 2019 the united states senate unanimously recognized the genocide with senate resolution 150 on 12 december 2019 in 2021 president joe biden became the first us president to formally recognize the armenian genocide as of 2022 all 50 us states have also recognized the events as genocide disputes nagornokarabakh conflict armenia provides political material and military support to the republic of artsakh in the longstanding nagornokarabakh conflict the current conflict over nagornokarabakh began in 1988 when armenian demonstrations against azerbaijani rule broke out in nagornokarabakh and later in armenia the nagornokarabakh autonomous oblast voted to secede from azerbaijan and join armenia soon violence broke out against armenians in azerbaijan and azeris in armenia in 1990 after violent episodes in nagornokarabakh and azerbaijani cities like baku sumgait and kirovabad moscow declared a state of emergency in karabakh sending troops to the region and forcibly occupied baku killing over a hundred civilians in april 1991 azerbaijani militia and soviet forces targeted armenian populations in karabakh known as operation ring moscow also deployed troops to yerevan following the collapse of the soviet union conflict escalated into a fullscale war between the nagornokarabakh republic supported by armenia and azerbaijan military action was influenced by the russian military which manipulated the rivalry between the two neighbouring sides in order to keep both under control more than 30000 people were killed in the fighting during the period of 1988 to 1994 in may 1992 armenian forces seized shusha and lachin thereby linking nagornokarabakh to armenia by october 1993 armenian forces succeeded in taking almost all of former nkao lachin and large areas in southwestern azerbaijan in 1993 the un security council adopted four resolutions calling for the cessation of hostilities unimpeded access for international humanitarian relief efforts and the eventual deployment of a peacekeeping force in the region fighting continued however until may 1994 at which time russia brokered a ceasefire between the three sides negotiations to resolve the conflict peacefully have been ongoing since 1992 under the minsk group of the organization for security and cooperation in europe the minsk group is cochaired by russia france and the united states and has representation from turkey the us several european nations armenia and azerbaijan despite the 1994 ceasefire sporadic violations sniperfire and land mine incidents continue to claim over 100 lives each year since 1997 the minsk group cochairs have presented three proposals to serve as a framework for resolving the conflict each proposal was rejected beginning in 1999 the presidents of azerbaijan and armenia initiated a direct dialogue through a series of facetoface meetings often facilitated by the minsk group cochairs the osce sponsored a round of negotiations between the presidents in key west florida us secretary of state colin powell launched the talks on 3 april 2001 and the negotiations continued with mediation by the us russia and france until 6 april 2001 the cochairs are still continuing to work with the two presidents in the hope of finding lasting peace the two countries are still at war citizens of armenia as well as citizens of any other country who are of armenian descent are forbidden entry to azerbaijan if a persons passport shows evidence of travel to nagornokarabakh they are forbidden entry to azerbaijan in 2008 in what became known as the 2008 mardakert skirmishes armenian forces and azerbaijan clashed over nagornokarabakh the fighting between the sides was brief with few casualties on either side the 2020 nagornokarabakh war was the latest escalation of the unresolved conflict countries without diplomatic relations armenia does not have diplomatic relations with the following countries organized by continent africa botswana lesotho são tomé and príncipe south sudan the americas barbados asia azerbaijan pakistan pakistan is the only country in the world that does not recognize armenia saudi arabia turkey yemen oceania marshall islands papua new guinea samoa solomon islands tonga armenia also has no diplomatic relations with states with limited recognition except for the republic of artsakh countries with diplomatic relations armenia has diplomatic relations with the following countries afghanistan albania algeria andorra angola antigua and barbuda argentina australia austria bahamas bahrain bangladesh belarus belgium belize benin bhutan bolivia brazil brunei darussalam bulgaria burkina faso burundi cambodia cameroon canada cape verde central african republic chad chile china colombia comoros costa rica croatia cuba cyprus czech republic denmark djibouti dominica dominican republic democratic republic of the congo republic of the congo east timor ecuador egypt el salvador equatorial guinea eritrea estonia eswatini ethiopia fiji finland france gabon the gambia georgia germany ghana greece grenada guatemala guinea guineabissau haiti holy see honduras hungary iceland india indonesia iran iraq ireland israel italy ivory coast jamaica japan jordan kazakhstan kenya kiribati north korea south korea kuwait kyrgyzstan laos latvia lebanon liberia libya liechtenstein lithuania luxembourg madagascar malawi malaysia maldives mali malta mauritania mexico micronesia moldova monaco mongolia montenegro morocco mozambique myanmar namibia nauru nepal netherlands new zealand nicaragua niger nigeria north macedonia norway oman palau panama paraguay peru philippines poland portugal qatar romania russia rwanda saint kitts and nevis saint lucia saint vincent and the grenadines san marino senegal serbia seychelles sierra leone singapore slovakia slovenia somalia south africa spain sri lanka sudan suriname sweden switzerland syria tajikistan tanzania thailand togo trinidad and tobago tunisia turkmenistan tuvalu uganda ukraine the united arab emirates the united kingdom the united states of america uruguay vanuatu venezuela vietnam zambia and zimbabwe notes on some of these relations follow organized by continent multilateral bilateral africa the americas asia europe oceania other international organizations armenia is additionally a full member unless otherwise noted in the following international organizations programs and treaties see also armenia and the united nations armeniabsec relations armenia in the council of europe armeniaeuropean union relations armenianato relations armeniaosce relations armenian diaspora armenian population by urban area euronest parliamentary assembly foreign relations of artsakh list of ambassadors of armenia list of diplomatic missions in armenia list of diplomatic missions of armenia list of ministers of foreign affairs of armenia politics of europe visa policy of armenia visa requirements for armenian citizens footnotes references external links argentina list of treaties ruling the relations argentina and armenia argentine foreign ministry in spanish canada armenian embassy in ottawa canadian ministry of foreign affairs and international trade about relations with armenian chile chilean senate recognition of the armenian genocide in spanish only czech armenian embassy in london british foreign and commonwealth office about relations with armenia british embassy in yerevan denmark danish foreign ministry development program with armenia nato iskandaryan alexandernato and armenia a long game of complementarism in the caucasus analytical digest no 5 international khachatrian haroutiun foreign investments in armenia influence of the crisis and other peculiarities in the caucasus analytical digest no 28 | 1,617 |
1110 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics%20of%20American%20Samoa | Demographics of American Samoa | demographics of american samoa include population density ethnicity education level health of the populace economic status religious affiliations and other aspects american samoa is an unincorporated territory of the united states located in the south pacific ocean vital statistics births and deaths structure of the population population statistics the statistics from 1900 to 1950 and every decennial census are from the us census bureau there was no census taken in 1910 but a special census taken in 1912 beginning with the 1930 census swain island is included in the population count for american samoa the remaining statistics are from the world factbook unless otherwise indicated population approximately 55212 but the factbook states 49437 2020 estimate about 65 of the population are us nationals of whom at least 10 are us citizens of the foreignborn population 81 are from samoa 9 are from other parts of oceania and 9 are from asia age structure 014 years 2776 male 7063female 6662 1524 years 1816 male 4521female 4458 2554 years 3749 male 9164female 9370 5564 years 969 male 2341female 2447 65 years and over 69 male 1580female 1831 2020 est median age total 272 years male 267 years female 277 years 2020 est population growth rate 21 2021 est birth rate 1719 births1000 population 2021 est death rate 6 deaths1000 population 2021 est net migration rate 3218 migrants1000 population 2021 est urbanization urban population 872 of total population 2020 rate of urbanization 007 annual rate of change 201520 est sex ratio at birth 106 malesfemale 014 years 106 malesfemale 1524 years 101 malesfemale 2554 years 098 malesfemale 5564 years 096 malesfemale 65 years and over 086 malesfemale total population 1 malesfemale 2020 est infant mortality rate total 1025 deaths1000 live births male 1239 deaths1000 live births female 8 deaths1000 live births 2021 est life expectancy at birth total population 7506 years male 7255 years female 7772 years 2021 est total fertility rate 228 children bornwoman 2021 est nationality noun american samoans us nationals adjective american samoan ethnic groups pacific islander 926 includes samoan 889 tongan 29 other 08 asian 36 includes filipino 22 other 14 mixed 27 other 12 2010 est religions christian 983 other 1 unaffiliated 07 2010 est major christian denominations on the island include the congregational christian church in american samoa the catholic church the church of jesus christ of latterday saints and the methodist church of samoa collectively these churches account for the vast majority of the population j gordon melton in his book claims that the methodists congregationalists with the london missionary society and catholics led the first christian missions to the islands other denominations arrived later beginning in 1895 with the seventhday adventists various pentecostals including the assemblies of god church of the nazarene jehovahs witnesses and the church of jesus christ of latterday saints the world factbook 2010 estimate shows the religious affiliations of american samoa as 983 christian other 1 unaffiliated 07 world christian database 2010 estimate shows the religious affiliations of american samoa as 983 christian 07 agnostic 04 chinese universalist 03 buddhist and 03 baháʼí according to pew research center 983 of the total population is christian among christians 595 are protestant 197 are catholic and 192 are other christians a major protestant church on the island gathering a substantial part of the local protestant population is the congregational christian church in american samoa a reformed denomination in the congregationalist tradition the church of jesus christ of latterday saints website claims membership of 16180 or onequarter of the whole population with 41 congregations and 4 family history centers in american samoa the jehovahs witnesses claim 210 ministers of the word and 3 congregations languages native languages include samoan 886 english 39 tongan 27 other pacific islander 3 other 18 2010 est english proficiency is very high references economy of american samoa geography of american samoa society of american samoa american samoa | 648 |
1111 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politics%20of%20American%20Samoa | Politics of American Samoa | politics of american samoa takes place in a framework of a presidential representative democratic dependency whereby the governor is the head of government and of a pluriform multiparty system american samoa is an unincorporated and unorganized territory of the united states administered by the office of insular affairs us department of the interior its constitution was ratified in 1966 and came into effect in 1967 executive power is discharged by the governor and the lieutenant governor legislative power is vested in the two chambers of the legislature the party system is based on the united states party system the judiciary is independent of the executive and the legislature there is also the traditional village politics of the samoan islands the and the which continues in american samoa and in independent samoa and which interacts across these current boundaries the is the language and customs and the the protocols of the council and the chiefly system the and the take place at all levels of the samoan body politic from the family to the village to the region to national matters the chiefs are elected by consensus within the of the extended family and villages concerned the and the which is itself made of decide on distribution of family exchanges and tenancy of communal lands the majority of lands in american samoa and independent samoa are communal a can represent a small family group or a great extended family that reaches across islands and to both american samoa and independent samoa government the government of american samoa is defined under the constitution of american samoa as an unincorporated territory the ratification act of 1929 vested all civil judicial and military powers in the president who in turn delegated authority to the secretary of the interior in the secretary promulgated the constitution of american samoa which was approved by a constitutional convention of the people of american samoa and a majority of the voters of american samoa voting at the 1966 election and came into effect in 1967 the governor of american samoa is the head of government and along with the lieutenant governor of american samoa is elected on the same ticket by popular vote for fouryear terms the legislative power is vested in the american samoa fono which has two chambers the house of representatives has 21 members serving twoyear terms being 20 representatives popularly elected from various districts and one nonvoting delegate from swains island elected in a public meeting the senate has 18 members elected for fouryear terms by and from the chiefs of the islands the judiciary of american samoa is composed of the high court of american samoa a district court and village courts the high court is led by a chief justice and an associate justice appointed by the secretary of the interior other judges are appointed by the governor upon the recommendation of the chief justice and confirmed by the senate elections international organization participation united nations economic and social commission for asia and the pacific associate interpol subbureau international olympic committee pacific community see also political party strength in american samoa american samoas atlarge congressional district references | 524 |
1112 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy%20of%20American%20Samoa | Economy of American Samoa | the economy of american samoa is a traditional polynesian economy in which more than 90 of the land is communally owned economic activity is strongly linked to the united states with which american samoa conducts the great bulk of its foreign trade tuna fishing and processing plants are the backbone of the private sector with canned tuna being the primary export transfers from the us federal government add substantially to american samoas economic wellbeing attempts by the government to develop a larger and broader economy are restrained by samoas remote location its limited transportation and its devastating hurricanes statistics gdp purchasing power parity 537 million 2007 est country comparison to the world 210 gdp official exchange rate 4622 million 2005 gdp real growth rate 3 2003 country comparison to the world 139 gdp per capita purchasing power parity 7874 2008 country comparison to the world 120 gdp composition by sector agriculture na industry na services na 2002 labor force 17630 2005 country comparison to the world 203 labor force by occupation government 33 tuna canneries 34 other 33 1990 unemployment rate 238 2010 country comparison to the world 175 population below poverty line na 2002 est household income or consumption by percentage share lowest 10 na highest 10 na inflation rate consumer prices na 2003 est budget revenues 1554 million 37 in local revenue and 63 in us grants expenditures 1836 million fy07 agriculture products bananas coconuts vegetables taro breadfruit yams copra pineapples papayas dairy products livestock industries tuna canneries largely dependent on foreign fishing vessels handicrafts industrial production growth rate na electricity production 180 gwh 2006 country comparison to the world 179 electricity production by source fossil fuel 100 hydro 0 nuclear 0 other 0 2001 electricity consumption 1674 gwh 2006 country comparison to the world 179 electricity exports 0 kwh 2007 electricity imports 0 kwh 2007 oil production 2007 est country comparison to the world 209 oil consumption 604 m³d 2006 country comparison to the world 170 oil exports 2005 country comparison to the world 142 oil imports 2005 country comparison to the world 166 natural gas production 0 cu m 2007 country comparison to the world 208 natural gas consumption 0 cu m 2007 country comparison to the world 207 natural gas exports 0 cu m 2007 country comparison to the world 202 natural gas imports 0 cu m 2007 country comparison to the world 201 natural gas proved reserves 0 cu m 2006 country comparison to the world 205 exports 4456 million 2004 country comparison to the world 167 exports commodities canned tuna 93 2004 exports partners indonesia 70 australia 67 japan 67 samoa 67 2002 imports 3088 million 2004 country comparison to the world 195 imports commodities materials for canneries 56 food 8 petroleum products 7 machinery and parts 6 2004 imports partners australia 366 new zealand 203 south korea 163 mauritius 49 2002 debt external na 2002 est economic aid recipient na note important financial support from the us more than 40 million in 1994 currency us dollar usd currency code usd exchange rates us dollar is used fiscal year 1 october 30 september references external links httpwwwclassbraincomart_crpublishamerican_samoa_economyshtml | 524 |
1129 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%2013 | August 13 | events pre1600 29 bc octavian holds the first of three consecutive triumphs in rome to celebrate the victory over the dalmatian tribes 523 john i becomes the new pope after the death of pope hormisdas 554 emperor justinian i rewards liberius for his service in the pragmatic sanction granting him extensive estates in italy 582 maurice becomes emperor of the byzantine empire 900 count reginar i of hainault rises against zwentibold of lotharingia and slays him near presentday susteren 1099 raniero is elected as pope paschal ii who would become deeply entangled in the investiture controversy 1516 the treaty of noyon between france and spain is signed francis i of france recognizes charless claim to naples and charles v holy roman emperor recognizes franciss claim to milan 1521 after an extended siege forces led by spanish conquistador hernán cortés capture tlatoani cuauhtémoc and conquer the aztec capital of tenochtitlan 1532 union of brittany and france the duchy of brittany is absorbed into the kingdom of france 1536 buddhist monks from kyoto japans enryakuji temple set fire to 21 nichiren temples throughout kyoto in what will be known as the tenbun hokke disturbance 1553 michael servetus is arrested by john calvin in geneva switzerland as a heretic 16011900 1624 the french king louis xiii appoints cardinal richelieu as prime minister 1645 sweden and denmark sign peace of brömsebro 1650 colonel george monck of the english army forms moncks regiment of foot which will later become the coldstream guards 1704 war of the spanish succession battle of blenheim english and imperial forces are victorious over french and bavarian troops 1779 american revolutionary war the royal navy defeats the penobscot expedition with the most significant loss of united states naval forces prior to the attack on pearl harbor 1792 king louis xvi of france is formally arrested by the national tribunal and declared an enemy of the people 1806 battle of mišar during the serbian revolution begins the battle ends two days later with a serbian victory over the ottomans 1814 the convention of london a treaty between the united kingdom and the united netherlands is signed in london england 1868 the 8590 arica earthquake struck southern peru with a maximum mercalli intensity of xi extreme causing 25000 deaths and a destructive basin wide tsunami that affected hawaii and new zealand 1889 william gray of hartford connecticut is granted united states patent number 408709 for coincontrolled apparatus for telephones 1898 spanishamerican war spanish and american forces engage in a mock battle for manila after which the spanish commander surrendered in order to keep the city out of filipino rebel hands 1898 carl gustav witt discovers 433 eros the first nearearth asteroid to be found 1900 the steamer deutschland of hamburg america lines set a new record for the eastward passage when it docked on plymouth england five days 11 hours and 45 minutes after sailing from new york breaking by three hours six minutes its previous mark in its maiden voyage in july 1901present 1905 norwegians vote to end the union with sweden 1906 the all black infantrymen of the us armys 25th infantry regiment are accused of killing a white bartender and wounding a white police officer in brownsville texas despite exculpatory evidence all are later dishonorably discharged their records were later restored to reflect honorable discharges but there were no financial settlements 1913 first production in the uk of stainless steel by harry brearley 1918 women enlist in the united states marine corps for the first time opha may johnson is the first woman to enlist 1918 bayerische motoren werke ag bmw established as a public company in germany 1920 polishsoviet war the battle of warsaw begins and will last till august 25 the red army is defeated 1937 second sinojapanese war the battle of shanghai begins 1942 major general eugene reybold of the us army corps of engineers authorizes the construction of facilities that would house the development of substitute materials project better known as the manhattan project 1944 world war ii german troops begin the pillage and razing of anogeia in crete that would continue until september 5 1954 radio pakistan broadcasts the qaumī tarāna the national anthem of pakistan for the first time 1960 the central african republic declares independence from france 1961 cold war east germany closes the border between the eastern and western sectors of berlin to thwart its inhabitants attempts to escape to the west and construction of the berlin wall is started the day is known as barbed wire sunday 1964 peter allen and gwynne evans are hanged for the murder of john alan west becoming the last people executed in the united kingdom 1967 two young women became the first fatal victims of grizzly bear attacks in the 57year history of montanas glacier national park in separate incidents 1968 alexandros panagoulis attempts to assassinate the greek dictator colonel georgios papadopoulos in varkiza athens 1969 the apollo 11 astronauts enjoy a ticker tape parade in new york city that evening at a state dinner in los angeles they are awarded the presidential medal of freedom by us president richard nixon 1973 aviaco flight 118 crashes on approach to a coruña airport in a coruña spain killing 85 1977 members of the british national front nf clash with antinf demonstrators in lewisham london resulting in 214 arrests and at least 111 injuries 1978 one hundred fifty palestinians in beirut are killed in a terrorist attack during the second phase of the lebanese civil war 1990 a mainland chinese fishing boat min ping yu no 5202 is hit by a taiwanese naval vessel and sinks in a repatriation operation of mainland chinese immigrants resulting in 21 deaths this is the second tragedy less than a month after min ping yu no 5540 incident 2004 one hundred fiftysix congolese tutsi refugees are massacred at the gatumba refugee camp in burundi 2008 russogeorgian war russian units occupy the georgian city of gori 2015 at least 76 people are killed and 212 others are wounded in a truck bombing in baghdad iraq 2020 israelunited arab emirates relations are formally established births pre1600 985 alhakim biamr allah fatimid caliph d 1021 1311 alfonso xi king of castile and león d 1350 1567 samuel de champlain french explorer d 1635 1584 theophilus howard 2nd earl of suffolk english admiral and politician lord lieutenant of cumberland d 1640 1592 william count of nassausiegen german count field marshal of the dutch state army d 1642 16011900 1625 rasmus bartholin danish physician mathematician and physicist d 1698 1662 charles seymour 6th duke of somerset english politician lord president of the council d 1748 1666 william wotton english linguist and scholar d 1727 1700 heinrich von brühl polishgerman politician d 1763 1717 louis françois prince of conti d 1776 1756 james gillray english caricaturist and printmaker d 1815 1764 louis baraguey dhilliers french general d 1813 1790 william wentworth australian journalist explorer and politician d 1872 1803 vladimir odoyevsky russian philosopher and critic d 1869 1814 anders jonas ångström swedish physicist and astronomer d 1874 1818 lucy stone american abolitionist and suffragist d 1893 1819 sir george stokes 1st baronet angloirish mathematician and physicist d 1903 1820 george grove english musicologist and historian d 1900 1823 goldwin smith englishcanadian historian and journalist d 1910 1831 salomon jadassohn german pianist and composer d 1902 1841 johnny mullagh australian cricketer d 1891 1842 charles wells english brewer founded charles wells ltd d 1914 1849 leonora barry irishborn american social activist d 1930 1851 felix adler germanamerican religious leader and educator d 1933 1860 annie oakley american target shooter d 1926 1866 giovanni agnelli italian businessman founded fiat spa d 1945 1867 george luks american painter and illustrator d 1933 1871 karl liebknecht german politician cofounded social democratic party of germany d 1919 1872 richard willstätter germanswiss chemist and academic nobel prize laureate d 1942 1879 john ireland english composer and educator d 1962 1884 harry dean english cricketer and coach d 1957 1888 john logie baird scottish engineer invented the television d 1946 1888 gleb w derujinsky russianamerican sculptor d 1975 1889 camillien houde canadian lawyer and politician 34th mayor of montreal d 1958 1895 istván barta hungarian water polo player d 1948 1895 bert lahr american actor d 1967 1898 jean borotra french tennis player d 1994 1898 regis toomey american actor d 1991 1899 alfred hitchcock englishamerican director and producer d 1980 1899 josé ramón guizado panamanian politician 17th president of panama d 1964 1901present 1902 felix wankel german engineer d 1988 1904 buddy rogers american actor and musician d 1999 1904 margaret tafoya native american pueblo potter d 2001 1906 chuck carroll american football player and lawyer d 2003 1906 art shires american baseball player and boxer d 1967 1907 basil spence scottish architect designed coventry cathedral d 1976 1908 gene raymond american actor and pilot d 1998 1911 william bernbach american advertiser cofounded ddb worldwide d 1982 1912 claire cribbs american basketball player and coach d 1985 1912 ben hogan american golfer and sportscaster d 1997 1912 salvador luria italianamerican microbiologist and academic nobel prize laureate d 1991 1913 makarios iii greek archbishop and politician 1st president of cyprus d 1977 1913 fred davis english snooker player d 1998 1914 grace bates american mathematician and academic d 1996 1917 sid gordon american baseball player d 1975 1918 noor hassanali trinidadian lawyer and politician 2nd president of trinidad and tobago d 2006 1918 frederick sanger english biochemist and academic nobel prize laureate d 2013 1919 rex humbard american evangelist and television host d 2007 1919 george shearing english jazz pianist and bandleader d 2011 1920 neville brand american actor d 1992 1921 louis frémaux french conductor d 2017 1921 jimmy mccracklin american bluesrb singersongwriter and pianist d 2012 1921 mary lee scottish singer d 2022 1922 chuck gilmur american basketball player coach and educator d 2011 1925 benny bailey american trumpet player songwriter and producer d 2005 1925 josé alfredo martínez de hoz argentine executive and policy maker d 2013 1926 fidel castro cuban lawyer and politician expresident of cuba d 2016 1928 john tidmarsh english journalist and radio host d 2019 1929 pat harrington jr american actor d 2016 1930 wilfried hilker german footballer and referee 1930 don ho american singer and ukulele player d 2007 1930 bernard manning english comedian d 2007 1930 wilmer mizell american baseball player and politician d 1999 1930 bob wiesler american baseball player d 2014 1933 joycelyn elders american admiral and physician 15th surgeon general of the united states 1935 alex de renzy american director and producer d 2001 1935 mudcat grant american baseball player and sportscaster d 2021 1938 dave baby cortez american rb pianist organist and composer 1938 bill masterton canadian ice hockey player d 1968 1940 bill musselman american basketball player and coach d 2000 1942 hissène habré chadian politician and war criminal 5th president of chad d 2021 1943 fred hill american football player 1943 ertha pascaltrouillot president of haiti 1943 michael willetts english sergeant george cross recipient d 1971 1944 kevin tighe american actor 1945 lars engqvist swedish politician deputy prime minister of sweden 1945 gary gregor american basketball player 1945 robin jackman indianenglish cricketer and sportscaster d 2020 1945 howard marks welsh cannabis smuggler writer and legalisation campaigner d 2016 1946 janet yellen american economist 78th united states secretary of the treasury 1947 fred stanley american baseball player and manager 1947 john stocker canadian voice actor and director 1947 margareta winberg swedish politician deputy prime minister of sweden 1948 kathleen battle american operatic soprano 1949 jim brunzell american wrestler 1949 bobby clarke canadian ice hockey player and manager 1949 philippe petit french tightrope walker 1949 willy rey dutchcanadian model d 1973 1950 jane carr english actress 1950 rusty gerhardt american baseball player coach and manager 1951 dan fogelberg american singersongwriter and guitarist d 2007 1952 dave carter american singersongwriter and guitarist d 2002 1952 gary gibbs american football player and coach 1952 suzanne muldowney american performance artist 1952 herb ritts american photographer and director d 2002 1952 hughie thomasson american singersongwriter and guitarist d 2007 1952 eugenio lopez iii filipino businessperson ceo and chairman of abscbn corporation 1953 tom cohen american philosopher theorist and academic 1953 ron hilditch australian rugby league player and coach 1953 thomas pogge german philosopher and academic 1953 peter wright english historian and author 1954 nico assumpção brazilian bass player d 2001 1955 keith ahlers english race car driver 1955 hideo fukuyama japanese race car driver 1955 paul greengrass english director and screenwriter 1956 rohinton fali nariman judge of the supreme court of india 1958 david feherty northern irish golfer and sportscaster 1958 feargal sharkey northern irish singersongwriter 1958 randy shughart american sergeant medal of honor recipient d 1993 1959 danny bonaduce american actor and wrestler 1959 bruce french english cricketer and coach 1959 tom niedenfuer american baseball player 1960 ivar stukolkin estonian swimmer 1961 koji kondo japanese composer and sound director 1961 dawnn lewis american actress 1961 neil mallender english cricketer and umpire 1961 tom perrotta american novelist and screenwriter 1962 john slattery american actor director producer and screenwriter 1963 steve higgins american talk show cohost and announcer writer producer comedian and impressionist 1963 valerie plame american cia agent and author 1963 sridevi indian actress d 2018 1964 jay buhner american baseball player and sportscaster 1964 debi mazar american actress 1964 tom prince american baseball player and manager 1965 mark lemke american baseball player coach and radio host 1965 hayato matsuo japanese composer and conductor 1966 scooter barry american basketball player 1966 shayne corson canadian ice hockey player 1967 quinn cummings american actress author and entrepreneur 1967 dave jamerson american basketball player 1967 digna ketelaar dutch tennis player 1968 tal bachman canadian singersongwriter 1968 todd hendricks american football player and coach 1968 tony jarrett english sprinter and hurdler 1969 midori ito japanese figure skater 1970 will clarke american author 1970 elvis grbac american football player and coach 1970 seana kofoed american actress 1970 alan shearer english footballer and manager 1971 patrick carpentier canadian race car driver 1971 adam housley american baseball player and journalist 1971 moritz bleibtreu german actor 1972 kevin plank american businessman founded under armour 1973 molly henneberg american journalist 1973 eric medlen american race car driver d 2007 1974 scott macrae american baseball player and coach 1974 joe perry english snooker player 1974 niklas sundin swedish musician and artist 1974 jarrod washburn american baseball player and coach 1975 shoaib akhtar pakistani cricketer 1975 marty turco canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1976 geno carlisle american basketball player 1976 nicolás lapentti ecuadorian tennis player 1977 michael klim polishaustralian swimmer 1977 kenyan weaks american basketball player and coach 1978 dwight smith american football player 1979 román colón dominican baseball player 1979 corey patterson american baseball player 1979 taizō sugimura japanese politician 1980 murtz jaffer canadian journalist 1982 christopher raeburn english fashion designer 1982 sarah huckabee sanders american political consultant and press secretary 1982 sebastian stan romanianamerican actor 1983 dallas braden american baseball player 1983 aleš hemský czech ice hockey player 1983 ľubomír michalík slovak footballer 1983 christian müller german footballer 1984 alona bondarenko ukrainian tennis player 1984 niko kranjčar croatian footballer 1984 boone logan american baseball player 1984 james morrison english singersongwriter and guitarist 1985 gerrit van look german rugby player and coach 1987 jose lorenzo diokno filipino director producer and screenwriter 1987 devin mccourty american football player 1987 jason mccourty american football player 1987 jamie reed welsh footballer 1988 keith benson american basketball player 1988 jerry hughes american football player 1988 brandon workman american baseball player 1989 greg draper new zealand footballer 1989 justin greene american basketball player 1989 israel jiménez mexican footballer 1990 demarcus cousins american basketball player 1990 benjamin stambouli french footballer 1991 dave days american singersongwriter and guitarist 1991 lesley doig scottish lawn bowler 1992 katrina gorry australian football player 1992 lucas moura brazilian footballer 1992 alicja tchórz polish swimmer 1992 taijuan walker american baseball player 1993 moses mbye australian rugby league player 1994 filip forsberg swedish ice hockey player 1996 antonia lottner german tennis player 1998 dalma gálfi hungarian tennis player 1999 lennon stella canadian singer and actress 2000 na jaemin south korean rapper singer dancer and actor deaths pre1600 587 radegund frankish princess and saint b 520 604 wen emperor of the sui dynasty b 541 612 fabia eudokia byzantine empress b 580 662 maximus the confessor byzantine theologian 696 takechi japanese prince 900 zwentibold king of lotharingia b 870 908 almuktafi abbasid caliph 981 gyeongjong king of goryeo korea b 955 1134 irene of hungary byzantine empress b 1088 1297 nawrūz mongol emir 1311 pietro gradenigo doge of venice 1382 eleanor of aragon queen of castile b 1358 1447 filippo maria visconti duke of milan b 1392 1523 gerard david flemish painter b 1460 16011900 1608 giambologna italian sculptor b 1529 1617 johann jakob grynaeus swiss clergyman and theologian b 1540 1667 jeremy taylor irish bishop and saint b 1613 1686 louis maimbourg french priest and historian b 1610 1721 jacques lelong french priest and author b 1665 1744 john cruger danishamerican businessman and politician 39th mayor of new york city b 1678 1749 johann elias schlegel german poet and critic b 1719 1766 margaret fownesluttrell english painter b 1726 1795 ahilyabai holkar queen of indore b 1725 1826 rené laennec french physician invented the stethoscope b 1781 1863 eugène delacroix french painter and lithographer b 1798 1865 ignaz semmelweis hungarian physician and obstetrician b 1818 1900 collis potter huntington american railway magnate b 1821 1901present 1910 florence nightingale italianenglish nurse and theologian b 1820 1912 jules massenet french composer b 1842 1917 eduard buchner german chemist nobel prize laureate b 1860 1934 mary hunter austin american author and playwright b 1868 1937 sigizmund levanevsky soviet aircraft pilot of polish origin b 1902 1946 h g wells english novelist historian and critic b 1866 1954 demetrius constantine dounis greek violinist and mandolin player b 1886 1958 francis j mccormick american football basketball player and coach b 1903 1963 louis bastien french cyclist and fencer b 1881 1965 hayato ikeda japanese lawyer and politician 58th prime minister of japan b 1899 1971 w o bentley english race car driver and engineer founded bentley motors limited b 1888 1975 murilo mendes brazilian poet and telegrapher b 1901 1978 lonnie mayne american wrestler b 1944 1979 andrew dasburg american painter and sculptor b 1887 1984 tigran petrosian georgianarmenian chess player b 1929 1986 helen mack american actress b 1913 1989 tim richmond american race car driver b 1955 1989 larkin i smith american police officer and politician b 1944 1991 james roosevelt american general and politician b 1907 1995 alison hargreaves english mountaineer b 1963 1995 jan křesadlo czechenglish psychologist and author b 1926 1995 mickey mantle american baseball player and sportscaster b 1931 1996 antónio de spínola portuguese general and politician 14th president of portugal b 1910 1998 nino ferrer italianfrench singersongwriter and guitarist b 1934 1998 edward ginzton ukrainianamerican physicist and academic b 1915 1998 julien green american author b 1900 1998 rafael robles dominicanamerican baseball player b 1947 1999 ignatz bubis german jewish religious leader b 1927 1999 jaime garzón colombian journalist and lawyer b 1960 2000 nazia hassan pakistani singersongwriter b 1965 2001 otto stuppacher austrian race car driver b 1947 2001 jim hughes american baseball player and manager b 1923 2001 betty cavanna american author b 1909 2003 ed townsend american singersongwriter and producer b 1929 2004 julia child american chef author and television host b 1912 2005 miguel arraes brazilian lawyer and politician b 1916 2005 david lange new zealand lawyer and politician 32nd prime minister of new zealand b 1942 2006 tony jay english actor and singer b 1933 2006 jon nödtveidt swedish musician b 1975 2007 brian adams american wrestler b 1964 2007 brooke astor american philanthropist and socialite b 1902 2007 phil rizzuto american baseball player and sportscaster b 1917 2008 henri cartan french mathematician and academic b 1904 2008 bill gwatney american politician b 1959 2008 jack weil american businessman b 1901 2009 lavelle felton american basketball player b 1980 2010 panagiotis bachramis greek footballer b 1976 2010 lance cade american wrestler b 1981 2010 edwin newman american journalist and author b 1919 2011 tareque masud bangladeshi director producer and screenwriter b 1957 2011 mishuk munier bangladeshi journalist and cinematographer b 1959 2012 hugo adam bedau american philosopher and academic b 1926 2012 helen gurley brown american journalist and author b 1922 2012 ray jordon australian cricketer and coach b 1937 2012 johnny pesky american baseball player and manager b 1919 2012 joan roberts american actress and singer b 1917 2013 lothar bisky german politician b 1941 2013 aaron selber jr american businessman and philanthropist b 1927 2013 jean vincent french footballer and manager b 1930 2014 frans brüggen dutch flute player and conductor b 1934 2014 eduardo campos brazilian politician 14th brazilian minister of science and technology b 1965 2014 martino finotto italian race car driver b 1933 2014 süleyman seba turkish footballer and manager b 1926 2015 watban ibrahim altikriti iraqi politician iraqi minister of interior b 1952 2015 bob fillion canadian ice hockey player and manager b 1920 2015 om prakash munjal indian businessman and philanthropist cofounded hero cycles b 1928 2016 kenny baker english actor and musician b 1934 2016 pramukh swami maharaj indian hindu leader b 1921 2018 jim neidhart american wrestler b 1955 2021 nanci griffith american singersongwriter b 1953 holidays and observances christian feast day benedetto sinigardi benildus romançon centola and helen cassian of imola clara maass lutheran church fachtna of rosscarbery florence nightingale octavia hill lutheran church herulph hippolytus of rome jeremy taylor anglican communion john berchmans junian of mairé blessed marco daviano maximus the confessor nerses glaietsi catholic church pope pontian radegunde wigbert august 13 eastern orthodox liturgics independence day celebrates the independence of central african republic from france in 1960 international lefthanders day international womens day commemorates the enaction of tunisian code of personal status in 1956 tunisia world organ donation day references 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1130 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avicenna | Avicenna | ibn sina 980 june 1037 ce commonly known in the west as avicenna was the preeminent philosopher and physician of the muslim world flourishing during the islamic golden age serving in the courts of various iranian rulers he is often described as the father of early modern medicine his philosophy was of the muslim peripatetic school derived from aristotelianism his most famous works are the book of healing a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia and the canon of medicine a medical encyclopedia which became a standard medical text at many medieval universities and remained in use as late as 1650 besides philosophy and medicine avicennas corpus includes writings on astronomy alchemy geography and geology psychology islamic theology logic mathematics physics and works of poetry avicenna wrote most of his philosophical and scientific works in arabic but also wrote several key works in persian while his poetic works were written in both languages of the 450 works he is believed to have written around 240 have survived including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine name is a latin corruption of the arabic patronym ibn sīnā meaning son of sina however avicenna was not the son but the greatgreatgrandson of a man named sina his formal arabic name was abū ʿalī alḥusayn bin ʿabdullāh ibn alḥasan bin ʿalī bin sīnā albalkhi albukhari circumstances avicenna created an extensive corpus of works during what is commonly known as the islamic golden age in which the translations of byzantine grecoroman persian and indian texts were studied extensively grecoroman mid and neoplatonic and aristotelian texts translated by the kindi school were commented redacted and developed substantially by islamic intellectuals who also built upon persian and indian mathematical systems astronomy algebra trigonometry and medicine the samanid dynasty in the eastern part of persia greater khorasan and central asia as well as the buyid dynasty in the western part of persia and iraq provided a thriving atmosphere for scholarly and cultural development under the samanids bukhara rivaled baghdad as a cultural capital of the islamic world there avicenna had access to the great libraries of balkh khwarezm gorgan rey isfahan and hamadan various texts such as the ahd with bahmanyar show that avicenna debated philosophical points with the greatest scholars of the time aruzi samarqandi describes how before avicenna left khwarezm he had met albiruni a famous scientist and astronomer abu nasr iraqi a renowned mathematician abu sahl masihi a respected philosopher and abu alkhayr khammar a great physician the study of the quran and the hadith also thrived and islamic philosophy fiqh and theology kalaam were all further developed by avicenna and his opponents at this time biography early life and education avicenna was born in in the village of afshana in transoxiana to a family of persian stock the village was near the samanid capital of bukhara which was his mothers hometown his father abd allah was a native of the city of balkh in tukharistan an official of the samanid bureaucracy he had served as the governor of a village of the royal estate of harmaytan near bukhara during the reign of nuh ii avicenna also had a younger brother a few years later the family settled in bukhara a center of learning which attracted many scholars it was there that avicenna was educated which early on was seemingly administered by his father although both avicennas father and brother had converted to ismailism he himself did not follow the faith he was instead an adherent of the sunni hanafi school which was also followed by the samanids avicenna was first schooled in the quran and literature and by the age of 10 he had memorized the entire quran he was later sent by his father to an indian greengrocer who taught him arithmetic afterwards he was schooled in jurisprudence by the hanafi jurist ismail alzahid some time later avicennas father invited the physician and philosopher abu abdallah alnatili to their house to educate avicenna together they studied the isagoge of porphyry died 305 and possibly the categories of aristotle died 322 bc as well after avicenna had read the almagest of ptolemy died 170 and euclids elements natili told him to continue his research independently by the time avicenna was eighteen he was welleducated in greek sciences although avicenna only mentions natili as his teacher in his autobiography he most likely had other teachers as well such as the physicians abu mansur qumri and abu sahl almasihi career in bukhara and gurganj at the age of seventeen avicenna was made a physician of nuh ii by the time avicenna was at least 21 years old his father died he was subsequently given an administrative post possibly succeeding his father as the governor of harmaytan avicenna later moved to gurganj the capital of khwarazm which he reports that he did due to necessity the date he went to the place is uncertain as he reports that he served the khwarazmshah ruler of the region the mamunid abu alhasan ali the latter ruled from 997 to 1009 which indicates that avicenna moved sometime during that period he may have moved in 999 the year which the samanid state fell after the turkic qarakhanids captured bukhara and imprisoned the samanid ruler abd almalik ii due to his high position and strong connection with the samanids avicenna may have found himself in an unfavorable position after the fall of his suzerain it was through the minister of gurganj abulhusayn assahi a patron of greek sciences that avicenna entered into the service of abu alhasan ali under the mamunids gurganj became a centre of learning attracting many prominent figures such as avicenna and his former teacher abu sahl almasihi the mathematician abu nasr mansur the physician ibn alkhammar and the philologist althaalibi in gurgan avicenna later moved due to necessity once more in 1012 this time to the west there he travelled through the khurasani cities of nasa abivard tus samangan and jajarm he was planning to visit the ruler of the city of gurgan the ziyarid qabus a cultivated patron of writing whose court attracted many distinguished poets and scholars however when avicenna eventually arrived he discovered that the ruler had been dead since the winter of 1013 avicenna then left gurgan for dihistan but returned after becoming ill there he met abu ubayd aljuzjani died 1070 who became his pupil and companion avicenna stayed briefly in gurgan reportedly serving qabuss son and successor manuchihr and resided in the house of a patron in ray and hamadan in avicenna went to the city of ray where he entered into the service of the buyid amir ruler majd aldawla and his mother sayyida shirin the de facto ruler of the realm there he served as the physician at the court treating majd aldawla who was suffering from melancholia avicenna reportedly later served as the business manager of sayyida shirin in qazvin and hamadan though details regarding this tenure are unclear during this period avicenna finished his canon of medicine and started writing his book of healing in 1015 during avicennas stay in hamadan he participated in a public debate as was custom for newly arrived scholars in western iran at that time the purpose of the debate was to examine ones reputation against a prominent local resident the person whom avicenna debated against was abulqasim alkirmani a member of the school of philosophers of baghdad the debate became heated resulting in avicenna accusing abulqasim of lack of basic knowledge in logic while abulqasim accused avicenna of impoliteness after the debate avicenna sent a letter to the baghdad peripatetics asking if abulqasims claim that he shared the same opinion as them was true abulqasim later retaliated by writing a letter to an unknown person in which he made accusations so serious that avicenna wrote to a deputy of majd aldawla named abu sad to investigate the matter the accusation made towards avicenna may have been the same as he had received earlier in which he was accused by the people of hamadan of copying the stylistic structures of the quran in his sermons on divine unity the seriousness of this charge in the words of the historian peter adamson cannot be underestimated in the larger muslim culture not long afterwards avicenna shifted his allegiance to the rising buyid amir shams aldawla the younger brother of majd aldawla which adamson suggests was due to abulqasim also working under sayyida shirin avicenna had been called upon by shams aldawla to treat him but after the latters campaign in the same year against his former ally the annazid ruler abu shawk he forced avicenna to become his vizier although avicenna would sometimes clash with shams aldawlas troops he remained vizier until the latter died of colic in 1021 avicenna was asked by shams aldawlas son and successor sama aldawla to stay as vizier but instead went into hiding with his patron abu ghalib alattar to wait for better opportunities to emerge it was during this period that avicenna was secretly in contact with ala aldawla muhammad the kakuyid ruler of isfahan and uncle of sayyida shirin it was during his stay at attars home that avicenna completed his book of healing writing 50 pages a day the buyid court in hamadan particularly the kurdish vizier taj almulk suspected avicenna of correspondence with ala aldawla and as result had the house of attar ransacked and avicenna imprisoned in the fortress of fardajan outside hamadan juzjani blames one of avicennas informers for his capture avicenna was imprisoned for four months until ala aldawla captured hamadan thus putting an end to sama aldawlas reign in isfahan avicenna was subsequently released and went to isfahan where he was well received by ala aldawla in the words of juzjani the kakuyid ruler gave avicenna the respect and esteem which someone like him deserved adamson also says that avicennas service under ala aldawla proved to be the most stable period of his life avicenna served as the advisor if not vizier of ala aldawla accompanying him in many of his military expeditions and travels avicenna dedicated two persian works to him a philosophical treatise named danishnamayi alai book of science for ala and a medical treatise about the pulse during the brief occupation of isfahan by the ghaznavids in january 1030 avicenna and ala aldawla relocated to the southwestern iranian region of khuzistan where they stayed until the death of the ghaznavid ruler mahmud which occurred two months later it was seemingly when avicenna returned to isfahan that he started writing his pointers and reminders in 1037 while avicenna was accompanying ala aldawla to a battle near isfahan he contracted a severe colic which he had been suffering from throughout his life he died shortly afterwards in hamadan where he was buried philosophy avicenna wrote extensively on early islamic philosophy especially the subjects logic ethics and metaphysics including treatises named logic and metaphysics most of his works were written in arabicthen the language of science in the middle eastand some in persian of linguistic significance even to this day are a few books that he wrote in nearly pure persian language particularly the danishnamahyi ala philosophy for ala addawla avicennas commentaries on aristotle often criticized the philosopher encouraging a lively debate in the spirit of ijtihad avicennas neoplatonic scheme of emanations became fundamental in the kalam school of theological discourse in the 12th century his book of healing became available in europe in partial latin translation some fifty years after its composition under the title sufficientia and some authors have identified a latin avicennism as flourishing for some time paralleling the more influential latin averroism but suppressed by the parisian decrees of 1210 and 1215 avicennas psychology and theory of knowledge influenced william of auvergne bishop of paris and albertus magnus while his metaphysics influenced the thought of thomas aquinas metaphysical doctrine early islamic philosophy and islamic metaphysics imbued as it is with islamic theology distinguishes between essence and existence more clearly than aristotelianism whereas existence is the domain of the contingent and the accidental essence endures within a being beyond the accidental the philosophy of avicenna particularly that part relating to metaphysics owes much to alfarabi the search for a definitive islamic philosophy separate from occasionalism can be seen in what is left of his work following alfarabis lead avicenna initiated a fullfledged inquiry into the question of being in which he distinguished between essence mahiat and existence wujud he argued that the fact of existence cannot be inferred from or accounted for by the essence of existing things and that form and matter by themselves cannot interact and originate the movement of the universe or the progressive actualization of existing things existence must therefore be due to an agentcause that necessitates imparts gives or adds existence to an essence to do so the cause must be an existing thing and coexist with its effect avicennas consideration of the essenceattributes question may be elucidated in terms of his ontological analysis of the modalities of being namely impossibility contingency and necessity avicenna argued that the impossible being is that which cannot exist while the contingent in itself mumkin bidhatihi has the potentiality to be or not to be without entailing a contradiction when actualized the contingent becomes a necessary existent due to what is other than itself wajib alwujud bighayrihi thus contingencyinitself is potential beingness that could eventually be actualized by an external cause other than itself the metaphysical structures of necessity and contingency are different necessary being due to itself wajib alwujud bidhatihi is true in itself while the contingent being is false in itself and true due to something else other than itself the necessary is the source of its own being without borrowed existence it is what always exists the necessary exists duetoitsself and has no quiddityessence mahiyya other than existence wujud furthermore it is one wahid ahad since there cannot be more than one necessaryexistentduetoitself without differentia fasl to distinguish them from each other yet to require differentia entails that they exist duetothemselves as well as due to what is other than themselves and this is contradictory however if no differentia distinguishes them from each other then there is no sense in which these existents are not one and the same avicenna adds that the necessaryexistentduetoitself has no genus jins nor a definition hadd nor a counterpart nadd nor an opposite did and is detached bari from matter madda quality kayf quantity kam place ayn situation wad and time waqt avicennas theology on metaphysical issues ilāhiyyāt has been criticized by some islamic scholars among them alghazali ibn taymiyya and ibn alqayyim while discussing the views of the theists among the greek philosophers namely socrates plato and aristotle in almunqidh min addalal deliverance from error alghazali noted that the greek philosophers must be taxed with unbelief as must their partisans among the muslim philosophers such as avicenna and alfarabi and their likes he added that none however of the muslim philosophers engaged so much in transmitting aristotles lore as did the two men just mentioned the sum of what we regard as the authentic philosophy of aristotle as transmitted by alfarabi and avicenna can be reduced to three parts a part which must be branded as unbelief a part which must be stigmatized as innovation and a part which need not be repudiated at all argument for gods existence avicenna made an argument for the existence of god which would be known as the proof of the truthful arabic burhan alsiddiqin avicenna argued that there must be a necessary existent arabic wajib alwujud an entity that cannot not exist and through a series of arguments he identified it with the islamic conception of god presentday historian of philosophy peter adamson called this argument one of the most influential medieval arguments for gods existence and avicennas biggest contribution to the history of philosophy albiruni correspondence correspondence between avicenna with his student ahmad ibn ali almasumi and albiruni has survived in which they debated aristotelian natural philosophy and the peripatetic school abu rayhan began by asking avicenna eighteen questions ten of which were criticisms of aristotles on the heavens theology avicenna was a devout muslim and sought to reconcile rational philosophy with islamic theology his aim was to prove the existence of god and his creation of the world scientifically and through reason and logic avicennas views on islamic theology and philosophy were enormously influential forming part of the core of the curriculum at islamic religious schools until the 19th century avicenna wrote a number of short treatises dealing with islamic theology these included treatises on the prophets whom he viewed as inspired philosophers and also on various scientific and philosophical interpretations of the quran such as how quranic cosmology corresponds to his own philosophical system in general these treatises linked his philosophical writings to islamic religious ideas for example the bodys afterlife there are occasional brief hints and allusions in his longer works however that avicenna considered philosophy as the only sensible way to distinguish real prophecy from illusion he did not state this more clearly because of the political implications of such a theory if prophecy could be questioned and also because most of the time he was writing shorter works which concentrated on explaining his theories on philosophy and theology clearly without digressing to consider epistemological matters which could only be properly considered by other philosophers later interpretations of avicennas philosophy split into three different schools those such as altusi who continued to apply his philosophy as a system to interpret later political events and scientific advances those such as alrazi who considered avicennas theological works in isolation from his wider philosophical concerns and those such as alghazali who selectively used parts of his philosophy to support their own attempts to gain greater spiritual insights through a variety of mystical means it was the theological interpretation championed by those such as alrazi which eventually came to predominate in the madrasahs avicenna memorized the quran by the age of ten and as an adult he wrote five treatises commenting on suras from the quran one of these texts included the proof of prophecies in which he comments on several quranic verses and holds the quran in high esteem avicenna argued that the islamic prophets should be considered higher than philosophers avicenna is generally understood to have been aligned with the sunni hanafi school of thought avicenna studied hanafi law many of his notable teachers were hanafi jurists and he served under the hanafi court of ali ibn mamun avicenna said at an early age that he remained unconvinced by ismaili missionary attempts to convert him medieval historian ẓahīr aldīn albayhaqī d 1169 also believed avicenna to be a follower of the brethren of purity thought experiments while he was imprisoned in the castle of fardajan near hamadhan avicenna wrote his famous floating manliterally falling mana thought experiment to demonstrate human selfawareness and the substantiality and immateriality of the soul avicenna believed his floating man thought experiment demonstrated that the soul is a substance and claimed humans cannot doubt their own consciousness even in a situation that prevents all sensory data input the thought experiment told its readers to imagine themselves created all at once while suspended in the air isolated from all sensations which includes no sensory contact with even their own bodies he argued that in this scenario one would still have selfconsciousness because it is conceivable that a person suspended in air while cut off from sense experience would still be capable of determining his own existence the thought experiment points to the conclusions that the soul is a perfection independent of the body and an immaterial substance the conceivability of this floating man indicates that the soul is perceived intellectually which entails the souls separateness from the body avicenna referred to the living human intelligence particularly the active intellect which he believed to be the hypostasis by which god communicates truth to the human mind and imparts order and intelligibility to nature following is an english translation of the argument however avicenna posited the brain as the place where reason interacts with sensation sensation prepares the soul to receive rational concepts from the universal agent intellect the first knowledge of the flying person would be i am affirming his or her essence that essence could not be the body obviously as the flying person has no sensation thus the knowledge that i am is the core of a human being the soul exists and is selfaware avicenna thus concluded that the idea of the self is not logically dependent on any physical thing and that the soul should not be seen in relative terms but as a primary given a substance the body is unnecessary in relation to it the soul is its perfection in itself the soul is an immaterial substance principal works the canon of medicine avicenna authored a fivevolume medical encyclopedia the canon of medicine alqanun fittibb it was used as the standard medical textbook in the islamic world and europe up to the 18th century the canon still plays an important role in unani medicine liber primus naturalium avicenna considered whether events like rare diseases or disorders have natural causes he used the example of polydactyly to explain his perception that causal reasons exist for all medical events this view of medical phenomena anticipated developments in the enlightenment by seven centuries the book of healing earth sciences avicenna wrote on earth sciences such as geology in the book of healing while discussing the formation of mountains he explained philosophy of science in the alburhan on demonstration section of the book of healing avicenna discussed the philosophy of science and described an early scientific method of inquiry he discussed aristotles posterior analytics and significantly diverged from it on several points avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of how does one acquire the first principles of a science he asked how a scientist would arrive at the initial axioms or hypotheses of a deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises he explained that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a relation holds between the terms which would allow for absolute universal certainty avicenna then added two further methods for arriving at the first principles the ancient aristotelian method of induction istiqra and the method of examination and experimentation tajriba avicenna criticized aristotelian induction arguing that it does not lead to the absolute universal and certain premises that it purports to provide in its place he developed a method of experimentation as a means for scientific inquiry logic an early formal system of temporal logic was studied by avicenna although he did not develop a real theory of temporal propositions he did study the relationship between temporalis and the implication avicennas work was further developed by najm aldīn alqazwīnī alkātibī and became the dominant system of islamic logic until modern times avicennian logic also influenced several early european logicians such as albertus magnus and william of ockham avicenna endorsed the law of noncontradiction proposed by aristotle that a fact could not be both true and false at the same time and in the same sense of the terminology used he stated anyone who denies the law of noncontradiction should be beaten and burned until he admits that to be beaten is not the same as not to be beaten and to be burned is not the same as not to be burned physics in mechanics avicenna in the book of healing developed a theory of motion in which he made a distinction between the inclination tendency to motion and force of a projectile and concluded that motion was a result of an inclination mayl transferred to the projectile by the thrower and that projectile motion in a vacuum would not cease he viewed inclination as a permanent force whose effect is dissipated by external forces such as air resistance the theory of motion presented by avicenna was probably influenced by the 6thcentury alexandrian scholar john philoponus avicennas is a less sophisticated variant of the theory of impetus developed by buridan in the 14th century it is unclear if buridan was influenced by avicenna or by philoponus directly in optics avicenna was among those who argued that light had a speed observing that if the perception of light is due to the emission of some sort of particles by a luminous source the speed of light must be finite he also provided a wrong explanation of the rainbow phenomenon carl benjamin boyer described avicennas ibn sīnā theory on the rainbow as follows in 1253 a latin text entitled speculum tripartitum stated the following regarding avicennas theory on heat psychology avicennas legacy in classical psychology is primarily embodied in the kitab alnafs parts of his kitab alshifa the book of healing and kitab alnajat the book of deliverance these were known in latin under the title de anima treatises on the soul notably avicenna develops what is called the flying man argument in the psychology of the cure i17 as defence of the argument that the soul is without quantitative extension which has an affinity with descartess cogito argument or what phenomenology designates as a form of an epoche avicennas psychology requires that connection between the body and soul be strong enough to ensure the souls individuation but weak enough to allow for its immortality avicenna grounds his psychology on physiology which means his account of the soul is one that deals almost entirely with the natural science of the body and its abilities of perception thus the philosophers connection between the soul and body is explained almost entirely by his understanding of perception in this way bodily perception interrelates with the immaterial human intellect in sense perception the perceiver senses the form of the object first by perceiving features of the object by our external senses this sensory information is supplied to the internal senses which merge all the pieces into a whole unified conscious experience this process of perception and abstraction is the nexus of the soul and body for the material body may only perceive material objects while the immaterial soul may only receive the immaterial universal forms the way the soul and body interact in the final abstraction of the universal from the concrete particular is the key to their relationship and interaction which takes place in the physical body the soul completes the action of intellection by accepting forms that have been abstracted from matter this process requires a concrete particular material to be abstracted into the universal intelligible immaterial the material and immaterial interact through the active intellect which is a divine light containing the intelligible forms the active intellect reveals the universals concealed in material objects much like the sun makes colour available to our eyes other contributions astronomy and astrology avicenna wrote an attack on astrology titled resāla fī ebṭāl aḥkām alnojūm in which he cited passages from the quran to dispute the power of astrology to foretell the future he believed that each planet had some influence on the earth but argued against astrologers being able to determine the exact effects avicennas astronomical writings had some influence on later writers although in general his work could be considered less developed than alhazen or albiruni one important feature of his writing is that he considers mathematical astronomy as a separate discipline to astrology he criticized aristotles view of the stars receiving their light from the sun stating that the stars are selfluminous and believed that the planets are also selfluminous he claimed to have observed venus as a spot on the sun this is possible as there was a transit on 24 may 1032 but avicenna did not give the date of his observation and modern scholars have questioned whether he could have observed the transit from his location at that time he may have mistaken a sunspot for venus he used his transit observation to help establish that venus was at least sometimes below the sun in ptolemaic cosmology ie the sphere of venus comes before the sphere of the sun when moving out from the earth in the prevailing geocentric model he also wrote the summary of the almagest based on ptolemys almagest with an appended treatise to bring that which is stated in the almagest and what is understood from natural science into conformity for example avicenna considers the motion of the solar apogee which ptolemy had taken to be fixed chemistry avicenna was first to derive the attar of flowers from distillation and used steam distillation to produce essential oils such as rose essence which he used as aromatherapeutic treatments for heart conditions unlike alrazi avicenna explicitly disputed the theory of the transmutation of substances commonly believed by alchemists four works on alchemy attributed to avicenna were translated into latin as was the most influential having influenced later medieval chemists and alchemists such as vincent of beauvais however anawati argues following ruska that the de anima is a fake by a spanish author similarly the declaratio is believed not to be actually by avicenna the third work the book of minerals is agreed to be avicennas writing adapted from the kitab alshifa book of the remedy avicenna classified minerals into stones fusible substances sulfurs and salts building on the ideas of aristotle and jabir the epistola de re recta is somewhat less sceptical of alchemy anawati argues that it is by avicenna but written earlier in his career when he had not yet firmly decided that transmutation was impossible poetry almost half of avicennas works are versified his poems appear in both arabic and persian as an example edward granville browne claims that the following persian verses are incorrectly attributed to omar khayyám and were originally written by ibn sīnā legacy classical islamic civilization robert wisnovsky a scholar of avicenna attached to mcgill university says that avicenna was the central figure in the long history of the rational sciences in islam particularly in the fields of metaphysics logic and medicine but that his works didnt only have an influence in these secular fields of knowledge alone as these works or portions of them were read taught copied commented upon quoted paraphrased and cited by thousands of postavicennian scholarsnot only philosophers logicians physicians and specialists in the mathematical or exact sciences but also by those who specialized in the disciplines of ʿilm alkalām rational theology but understood to include natural philosophy epistemology and philosophy of mind and usūl alfiqh jurisprudence but understood to include philosophy of law dialectic and philosophy of language middle ages and renaissance as early as the 14th century when dante alighieri depicted him in limbo alongside the virtuous nonchristian thinkers in his divine comedy such as virgil averroes homer horace ovid lucan socrates plato and saladin avicenna has been recognized by both east and west as one of the great figures in intellectual history johannes kepler cites avicennas opinion when discussing the causes of planetary motions in chapter 2 of astronomia nova george sarton the author of the history of science described avicenna as one of the greatest thinkers and medical scholars in history and called him the most famous scientist of islam and one of the most famous of all races places and times he was one of the islamic worlds leading writers in the field of medicine along with rhazes abulcasis ibn alnafis and alibadi avicenna is considered an important compiler of early muslim medicine he is remembered in the western history of medicine as a major historical figure who made important contributions to medicine and the european renaissance his medical texts were unusual in that where controversy existed between galen and aristotles views on medical matters such as anatomy he preferred to side with aristotle where necessary updating aristotles position to take into account postaristotelian advances in anatomical knowledge aristotles dominant intellectual influence among medieval european scholars meant that avicennas linking of galens medical writings with aristotles philosophical writings in the canon of medicine along with its comprehensive and logical organisation of knowledge significantly increased avicennas importance in medieval europe in comparison to other islamic writers on medicine his influence following translation of the canon was such that from the early fourteenth to the midsixteenth centuries he was ranked with hippocrates and galen as one of the acknowledged authorities prince of physicians modern reception institutions in a variety of counties have been named after avicenna in honour of his scientific accomplishments including the avicenna mausoleum and museum buali sina university avicenna research institute and ibn sina academy of medieval medicine and sciences there is also a crater on the moon named avicenna the avicenna prize established in 2003 is awarded every two years by unesco and rewards individuals and groups for their achievements in the field of ethics in science the avicenna directories 200815 now the world directory of medical schools list universities and schools where doctors public health practitioners pharmacists and others are educated the original project team stated in june 2009 iran donated a persian scholars pavilion to the united nations office in vienna it now sits in the vienna international center in popular culture the 1982 soviet film youth of genius by recounts avicennas younger years the film is set in bukhara at the turn of the millennium in louis lamours 1985 historical novel the walking drum kerbouchard studies and discusses avicennas the canon of medicine in his book the physician 1988 noah gordon tells the story of a young english medical apprentice who disguises himself as a jew to travel from england to persia and learn from avicenna the great master of his time the novel was adapted into a feature film the physician in 2013 avicenna was played by ben kingsley list of works the treatises of avicenna influenced later muslim thinkers in many areas including theology philology mathematics astronomy physics and music his works numbered almost 450 volumes on a wide range of subjects of which around 240 have survived in particular 150 volumes of his surviving works concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine his most famous works are the book of healing and the canon of medicine avicenna wrote at least one treatise on alchemy but several others have been falsely attributed to him his logic metaphysics physics and de caelo are treatises giving a synoptic view of aristotelian doctrine though metaphysics demonstrates a significant departure from the brand of neoplatonism known as aristotelianism in avicennas world arabic philosophers have hinted at the idea that avicenna was attempting to rearistotelianise muslim philosophy in its entirety unlike his predecessors who accepted the conflation of platonic aristotelian neo and middleplatonic works transmitted into the muslim world the logic and metaphysics have been extensively reprinted the latter eg at venice in 1493 1495 and 1546 some of his shorter essays on medicine logic etc take a poetical form the poem on logic was published by schmoelders in 1836 two encyclopedic treatises dealing with philosophy are often mentioned the larger alshifa sanatio exists nearly complete in manuscript in the bodleian library and elsewhere part of it on the de anima appeared at pavia 1490 as the liber sextus naturalium and the long account of avicennas philosophy given by muhammad alshahrastani seems to be mainly an analysis and in many places a reproduction of the alshifa a shorter form of the work is known as the annajat liberatio the latin editions of part of these works have been modified by the corrections which the monastic editors confess that they applied there is also a hikmatalmashriqqiyya in latin philosophia orientalis mentioned by roger bacon the majority of which is lost in antiquity which according to averroes was pantheistic in tone avicennas works further include sirat alshaykh alrais the life of avicenna ed and trans we gohlman albany ny state university of new york press 1974 the only critical edition of avicennas autobiography supplemented with material from a biography by his student abu ubayd aljuzjani a more recent translation of the autobiography appears in d gutas avicenna and the aristotelian tradition introduction to reading avicennas philosophical works leiden brill 1988 second edition 2014 alisharat wa altanbihat remarks and admonitions ed s dunya cairo 1960 parts translated by sc inati remarks and admonitions part one logic toronto ont pontifical institute for mediaeval studies 1984 and ibn sina and mysticism remarks and admonitions part 4 london kegan paul international 1996 alqanun filtibb the canon of medicine ed i aqashsh cairo 1987 encyclopedia of medicine manuscript latin translation flores avicenne michael de capella 1508 modern text ahmed shawkat alshatti jibran jabbur risalah fi sirr alqadar essay on the secret of destiny trans g hourani in reason and tradition in islamic ethics cambridge cambridge university press 1985 danishnamai alai the book of scientific knowledge ed and trans p morewedge the metaphysics of avicenna london routledge and kegan paul 1973 kitab alshifa the book of healing avicennas major work on philosophy he probably began to compose alshifa in 1014 and completed it in 1020 critical editions of the arabic text have been published in cairo 195283 originally under the supervision of i madkour kitab alnajat the book of salvation trans f rahman avicennas psychology an english translation of kitab alnajat book ii chapter vi with historicalphilosophical notes and textual improvements on the cairo edition oxford oxford university press 1952 the psychology of alshifa digital version of the arabic text risala filishq a treatise on love translated by emil l fackenheim persian works avicennas most important persian work is the danishnamai alai the book of knowledge for prince ala addaulah avicenna created new scientific vocabulary that had not previously existed in persian the danishnama covers such topics as logic metaphysics music theory and other sciences of his time it has been translated into english by parwiz morewedge in 1977 the book is also important in respect to persian scientific worksandar daneshe rag on the science of the pulse contains nine chapters on the science of the pulse and is a condensed synopsis persian poetry from avicenna is recorded in various manuscripts and later anthologies such as nozhat almajales see also alqumri possibly avicennas teacher abdol hamid khosro shahi iranian theologian mummia persian medicine eastern philosophy iranian philosophy islamic philosophy contemporary islamic philosophy science in the medieval islamic world list of scientists in medieval islamic world sufi philosophy science and technology in iran ancient iranian medicine list of premodern iranian scientists and scholars namesakes of ibn sina ibn sina academy of medieval medicine and sciences in aligarh avicenna bay in antarctica avicenna crater on the far side of the moon avicenna cultural and scientific foundation avicenne hospital in paris france avicenna international college in budapest hungary avicenna mausoleum complex dedicated to avicenna in hamadan iran avicenna research institute in tehran iran avicenna tajik state medical university in dushanbe tajikistan buali sina university in hamedan iran ibn sina peak named after the scientist on the kyrgyzstantajikistan border ibn sina foundation in houston texas ibn sina hospital baghdad iraq ibn sina hospital istanbul turkey ibn sina medical college hospital dhaka bangladesh ibn sina university hospital of rabatsalé at mohammed v university in rabat morocco ibne sina hospital multan punjab pakistan international ibn sina clinic dushanbe tajikistan references citations sources further reading encyclopedic articles pdf version avicenna entry by sajjad h rizvi in the internet encyclopedia of philosophy primary literature for an old list of other extant works c brockelmanns geschichte der arabischen litteratur weimar 1898 vol i pp 452458 xv w g w t for a current list of his works see a bertolacci 2006 and d gutas 2014 in the section philosophy avicenne réfutation de lastrologie edition et traduction du texte arabe introduction notes et lexique par yahya michot préface delizabeth teissier beirutparis albouraq 2006 william e gohlam ed the life of ibn sina a critical edition and annotated translation albany state of new york university press 1974 for ibn sinas life see ibn khallikans biographical dictionary translated by de slane 1842 f wüstenfelds geschichte der arabischen aerzte und naturforscher göttingen 1840 madelung wilferd and toby mayer ed and tr struggling with the philosopher a refutation of avicennas metaphysics a new arabic edition and english translation of shahrastanis kitab almusaraa secondary literature this is on the whole an informed and good account of the life and accomplishments of one of the greatest influences on the development of thought both eastern and western it is not as philosophically thorough as the works of d saliba am goichon or l gardet but it is probably the best essay in english on this important thinker of the middle ages julius r weinberg the philosophical review vol 69 no 2 apr 1960 pp 255259 this is a distinguished work which stands out from and above many of the books and articles which have been written in this century on avicenna ibn sīnā 9801037 it has two main features on which its distinction as a major contribution to avicennan studies may be said to rest the first is its clarity and readability the second is the comparative approach adopted by the author ian richard netton journal of the royal asiatic society third series vol 4 no 2 july 1994 pp 263264 yt langermann ed avicenna and his legacy a golden age of science and philosophy brepols publishers 2010 for a new understanding of his early career based on a newly discovered text see also michot yahya ibn sînâ lettre au vizir abû sad editio princeps daprès le manuscrit de bursa traduction de larabe introduction notes et lexique beirutparis albouraq 2000 this german publication is both one of the most comprehensive general introductions to the life and works of the philosopher and physician avicenna ibn sīnā d 1037 and an extensive and careful survey of his contribution to the history of science its author is a renowned expert in greek and arabic medicine who has paid considerable attention to avicenna in his recent studies amos bertolacci isis vol 96 no 4 december 2005 p 649 shaikh al rais ibn sina special number 195859 ed hakim syed zillur rahman tibbia college magazine aligarh muslim university aligarh india medicine browne edward g islamic medicine fitzpatrick lectures delivered at the royal college of physicians in 19191920 reprint new delhi goodword books 2001 pormann peter savagesmith emilie medieval islamic medicine washington georgetown university press 2007 prioreschi plinio byzantine and islamic medicine a history of medicine vol 4 omaha horatius press 2001 syed ziaur rahman pharmacology of avicennian cardiac drugs metaanalysis of researches and studies in avicennian cardiac drugs along with english translation of risalah al adwiya al qalbiyah ibn sina academy of medieval medicine and sciences aligarh india 2020 philosophy amos bertolacci the reception of aristotles metaphysics in avicennas kitab alsifa a milestone of western metaphysical thought leiden brill 2006 appendix c contains an overview of the main works by avicenna on metaphysics in chronological order dimitri gutas avicenna and the aristotelian tradition introduction to reading avicennas philosophical works leiden brill 2014 second revised and expanded edition first edition 1988 including an inventory of avicenna authentic works andreas lammer the elements of avicennas physics greek sources and arabic innovations scientia graecoarabica 20 berlin boston walter de gruyter 2018 jon mcginnis and david c reisman eds interpreting avicenna science and philosophy in medieval islam proceedings of the second conference of the avicenna study group leiden brill 2004 michot jean r la destinée de lhomme selon avicenne louvain aedibus peeters 1986 nader elbizri the phenomenological quest between avicenna and heidegger binghamton ny global publications suny 2000 reprinted by suny press in 2014 with a new preface nader elbizri avicenna and essentialism review of metaphysics vol 54 june 2001 pp 753778 nader elbizri avicennas de anima between aristotle and husserl in the passions of the soul in the metamorphosis of becoming ed annateresa tymieniecka dordrecht kluwer 2003 pp 6789 nader elbizri being and necessity a phenomenological investigation of avicennas metaphysics and cosmology in islamic philosophy and occidental phenomenology on the perennial issue of microcosm and macrocosm ed annateresa tymieniecka dordrecht kluwer 2006 pp 243261 nader elbizri ibn sīnās ontology and the question of being ishrāq islamic philosophy yearbook 2 2011 222237 nader elbizri philosophising at the margins of shi studies reflections on ibn sīnās ontology in the study of shi islam history theology and law eds f daftary and g miskinzoda london ib tauris 2014 pp 585597 reisman david c ed before and after avicenna proceedings of the first conference of the avicenna study group leiden brill 2003 external links avicenna ibnsina on the subject and the object of metaphysics with a list of translations of the logical and philosophical works and an annotated bibliography 980s births year of birth unknown 1037 deaths 11thcentury astronomers 11thcentury persianlanguage poets 11thcentury philosophers 11thcentury iranian physicians alchemists of the medieval islamic world aristotelian philosophers burials in iran buyid viziers classical humanists critics of atheism epistemologists iranian music theorists islamic philosophers transoxanian islamic scholars logicians people from bukhara region pharmacologists of medieval iran musical theorists of the medieval islamic world ontologists people from khorasan persian physicists philosophers of logic philosophers of mind philosophers of psychology philosophers of religion philosophers of science samanid scholars unani medicine iranian logicians iranian ethicists samanid officials philosophers of mathematics | 7,569 |
1132 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Ashes | The Ashes | the mens ashes is a test cricket series played biennially between england and australia the term originated in a satirical obituary published in a british newspaper the sporting times immediately after australias 1882 victory at the oval its first test win on english soil the obituary stated that english cricket had died and that the body will be cremated and the ashes taken to australia the mythical ashes immediately became associated with the 188283 series played in australia before which the english captain ivo bligh had vowed to regain those ashes the english media therefore dubbed the tour the quest to regain the ashes after england had won two of the three tests on the tour a small urn was presented to bligh in melbourne the contents of the urn are reputed to be the ashes of a wooden bail and were humorously described as the ashes of australian cricket it is not clear whether that tiny silver urn is the same as the small terracotta urn given to marylebone cricket club mcc by blighs widow after his death in 1927 the ashes urn has never been the official trophy of the series having been a personal gift to bligh however replicas of the urn are often held aloft by victorious teams as a symbol of their victory in an ashes series since the 199899 ashes series a waterford crystal representation of the ashes urn called the ashes trophy has been presented to the winners of an ashes series as the official trophy of that series irrespective of which side holds the tournament the original urn remains in the mcc museum at lords it has however been taken to australia to be put on touring display on two occasions as part of the australian bicentenary celebrations in 1988 and to accompany the ashes series in 200607 an ashes series traditionally consists of five tests hosted in turn by england and australia at least once every two years the ashes are regarded as being held by the team that most recently won the series if the series is drawn the team that currently holds the ashes retains the trophy there have been 73 ashes series australia have won 34 and retained six times from draws 40 england have won 32 and retained once 33 1882 origins the first test match between england and australia was played in melbourne australia in 1877 though the ashes legend started later after the ninth test played in 1882 on their tour of england that year the australians played just one test at the oval in london it was a lowscoring affair on a difficult wicket australia made a mere 63 runs in their first innings and england led by a n hornby took a 38run lead with a total of 101 in their second innings australia boosted by a spectacular 55 runs off 60 deliveries from hugh massie managed 122 which left england only 85 runs to win the australians were greatly demoralised by the manner of their secondinnings collapse but fast bowler fred spofforth spurred on by the gamesmanship of his opponents in particular w g grace refused to give in this thing can be done he declared spofforth went on to devastate the english batting taking his final four wickets for only two runs to leave england just eight runs short of victory when ted peate englands last batsman came to the crease his side needed just ten runs to win but peate managed only two before he was bowled by harry boyle an astonished oval crowd fell silent struggling to believe that england could possibly have lost on home soil when it finally sank in the crowd swarmed onto the field cheering loudly and chairing boyle and spofforth to the pavilion when peate returned to the pavilion he was reprimanded by his captain for not allowing his partner charles studd one of the best batsmen in england having already hit two centuries that season against the colonists to get the runs peate humorously replied i had no confidence in mr studd sir so thought i had better do my best the momentous defeat was widely recorded in the british press which praised the australians for their plentiful pluck and berated the englishmen for their lack thereof a celebrated poem appeared in punch on saturday 9 september the first verse quoted most frequently reads well done cornstalks whipt us fair and square was it luck that tript us was it scare kangaroo lands demon or our own want of devil coolness nerve backbone on 31 august in the charles alcockedited magazine cricket a weekly record of the game there appeared a mock obituary on 2 september a more celebrated mock obituary written by reginald shirley brooks appeared in the sporting times it read ivo bligh promised that on the 188283 tour of australia he would as englands captain recover those ashes he spoke of them several times over the course of the tour and the australian media quickly caught on the threematch series resulted in a twoone win to england notwithstanding a fourth match won by the australians whose status remains a matter of ardent dispute in the 20 years following blighs campaign the term the ashes largely disappeared from public use there is no indication that this was the accepted name for the series at least not in england the term became popular again in australia first when george giffen in his memoirs with bat and ball 1899 used the term as if it were well known the true and global revitalisation of interest in the concept dates from 1903 when pelham warner took a team to australia with the promise that he would regain the ashes as had been the case on blighs tour 20 years before the australian media latched fervently onto the term and this time it stuck having fulfilled his promise warner published a book entitled how we recovered the ashes although the origins of the term are not referred to in the text the title served along with the general hype created in australia to revive public interest in the legend the first mention of the ashes in wisden cricketers almanack occurs in 1905 while wisdens first account of the legend is in the 1922 edition urn it took many years before the contests between england and australia were consistently called the ashes and so there was no concept of either a trophy or a physical representation of the ashes as late as 1925 the following verse appeared in the cricketers annual so heres to chapman hendren and hobbs gilligan woolley and hearne may they bring back to the motherland the ashes which have no urn nevertheless several attempts had been made to embody the ashes in a physical memorial examples include one presented to warner in 1904 another to australian captain m a noble in 1909 and another to australian captain w m woodfull in 1934 the oldest and the one to enjoy enduring fame was the one presented to bligh later lord darnley during the 188283 tour the precise nature of the origin of this urn is a matter of dispute based on a statement by darnley in 1894 it was believed that a group of victorian ladies including darnleys later wife florence morphy made the presentation after the victory in the third test in 1883 more recent researchers in particular ronald willis and joy munns have studied the tour in detail and concluded that the presentation was made after a private cricket match played over christmas 1882 when the english team were guests of sir william clarke at his property rupertswood in sunbury victoria this was before the matches had started the prime evidence for this theory was provided by a descendant of clarke in august 1926 ivo bligh now lord darnley displayed the ashes urn at the morning post decorative art exhibition held in the central hall westminster he made the following statement about how he was given the urn a more detailed account of how the ashes were given to ivo bligh was outlined by his wife the countess of darnley in 1930 during a speech at a cricket luncheon her speech was reported by the times as follows there is another statement which is not totally clear made by lord darnley in 1921 about the timing of the presentation of the urn he was interviewed in his home at cobham hall by montague grover and the report of this interview was as follows he made a similar statement in 1926 the report of this statement in the brisbane courier was as follows the contents of the urn are also problematic they were variously reported to be the remains of a stump bail or the outer casing of a ball but in 1998 darnleys 82yearold daughterinlaw said they were the remains of her motherinlaws veil casting a further layer of doubt on the matter however during the tour of australia in 20067 the mcc official accompanying the urn said the veil legend had been discounted and it was now 95 certain that the urn contains the ashes of a cricket bail speaking on channel nine tv on 25 november 2006 he said xrays of the urn had shown the pedestal and handles were cracked and repair work had to be carried out the urn is made of terracotta and is about tall and may originally have been a perfume jar a label containing a sixline verse is pasted on the urn this is the fourth verse of a songlyric published in the melbourne punch on 1 february 1883 when ivo goes back with the urn the urn studds steel read and tylecote return return the welkin will ring loud the great crowd will feel proud seeing barlow and bates with the urn the urn and the rest coming home with the urn in february 1883 just before the disputed fourth test a velvet bag made by mrs ann fletcher the daughter of joseph hines clarke and marion wright both of dublin was given to bligh to contain the urn during darnleys lifetime there was little public knowledge of the urn and no record of a published photograph exists before 1921 the illustrated london news published this photo in january 1921 shown above when darnley died in 1927 his widow presented the urn to the marylebone cricket club and that was the key event in establishing the urn as the physical embodiment of the legendary ashes mcc first displayed the urn in the long room at lords and since 1953 in the mcc cricket museum at the ground mccs wish for it to be seen by as wide a range of cricket enthusiasts as possible has led to its being mistaken for an official trophy it is in fact a private memento and for this reason it is never awarded to either england or australia but is kept permanently in the mcc cricket museum where it can be seen together with the specially made red and gold velvet bag and the scorecard of the 1882 match because the urn itself is so delicate it has been allowed to travel to australia only twice the first occasion was in 1988 for a museum tour as part of the australian bicentenary celebrations the second was for the 20067 ashes series the urn arrived on 17 october 2006 going on display at the museum of sydney it then toured to other states with the final appearance at the tasmanian museum and art gallery on 21 january 2007 in the 1990s given australias long dominance of the ashes and the popular acceptance of the darnley urn as the ashes the idea was mooted that the victorious team should be awarded the urn as a trophy and allowed to retain it until the next series as its condition is fragile and it is a prized exhibit at the mcc cricket museum the mcc would not agree furthermore in 2002 blighs greatgreatgrandson lord clifton the heirapparent to the earldom of darnley argued that the ashes urn should not be returned to australia because it belonged to his family and was given to the mcc only for safe keeping as a compromise the mcc commissioned a larger replica of the urn in waterford crystal known as the ashes trophy to award to the winning team of each series starting with the 199899 ashes this did little to diminish the status of the darnley urn as the most important icon in cricket the symbol of this old and keenly fought contest series and matches quest to recover those ashes later in 1882 following the famous australian victory at the oval bligh led an england team to australia as he said to recover those ashes publicity surrounding the series was intense and it was at some time during this series that the ashes urn was crafted australia won the first test by nine wickets but in the next two england were victorious at the end of the third test england were generally considered to have won back the ashes 21 a fourth match was played against a united australian xi which was arguably stronger than the australian sides that had competed in the previous three matches this game however is not generally considered part of the 188283 series it is counted as a test but as a standalone this match ended in a victory for australia 1884 to 1896 after blighs victory there was an extended period of english dominance the tours generally had fewer tests in the 1880s and 1890s than people have grown accustomed to in more recent years the first fivetest series taking place only in 189495 england lost only four ashes tests in the 1880s out of 23 played and they won all the seven series contested there was more chopping and changing in the teams given that there was no official board of selectors for each country in 188788 two separate english teams were on tour in australia and popularity with the fans varied the 1890s games were more closely fought australia taking its first series win since 1882 with a 21 victory in 189192 but england dominated winning the next three series to 1896 despite continuing player disputes the 189495 series began in sensational fashion when england won the first test at sydney by just 10 runs having followed on australia had scored a massive 586 syd gregory 201 george giffen 161 and then dismissed england for 325 but england responded with 437 and then dramatically dismissed australia for 166 with bobby peel taking 6 for 67 at the close of the second last days play australia were 1132 needing only 64 more runs but heavy rain fell overnight and next morning the two slow leftarm bowlers peel and johnny briggs were all but unplayable england went on to win the series 32 after it had been all square before the final test which england won by 6 wickets the english heroes were peel with 27 wickets in the series at an average of 2670 and tom richardson with 32 at 2653 in 1896 england under the captaincy of w g grace won the series 21 and this marked the end of englands longest period of ashes dominance 1897 to 1902 australia resoundingly won the 189798 series by 41 under the captaincy of harry trott his successor joe darling won the next three series in 1899 190102 and the classic 1902 series which became one of the most famous in the history of test cricket five matches were played in 1902 but the first two were drawn after being hit by bad weather in the first test the first played at edgbaston after scoring 376 england bowled out australia for 36 wilfred rhodes 717 and reduced them to 462 when they followed on australia won the third and fourth tests at bramall lane and old trafford respectively at old trafford australia won by just 3 runs after victor trumper had scored 104 on a bad wicket reaching his hundred before lunch on the first day england won the last test at the oval by one wicket chasing 263 to win they slumped to 485 before gilbert jessops 104 gave them a chance he reached his hundred in just 75 minutes the lastwicket pair of george hirst and rhodes were required to score 15 runs for victory when rhodes joined him hirst reportedly said well get them in singles wilfred in fact they scored thirteen singles and a two the period of darlings captaincy saw the emergence of outstanding australian players such as trumper warwick armstrong james kelly monty noble clem hill hugh trumble and ernie jones reviving the legend after what the mcc saw as the problems of the earlier professional and amateur series they decided to take control of organising tours themselves and this led to the first mcc tour of australia in 190304 england won it against the odds and plum warner the england captain wrote up his version of the tour in his book how we recovered the ashes the title of this book revived the ashes legend and it was after this that england v australia series were customarily referred to as the ashes 1905 to 1912 england and australia were evenly matched until the outbreak of the first world war in 1914 five more series took place between 1905 and 1912 in 1905 englands captain stanley jackson not only won the series 20 but also won the toss in all five matches and headed both the batting and the bowling averages monty noble led australia to victory in both 190708 and 1909 then england won in 191112 by four matches to one jack hobbs establishing himself as englands firstchoice opening batsman with three centuries while frank foster 32 wickets at 2162 and sydney barnes 34 wickets at 2288 formed a formidable bowling partnership england retained the ashes when it won the 1912 triangular tournament which also featured south africa the australian touring party had been severely weakened by a dispute between the board and players that caused clem hill victor trumper warwick armstrong tibby cotter sammy carter and vernon ransford to be omitted 1920 to 1933 after the war australia took firm control of both the ashes and world cricket for the first time the tactic of using two express bowlers in tandem paid off as jack gregory and ted mcdonald crippled the english batting on a regular basis australia recorded overwhelming victories both in england and on home soil it won the first eight matches in succession including a 50 whitewash in 19201921 at the hands of warwick armstrongs team the ruthless and belligerent armstrong led his team back to england in 1921 where his men lost only two games late in the tour to narrowly miss out of being the first team to complete a tour of england without defeat england won only one test out of 15 from the end of the war until 1925 in a rainhit series in 1926 england managed to eke out a 10 victory with a win in the final test at the oval because the series was at stake the match was to be timeless ie played to a finish australia had a narrow first innings lead of 22 jack hobbs and herbert sutcliffe took the score to 490 at the end of the second day a lead of 27 heavy rain fell overnight and next day the pitch soon developed into a traditional sticky wicket england seemed doomed to be bowled out cheaply and to lose the match in spite of the very difficult batting conditions however hobbs and sutcliffe took their partnership to 172 before hobbs was out for exactly 100 sutcliffe went on to make 161 and england won the game comfortably australian captain herbie collins was stripped of all captaincy positions down to club level and some accused him of throwing the match australias ageing postwar team broke up after 1926 with collins charlie macartney and warren bardsley all departing and gregory breaking down at the start of the 192829 series despite the debut of donald bradman the inexperienced australians led by jack ryder were heavily defeated losing 41 england had a very strong batting side with wally hammond contributing 905 runs at an average of 11312 and hobbs sutcliffe and patsy hendren all scoring heavily the bowling was more than adequate without being outstanding in 1930 bill woodfull led an extremely inexperienced team to england bradman fulfilled his promise in the 1930 series when he scored 974 runs at 13914 which remains a world record test series aggregate a modest bradman can be heard in a 1930 recording saying i have always endeavoured to do my best for the side and the few centuries that have come my way have been achieved in the hope of winning matches my one idea when going into bat was to make runs for australia in the headingley test he made 334 reaching 309 at the end of the first day including a century before lunch bradman himself thought that his 254 in the preceding match at lords was a better innings england managed to stay in contention until the deciding final test at the oval but yet another double hundred by bradman and 792 by percy hornibrook in englands second innings enabled australia to win by an innings and take the series 21 clarrie grimmetts 29 wickets at 3189 for australia in this highscoring series were also important australia had one of the strongest batting lineups ever in the early 1930s with bradman archie jackson stan mccabe bill woodfull bill ponsford and jack fingleton it was the prospect of bowling at this lineup that caused englands 193233 captain douglas jardine to adopt the tactic of fast leg theory better known as bodyline jardine instructed his fast bowlers most notably harold larwood and bill voce to bowl at the bodies of the australian batsmen with the goal of forcing them to defend their bodies with their bats thus providing easy catches to a stacked legside field jardine insisted that the tactic was legitimate and called it leg theory but it was widely disparaged by its opponents who dubbed it bodyline from on the line of the body although england decisively won the ashes 41 bodyline caused such a furore in australia that diplomats had to intervene to prevent serious harm to angloaustralian relations and the mcc eventually changed the laws of cricket to curtail the number of leg side fielders jardines comment was ive not travelled 6000 miles to make friends im here to win the ashes some of the australians wanted to use bodyline in retaliation but woodfull flatly refused he famously told england manager pelham warner there are two teams out there one is playing cricket the other is making no attempt to do so after the latter had come into the australian rooms to express sympathy after a larwood bouncer had struck the australian skipper in the heart and felled him 1934 to 1953 on the battingfriendly wickets that prevailed in the late 1930s most tests up to the second world war still gave results it should be borne in mind that tests in australia prior to the war were all played to a finish with many batting records set during this period the 1934 ashes series began with the notable absence of larwood voce and jardine the mcc had made it clear in light of the revelations of the bodyline series that these players would not face australia the mcc although it had earlier condoned and encouraged bodyline tactics in the 193233 series laid the blame on larwood when relations turned sour larwood was forced by the mcc to either apologise or be removed from the test side he went for the latter australia recovered the ashes in 1934 and held them until 1953 though no test cricket was played during the second world war as in 1930 the 1934 series was decided in the final test at the oval australia batting first posted a massive 701 in the first innings bradman 244 and ponsford 266 were in recordbreaking form with a partnership of 451 for the second wicket england eventually faced a massive 707run target for victory and failed australia winning the series 21 this made woodfull the only captain to regain the ashes and he retired upon his return to australia in 193637 bradman succeeded woodfull as australian captain he started badly losing the first two tests heavily after australia were caught on sticky wickets however the australians fought back and bradman won his first series in charge 32 the 1938 series was a highscoring affair with two highscoring draws resulting in a 11 result australia retaining the ashes after the first two matches ended in stalemate and the third test at old trafford never started due to rain australia then scraped home by five wickets inside three days in a lowscoring match at headingley to retain the urn in the timeless fifth test at the oval the highlight was len huttons then worldrecord score of 364 as england made 9037 declared bradman and jack fingleton injured themselves during huttons marathon effort and with only nine men australia fell to defeat by an innings and 579 runs the heaviest in test history the ashes resumed after the war when england toured in 194647 and as in 192021 found that australia had made the better postwar recovery still captained by bradman and now featuring the potent newball partnership of ray lindwall and keith miller australia were convincing 30 winners aged 38 and having been unwell during the war bradman had been reluctant to play he batted unconvincingly and reached 28 when he hit a ball to jack ikin england believed it was a catch but bradman stood his ground believing it to be a bump ball the umpire ruled in the australian captains favour and he appeared to regain his fluency of yesteryear scoring 187 australia promptly seized the initiative won the first test convincingly and inaugurated a dominant postwar era the controversy over the ikin catch was one of the biggest disputes of the era in 1948 australia set new standards completely outplaying its hosts to win 40 with one draw this australian team led by bradman who turned 40 during his final tour of england has gone down in history as the invincibles playing 34 matches on tourthree of which were not firstclassand including the five tests they remained unbeaten winning 27 and drawing 7 bradmans men were greeted by packed crowds across the country and records for test attendances in england were set in the second and fourth tests at lords and headingley respectively before a record attendance of spectators at headingley australia set a world record by chasing down 404 on the last day for a sevenwicket victory the 1948 series ended with one of the most poignant moments in cricket history as bradman played his final innings for australia in the fifth test at the oval needing to score only four runs to end with a career batting average of exactly 100 however bradman made a secondball duck bowled by an eric hollies googly that sent him into retirement with a career average of 9994 bradman was succeeded as australian captain by lindsay hassett who led the team to a 41 series victory in 195051 the series was not as onesided as the number of wins suggest with several tight matches the tide finally turned in 1953 when england won the final test at the oval to take the series 10 having narrowly avoided defeat in the preceding test at headingley this was the beginning of one of the greatest periods in english cricket history with players such as captain len hutton batsmen denis compton peter may tom graveney colin cowdrey bowlers fred trueman brian statham alec bedser jim laker tony lock wicketkeeper godfrey evans and allrounder trevor bailey 1954 to 1971 in 195455 australias batsmen had no answer to the pace of frank tyson and statham after winning the first test by an innings after being controversially sent in by hutton australia lost its way and england took a hattrick of victories to win the series 31 a dramatic series in 1956 saw a record that will probably never be beaten offspinner jim lakers monumental effort at old trafford when he bowled 68 of 191 overs to take 19 out of 20 possible australian wickets in the fourth test it was australias second consecutive innings defeat in a wet summer and the hosts were in strong positions in the two drawn tests in which half the playing time was washed out bradman rated the team that won the series 21 as englands best ever englands dominance was not to last australia won 40 in 195859 having found a highquality spinner of their own in new skipper richie benaud who took 31 wickets in the fivetest series and paceman alan davidson who took 24 wickets at 1900 the series was overshadowed by the furore over various australian bowlers most notably ian meckiff whom the english management and media accused of illegally throwing australia to victory in 1961 australia won a hardfought series 21 their first ashes series win in england for 13 years after narrowly winning the second test at lords dubbed the battle of the ridge because of a protrusion on the pitch that caused erratic bounce australia mounted a comeback on the final day of the fourth test at old trafford and sealed the series with richie benaud taking 670 during the english runchase the tempo of the play changed over the next four series in the 1960s held in 196263 1964 196566 and 1968 the powerful array of bowlers that both countries boasted in the preceding decade moved into retirement and their replacements were of lesser quality making it more difficult to force a result england failed to win any series during the 1960s a period dominated by draws as teams found it more prudent to save face than risk losing of the 20 tests played during the four series australia won four and england three as they held the ashes australias captains bob simpson and bill lawry were happy to adopt safetyfirst tactics and their strategy of sedate batting saw many draws during this period spectator attendances dropped and media condemnation increased but simpson and lawry flatly disregarded the public dissatisfaction it was in the 1960s that the bipolar dominance of england and australia in world cricket was seriously challenged for the first time west indies defeated england twice in the mid1960s and south africa in two series before they were banned for apartheid completely outplayed australia 31 and 40 australia had lost 21 during a tour of the west indies in 196465 the first time it had lost a series to any team other than england in 197071 ray illingworth led england to a 20 win in australia mainly due to john snows fast bowling and the prolific batting of geoffrey boycott and john edrich it was not until the last session of what was the 7th test one match having been abandoned without a ball bowled that englands success was secured lawry was sacked after the sixth test after the selectors finally lost patience with australias lack of success and dour strategy lawry was not informed of the decision privately and heard his fate over the radio 1972 to 1987 the 1972 series finished 22 with england under illingworth retaining the ashes in the 197475 series with the england team breaking up and their best batsman geoff boycott refusing to play australian pace bowlers jeff thomson and dennis lillee wreaked havoc a 41 result was a fair reflection as england were left shell shocked england then lost the 1975 series 01 but at least restored some pride under new captain tony greig australia won the 1977 centenary test which was not an ashes contest but then a storm broke as kerry packer announced his intention to form world series cricket wsc affected all testplaying nations but it weakened australia especially as the bulk of its players had signed up with packer the australian cricket board acb would not select wsccontracted players and an almost completely new test team had to be formed wsc came after an era during which the duopoly of australian and english dominance dissipated the ashes had long been seen as a cricket world championship but the rise of the west indies in the late 1970s challenged that view the west indies would go on to record resounding test series wins over australia and england and dominated world cricket until the 1990s with greig having joined wsc england appointed mike brearley as its captain and he enjoyed great success against australia largely assisted by the return of boycott brearleys men won the 1977 series 30 and then completed an overwhelming 51 series win against an australian side missing its wsc players in 197879 allan border made his test debut for australia in 197879 brearley retired from test cricket in 1980 and was succeeded by ian botham who started the 1981 series as england captain by which time the wsc split had ended after australia took a 10 lead in the first two tests botham was forced to resign or was sacked depending on the source brearley surprisingly agreed to be reappointed before the third test at headingley this was a remarkable match in which australia looked certain to take a 20 series lead after it had forced england to followon 227 runs behind england despite being 135 for 7 produced a second innings total of 356 botham scoring 149 chasing just 130 australia were sensationally dismissed for 111 bob willis taking 843 it was the first time since 189495 that a team following on had won a test match under brearleys leadership england went on to win the next two matches before a drawn final match at the oval this series became known as bothams ashes for his extraordinary feats with both bat and ball after being dismissed as captain in 198283 australia had greg chappell back from wsc as captain while the england team was weakened by the enforced omission of their south african tour rebels particularly graham gooch and john emburey australia went 20 up after three tests but england won the fourth test by 3 runs after a 70run last wicket stand to set up the final decider which was drawn in 1985 david gowers england team was strengthened by the return of gooch and emburey as well as the emergence at international level of tim robinson and mike gatting australia now captained by allan border had itself been weakened by a rebel south african tour the loss of terry alderman being a particular factor england won 31 despite suffering heavy defeats against the west indies during the 1980s england continued to do well in the ashes mike gatting was the captain in 198687 but his team started badly and attracted some criticism then chris broad scored three hundreds in successive tests and bowling successes from graham dilley and gladstone small meant england won the series 21 1989 to 2003 the australian team of 1989 was comparable to the great australian teams of the past and resoundingly defeated england 40 well led by allan border the team included the young cricketers mark taylor merv hughes david boon ian healy and steve waugh who were all to prove longserving and successful ashes competitors england now led once again by david gower suffered from injuries and poor form during the fourth test news broke that prominent england players had agreed to take part in a rebel tour of south africa the following winter three of them tim robinson neil foster and john emburey were playing in the match and were subsequently dropped from the england side australia reached a cricketing peak in the 1990s and early 2000s coupled with a general decline in englands fortunes after reestablishing its credibility in 1989 australia underlined its superiority with victories in the 199091 1993 199495 1997 199899 2001 and 200203 series all by convincing margins great australian players in the early years included batsmen border boon taylor and steve waugh the captaincy passed from border to taylor in the mid1990s and then to steve waugh before the 2001 series in the latter part of the 1990s waugh himself along with his twin brother mark scored heavily for australia and fast bowlers glenn mcgrath and jason gillespie made a serious impact especially the former the wicketkeeperbatsman position was held by ian healy for most of the 1990s and by adam gilchrist from 2001 to 200607 in the 2000s batsmen justin langer damien martyn and matthew hayden became noted players for australia but the most dominant australian player was legspinner shane warne whose first delivery in ashes cricket in 1993 to dismiss mike gatting became known as the ball of the century australias record between 1989 and 2005 had a significant impact on the statistics between the two sides before the 1989 series began the winloss ratio was almost even with 87 test wins for australia to englands 86 74 tests having been drawn by the 2005 series australias test wins had increased to 115 whereas englands had increased to only 93 with 82 draws in the period between 1989 and the beginning of the 2005 series the two sides had played 43 times australia winning 28 times england 7 times with 8 draws only a single england victory had come in a match in which the ashes were still at stake namely the first test of the 1997 series all others were consolation victories when the ashes had been secured by australia 2005 to 2015 england were undefeated in test matches through the 2004 calendar year this elevated them to second in the icc test championship hopes that the 2005 ashes series would be closely fought proved wellfounded the series remaining undecided as the closing session of the final test began experienced journalists including richie benaud rated the series as the most exciting in living memory it has been compared with the great series of the distant past such as 189495 and 1902 the first test at lords was convincingly won by australia but in the remaining four matches the teams were evenly matched and england fought back to win the second test by 2 runs the smallest winning margin in ashes history and the secondsmallest in all tests the rainaffected third test ended with the last two australian batsmen holding out for a draw and england won the fourth test by three wickets after forcing australia to followon for the first time in 191 tests a draw in the final test gave england victory in an ashes series for the first time in 18 years and their first ashes victory at home since 1985 australia regained the ashes on its home turf in the 200607 series with a convincing 50 victory only the second time an ashes series had been won by that margin glenn mcgrath shane warne and justin langer retired from test cricket after that series while damien martyn retired during the series the 2009 series began with a tense draw in the first test at swalec stadium in cardiff with englands lastwicket batsmen james anderson and monty panesar surviving 69 balls england then achieved its first ashes win at lords since 1934 to go 10 up after a rainaffected draw at edgbaston the fourth match at headingley was convincingly won by australia by an innings and 80 runs to level the series finally england won the fifth test at the oval by a margin of 197 runs to regain the ashes andrew flintoff retired from test cricket soon afterwards the 201011 series was played in australia the first test at brisbane ended in a draw but england won the second test at adelaide by an innings and 71 runs australia came back with a victory at perth in the third test in the fourth test at melbourne cricket ground england batting second scored 513 to defeat australia 98 and 258 by an innings and 157 runs this gave england an unbeatable 21 lead in the series and so it retained the ashes england went on to win the series 31 beating australia by an innings and 83 runs at sydney in the fifth test including their highest innings total since 1938 644 englands series victory was its first on australian soil for 24 years the 201011 ashes series was the only one in which a team had won three tests by innings margins and it was the first time england had scored 500 or more four times in a single series england opener cook scored 766 runs at average 12766 in the series the most dominant batsman in an ashes series since bradman in 1930 australias buildup to the 2013 ashes series was far from ideal darren lehmann took over as coach from mickey arthur following a string of poor results a batting lineup weakened by the previous years retirements of former captain ricky ponting and mike hussey was also shorn of opener david warner who was suspended for the start of the series following an offfield incident england won a closely fought first test by 14 runs despite 19yearold debutant ashton agar making a worldrecord 98 for a number 11 in the first innings england then won a very onesided second test by 347 runs while the rainaffected third test held at a newly refurbished old trafford was drawn ensuring that england retained the ashes england won the fourth test by 74 runs after australia lost their last eight secondinnings wickets for only 86 runs the final test was drawn giving england a 30 series win in the second of two ashes series held in 2013 the series ended in 2014 this time hosted by australia the home team won the series five test matches to nil this was the third time australia has completed a clean sweep or whitewash in ashes history a feat never matched by england all six australian specialist batsmen scored more runs than any englishman with 10 centuries among them with only debutant ben stokes scoring a century for england mitchell johnson took 37 english wickets at 1397 and ryan harris 22 wickets at 1931 in the 5test series only stuart broad and allrounder stokes bowled effectively for england with their spinner graeme swann retiring due to a chronic elbow injury after the decisive third test australia came into the 2015 ashes series in england as favourites to retain the ashes although england won the first test in cardiff australia won comfortably in the second test at lords in the next two tests the australian batsmen struggled being bowled out for 136 in the first innings at edgbaston with england proceeding to win by eight wickets this was followed by australia being bowled out for 60 as stuart broad took five wickets and finished the spell with 8 for 15 in the first innings at trent bridge the quickest in terms of balls faced a team has been bowled out in the first innings of a test match with victory by an innings and 78 runs on the morning of the third day of the fourth test england regained the ashes 2017 to present during the buildup the 201718 ashes series was regarded as a turning point for both sides australia were criticised for being too reliant on captain steve smith and vicecaptain david warner while england was said to have a shoddy middle to lower order off the field england allrounder ben stokes was ruled out of the side indefinitely due to a police investigation australia won the first test match in brisbane by 10 wickets and the second test at adelaide by 120 runs in the first ever daynight ashes test match australia regained the ashes with an innings and 41 run win in the third test at perth the final ashes test at the waca ground prior to the 2019 ashes series both teams were considered to have very strong bowling attacks but struggling batting orders australia had its toporder batsmen david warner steve smith and cameron bancroft available for international selection after being banned from international cricket for 912 months following the balltampering scandal in south africa during which time india had won its first ever test series in australia however australia recovered to win the test series against sri lanka 20 despite winning the cricket world cup in july 2019 for the first time england had also been criticised for its fragile toporder in tests the retirement of opener alastair cook in august 2018 ensured potential toporder batsmen rory burns joe denly and jason roy were able to secure a place in the side despite losing a test series 21 in their tour of the west indies england then improved to win the oneoff test against ireland by 143 runs the 2019 series was eventually drawn 22 with australia retaining the ashes the 2021 ashes series was played from december 2021 through january 2022 and featured the first ashes test match to be played in tasmania at hobarts bellerive oval australia retained the ashes in the 202122 ashes series after comfortably beating england 40 england were the hosts of five test matches of the 2023 ashes series the series got off to a good start for australia as they won the first two tests to go 02 up the hosts won the third test to put the series at 12 for the visitors england needed to win the fourth test in a hope to not only level the series but prevent australia from retaining the ashes the match looked good for england to win but rain intervened on the last two days and forced a draw thus australia retained the ashes with the series at 12 after four tests the fifth and final test was played at the oval during the contest stuart broad announced that he would retire from cricket at the end of the match england went on to win the final test match to draw the series at 22 summary of results and statistics in the 140 years since 1883 australia have held the ashes for approximately 845 years and england for 555 years test results up to and including 31 july 2023 series results up to and including 31 july 2023 a team must win a series to gain the right to hold the ashes a drawn series results in the previous holders retaining the ashes ashes series have generally been played over five test matches although there have been fourmatch series 1938 and 1975 and sixmatch series 197071 197475 197879 1981 1985 1989 1993 and 1997 australians have made 264 centuries in ashes tests of which 23 have been scores over 200 while englishmen have scored 212 centuries of which 10 have been over 200 australians have taken 10 wickets in a match on 41 occasions englishmen 38 times match venues the series alternates between england and wales and australia and each match of a series is held at a different ground australia in australia the grounds currently used are the gabba in brisbane first staged an englandaustralia test in the 193233 season adelaide oval 188485 the melbourne cricket ground mcg 187677 and the sydney cricket ground scg 188182 a single test was held at the brisbane exhibition ground in 192829 traditionally melbourne hosts the boxing day test and sydney hosts the new years day test additionally the waca in perth 197071 hosted its final ashes test in 201718 and was due to be replaced by perth stadium for the 202122 series however western australian border restrictions and quarantine requirements during the covid19 pandemic led to a change in venue for the final ashes test to bellerive oval in hobart this was the first ashes test match to be held in tasmania cricket australia proposed that the 201011 series consist of six tests with the additional game to be played at bellerive oval in hobart the england and wales cricket board declined and the series was played over five tests england in england and wales the grounds currently used are old trafford in manchester 1884 the oval in kennington south london 1884 lords in st johns wood north london 1884 headingley in leeds 1899 and edgbaston in birmingham 1902 additionally sophia gardens in cardiff wales 2009 the riverside ground in chesterlestreet county durham 2013 and trent bridge at west bridgford 1899 have been used and one test was also held at bramall lane in sheffield in 1902 traditionally the final test of the series is played at the oval sophia gardens and the riverside were excluded as test grounds between the years of 2020 and 2031 and therefore will not host an ashes test until at least 2035 the ecb announced the 2027 and 2031 ashes series venues will be held at lords 2027 and 2031 the oval 2027 and 2031 edgbaston 2027 trent bridge 2027 and 2031 the rose bowl 2027 old trafford 2031 and headingley 2031 including abandoned tests county cricket clubs who play at the grounds former grounds which no longer host test matches cultural references the popularity and reputation of the cricket series has led to other sports and games using the name ashes for contests between englandgreat britain and australia the bestknown and longestrunning of these events is the rugby league ashes competition between great britain now england and australia national rugby league teams use of the name ashes was suggested by the australian team when rugby league matches between the two countries commenced in 1908 other examples included the television game shows gladiators and sale of the century both of which broadcast special editions containing contestants from the australian and english versions of the shows competing against each other the term became further genericised in australia in the first half of the twentieth century and was used to describe many sports rivalries or competitions outside the context of australia vs england the australian rules football interstate carnival and the small silver casket which served as its trophy were symbolically known as the ashes of australian football and was spoken of as such until at least the 1940s the soccer rivalry between australia and new zealand was described as the soccer ashes of australasia until as late as the 1950s ashes from cigars smoked by the two countries captains were put into a casket in 1923 to make the trophy literal the interstate rugby league rivalry between queensland and new south wales was known for a time as australias rugby league ashes and bowls competitions between the two states also regularly used the term even some local rivalries such as southern western australias annual great southern football carnival were locally described as the ashes this genericised usage is no longer common and the ashes would today be assumed only to apply to a contest between australia and england the ashes featured in the film the final test released in 1953 based on a television play by terence rattigan it stars jack warner as an england cricketer playing the last test of his career which is the last of an ashes series the film includes cameo appearances of english captain len hutton and other players who were part of englands 1953 triumph douglas adamss 1982 science fiction comedy novel life the universe and everything the third part of the hitchhikers guide to the galaxy series features the urn containing the ashes as a significant element of its plot the urn is stolen by alien robots as the burnt stump inside is part of a key needed to unlock the wikkit gate and release an imprisoned world called krikkitbodyline a fictionalised television miniseries based on the bodyline ashes series of 193233 was screened in australia in 1984 the cast included gary sweet as donald bradman and hugo weaving as england captain douglas jardine in the 1938 film the lady vanishes charters and caldicott played by basil radford and naunton wayne are two cricket fans who are desperate to get home from europe in order to see the last days play in the third test at manchester it is not until they see a newsboys poster near the end of the film that they discover that the match had been abandoned due to floods see also history of test cricket from 1877 to 1883 history of test cricket from 1884 to 1889 history of test cricket from 1890 to 1900 the womens ashes ellamobbs trophy the rugby union equivalent of englandaustralia matches notes references further reading willis r crickets biggest mystery the ashes the lutterworth press 1987 other wisdens cricketers almanack various editions external links ashes to ashes an audio history of the first hundred years of the ashes narrated by john arlott cricinfos ashes website the origin of the ashes rex harcourt listen to a young don bradman speaking after the 1930 ashes tour australia in international cricket cricket awards and rankings cricket rivalries england in international cricket recurring events established in 1882 recurring sporting events established in 1882 test cricket competitions | 8,900 |
1134 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analysis | Analysis | analysis analyses is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts in order to gain a better understanding of it the technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before aristotle 384322 bc though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development the word comes from the ancient greek analysis a breakingup or an untying from ana up throughout and lysis a loosening from it also comes the words plural analyses as a formal concept the method has variously been ascribed to alhazen rené descartes discourse on the method and galileo galilei it has also been ascribed to isaac newton in the form of a practical method of physical discovery which he did not name the converse of analysis is synthesis putting the pieces back together again in a new or different whole applications science the field of chemistry uses analysis in three ways to identify the components of a particular chemical compound qualitative analysis to identify the proportions of components in a mixture quantitative analysis and to break down chemical processes and examine chemical reactions between elements of matter for an example of its use analysis of the concentration of elements is important in managing a nuclear reactor so nuclear scientists will analyze neutron activation to develop discrete measurements within vast samples a matrix can have a considerable effect on the way a chemical analysis is conducted and the quality of its results analysis can be done manually or with a device types of analysis a qualitative analysis it is concerned with which components are in a given sample or compound example precipitation reaction b quantitative analysis it is to determine the quantity of individual component present in a given sample or compound example to find concentration by uvspectrophotometer isotopes chemists can use isotope analysis to assist analysts with issues in anthropology archeology food chemistry forensics geology and a host of other questions of physical science analysts can discern the origins of natural and manmade isotopes in the study of environmental radioactivity business financial statement analysis the analysis of the accounts and the economic prospects of a firm financial analysis refers to an assessment of the viability stability and profitability of a business subbusiness or project gap analysis involves the comparison of actual performance with potential or desired performance of an organization business analysis involves identifying the needs and determining the solutions to business problems price analysis involves the breakdown of a price to a unit figure market analysis consists of suppliers and customers and price is determined by the interaction of supply and demand sumoftheparts analysis method of valuation of a multidivisional company opportunity analysis consists of customers trends within the industry customer demand and experience determine purchasing behavior computer science requirements analysis encompasses those tasks that go into determining the needs or conditions to meet for a new or altered product taking account of the possibly conflicting requirements of the various stakeholders such as beneficiaries or users competitive analysis online algorithm shows how online algorithms perform and demonstrates the power of randomization in algorithms lexical analysis the process of processing an input sequence of characters and producing as output a sequence of symbols objectoriented analysis and design à la booch program analysis computer science the process of automatically analysing the behavior of computer programs semantic analysis computer science a pass by a compiler that adds semantical information to the parse tree and performs certain checks static code analysis the analysis of computer software that is performed without actually executing programs built from that structured systems analysis and design methodology à la yourdon syntax analysis a process in compilers that recognizes the structure of programming languages also known as parsing worstcase execution time determines the longest time that a piece of software can take to run economics agroecosystem analysis inputoutput model if applied to a region is called regional impact multiplier system engineering analysts in the field of engineering look at requirements structures mechanisms systems and dimensions electrical engineers analyse systems in electronics life cycles and system failures are broken down and studied by engineers it is also looking at different factors incorporated within the design intelligence the field of intelligence employs analysts to break down and understand a wide array of questions intelligence agencies may use heuristics inductive and deductive reasoning social network analysis dynamic network analysis link analysis and brainstorming to sort through problems they face military intelligence may explore issues through the use of game theory red teaming and wargaming signals intelligence applies cryptanalysis and frequency analysis to break codes and ciphers business intelligence applies theories of competitive intelligence analysis and competitor analysis to resolve questions in the marketplace law enforcement intelligence applies a number of theories in crime analysis linguistics linguistics explores individual languages and language in general it breaks language down and analyses its component parts theory sounds and their meaning utterance usage word origins the history of words the meaning of words and word combinations sentence construction basic construction beyond the sentence level stylistics and conversation it examines the above using statistics and modeling and semantics it analyses language in context of anthropology biology evolution geography history neurology psychology and sociology it also takes the applied approach looking at individual language development and clinical issues literature literary criticism is the analysis of literature the focus can be as diverse as the analysis of homer or freud while not all literarycritical methods are primarily analytical in nature the main approach to the teaching of literature in the west since the midtwentieth century literary formal analysis or close reading is this method rooted in the academic movement labelled the new criticism approaches texts chiefly short poems such as sonnets which by virtue of their small size and significant complexity lend themselves well to this type of analysis as units of discourse that can be understood in themselves without reference to biographical or historical frameworks this method of analysis breaks up the text linguistically in a study of prosody the formal analysis of meter and phonic effects such as alliteration and rhyme and cognitively in examination of the interplay of syntactic structures figurative language and other elements of the poem that work to produce its larger effects mathematics modern mathematical analysis is the study of infinite processes it is the branch of mathematics that includes calculus it can be applied in the study of classical concepts of mathematics such as real numbers complex variables trigonometric functions and algorithms or of nonclassical concepts like constructivism harmonics infinity and vectors florian cajori explains in a history of mathematics 1893 the difference between modern and ancient mathematical analysis as distinct from logical analysis as follows the terms synthesis and analysis are used in mathematics in a more special sense than in logic in ancient mathematics they had a different meaning from what they now have the oldest definition of mathematical analysis as opposed to synthesis is that given in appended to euclid xiii 5 which in all probability was framed by eudoxus analysis is the obtaining of the thing sought by assuming it and so reasoning up to an admitted truth synthesis is the obtaining of the thing sought by reasoning up to the inference and proof of it the analytic method is not conclusive unless all operations involved in it are known to be reversible to remove all doubt the greeks as a rule added to the analytic process a synthetic one consisting of a reversion of all operations occurring in the analysis thus the aim of analysis was to aid in the discovery of synthetic proofs or solutions james gow uses a similar argument as cajori with the following clarification in his a short history of greek mathematics 1884 the synthetic proof proceeds by shewing that the proposed new truth involves certain admitted truths an analytic proof begins by an assumption upon which a synthetic reasoning is founded the greeks distinguished theoretic from problematic analysis a theoretic analysis is of the following kind to prove that a is b assume first that a is b if so then since b is c and c is d and d is e therefore a is e if this be known a falsity a is not b but if this be a known truth and all the intermediate propositions be convertible then the reverse process a is e e is d d is c c is b therefore a is b constitutes a synthetic proof of the original theorem problematic analysis is applied in all cases where it is proposed to construct a figure which is assumed to satisfy a given condition the problem is then converted into some theorem which is involved in the condition and which is proved synthetically and the steps of this synthetic proof taken backwards are a synthetic solution of the problem music musical analysis a process attempting to answer the question how does this music work musical analysis is a study of how the composers use the notes together to compose music those studying music will find differences with each composers musical analysis which differs depending on the culture and history of music studied an analysis of music is meant to simplify the music for you schenkerian analysis schenkerian analysis is a collection of music analysis that focuses on the production of the graphic representation this includes both analytical procedure as well as the notational style simply put it analyzes tonal music which includes all chords and tones within a composition philosophy philosophical analysis a general term for the techniques used by philosophers philosophical analysis refers to the clarification and composition of words put together and the entailed meaning behind them philosophical analysis dives deeper into the meaning of words and seeks to clarify that meaning by contrasting the various definitions it is the study of reality justification of claims and the analysis of various concepts branches of philosophy include logic justification metaphysics values and ethics if questions can be answered empirically meaning it can be answered by using the senses then it is not considered philosophical nonphilosophical questions also include events that happened in the past or questions science or mathematics can answer analysis is the name of a prominent journal in philosophy psychotherapy psychoanalysis seeks to elucidate connections among unconscious components of patients mental processes transactional analysis transactional analysis is used by therapists to try to gain a better understanding of the unconscious it focuses on understanding and intervening human behavior policy policy analysis the use of statistical data to predict the effects of policy decisions made by governments and agencies policy analysis includes a systematic process to find the most efficient and effective option to address the current situation qualitative analysis the use of anecdotal evidence to predict the effects of policy decisions or more generally influence policy decisions signal processing finite element analysis a computer simulation technique used in engineering analysis independent component analysis link quality analysis the analysis of signal quality path quality analysis fourier analysis statistics in statistics the term analysis may refer to any method used for data analysis among the many such methods some are analysis of variance anova a collection of statistical models and their associated procedures which compare means by splitting the overall observed variance into different parts boolean analysis a method to find deterministic dependencies between variables in a sample mostly used in exploratory data analysis cluster analysis techniques for finding groups called clusters based on some measure of proximity or similarity factor analysis a method to construct models describing a data set of observed variables in terms of a smaller set of unobserved variables called factors metaanalysis combines the results of several studies that address a set of related research hypotheses multivariate analysis analysis of data involving several variables such as by factor analysis regression analysis or principal component analysis principal component analysis transformation of a sample of correlated variables into uncorrelated variables called principal components mostly used in exploratory data analysis regression analysis techniques for analysing the relationships between several predictive variables and one or more outcomes in the data scale analysis statistics methods to analyse survey data by scoring responses on a numeric scale sensitivity analysis the study of how the variation in the output of a model depends on variations in the inputs sequential analysis evaluation of sampled data as it is collected until the criterion of a stopping rule is met spatial analysis the study of entities using geometric or geographic properties timeseries analysis methods that attempt to understand a sequence of data points spaced apart at uniform time intervals other aura analysis a technique in which supporters of the method claim that the bodys aura or energy field is analysed bowling analysis analysis of the performance of cricket players lithic analysis the analysis of stone tools using basic scientific techniques lithic analysis is most often used by archeologists in determining which types of tools were used at a given time period pertaining to current artifacts discovered protocol analysis a means for extracting persons thoughts while they are performing a task see also formal analysis metabolism in biology methodology scientific method references external links abstraction critical thinking skills emergence empiricism epistemological theories intelligence mathematical modeling metaphysics of mind methodology ontology philosophy of logic rationalism reasoning research methods scientific method theory of mind | 2,225 |
1135 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abner%20Doubleday | Abner Doubleday | abner doubleday june 26 1819 january 26 1893 was a career united states army officer and union major general in the american civil war he fired the first shot in defense of fort sumter the opening battle of the war and had a pivotal role in the early fighting at the battle of gettysburg gettysburg was his finest hour but his relief by maj gen george g meade caused lasting enmity between the two men in san francisco after the war he obtained a patent on the cable car railway that still runs there in his final years in new jersey he was a prominent member and later president of the theosophical society in 1908 15 years after his death the mills commission declared that doubleday had invented the game of baseball although doubleday never made such a claim this claim has been thoroughly debunked by baseball historians early years doubleday the son of ulysses f doubleday and hester donnelly was born in ballston spa new york in a small house on the corner of washington and fenwick streets as a child abner was very short the family all slept in the attic loft of the oneroom house his paternal grandfather also named abner had fought in the american revolutionary war his maternal grandfather thomas donnelly had joined the army at 14 and was a mounted messenger for george washington his great grandfather peter donnelly was a minuteman his father ulysses f fought in the war of 1812 published newspapers and books and represented auburn new york for four years in the united states congress abner spent his childhood in auburn and later was sent to cooperstown to live with his uncle and attend a private preparatory high school he practiced as a surveyor and civil engineer for two years before entering the united states military academy in 1838 he graduated in 1842 24th in a class of 56 cadets and was commissioned a brevet second lieutenant in the 3rd us artillery in 1852 he married mary hewitt of baltimore the daughter of a local lawyer early commands and fort sumter doubleday initially served in coastal garrisons and then in the mexicanamerican war from 1846 to 1848 and the seminole wars from 1856 to 1858 in 1858 he was transferred to fort moultrie in charleston harbor serving under colonel john l gardner by the start of the civil war he was a captain and second in command in the garrison at fort sumter under major robert anderson he aimed the cannon that fired the first return shot in answer to the confederate bombardment on april 12 1861 he subsequently referred to himself as the hero of sumter for this role of note although doubleday did not invent baseball by sheer coincidence the fort sumter garrison flag or storm flag has the star pattern arranged in a diamond shape which by that time in history was the shape of the baseball infield brigade and division command in virginia doubleday was promoted to major on may 14 1861 and commanded the artillery department in the shenandoah valley from june to august and then the artillery for major general nathaniel bankss division of the army of the potomac he was appointed brigadier general of volunteers on february 3 1862 and was assigned to duty in northern virginia while the army of the potomac conducted the peninsula campaign his first combat assignment was to lead the 2nd brigade 1st division iii corps of the army of virginia during the northern virginia campaign in the actions at brawners farm just before the second battle of bull run he took the initiative to send two of his regiments to reinforce brigadier general john gibbons brigade against a larger confederate force fighting it to a standstill personal initiative was required since his division commander brig gen rufus king was incapacitated by an epileptic seizure at the time he was replaced by brigadier general john p hatch his men were routed when they encountered major general james longstreets corps but by the following day august 30 he took command of the division when hatch was wounded and he led his men to cover the retreat of the union army doubleday again led the division now assigned to the i corps of the army of the potomac after south mountain where hatch was wounded again at antietam he led his men into the deadly fighting in the cornfield and the west woods and one colonel described him as a gallant officer remarkably cool and at the very front of battle he was wounded when an artillery shell exploded near his horse throwing him to the ground in a violent fall he received a brevet promotion to lieutenant colonel in the regular army for his actions at antietam and was promoted in march 1863 to major general of volunteers to rank from november 29 1862 at fredericksburg in december 1862 his division mostly sat idle during the winter the i corps was reorganized and doubleday assumed command of the 3rd division at chancellorsville in may 1863 the division was kept in reserve gettysburg at the start of the battle of gettysburg july 1 1863 doubledays division was the second infantry division on the field to reinforce the cavalry division of brigadier general john buford when his corps commander major general john f reynolds was killed very early in the fighting doubleday found himself in command of the corps at 1050 am his men fought well in the morning putting up a stout resistance but as overwhelming confederate forces massed against them their line eventually broke and they retreated back through the town of gettysburg to the relative safety of cemetery hill south of town it was doubledays finest performance during the war five hours leading 9500 men against ten confederate brigades that numbered more than 16000 seven of those brigades sustained casualties that ranged from 35 to 50 percent indicating the ferocity of the union defense on cemetery hill however the i corps could muster only a third of its men as effective for duty and the corps was essentially destroyed as a combat force for the rest of the battle it would be decommissioned in march 1864 its surviving units consolidated into other corps on july 2 1863 army of the potomac commander maj gen george g meade replaced doubleday with major general john newton a more junior officer from another corps the ostensible reason was a false report by xi corps commander major general oliver o howard that doubledays corps broke first causing the entire union line to collapse but meade also had a long history of disdain for doubledays combat effectiveness dating back to south mountain doubleday was humiliated by this snub and held a lasting grudge against meade but he returned to division command and fought well for the remainder of the battle he was wounded in the neck on the second day of gettysburg and received a brevet promotion to colonel in the regular army for his service he formally requested reinstatement as i corps commander but meade refused and doubleday left gettysburg on july 7 for washington doubledays staff nicknamed him fortyeight hours as a compliment to recognize his tendency to avoid reckless or impulsive actions and his thoughtfulness and deliberateness in considering circumstances and possible responses in recent years biographers have turned the nickname into an insult incorrectly claiming fortyeight hours was coined to highlight doubledays supposed incompetence and slowness to act washington doubleday assumed administrative duties in the defenses of washington dc where he was in charge of courts martial which gave him legal experience that he used after the war his only return to combat was directing a portion of the defenses against the attack by confederate lieutenant general jubal a early in the valley campaigns of 1864 also while in washington doubleday testified against george meade at the united states congress joint committee on the conduct of the war criticizing him harshly over his conduct of the battle of gettysburg while in washington doubleday remained a loyal republican and staunch supporter of president abraham lincoln doubleday rode with lincoln on the train to gettysburg for the gettysburg address and col and mrs doubleday attended events with mr and mrs lincoln in washington postbellum career after the civil war doubleday mustered out of the volunteer service on august 24 1865 reverted to the rank of lieutenant colonel and became the colonel of the 35th us infantry in september 1867 he was stationed in san francisco from 1869 through 1871 and he took out a patent for the cable car railway that still runs there receiving a charter for its operation but signing away his rights when he was reassigned in 1871 he commanded the 24th us infantry an all africanamerican regiment with headquarters at fort mckavett texas he retired in 1873 in the 1870s he was listed in the new york business directory as a lawyer doubleday spent much of his time writing he published two important works on the civil war reminiscences of forts sumter and moultrie 1876 and chancellorsville and gettysburg 1882 the latter being a volume of the series campaigns of the civil war theosophy in the summer of 1878 doubleday lived in mendham township new jersey and became a prominent member of the theosophical society when two of the founders of that society helena blavatsky and henry steel olcott moved to india at the end of that year he was constituted as the president of the american body death doubleday died of heart disease in mendham township on january 26 1893 doubledays body was laid in state in new yorks city hall and then was taken to washington by train from mendham and was buried in arlington national cemetery in arlington county virginia he was survived by his wife baseball although doubleday achieved minor fame as a competent combat general with experience in many important civil war battles he is more widely known as the supposed inventor of the game of baseball in elihu phinneys cow pasture in cooperstown new york in 1839 the mills commission chaired by abraham g mills the fourth president of the national league was appointed in 1905 to determine the origin of baseball the committees final report on december 30 1907 stated in part that the first scheme for playing baseball according to the best evidence obtainable to date was devised by abner doubleday at cooperstown new york in 1839 it concluded by saying in the years to come in the view of the hundreds of thousands of people who are devoted to baseball and the millions who will be abner doubledays fame will rest evenly if not quite as much upon the fact that he was its inventor as upon his brilliant and distinguished career as an officer in the federal army however there is considerable evidence to dispute this claim baseball historian george b kirsch has described the results of the mills commission as a myth he wrote robert henderson harold seymour and other scholars have since debunked the doubledaycooperstown myth which nonetheless remains powerful in the american imagination because of the efforts of major league baseball and the hall of fame in cooperstown at his death doubleday left many letters and papers none of which describe baseball or give any suggestion that he considered himself a prominent person in the evolution of the game and his new york times obituary did not mention the game at all chairman mills himself who had been a civil war colleague of doubleday and a member of the honor guard for doubledays body as it lay in state in new york city never recalled hearing doubleday describe his role as the inventor doubleday was a cadet at west point in the year of the alleged invention and his family had moved away from cooperstown the prior year furthermore the primary testimony to the commission that connected baseball to doubleday was that of abner graves whose credibility is questionable a few years later he shot his wife to death and was committed to an institution for the criminally insane for the rest of his life part of the confusion could stem from there being another man by the same name in cooperstown in 1839 despite the lack of solid evidence linking doubleday to the origins of baseball cooperstown new york became the new home of what is today the national baseball hall of fame and museum in 1937 there may have been some relationship to baseball as a national sport and abner doubleday while the modern rules of baseball were formulated in new york during the 1840s it was the scattering of new yorkers exposed to these rules throughout the country that spread not only baseball but also the new york rules thereby harmonizing the rules and being a catalyst for its growth doubleday was a highranking officer whose duties included seeing to provisions for the us army fighting throughout the south and border states for the morale of the men he is said to have provisioned balls and bats for the men namesakes and honors doubledays men admirers and the state of new york erected a monument to him at gettysburg there is a obelisk monument at arlington national cemetery where he is buried doubleday field is a 9791seat baseball stadium named for abner doubleday located in cooperstown new york near the baseball hall of fame it hosted the annual hall of fame game an exhibition game between two major league teams that was played from 1940 until 2008 it has hosted the hall of fame classic since 2009 the auburn doubledays are a collegiate summer baseball team based in doubledays hometown of auburn new york doubleday field at the united states military academy at west point new york where the army black knights play at johnson stadium is named in doubledays honor the abner doubleday little league and babe ruth fields in ballston spa new york the town of his birth the house of his birth still stands in the middle of town and there is a monument to him on front street a sign at the doubleday hill monument erected in williamsport maryland to commemorate doubledays occupation of a hill there during the civil war claims he invented the game in 1835 mendham borough and mendham township new jersey has held a municipal holiday known as abner doubleday day for numerous years in the generals honor and commissioned a plaque near the site of his home in the borough in 1998 even though the borough was known as mendham township back then in 2004 the abner doubleday society erected a monument to doubleday in iron spring park ballston spa near his birthplace in popular culture in the movie the ridiculous 6 doubleday is portrayed by john turturro the character organizes the first game of baseball between the six main characters and a group of chinese immigrants creating the rules as he goes primarily to allow him to win in the 23rd episode of the anime samurai champloo titled baseball blues doubleday and alexander cartwright are featured as american naval officers who engage the main characters and local japanese people into a baseball game which the americans lose in the miniseries north and south george hazzard is seen watching a primitive form of baseball with a wounded orry main while referring to the game being invented by doubleday a fellow west point cadet see also list of american civil war generals union william webb ellis sometimes apocryphally credited with inventing rugby football notes references gomes michael abner doubleday and theosophy in america 18791884 sunrise aprilmay 1991 doubleday abner in the handbook of texas further reading silkenat david raising the white flag how surrender defined the american civil war chapel hill university of north carolina press 2019 external links defense of madame blavatsky baseball hall of fame photo of abner doubleday and wife mary taken by mathew brady owned by university of michigan museum of art ulysses freeman doubleday mclean county museum of history 1819 births 1893 deaths american military personnel of the mexicanamerican war american people of english descent burials at arlington national cemetery history of baseball people from auburn new york people from ballston spa new york people of new york state in the american civil war union army generals united states military academy alumni writers from new york state new york state republicans american theosophists people from mendham township new jersey | 2,751 |
1136 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/America%27s%20National%20Game | America's National Game | americas national game is a book by albert spalding published in 1911 that details the early history of the sport of baseball it is one of the defining books in the early formative years of modern baseball much of the story is told firsthand since the 1850s spalding had been involved in the game first as a pitcher and later a manager and club owner later he branched out to become a leading manufacturer of sporting goods in addition to his personal recollections he had access to the records of henry chadwick the games first statistician and archivist much of his early history of the game is considered to be reliable spalding was however said to aggrandize his role in the major moments in baseballs history early editions of the book include quality fullpage photoplates of important players see also history of baseball references 1911 nonfiction books baseball books | 149 |
1140 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude%20modulation | Amplitude modulation | amplitude modulation am is a modulation technique used in electronic communication most commonly for transmitting messages with a radio wave in amplitude modulation the amplitude signal strength of the wave is varied in proportion to that of the message signal such as an audio signal this technique contrasts with angle modulation in which either the frequency of the carrier wave is varied as in frequency modulation or its phase as in phase modulation am was the earliest modulation method used for transmitting audio in radio broadcasting it was developed during the first quarter of the 20th century beginning with roberto landell de moura and reginald fessendens radiotelephone experiments in 1900 this original form of am is sometimes called doublesideband amplitude modulation dsbam because the standard method produces sidebands on either side of the carrier frequency singlesideband modulation uses bandpass filters to eliminate one of the sidebands and possibly the carrier signal which improves the ratio of message power to total transmission power reduces power handling requirements of line repeaters and permits better bandwidth utilization of the transmission medium am remains in use in many forms of communication in addition to am broadcasting shortwave radio amateur radio twoway radios vhf aircraft radio citizens band radio and in computer modems in the form of qam foundation in electronics telecommunications and mechanics modulation means varying some aspect of a continuous wave carrier signal with an informationbearing modulation waveform such as an audio signal which represents sound or a video signal which represents images in this sense the carrier wave which has a much higher frequency than the message signal carries the information at the receiving station the message signal is extracted from the modulated carrier by demodulation in general form a modulation process of a sinusoidal carrier wave may be described by the following equation at represents the timevarying amplitude of the sinusoidal carrier wave and the cosineterm is the carrier at its angular frequency and the instantaneous phase deviation this description directly provides the two major groups of modulation amplitude modulation and angle modulation in angle modulation the term at is constant and the second term of the equation has a functional relationship to the modulating message signal angle modulation provides two methods of modulation frequency modulation and phase modulation in amplitude modulation the angle term is held constant and the first term at of the equation has a functional relationship to the modulating message signal the modulating message signal may be analog in nature or it may be a digital signal in which case the technique is generally called amplitudeshift keying for example in am radio communication a continuous wave radiofrequency signal has its amplitude modulated by an audio waveform before transmission the message signal determines the envelope of the transmitted waveform in the frequency domain amplitude modulation produces a signal with power concentrated at the carrier frequency and two adjacent sidebands each sideband is equal in bandwidth to that of the modulating signal and is a mirror image of the other standard am is thus sometimes called doublesideband amplitude modulation dsbam a disadvantage of all amplitude modulation techniques not only standard am is that the receiver amplifies and detects noise and electromagnetic interference in equal proportion to the signal increasing the received signaltonoise ratio say by a factor of 10 a 10 decibel improvement thus would require increasing the transmitter power by a factor of 10 this is in contrast to frequency modulation fm and digital radio where the effect of such noise following demodulation is strongly reduced so long as the received signal is well above the threshold for reception for this reason am broadcast is not favored for music and high fidelity broadcasting but rather for voice communications and broadcasts sports news talk radio etc am is also inefficient in power usage at least twothirds of the power is concentrated in the carrier signal the carrier signal contains none of the original information being transmitted voice video data etc however its presence provides a simple means of demodulation using envelope detection providing a frequency and phase reference to extract the modulation from the sidebands in some modulation systems based on am a lower transmitter power is required through partial or total elimination of the carrier component however receivers for these signals are more complex because they must provide a precise carrier frequency reference signal usually as shifted to the intermediate frequency from a greatly reduced pilot carrier in reducedcarrier transmission or dsbrc to use in the demodulation process even with the carrier totally eliminated in doublesideband suppressedcarrier transmission carrier regeneration is possible using a costas phaselocked loop this does not work for singlesideband suppressedcarrier transmission ssbsc leading to the characteristic donald duck sound from such receivers when slightly detuned singlesideband am is nevertheless used widely in amateur radio and other voice communications because it has power and bandwidth efficiency cutting the rf bandwidth in half compared to standard am on the other hand in medium wave and short wave broadcasting standard am with the full carrier allows for reception using inexpensive receivers the broadcaster absorbs the extra power cost to greatly increase potential audience shift keying a simple form of digital amplitude modulation which can be used for transmitting binary data is onoff keying the simplest form of amplitudeshift keying in which ones and zeros are represented by the presence or absence of a carrier onoff keying is likewise used by radio amateurs to transmit morse code where it is known as continuous wave cw operation even though the transmission is not strictly continuous a more complex form of am quadrature amplitude modulation is now more commonly used with digital data while making more efficient use of the available bandwidth analog telephony a simple form of amplitude modulation is the transmission of speech signals from a traditional analog telephone set using a common battery local loop the direct current provided by the central office battery is a carrier with a frequency of 0 hz it is modulated by a microphone transmitter in the telephone set according to the acoustic signal from the speaker the result is a varying amplitude direct current whose accomponent is the speech signal extracted at the central office for transmission to another subscriber amplitude reference an additional function provided by the carrier in standard am but which is lost in either single or doublesideband suppressedcarrier transmission is that it provides an amplitude reference in the receiver the automatic gain control agc responds to the carrier so that the reproduced audio level stays in a fixed proportion to the original modulation on the other hand with suppressedcarrier transmissions there is no transmitted power during pauses in the modulation so the agc must respond to peaks of the transmitted power during peaks in the modulation this typically involves a socalled fast attack slow decay circuit which holds the agc level for a second or more following such peaks in between syllables or short pauses in the program this is very acceptable for communications radios where compression of the audio aids intelligibility however it is absolutely undesired for music or normal broadcast programming where a faithful reproduction of the original program including its varying modulation levels is expected itu type designations in 1982 the international telecommunication union itu designated the types of amplitude modulation history amplitude modulation was used in experiments of multiplex telegraph and telephone transmission in the late 1800s however the practical development of this technology is identified with the period between 1900 and 1920 of radiotelephone transmission that is the effort to send audio signals by radio waves the first radio transmitters called spark gap transmitters transmitted information by wireless telegraphy using pulses of the carrier wave to spell out text messages in morse code they could not transmit audio because the carrier consisted of strings of damped waves pulses of radio waves that declined to zero and sounded like a buzz in receivers in effect they were already amplitude modulated continuous waves the first am transmission was made by canadian researcher reginald fessenden on 23 december 1900 using a spark gap transmitter with a specially designed high frequency 10 khz interrupter over a distance of one mile 16 km at cobb island maryland us his first transmitted words were hello one two three four is it snowing where you are mr thiessen the words were barely intelligible above the background buzz of the spark fessenden was a significant figure in the development of am radio he was one of the first researchers to realize from experiments like the above that the existing technology for producing radio waves the spark transmitter was not usable for amplitude modulation and that a new kind of transmitter one that produced sinusoidal continuous waves was needed this was a radical idea at the time because experts believed the impulsive spark was necessary to produce radio frequency waves and fessenden was ridiculed he invented and helped develop one of the first continuous wave transmitters the alexanderson alternator with which he made what is considered the first am public entertainment broadcast on christmas eve 1906 he also discovered the principle on which am is based heterodyning and invented one of the first detectors able to rectify and receive am the electrolytic detector or liquid baretter in 1902 other radio detectors invented for wireless telegraphy such as the fleming valve 1904 and the crystal detector 1906 also proved able to rectify am signals so the technological hurdle was generating am waves receiving them was not a problem early technologies early experiments in am radio transmission conducted by fessenden valdemar poulsen ernst ruhmer quirino majorana charles herrold and lee de forest were hampered by the lack of a technology for amplification the first practical continuous wave am transmitters were based on either the huge expensive alexanderson alternator developed 19061910 or versions of the poulsen arc transmitter arc converter invented in 1903 the modifications necessary to transmit am were clumsy and resulted in very low quality audio modulation was usually accomplished by a carbon microphone inserted directly in the antenna or ground wire its varying resistance varied the current to the antenna the limited power handling ability of the microphone severely limited the power of the first radiotelephones many of the microphones were watercooled vacuum tubes the 1912 discovery of the amplifying ability of the audion tube invented in 1906 by lee de forest solved these problems the vacuum tube feedback oscillator invented in 1912 by edwin armstrong and alexander meissner was a cheap source of continuous waves and could be easily modulated to make an am transmitter modulation did not have to be done at the output but could be applied to the signal before the final amplifier tube so the microphone or other audio source didnt have to modulate a highpower radio signal wartime research greatly advanced the art of am modulation and after the war the availability of cheap tubes sparked a great increase in the number of radio stations experimenting with am transmission of news or music the vacuum tube was responsible for the rise of am broadcasting around 1920 the first electronic mass communication medium amplitude modulation was virtually the only type used for radio broadcasting until fm broadcasting began after world war ii at the same time as am radio began telephone companies such as att were developing the other large application for am sending multiple telephone calls through a single wire by modulating them on separate carrier frequencies called frequency division multiplexing singlesideband in 1915 john renshaw carson formulated the first mathematical description of amplitude modulation showing that a signal and carrier frequency combined in a nonlinear device creates a sideband on both sides of the carrier frequency passing the modulated signal through another nonlinear device can extract the original baseband signal his analysis also showed that only one sideband was necessary to transmit the audio signal and carson patented singlesideband modulation ssb on 1 december 1915 this advanced variant of amplitude modulation was adopted by att for longwave transatlantic telephone service beginning 7 january 1927 after wwii it was developed for military aircraft communication analysis the carrier wave sine wave of frequency fc and amplitude a is expressed by the message signal such as an audio signal that is used for modulating the carrier is mt and has a frequency fm much lower than fc where m is the amplitude sensitivity m is the amplitude of modulation if m 1 1 mta is always positive for undermodulation if m 1 then overmodulation occurs and reconstruction of message signal from the transmitted signal would lead in loss of original signal amplitude modulation results when the carrier ct is multiplied by the positive quantity 1 mta in this simple case m is identical to the modulation index discussed below with m 05 the amplitude modulated signal yt thus corresponds to the top graph labelled 50 modulation in figure 4 using prosthaphaeresis identities yt can be shown to be the sum of three sine waves therefore the modulated signal has three components the carrier wave ct which is unchanged in frequency and two sidebands with frequencies slightly above and below the carrier frequency fc spectrum a useful modulation signal mt is usually more complex than a single sine wave as treated above however by the principle of fourier decomposition mt can be expressed as the sum of a set of sine waves of various frequencies amplitudes and phases carrying out the multiplication of 1 mt with ct as above the result consists of a sum of sine waves again the carrier ct is present unchanged but each frequency component of m at fi has two sidebands at frequencies fc fi and fc fi the collection of the former frequencies above the carrier frequency is known as the upper sideband and those below constitute the lower sideband the modulation mt may be considered to consist of an equal mix of positive and negative frequency components as shown in the top of figure 2 one can view the sidebands as that modulation mt having simply been shifted in frequency by fc as depicted at the bottom right of figure 2 the shortterm spectrum of modulation changing as it would for a human voice for instance the frequency content horizontal axis may be plotted as a function of time vertical axis as in figure 3 it can again be seen that as the modulation frequency content varies an upper sideband is generated according to those frequencies shifted above the carrier frequency and the same content mirrorimaged in the lower sideband below the carrier frequency at all times the carrier itself remains constant and of greater power than the total sideband power power and spectrum efficiency the rf bandwidth of an am transmission refer to figure 2 but only considering positive frequencies is twice the bandwidth of the modulating or baseband signal since the upper and lower sidebands around the carrier frequency each have a bandwidth as wide as the highest modulating frequency although the bandwidth of an am signal is narrower than one using frequency modulation fm it is twice as wide as singlesideband techniques it thus may be viewed as spectrally inefficient within a frequency band only half as many transmissions or channels can thus be accommodated for this reason analog television employs a variant of singlesideband known as vestigial sideband somewhat of a compromise in terms of bandwidth in order to reduce the required channel spacing another improvement over standard am is obtained through reduction or suppression of the carrier component of the modulated spectrum in figure 2 this is the spike in between the sidebands even with full 100 sine wave modulation the power in the carrier component is twice that in the sidebands yet it carries no unique information thus there is a great advantage in efficiency in reducing or totally suppressing the carrier either in conjunction with elimination of one sideband singlesideband suppressedcarrier transmission or with both sidebands remaining double sideband suppressed carrier while these suppressed carrier transmissions are efficient in terms of transmitter power they require more sophisticated receivers employing synchronous detection and regeneration of the carrier frequency for that reason standard am continues to be widely used especially in broadcast transmission to allow for the use of inexpensive receivers using envelope detection even analog television with a largely suppressed lower sideband includes sufficient carrier power for use of envelope detection but for communications systems where both transmitters and receivers can be optimized suppression of both one sideband and the carrier represent a net advantage and are frequently employed a technique used widely in broadcast am transmitters is an application of the hapburg carrier first proposed in the 1930s but impractical with the technology then available during periods of low modulation the carrier power would be reduced and would return to full power during periods of high modulation levels this has the effect of reducing the overall power demand of the transmitter and is most effective on speech type programmes various trade names are used for its implementation by the transmitter manufacturers from the late 80s onwards modulation index the am modulation index is a measure based on the ratio of the modulation excursions of the rf signal to the level of the unmodulated carrier it is thus defined as where and are the modulation amplitude and carrier amplitude respectively the modulation amplitude is the peak positive or negative change in the rf amplitude from its unmodulated value modulation index is normally expressed as a percentage and may be displayed on a meter connected to an am transmitter so if carrier amplitude varies by 50 above and below its unmodulated level as is shown in the first waveform below for it varies by 100 as shown in the illustration below it with 100 modulation the wave amplitude sometimes reaches zero and this represents full modulation using standard am and is often a target in order to obtain the highest possible signaltonoise ratio but mustnt be exceeded increasing the modulating signal beyond that point known as overmodulation causes a standard am modulator see below to fail as the negative excursions of the wave envelope cannot become less than zero resulting in distortion clipping of the received modulation transmitters typically incorporate a limiter circuit to avoid overmodulation andor a compressor circuit especially for voice communications in order to still approach 100 modulation for maximum intelligibility above the noise such circuits are sometimes referred to as a vogad however it is possible to talk about a modulation index exceeding 100 without introducing distortion in the case of doublesideband reducedcarrier transmission in that case negative excursions beyond zero entail a reversal of the carrier phase as shown in the third waveform below this cannot be produced using the efficient highlevel output stage modulation techniques see below which are widely used especially in high power broadcast transmitters rather a special modulator produces such a waveform at a low level followed by a linear amplifier whats more a standard am receiver using an envelope detector is incapable of properly demodulating such a signal rather synchronous detection is required thus doublesideband transmission is generally not referred to as am even though it generates an identical rf waveform as standard am as long as the modulation index is below 100 such systems more often attempt a radical reduction of the carrier level compared to the sidebands where the useful information is present to the point of doublesideband suppressedcarrier transmission where the carrier is ideally reduced to zero in all such cases the term modulation index loses its value as it refers to the ratio of the modulation amplitude to a rather small or zero remaining carrier amplitude modulation methods modulation circuit designs may be classified as low or highlevel depending on whether they modulate in a lowpower domainfollowed by amplification for transmissionor in the highpower domain of the transmitted signal lowlevel generation in modern radio systems modulated signals are generated via digital signal processing dsp with dsp many types of am are possible with software control including dsb with carrier ssb suppressedcarrier and independent sideband or isb calculated digital samples are converted to voltages with a digitaltoanalog converter typically at a frequency less than the desired rfoutput frequency the analog signal must then be shifted in frequency and linearly amplified to the desired frequency and power level linear amplification must be used to prevent modulation distortion this lowlevel method for am is used in many amateur radio transceivers am may also be generated at a low level using analog methods described in the next section highlevel generation highpower am transmitters such as those used for am broadcasting are based on highefficiency classd and classe power amplifier stages modulated by varying the supply voltage older designs for broadcast and amateur radio also generate am by controlling the gain of the transmitters final amplifier generally classc for efficiency the following types are for vacuum tube transmitters but similar options are available with transistors plate modulation in plate modulation the plate voltage of the rf amplifier is modulated with the audio signal the audio power requirement is 50 percent of the rfcarrier power heising constantcurrent modulation rf amplifier plate voltage is fed through a choke highvalue inductor the am modulation tube plate is fed through the same inductor so the modulator tube diverts current from the rf amplifier the choke acts as a constant current source in the audio range this system has a low power efficiency control grid modulation the operating bias and gain of the final rf amplifier can be controlled by varying the voltage of the control grid this method requires little audio power but care must be taken to reduce distortion clamp tube screen grid modulation the screengrid bias may be controlled through a clamp tube which reduces voltage according to the modulation signal it is difficult to approach 100percent modulation while maintaining low distortion with this system doherty modulation one tube provides the power under carrier conditions and another operates only for positive modulation peaks overall efficiency is good and distortion is low outphasing modulation two tubes are operated in parallel but partially out of phase with each other as they are differentially phase modulated their combined amplitude is greater or smaller efficiency is good and distortion low when properly adjusted pulsewidth modulation pwm or pulseduration modulation pdm a highly efficient high voltage power supply is applied to the tube plate the output voltage of this supply is varied at an audio rate to follow the program this system was pioneered by hilmer swanson and has a number of variations all of which achieve high efficiency and sound quality digital methods the harris corporation obtained a patent for synthesizing a modulated highpower carrier wave from a set of digitally selected lowpower amplifiers running in phase at the same carrier frequency the input signal is sampled by a conventional audio analogtodigital converter adc and fed to a digital exciter which modulates overall transmitter output power by switching a series of lowpower solidstate rf amplifiers on and off the combined output drives the antenna system demodulation methods the simplest form of am demodulator consists of a diode which is configured to act as envelope detector another type of demodulator the product detector can provide betterquality demodulation with additional circuit complexity see also am stereo shortwave radio amplitude modulation signalling system amss modulation sphere types of radio emissions airband dsbsc references bibliography newkirk david and karlquist rick 2004 mixers modulators and demodulators in d g reed ed the arrl handbook for radio communications 81st ed pp 1511536 newington arrl external links amplitude modulation by jakub serych wolfram demonstrations project amplitude modulation by s sastry amplitude modulation an introduction by federation of american scientists amplitude modulation tutorial including related topics of modulators demodulators etc analog modulation online interactive demonstration using python in google colab platform by c foh radio modulation modes | 3,986 |
1141 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin-Jean%20Fresnel | Augustin-Jean Fresnel | augustinjean fresnel 10 may 1788 14 july 1827 was a french civil engineer and physicist whose research in optics led to the almost unanimous acceptance of the wave theory of light excluding any remnant of newtons corpuscular theory from the late 1830s until the end of the 19th century he is perhaps better known for inventing the catadioptric reflectiverefractive fresnel lens and for pioneering the use of stepped lenses to extend the visibility of lighthouses saving countless lives at sea the simpler dioptric purely refractive stepped lens first proposed by count buffon and independently reinvented by fresnel is used in screen magnifiers and in condenser lenses for overhead projectors by expressing huygenss principle of secondary waves and youngs principle of interference in quantitative terms and supposing that simple colors consist of sinusoidal waves fresnel gave the first satisfactory explanation of diffraction by straight edges including the first satisfactory wavebased explanation of rectilinear propagation part of his argument was a proof that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different phases is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions by further supposing that light waves are purely transverse fresnel explained the nature of polarization the mechanism of chromatic polarization and the transmission and reflection coefficients at the interface between two transparent isotropic media then by generalizing the directionspeedpolarization relation for calcite he accounted for the directions and polarizations of the refracted rays in doublyrefractive crystals of the biaxial class those for which huygenss secondary wavefronts are not axisymmetric the period between the first publication of his puretransversewave hypothesis and the submission of his first correct solution to the biaxial problem was less than a year later he coined the terms linear polarization circular polarization and elliptical polarization explained how optical rotation could be understood as a difference in propagation speeds for the two directions of circular polarization and by allowing the reflection coefficient to be complex accounted for the change in polarization due to total internal reflection as exploited in the fresnel rhomb defenders of the established corpuscular theory could not match his quantitative explanations of so many phenomena on so few assumptions fresnel had a lifelong battle with tuberculosis to which he succumbed at the age of 39 although he did not become a public celebrity in his lifetime he lived just long enough to receive due recognition from his peers including on his deathbed the rumford medal of the royal society of london and his name is ubiquitous in the modern terminology of optics and waves after the wave theory of light was subsumed by maxwells electromagnetic theory in the 1860s some attention was diverted from the magnitude of fresnels contribution in the period between fresnels unification of physical optics and maxwells wider unification a contemporary authority humphrey lloyd described fresnels transversewave theory as the noblest fabric which has ever adorned the domain of physical science newtons system of the universe alone excepted early life family augustinjean fresnel also called augustin jean or simply augustin born in broglie normandy on 10 may 1788 was the second of four sons of the architect jacques fresnel 17551805 and his wife augustine née mérimée 17551833 in 1790 following the revolution broglie became part of the département of eure the family moved twicein 178990 to cherbourg and in 1794 to jacquess home town of mathieu where madame fresnel would spend 25 years as a widow outliving two of her sons the first son louis 17861809 was admitted to the école polytechnique became a lieutenant in the artillery and was killed in action at jaca spain the day before his 23rd birthday the third léonor 17901869 followed augustin into civil engineering succeeded him as secretary of the lighthouse commission and helped to edit his collected works the fourth fulgence fresnel 17951855 became a noted linguist diplomat and orientalist and occasionally assisted augustin with negotiations fulgence died in bagdad in 1855 having led a mission to explore babylon léonor apparently was the only one of the four who married their mothers younger brother jean françois léonor mérimée 17571836 father of the writer prosper mérimée 18031870 was a paint artist who turned his attention to the chemistry of painting he became the permanent secretary of the école des beauxarts and until 1814 a professor at the école polytechnique and was the initial point of contact between augustin and the leading optical physicists of the day education the fresnel brothers were initially homeschooled by their mother the sickly augustin was considered the slow one not inclined to memorization but the popular story that he hardly began to read until the age of eight is disputed at the age of nine or ten he was undistinguished except for his ability to turn treebranches into toy bows and guns that worked far too well earning himself the title lhomme de génie the man of genius from his accomplices and a united crackdown from their elders in 1801 augustin was sent to the école centrale at caen as company for louis but augustin lifted his performance in late 1804 he was accepted into the école polytechnique being placed 17th in the entrance examination as the detailed records of the école polytechnique begin in 1808 we know little of augustins time there except that he made few if any friends andin spite of continuing poor healthexcelled in drawing and geometry in his first year he took a prize for his solution to a geometry problem posed by adrienmarie legendre graduating in 1806 he then enrolled at the école nationale des ponts et chaussées national school of bridges and roads also known as enpc or école des ponts from which he graduated in 1809 entering the service of the corps des ponts et chaussées as an ingénieur ordinaire aspirant ordinary engineer in training directly or indirectly he was to remain in the employment of the corps des ponts for the rest of his life religious formation fresnels parents were roman catholics of the jansenist sect characterized by an extreme augustinian view of original sin religion took first place in the boys homeschooling in 1802 his mother said augustin remained a jansenist he regarded his intellectual talents as gifts from god and considered it his duty to use them for the benefit of others according to his fellow engineer alphonse duleau who helped to nurse him through his final illness fresnel saw the study of nature as part of the study of the power and goodness of god he placed virtue above science and genius in his last days he prayed for strength of soul not against death alone but against the interruption of discoveries of which he hoped to derive useful applications jansenism is considered heretical by the roman catholic church and grattanguinness suggests this is why fresnel never gained a permanent academic teaching post his only teaching appointment was at the athénée in the winter of 181920 the article on fresnel in the catholic encyclopedia does not mention his jansenism but describes him as a deeply religious man and remarkable for his keen sense of duty engineering assignments fresnel was initially posted to the western département of vendée there in 1811 he anticipated what became known as the solvay process for producing soda ash except that recycling of the ammonia was not considered that difference may explain why leading chemists who learned of his discovery through his uncle léonor eventually thought it uneconomic about 1812 fresnel was sent to nyons in the southern département of drôme to assist with the imperial highway that was to connect spain and italy it is from nyons that we have the first evidence of his interest in optics on 15 may 1814 while work was slack due to napoleons defeat fresnel wrote a ps to his brother léonor saying in part as late as 28 december he was still waiting for information but he had received biots memoir by 10 february 1815 the institut de france had taken over the functions of the french académie des sciences and other académies in 1795 in 1816 the académie des sciences regained its name and autonomy but remained part of the institute in march 1815 perceiving napoleons return from elba as an attack on civilization fresnel departed without leave hastened to toulouse and offered his services to the royalist resistance but soon found himself on the sick list returning to nyons in defeat he was threatened and had his windows broken during the hundred days he was placed on suspension which he was eventually allowed to spend at his mothers house in mathieu there he used his enforced leisure to begin his optical experiments contributions to physical optics historical context from newton to biot the appreciation of fresnels reconstruction of physical optics might be assisted by an overview of the fragmented state in which he found the subject in this subsection optical phenomena that were unexplained or whose explanations were disputed are named in bold type the corpuscular theory of light favored by isaac newton and accepted by nearly all of fresnels seniors easily explained rectilinear propagation the corpuscles obviously moved very fast so that their paths were very nearly straight the wave theory as developed by christiaan huygens in his treatise on light 1690 explained rectilinear propagation on the assumption that each point crossed by a traveling wavefront becomes the source of a secondary wavefront given the initial position of a traveling wavefront any later position according to huygens was the common tangent surface envelope of the secondary wavefronts emitted from the earlier position as the extent of the common tangent was limited by the extent of the initial wavefront the repeated application of huygenss construction to a plane wavefront of limited extent in a uniform medium gave a straight parallel beam while this construction indeed predicted rectilinear propagation it was difficult to reconcile with the common observation that wavefronts on the surface of water can bend around obstructions and with the similar behavior of sound wavescausing newton to maintain to the end of his life that if light consisted of waves it would bend and spread every way into the shadows huygenss theory neatly explained the law of ordinary reflection and the law of ordinary refraction snells law provided that the secondary waves traveled slower in denser media those of higher refractive index the corpuscular theory with the hypothesis that the corpuscles were subject to forces acting perpendicular to surfaces explained the same laws equally well albeit with the implication that light traveled faster in denser media that implication was wrong but could not be directly disproven with the technology of newtons time or even fresnels time similarly inconclusive was stellar aberrationthat is the apparent change in the position of a star due to the velocity of the earth across the line of sight not to be confused with stellar parallax which is due to the displacement of the earth across the line of sight identified by james bradley in 1728 stellar aberration was widely taken as confirmation of the corpuscular theory but it was equally compatible with the wave theory as euler noted in 1746tacitly assuming that the aether the supposed wavebearing medium near the earth was not disturbed by the motion of the earth the outstanding strength of huygenss theory was his explanation of the birefringence double refraction of iceland crystal transparent calcite on the assumption that the secondary waves are spherical for the ordinary refraction which satisfies snells law and spheroidal for the extraordinary refraction which does not in general huygenss commontangent construction implies that rays are paths of least time between successive positions of the wavefront in accordance with fermats principle in the special case of isotropic media the secondary wavefronts must be spherical and huygenss construction then implies that the rays are perpendicular to the wavefront indeed the law of ordinary refraction can be separately derived from that premise as ignacegaston pardies did before huygens although newton rejected the wave theory he noticed its potential to explain colors including the colors of thin plates eg newtons rings and the colors of skylight reflected in soap bubbles on the assumption that light consists of periodic waves with the lowest frequencies longest wavelengths at the red end of the spectrum and the highest frequencies shortest wavelengths at the violet end in 1672 he published a heavy hint to that effect but contemporary supporters of the wave theory failed to act on it robert hooke treated light as a periodic sequence of pulses but did not use frequency as the criterion of color while huygens treated the waves as individual pulses without any periodicity and pardies died young in 1673 newton himself tried to explain colors of thin plates using the corpuscular theory by supposing that his corpuscles had the wavelike property of alternating between fits of easy transmission and fits of easy reflection the distance between like fits depending on the color and the medium and awkwardly on the angle of refraction or reflection into that medium more awkwardly still this theory required thin plates to reflect only at the back surface although thick plates manifestly reflected also at the front surface it was not until 1801 that thomas young in the bakerian lecture for that year cited newtons hint and accounted for the colors of a thin plate as the combined effect of the front and back reflections which reinforce or cancel each other according to the wavelength and the thickness young similarly explained the colors of striated surfaces eg gratings as the wavelengthdependent reinforcement or cancellation of reflections from adjacent lines he described this reinforcement or cancellation as interference neither newton nor huygens satisfactorily explained diffractionthe blurring and fringing of shadows where according to rectilinear propagation they ought to be sharp newton who called diffraction inflexion supposed that rays of light passing close to obstacles were bent inflected but his explanation was only qualitative huygenss commontangent construction without modifications could not accommodate diffraction at all two such modifications were proposed by young in the same 1801 bakerian lecture first that the secondary waves near the edge of an obstacle could diverge into the shadow but only weakly due to limited reinforcement from other secondary waves and second that diffraction by an edge was caused by interference between two rays one reflected off the edge and the other inflected while passing near the edge the latter ray would be undeviated if sufficiently far from the edge but young did not elaborate on that case these were the earliest suggestions that the degree of diffraction depends on wavelength later in the 1803 bakerian lecture young ceased to regard inflection as a separate phenomenon and produced evidence that diffraction fringes inside the shadow of a narrow obstacle were due to interference when the light from one side was blocked the internal fringes disappeared but young was alone in such efforts until fresnel entered the field huygens in his investigation of double refraction noticed something that he could not explain when light passes through two similarly oriented calcite crystals at normal incidence the ordinary ray emerging from the first crystal suffers only the ordinary refraction in the second while the extraordinary ray emerging from the first suffers only the extraordinary refraction in the second but when the second crystal is rotated 90 about the incident rays the roles are interchanged so that the ordinary ray emerging from the first crystal suffers only the extraordinary refraction in the second and vice versa this discovery gave newton another reason to reject the wave theory rays of light evidently had sides corpuscles could have sides or poles as they would later be called but waves of light could not because so it seemed any such waves would need to be longitudinal with vibrations in the direction of propagation newton offered an alternative rule for the extraordinary refraction which rode on his authority through the 18th century although he made no known attempt to deduce it from any principles of optics corpuscular or otherwise in 1808 the extraordinary refraction of calcite was investigated experimentally with unprecedented accuracy by étiennelouis malus and found to be consistent with huygenss spheroid construction not newtons rule malus encouraged by pierresimon laplace then sought to explain this law in corpuscular terms from the known relation between the incident and refracted ray directions malus derived the corpuscular velocity as a function of direction that would satisfy maupertuiss least action principle but as young pointed out the existence of such a velocity law was guaranteed by huygenss spheroid because huygenss construction leads to fermats principle which becomes maupertuiss principle if the ray speed is replaced by the reciprocal of the particle speed the corpuscularists had not found a force law that would yield the alleged velocity law except by a circular argument in which a force acting at the surface of the crystal inexplicably depended on the direction of the possibly subsequent velocity within the crystal worse it was doubtful that any such force would satisfy the conditions of maupertuiss principle in contrast young proceeded to show that a medium more easily compressible in one direction than in any direction perpendicular to it as if it consisted of an infinite number of parallel plates connected by a substance somewhat less elastic admits spheroidal longitudinal wavefronts as huygens supposed but malus in the midst of his experiments on double refraction noticed something else when a ray of light is reflected off a nonmetallic surface at the appropriate angle it behaves like one of the two rays emerging from a calcite crystal it was malus who coined the term polarization to describe this behavior although the polarizing angle became known as brewsters angle after its dependence on the refractive index was determined experimentally by david brewster in 1815 malus also introduced the term plane of polarization in the case of polarization by reflection his plane of polarization was the plane of the incident and reflected rays in modern terms this is the plane normal to the electric vibration in 1809 malus further discovered that the intensity of light passing through two polarizers is proportional to the squared cosine of the angle between their planes of polarization maluss law whether the polarizers work by reflection or double refraction and that all birefringent crystals produce both extraordinary refraction and polarization as the corpuscularists started trying to explain these things in terms of polar molecules of light the wavetheorists had no working hypothesis on the nature of polarization prompting young to remark that maluss observations present greater difficulties to the advocates of the undulatory theory than any other facts with which we are acquainted malus died in february 1812 at the age of 36 shortly after receiving the rumford medal for his work on polarization in august 1811 françois arago reported that if a thin plate of mica was viewed against a white polarized backlight through a calcite crystal the two images of the mica were of complementary colors the overlap having the same color as the background the light emerging from the mica was depolarized in the sense that there was no orientation of the calcite that made one image disappear yet it was not ordinary unpolarized light for which the two images would be of the same color rotating the calcite around the line of sight changed the colors though they remained complementary rotating the mica changed the saturation not the hue of the colors this phenomenon became known as chromatic polarization replacing the mica with a much thicker plate of quartz with its faces perpendicular to the optic axis the axis of huygenss spheroid or maluss velocity function produced a similar effect except that rotating the quartz made no difference arago tried to explain his observations in corpuscular terms in 1812 as arago pursued further qualitative experiments and other commitments jeanbaptiste biot reworked the same ground using a gypsum lamina in place of the mica and found empirical formulae for the intensities of the ordinary and extraordinary images the formulae contained two coefficients supposedly representing colors of rays affected and unaffected by the platethe affected rays being of the same color mix as those reflected by amorphous thin plates of proportional but lesser thickness arago protested declaring that he had made some of the same discoveries but had not had time to write them up in fact the overlap between aragos work and biots was minimal aragos being only qualitative and wider in scope attempting to include polarization by reflection but the dispute triggered a notorious fallingout between the two men later that year biot tried to explain the observations as an oscillation of the alignment of the affected corpuscles at a frequency proportional to that of newtons fits due to forces depending on the alignment this theory became known as mobile polarization to reconcile his results with a sinusoidal oscillation biot had to suppose that the corpuscles emerged with one of two permitted orientations namely the extremes of the oscillation with probabilities depending on the phase of the oscillation corpuscular optics was becoming expensive on assumptions but in 1813 biot reported that the case of quartz was simpler the observable phenomenon now called optical rotation or optical activity or sometimes rotary polarization was a gradual rotation of the polarization direction with distance and could be explained by a corresponding rotation not oscillation of the corpuscles early in 1814 reviewing biots work on chromatic polarization young noted that the periodicity of the color as a function of the plate thicknessincluding the factor by which the period exceeded that for a reflective thin plate and even the effect of obliquity of the plate but not the role of polarizationcould be explained by the wave theory in terms of the different propagation times of the ordinary and extraordinary waves through the plate but young was then the only public defender of the wave theory in summary in the spring of 1814 as fresnel tried in vain to guess what polarization was the corpuscularists thought that they knew while the wavetheorists if we may use the plural literally had no idea both theories claimed to explain rectilinear propagation but the wave explanation was overwhelmingly regarded as unconvincing the corpuscular theory could not rigorously link double refraction to surface forces the wave theory could not yet link it to polarization the corpuscular theory was weak on thin plates and silent on gratings the wave theory was strong on both but underappreciated concerning diffraction the corpuscular theory did not yield quantitative predictions while the wave theory had begun to do so by considering diffraction as a manifestation of interference but had only considered two rays at a time only the corpuscular theory gave even a vague insight into brewsters angle maluss law or optical rotation concerning chromatic polarization the wave theory explained the periodicity far better than the corpuscular theory but had nothing to say about the role of polarization and its explanation of the periodicity was largely ignored and arago had founded the study of chromatic polarization only to lose the lead controversially to biot such were the circumstances in which arago first heard of fresnels interest in optics rêveries fresnels letters from later in 1814 reveal his interest in the wave theory including his awareness that it explained the constancy of the speed of light and was at least compatible with stellar aberration eventually he compiled what he called his rêveries musings into an essay and submitted it via léonor mérimée to andrémarie ampère who did not respond directly but on 19 december mérimée dined with ampère and arago with whom he was acquainted through the école polytechnique and arago promised to look at fresnels essay in mid 1815 on his way home to mathieu to serve his suspension fresnel met arago in paris and spoke of the wave theory and stellar aberration he was informed that he was trying to break down open doors il enfonçait des portes ouvertes and directed to classical works on optics diffraction first attempt 1815 on 12 july 1815 as fresnel was about to leave paris arago left him a note on a new topic fresnel would not have ready access to these works outside paris and could not read english but in mathieuwith a pointsource of light made by focusing sunlight with a drop of honey a crude micrometer of his own construction and supporting apparatus made by a local locksmithhe began his own experiments his technique was novel whereas earlier investigators had projected the fringes onto a screen fresnel soon abandoned the screen and observed the fringes in space through a lens with the micrometer at its focus allowing more accurate measurements while requiring less light later in july after napoleons final defeat fresnel was reinstated with the advantage of having backed the winning side he requested a twomonth leave of absence which was readily granted because roadworks were in abeyance on 23 september he wrote to arago beginning i think i have found the explanation and the law of colored fringes which one notices in the shadows of bodies illuminated by a luminous point in the same paragraph however fresnel implicitly acknowledged doubt about the novelty of his work noting that he would need to incur some expense in order to improve his measurements he wanted to know whether this is not useless and whether the law of diffraction has not already been established by sufficiently exact experiments he explained that he had not yet had a chance to acquire the items on his reading lists with the apparent exception of youngs book which he could not understand without his brothers help not surprisingly he had retraced many of youngs steps in a memoir sent to the institute on 15 october 1815 fresnel mapped the external and internal fringes in the shadow of a wire he noticed like young before him that the internal fringes disappeared when the light from one side was blocked and concluded that the vibrations of two rays that cross each other under a very small angle can contradict each other but whereas young took the disappearance of the internal fringes as confirmation of the principle of interference fresnel reported that it was the internal fringes that first drew his attention to the principle to explain the diffraction pattern fresnel constructed the internal fringes by considering the intersections of circular wavefronts emitted from the two edges of the obstruction and the external fringes by considering the intersections between direct waves and waves reflected off the nearer edge for the external fringes to obtain tolerable agreement with observation he had to suppose that the reflected wave was inverted and he noted that the predicted paths of the fringes were hyperbolic in the part of the memoir that most clearly surpassed young fresnel explained the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction in terms of interference noting that if two parallel rays were reflected or refracted at other than the prescribed angle they would no longer have the same phase in a common perpendicular plane and every vibration would be cancelled by a nearby vibration he noted that his explanation was valid provided that the surface irregularities were much smaller than the wavelength on 10 november fresnel sent a supplementary note dealing with newtons rings and with gratings including for the first time transmission gratingsalthough in that case the interfering rays were still assumed to be inflected and the experimental verification was inadequate because it used only two threads as fresnel was not a member of the institute the fate of his memoir depended heavily on the report of a single member the reporter for fresnels memoir turned out to be arago with poinsot as the other reviewer on 8 november arago wrote to fresnel fresnel was troubled wanting to know more precisely where he had collided with young concerning the curved paths of the colored bands young had noted the hyperbolic paths of the fringes in the twosource interference pattern corresponding roughly to fresnels internal fringes and had described the hyperbolic fringes that appear on the screen within rectangular shadows he had not mentioned the curved paths of the external fringes of a shadow but as he later explained that was because newton had already done so newton evidently thought the fringes were caustics thus arago erred in his belief that the curved paths of the fringes were fundamentally incompatible with the corpuscular theory aragos letter went on to request more data on the external fringes fresnel complied until he exhausted his leave and was assigned to rennes in the département of illeetvilaine at this point arago interceded with gaspard de prony head of the école des ponts who wrote to louismathieu molé head of the corps des ponts suggesting that the progress of science and the prestige of the corps would be enhanced if fresnel could come to paris for a time he arrived in march 1816 and his leave was subsequently extended through the middle of the year meanwhile in an experiment reported on 26 february 1816 arago verified fresnels prediction that the internal fringes were shifted if the rays on one side of the obstacle passed through a thin glass lamina fresnel correctly attributed this phenomenon to the lower wave velocity in the glass arago later used a similar argument to explain the colors in the scintillation of stars fresnels updated memoir was eventually published in the march 1816 issue of annales de chimie et de physique of which arago had recently become coeditor that issue did not actually appear until may in march fresnel already had competition biot read a memoir on diffraction by himself and his student claude pouillet containing copious data and arguing that the regularity of diffraction fringes like the regularity of newtons rings must be linked to newtons fits but the new link was not rigorous and pouillet himself would become a distinguished early adopter of the wave theory efficacious ray doublemirror experiment 1816 on 24 may 1816 fresnel wrote to young in french acknowledging how little of his own memoir was new but in a supplement signed on 14 july and read the next day fresnel noted that the internal fringes were more accurately predicted by supposing that the two interfering rays came from some distance outside the edges of the obstacle to explain this he divided the incident wavefront at the obstacle into what we now call fresnel zones such that the secondary waves from each zone were spread over half a cycle when they arrived at the observation point the zones on one side of the obstacle largely canceled out in pairs except the first zone which was represented by an efficacious ray this approach worked for the internal fringes but the superposition of the efficacious ray and the direct ray did not work for the external fringes the contribution from the efficacious ray was thought to be only partly canceled for reasons involving the dynamics of the medium where the wavefront was continuous symmetry forbade oblique vibrations but near the obstacle that truncated the wavefront the asymmetry allowed some sideways vibration towards the geometric shadow this argument showed that fresnel had not yet fully accepted huygenss principle which would have permitted oblique radiation from all portions of the front in the same supplement fresnel described his wellknown double mirror comprising two flat mirrors joined at an angle of slightly less than 180 with which he produced a twoslit interference pattern from two virtual images of the same slit a conventional doubleslit experiment required a preliminary single slit to ensure that the light falling on the double slit was coherent synchronized in fresnels version the preliminary single slit was retained and the double slit was replaced by the double mirrorwhich bore no physical resemblance to the double slit and yet performed the same function this result which had been announced by arago in the march issue of the annales made it hard to believe that the twoslit pattern had anything to do with corpuscles being deflected as they passed near the edges of the slits but 1816 was the year without a summer crops failed hungry farming families lined the streets of rennes the central government organized charity workhouses for the needy and in october fresnel was sent back to illeetvilaine to supervise charity workers in addition to his regular road crew according to arago fresnels letters from december 1816 reveal his consequent anxiety to arago he complained of being tormented by the worries of surveillance and the need to reprimand and to mérimée he wrote i find nothing more tiresome than having to manage other men and i admit that i have no idea what im doing prize memoir 1818 and sequel on 17 march 1817 the académie des sciences announced that diffraction would be the topic for the biannual physics grand prix to be awarded in 1819 the deadline for entries was set at 1 august 1818 to allow time for replication of experiments although the wording of the problem referred to rays and inflection and did not invite wavebased solutions arago and ampère encouraged fresnel to enter in the fall of 1817 fresnel supported by de prony obtained a leave of absence from the new head of the corp des ponts louis becquey and returned to paris he resumed his engineering duties in the spring of 1818 but from then on he was based in paris first on the canal de lourcq and then from may 1819 with the cadastre of the pavements on 15 january 1818 in a different context revisited below fresnel showed that the addition of sinusoidal functions of the same frequency but different phases is analogous to the addition of forces with different directions his method was similar to the phasor representation except that the forces were plane vectors rather than complex numbers they could be added and multiplied by scalars but not yet multiplied and divided by each other the explanation was algebraic rather than geometric knowledge of this method was assumed in a preliminary note on diffraction dated 19 april 1818 and deposited on 20 april in which fresnel outlined the elementary theory of diffraction as found in modern textbooks he restated huygenss principle in combination with the superposition principle saying that the vibration at each point on a wavefront is the sum of the vibrations that would be sent to it at that moment by all the elements of the wavefront in any of its previous positions all elements acting separately for a wavefront partly obstructed in a previous position the summation was to be carried out over the unobstructed portion in directions other than the normal to the primary wavefront the secondary waves were weakened due to obliquity but weakened much more by destructive interference so that the effect of obliquity alone could be ignored for diffraction by a straight edge the intensity as a function of distance from the geometric shadow could then be expressed with sufficient accuracy in terms of what are now called the normalized fresnel integrals the same note included a table of the integrals for an upper limit ranging from 0 to 51 in steps of 01 computed with a mean error of 00003 plus a smaller table of maxima and minima of the resulting intensity in his final memoir on the diffraction of light deposited on 29 july and bearing the latin epigraph natura simplex et fecunda nature simple and fertile fresnel slightly expanded the two tables without changing the existing figures except for a correction to the first minimum of intensity for completeness he repeated his solution to the problem of interference whereby sinusoidal functions are added like vectors he acknowledged the directionality of the secondary sources and the variation in their distances from the observation point chiefly to explain why these things make negligible difference in the context provided of course that the secondary sources do not radiate in the retrograde direction then applying his theory of interference to the secondary waves he expressed the intensity of light diffracted by a single straight edge halfplane in terms of integrals which involved the dimensions of the problem but which could be converted to the normalized forms above with reference to the integrals he explained the calculation of the maxima and minima of the intensity external fringes and noted that the calculated intensity falls very rapidly as one moves into the geometric shadow the last result as olivier darrigol says amounts to a proof of the rectilinear propagation of light in the wave theory indeed the first proof that a modern physicist would still accept for the experimental testing of his calculations fresnel used red light with a wavelength of 638nm which he deduced from the diffraction pattern in the simple case in which light incident on a single slit was focused by a cylindrical lens for a variety of distances from the source to the obstacle and from the obstacle to the field point he compared the calculated and observed positions of the fringes for diffraction by a halfplane a slit and a narrow stripconcentrating on the minima which were visually sharper than the maxima for the slit and the strip he could not use the previously computed table of maxima and minima for each combination of dimensions the intensity had to be expressed in terms of sums or differences of fresnel integrals and calculated from the table of integrals and the extrema had to be calculated anew the agreement between calculation and measurement was better than 15 in almost every case near the end of the memoir fresnel summed up the difference between huygenss use of secondary waves and his own whereas huygens says there is light only where the secondary waves exactly agree fresnel says there is complete darkness only where the secondary waves exactly cancel out the judging committee comprised laplace biot and poisson all corpuscularists gaylussac uncommitted and arago who eventually wrote the committees report although entries in the competition were supposed to be anonymous to the judges fresnels must have been recognizable by the content there was only one other entry of which neither the manuscript nor any record of the author has survived that entry identified as no1 was mentioned only in the last paragraph of the judges report noting that the author had shown ignorance of the relevant earlier works of young and fresnel used insufficiently precise methods of observation overlooked known phenomena and made obvious errors in the words of john worrall the competition facing fresnel could hardly have been less stiff we may infer that the committee had only two options award the prize to fresnel no 2 or withhold it the committee deliberated into the new year then poisson exploiting a case in which fresnels theory gave easy integrals predicted that if a circular obstacle were illuminated by a pointsource there should be according to the theory a bright spot in the center of the shadow illuminated as brightly as the exterior this seems to have been intended as a reductio ad absurdum arago undeterred assembled an experiment with an obstacle 2mm in diameterand there in the center of the shadow was poissons spot the unanimous report of the committee read at the meeting of the académie on 15 march 1819 awarded the prize to the memoir marked no 2 and bearing as epigraph natura simplex et fecunda at the same meeting after the judgment was delivered the president of the académie opened a sealed note accompanying the memoir revealing the author as fresnel the award was announced at the public meeting of the académie a week later on 22 march aragos verification of poissons counterintuitive prediction passed into folklore as if it had decided the prize that view however is not supported by the judges report which gave the matter only two sentences in the penultimate paragraph neither did fresnels triumph immediately convert laplace biot and poisson to the wave theory for at least four reasons first although the professionalization of science in france had established common standards it was one thing to acknowledge a piece of research as meeting those standards and another thing to regard it as conclusive second it was possible to interpret fresnels integrals as rules for combining rays arago even encouraged that interpretation presumably in order to minimize resistance to fresnels ideas even biot began teaching the huygensfresnel principle without committing himself to a wave basis third fresnels theory did not adequately explain the mechanism of generation of secondary waves or why they had any significant angular spread this issue particularly bothered poisson fourth the question that most exercised optical physicists at that time was not diffraction but polarizationon which fresnel had been working but was yet to make his critical breakthrough polarization background emissionism and selectionism an emission theory of light was one that regarded the propagation of light as the transport of some kind of matter while the corpuscular theory was obviously an emission theory the converse did not follow in principle one could be an emissionist without being a corpuscularist this was convenient because beyond the ordinary laws of reflection and refraction emissionists never managed to make testable quantitative predictions from a theory of forces acting on corpuscles of light but they did make quantitative predictions from the premises that rays were countable objects which were conserved in their interactions with matter except absorbent media and which had particular orientations with respect to their directions of propagation according to this framework polarization and the related phenomena of double refraction and partial reflection involved altering the orientations of the rays andor selecting them according to orientation and the state of polarization of a beam a bundle of rays was a question of how many rays were in what orientations in a fully polarized beam the orientations were all the same this approach which jed buchwald has called selectionism was pioneered by malus and diligently pursued by biot fresnel in contrast decided to introduce polarization into interference experiments interference of polarized light chromatic polarization 181621 in july or august 1816 fresnel discovered that when a birefringent crystal produced two images of a single slit he could not obtain the usual twoslit interference pattern even if he compensated for the different propagation times a more general experiment suggested by arago found that if the two beams of a doubleslit device were separately polarized the interference pattern appeared and disappeared as the polarization of one beam was rotated giving full interference for parallel polarizations but no interference for perpendicular polarizations these experiments among others were eventually reported in a brief memoir published in 1819 and later translated into english in a memoir drafted on 30 august 1816 and revised on 6 october fresnel reported an experiment in which he placed two matching thin laminae in a doubleslit apparatusone over each slit with their optic axes perpendicularand obtained two interference patterns offset in opposite directions with perpendicular polarizations this in combination with the previous findings meant that each lamina split the incident light into perpendicularly polarized components with different velocitiesjust like a normal thick birefringent crystal and contrary to biots mobile polarization hypothesis accordingly in the same memoir fresnel offered his first attempt at a wave theory of chromatic polarization when polarized light passed through a crystal lamina it was split into ordinary and extraordinary waves with intensities described by maluss law and these were perpendicularly polarized and therefore did not interfere so that no colors were produced yet but if they then passed through an analyzer second polarizer their polarizations were brought into alignment with intensities again modified according to maluss law and they would interfere this explanation by itself predicts that if the analyzer is rotated 90 the ordinary and extraordinary waves simply switch roles so that if the analyzer takes the form of a calcite crystal the two images of the lamina should be of the same hue this issue is revisited below but in fact as arago and biot had found they are of complementary colors to correct the prediction fresnel proposed a phaseinversion rule whereby one of the constituent waves of one of the two images suffered an additional 180 phase shift on its way through the lamina this inversion was a weakness in the theory relative to biots as fresnel acknowledged although the rule specified which of the two images had the inverted wave moreover fresnel could deal only with special cases because he had not yet solved the problem of superposing sinusoidal functions with arbitrary phase differences due to propagation at different velocities through the lamina he solved that problem in a supplement signed on 15 january 1818 mentioned above in the same document he accommodated maluss law by proposing an underlying law that if polarized light is incident on a birefringent crystal with its optic axis at an angle θ to the plane of polarization the ordinary and extraordinary vibrations as functions of time are scaled by the factors cosθ and sinθ respectively although modern readers easily interpret these factors in terms of perpendicular components of a transverse oscillation fresnel did not yet explain them that way hence he still needed the phaseinversion rule he applied all these principles to a case of chromatic polarization not covered by biots formulae involving two successive laminae with axes separated by 45 and obtained predictions that disagreed with biots experiments except in special cases but agreed with his own fresnel applied the same principles to the standard case of chromatic polarization in which one birefringent lamina was sliced parallel to its axis and placed between a polarizer and an analyzer if the analyzer took the form of a thick calcite crystal with its axis in the plane of polarization fresnel predicted that the intensities of the ordinary and extraordinary images of the lamina were respectively proportional to where is the angle from the initial plane of polarization to the optic axis of the lamina is the angle from the initial plane of polarization to the plane of polarization of the final ordinary image and is the phase lag of the extraordinary wave relative to the ordinary wave due to the difference in propagation times through the lamina the terms in are the frequencydependent terms and explain why the lamina must be thin in order to produce discernible colors if the lamina is too thick will pass through too many cycles as the frequency varies through the visible range and the eye which divides the visible spectrum into only three bands will not be able to resolve the cycles from these equations it is easily verified that for all so that the colors are complementary without the phaseinversion rule there would be a plus sign in front of the last term in the second equation so that the dependent term would be the same in both equations implying incorrectly that the colors were of the same hue these equations were included in an undated note that fresnel gave to biot to which biot added a few lines of his own if we substitute and then fresnels formulae can be rewritten as which are none other than biots empirical formulae of 1812 except that biot interpreted and as the unaffected and affected selections of the rays incident on the lamina if biots substitutions were accurate they would imply that his experimental results were more fully explained by fresnels theory than by his own arago delayed reporting on fresnels works on chromatic polarization until june 1821 when he used them in a broad attack on biots theory in his written response biot protested that aragos attack went beyond the proper scope of a report on the nominated works of fresnel but biot also claimed that the substitutions for and and therefore fresnels expressions for and were empirically wrong because when fresnels intensities of spectral colors were mixed according to newtons rules the squared cosine and sine functions varied too smoothly to account for the observed sequence of colors that claim drew a written reply from fresnel who disputed whether the colors changed as abruptly as biot claimed and whether the human eye could judge color with sufficient objectivity for the purpose on the latter question fresnel pointed out that different observers may give different names to the same color furthermore he said a single observer can only compare colors side by side and even if they are judged to be the same the identity is of sensation not necessarily of composition fresnels oldest and strongest pointthat thin crystals were subject to the same laws as thick ones and did not need or allow a separate theorybiot left unanswered arago and fresnel were seen to have won the debate moreover by this time fresnel had a new simpler explanation of his equations on chromatic polarization breakthrough pure transverse waves 1821 in the draft memoir of 30 august 1816 fresnel mentioned two hypothesesone of which he attributed to ampèreby which the noninterference of orthogonallypolarized beams could be explained if polarized light waves were partly transverse but fresnel could not develop either of these ideas into a comprehensive theory as early as september 1816 according to his later account he realized that the noninterference of orthogonallypolarized beams together with the phaseinversion rule in chromatic polarization would be most easily explained if the waves were purely transverse and ampère had the same thought on the phaseinversion rule but that would raise a new difficulty as natural light seemed to be unpolarized and its waves were therefore presumed to be longitudinal one would need to explain how the longitudinal component of vibration disappeared on polarization and why it did not reappear when polarized light was reflected or refracted obliquely by a glass plate independently on 12 january 1817 young wrote to arago in english noting that a transverse vibration would constitute a polarization and that if two longitudinal waves crossed at a significant angle they could not cancel without leaving a residual transverse vibration young repeated this idea in an article published in a supplement to the encyclopædia britannica in february 1818 in which he added that maluss law would be explained if polarization consisted in a transverse motion thus fresnel by his own testimony may not have been the first person to suspect that light waves could have a transverse component or that polarized waves were exclusively transverse and it was young not fresnel who first published the idea that polarization depends on the orientation of a transverse vibration but these incomplete theories had not reconciled the nature of polarization with the apparent existence of unpolarized light that achievement was to be fresnels alone in a note that buchwald dates in the summer of 1818 fresnel entertained the idea that unpolarized waves could have vibrations of the same energy and obliquity with their orientations distributed uniformly about the wavenormal and that the degree of polarization was the degree of nonuniformity in the distribution two pages later he noted apparently for the first time in writing that his phaseinversion rule and the noninterference of orthogonallypolarized beams would be easily explained if the vibrations of fully polarized waves were perpendicular to the normal to the wavethat is purely transverse but if he could account for lack of polarization by averaging out the transverse component he did not also need to assume a longitudinal component it was enough to suppose that light waves are purely transverse hence always polarized in the sense of having a particular transverse orientation and that the unpolarized state of natural or direct light is due to rapid and random variations in that orientation in which case two coherent portions of unpolarized light will still interfere because their orientations will be synchronized it is not known exactly when fresnel made this last step because there is no relevant documentation from 1820 or early 1821 perhaps because he was too busy working on lighthouselens prototypes see below but he first published the idea in a paper on calcul des teintes calculation of the tints serialized in aragos annales for may june and july 1821 in the first installment fresnel described direct unpolarized light as the rapid succession of systems of waves polarized in all directions and gave what is essentially the modern explanation of chromatic polarization albeit in terms of the analogy between polarization and the resolution of forces in a plane mentioning transverse waves only in a footnote the introduction of transverse waves into the main argument was delayed to the second installment in which he revealed the suspicion that he and ampère had harbored since 1816 and the difficulty it raised he continued according to this new view he wrote the act of polarization consists not in creating these transverse movements but in decomposing them into two fixed perpendicular directions and in separating the two components while selectionists could insist on interpreting fresnels diffraction integrals in terms of discrete countable rays they could not do the same with his theory of polarization for a selectionist the state of polarization of a beam concerned the distribution of orientations over the population of rays and that distribution was presumed to be static for fresnel the state of polarization of a beam concerned the variation of a displacement over time that displacement might be constrained but was not static and rays were geometric constructions not countable objects the conceptual gap between the wave theory and selectionism had become unbridgeable the other difficulty posed by pure transverse waves of course was the apparent implication that the aether was an elastic solid except that unlike other elastic solids it was incapable of transmitting longitudinal waves the wave theory was cheap on assumptions but its latest assumption was expensive on credulity if that assumption was to be widely entertained its explanatory power would need to be impressive partial reflection 1821 in the second installment of calcul des teintes june 1821 fresnel supposed by analogy with sound waves that the density of the aether in a refractive medium was inversely proportional to the square of the wave velocity and therefore directly proportional to the square of the refractive index for reflection and refraction at the surface between two isotropic media of different indices fresnel decomposed the transverse vibrations into two perpendicular components now known as the s and p components which are parallel to the surface and the plane of incidence respectively in other words the s and p components are respectively square and parallel to the plane of incidence for the s component fresnel supposed that the interaction between the two media was analogous to an elastic collision and obtained a formula for what we now call the reflectivity the ratio of the reflected intensity to the incident intensity the predicted reflectivity was nonzero at all angles the third installment july 1821 was a short postscript in which fresnel announced that he had found by a mechanical solution a formula for the reflectivity of the p component which predicted that the reflectivity was zero at the brewster angle so polarization by reflection had been accounted forbut with the proviso that the direction of vibration in fresnels model was perpendicular to the plane of polarization as defined by malus on the ensuing controversy see plane of polarization the technology of the time did not allow the s and p reflectivities to be measured accurately enough to test fresnels formulae at arbitrary angles of incidence but the formulae could be rewritten in terms of what we now call the reflection coefficient the signed ratio of the reflected amplitude to the incident amplitude then if the plane of polarization of the incident ray was at 45 to the plane of incidence the tangent of the corresponding angle for the reflected ray was obtainable from the ratio of the two reflection coefficients and this angle could be measured fresnel had measured it for a range of angles of incidence for glass and water and the agreement between the calculated and measured angles was better than 15 in all cases fresnel gave details of the mechanical solution in a memoir read to the académie des sciences on 7 january 1823 conservation of energy was combined with continuity of the tangential vibration at the interface the resulting formulae for the reflection coefficients and reflectivities became known as the fresnel equations the reflection coefficients for the s and p polarizations are most succinctly expressed as and where and are the angles of incidence and refraction these equations are known respectively as fresnels sine law and fresnels tangent law by allowing the coefficients to be complex fresnel even accounted for the different phase shifts of the s and p components due to total internal reflection this success inspired james maccullagh and augustinlouis cauchy beginning in 1836 to analyze reflection from metals by using the fresnel equations with a complex refractive index the same technique is applicable to nonmetallic opaque media with these generalizations the fresnel equations can predict the appearance of a wide variety of objects under illuminationfor example in computer graphics circular and elliptical polarization optical rotation 1822 in a memoir dated 9 december 1822 fresnel coined the terms linear polarization french polarisation rectiligne for the simple case in which the perpendicular components of vibration are in phase or 180 out of phase circular polarization for the case in which they are of equal magnitude and a quartercycle 90 out of phase and elliptical polarization for other cases in which the two components have a fixed amplitude ratio and a fixed phase difference he then explained how optical rotation could be understood as a species of birefringence linearlypolarized light could be resolved into two circularlypolarized components rotating in opposite directions if these components propagated at slightly different speeds the phase difference between themand therefore the direction of their linearlypolarized resultantwould vary continuously with distance these concepts called for a redefinition of the distinction between polarized and unpolarized light before fresnel it was thought that polarization could vary in direction and in degree eg due to variation in the angle of reflection off a transparent body and that it could be a function of color chromatic polarization but not that it could vary in kind hence it was thought that the degree of polarization was the degree to which the light could be suppressed by an analyzer with the appropriate orientation light that had been converted from linear to elliptical or circular polarization eg by passage through a crystal lamina or by total internal reflection was described as partly or fully depolarized because of its behavior in an analyzer after fresnel the defining feature of polarized light was that the perpendicular components of vibration had a fixed ratio of amplitudes and a fixed difference in phase by that definition elliptically or circularly polarized light is fully polarized although it cannot be fully suppressed by an analyzer alone the conceptual gap between the wave theory and selectionism had widened again total internal reflection 181723 by 1817 it had been discovered by brewster but not adequately reported that planepolarized light was partly depolarized by total internal reflection if initially polarized at an acute angle to the plane of incidence fresnel rediscovered this effect and investigated it by including total internal reflection in a chromaticpolarization experiment with the aid of his first theory of chromatic polarization he found that the apparently depolarized light was a mixture of components polarized parallel and perpendicular to the plane of incidence and that the total reflection introduced a phase difference between them choosing an appropriate angle of incidence not yet exactly specified gave a phase difference of 18 of a cycle 45 two such reflections from the parallel faces of two coupled prisms gave a phase difference of 14 of a cycle 90 these findings were contained in a memoir submitted to the académie on 10 november 1817 and read a fortnight later an undated marginal note indicates that the two coupled prisms were later replaced by a single parallelepiped in glassnow known as a fresnel rhomb this was the memoir whose supplement dated january 1818 contained the method of superposing sinusoidal functions and the restatement of maluss law in terms of amplitudes in the same supplement fresnel reported his discovery that optical rotation could be emulated by passing the polarized light through a fresnel rhomb still in the form of coupled prisms followed by an ordinary birefringent lamina sliced parallel to its axis with the axis at 45 to the plane of reflection of the fresnel rhomb followed by a second fresnel rhomb at 90 to the first in a further memoir read on 30 march fresnel reported that if polarized light was fully depolarized by a fresnel rhombnow described as a parallelepipedits properties were not further modified by a subsequent passage through an optically rotating medium or device the connection between optical rotation and birefringence was further explained in 1822 in the memoir on elliptical and circular polarization this was followed by the memoir on reflection read in january 1823 in which fresnel quantified the phase shifts in total internal reflection and thence calculated the precise angle at which a fresnel rhomb should be cut in order to convert linear polarization to circular polarization for a refractive index of 151 there were two solutions about 486 and 546 double refraction background uniaxial and biaxial crystals biots laws when light passes through a slice of calcite cut perpendicular to its optic axis the difference between the propagation times of the ordinary and extraordinary waves has a secondorder dependence on the angle of incidence if the slice is observed in a highly convergent cone of light that dependence becomes significant so that a chromaticpolarization experiment will show a pattern of concentric rings but most minerals when observed in this manner show a more complicated pattern of rings involving two foci and a lemniscate curve as if they had two optic axes the two classes of minerals naturally become known as uniaxal and biaxalor in later literature uniaxial and biaxial in 1813 brewster observed the simple concentric pattern in beryl emerald ruby c the same pattern was later observed in calcite by wollaston biot and seebeck biot assuming that the concentric pattern was the general case tried to calculate the colors with his theory of chromatic polarization and succeeded better for some minerals than for others in 1818 brewster belatedly explained why seven of the twelve minerals employed by biot had the lemniscate pattern which brewster had observed as early as 1812 and the minerals with the more complicated rings also had a more complicated law of refraction in a uniform crystal according to huygenss theory the secondary wavefront that expands from the origin in unit time is the rayvelocity surfacethat is the surface whose distance from the origin in any direction is the ray velocity in that direction in calcite this surface is twosheeted consisting of a sphere for the ordinary wave and an oblate spheroid for the extraordinary wave touching each other at opposite points of a common axistouching at the north and south poles if we may use a geographic analogy but according to maluss corpuscular theory of double refraction the ray velocity was proportional to the reciprocal of that given by huygenss theory in which case the velocity law was of the form where and were the ordinary and extraordinary ray velocities according to the corpuscular theory and was the angle between the ray and the optic axis by maluss definition the plane of polarization of a ray was the plane of the ray and the optic axis if the ray was ordinary or the perpendicular plane containing the ray if the ray was extraordinary in fresnels model the direction of vibration was normal to the plane of polarization hence for the sphere the ordinary wave the vibration was along the lines of latitude continuing the geographic analogy and for the spheroid the extraordinary wave the vibration was along the lines of longitude on 29 march 1819 biot presented a memoir in which he proposed simple generalizations of maluss rules for a crystal with two axes and reported that both generalizations seemed to be confirmed by experiment for the velocity law the squared sine was replaced by the product of the sines of the angles from the ray to the two axes biots sine law and for the polarization of the ordinary ray the plane of the ray and the axis was replaced by the plane bisecting the dihedral angle between the two planes each of which contained the ray and one axis biots dihedral law biots laws meant that a biaxial crystal with axes at a small angle cleaved in the plane of those axes behaved nearly like a uniaxial crystal at nearnormal incidence this was fortunate because gypsum which had been used in chromaticpolarization experiments is biaxial first memoir and supplements 182122 until fresnel turned his attention to biaxial birefringence it was assumed that one of the two refractions was ordinary even in biaxial crystals but in a memoir submitted on 19 november 1821 fresnel reported two experiments on topaz showing that neither refraction was ordinary in the sense of satisfying snells law that is neither ray was the product of spherical secondary waves the same memoir contained fresnels first attempt at the biaxial velocity law for calcite if we interchange the equatorial and polar radii of huygenss oblate spheroid while preserving the polar direction we obtain a prolate spheroid touching the sphere at the equator a plane through the centerorigin cuts this prolate spheroid in an ellipse whose major and minor semiaxes give the magnitudes of the extraordinary and ordinary ray velocities in the direction normal to the plane and said fresnel the directions of their respective vibrations the direction of the optic axis is the normal to the plane for which the ellipse of intersection reduces to a circle so for the biaxial case fresnel simply replaced the prolate spheroid with a triaxial ellipsoid which was to be sectioned by a plane in the same way in general there would be two planes passing through the center of the ellipsoid and cutting it in a circle and the normals to these planes would give two optic axes from the geometry fresnel deduced biots sine law with the ray velocities replaced by their reciprocals the ellipsoid indeed gave the correct ray velocities although the initial experimental verification was only approximate but it did not give the correct directions of vibration for the biaxial case or even for the uniaxial case because the vibrations in fresnels model were tangential to the wavefrontwhich for an extraordinary ray is not generally normal to the ray this error which is small if as in most cases the birefringence is weak was corrected in an extract that fresnel read to the académie a week later on 26 november starting with huygenss spheroid fresnel obtained a 4thdegree surface which when sectioned by a plane as above would yield the wavenormal velocities for a wavefront in that plane together with their vibration directions for the biaxial case he generalized the equation to obtain a surface with three unequal principal dimensions this he subsequently called the surface of elasticity but he retained the earlier ellipsoid as an approximation from which he deduced biots dihedral law fresnels initial derivation of the surface of elasticity had been purely geometric and not deductively rigorous his first attempt at a mechanical derivation contained in a supplement dated 13 january 1822 assumed that i there were three mutually perpendicular directions in which a displacement produced a reaction in the same direction ii the reaction was otherwise a linear function of the displacement and iii the radius of the surface in any direction was the square root of the component in that direction of the reaction to a unit displacement in that direction the last assumption recognized the requirement that if a wave was to maintain a fixed direction of propagation and a fixed direction of vibration the reaction must not be outside the plane of those two directions in the same supplement fresnel considered how he might find for the biaxial case the secondary wavefront that expands from the origin in unit timethat is the surface that reduces to huygenss sphere and spheroid in the uniaxial case he noted that this wave surface surface de londe is tangential to all possible plane wavefronts that could have crossed the origin one unit of time ago and he listed the mathematical conditions that it must satisfy but he doubted the feasibility of deriving the surface from those conditions in a second supplement fresnel eventually exploited two related facts i the wave surface was also the rayvelocity surface which could be obtained by sectioning the ellipsoid that he had initially mistaken for the surface of elasticity and ii the wave surface intersected each plane of symmetry of the ellipsoid in two curves a circle and an ellipse thus he found that the wave surface is described by the 4thdegree equation where and are the propagation speeds in directions normal to the coordinate axes for vibrations along the axes the ray and wavenormal speeds being the same in those special cases later commentators put the equation in the more compact and memorable form earlier in the second supplement fresnel modeled the medium as an array of pointmasses and found that the forcedisplacement relation was described by a symmetric matrix confirming the existence of three mutually perpendicular axes on which the displacement produced a parallel force later in the document he noted that in a biaxial crystal unlike a uniaxial crystal the directions in which there is only one wavenormal velocity are not the same as those in which there is only one ray velocity nowadays we refer to the former directions as the optic axes or binormal axes and the latter as the ray axes or biradial axes fresnels second supplement was signed on 31 march 1822 and submitted the next dayless than a year after the publication of his puretransversewave hypothesis and just less than a year after the demonstration of his prototype eightpanel lighthouse lens second memoir 182226 having presented the pieces of his theory in roughly the order of discovery fresnel needed to rearrange the material so as to emphasize the mechanical foundations and he still needed a rigorous treatment of biots dihedral law he attended to these matters in his second memoir on double refraction published in the recueils of the académie des sciences for 1824 this was not actually printed until late 1827 a few months after his death in this work having established the three perpendicular axes on which a displacement produces a parallel reaction and thence constructed the surface of elasticity he showed that biots dihedral law is exact provided that the binormals are taken as the optic axes and the wavenormal direction as the direction of propagation as early as 1822 fresnel discussed his perpendicular axes with cauchy acknowledging fresnels influence cauchy went on to develop the first rigorous theory of elasticity of nonisotropic solids 1827 hence the first rigorous theory of transverse waves therein 1830which he promptly tried to apply to optics the ensuing difficulties drove a long competitive effort to find an accurate mechanical model of the aether fresnels own model was not dynamically rigorous for example it deduced the reaction to a shear strain by considering the displacement of one particle while all others were fixed and it assumed that the stiffness determined the wave velocity as in a stretched string whatever the direction of the wavenormal but it was enough to enable the wave theory to do what selectionist theory could not generate testable formulae covering a comprehensive range of optical phenomena from mechanical assumptions photoelasticity multipleprism experiments 1822 in 1815 brewster reported that colors appear when a slice of isotropic material placed between crossed polarizers is mechanically stressed brewster himself immediately and correctly attributed this phenomenon to stressinduced birefringencenow known as photoelasticity in a memoir read in september 1822 fresnel announced that he had verified brewsters diagnosis more directly by compressing a combination of glass prisms so severely that one could actually see a double image through it in his experiment fresnel lined up seven 459045 prisms short side to short side with their 90 angles pointing in alternating directions two halfprisms were added at the ends to make the whole assembly rectangular the prisms were separated by thin films of turpentine térébenthine to suppress internal reflections allowing a clear line of sight along the row when the four prisms with similar orientations were compressed in a vise across the line of sight an object viewed through the assembly produced two images with perpendicular polarizations with an apparent spacing of 15mm at one metre at the end of that memoir fresnel predicted that if the compressed prisms were replaced by unstressed monocrystalline quartz prisms with matching directions of optical rotation and with their optic axes aligned along the row an object seen by looking along the common optic axis would give two images which would seem unpolarized when viewed through an analyzer but when viewed through a fresnel rhomb would be polarized at 45 to the plane of reflection of the rhomb indicating that they were initially circularly polarized in opposite directions this would show directly that optical rotation is a form of birefringence in the memoir of december 1822 in which he introduced the term circular polarization he reported that he had confirmed this prediction using only one 1415214 prism and two glass halfprisms but he obtained a wider separation of the images by replacing the glass halfprism with quartz halfprisms whose rotation was opposite to that of the 1415214 prism he added in passing that one could further increase the separation by increasing the number of prisms reception for the supplement to riffaults translation of thomsons system of chemistry fresnel was chosen to contribute the article on light the resulting 137page essay titled de la lumière on light was apparently finished in june 1821 and published by february 1822 with sections covering the nature of light diffraction thinfilm interference reflection and refraction double refraction and polarization chromatic polarization and modification of polarization by reflection it made a comprehensive case for the wave theory to a readership that was not restricted to physicists to examine fresnels first memoir and supplements on double refraction the académie des sciences appointed ampère arago fourier and poisson their report of which arago was clearly the main author was delivered at the meeting of 19 august 1822 then in the words of émile verdet as translated by ivor grattanguinness whether laplace was announcing his conversion to the wave theoryat the age of 73is uncertain grattanguinness entertained the idea buchwald noting that arago failed to explain that the ellipsoid of elasticity did not give the correct planes of polarization suggests that laplace may have merely regarded fresnels theory as a successful generalization of maluss rayvelocity law embracing biots laws in the following year poisson who did not sign aragos report disputed the possibility of transverse waves in the aether starting from assumed equations of motion of a fluid medium he noted that they did not give the correct results for partial reflection and double refractionas if that were fresnels problem rather than his ownand that the predicted waves even if they were initially transverse became more longitudinal as they propagated in reply fresnel noted inter alia that the equations in which poisson put so much faith did not even predict viscosity the implication was clear given that the behavior of light had not been satisfactorily explained except by transverse waves it was not the responsibility of the wavetheorists to abandon transverse waves in deference to preconceived notions about the aether rather it was the responsibility of the aether modelers to produce a model that accommodated transverse waves according to robert h silliman poisson eventually accepted the wave theory shortly before his death in 1840 among the french poissons reluctance was an exception according to eugene frankel in paris no debate on the issue seems to have taken place after 1825 indeed almost the entire generation of physicists and mathematicians who came to maturity in the 1820spouillet savart lamé navier liouville cauchyseem to have adopted the theory immediately fresnels other prominent french opponent biot appeared to take a neutral position in 1830 and eventually accepted the wave theorypossibly by 1846 and certainly by 1858 in 1826 the british astronomer john herschel who was working on a booklength article on light for the encyclopædia metropolitana addressed three questions to fresnel concerning double refraction partial reflection and their relation to polarization the resulting article titled simply light was highly sympathetic to the wave theory although not entirely free of selectionist language it was circulating privately by 1828 and was published in 1830 meanwhile youngs translation of fresnels de la lumière was published in installments from 1827 to 1829 george biddell airy the former lucasian professor at cambridge and future astronomer royal unreservedly accepted the wave theory by 1831 in 1834 he famously calculated the diffraction pattern of a circular aperture from the wave theory thereby explaining the limited angular resolution of a perfect telescope by the end of the 1830s the only prominent british physicist who held out against the wave theory was brewster whose objections included the difficulty of explaining photochemical effects and in his opinion dispersion a german translation of de la lumière was published in installments in 1825 and 1828 the wave theory was adopted by fraunhofer in the early 1820s and by franz ernst neumann in the 1830s and then began to find favor in german textbooks the economy of assumptions under the wave theory was emphasized by william whewell in his history of the inductive sciences first published in 1837 in the corpuscular system every new class of facts requires a new supposition whereas in the wave system a hypothesis devised in order to explain one phenomenon is then found to explain or predict others in the corpuscular system there is no unexpected success no happy coincidence no convergence of principles from remote quarters but in the wave system all tends to unity and simplicity hence in 1850 when foucault and fizeau found by experiment that light travels more slowly in water than in air in accordance with the wave explanation of refraction and contrary to the corpuscular explanation the result came as no surprise lighthouses and the fresnel lens fresnel was not the first person to focus a lighthouse beam using a lens that distinction apparently belongs to the london glasscutter thomas rogers whose first lenses 53cm in diameter and 14cm thick at the center were installed at the old lower lighthouse at portland bill in 1789 further samples were installed in about half a dozen other locations by 1804 but much of the light was wasted by absorption in the glass nor was fresnel the first to suggest replacing a convex lens with a series of concentric annular prisms to reduce weight and absorption in 1748 count buffon proposed grinding such prisms as steps in a single piece of glass in 1790 the marquis de condorcet suggested that it would be easier to make the annular sections separately and assemble them on a frame but even that was impractical at the time these designs were intended not for lighthouses but for burning glasses brewster however proposed a system similar to condorcets in 1811 and by 1820 was advocating its use in british lighthouses meanwhile on 21 june 1819 fresnel was temporarily seconded by the commission des phares commission of lighthouses on the recommendation of arago a member of the commission since 1813 to review possible improvements in lighthouse illumination the commission had been established by napoleon in 1811 and placed under the corps des pontsfresnels employer by the end of august 1819 unaware of the buffoncondorcetbrewster proposal fresnel made his first presentation to the commission recommending what he called lentilles à échelons lenses by steps to replace the reflectors then in use which reflected only about half of the incident light one of the assembled commissioners jacques charles recalled buffons suggestion leaving fresnel embarrassed for having again broken through an open door but whereas buffons version was biconvex and in one piece fresnels was planoconvex and made of multiple prisms for easier construction with an official budget of 500 francs fresnel approached three manufacturers the third françois soleil produced the prototype finished in march 1820 it had a square lens panel 55cm on a side containing 97 polygonal not annular prismsand so impressed the commission that fresnel was asked for a full eightpanel version this model completed a year later in spite of insufficient funding had panels 76cm square in a public spectacle on the evening of 13 april 1821 it was demonstrated by comparison with the most recent reflectors which it suddenly rendered obsolete fresnels next lens was a rotating apparatus with eight bullseye panels made in annular arcs by saintgobain giving eight rotating beamsto be seen by mariners as a periodic flash above and behind each main panel was a smaller sloping bullseye panel of trapezoidal outline with trapezoidal elements this refracted the light to a sloping plane mirror which then reflected it horizontally 7 degrees ahead of the main beam increasing the duration of the flash below the main panels were 128 small mirrors arranged in four rings stacked like the slats of a louver or venetian blind each ring shaped as a frustum of a cone reflected the light to the horizon giving a fainter steady light between the flashes the official test conducted on the unfinished arc de triomphe on 20 august 1822 was witnessed by the commissionand by louis and his entouragefrom 32km away the apparatus was stored at bordeaux for the winter and then reassembled at cordouan lighthouse under fresnels supervision on 25 july 1823 the worlds first lighthouse fresnel lens was lit soon afterwards fresnel started coughing up blood in may 1824 fresnel was promoted to secretary of the commission des phares becoming the first member of that body to draw a salary albeit in the concurrent role of engineerinchief he was also an examiner not a teacher at the école polytechnique since 1821 but poor health long hours during the examination season and anxiety about judging others induced him to resign that post in late 1824 to save his energy for his lighthouse work in the same year he designed the first fixed lensfor spreading light evenly around the horizon while minimizing waste above or below ideally the curved refracting surfaces would be segments of toroids about a common vertical axis so that the dioptric panel would look like a cylindrical drum if this was supplemented by reflecting catoptric rings above and below the refracting dioptric parts the entire apparatus would look like a beehive the second fresnel lens to enter service was indeed a fixed lens of third order installed at dunkirk by 1 february 1825 however due to the difficulty of fabricating large toroidal prisms this apparatus had a 16sided polygonal plan in 1825 fresnel extended his fixedlens design by adding a rotating array outside the fixed array each panel of the rotating array was to refract part of the fixed light from a horizontal fan into a narrow beam also in 1825 fresnel unveiled the carte des phares lighthouse map calling for a system of 51 lighthouses plus smaller harbor lights in a hierarchy of lens sizes called orders the first order being the largest with different characteristics to facilitate recognition a constant light from a fixed lens one flash per minute from a rotating lens with eight panels and two per minute sixteen panels in late 1825 to reduce the loss of light in the reflecting elements fresnel proposed to replace each mirror with a catadioptric prism through which the light would travel by refraction through the first surface then total internal reflection off the second surface then refraction through the third surface the result was the lighthouse lens as we now know it in 1826 he assembled a small model for use on the canal saintmartin but he did not live to see a fullsized version the first fixed lens with toroidal prisms was a firstorder apparatus designed by the scottish engineer alan stevenson under the guidance of léonor fresnel and fabricated by isaac cookson co from french glass it entered service at the isle of may in 1836 the first large catadioptric lenses were fixed thirdorder lenses made in 1842 for the lighthouses at gravelines and île vierge the first fully catadioptric firstorder lens installed at ailly in 1852 gave eight rotating beams assisted by eight catadioptric panels at the top to lengthen the flashes plus a fixed light from below the first fully catadioptric lens with purely revolving beamsalso of first orderwas installed at saintclémentdesbaleines in 1854 and marked the completion of augustin fresnels original carte des phares production of onepiece stepped dioptric lensesroughly as envisaged by buffonbecame practical in 1852 when john l gilliland of the brooklyn flintglass company patented a method of making such lenses from pressmolded glass by the 1950s the substitution of plastic for glass made it economic to use finestepped fresnel lenses as condensers in overhead projectors still finer steps can be found in lowcost plastic sheet magnifiers honors fresnel was elected to the société philomathique de paris in april 1819 and in 1822 became one of the editors of the sociétés bulletin des sciences as early as may 1817 at aragos suggestion fresnel applied for membership of the académie des sciences but received only one vote the successful candidate on that occasion was joseph fourier in november 1822 fouriers elevation to permanent secretary of the académie created a vacancy in the physics section which was filled in february 1823 by pierre louis dulong with 36 votes to fresnels 20 but in may 1823 after another vacancy was left by the death of jacques charles fresnels election was unanimous in 1824 fresnel was made a chevalier de la légion dhonneur knight of the legion of honour meanwhile in britain the wave theory was yet to take hold fresnel wrote to thomas young in november 1824 saying in part but the praise of english scholars soon followed on 9 june 1825 fresnel was made a foreign member of the royal society of london in 1827 he was awarded the societys rumford medal for the year 1824 for his development of the undulatory theory as applied to the phenomena of polarized light and for his various important discoveries in physical optics a monument to fresnel at his birthplace was dedicated on 14 september 1884 with a speech by permanent secretary of the académie des sciences is among the 72 names embossed on the eiffel tower on the southeast side fourth from the left in the 19th century as every lighthouse in france acquired a fresnel lens every one acquired a bust of fresnel seemingly watching over the coastline that he had made safer the lunar features promontorium fresnel and rimae fresnel were later named after him decline and death fresnels health which had always been poor deteriorated in the winter of 18221823 increasing the urgency of his original research and in part preventing him from contributing an article on polarization and double refraction for the encyclopædia britannica the memoirs on circular and elliptical polarization and optical rotation and on the detailed derivation of the fresnel equations and their application to total internal reflection date from this period in the spring he recovered enough in his own view to supervise the lens installation at cordouan soon afterwards it became clear that his condition was tuberculosis in 1824 he was advised that if he wanted to live longer he needed to scale back his activities perceiving his lighthouse work to be his most important duty he resigned as an examiner at the école polytechnique and closed his scientific notebooks his last note to the académie read on 13 june 1825 described the first radiometer and attributed the observed repulsive force to a temperature difference although his fundamental research ceased his advocacy did not as late as august or september 1826 he found the time to answer herschels queries on the wave theory it was herschel who recommended fresnel for the royal societys rumford medal fresnels cough worsened in the winter of 18261827 leaving him too ill to return to mathieu in the spring the académie meeting of 30 april 1827 was the last that he attended in early june he was carried to villedavray west of paris there his mother joined him on 6 july arago arrived to deliver the rumford medal sensing aragos distress fresnel whispered that the most beautiful crown means little when it is laid on the grave of a friend fresnel did not have the strength to reply to the royal society he died eight days later on bastille day he is buried at père lachaise cemetery paris the inscription on his headstone is partly eroded away the legible part says when translated to the memory of augustin jean fresnel member of the institute of france posthumous publications fresnels second memoir on double refraction was not printed until late 1827 a few months after his death until then the best published source on his work on double refraction was an extract of that memoir printed in 1822 his final treatment of partial reflection and total internal reflection read to the académie in january 1823 was thought to be lost until it was rediscovered among the papers of the deceased joseph fourier 17681830 and was printed in 1831 until then it was known chiefly through an extract printed in 1823 and 1825 the memoir introducing the parallelepiped form of the fresnel rhomb read in march 1818 was mislaid until 1846 and then attracted such interest that it was soon republished in english most of fresnels writings on polarized light before 1821including his first theory of chromatic polarization submitted 7 october 1816 and the crucial supplement of january 1818were not published in full until his oeuvres complètes complete works began to appear in 1866 the supplement of july 1816 proposing the efficacious ray and reporting the famous doublemirror experiment met the same fate as did the first memoir on double refraction publication of fresnels collected works was itself delayed by the deaths of successive editors the task was initially entrusted to félix savary who died in 1841 it was restarted twenty years later by the ministry of public instruction of the three editors eventually named in the oeuvres sénarmont died in 1862 verdet in 1866 and léonor fresnel in 1869 by which time only two of the three volumes had appeared at the beginning of vol 3 1870 the completion of the project is described in a long footnote by j lissajous not included in the oeuvres are two short notes by fresnel on magnetism which were discovered among ampères manuscripts in response to ørsteds discovery of electromagnetism in 1820 ampère initially supposed that the field of a permanent magnet was due to a macroscopic circulating current fresnel suggested instead that there was a microscopic current circulating around each particle of the magnet in his first note he argued that microscopic currents unlike macroscopic currents would explain why a hollow cylindrical magnet does not lose its magnetism when cut longitudinally in his second note dated 5 july 1821 he further argued that a macroscopic current had the counterfactual implication that a permanent magnet should be hot whereas microscopic currents circulating around the molecules might avoid the heating mechanism he was not to know that the fundamental units of permanent magnetism are even smaller than molecules the two notes together with ampères acknowledgment were eventually published in 1885 lost works fresnels essay rêveries of 1814 has not survived while its content would have been interesting to historians its quality may perhaps be gauged from the fact that fresnel himself never referred to it in his maturity more disturbing is the fate of the late article sur les différents systèmes relatifs à la théorie de la lumière on the different systems relating to the theory of light which fresnel wrote for the newly launched english journal european review this work seems to have been similar in scope to the essay de la lumière of 182122 except that fresnels views on double refraction circular and elliptical polarization optical rotation and total internal reflection had developed since then the manuscript was received by the publishers agent in paris in early september 1824 and promptly forwarded to london but the journal failed before fresnels contribution could be published fresnel tried unsuccessfully to recover the manuscript the editors of his collected works were also unable to find it and admitted that it was probably lost unfinished business aether drag and aether density in 1810 arago found experimentally that the degree of refraction of starlight does not depend on the direction of the earths motion relative to the line of sight in 1818 fresnel showed that this result could be explained by the wave theory on the hypothesis that if an object with refractive index moved at velocity relative to the external aether taken as stationary then the velocity of light inside the object gained the additional component he supported that hypothesis by supposing that if the density of the external aether was taken as unity the density of the internal aether was of which the excess namely was dragged along at velocity whence the average velocity of the internal aether was the factor in parentheses which fresnel originally expressed in terms of wavelengths became known as the fresnel drag coefficient in his analysis of double refraction fresnel supposed that the different refractive indices in different directions within the same medium were due to a directional variation in elasticity not density because the concept of mass per unit volume is not directional but in his treatment of partial reflection he supposed that the different refractive indices of different media were due to different aether densities not different elasticities the latter decision although puzzling in the context of double refraction was consistent with the earlier treatment of aether drag in 1846 george gabriel stokes pointed out that there was no need to divide the aether inside a moving object into two portions all of it could be considered as moving at a common velocity then if the aether was conserved while its density changed in proportion to the resulting velocity of the aether inside the object was equal to fresnels additional velocity component dispersion the analogy between light waves and transverse waves in elastic solids does not predict dispersionthat is the frequencydependence of the speed of propagation which enables prisms to produce spectra and causes lenses to suffer from chromatic aberration fresnel in de la lumière and in the second supplement to his first memoir on double refraction suggested that dispersion could be accounted for if the particles of the medium exerted forces on each other over distances that were significant fractions of a wavelength later more than once fresnel referred to the demonstration of this result as being contained in a note appended to his second memoir on double refraction no such note appeared in print and the relevant manuscripts found after his death showed only that around 1824 he was comparing refractive indices measured by fraunhofer with a theoretical formula the meaning of which was not fully explained in the 1830s fresnels suggestion was taken up by cauchy baden powell and philip kelland and it was found to be tolerably consistent with the variation of refractive indices with wavelength over the visible spectrum for a variety of transparent media these investigations were enough to show that the wave theory was at least compatible with dispersion if the model of dispersion was to be accurate over a wider range of frequencies it needed to be modified so as to take account of resonances within the medium conical refraction the analytical complexity of fresnels derivation of the rayvelocity surface was an implicit challenge to find a shorter path to the result this was answered by maccullagh in 1830 and by william rowan hamilton in 1832 hamilton went further establishing two properties of the surface that fresnel in the short time given to him had overlooked i at each of the four points where the inner and outer sheets of the surface make contact the surface has a tangent cone tangential to both sheets hence a cone of normals indicating that a cone of wavenormal directions corresponds to a single rayvelocity vector and ii around each of these points the outer sheet has a circle of contact with a tangent plane indicating that a cone of ray directions corresponds to a single wavenormal velocity vector as hamilton noted these properties respectively imply that i a narrow beam propagating inside the crystal in the direction of the single ray velocity will on exiting the crystal through a flat surface break into a hollow cone external conical refraction and ii a narrow beam striking a flat surface of the crystal in the appropriate direction corresponding to that of the single internal wavenormal velocity will on entering the crystal break into a hollow cone internal conical refraction thus a new pair of phenomena qualitatively different from anything previously observed or suspected had been predicted by mathematics as consequences of fresnels theory the prompt experimental confirmation of those predictions by humphrey lloyd brought hamilton a prize that had never come to fresnel immediate fame legacy within a century of fresnels initial steppedlens proposal more than 10000 lights with fresnel lenses were protecting lives and property around the world concerning the other benefits the science historian theresa h levitt has remarked in the history of physical optics fresnels successful revival of the wave theory nominates him as the pivotal figure between newton who held that light consisted of corpuscles and james clerk maxwell who established that light waves are electromagnetic whereas albert einstein described maxwells work as the most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of newton commentators of the era between fresnel and maxwell made similarly strong statements about fresnel maccullagh as early as 1830 wrote that fresnels mechanical theory of double refraction would do honour to the sagacity of newton lloyd in his report on the progress and present state of physical optics 1834 for the british association for the advancement of science surveyed previous knowledge of double refraction and declaredthe theory of fresnel to which i now proceedand which not only embraces all the known phenomena but has even outstripped observation and predicted consequences which were afterwards fully verifiedwill i am persuaded be regarded as the finest generalization in physical science which has been made since the discovery of universal gravitationin 1841 lloyd published his lectures on the wavetheory of light in which he described fresnels transversewave theory as the noblest fabric which has ever adorned the domain of physical science newtons system of the universe alone excepted william whewell in all three editions of his history of the inductive sciences 1837 1847 and 1857 at the end of book compared the histories of physical astronomy and physical optics and concludedit would perhaps be too fanciful to attempt to establish a parallelism between the prominent persons who figure in these two histories if we were to do this we must consider huyghens and hooke as standing in the place of copernicus since like him they announced the true theory but left it to a future age to give it development and mechanical confirmation malus and brewster grouping them together correspond to tycho brahe and kepler laborious in accumulating observations inventive and happy in discovering laws of phenomena and young and fresnel combined make up the newton of optical science what whewell called the true theory has since undergone two major revisions the first by maxwell specified the physical fields whose variations constitute the waves of light without the benefit of this knowledge fresnel managed to construct the worlds first coherent theory of light showing in retrospect that his methods are applicable to multiple types of waves the second revision initiated by einsteins explanation of the photoelectric effect supposed that the energy of light waves was divided into quanta which were eventually identified with particles called photons but photons did not exactly correspond to newtons corpuscles for example newtons explanation of ordinary refraction required the corpuscles to travel faster in media of higher refractive index which photons do not neither did photons displace waves rather they led to the paradox of waveparticle duality moreover the phenomena studied by fresnel which included nearly all the optical phenomena known at his time are still most easily explained in terms of the wave nature of light so it was that as late as 1927 the astronomer eugène michel antoniadi declared fresnel to be the dominant figure in optics see also explanatory notes references citations bibliography dfj arago tr b powell 1857 fresnel elegy read at the public meeting of the academy of sciences 26 july 1830 in dfj arago tr wh smyth b powell and r grant biographies of distinguished scientific men singlevolume edition london longman brown green longmans roberts 1857 pp 399471 on the translators identity see pp 425n452n erratum in the translators note on p 413 a plane tangent to the outer sphere at point t should intersect the refractive surface assumed flat then through that intersection tangent planes should be drawn to the inner sphere and spheroid cf mach 1926 p263 dfj arago and a fresnel 1819 mémoire sur laction que les rayons de lumière polarisée exercent les uns sur les autres annales de chimie et de physique ser2 vol 10 pp 288305 march 1819 reprinted in fresnel 186670 vol 1 pp 509522 translated as on the action of rays of polarized light upon each other in crew 1900 pp 145155 ga boutry 1948 augustin fresnel his time life and work 17881827 science progress vol 36 no 144 october 1948 pp 587604 jstororgstable43413515 jz buchwald 1989 the rise of the wave theory of light optical theory and experiment in the early nineteenth century university of chicago press jz buchwald 2013 optics in the nineteenth century in jz buchwald and r fox eds the oxford handbook of the history of physics oxford pp 445472 h crew ed 1900 the wave theory of light memoirs by huygens young and fresnel american book company o darrigol 2012 a history of optics from greek antiquity to the nineteenth century oxford j elton 2009 a light to lighten our darkness lighthouse optics and the later development of fresnels revolutionary refracting lens 17801900 international journal for the history of engineering technology vol 79 no 2 july 2009 pp 183244 e frankel 1974 the search for a corpuscular theory of double refraction malus laplace and the competition of 1808 centaurus vol 18 no 3 september 1974 pp 223245 e frankel 1976 corpuscular optics and the wave theory of light the science and politics of a revolution in physics social studies of science vol 6 no 2 may 1976 pp 141184 jstororgstable284930 a fresnel 1815a letter to jean françois léonor mérimée 10 february 1815 smithsonian dibner library mss 546a printed in g magalhães remarks on a new autograph letter from augustin fresnel light aberration and wave theory science in context vol 19 no2 june 2006 pp 295307 at p306 original french and p307 english translation a fresnel 1816 mémoire sur la diffraction de la lumière memoir on the diffraction of light annales de chimie et de physique ser2 vol 1 pp 239281 march 1816 reprinted as deuxième mémoire second memoir in fresnel 186670 vol 1 pp 89122 not to be confused with the later prize memoir fresnel 1818b a fresnel 1818a mémoire sur les couleurs développées dans les fluides homogènes par la lumière polarisée read 30 march 1818 according to kipnis 1991 p 217 published 1846 reprinted in fresnel 186670 vol 1 pp 655683 translated by e ronalds h lloyd as memoir upon the colours produced in homogeneous fluids by polarized light in taylor 1852 pp 4465 cited page numbers refer to the translation a fresnel 1818b mémoire sur la diffraction de la lumière memoir on the diffraction of light deposited 29 july 1818 crowned 15 march 1819 published with appended notes in mémoires de lacadémie royale des sciences de linstitut de france vol for 1821 1822 printed 1826 pp 339475 reprinted with notes in fresnel 186670 vol 1 pp 247383 partly translated as fresnels prize memoir on the diffraction of light in crew 1900 pp 81144 not to be confused with the earlier memoir with the same french title fresnel 1816 a fresnel 1818c lettre de m fresnel à m arago sur linfluence du mouvement terrestre dans quelques phénomènes doptique annales de chimie et de physique ser2 vol 9 pp 5766 plate after p111 sep 1818 pp286287 nov 1818 reprinted in fresnel 186670 vol 2 pp 627636 translated as letter from augustin fresnel to françois arago on the influence of the movement of the earth on some phenomena of optics in kf schaffner nineteenthcentury aether theories pergamon 1972 pp 125135 also translated with several errors by rr traill as letter from augustin fresnel to françois arago concerning the influence of terrestrial movement on several optical phenomena general science journal 23 january 2006 pdf 8pp a fresnel 1821a note sur le calcul des teintes que la polarisation développe dans les lames cristallisées et seq annales de chimie et de physique ser2 vol 17 pp 102111 may 1821 167196 june 1821 312315 postscript july 1821 reprinted with added section nos in fresnel 186670 vol 1 pp 609648 translated as on the calculation of the tints that polarization develops in crystalline plates postscript 2021 a fresnel 1821b note sur les remarques de m biot annales de chimie et de physique ser2 vol 17 pp 393403 august 1821 reprinted with added section nos in fresnel 186670 vol 1 pp 601608 translated as note on the remarks of mr biot relating to colors of thin plates 2021 a fresnel 1821c letter to dfjarago 21 september 1821 in fresnel 186670 vol 2 pp 257259 translated as letter to arago on biaxial birefringence wikisource april 2021 a fresnel 1822a de la lumière on light in j riffault ed supplément à la traduction française de la cinquième édition du système de chimie par ththomson paris chez méquignonmarvis 1822 pp 1137535539 reprinted in fresnel 186670 vol 2 pp 3146 translated by t young as elementary view of the undulatory theory of light quarterly journal of science literature and art vol 22 janjun1827 pp 127141 441454 vol 23 juldec1827 pp 11335 431448 vol 24 janjun1828 pp 198215 vol 25 juldec1828 pp 168191 389407 vol 26 janjun1829 pp 159165 a fresnel 1822b mémoire sur un nouveau système déclairage des phares read 29 july 1822 reprinted in fresnel 186670 vol 3 pp 97126 translated by t tag as memoir upon a new system of lighthouse illumination us lighthouse society accessed 26 august 2017 archived 19 august 2016 cited page numbers refer to the translation a fresnel 1827 mémoire sur la double réfraction mémoires de lacadémie royale des sciences de linstitut de france vol for 1824 printed 1827 pp 45176 reprinted as second mémoire in fresnel 186670 vol 2 pp 479596 translated by aw hobson as memoir on double refraction in taylor 1852 pp 238333 cited page numbers refer to the translation for notable errata in the original edition and consequently in the translation see fresnel 186670 vol 2 p 596n a fresnel ed h de sénarmont e verdet and l fresnel 186670 oeuvres complètes daugustin fresnel 3 volumes paris imprimerie impériale vol 1 1866 vol 2 1868 vol 3 1870 i grattanguinness 1990 convolutions in french mathematics 18001840 basel birkhäuser vol 2 chapter 13 pp 852915 the entry of fresnel physical optics 18151824 and chapter 15 pp 9681045 the entry of navier and the triumph of cauchy elasticity theory 18191830 c huygens 1690 traité de la lumière leiden van der aa translated by sp thompson as treatise on light university of chicago press 1912 project gutenberg 2005 cited page numbers match the 1912 edition and the gutenberg html edition fa jenkins and he white 1976 fundamentals of optics 4th ed new york mcgrawhill n kipnis 1991 history of the principle of interference of light basel birkhäuser chapters ka kneller tr tm kettle 1911 christianity and the leaders of modern science a contribution to the history of culture in the nineteenth century freiburg im breisgau b herder pp 146149 th levitt 2009 the shadow of enlightenment optical and political transparency in france 17891848 oxford th levitt 2013 a short bright flash augustin fresnel and the birth of the modern lighthouse new york ww norton h lloyd 1834 report on the progress and present state of physical optics report of the fourth meeting of the british association for the advancement of science held at edinburgh in 1834 london j murray 1835 pp 295413 e mach tr js anderson afa young the principles of physical optics an historical and philosophical treatment london methuen co 1926 i newton 1730 opticks or a treatise of the reflections refractions inflections and colours of light 4th ed london william innys 1730 project gutenberg 2010 republished with foreword by a einstein and introduction by et whittaker london george bell sons 1931 reprinted with additional preface by ib cohen and analytical table of contents by dhd roller mineola ny dover 1952 1979 with revised preface 2012 cited page numbers match the gutenberg html edition and the dover editions rh silliman 1967 augustin fresnel 17881827 and the establishment of the wave theory of light phd dissertation princeton university submitted 1967 accepted 1968 available from proquest missing the first page of the preface rh silliman 2008 fresnel augustin jean complete dictionary of scientific biography detroit charles scribners sons vol 5 pp 165171 the version at encyclopediacom lacks the diagram and equations r taylor ed 1852 scientific memoirs selected from the transactions of foreign academies of science and learned societies and from foreign journals in english vol london taylor francis w whewell 1857 history of the inductive sciences from the earliest to the present time 3rd ed london jw parker son vol 2 book chapters e t whittaker 1910 a history of the theories of aether and electricity from the age of descartes to the close of the nineteenth century london longmans green co chapters j worrall 1989 fresnel poisson and the white spot the role of successful predictions in the acceptance of scientific theories in d gooding t pinch and s schaffer eds the uses of experiment studies in the natural sciences cambridge university press pp 135157 t young 1807 a course of lectures on natural philosophy and the mechanical arts 2 volumes london jjohnson vol 1 vol 2 t young ed g peacock 1855 miscellaneous works of the late thomas young london j murray vol 1 further reading some english translations of works by fresnel are included in the above bibliography for a more comprehensive list see external links below the most detailed secondary source on fresnel in english is apparently buchwald 1989 in which fresnel although not named in the title is clearly the central character on lighthouse lenses this article heavily cites levitt 2013 elton 2009 and thomas tag at the us lighthouse society see external links below all three authors deal not only with fresnels contributions but also with later innovations that are not mentioned here see fresnel lens history by comparison with the volume and impact of his scientific and technical writings biographical information on fresnel is remarkably scarce there is no booklength critical biography of him and anyone who proposes to write one must confront the fact that the letters published in his oeuvres complètescontrary to the titleare heavily redacted in the words of robert h silliman 1967 p 6n by an unhappy judgment of the editors dictated in part one suspects by political expediency the letters appear in fragmentary form preserving almost nothing beyond the technical discussions of fresnel and his correspondents it is not clear from the secondary sources whether the manuscripts of those letters are still extant cf grattanguinness 1990 p854n external links list of english translations of works by augustin fresnel at zenodo united states lighthouse society especially fresnel lenses 1788 births 1827 deaths 19thcentury deaths from tuberculosis 19thcentury french physicists burials at père lachaise cemetery corps des ponts école des ponts paristech alumni école polytechnique alumni foreign members of the royal society french civil engineers french humanitarians french roman catholics history of physics tuberculosis deaths in france jansenists light lighthouses members of the french academy of sciences optical physicists people from eure physical optics | 18,826 |
1143 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbot | Abbot | abbot is an ecclesiastical title given to the male head of a monastery in various western religious traditions including christianity the office may also be given as an honorary title to a clergyman who is not the head of a monastery the female equivalent is abbess origins the title had its origin in the monasteries of egypt and syria spread through the eastern mediterranean and soon became accepted generally in all languages as the designation of the head of a monastery the word is derived from the aramaic meaning father or meaning my father it still has this meaning in contemporary hebrew אבא and aramaic ܐܒܐ in the septuagint it was written as abbas at first it was employed as a respectful title for any monk but it was soon restricted by canon law to certain priestly superiors at times it was applied to various priests eg at the court of the frankish monarchy the of the palace and of the camp were chaplains to the merovingian and carolingian sovereigns court and army respectively the title of abbot came into fairly general use in western monastic orders whose members include priests monastic history an abbot from from father from from father compare is the head and chief governor of a community of monks called also in the east hegumen or archimandrite the english version for a female monastic head is abbess early history in egypt the first home of monasticism the jurisdiction of the abbot or archimandrite was but loosely defined sometimes he ruled over only one community sometimes over several each of which had its own abbot as well saint john cassian speaks of an abbot of the thebaid who had 500 monks under him by the rule of st benedict which until the cluniac reforms was the norm in the west the abbot has jurisdiction over only one community the rule as was inevitable was subject to frequent violations but it was not until the foundation of the cluniac order that the idea of a supreme abbot exercising jurisdiction over all the houses of an order was definitely recognised monks as a rule were laymen nor at the outset was the abbot any exception for the reception of the sacraments and for other religious offices the abbot and his monks were commanded to attend the nearest church this rule proved inconvenient when a monastery was situated in a desert or at a distance from a city and necessity compelled the ordination of some monks this innovation was not introduced without a struggle ecclesiastical dignity being regarded as inconsistent with the higher spiritual life but before the close of the 5th century at least in the east abbots seem almost universally to have become deacons if not priests the change spread more slowly in the west where the office of abbot was commonly filled by laymen till the end of the 7th century the ecclesiastical leadership exercised by abbots despite their frequent lay status is proved by their attendance and votes at ecclesiastical councils thus at the first council of constantinople ad 448 23 archimandrites or abbots sign with 30 bishops the second council of nicaea ad 787 recognized the right of abbots to ordain their monks to the inferior orders below the diaconate a power usually reserved to bishops abbots used to be subject to episcopal jurisdiction and continued generally so in fact in the west till the 11th century the code of justinian lib i tit iii de ep leg xl expressly subordinates the abbot to episcopal oversight the first case recorded of the partial exemption of an abbot from episcopal control is that of faustus abbot of lerins at the council of arles ad 456 but the exorbitant claims and exactions of bishops to which this repugnance to episcopal control is to be traced far more than to the arrogance of abbots rendered it increasingly frequent and in the 6th century the practice of exempting religious houses partly or altogether from episcopal control and making them responsible to the pope alone received an impulse from pope gregory the great these exceptions introduced with a good object had grown into a widespread evil by the 12th century virtually creating an imperium in imperio and depriving the bishop of all authority over the chief centres of influence in his diocese later middle ages in the 12th century the abbots of fulda claimed precedence of the archbishop of cologne abbots more and more assumed almost episcopal state and in defiance of the prohibition of early councils and the protests of st bernard and others adopted the episcopal insignia of mitre ring gloves and sandals it has been maintained that the right to wear mitres was sometimes granted by the popes to abbots before the 11th century but the documents on which this claim is based are not genuine j braun liturgische gewandung p 453 the first undoubted instance is the bull by which alexander ii in 1063 granted the use of the mitre to egelsinus abbot of the monastery of st augustine at canterbury the mitred abbots in england were those of abingdon st albans bardney battle bury st edmunds st augustines canterbury colchester croyland evesham glastonbury gloucester st benets hulme hyde malmesbury peterborough ramsey reading selby shrewsbury tavistock thorney westminster winchcombe and st marys york of these the precedence was yielded to the abbot of glastonbury until in ad 1154 adrian iv nicholas breakspear granted it to the abbot of st albans in which monastery he had been brought up next after the abbot of st albans ranked the abbot of westminster and then ramsey elsewhere the mitred abbots that sat in the estates of scotland were of arbroath cambuskenneth coupar angus dunfermline holyrood iona kelso kilwinning kinloss lindores paisley melrose scone st andrews priory and sweetheart to distinguish abbots from bishops it was ordained that their mitre should be made of less costly materials and should not be ornamented with gold a rule which was soon entirely disregarded and that the crook of their pastoral staff the crosier should turn inwards instead of outwards indicating that their jurisdiction was limited to their own house the adoption of certain episcopal insignia pontificalia by abbots was followed by an encroachment on episcopal functions which had to be specially but ineffectually guarded against by the lateran council ad 1123 in the east abbots if in priests orders and with the consent of the bishop were as we have seen permitted by the second nicene council ad 787 to confer the tonsure and admit to the order of reader but gradually abbots in the west also advanced higher claims until we find them in ad 1489 permitted by innocent iv to confer both the subdiaconate and diaconate of course they always and everywhere had the power of admitting their own monks and vesting them with the religious habit the power of the abbot was paternal but absolute limited however by the canon law one of the main goals of monasticism was the purgation of self and selfishness and obedience was seen as a path to that perfection it was sacred duty to execute the abbots orders and even to act without his orders was sometimes considered a transgression examples among the egyptian monks of this submission to the commands of the superiors exalted into a virtue by those who regarded the entire crushing of the individual will as a goal are detailed by cassian and others eg a monk watering a dry stick day after day for months or endeavoring to remove a huge rock immensely exceeding his powers appointments when a vacancy occurred the bishop of the diocese chose the abbot out of the monks of the monastery but the right of election was transferred by jurisdiction to the monks themselves reserving to the bishop the confirmation of the election and the benediction of the new abbot in abbeys exempt from the archbishops diocesan jurisdiction the confirmation and benediction had to be conferred by the pope in person the house being taxed with the expenses of the new abbots journey to rome it was necessary that an abbot should be at least 30 years of age of legitimate birth a monk of the house for at least 10 years unless it furnished no suitable candidate when a liberty was allowed of electing from another monastery well instructed himself and able to instruct others one also who had learned how to command by having practised obedience in some exceptional cases an abbot was allowed to name his own successor cassian speaks of an abbot in egypt doing this and in later times we have another example in the case of st bruno popes and sovereigns gradually encroached on the rights of the monks until in italy the pope had usurped the nomination of all abbots and the king in france with the exception of cluny premontré and other houses chiefs of their order the election was for life unless the abbot was canonically deprived by the chiefs of his order or when he was directly subject to them by the pope or the bishop and also in england it was for a term of 812 years the ceremony of the formal admission of a benedictine abbot in medieval times is thus prescribed by the consuetudinary of abingdon the newly elected abbot was to put off his shoes at the door of the church and proceed barefoot to meet the members of the house advancing in a procession after proceeding up the nave he was to kneel and pray at the topmost step of the entrance of the choir into which he was to be introduced by the bishop or his commissary and placed in his stall the monks then kneeling gave him the kiss of peace on the hand and rising on the mouth the abbot holding his staff of office he then put on his shoes in the vestry and a chapter was held and the bishop or his delegate preached a suitable sermon general information before the late modern era the abbot was treated with the utmost reverence by the brethren of his house when he appeared either in church or chapter all present rose and bowed his letters were received kneeling as were those of the pope and the king no monk might sit in his presence or leave it without his permission reflecting the hierarchical etiquette of families and society the highest place was assigned to him both in church and at table in the east he was commanded to eat with the other monks in the west the rule of st benedict appointed him a separate table at which he might entertain guests and strangers because this permission opened the door to luxurious living synods of aachen 816819 decreed that the abbot should dine in the refectory and be content with the ordinary fare of the monks unless he had to entertain a guest these ordinances proved however generally ineffectual to secure strictness of diet and contemporaneous literature abounds with satirical remarks and complaints concerning the inordinate extravagance of the tables of the abbots when the abbot condescended to dine in the refectory his chaplains waited upon him with the dishes a servant if necessary assisting them when abbots dined in their own private hall the rule of st benedict charged them to invite their monks to their table provided there was room on which occasions the guests were to abstain from quarrels slanderous talk and idle gossiping the ordinary attire of the abbot was according to rule to be the same as that of the monks but by the 10th century the rule was commonly set aside and we find frequent complaints of abbots dressing in silk and adopting sumptuous attire some even laid aside the monastic habit altogether and assumed a secular dress with the increase of wealth and power abbots had lost much of their special religious character and become great lords chiefly distinguished from lay lords by celibacy thus we hear of abbots going out to hunt with their men carrying bows and arrows keeping horses dogs and huntsmen and special mention is made of an abbot of leicester c 1360 who was the most skilled of all the nobility in hare hunting in magnificence of equipage and retinue the abbots vied with the first nobles of the realm they rode on mules with gilded bridles rich saddles and housings carrying hawks on their wrist followed by an immense train of attendants the bells of the churches were rung as they passed they associated on equal terms with laymen of the highest distinction and shared all their pleasures and pursuits this rank and power was however often used most beneficially for instance we read of richard whiting the last abbot of glastonbury judicially murdered by henry viii that his house was a kind of wellordered court where as many as 300 sons of noblemen and gentlemen who had been sent to him for virtuous education had been brought up besides others of a lesser rank whom he fitted for the universities his table attendance and officers were an honour to the nation he would entertain as many as 500 persons of rank at one time besides relieving the poor of the vicinity twice a week he had his country houses and fisheries and when he travelled to attend parliament his retinue amounted to upwards of 100 persons the abbots of cluny and vendôme were by virtue of their office cardinals of the roman church in the process of time the title abbot was extended to clerics who had no connection with the monastic system as to the principal of a body of parochial clergy and under the carolingians to the chief chaplain of the king or military chaplain of the emperor it even came to be adopted by purely secular officials thus the chief magistrate of the republic at genoa was called lay abbots m lat or or sometimes simply were the outcome of the growth of the feudal system from the 8th century onwards the practice of commendation by whichto meet a contemporary emergencythe revenues of the community were handed over to a lay lord in return for his protection early suggested to the emperors and kings the expedient of rewarding their warriors with rich abbeys held in commendam during the carolingian epoch the custom grew up of granting these as regular heritable fiefs or benefices and by the 10th century before the great cluniac reform the system was firmly established even the abbey of st denis was held in commendam by hugh capet the example of the kings was followed by the feudal nobles sometimes by making a temporary concession permanent sometimes without any form of commendation whatever in england the abuse was rife in the 8th century as may be gathered from the acts of the council of cloveshoe these lay abbacies were not merely a question of overlordship but implied the concentration in lay hands of all the rights immunities and jurisdiction of the foundations ie the more or less complete secularization of spiritual institutions the lay abbot took his recognized rank in the feudal hierarchy and was free to dispose of his fief as in the case of any other the enfeoffment of abbeys differed in form and degree sometimes the monks were directly subject to the lay abbot sometimes he appointed a substitute to perform the spiritual functions known usually as dean but also as abbot when the great reform of the 11th century had put an end to the direct jurisdiction of the lay abbots the honorary title of abbot continued to be held by certain of the great feudal families as late as the 13th century and later with the head of the community retaining the title of dean the connection of the lesser lay abbots with the abbeys especially in the south of france lasted longer and certain feudal families retained the title of for centuries together with certain rights over the abbey lands or revenues the abuse was not confined to the west john patriarch of antioch at the beginning of the 12th century informs us that in his time most monasteries had been handed over to laymen for life or for part of their lives by the emperors giraldus cambrensis reported itinerary iiiv the common customs of lay abbots in the late 12thcentury church of wales in conventual cathedrals where the bishop occupied the place of the abbot the functions usually devolving on the superior of the monastery were performed by a prior modern practices in the roman catholic church abbots continue to be elected by the monks of an abbey to lead them as their religious superior in those orders and monasteries that make use of the term some orders of monks as the carthusians for instance have no abbots only priors a monastery must have been granted the status of an abbey by the pope and such monasteries are normally raised to this level after showing a degree of stabilitya certain number of monks in vows a certain number of years of establishment a certain firmness to the foundation in economic vocational and legal aspects prior to this the monastery would be a mere priory headed by a prior who acts as superior but without the same degree of legal authority that an abbot has the abbot is chosen by the monks from among the fully professed monks once chosen he must request blessing the blessing of an abbot is celebrated by the bishop in whose diocese the monastery is or with his permission another abbot or bishop the ceremony of such a blessing is similar in some aspects to the consecration of a bishop with the new abbot being presented with the mitre the ring and the crosier as symbols of office and receiving the laying on of hands and blessing from the celebrant though the ceremony installs the new abbot into a position of legal authority it does not confer further sacramental authority it is not a further degree of holy orders although some abbots have been ordained to the episcopacy once he has received this blessing the abbot not only becomes father of his monks in a spiritual sense but their major superior under canon law and has the additional authority to confer the ministries of acolyte and lector formerly he could confer the minor orders which are not sacraments that these ministries have replaced the abbey is a species of exempt religious in that it is for the most part answerable to the pope or to the abbot primate rather than to the local bishop the abbot wears the same habit as his fellow monks though by tradition he adds to it a pectoral cross territorial abbots follow all of the above but in addition must receive a mandate of authority from the pope over the territory around the monastery for which they are responsible abbatial hierarchy in some monastic families there is a hierarchy of precedence or authority among abbots in some cases this is the result of an abbey being considered the mother of several daughter abbeys founded as dependent priories of the mother in other cases abbeys have affiliated in networks known as congregations some monastic families recognize one abbey as the motherhouse of the entire order the abbot of santanselmo di aventino in rome is styled the abbot primate and is acknowledged the senior abbot for the order of st benedict osb an abbot president is the head of a congregation federation of abbeys within the order of st benedict for instance the english congregation the american cassinese congregation etc or of the cistercians o cist an archabbot is the head of some monasteries which are the motherhouses of other monasteries for instance saint vincent archabbey latrobe pennsylvania maurogiuseppe lepori o cist is the current abbot general of the cistercians of the common observance modern abbots not as superior the title abbé french ital abate as commonly used in the catholic church on the european continent is the equivalent of the english father parallel etymology being loosely applied to all who have received the tonsure this use of the title is said to have originated in the right conceded to the king of france by the concordat between pope leo x and francis i 1516 to appoint commendatory abbots to most of the abbeys in france the expectation of obtaining these sinecures drew young men towards the church in considerable numbers and the class of abbés so formed they were sometimes called and sometimes ironically abbés of holy hope or in a jeu de mots of st hopecame to hold a recognized position the connection many of them had with the church was of the slenderest kind consisting mainly in adopting the title of abbé after a remarkably moderate course of theological study practising celibacy and wearing distinctive dress a short darkviolet coat with narrow collar being men of presumed learning and undoubted leisure many of the class found admission to the houses of the french nobility as tutors or advisers nearly every great family had its abbé the class did not survive the revolution but the courtesy title of abbé having long lost all connection in peoples minds with any special ecclesiastical function remained as a convenient general term applicable to any clergyman eastern christian in the eastern orthodox and eastern catholic churches the abbot is referred to as the hegumen the superior of a monastery of nuns is called the hēguménē the title of archimandrite literally the head of the enclosure used to mean something similar in the east the principle set forth in the corpus juris civilis still applies whereby most abbots are immediately subject to the local bishop those monasteries which enjoy the status of being stauropegic will be subject only to a primate or his synod of bishops and not the local bishop honorary and other uses of the title although currently in the western church the title abbot is given only abbots of monasteries the title archimandrite is given to monastics ie celibate priests in the east even when not attached to a monastery as an honor for service similar to the title of monsignor in the latin church of the catholic church in the eastern orthodox church only monastics are permitted to be elevated to the rank of archimandrite married priests are elevated to the parallel rank of archpriest or protopresbyter normally there are no celibate priests who are not monastics in the orthodox church with the exception of married priests who have been widowed since the time of catherine ii the ranks of abbot and archimandrite have been given as honorary titles in the russian church and may be given to any monastic even if he does not in fact serve as the superior of a monastery in greek practice the title or function of abbot corresponds to a person who serves as the head of a monastery although the title of the archimandrite may be given to any celibate priest who could serve as the head of a monastery in the german evangelical church the german title of abt abbot is sometimes bestowed like the french abbé as an honorary distinction and survives to designate the heads of some monasteries converted at the reformation into collegiate foundations of these the most noteworthy is loccum abbey in hanover founded as a cistercian house in 1163 by count wilbrand of hallermund and reformed in 1593 the abbot of loccum who still carries a pastoral staff takes precedence over all the clergy of hanover and was ex officio a member of the consistory of the kingdom the governing body of the abbey consists of the abbot prior and the convent or community of stiftsherren canons in the church of england the bishop of norwich by royal decree given by henry viii also holds the honorary title of abbot of st benet this title hails back to englands separation from the see of rome when king henry as supreme head of the newly independent church took over all of the monasteries mainly for their possessions except for st benet which he spared because the abbot and his monks possessed no wealth and lived like simple beggars deposing the incumbent bishop of norwich and seating the abbot in his place thus the dual title still held to this day additionally at the enthronement of the archbishop of canterbury there is a threefold enthronement once in the throne the chancel as the diocesan bishop of canterbury once in the chair of st augustine as the primate of all england and then once in the chapterhouse as titular abbot of canterbury there are several benedictine abbeys throughout the anglican communion most of them have mitred abbots abbots in art and literature the abbot is one of the archetypes traditionally illustrated in scenes of danse macabre the lives of numerous abbots make up a significant contribution to christian hagiography one of the most wellknown being the life of st benedict of nursia by st gregory the great during the years 11061107 ad daniel a russian orthodox abbot made a pilgrimage to the holy land and recorded his experiences his diary was muchread throughout russia and at least seventyfive manuscript copies survive saint joseph abbot of volokolamsk russia 14391515 wrote a number of influential works against heresy and about monastic and liturgical discipline and christian philanthropy in the tales of redwall series the creatures of redwall are led by an abbot or abbess these abbots are appointed by the brothers and sisters of redwall to serve as a superior and provide paternal care much like real abbots the abbot was a nickname of rza from the wutang clan see also abbé abbé pierre abbot buddhism abthain commendatory abbot notes references external links russian orthodox abbot of valaam monastery the pilgrimage of the russian abbot daniel in the holy land religious terminology ecclesiastical titles monasticism organisation of catholic religious orders religious leadership roles catholic ecclesiastical titles christian religious occupations | 4,357 |
1144 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ardipithecus | Ardipithecus | ardipithecus is a genus of an extinct hominine that lived during the late miocene and early pliocene epochs in the afar depression ethiopia originally described as one of the earliest ancestors of humans after they diverged from the chimpanzees the relation of this genus to human ancestors and whether it is a hominin is now a matter of debate two fossil species are described in the literature a ramidus which lived about 44 million years ago during the early pliocene and a kadabba dated to approximately 56 million years ago late miocene initial behavioral analysis indicated that ardipithecus could be very similar to chimpanzees however more recent analysis based on canine size and lack of canine sexual dimorphism indicates that ardipithecus was characterised by reduced aggression and that they more closely resemble bonobos some analyses describe australopithecus as being sister to ardipithecus ramidus specifically this means that australopithecus is distinctly closer related to ardipithecus ramidus than ardipithecus kadabba cladistically then australopithecus and eventually homo sapiens indeed emerged within the ardipithecus lineage and this lineage is not literally extinct ardipithecus ramidus a ramidus was named in september 1994 the first fossil found was dated to 44 million years ago on the basis of its stratigraphic position between two volcanic strata the basal gaala tuff complex gatc and the daam aatu basaltic tuff dabt the name ardipithecus ramidus stems mostly from the afar language in which ardi means groundfloor and ramid means root the pithecus portion of the name is from the greek word for ape like most hominids but unlike all previously recognized hominins it had a grasping hallux or big toe adapted for locomotion in the trees it is not confirmed how many other features of its skeleton reflect adaptation to bipedalism on the ground as well like later hominins ardipithecus had reduced canine teeth and reduced canine sexual dimorphism in 19921993 a research team headed by tim white discovered the first a ramidus fossilsseventeen fragments including skull mandible teeth and arm bonesfrom the afar depression in the middle awash river valley of ethiopia more fragments were recovered in 1994 amounting to 45 of the total skeleton this fossil was originally described as a species of australopithecus but white and his colleagues later published a note in the same journal renaming the fossil under a new genus ardipithecus between 1999 and 2003 a multidisciplinary team led by sileshi semaw discovered bones and teeth of nine a ramidus individuals at as duma in the gona area of ethiopias afar region the fossils were dated to between 435 and 445 million years old ardipithecus ramidus had a small brain measuring between 300 and 350 cm3 this is slightly smaller than a modern bonobo or female chimpanzee brain but much smaller than the brain of australopithecines like lucy 400 to 550 cm3 and roughly 20 the size of the modern homo sapiens brain like common chimpanzees a ramidus was much more prognathic than modern humans the teeth of a ramidus lacked the specialization of other apes and suggest that it was a generalized omnivore and frugivore fruit eater with a diet that did not depend heavily on foliage fibrous plant material roots tubers etc or hard and or abrasive food the size of the upper canine tooth in a ramidus males was not distinctly different from that of females their upper canines were less sharp than those of modern common chimpanzees in part because of this decreased upper canine size as larger upper canines can be honed through wear against teeth in the lower mouth the features of the upper canine in a ramidus contrast with the sexual dimorphism observed in common chimpanzees where males have significantly larger and sharper upper canine teeth than females of the living apes bonobos have the smallest canine sexual dimorphism although still greater than that displayed by a ramidus the less pronounced nature of the upper canine teeth in a ramidus has been used to infer aspects of the social behavior of the species and more ancestral hominids in particular it has been used to suggest that the last common ancestor of hominids and african apes was characterized by relatively little aggression between males and between groups this is markedly different from social patterns in common chimpanzees among which intermale and intergroup aggression are typically high researchers in a 2009 study said that this condition compromises the living chimpanzee as a behavioral model for the ancestral hominid condition bonobo canine size and canine sexual dimorphism more closely resembles that of a ramidus and as a result bonobos are now suggested as a behavioural model a ramidus existed more recently than the most recent common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees clca or panhomo lca and thus is not fully representative of that common ancestor nevertheless it is in some ways unlike chimpanzees suggesting that the common ancestor differs from the modern chimpanzee after the chimpanzee and human lineages diverged both underwent substantial evolutionary change chimp feet are specialized for grasping trees a ramidus feet are better suited for walking the canine teeth of a ramidus are smaller and equal in size between males and females which suggests reduced maletomale conflict increased pairbonding and increased parental investment thus fundamental reproductive and social behavioral changes probably occurred in hominids long before they had enlarged brains and began to use stone tools the research team concluded ardi on october 1 2009 paleontologists formally announced the discovery of the relatively complete a ramidus fossil skeleton first unearthed in 1994 the fossil is the remains of a smallbrained 50kilogram 110 lb female nicknamed ardi and includes most of the skull and teeth as well as the pelvis hands and feet it was discovered in ethiopias harsh afar desert at a site called aramis in the middle awash region radiometric dating of the layers of volcanic ash encasing the deposits suggest that ardi lived about 4345 million years ago this date however has been questioned by others fleagle and kappelman suggest that the region in which ardi was found is difficult to date radiometrically and they argue that ardi should be dated at 39 million years the fossil is regarded by its describers as shedding light on a stage of human evolution about which little was known more than a million years before lucy australopithecus afarensis the iconic early human ancestor candidate who lived 32 million years ago and was discovered in 1974 just away from ardis discovery site however because the ardi skeleton is no more than 200000 years older than the earliest fossils of australopithecus and may in fact be younger than they are some researchers doubt that it can represent a direct ancestor of australopithecus some researchers infer from the form of her pelvis and limbs and the presence of her abductable hallux that ardi was a facultative biped bipedal when moving on the ground but quadrupedal when moving about in tree branches a ramidus had a more primitive walking ability than later hominids and could not walk or run for long distances the teeth suggest omnivory and are more generalised than those of modern apes ardipithecus kadabba ardipithecus kadabba is known only from teeth and bits and pieces of skeletal bones and is dated to approximately 56 million years ago it has been described as a probable chronospecies ie ancestor of a ramidus although originally considered a subspecies of a ramidus in 2004 anthropologists yohannes haileselassie gen suwa and tim d white published an article elevating a kadabba to species level on the basis of newly discovered teeth from ethiopia these teeth show primitive morphology and wear pattern which demonstrate that a kadabba is a distinct species from a ramidus the specific name comes from the afar word for basal family ancestor classification due to several shared characteristics with chimpanzees its closeness to ape divergence period and due to its fossil incompleteness the exact position of ardipithecus in the fossil record is a subject of controversy primatologist esteban sarmiento had systematically compared and concluded that there is not sufficient anatomical evidence to support an exclusively human lineage sarmiento noted that ardipithecus does not share any characteristics exclusive to humans and some of its characteristics those in the wrist and basicranium suggest it diverged from humans prior to the humangorilla last common ancestor his comparative narrow allometry study in 2011 on the molar and body segment lengths which included living primates of similar body size noted that some dimensions including short upper limbs and metacarpals are reminiscent of humans but other dimensions such as long toes and relative molar surface area are great apelike sarmiento concluded that such length measures can change back and forth during evolution and are not very good indicators of relatedness homoplasy however some later studies still argue for its classification in the human lineage in 2014 it was reported that the hand bones of ardipithecus australopithecus sediba and a afarensis have the third metacarpal styloid process which is absent in other apes unique brain organisations such as lateral shift of the carotid foramina mediolateral abbreviation of the lateral tympanic and a shortened trapezoidal basioccipital element in ardipithecus are also found only in the australopithecus and homo comparison of the tooth root morphology with those of the earlier sahelanthropus also indicated strong resemblance also pointing to inclusion to the human line evolutionary tree according to a 2019 study paleobiology the ardipithecus length measures are good indicators of function and together with dental isotope data and the fauna and flora from the fossil site indicate ardipithecus was mainly a terrestrial quadruped collecting a large portion of its food on the ground its arboreal behaviors would have been limited and suspension from branches solely from the upper limbs rare a comparative study in 2013 on carbon and oxygen stable isotopes within modern and fossil tooth enamel revealed that ardipithecus fed both arboreally on trees and on the ground in a more open habitat unlike chimpanzees in 2015 australian anthropologists gary clark and maciej henneberg said that ardipithecus adults have a facial anatomy more similar to chimpanzee subadults than adults with a lessprojecting face and smaller canines large canines in primate males are used to compete within mating hierarchies and attributed this to a decrease in craniofacial growth in favour of brain growth this is only seen in humans so they argued that the species may show the first trend towards human social parenting and sexual psychology previously it was assumed that such ancient human ancestors behaved much like chimps but this is no longer considered to be a viable comparison this view has yet to be corroborated by more detailed studies of the growth of aramidus the study also provides support for stephen jay goulds theory in ontogeny and phylogeny that the paedomorphic childlike form of early hominin craniofacial morphology results from dissociation of growth trajectories clark and henneberg also argued that such shortening of the skullwhich may have caused a descension of the larynxas well as lordosisallowing better movement of the larynxincreased vocal ability significantly pushing back the origin of language to well before the evolution of homo they argued that self domestication was aided by the development of vocalization living in a prosocial society they conceded that chimps and a ramidus likely had the same vocal capabilities but said that a ramidus made use of more complex vocalizations and vocalized at the same level as a human infant due to selective pressure to become more social this would have allowed their society to become more complex they also noted that the base of the skull stopped growing with the brain by the end of juvenility whereas in chimps it continues growing with the rest of the body into adulthood and considered this evidence of a switch from a gross skeletal anatomy trajectory to a neurological development trajectory due to selective pressure for sociability nonetheless their conclusions are highly speculative according to scott simpson the gona projects physical anthropologist the fossil evidence from the middle awash indicates that both a kadabba and a ramidus lived in a mosaic of woodland and grasslands with lakes swamps and springs nearby but further research is needed to determine which habitat ardipithecus at gona preferred anatomically ardi is closer to the orangutan than to the chimpanzee bonobo or gorilla all three are adapted for knuckle walking on the forest floor and climbing trees the orangutan spends virtually its entire life in the forest canopy its anatomy allows for maximum reach by its upper limbs for overhead branches while its lower limbs have a narrow stance that enables it to balance while walking foot over foot on lower branches and vines although not as closely related genetically as the knuckle walking apes this would indicate that ardi was behaviourly more similar to the orangutan than to the other three great apes in nature the orangutan is widely dispersed there is one dominant male in a territory with wide cheek flaps who maintains contact with others in his territory by vocalizations the female raises offspring one at a time with a maturation period of about eight years this is the longest maturation period of any of the apes during this period the offspring learns the intricate task of weaving a sleeping platform rescue centers are now raising young orangutans that have lost their mother typically from deforestation they are raised in age cohorts by these centers to learn the necessary skills to be able to be released into the forest while in these cohorts they show social behavior reminiscent of age appropriate behavior of human children this suggests that ardi was physically preadapted for bipedal locomotion as well as social behavior see also australopithecus paranthropus graecopithecus list of human evolution fossils orrorin sahelanthropus references external links science magazine ardipithecus special requires free registration the smithsonian institutions human origins program ardipithecus kadabba ardipithecus ramidus ardipithecus ramidus at archaeology info explore ardipithecus at nationalgeographiccom ardipithecus ramidus science journal article discovering ardi discovery channel human timeline interactive smithsonian national museum of natural history august 2016 hominini prehistoric primate genera pliocene primates transitional fossils fossil taxa described in 1995 prehistoric ethiopia miocene genus first appearances zanclean extinctions | 2,359 |
1146 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly%20line | Assembly line | an assembly line is a manufacturing process often called a progressive assembly in which parts usually interchangeable parts are added as the semifinished assembly moves from workstation to workstation where the parts are added in sequence until the final assembly is produced by mechanically moving the parts to the assembly work and moving the semifinished assembly from work station to work station a finished product can be assembled faster and with less labor than by having workers carry parts to a stationary piece for assembly assembly lines are common methods of assembling complex items such as automobiles and other transportation equipment household appliances and electronic goods workers in charge of the works of assembly line are called assemblers concepts assembly lines are designed for the sequential organization of workers tools or machines and parts the motion of workers is minimized to the extent possible all parts or assemblies are handled either by conveyors or motorized vehicles such as forklifts or gravity with no manual trucking heavy lifting is done by machines such as overhead cranes or forklifts each worker typically performs one simple operation unless job rotation strategies are applied according to henry ford designing assembly lines is a wellestablished mathematical challenge referred to as an assembly line balancing problem in the simple assembly line balancing problem the aim is to assign a set of tasks that need to be performed on the workpiece to a sequence of workstations each task requires a given task duration for completion the assignment of tasks to stations is typically limited by two constraints 1 a precedence graph which indicates what other tasks need to be completed before a particular task can be initiated eg not putting in a screw before drilling the hole and 2 a cycle time which restricts the sum of task processing times which can be completed at each workstation before the workpiece is moved to the next station by the conveyor belt major planning problems for operating assembly lines include supply chain integration inventory control and production scheduling simple example consider the assembly of a car assume that certain steps in the assembly line are to install the engine install the hood and install the wheels in that order with arbitrary interstitial steps only one of these steps can be done at a time in traditional production only one car would be assembled at a time if engine installation takes 20 minutes hood installation takes five minutes and wheels installation takes 10 minutes then a car can be produced every 35 minutes in an assembly line car assembly is split between several stations all working simultaneously when a station is finished with a car it passes it on to the next by having three stations three cars can be operated on at the same time each at a different stage of assembly after finishing its work on the first car the engine installation crew can begin working on the second car while the engine installation crew works on the second car the first car can be moved to the hood station and fitted with a hood then to the wheels station and be fitted with wheels after the engine has been installed on the second car the second car moves to the hood assembly at the same time the third car moves to the engine assembly when the third cars engine has been mounted it then can be moved to the hood station meanwhile subsequent cars if any can be moved to the engine installation station assuming no loss of time when moving a car from one station to another the longest stage on the assembly line determines the throughput 20 minutes for the engine installation so a car can be produced every 20 minutes once the first car taking 35 minutes has been produced history before the industrial revolution most manufactured products were made individually by hand a single craftsman or team of craftsmen would create each part of a product they would use their skills and tools such as files and knives to create the individual parts they would then assemble them into the final product making cutandtry changes in the parts until they fit and could work together craft production division of labor was practiced by ancient greeks chinese and other ancient civilizations in ancient greece it was discussed by plato and xenophon adam smith discussed the division of labour in the manufacture of pins at length in his book the wealth of nations published in 1776 the venetian arsenal dating to about 1104 operated similar to a production line ships moved down a canal and were fitted by the various shops they passed at the peak of its efficiency in the early 16th century the arsenal employed some 16000 people who could apparently produce nearly one ship each day and could fit out arm and provision a newly built galley with standardized parts on an assemblyline basis although the arsenal lasted until the early industrial revolution production line methods did not become common even then industrial revolution the industrial revolution led to a proliferation of manufacturing and invention many industries notably textiles firearms clocks and watches horsedrawn vehicles railway locomotives sewing machines and bicycles saw expeditious improvement in materials handling machining and assembly during the 19th century although modern concepts such as industrial engineering and logistics had not yet been named the automatic flour mill built by oliver evans in 1785 was called the beginning of modern bulk material handling by roe 1916 evanss mill used a leather belt bucket elevator screw conveyors canvas belt conveyors and other mechanical devices to completely automate the process of making flour the innovation spread to other mills and breweries probably the earliest industrial example of a linear and continuous assembly process is the portsmouth block mills built between 1801 and 1803 marc isambard brunel father of isambard kingdom brunel with the help of henry maudslay and others designed 22 types of machine tools to make the parts for the rigging blocks used by the royal navy this factory was so successful that it remained in use until the 1960s with the workshop still visible at hm dockyard in portsmouth and still containing some of the original machinery one of the earliest examples of an almost modern factory layout designed for easy material handling was the bridgewater foundry the factory grounds were bordered by the bridgewater canal and the liverpool and manchester railway the buildings were arranged in a line with a railway for carrying the work going through the buildings cranes were used for lifting the heavy work which sometimes weighed in the tens of tons the work passed sequentially through to erection of framework and final assembly the first flow assembly line was initiated at the factory of richard garrett sons leiston works in leiston in the english county of suffolk for the manufacture of portable steam engines the assembly line area was called the long shop on account of its length and was fully operational by early 1853 the boiler was brought up from the foundry and put at the start of the line and as it progressed through the building it would stop at various stages where new parts would be added from the upper level where other parts were made the lighter parts would be lowered over a balcony and then fixed onto the machine on the ground level when the machine reached the end of the shop it would be completed interchangeable parts during the early 19th century the development of machine tools such as the screwcutting lathe metal planer and milling machine and of toolpath control via jigs and fixtures provided the prerequisites for the modern assembly line by making interchangeable parts a practical reality late 19thcentury steam and electric conveyors steampowered conveyor lifts began being used for loading and unloading ships some time in the last quarter of the 19th century hounshell 1984 shows a sketch of an electricpowered conveyor moving cans through a filling line in a canning factory the meatpacking industry of chicago is believed to be one of the first industrial assembly lines or disassembly lines to be utilized in the united states starting in 1867 workers would stand at fixed stations and a pulley system would bring the meat to each worker and they would complete one task henry ford and others have written about the influence of this slaughterhouse practice on the later developments at ford motor company 20th century according to domm the implementation of mass production of an automobile via an assembly line may be credited to ransom olds who used it to build the first massproduced automobile the oldsmobile curved dash olds patented the assembly line concept which he put to work in his olds motor vehicle company factory in 1901 at ford motor company the assembly line was introduced by william pa klann upon his return from visiting swift companys slaughterhouse in chicago and viewing what was referred to as the disassembly line where carcasses were butchered as they moved along a conveyor the efficiency of one person removing the same piece over and over without moving to another station caught his attention he reported the idea to peter e martin soon to be head of ford production who was doubtful at the time but encouraged him to proceed others at ford have claimed to have put the idea forth to henry ford but pa klanns slaughterhouse revelation is well documented in the archives at the henry ford museum and elsewhere making him an important contributor to the modern automated assembly line concept ford was appreciative having visited the highly automated 40acre sears mail order handling facility around 1906 at ford the process was an evolution by trial and error of a team consisting primarily of peter e martin the factory superintendent charles e sorensen martins assistant clarence w avery c harold wills draftsman and toolmaker charles ebender and józsef galamb some of the groundwork for such development had recently been laid by the intelligent layout of machine tool placement that walter flanders had been doing at ford up to 1908 the moving assembly line was developed for the ford model t and began operation on october 7 1913 at the highland park ford plant and continued to evolve after that using time and motion study the assembly line driven by conveyor belts reduced production time for a model t to just 93 minutes by dividing the process into 45 steps producing cars quicker than paint of the day could dry it had an immense influence on the world in 1922 ford through his ghostwriter crowther said of his 1913 assembly line charles e sorensen in his 1956 memoir my forty years with ford presented a different version of development that was not so much about individual inventors as a gradual logical development of industrial engineering as a result of these developments in method fords cars came off the line in threeminute intervals or six feet per minute this was much faster than previous methods increasing production by eight to one requiring 125 manhours before 1 hour 33 minutes after while using less manpower it was so successful paint became a bottleneck only japan black would dry fast enough forcing the company to drop the variety of colours available before 1914 until fastdrying duco lacquer was developed in 1926 the assembly line technique was an integral part of the diffusion of the automobile into american society decreased costs of production allowed the cost of the model t to fall within the budget of the american middle class in 1908 the price of a model t was around 825 and by 1912 it had decreased to around 575 this price reduction is comparable to a reduction from 15000 to 10000 in dollar terms from the year 2000 in 1914 an assembly line worker could buy a model t with four months pay fords complex safety proceduresespecially assigning each worker to a specific location instead of allowing them to roam aboutdramatically reduced the rate of injury the combination of high wages and high efficiency is called fordism and was copied by most major industries the efficiency gains from the assembly line also coincided with the takeoff of the united states the assembly line forced workers to work at a certain pace with very repetitive motions which led to more output per worker while other countries were using less productive methods in the automotive industry its success was dominating and quickly spread worldwide ford france and ford britain in 1911 ford denmark 1923 ford germany and ford japan 1925 in 1919 vulcan southport lancashire was the first native european manufacturer to adopt it soon companies had to have assembly lines or risk going broke by not being able to compete by 1930 250 companies which did not had disappeared the massive demand for military hardware in world war ii prompted assemblyline techniques in shipbuilding and aircraft production thousands of liberty ships were built making extensive use of prefabrication enabling ship assembly to be completed in weeks or even days after having produced fewer than 3000 planes for the united states military in 1939 american aircraft manufacturers built over 300000 planes in world war ii vultee pioneered the use of the powered assembly line for aircraft manufacturing other companies quickly followed as william s knudsen having worked at ford gm and the national defense advisory commission observed we won because we smothered the enemy in an avalanche of production the like of which he had never seen nor dreamed possible improved working conditions in his 1922 autobiography henry ford mentions several benefits of the assembly line including workers do not do any heavy lifting no stooping or bending over no special training was required there are jobs that almost anyone can do provided employment to immigrants the gains in productivity allowed ford to increase worker pay from 150 per day to 500 per day once employees reached three years of service on the assembly line ford continued on to reduce the hourly work week while continuously lowering the model t price these goals appear altruistic however it has been argued that they were implemented by ford in order to reduce high employee turnover when the assembly line was introduced in 1913 it was discovered that every time the company wanted to add 100 men to its factory personnel it was necessary to hire 963 in order to counteract the natural distaste the assembly line seems to have inspired sociological problems sociological work has explored the social alienation and boredom that many workers feel because of the repetition of doing the same specialized task all day long karl marx expressed in his theory of alienation the belief that in order to achieve job satisfaction workers need to see themselves in the objects they have created that products should be mirrors in which workers see their reflected essential nature marx viewed labour as a chance for people to externalize facets of their personalities marxists argue that performing repetitive specialized tasks causes a feeling of disconnection between what a worker does all day who they really are and what they would ideally be able to contribute to society furthermore marx views these specialised jobs as insecure since the worker is expendable as soon as costs rise and technology can replace more expensive human labour since workers have to stand in the same place for hours and repeat the same motion hundreds of times per day repetitive stress injuries are a possible pathology of occupational safety industrial noise also proved dangerous when it was not too high workers were often prohibited from talking charles piaget a skilled worker at the lip factory recalled that besides being prohibited from speaking the semiskilled workers had only 25 centimeters in which to move industrial ergonomics later tried to minimize physical trauma see also modern times a 1936 film featuring the tramp character played by charlie chaplin struggling to adapt to assembly line work final offer a documentary film about the 1984 uawcaw contract negotiations shows working life on the floor of the gm oshawa ontario car assembly plant watch online reconfigurable and flexible manufacturing systems involving postfordism and lean manufacturinginfluenced production references footnotes works cited external links homepage for assembly line optimization research assembly line optimization problems history of the assembly line and its widespread effects cars assembly line industrial processes mass production manufacturing buildings and structures american inventions culture of detroit history of science and technology in the united states articles containing video clips types of production caproducció en cadena | 2,768 |
1148 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adelaide | Adelaide | adelaide is the capital city of south australia the states largest city and the fifthmost populous city in australia adelaide may refer to either greater adelaide including the adelaide hills or the adelaide city centre the demonym adelaidean is used to denote the city and the residents of adelaide the traditional owners of the adelaide region are the kaurna the area of the city centre and surrounding park lands is called in the kaurna language adelaide is situated on the adelaide plains north of the fleurieu peninsula between the gulf st vincent in the west and the mount lofty ranges in the east its metropolitan area extends from the coast to the foothills of the mount lofty ranges and stretches from gawler in the north to sellicks beach in the south named in honour of adelaide of saxemeiningen queen of king william iv the city was founded in 1836 as the planned capital for the only freelysettled british province in australia colonel william light one of adelaides founding fathers designed the city centre and chose its location close to the river torrens lights design now listed as national heritage set out the city centre in a grid layout known as lights vision interspaced by wide boulevards and large public squares and entirely surrounded by park lands early colonial adelaide was shaped by the diversity and wealth of its free settlers in contrast to the convict history of other australian cities it was australias third most populated city until the postwar era it has been noted for its leading examples of religious freedom and progressive political reforms and became known as the city of churches due to its diversity of faiths today adelaide is known by its many festivals and sporting events its food and wine its coastline and hills its large defence and manufacturing sectors and its emerging space sector including the australian space agency being headquartered here adelaides quality of life has ranked consistently highly in various measures through the 21st century at one stage being named australias most liveable city as south australias government and commercial centre adelaide is the site of many governmental and financial institutions most of these are concentrated in the city centre along the cultural boulevards of north terrace and king william street history before european settlement the area around modernday adelaide was originally inhabited by the indigenous kaurna people one of many aboriginal nations in south australia the city and parklands area was known as tarntanya tandanya now the short name of tandanya national aboriginal cultural institute tarndanya or tarndanyangga now the dual name for victoria square in the kaurna language the name means male red kangaroo rock referring to a rock formation on the site that has now been destroyed the surrounding area was an open grassy plain with patches of trees and shrubs which had been managed by hundreds of generations kaurna country encompassed the plains which stretched north and south of tarntanya as well as the wooded foothills of the mt lofty ranges the river torrens was known as the karrawirra pari red gum forest river about 300 kaurna populated the adelaide area and were referred to by the settlers as the cowandilla there were more than 20 local clans across the plain who lived seminomadic lives with extensive mound settlements where huts were built repeatedly over centuries and a complex social structure including a class of sorcerers separated from regular society within a few decades of european settlement of south australia kaurna culture was almost completely destroyed the last speaker of kaurna language died in 1929 extensive documentation by early missionaries and other researchers has enabled a modern revival of both which has included a commitment by local and state governments to rename or include kaurna names for many local places 19th century based on the ideas of edward gibbon wakefield about colonial reform robert gouger petitioned the british government to create a new colony in australia resulting in the passage of the south australia act 1834 physical establishment of the colony began with the arrival of the first british colonisers in february 1836 the first governor proclaimed the commencement of colonial government in south australia on 28 december 1836 near the old gum tree in what is now the suburb of glenelg north the event is commemorated in south australia as proclamation day the site of the colonys capital was surveyed and laid out by colonel william light the first surveyorgeneral of south australia with his own original unique topographically sensitive design the city was named after queen adelaide adelaide was established as a planned colony of free immigrants promising civil liberties and freedom from religious persecution based upon the ideas of edward gibbon wakefield wakefield had read accounts of australian settlement while in prison in london for attempting to abduct an heiress and realised that the eastern colonies suffered from a lack of available labour due to the practice of giving land grants to all arrivals wakefields idea was for the government to survey and sell the land at a rate that would maintain land values high enough to be unaffordable for labourers and journeymen funds raised from the sale of land were to be used to bring out workingclass emigrants who would have to work hard for the monied settlers to ever afford their own land as a result of this policy adelaide does not share the convict settlement history of other australian cities like sydney brisbane and hobart as it was believed that in a colony of free settlers there would be little crime no provision was made for a gaol in colonel lights 1837 plan but by mid1837 the south australian register was warning of escaped convicts from new south wales and tenders for a temporary gaol were sought following a burglary a murder and two attempted murders in adelaide during march 1838 governor hindmarsh created the south australian police force now the south australia police in april 1838 under 21yearold henry inman the first sheriff samuel smart was wounded during a robbery and on 2 may 1838 one of the offenders michael magee became the first person to be hanged in south australia william baker ashton was appointed governor of the temporary gaol in 1839 and in 1840 george strickland kingston was commissioned to design adelaides new gaol construction of adelaide gaol commenced in 1841 adelaides early history was marked by economic uncertainty and questionable leadership the first governor of south australia john hindmarsh clashed frequently with others in particular the resident commissioner james hurtle fisher the rural area surrounding adelaide was surveyed by light in preparation to sell a total of over of land adelaides early economy started to get on its feet in 1838 with the arrival of livestock from victoria new south wales and tasmania wool production provided an early basis for the south australian economy by 1860 wheat farms had been established from encounter bay in the south to clare in the north george gawler took over from hindmarsh in late 1838 and despite being under orders from the select committee on south australia in britain not to undertake any public works promptly oversaw construction of a governors house the adelaide gaol police barracks a hospital a customs house and a wharf at port adelaide gawler was recalled and replaced by george edward grey in 1841 grey slashed public expenditure against heavy opposition although its impact was negligible at this point silver was discovered in glen osmond that year agriculture was well underway and other mines sprung up all over the state aiding adelaides commercial development the city exported meat wool wine fruit and wheat by the time grey left in 1845 contrasting with a low point in 1842 when onethird of adelaide houses were abandoned trade links with the rest of the australian states were established after the murray river was successfully navigated in 1853 by francis cadell an adelaide resident south australia became a selfgoverning colony in 1856 with the ratification of a new constitution by the british parliament secret ballots were introduced and a bicameral parliament was elected on 9 march 1857 by which time 109917 people lived in the province in 1860 the thorndon park reservoir was opened providing an alternative water source to the now turbid river torrens gas street lighting was implemented in 1867 the university of adelaide was founded in 1874 the south australian art gallery opened in 1881 and the happy valley reservoir opened in 1896 in the 1890s australia was affected by a severe economic depression ending a hectic era of land booms and tumultuous expansionism financial institutions in melbourne and banks in sydney closed the national fertility rate fell and immigration was reduced to a trickle the value of south australias exports nearly halved drought and poor harvests from 1884 compounded the problems with some families leaving for western australia adelaide was not as badly hit as the larger goldrush cities of sydney and melbourne and silver and lead discoveries at broken hill provided some relief only one year of deficit was recorded but the price paid was retrenchments and lean public spending wine and copper were the only industries not to suffer a downturn 20th century adelaide was australias third largest city for most of the 20th century electric street lighting was introduced in 1900 and electric trams were transporting passengers in 1909 28000 men were sent to fight in world war i historian f w crowley examined the reports of visitors in the early 20th century noting that many visitors to adelaide admired the foresighted planning of its founders as well as pondering the riches of the young city adelaide enjoyed a postwar boom entering a time of relative prosperity its population grew and it became the third most populous metropolitan area in the country after sydney and melbourne its prosperity was shortlived with the return of droughts and the great depression of the 1930s it later returned to fortune under strong government leadership secondary industries helped reduce the states dependence on primary industries world war ii brought industrial stimulus and diversification to adelaide under the playford government which advocated adelaide as a safe place for manufacturing due to its less vulnerable location shipbuilding was expanded at the nearby port of whyalla the south australian government in this period built on former wartime manufacturing industries but neglected cultural facilities which meant south australias economy lagged behind international manufacturers like general motors holden and chrysler made use of these factories around the adelaide area in suburbs like elizabeth completing its transformation from an agricultural service centre to a 20thcentury motor city the mannumadelaide pipeline brought river murray water to adelaide in 1955 and an airport opened at west beach in 1955 flinders university and the flinders medical centre were established in the 1960s at bedford park south of the city today flinders medical centre is one of the largest teaching hospitals in south australia in the postwar years around the early 1960s adelaide was surpassed by brisbane as australias third largest city the dunstan governments of the 1970s saw something of an adelaide cultural revival establishing a wide array of social reforms the city became noted for its progressivism as south australia became the first australian state or territory to decriminalise homosexuality between consenting adults in 1975 adelaide became a centre for the arts building upon the biennial adelaide festival of arts that commenced in 1960 the state bank collapsed in 1991 during an economic recession the effects lasted until 2004 when standard poors reinstated south australias aaa credit rating adelaides tallest building completed in 2020 is called the adelaidean and is located at 11 frome street 21st century in the early years of the 21st century a significant increase in the state governments spending on adelaides infrastructure occurred the rann government invested a535 million in a major upgrade of the adelaide oval to enable australian football league to be played in the city centre and more than a2 billion to build a new royal adelaide hospital on land adjacent to the adelaide railway station the glenelg tramline was extended through the city to hindmarsh down to east terrace and the suburban railway line extended south to seaford following a period of stagnation in the 1990s and 2000s adelaide began several major developments and redevelopments the adelaide convention centre was redeveloped and expanded at a cost of a350 million beginning in 2012 three historic buildings were adapted for modern use the torrens building in victoria square as the adelaide campus for carnegie mellon university university college london and torrens university the stock exchange building as the science exchange of the royal institution australia and the glenside psychiatric hospital as the adelaide studios of the sa film corporation the government invested more than a2 billion to build a desalination plant powered by renewable energy as an insurance policy against droughts affecting adelaides water supply the adelaide festival fringe and womadelaide became annual events geography adelaide is north of the fleurieu peninsula on the adelaide plains between the gulf st vincent and the lowlying mount lofty ranges the city stretches from the coast to the foothills and from gawler at its northern extent to sellicks beach in the south according to the regional development australia an australian government planning initiative the adelaide metropolitan region has a total land area of while a more expansive definition by the australian bureau of statistics defines a greater adelaide statistical area totalling the city sits at an average elevation of above sea level mount lofty east of the adelaide metropolitan region in the adelaide hills at an elevation of is the tallest point of the city and in the state south of burra the city borders the temperate grassland of south australia in the east an endangered vegetation community much of adelaide was bushland before british settlement with some variation sandhills swamps and marshlands were prevalent around the coast the loss of the sandhills to urban development had a particularly destructive effect on the coastline due to erosion where practical the government has implemented programs to rebuild and vegetate sandhills at several of adelaides beachside suburbs tennyson dunes is the largest contiguous tertiary dune system contained entirely within metropolitan adelaide providing refuge for a variety of remnant species formerly found along the entire coastline much of the original vegetation has been cleared with what is left to be found in reserves such as the cleland national park and belair national park a number of creeks and rivers flow through the adelaide region the largest are the torrens and onkaparinga catchments adelaide relies on its many reservoirs for water supply with the happy valley reservoir supplying around 40 and the much larger mount bold reservoir 10 of adelaides domestic requirements respectively geology adelaide and its surrounding area is one of the most seismically active regions in australia on 1 march 1954 at 340 am adelaide experienced its largest recorded earthquake to date with the epicentre 12 km from the city centre at darlington and a reported magnitude of 56 there have been smaller earthquakes in 2010 2011 2014 2017 2018 and 2022 the uplands of the adelaide hills part of the southern mount lofty ranges to the east of adelaide are defined on their western side by a number of arcuate faults the para eden clarendon and willunga faults and consist of rocks such as siltstone dolomite and quartzite dating from the neoproterozoic to the middle cambrian laid down in the adelaide rift complex the oldest part of the adelaide superbasin most of the adelaide metropolitan area lies in the downthrown st vincent basin and its embayments including the adelaide plains subbasin and the golden grove noarlunga and willunga embayments these basins contain deposits of tertiary marine and nonmarine sands and limestones which form important aquifers these deposits are overlain by quaternary alluvial fans and piedmont slope deposits derived from erosion of the uplands consisting of sands clays and gravels interfingering to the west with transgressive pleistocene to holocene marine sands and coastal sediments of the shoreline of gulf st vincent urban layout adelaide is a planned city designed by the first surveyorgeneral of south australia colonel william light his plan sometimes referred to as lights vision also the name of a statue of him on montefiore hill arranged adelaide in a grid with five squares in the adelaide city centre and a ring of parks known as the adelaide parklands surrounding it lights selection of the location for the city was initially unpopular with the early settlers as well as south australias first governor john hindmarsh due to its distance from the harbour at port adelaide and the lack of fresh water there light successfully persisted with his choice of location against this initial opposition recent evidence suggests that light worked closely with george kingston as well as a team of men to set out adelaide using various templates for city plans going back to ancient greece including italian renaissance designs and the similar layouts of the american cities philadelphia and savannahwhich like adelaide follow the same layout of a central city square four complementing city squares surrounding it and a parklands area that surrounds the city centre the benefits of lights design are numerous adelaide has had wide multilane roads from its beginning an easily navigable cardinal direction grid layout and an expansive green ring around the city centre there are two sets of ring roads in adelaide that have resulted from the original design the inner ring route a21 borders the parklands and the outer route a3a13a16a17 completely bypasses the inner city via in clockwise order grand junction road hampstead road ascot avenue portrush road cross road and south road suburban expansion has to some extent outgrown lights original plan numerous former outlying villages and country towns as well as the satellite city of elizabeth have been enveloped by its suburban sprawl expanding developments in the adelaide hills region led to the construction of the south eastern freeway to cope with growth which has subsequently led to new developments and further improvements to that transport corridor similarly the booming development in adelaides south led to the construction of the southern expressway new roads are not the only transport infrastructure developed to cope with the urban growth the obahn busway is an example of a unique solution to tea tree gullys transport woes in the 1980s the development of the nearby suburb of golden grove in the late 1980s is an example of wellthoughtout urban planning in the 1960s a metropolitan adelaide transport study plan was proposed to cater for the future growth of the city the plan involved the construction of freeways expressways and the upgrade of certain aspects of the public transport system the then premier steele hall approved many parts of the plan and the government went as far as purchasing land for the project the later labor government elected under don dunstan shelved the plan but allowed the purchased land to remain vacant should the future need for freeways arise in 1980 the liberal party won government and premier david tonkin committed his government to selling off the land acquired for the mats plan ensuring that even when needs changed the construction of most matsproposed freeways would be impractical some parts of this land have been used for transport eg the obahn busway and southern expressway while most has been progressively subdivided for residential use in 2008 the sa government announced plans for a network of transportoriented developments across the adelaide metropolitan area and purchased a 10 hectare industrial site at bowden for 525 million as the first of these developments housing historically adelaides suburban residential areas have been characterised by singlestorey detached houses built on blocks a relative lack of suitable locallyavailable timber for construction purposes led to the early development of a brickmaking industry as well as the use of stone for houses and other buildings by 1891 68 of houses were built of stone 15 of timber and 10 of brick with brick also being widely used in stone houses for quoins door and window surrounds and chimneys and fireplaces there is a wide variety in the styles of these houses until the 1960s most of the more substantial houses were built of red brick though many front walls were of ornamental stone then cream bricks became fashionable and in the 1970s deep red and brown bricks became popular until the 1970s roofs tended to be clad with painted corrugated iron or cement or clay tiles usually red terracotta since then colorbond corrugated steel has dominated most roofs are pitched flat roofs are not common up to the 1970s most houses were of double brick construction on concrete footings with timber floors laid on joists supported by dwarf walls later houses have mainly been of brick veneer construction structural timber or more recently lightweight steel frame on a concrete slab foundation lined with gyprock and with an outer skin of brickwork to cope with adelaides reactive soils particularly keswick clay black earth and some redbrown earth soils the use of precast concrete panels for floor and wall construction has also increased in addition to this a significant factor in adelaides suburban history is the role of the south australian housing trust climate adelaide has a hotsummer mediterranean climate csa under the köppen climate classification the city has hot dry summers and cool winters with moderate rainfall most precipitation falls in the winter months leading to the suggestion that the climate be classified as a cold monsoon rainfall is unreliable light and infrequent throughout summer although heavy falls can occur the winter has fairly reliable rainfall with june being the wettest month of the year averaging around 80 mm frosts are occasional with the most notable occurrences in 1908 and 1982 hail is common in winter adelaide is a windy city with significant wind chill in winter which makes the temperature seem colder than it actually is snowfall in the metropolitan area is extremely rare although light and sporadic falls in the nearby hills and at mount lofty occur during winter dewpoints in the summer typically range from there are usually several days in summer where the temperature reaches or above the frequency of these temperatures has been increasing in recent years temperature extremes range from 04 c 314 f 8 june 1982 to 477 c 1179 f 24 january 2019 the city features 906 clear days annually the average sea temperature ranges from in august to in february liveability adelaide was consistently ranked in the worlds 10 most liveable cities through the 2010s by the economist intelligence unit in june 2021 the economist ranked adelaide the third most liveable city in the world behind auckland and osaka in june 2023 adelaide was ranked the twelfth most liveable city in the world by the economist intelligence unit in december 2021 adelaide was named the worlds second national park city after the state government had lobbied for this title it was ranked the most liveable city in australia by the property council of australia based on surveys of residents views of their own city between 2010 and 2013 dropping to second place in 2014 governance adelaide as the capital of south australia is the seat of the government of south australia the bicameral parliament of south australia consists of the lower house known as the house of assembly and the upper house known as the legislative council general elections are held every four years the last being the 2022 south australian state election as adelaide is south australias capital and most populous city the state government cooperates extensively with the city of adelaide in 2006 the ministry for the city of adelaide was created to facilitate the state governments collaboration with the adelaide city council and the lord mayor to improve adelaides image the state parliaments capital city committee is also involved in the governance of the city of adelaide being primarily concerned with the planning of adelaides urban development and growth reflecting south australias status as australias most centralised state adelaide elects a substantial majority of the south australian house of assembly of the 47 seats in the chamber 34 seats threequarters of the legislature are based in adelaide and two rural seats include adelaide suburbs local governments the adelaide metropolitan area is divided between nineteen local government areas at its centre the city of adelaide administers the adelaide city centre north adelaide and the surrounding adelaide parklands it is the oldest municipal authority in australia and was established in 1840 when adelaide and australias first mayor james hurtle fisher was elected from 1919 onwards the city has had a lord mayor the current being lord mayor the right honourable jane lomaxsmith demography adelaides inhabitants are known as adelaideans compared with australias other state capitals adelaide is growing at a rate similar to sydney canberra and hobart see list of cities in australia by population in 2020 it had a metropolitan population including suburbs of more than 1376601 making it australias fifthlargest city some 77 of the population of south australia are residents of the adelaide metropolitan area making south australia one of the most centralised states major areas of population growth in recent years have been in outer suburbs such as mawson lakes and golden grove adelaides inhabitants occupy 366912 houses 57695 semidetached row terrace or town houses and 49413 flats units or apartments about one sixth 171 of the population had university qualifications the number of adelaideans with vocational qualifications such as tradespersons fell from 621 of the labour force in the 1991 census to 524 in the 2001 census adelaide is ageing more rapidly than other australian capital cities more than a quarter 275 of adelaides population is aged 55 years or older in comparison to the national average of 256 adelaide has the lowest number of children under15yearolds who comprised 177 of the population compared to the national average of 193 ancestry and immigration at the 2021 census the most commonly nominated ancestries were overseasborn adelaideans composed 313 of the total population at the 2021 census the five largest groups of overseasborn were from england 57 india 31 mainland china 18 vietnam 12 and italy 11 suburbs including newton payneham and campbelltown in the east and torrensville west lakes and fulham to the west have large greek and italian communities the italian consulate is located in the western suburb of hindmarsh large vietnamese populations are settled in the northwestern suburbs of woodville kilkenny pennington mansfield park and athol park and also parafield gardens and pooraka in adelaides north migrants from india and sri lanka have settled into inner suburban areas of adelaide including the inner northern suburbs of blair athol kilburn and enfield and the inner southern suburbs of plympton park holme and kurralta park suburbs such as para hills salisbury ingle farm and blair athol in the north and findon west croydon and seaton and other western suburbs have sizeable afghan communities chinese migrants favour settling in the eastern and north eastern suburbs including kensington gardens greenacres modbury and golden grove mawson lakes has a large international student population due to its proximity to the university of south australia campus at the 2021 census 17 of adelaides population identified as being indigenous aboriginal australians and torres strait islanders language at the 2016 census 754 of the population spoke english at home the other languages most commonly spoken at home were italian 21 standard mandarin 21 greek 17 vietnamese 14 and cantonese 07 the kaurna language spoken by the areas original inhabitants had no living speakers in the middle of the 20th century but since the 1990s there has been a sustained revival effort from academics and kaurna elders religion adelaide was founded on a vision of religious tolerance that attracted a wide variety of religious practitioners this led to it being known as the city of churches but approximately 28 of the population expressed no religious affiliation in the 2011 census compared with the national average of 223 making adelaide one of australias least religious cities over half of the population of adelaide identifies as christian with the largest denominations being catholic 213 anglican 126 uniting church 76 and eastern orthodox 35 the jewish community of the city dates back to 1840 eight years later 58 jews lived in the city a synagogue was built in 1871 when 435 jews lived in the city many took part in the city councils such as judah moss solomon 185266 three jews have been elected to the position of city mayor in 1968 the jewish population of adelaide numbered about 1200 in 2001 according to the australian census 979 persons declared themselves to be jewish by religion in 2011 over 1000 jews were living in the city operating an orthodox and a reform school in addition to a virtual jewish museum the afghan community in australia first became established in the 1860s when camels and their pathan punjabi baluchi and sindhi handlers began to be used to open up settlement in the continents arid interior until eventually superseded by the advent of the railways and motor vehicles camels played an invaluable economic and social role in transporting heavy loads of goods to and from isolated settlements and mines this is acknowledged by the name of the ghan the passenger train operating between adelaide alice springs and darwin the central adelaide mosque is regarded as australias oldest permanent mosque an earlier mosque at marree in northern south australia dating from 1861 to 1862 and subsequently abandoned or demolished has now been rebuilt economy south australias largest employment sectors are health care and social assistance surpassing manufacturing in sa as the largest employer since 200607 in 200910 manufacturing in sa had average annual employment of 83700 persons compared with 103300 for health care and social assistance health care and social assistance represented nearly 13 of the state average annual employment the adelaide hills wine region is an iconic and viable economic region for both the state and country in terms of wine production and sale the 2014 vintage is reported as consisting of red grapes crushed valued at a8196142 and white grapes crushed valued at 14777631 the retail trade is the second largest employer in sa 200910 with 91900 jobs and 12 per cent of the state workforce manufacturing defence technology hightech electronic systems and research commodity export and corresponding service industries all play a role in the sa economy almost half of all cars produced in australia were made in adelaide at the general motors holden plant in elizabeth the site ceased operating in november 2017 the collapse of the state bank in 1992 resulted in large levels of state public debt as much as a4 billion the collapse meant that successive governments enacted lean budgets cutting spending which was a setback to the further economic development of the city and state the debt has more recently been reduced with the state government once again receiving a aaa credit rating the global media conglomerate news corporation was founded in and until 2004 incorporated in adelaide and it is still considered its spiritual home by its founder rupert murdoch australias largest oil company santos prominent south australian brewery coopers and national retailer harris scarfe also call adelaide their home in 2018 at which time more than 80 organisations employed 800 people in the space sector in south australia adelaide was chosen for the headquarters of a new australian space agency the agency opened its in 2020 it is working to triple the size of the australian space industry and create 20000 new jobs by 2030 defence industry adelaide is home to a large proportion of australias defence industries which contribute over a1 billion to south australias gross state product the principal government military research institution the defence science and technology organisation and other defence technology organisations such as bae systems australia and lockheed martin australia are north of salisbury and west of elizabeth in an area now called edinburgh parks adjacent to raaf base edinburgh others such as saab systems and raytheon are in or near technology park asc pty ltd is based in the industrial suburb of osborne and is also a part of technology park south australia was charged with constructing australias s and more recently the a6 billion contract to construct the royal australian navys new airwarfare destroyers employment statistics greater adelaide had an unemployment rate of 74 with a youth unemployment rate of 15 the median weekly individual income for people aged 15 years and over was 447 per week in 2006 compared with 466 nationally the median family income was 1137 per week compared with 1171 nationally adelaides housing and living costs are substantially lower than that of other australian cities with housing being notably cheaper the median adelaide house price is half that of sydney and twothirds that of melbourne the threemonth trend unemployment rate to march 2007 was 62 the northern suburbs unemployment rate is disproportionately higher than the other regions of adelaide at 83 while the east and south are lower than the adelaide average at 49 and 50 respectively house prices over the decade march 2001 march 2010 metropolitan adelaide median house prices approximately tripled approx 285 approx 11pa compounding in the five years march 2007 march 2012 prices increased by approx 27 approx 5pa compounding march 2012 march 2017 saw a further increase of 19 approx 35pa compounding in summary each quarter the alternative and direct investment securities association adisa publishes a list of median house sale prices by suburb and local government area previously this was done by reisa due to the small sizes of many of adelaides suburbs the low volumes of sales in these suburbs and over time the huge variations in the numbers of sales in a suburb in a quarter statistical analysis of the most expensive suburb is unreliable the suburbs appearing in the top 10 most expensive suburbs this quarter list is constantly varying quarterly reports for the last two years can be found on the reisa website education and research education forms an increasingly important part of the citys economy with the south australian government and educational institutions attempting to position adelaide as australias education hub and marketing it as a learning city the number of international students studying in adelaide has increased rapidly in recent years to 30726 in 2015 of which 1824 were secondary school students in addition to the citys existing institutions foreign institutions have been attracted to set up campuses to increase its attractiveness as an education hub adelaide is the birthplace of three nobel laureates more than any other australian city physicist william lawrence bragg and pathologists howard florey and robin warren all of whom completed secondary and tertiary education at st peters college and the university of adelaide primary and secondary education there are two systems of primary and secondary schools a public system operated by the south australian governments department for education and a private system of independent and catholic schools south australian schools provide education under the australian curriculum for reception to year 10 students in years 10 to 12 students study for the south australian certificate of education sace they have the option of incorporating vocational education and training vet courses or a flexible learning option flo south australia also has 24 schools that use international baccalaureate programs as an alternative to the australian curriculum or sace these programs include the ib primary years programme the ib middle years programme and the ib diploma programme for south australian students who cannot attend a traditional school including students who live in rural or remote areas the state government runs the open access college oac which provides virtual teaching the oac has a campus in marden which caters to students from reception to year 12 and adults who havent been able to complete their sace guardians are also able to apply for their child to be educated from home as long as they provide an education program which meets the same requirements as the australian curriculum as well as opportunities for social interaction tertiary education there are three public universities local to adelaide as well as one private university and three constituent colleges of foreign universities flinders university of south australia the university of adelaide the university of south australia and torrens university australiapart of the laureate international universities are based in adelaide the university of adelaide was ranked in the top 150 universities worldwide flinders ranked in the top 250 and uni sa in the top 300 torrens university australia is part of an international network of over 70 higher education institutions in more than 30 countries worldwide the historic torrens building in victoria square houses carnegie mellon universitys heinz college australia and university college londons school of energy and resources australia and constitute the citys international university precinct the university of adelaide with 25000 students is australias thirdoldest university and a member of the leading group of eight it has five campuses throughout the state including two in the citycentre and a campus in singapore the university of south australia with 37000 students has two north terrace campuses three other campuses in the metropolitan area and campuses in the regional cities of whyalla and mount gambier the university of adelaide and the university of south australia have had multiple proposals to merge into a single university a proposal in 2018 failed due to uncertainty as to the new name and leadership of the merged university in 2022 the universities announced a new merger proposal with the name and leadership issues settled and support from the south australian government flinders university with 25184 students is based in the southern suburb of bedford park alongside the flinders medical centre with additional campuses in neighbouring tonsley and in victoria square in the city centre the adelaide college of divinity is at brooklyn park there are several south australian tafe technical and further education campuses in the metropolitan area that provide a range of vocational education and training the adelaide college of the arts as a school of tafe sa provides nationally recognised training in visual and performing arts research in addition to the universities adelaide is home to research institutes including the royal institution of australia established in 2009 as a counterpart to the twohundredyearold royal institution of great britain many of the organisations involved in research tend to be geographically clustered throughout the adelaide metropolitan area the east end of north terrace sa pathology hanson institute national wine centre the west end of north terrace south australian health and medical research institute sahmri located next to the royal adelaide hospital the waite research precinct sardi head office and plant research centre awri acpfg csiro research laboratories sardi also has establishments at glenside and west beach edinburgh south australia dsto bae systems australia lockheed martin australia electronic systems technology park mawson lakes bae systems optus raytheon topcon lockheed martin australia electronic systems research park at thebarton businesses involved in materials engineering biotechnology environmental services information technology industrial design laseroptics technology health products engineering services radar systems telecommunications and petroleum services science park adjacent to flinders university playford capital the basil hetzel institute for translational health research in woodville the research arm of the queen elizabeth hospital adelaide the joanna briggs institute a global research collaboration for evidencebased healthcare with its headquarters in north adelaide cultural life while established as a british province and very much english in terms of its culture adelaide attracted immigrants from other parts of europe early on including german and other european nonconformists escaping religious persecution the first german lutherans arrived in 1838 bringing with them the vine cuttings that they used to found the acclaimed wineries of the barossa valley the royal adelaide show is an annual agricultural show and state fair established in 1839 and now a huge event held in the adelaide showground annually adelaides arts scene flourished in the 1960s and 1970s with the support of successive premiers from both major political parties the renowned adelaide festival of arts was established in 1960 under thomas playford which in the same year spawned an unofficial uncurated series of performances and exhibits which grew into the adelaide fringe construction of the adelaide festival centre began under steele hall in 1970 and was completed under the subsequent government of don dunstan who also established the south australian film corporation in 1972 and the state opera of south australia in 1976 over time the adelaide festival expanded to include adelaide writers week and womadelaide and other separate festivals were established such as the adelaide cabaret festival 2002 the adelaide festival of ideas 1999 the adelaide film festival 2013 feast 1999 a queer culture tasting australia 1997 a food and wine affair and illuminate adelaide 2021 with the festival the fringe womadelaide writers week and the adelaide 500 street motor racing event along with evening music concerts all happening in early march the period became known colloquially as mad march in 2014 ghilad zuckermann founded the adelaide language festival there are many international cultural fairs most notably the german schützenfest and greek glendi adelaide holds an annual christmas pageant the worlds largest christmas parade north terrace institutions as the state capital adelaide has a great number of cultural institutions many of them along the boulevard of north terrace the art gallery of south australia with about 35000 works holds australias second largest statebased collection adjacent are the south australian museum and state library of south australia the adelaide botanic garden national wine centre and tandanya national aboriginal cultural institute are nearby in the east end of the city in the back of the state library lies the migration museum australias oldest museum of its kind further west the lion arts centre is home to ace open which showcases contemporary art dance hub sa and other studios and arts industry spaces the mercury cinema and the jamfactory ceramics and design gallery are just around the corner performing arts and music venues the adelaide festival centre which includes the dunstan playhouse festival theatre and space theatre on the banks of the torrens is the focal point for much of the cultural activity in the city and home to the state theatre company of south australia other live music and theatre venues include the adelaide entertainment centre adelaide oval memorial drive park thebarton theatre adelaide town hall her majestys theatre queens theatre holden theatres and the hopgood theatre the lion arts factory within the lion arts centre hosts contemporary music in a wide range of genres as does the gov in hindmarsh the city also has numerous smaller theatres pubs and cabaret bars which host performances live music in 2015 it was said that there were now more live music venues per capita in adelaide than any other capital city in the southern hemisphere lonely planet labelled adelaide australias live music city and the city was recognised as a city of music by the unesco creative cities network in addition to its own womad womadelaide adelaide attracts several touring music festivals including creamfields laneway and groovin adelaide has produced musical groups and individuals who have achieved national and international fame these include the adelaide symphony orchestra the adelaide youth orchestra rock bands the angels atlas genius cold chisel the superjesus wolf cub rootsblues group the audreys internationally acclaimed metal acts i killed the prom queen and double dragon popular australian hiphop outfit hilltop hoods pop acts like sia orianthi guy sebastian and wes carr as well as internationally successful tribute act the australian pink floyd show noted rocker jimmy barnes formerly lead vocalist with cold chisel spent most of his youth in the northern suburb of elizabeth paul kelly grew up in adelaide and was head prefect at rostrevor college the first australian idol winner guy sebastian hails from the northeastern suburb of golden grove television adelaide is served by numerous digital freetoair television channels abc abc hd abc broadcast in hd abc tv plus abc me abc news sbs sbs hd sbs broadcast in hd sbs world movies hd sbs viceland hd sbs food nitv sbs worldwatch seven 7hd seven broadcast in hd 7two 7mate 7bravo 7flix racingcom nine 9hd nine broadcast in hd 9gem 9go 9life 9gem hd 9rush extra 10 10 hd 10 broadcast in hd 10 bold 10 peach 10 shake tvsn gecko tv c44 adelaide adelaides community tv station all of the five australian national television networks broadcast both highdefinition digital and standarddefinition digital television services in adelaide they share three transmission towers on the ridge near the summit of mount lofty there are two other transmission sites at 25 grenfell street adelaide and elizabeth downs the two governmentfunded stations are run by the australian broadcasting corporation abc south australia and the special broadcasting service sbs the seven network and network ten both own their adelaide stations sas7 and ads10 respectively adelaides nws9 is part of the nine network adelaide also has a community television station channel 44 as part of a nationwide phaseout of analogue television in australia adelaides analogue television service was shut down on 2 april 2013 the foxtel pay tv service is also available via cable or satellite to the entire metropolitan area all the major broadcasting networks also operate online ondemand television services alongside internetonly services such as stan fetch tv netflix youtube disney and kayo sports radio there are 20 radio stations that serve the metropolitan area as well as four stations that serve only parts of the metropolitan area six commercial stations six community stations six national stations and two narrowcast stations dab digital radio has been broadcasting in metropolitan adelaide since 20 may 2009 and currently offers a choice of 41 stations all operated by the existing licensed radio broadcasters which includes highquality simulcast of all am and fm stations sport the main sports played professionally in adelaide are australian rules football soccer cricket netball and basketball adelaide is the home of two australian football league teams the adelaide football club and port adelaide football club and one aleague soccer team adelaide united a local australian rules football league the south australian national football league sanfl is made up of 10 teams from around adelaide the sanfl has been in operation since 1877 when it began as the south australian football association safa before changing its name to the sanfl in 1927 the sanfl is the oldest surviving football league of any code played in australia adelaide has developed a strong culture of attracting crowds to major sporting events until the completion of the 201214 renovation and upgrade of the adelaide oval most large sporting events took place at either football park the then home base of the adelaide crows and the then port adelaide home game venue or the historic adelaide oval home of the south australia redbacks and the adelaide strikers cricket teams since completion of the upgrade home games for adelaide crows and port adelaide now take place at adelaide oval since 1884 adelaide oval has also hosted an international cricket test every summer along with a number of one day international cricket matches memorial drive park adjacent to the adelaide oval used to host davis cup and other major tennis events including the australian open and the adelaide international adelaides professional association football team adelaide united play in the aleague founded in 2003 their home ground is hindmarsh stadium which has a capacity of 17000 and is one of the few purposebuilt soccer stadia in australia prior to uniteds foundation adelaide city and west adelaide represented the city in the national soccer league the two sides which contest the adelaide derby against one another now play in the national premier leagues south australia for two years 1997 and 1998 adelaide was represented in australias top level rugby league after the new south wales rugby league had played a single game per season at the adelaide oval for five years starting in 1991 the adelaide rams were formed and played in the breakaway super league sl competition in 1997 before moving to the new national rugby league in 1998 initially playing at the adelaide oval the club moved to the more suitable hindmarsh stadium late in the 1998 season as part of a peace deal with the australian rugby league to end the super league war the clubs owners news limited who were also owners of the sl suddenly closed the club only weeks before the start of the 1999 season adelaide has two professional basketball teams the mens team being the adelaide 36ers which plays in the national basketball league nbl and the womens team the adelaide lightning which plays in the womens national basketball league wnbl both teams play their home games at the titanium security arena adelaide has a professional netball team the adelaide thunderbirds which plays in the national netball competition the suncorp super netball championship with home games played at netball sa stadium the thunderbirds occasionally play games or finals at the titanium security arena while international netball matches are usually played at the 10500 seat adelaide entertainment centre the titanium security arena has a capacity of 8000 and is the largest purposebuilt basketball stadium in australia since 1999 adelaide and its surrounding areas have hosted the tour down under bicycle race organised and directed by adelaidebased michael turtur turtur won an olympic gold medal for australia in the 4000 m team pursuit at the 1984 los angeles olympics the tour down under is the largest cycling event outside europe and was the first event outside europe to be granted uci protour status adelaide maintains a franchise in the australian baseball league the adelaide giants they have been playing since 2009 and their home stadium until 2016 was norwood oval from 2016 the team moved to the diamond sports stadium located near the adelaide international airport due to renovations at norwood adelaide also has an ice hockey team adelaide adrenaline in the australian ice hockey league aihl it was national champions in 2009 and plays its games at the icearena the australian grand prix for world championship formula one racing was hosted by adelaide from 1985 to 1995 on the adelaide street circuit which was laid out in the citys east end as well as the eastern parklands including the victoria park racecourse the grand prix became a source of pride and losing the event to melbourne in a surprise announcement in mid1993 left a void that has since been filled with the adelaide 500 for v8 supercar racing held on a modified version of the same street circuit the classic adelaide a rally of classic sporting vehicles is also held in the city and its surrounds adelaide formerly had three horse racing venues victoria park cheltenham park racecourse both of which have now closed and morphettville racecourse that remains the home of the south australian jockey club it also has globe derby park for harness racing that opened in 1969 and by 1973 had become adelaides premier harness racing venue taking over from the wayville showgrounds as well as greyhound park for greyhound racing that opened in 1972 the world solar challenge race attracts teams from around the world most of which are fielded by universities or corporations although some are fielded by high schools the race has a 20years history spanning nine races with the inaugural event taking place in 1987 adelaide hosted the 2012 world bowls championships at lockleys bowling club becoming the third city in the world to have held the championships twice having previously hosted the event in 1996 dirt track speedway is also popular in adelaide with three operating speedways adelaide motorsport park located adjacent to the adelaide international raceway road racing circuit at virginia north of the city centre has been in continuous operation since 1979 after the closure of the popular rowley park speedway gillman speedway located in the semiindustrial suburb of gillman has been in operation since 1998 and caters to motorcycle speedway and sidecars while the sidewinders speedway located in wingfield is also a motorcycle speedway dedicated to under16 riders and has been in operation since 1978 in 2016 backed by south australias peregrine corporation opened up a multipurpose facility a stateoftheart motorsporting park and a hotel alongside its newer otr service station outside a small township of tailem bend currently named the bend motorsport park design for thrill seekers and revheads the facility currently host south australias second supercars motoring event during a round in august adelaide is home to the great southern slam the worlds largest roller derby tournament the tournament has been held biennially over australias queens birthday holiday weekend since 2010 in 2014 and 2016 the tournament featured 45 teams playing in two divisions in 2018 the tournament has expanded to 48 teams competing in three divisions infrastructure transport being centrally located on the australian mainland adelaide forms a strategic transport hub for eastwest and northsouth routes the city itself has a metropolitan public transport system managed by and known as the adelaide metro the adelaide metro consists of a contracted bus system including the obahn busway 6 commuter rail lines diesel and electric and a small tram network operating between inner suburb hindmarsh the city centre and seaside glenelg tramways were largely dismantled in the 1950s but saw a revival in the 2010s with upgrades and extensions road transport in adelaide has historically been easier than many of the other australian cities with a welldefined city layout and wide multiplelane roads from the beginning of its development adelaide was known as a twentyminute city with commuters having been able to travel from metropolitan outskirts to the city proper in roughly twenty minutes however such arterial roads often experience traffic congestion as the city grows the adelaide metropolitan area has one freeway and four expressways in order of construction they are the south eastern freeway m1 connects the southeast corner of the adelaide plain to the adelaide hills and beyond to murray bridge and tailem bend where it then continues as national highway 1 southeast to melbourne the southern expressway m2 connecting the outer southern suburbs with the inner southern suburbs and the city centre it duplicates the route of south road the northsouth motorway m2 is an ongoing major project that will become the major northsouth corridor replacing most of what is now south road connecting the southern expressway and the northern expressway via a motorway with no traffic lights as of 2020 the motorways northern half is complete save for a small link under construction at croydon park connecting the northern expressway to adelaides inner northwest the section running through adelaides inner west and inner southwest is awaiting funding the port river expressway a9 connects port adelaide and outer harbor to port wakefield road at the northern entrance to the metropolitan area the northern expressway max fatchen expressway m2 is the northern suburbs bypass route connecting the sturt highway national highway 20 via the gawler bypass to port wakefield road at a point a few kilometres north of the port river expressway connection the northern connector completed in 2020 links the north south motorway to the northern expressway airports the adelaide metropolitan area has two commercial airports adelaide airport and parafield airport adelaide airport in adelaides southwestern suburbs serves in excess of 8 million passengers annually parafield airport adelaides second airport north of the city centre is used for small aircraft pilot training and recreational aviation purposes parafield airport served as adelaides main aerodrome until the opening of the adelaide airport in february 1955 adelaide airport serves many international and domestic destinations including all australian state capitals adelaide is also home to a military airport known as edinburgh airport located in the northern suburbs it was built in 1955 in a joint initiative with the united kingdom for weapon development health adelaides two largest hospitals are the royal adelaide hospital rah in adelaide parklands a teaching hospital affiliated with the university of adelaide 800 beds and the flinders medical centre 580 beds at bedford park affiliated with flinders university the rah also operates additional campuses for specialist care throughout the suburbs including the hampstead rehabilitation centre 150 beds at northfield and the glenside campus 129 beds for acute mental health services other major public hospitals are the womens and childrens hospital 305 beds at north adelaide the queen elizabeth hospital 340 beds at woodville modbury hospital 178 beds at modbury and the lyell mcewin hospital 198 beds at elizabeth vale numerous private hospitals are also located throughout the city with the largest operators being notforprofits adelaide community healthcare alliance 3 hospitals and calvary care 4 hospitals in 2017 the rah was relocated from the citys east end to a new au23 billion facility built over former railyards in the west end the stateoftheart hospital forms part of a new biomedical precinct called biomed city that collocates the south australian health and medical research institute sahmri the university of adelaide health and medical sciences building the university of south australias health innovation building and the states dental hospital sahmri is building a 300 million second facility due to be completed by 2022 to house the australian bragg centre with australias first proton therapy unit there are also plans for the womens and childrens hospital to be relocated to the precinct adjacent the rah by 2024 the largest provider of community health care within adelaide is the notforprofit royal district nursing service rdns which provides out of hospital care and hospital avoidance care energy adelaides energy requirements were originally met by the adelaide electric supply company which was nationalised by the playford government in 1946 becoming the electricity trust of south australia etsa despite significant public opposition and the labor partys antiprivatisation stance which left the liberal party one vote short of the numbers needed to pass the legislation etsa was privatised by the olsen government in 1999 by way of a 200year lease for the distribution network etsa utilities later renamed sa power networks and the outright purchase of etsa power by the cheung kong holdings for 35 billion 11 times etsas annual earnings after labor mp trevor crothers resigned from the party and voted with the government the electricity retail market was opened to competition in 2003 and although competition was expected to result in lower retail costs prices increased by 237 in the markets first year in 2004 the privatisation was deemed to be a failure with consumers paying 60 more for their power and with the state government estimated to lose 3 billion in power generation net income in the first ten years of privatisation in 2012 the industry came under scrutiny for allegedly reducing supply by shutting down generators during periods of peak demand to force prices up increased media attention also revealed that in 2009 the state government had approved a 46 increase in retail prices to cover expected increases in the costs of generation while generation costs had in fact fallen 35 by 2012 south australia has the highest retail price for electricity in the country privatisation led to competition from a variety of companies who now separately provide for the generation transmission distribution and retail sales of gas and electricity electricity generation comes from a range of technologies and operators electranet operates the highvoltage electricity transmission network sa power networks distributes electricity to end users the largest electricity and gas retailing companies are also the largest generating companies the largest fossil fuel power stations are the torrens island power station gasfired plant operated by agl energy and the pelican point power station operated by engie south australia also has wind and solar power and connections to the national grid gas is supplied from the moomba gas processing plant in the cooper basin via the moomba adelaide pipeline system and the seagas pipeline from victoria in 2011 south australia generated 18 of its electricity from wind power and had 51 of the installed capacity of wind generators in australia due to almost universal blackouts within the city during september 2016 the state worked with tesla to produce the worlds largest electricity battery at hornsdale power reserve which has increased that states electrical security to the extent in which large blackouts are no longer an event water the provision of water services is by the governmentowned sa water adelaides water is supplied from its seven reservoirs mount bold happy valley myponga millbrook hope valley little para and south para the yield from these reservoir catchments can be as little as 10 of the citys requirements 90gl per annum in drought years and about 60 in average years the remaining demand is met by the pumping of water from the river murray a seawater desalination plant capable of supplying 100gl per annum was built during the 20012009 drought however it operated at about 8 of its capacity until 2019 in december 2018 the state and federal governments agreed to fund a 2m study to determine how the plant could be used to reduce reliance on river water in an effort to help save the murray river basin and mouth including the coorong from further ecological damage communications adelaidefree wifi is a citywide free wifi network covering most of the inner city areas of adelaide primarily the adelaide cbd and northern adelaide precincts it was officially launched at the adelaide central markets on tuesday 25 june 2014 it is provided by internode with infrastructure provided by outdoor cisco wifi n access points attached to the top of lighting poles as well as inside cafes and businesses across the city see also adelaide hills city of adelaide music of adelaide port adelaide lists images of adelaide list of adelaide obsolete suburb names list of adelaide parks and gardens list of adelaide railway stations list of adelaide suburbs list of films shot in adelaide list of people from adelaide list of protected areas in adelaide list of public art in south australia list of public transport routes in adelaide list of south australian commercial icons list of sporting clubs in adelaide list of tallest buildings in adelaide sister cities of the city of adelaide the local government area that governs the city centre tourist attractions in south australia notes references further reading full text external links adelaide city council official city guide adelaide city council kids in adelaide retrieved 12 may 2020 1836 establishments in australia australian capital cities cities in south australia coastal cities in australia planned capitals populated places established in 1836 metropolitan areas of australia | 10,461 |
1152 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan%20Garner | Alan Garner | alan garner born 17 october 1934 is an english novelist best known for his childrens fantasy novels and his retellings of traditional british folk tales much of his work is rooted in the landscape history and folklore of his native county of cheshire north west england being set in the region and making use of the native cheshire dialect born in congleton garner grew up around the nearby town of alderley edge and spent much of his youth in the wooded area known locally as the edge where he gained an early interest in the folklore of the region studying at manchester grammar school and then briefly at oxford university in 1957 he moved to the village of blackden where he bought and renovated an early modern period circa 1590 building known as toad hall his first novel the weirdstone of brisingamen was published in 1960 a childrens fantasy novel set on the edge it incorporated elements of local folklore in its plot and characters garner wrote a sequel the moon of gomrath 1963 and a third book boneland 2012 he wrote several fantasy novels including elidor 1965 the owl service 1967 and red shift 1973 turning away from fantasy as a genre garner produced the stone book quartet 1979 a series of four short novellas detailing a day in the life of four generations of his family he also published a series of british folk tales which he had rewritten in a series of books entitled alan garners fairy tales of gold 1979 alan garners book of british fairy tales 1984 and a bag of moonshine 1986 in his subsequent novels strandloper 1996 and thursbitch 2003 he continued writing tales revolving around cheshire although without the fantasy elements which had characterised his earlier work biography early life 193456 garner was born in the front room of his grandmothers house in congleton cheshire on 17 october 1934 he was raised in nearby alderley edge a welltodo village that had effectively become a suburb of manchester his rural workingclass family had been connected to alderley edge since at least the sixteenth century and could be traced back to the death of william garner in 1592 garner has stated that his family had passed on a genuine oral tradition involving folk tales about the edge which included a description of a king and his army of knights who slept under it guarded by a wizard in the midnineteenth century alans greatgreatgrandfather robert had carved the face of a bearded wizard onto the face of a cliff next to a well known locally at that time as the wizards well robert garner and his other relatives had all been craftsmen and according to garner each successive generation had tried to improve on or do something different from the previous generation garners grandfather joseph garner could read but didnt and so was virtually unlettered instead he taught his grandson the folk tales he knew about the edge garner later remarked that as a result he was aware of the edges magic as a child and he and his friends often played there the story of the king and the wizard living under the hill played an important part in his life becoming he explained deeply embedded in my psyche and heavily influencing his later novels garner faced several lifethreatening childhood illnesses which left him bed ridden for much of the time he attended a local village school where he found that despite being praised for his intelligence he was punished for speaking in his native cheshire dialect for instance when he was six his primary school teacher washed his mouth out with soapy water garner then won a place at manchester grammar school where he received his secondary education entry was meanstested resulting in his school fees being waived rather than focusing his interest on creative writing it was here that he excelled at sprinting he used to go jogging along the highway and later claimed that in doing so he was sometimes accompanied by the mathematician alan turing who shared his fascination for the disney film snow white and the seven dwarfs garner was then conscripted into national service serving for a time with the royal artillery while posted to woolwich in southeast london at school garner had developed a keen interest in the work of aeschylus and homer as well as the ancient greek language thus he decided to pursue the study of classics at magdalen college oxford passing his entrance exams in january 1953 at the time he had thoughts of becoming a professional academic he was the first member of his family to receive anything more than a basic education and he noted that this removed him from his cultural background and led to something of a schism with other members of his family who could not cope with me and i could not cope with them looking back he remarked i soon learned that it was not a good idea to come home excited over irregular verbs in 1955 he joined the university theatrical society playing the role of mark antony in a performance of william shakespeares antony and cleopatra where he costarred alongside dudley moore and where kenneth baker was the stage manager in august 1956 he decided that he wished to devote himself to novel writing and decided to abandon his university education without taking a degree he left oxford in late 1956 he nevertheless felt that the academic rigour which he learned during his university studies has remained a permanent strength through all my life the weirdstone of brisingamen and the moon of gomrath 195764 aged 22 garner was out cycling when he came across a handpainted sign announcing that an agricultural cottage in toad hall a late medieval building situated in blackden seven miles from alderley edge was on sale for 510 although he personally could not afford it he was lent the money by the local oddfellow lodge enabling him to purchase and move into the cottage in june 1957 in the late nineteenth century the hall had been divided into two agricultural labourers cottages but garner was able to purchase the second for 150 about a year later he proceeded to knock down the dividing walls and convert both halves back into a single home garner had begun writing his first novel the weirdstone of brisingamen a tale of alderley in september 1956 however it was while at toad hall that he finished the book set in alderley edge it revolves around two children susan and colin who are sent to live in the area with their mothers old nursemaid bess and her husband gowther mossock while exploring the edge they encounter a race of malevolent creatures the svart alfar who dwell in the edges abandoned mines and who seem intent on capturing them they are rescued by the wizard cadellin who reveals that the forces of darkness are massing at the edge in search of a powerful magical talisman the eponymous weirdstone of brisingamen whilst writing in his spare time garner attempted to gain employment as a teacher but soon gave that up believing that i couldnt write and teach the energies were too similar instead he worked off and on as a general labourer for four years remaining unemployed for much of that time garner sent his debut novel to the publishing company collins where it was picked up by the companys head sir william collins who was on the lookout for new fantasy novels following the recent commercial and critical success of j r r tolkiens the lord of the rings 195455 garner who went on to become a personal friend of collins would later relate that billy collins saw a title with funnylooking words in it on the stockpile and he decided to publish it on its release in 1960 the weirdstone of brisingamen proved to be a critical and commercial success later being described as a tour de force of the imagination a novel that showed almost every writer who came afterwards what it was possible to achieve in novels ostensibly published for children garner himself however would later denounce his first novel as a fairly bad book in 1968 with his first book published garner abandoned his work as a labourer and gained a job as a freelance television reporter living a hand to mouth lifestyle on a shoestring budget he also began a sequel to the weirdstone of brisingamen which would be known as the moon of gomrath the moon of gomrath also revolves around the adventures of colin and susan with the latter being possessed by a malevolent creature called the brollachan who has recently reentered the world having been freed from its underground prison by workmen with the help of the wizard cadellin the brollachan is exorcised but susans soul also leaves her body being sent to another dimension leaving colin to find a way to bring it back critic neil philip characterised it as an artistic advance but a less satisfying story in a 1989 interview garner stated that he had left scope for a third book following the adventures of colin and susan envisioning a trilogy but that he had intentionally decided not to write it instead moving on to write something different however boneland the conclusion to the sequence was belatedly published in august 2012 elidor the owl service and red shift 196473 in 1962 garner began work on a radio play entitled elidor which eventually became a novel of the same name set in contemporary manchester elidor tells the story of four children who enter a derelict victorian church and find a portal to the magical realm of elidor in elidor they are entrusted by king malebron to help rescue four treasures which have been stolen by the forces of evil who are attempting to take control of the kingdom the children succeed and return to manchester with the treasures but are pursued by the malevolent forces who need the items to seal their victory before writing elidor garner had seen a dinner service set which could be arranged to make pictures of either flowers or owls inspired by this design he produced his fourth novel the owl service the story which was heavily influenced by the medieval welsh tale of math fab mathonwy from the mabinogion was critically acclaimed winning both the carnegie medal and guardian childrens fiction prize it also sparked discussions among critics as to whether garner should properly be considered a childrens writer given that this book in particular was deemed equally suitable for an adult readership it took garner six years to write his next novel red shift the book centres on three intertwined love stories one set in the present another during the english civil war and the third in the second century ce philip referred to it as a complex book but not a complicated one the bare lines of story and emotion stand clear academic specialist in childrens literature maria nikolajeva characterised red shift as a difficult book for an unprepared reader identifying its main themes as those of loneliness and failure to communicate ultimately she thought that repeated rereadings of the novel bring about the realisation that it is a perfectly realistic story with much more depth and psychologically more credible than the most socalled realistic juvenile novels the stone book series and folkloric collections 197494 from 1976 to 1978 garner published a series of four novellas which have come to be collectively known as the stone book quartet the stone book granny reardun the aimer gate and tom fobbles day each focused on a day in the life of a child in the garner family each from a different generation in a 1989 interview garner noted that although writing the stone book quartet had been exhausting it had been the most rewarding of everything hed done to date philip described the quartet as a complete command of the material he had been working and reworking since the start of his career garner pays particular attention to language and strives to render the cadence of the cheshire tongue in modern english this he explains by the sense of anger he felt on reading sir gawain and the green knight the footnotes would not have been needed by his father in 1981 the literary critic neil philip published an analysis of garners novels as a fine anger which was based on his doctoral thesis produced for the university of london in 1980 in this study he noted that the stone book quartet marks a watershed in garners writing career and provides a suitable moment for an evaluation of his work thus far strandloper thursbitch boneland where shall we run to and treacle walker 1996present in 1996 garners novel strandloper was published in 1997 he next wrote the voice that thunders a collection of essays and public talks that contains much autobiographical material including an account of his life with bipolar disorder as well as critical reflection upon folklore and language literature and education the nature of myth and time in the voice that thunders he reveals the commercial pressure placed upon him during the decadelong drought which preceded strandloper to forsake literature and become instead a popular writer cashing in on my established name by producing sequels to and making series of the earlier books garner feared that making series would render sterile the existing work the life that produced it and bring about my artistic and spiritual death and felt unable to comply garners novel thursbitch was published in 2003 the novel boneland was published in 2012 nominally completing a trilogy begun some 50 years earlier with the weirdstone of brisingamen in august 2018 garner published his only set of memoirs where shall we run to which describes his childhood during the second world war the novel treacle walker was published in october 2021 and nominated to the shortlist for the 2022 booker prize personal life with his first wife ann cook he had three children in 1972 he married for a second time this time to griselda greaves a teacher and critic with whom he had two children in a 2014 interview conducted with mike pitts for british archaeology magazine garner stated that i dont have anything to do with the literary world i avoid writers i dont like them most of my close personal friends are professional archaeologists literary style although garners early work is often labelled as childrens literature garner himself rejects such a description informing one interviewer that i certainly have never written for children but that instead he has always written purely for himself neil philip in his critical study of garners work 1981 commented that up until that point everything alan garner has published has been published for children although he went on to relate that it may be that garners is a case where the division between childrens and adults literature is meaningless and that his fiction is instead enjoyed by a type of person no matter what their age he said an adult point of view would not give me the ability to be as fresh in my vision as a childs point of view because the child is still discovering the universe and many adults are not philip offered the opinion that the essence of his work was the struggle to render the complex in simple bare terms to couch the abstract in the concrete and communicate it directly to the reader he added that garners work is intensely autobiographical in both obvious and subtle ways highlighting garners use of mythological and folkloric sources philip stated that his work explores the disjointed and troubled psychological and emotional landscape of the twentieth century through the symbolism of myth and folklore he also expressed the opinion that time is garners most consistent theme the english author and academic catherine butler noted that garner was attentive to the geological archaeological and cultural history of his settings and careful to integrate his fiction with the physical reality beyond the page as a part of this garner had included maps of alderley edge in both the weirdstone of brisingamen and the moon of gomrath garner has spent much time investigating the areas that he deals with in his books writing in the times literary supplement in 1968 garner commented that in preparation for writing his book elidor i had to read extensively textbooks on physics celtic symbolism unicorns medieval watermarks megalithic archaeology study the writings of jung brush up my plato visit avebury silbury and coventry cathedral spend a lot of time with demolition gangs on slum clearance sites and listen to the whole of brittens war requiem nearly every day recognition and legacy in a paper published in the childrens literature association quarterly maria nikolajeva characterised garner as one of the most controversial authors of modern childrens literature in the fiftieth anniversary edition of the weirdstone of brisingamen published by harpercollins in 2010 several notable british fantasists praised garner and his work susan cooper wrote that the power and range of alan garners astounding talent has grown with every book hes written and david almond called him one of britains greatest writers whose works really matter philip pullman the author of the his dark materials trilogy went further garner is indisputably the great originator the most important british writer of fantasy since tolkien and in many respects better than tolkien because deeper and more truthful any country except britain would have long ago recognised his importance and celebrated it with postage stamps and statues and streetnames but thats the way with us our greatest prophets go unnoticed by the politicians and the owners of media empires i salute him with the most heartfelt respect and admiration another british fantasy writer neil gaiman claimed that garners fiction is something special in that it was smart and challenging based in the here and the now in which real english places emerged from the shadows of folklore and in which people found themselves walking living and battling their way through the dreams and patterns of myth praise also came from nick lake the editorial director of harpercollins childrens books who proclaimed that garner is quite simply one of the greatest and most influential writers this country has ever produced emma donoghue recalls reading red shift as a teenager it looked like other garners i had read a childrens fantasy but red shift with its passionately bickering adolescent lovers and vertiginous plunges through the wormhole of time shook me to my core every time i read it and still does garner makes the past numinous terrifyingly real anything but passed awards the biennial hans christian andersen award conferred by the international board on books for young people is the highest recognition available to a writer or illustrator of childrens books garner was the sole runnerup for the writing award in 1978 garner was appointed officer of the order of the british empire obe for services to literature in the 2001 new years honours list he received the british fantasy societys occasional karl edward wagner award in 2003 and the world fantasy award for life achievement in 2012 in january 2011 the university of warwick awarded the degree of doctor of letters honoris causa on that occasion he gave a halfhour interview about his work he has also been awarded honorary doctorates from the university of salford 2011 and the university of huddersfield in 2012 he has been recognised several times for particular works the owl service 1967 won both the carnegie medal and the guardian childrens fiction prize for the 70th anniversary of the carnegie in 2007 it was named one of the top ten medalwinning works selected by a panel to compose the ballot for a public election of the alltime favourite the weirdstone of brisingamen 1960 was named to the lewis carroll shelf award list by the university of wisconsinmadison school of education in 1970 denoting that it belongs on the same shelf with the 1865 classic alice in wonderland and its sequel the stone book 1976 first in the stone book series won the 1996 phoenix award as the best englishlanguage childrens book that did not win a major award when it was originally published twenty years earlier the 1981 film images won first prize at the chicago international film festival treacle walker was shortlisted for the 2022 booker prize making garner the oldest writer nominated at the time television radio and other adaptations the weirdstone of brisingamen was dramatised in 6 30minute parts by nan macdonald for the bbcs home service broadcast in november 1963 elidor was read in instalments by john stride for the bbcs jackanory programme in june 1968 the owl service 1969 a british tv series transmitted by granada television based on garners novel of the same name a second adaptation of elidor was read on a bbc radio 4 in july 1972 red shift bbc transmitted 17 january 1978 directed by john mackenzie part of the bbcs play for today series to kill a king 1980 part of the bbc series of plays on supernatural themes leap in the dark an atmospheric story about a writer overcoming depression and writers block the heros home appears to be garners own house the keeper itv transmitted 13 june 1983 an episode of the itv childrens series dramarama spooky series garner and don webb adapted elidor as a bbc childrens television series shown in 1995 comprising six halfhour episodes starring damian zuk as roland and suzanne shaw as helen the owl service was adapted for the stage in 2004 by the drum theatre in plymouth elidor was dramatised as a radio play in fourparts by don webb broadcast on bbc radio 4 extra in 2011 works novels the weirdstone of brisingamen 1960 the moon of gomrath 1963 elidor 1965 the owl service 1967 red shift 1973 strandloper 1996 thursbitch 2003 boneland 2012 treacle walker 2021 short story collections the hamish hamilton book of goblins 1969 the guizer a book of fools 1975 the stone book quartet 1979 the lad of the gad 1980 fairytales of gold 1980 illustrated by michael foreman book of british fairy tales 1984 illustrated by derek collard a bag of moonshine 1986 illustrated by p j lynch once upon a time 1993 collected folk tales 2011 other books holly from the bongs a nativity play 1966 the old man of mow 1967 the breadhorse 1975 jack and the beanstalk 1992 illustrated by julek heller the little red hen 1997 the well of the wind 1998 grey wolf prince jack and the firebird 1998 the voice that thunders 1997 where shall we run to 2018 see also references footnotes sources further reading external links alan garner coverage by the guardian alan garner papers at the university of oregon special collections and university archives english short story writers english childrens writers english fantasy writers carnegie medal in literature winners fellows of the royal society of literature guardian childrens fiction prize winners officers of the order of the british empire alumni of magdalen college oxford people educated at manchester grammar school people from alderley edge people from congleton people with bipolar disorder world fantasy awardwinning writers 1934 births living people english male novelists | 3,889 |
1154 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%202 | August 2 | events pre1600 338 bc a macedonian army led by philip ii defeated the combined forces of athens and thebes in the battle of chaeronea securing macedonian hegemony in greece and the aegean 216 bc the carthaginian army led by hannibal defeats a numerically superior roman army at the battle of cannae 49 bc caesar who marched to spain earlier in the year leaving marcus antonius in charge of italy defeats pompeys general afranius and petreius in ilerda lerida north of the ebro river 461 majorian is arrested near tortona northern italy and deposed by the suebian general ricimer as puppet emperor 932 after a twoyear siege the city of toledo in spain surrenders to the forces of the caliph of córdoba abd alrahman iii assuming an important victory in his campaign to subjugate the central march 1274 edward i of england returns from the ninth crusade and is crowned king seventeen days later 1343 after the execution of her husband jeanne de clisson sells her estates and raises a force of men with which to attack french shipping and ports 1377 russian troops are defeated by forces of the blue horde khan arapsha in the battle on pyana river 1415 thomas grey is executed for participating in the southampton plot 16011900 1610 during henry hudsons search for the northwest passage he sails into what is now known as hudson bay 1776 the signing of the united states declaration of independence took place 1790 the first united states census is conducted 1798 french revolutionary wars the battle of the nile concludes in a british victory 1830 charles x of france abdicates the throne in favor of his grandson henri 1858 the government of india act 1858 replaces company rule in india with that of the british raj 1869 japans edo society class system is abolished as part of the meiji restoration reforms 1870 tower subway the worlds first underground tube railway opens in london england united kingdom 1873 the clay street hill railroad begins operating the first cable car in san franciscos famous cable car system 1897 angloafghan war the siege of malakand ends when a relief column is able to reach the british garrison in the malakand states 1901present 1903 the ilindenpreobrazhenie uprising against the ottoman empire begins 1914 the german occupation of luxembourg during world war i begins 1916 world war i austrian sabotage causes the sinking of the italian battleship leonardo da vinci in taranto 1918 the first general strike in canadian history takes place in vancouver 1922 a typhoon hits shantou republic of china killing more than 50000 people 1923 vice president calvin coolidge becomes us president upon the death of president warren g harding 1932 the positron antiparticle of the electron is discovered by carl d anderson 1934 reichskanzler adolf hitler becomes führer of germany following the death of president paul von hindenburg 1937 the marihuana tax act of 1937 is passed in america the effect of which is to render marijuana and all its byproducts illegal 1939 albert einstein and leo szilard write a letter to franklin d roosevelt urging him to begin the manhattan project to develop a nuclear weapon 1943 the holocaust jewish prisoners stage a revolt at treblinka one of the deadliest of nazi death camps where approximately 900000 persons were murdered in less than 18 months 1943 world war ii the motor torpedo boat pt109 is rammed by the japanese destroyer amagiri and sinks lt john f kennedy future us president saves all but two of his crew 1944 asnom birth of the socialist republic of macedonia celebrated as day of the republic in north macedonia 1944 world war ii the largest trade convoy of the world wars arrives safely in the western approaches 1945 world war ii end of the potsdam conference 1947 a british south american airways avro lancastrian airliner crashes into a mountain during a flight from buenos aires argentina to santiago chile the wreckage would not be found until 1998 1968 an earthquake hits casiguran aurora philippines killing more than 270 people and wounding 261 1973 a flash fire kills 50 people at the summerland amusement centre at douglas isle of man 1980 a bomb explodes at the railway station in bologna italy killing 85 people and wounding more than 200 1982 the helsinki metro the first rapid transit system of finland is opened to the general public 1985 delta air lines flight 191 a lockheed l1011 tristar crashes at dallasfort worth international airport killing 137 1989 pakistan is readmitted to the commonwealth of nations after having restored democracy for the first time since 1972 1989 a massacre is carried out by an indian peace keeping force in sri lanka killing 64 ethnic tamil civilians 1990 iraq invades kuwait eventually leading to the gulf war 1999 the gaisal train disaster claims 285 lives in assam india 2005 air france flight 358 lands at toronto pearson international airport and runs off the runway causing the plane to burst into flames leaving 12 injuries and no fatalities 2014 at least 146 people were killed and more than 114 injured in a factory explosion in kunshan jiangsu china births pre1600 1260 kyawswa of pagan last ruler of the pagan kingdom d 1299 1455 john cicero elector of brandenburg d 1499 1533 theodor zwinger swiss physician and scholar d 1588 1549 mikołaj krzysztof the orphan radziwiłł polish nobleman d 1616 16011900 1612 saskia van uylenburgh dutch model and wife of rembrandt van rijn d 1642 1627 samuel dirksz van hoogstraten dutch painter d 1678 1630 estephan el douaihy maronite patriarch d 1704 1646 jeanbaptiste du casse french admiral and buccaneer d 1715 1672 johann jakob scheuchzer swiss paleontologist and scholar d 1733 1674 philippe ii duke of orléans d 1723 1696 mahmud i ottoman sultan d 1754 1702 dietrich of anhaltdessau d 1769 1703 lorenzo ricci italian religious leader 18th superior general of the society of jesus d 1775 1740 jean baptiste camille canclaux french general d 1817 1754 pierre charles lenfant frenchamerican architect and engineer designed washington dc d 1825 1788 leopold gmelin german chemist and academic d 1853 1815 adolf friedrich von schack german poet and historian d 1894 1820 john tyndall irishenglish physicist and mountaineer d 1893 1828 manuel pavía y rodríguez de alburquerque spanish general d 1895 1834 frédéric auguste bartholdi french sculptor designed the statue of liberty d 1904 1835 elisha gray american businessman cofounded western electric d 1901 1861 prafulla chandra ray indian chemist and academic d 1944 1865 irving babbitt american academic and critic d 1933 1865 john radecki australian stained glass artist d 1955 1867 ernest dowson english poet novelist and short story writer d 1900 1868 constantine i of greece d 1923 1870 marianne weber german sociologist and suffragist d 1954 1871 john french sloan american painter and illustrator d 1951 1872 george e stewart australianamerican colonel medal of honor recipient d 1946 1876 pingali venkayya indian geologist designed the flag of india d 1963 1877 ravishankar shukla indian lawyer and politician 1st chief minister of madhya pradesh d 1956 1878 aino kallas finnishestonian author d 1956 1880 arthur dove american painter and educator d 1946 1882 red ames american baseball player and manager d 1936 1882 albert bloch american painter and academic d 1961 1884 rómulo gallegos venezuelan author and politician 46th president of venezuela d 1969 1886 john alexander douglas mccurdy canadian pilot and politician 20th lieutenant governor of nova scotia d 1961 1887 oskar anderson bulgariangerman mathematician and statistician d 1960 1889 margaret lawrence american stage actress d 1929 1891 arthur bliss english composer and conductor d 1975 1891 viktor zhirmunsky russian linguist and historian d 1971 1892 jack l warner canadianborn american production manager and producer cofounded warner bros d 1978 1894 bertha lutz brazilian feminist and scientist d 1976 1895 matt henderson new zealand cricketer d 1970 1897 karlotto koch german ss officer d 1945 1897 max weber swiss lawyer and politician d 1974 1898 ernő nagy hungarian fencer d 1977 1899 charles bennett english director and screenwriter d 1995 1900 holling c holling american author and illustrator d 1973 1900 helen morgan american actress and singer d 1941 1901present 1902 pope cyril vi of alexandria d 1971 1902 mina rees american mathematician d 1997 1905 karl amadeus hartmann german composer d 1963 1905 myrna loy american actress d 1993 1905 ruth nelson american actress d 1992 1907 mary hamman american journalist and author d 1984 1910 roger macdougall scottish director playwright and screenwriter d 1993 1911 ann dvorak american actress d 1979 1912 palle huld danish actor d 2010 1912 håkon stenstadvold norwegian painter illustrator and critic d 1977 1912 vladimir žerjavić croatian economist and author d 2001 1913 xavier thaninayagam sri lankan scholar and academic d 1980 1914 félix leclerc canadian singersongwriter actor and poet d 1988 1914 big walter price american singersongwriter and pianist d 2012 1914 beatrice straight american actress d 2001 1915 gary merrill american actor d 1990 1916 alfonso a ossorio filipinoamerican painter and sculptor d 1990 1917 wah chang chineseamerican artist and designer d 2003 1919 nehemiah persoff israeliamerican actor d 2022 1920 louis pauwels french journalist and author d 1997 1920 augustus rowe canadian physician and politician d 2013 1921 alan whicker egyptianenglish journalist d 2013 1922 betsy bloomingdale american philanthropist and socialite d 2016 1922 geoffrey dutton australian historian and author d 1998 1923 shimon peres polishisraeli lawyer and politician 9th president of israel d 2016 1923 ike williams american boxer d 1994 1924 james baldwin american novelist poet and critic d 1987 1924 joe harnell american pianist and composer d 2005 1924 carroll oconnor american actor director producer and screenwriter d 2001 1925 k arulanandan ceylonamerican engineer and academic d 2004 1925 john dexter english director and producer d 1990 1925 john mccormack canadian ice hockey player d 2017 1925 jorge rafael videla argentinian general and politician 43rd president of argentina d 2013 1927 peter swinnertondyer english mathematician and academic d 2018 1928 malcolm hilton english cricketer d 1990 1929 roy crimmins english trombonist and composer d 2014 1929 john gale english director and producer 1929 vidya charan shukla indian politician indian minister of external affairs d 2013 1929 david waddington baron waddington english lawyer and politician governor of bermuda d 2017 1930 vali myers australian painter and dancer d 2003 1931 pierre dumaine american bishop and academic d 2019 1931 eddie fuller south african cricketer d 2008 1931 karl miller english journalist and critic d 2014 1931 viliam schrojf czech footballer d 2007 1932 lamar hunt american businessman cofounded the american football league and world championship tennis d 2006 1932 peter otoole britishirish actor and producer d 2013 1933 ioannis varvitsiotis greek politician greek minister of defence 1934 valery bykovsky russian general and cosmonaut d 2019 1935 hank cochran american singersongwriter and guitarist d 2010 1936 anthony payne english composer and author d 2021 1937 ron brierley new zealand businessman 1937 billy cannon american football player and dentist d 2018 1937 maría duval mexican actress and singer 1937 garth hudson canadian keyboard player songwriter and producer 1938 dave balon canadian ice hockey player and coach d 2007 1938 pierre de bané israelicanadian lawyer and politician d 2019 1938 terry peck falkland islander soldier d 2006 1939 benjamin barber american theorist author and academic d 2017 1939 wes craven american director producer and screenwriter d 2015 1939 john w snow american businessman and politician 73rd united states secretary of the treasury 1940 angel lagdameo filipino archbishop d 2022 1940 beko ransomekuti nigerian physician and activist d 2006 1940 will tura belgian singersongwriter and guitarist 1941 doris coley american singer d 2000 1941 jules a hoffmann luxembourgianfrench biologist and academic nobel prize laureate 1941 françois weyergans belgian director and screenwriter d 2022 1942 isabel allende chileanamerican novelist essayist essayist 1942 leo beenhakker dutch football manager 1942 juan formell cuban singersongwriter and bass player d 2014 1942 nell irvin painter american author and historian 1943 herbert m allison american lieutenant and businessman d 2013 1943 tom burgmeier american baseball player and coach 1943 jon r cavaiani englishamerican sergeant medal of honor recipient d 2014 1943 rose tremain english novelist and short story writer 1944 jim capaldi english drummer and singersongwriter d 2005 1944 naná vasconcelos brazilian singer and berimbau player d 2016 1945 joanna cassidy american actress 1945 alex jesaulenko austrianaustralian footballer and coach 1945 bunker roy indian educator and activist 1945 eric simms australian rugby league player and coach 1946 james howe american journalist and author 1947 ruth bakke norwegian organist and composer 1947 lawrence wright american journalist author and screenwriter 1948 andy fairweather low welsh singersongwriter guitarist and producer 1948 dennis prager american radio host and author 1948 tapan kumar sarkar indianamerican electrical engineer and academic d 2021 1948 james street american football and baseball player d 2013 1948 snoo wilson english playwright and screenwriter d 2013 1949 james fallows american journalist and author 1949 bertalan farkas hungarian general and cosmonaut 1950 jussi adlerolsen danish author and publisher 1950 ted turner british guitarist 1951 andrew gold american singersongwriter and producer d 2011 1951 steve hillage english singersongwriter and guitarist 1951 burgess owens american football player and politician 1951 joe lynn turner american singersongwriter and guitarist 1951 per westerberg swedish businessman and politician speaker of the parliament of sweden 1952 alain giresse french footballer and manager 1953 donnie munro scottish singer and guitarist 1953 butch patrick american actor 1953 anthony seldon english historian and author 1954 sammy mcilroy northern irish footballer and manager 1955 caleb carr american historian and author 1955 tony godden english footballer and manager 1955 butch vig american drummer songwriter and record producer 1956 fulvio melia italianamerican physicist astrophysicist and author 1957 jacky rosen united states senator 1959 victoria jackson american actress and singer 1959 johnny kemp bahamian singersongwriter and producer d 2015 1959 apollonia kotero american singer and actress 1960 linda fratianne american figure skater 1960 neal morse american singer and keyboard player 1960 david yow american singersongwriter 1961 pete de freitas trinidadianbritish drummer and producer d 1989 1962 lee mavers english singer songwriter and guitarist 1962 cynthia stevenson american actress 1963 laura bennett american architect and fashion designer 1963 uğur tütüneker turkish footballer and manager 1964 frank biela german race car driver 1964 marylouise parker american actress 1965 joe hockey australian lawyer and politician 38th treasurer of australia 1965 hisanobu watanabe japanese baseball player and coach 1966 takashi iizuka japanese wrestler 1966 grainne leahy irish cricketer 1966 tim wakefield american baseball player and sportscaster d 2023 1967 aaron krickstein american tennis player 1967 aline brosh mckenna american screenwriter and producer 1968 stefan effenberg german footballer and sportscaster 1969 cedric ceballos american basketball player 1969 fernando couto portuguese footballer and manager 1970 tony amonte american ice hockey player and coach 1970 kevin smith american actor director producer and screenwriter 1970 philo wallace barbadian cricketer 1971 jason bell australian rugby league player 1971 michael hughes irish footballer and manager 1972 mohamed aldeayea saudi arabian footballer 1972 muriel bowser american politician mayor of washington dc 1973 danie keulder namibian cricketer 1973 miguel mendonca zimbabwean journalist and author 1973 susie oneill australian swimmer 1974 phil williams english journalist and radio host 1975 mineiro brazilian footballer 1975 xu huaiwen chinesegerman badminton player and coach 1975 tamás molnár hungarian water polo player 1976 reyes estévez spanish runner 1976 jay heaps american soccer player and coach 1976 michael weiss american figure skater 1976 sam worthington englishaustralian actor and producer 1976 mohammad zahid pakistani cricketer 1977 edward furlong american actor 1978 goran gavrančić serbian footballer 1978 matt guerrier american baseball player 1978 deividas šemberas lithuanian footballer 1978 dragan vukmir serbian footballer 1979 marco bonura italian footballer 1979 reuben kosgei kenyan runner 1980 ivica banović croatian footballer 1981 alexander emelianenko russian mixed martial artist and boxer 1981 tim murtagh irishenglish cricketer 1982 hélder postiga portuguese footballer 1982 kerry rhodes american football player 1982 grady sizemore american baseball player 1983 michel bastos brazilian footballer 1983 huston street american baseball player 1984 giampaolo pazzini italian footballer 1985 stephen ferris irish rugby player 1985 david hart smith canadian wrestler 1985 britt nicole american christian pop artist 1986 mathieu razanakolona canadian skier 1988 rob kwiet canadian ice hockey player 1988 golden tate american football player 1989 nacer chadli belgian footballer 1990 ima bohush belarusian tennis player 1990 vitalia diatchenko russian tennis player 1990 skylar digginssmith american basketball player 1992 charli xcx english singersongwriter 1993 gael bussa congolese politician 1994 laura pigossi brazilian tennis player 1994 laremy tunsil american football player 1995 kristaps porziņģis latvian basketball player 1996 keston hiura american baseball player 1996 simone manuel american swimmer 1997 austin theory american wrestler 1999 mark lee koreancanadian singer 2000 varvara gracheva russian tennis player deaths pre1600 216 bc gnaeus servilius geminus roman consul 216 bc lucius aemilius paullus roman consul and general 216 bc marcus minucius rufus roman consul 257 pope stephen i 575 ahudemmeh syriac orthodox grand metropolitan of the east 640 pope severinus 686 pope john v 855 ahmad ibn hanbal arab theologian and jurist b 780 924 ælfweard of wessex b 904 1075 patriarch john viii of constantinople 1100 william ii of england b 1056 1222 raymond vi count of toulouse b 1156 1277 muin aldin sulaiman pervane chancellor and regent of the sultanate of rum 1316 louis of burgundy b 1297 1330 yolande of dreux queen consort of scotland and duchess consort of brittany b 1263 1332 king christopher ii of denmark b 1276 1415 thomas grey english conspirator b 1384 1445 oswald von wolkenstein austrian poet and composer b 1376 1451 elizabeth of görlitz b 1390 1511 andrew barton scottish admiral b 1466 1512 alessandro achillini italian physician and philosopher b 1463 1589 henry iii of france b 1551 16011900 1605 richard leveson english admiral b c 1570 1611 katō kiyomasa japanese daimyō b 1562 1667 francesco borromini swiss architect designed san carlo alle quattro fontane and santagnese in agone b 1599 1696 robert campbell of glenlyon b 1630 1769 daniel finch 8th earl of winchilsea english politician lord president of the council b 1689 1788 thomas gainsborough english painter b 1727 1799 jacquesétienne montgolfier french inventor coinvented the hot air balloon b 1745 1815 guillaume brune french general and politician b 1763 1823 lazare carnot french mathematician general and politician president of the national convention b 1753 1834 harriet arbuthnot english diarist b 1793 1849 muhammad ali of egypt ottoman albanian commander b 1769 1854 heinrich clauren german author b 1771 1859 horace mann american educator and politician b 1796 1876 wild bill hickok american sheriff b 1837 1889 eduardo gutiérrez argentinian author b 1851 1890 louisevictorine ackermann french poet and author b 1813 1901present 1903 eduard magnus jakobson estonian missionary and engraver b 1847 1903 edmond nocard french veterinarian and microbiologist b 1850 1911 ioryi mucitano aromanian revolutionary 1913 ferenc pfaff hungarian architect and academic designed zagreb central station b 1851 1915 john downer australian politician 16th premier of south australia b 1843 1917 jaan mahlapuu estonian military pilot b 1894 1921 enrico caruso italian tenor and actor b 1873 1922 alexander graham bell scottishcanadian engineer invented the telephone b 1847 1923 warren g harding american journalist and politician 29th president of the united states b 1865 1923 joseph whitty irish republican died on hunger strike b 1904 1934 paul von hindenburg german field marshal and politician 2nd president of germany b 1847 1937 artur sirk estonian soldier lawyer and politician b 1900 1939 harvey spencer lewis american mystic and author b 1883 1945 pietro mascagni italian composer and educator b 1863 1955 alfred lépine canadian ice hockey player and coach b 1901 1955 wallace stevens american poet and educator b 1879 1963 oliver la farge american anthropologist and author b 1901 1967 walter terence stace englishamerican epistemologist philosopher and academic b 1886 1970 angus macfarlanegrieve english academic mathematician rower and soldier b 1891 1972 brian cole american bass player b 1942 1972 paul goodman american psychotherapist and author b 1911 1972 helen hoyt american poet and author b 1887 1973 ismail abdul rahman former deputy prime minister of malaysia b 1915 1973 jeanpierre melville french actor director producer and screenwriter b 1917 1974 douglas hawkes english race car driver and businessman b 1893 1976 lászló kalmár hungarian mathematician and academic b 1905 1976 fritz lang austrianamerican director producer and screenwriter b 1890 1978 carlos chávez mexican composer and conductor b 1899 1978 antony noghès french businessman founded the monaco grand prix b 1890 1979 thurman munson american baseball player b 1947 1981 kieran doherty irish hunger striker and politician b 1955 1981 stefanie clausen danish diver b 1900 1983 james jamerson american bass player b 1936 1986 roy cohn american lawyer and politician b 1927 1988 joe carcione american activist and author b 1914 1988 raymond carver american short story writer and poet b 1938 1990 norman maclean american short story writer and essayist b 1902 1990 edwin richfield english actor and screenwriter b 1921 1992 michel berger french singersongwriter and producer b 1947 1996 michel debré french lawyer and politician 150th prime minister of france b 1912 1996 obdulio varela uruguayan footballer and manager b 1917 1996 mohamed farrah aidid somalian general and politician 5th president of somalia b 1934 1997 william s burroughs american novelist short story writer and essayist b 1914 1997 fela kuti nigerian singersongwriter and activist b 1938 1998 shari lewis american television host and puppeteer b 1933 1999 willie morris american writer b 1934 2003 peter safar austrianamerican physician and academic b 1924 2004 ferenc berényi hungarian painter and academic b 1929 2004 françois craenhals belgian illustrator b 1926 2004 heinrich mark estonian lawyer and politician 5th prime minister of estonia in exile b 1911 2005 steven vincent american journalist and author b 1955 2007 chauncey bailey american journalist b 1950 2008 fujio akatsuka japanese illustrator b 1935 2011 josé sanchis grau spanish author and illustrator b 1932 2012 gabriel horn english biologist and academic b 1927 2012 magnus isacsson canadian director and producer b 1948 2012 jimmy jones american singersongwriter b 1930 2012 john keegan english historian and journalist b 1934 2012 bernd meier german footballer b 1972 2012 marguerite piazza american soprano b 1920 2013 julius l chambers american lawyer and activist b 1936 2013 richard e dauch american businessman cofounded american axle b 1942 2013 alla kushnir russianisraeli chess player b 1941 2014 ed joyce american journalist b 1932 2014 billie letts american author and educator b 1938 2014 barbara prammer austrian social worker and politician b 1954 2014 james thompson americanfinnish author b 1964 2015 forrest bird american pilot and engineer b 1921 2015 giovanni conso italian jurist and politician italian minister of justice b 1922 2015 piet fransen dutch footballer b 1936 2015 jack spring american baseball player b 1933 2016 terence bayler new zealand actor b 1930 2016 david huddleston american actor b 1930 2016 franciszek macharski polish cardinal b 1927 2016 ahmed zewail egyptianamerican chemist and academic nobel prize laureate b 1946 2017 judith jones american literary and cookbook editor b 1924 2020 suzanne perlman hungariandutch visual artist b 1922 2022 vin scully american sportscaster and game show host b 1927 2023 nitin chandrakant desai indian art director production designer and film and television producer b 1965 holidays and observances christian feast day ahudemmeh syriac orthodox church basil fool for christ russian orthodox church justin russolillo eusebius of vercelli peter faber peter julian eymard plegmund pope stephen i portiuncola indulgence pardon of assisi the plenary indulgence related to st francis of assisi catholic church samuel david ferguson episcopal church august 2 eastern orthodox liturgics day of azerbaijani cinema azerbaijan our lady of the angels day costa rica paratroopers day russia republic day north macedonia romani genociderelated observances including roma holocaust memorial day council of europe european parliament references external links days of the year august | 3,979 |
1155 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic%20%28disambiguation%29 | Atlantic (disambiguation) | the atlantic ocean is the second largest of the worlds oceans that separates the old world from the new world atlantic may also refer to places in canada atlantic nova scotia atlantic canada in the united states atlantic iowa atlantic massachusetts atlantic north carolina an unincorporated community in eastern carteret county atlantic pennsylvania atlantic seattle a neighborhood in washington state atlantic virginia atlantic city new jersey atlantic county new jersey atlantic peak colorado a mountain art entertainment and media companies and labels atlantic books an independent british publishing house atlantic monthly press an american publishing house atlantic entertainment group a defunct movie studio company atlantic fm a former radio station serving cornwall united kingdom atlantic records a record company music the atlantics an australian surf rock band formed in the early 1960s albums atlantic dufresne album atlantic theatre album songs atlantic song by keane atlantic a song by björk from vessel dvd atlantic a song by thrice from vheissu other art entertainment and media atlantic film a 1929 black and white british film the atlantic an american magazine founded as the atlantic monthly in 1857 atlantic a 2014 dutch film atlantic 2015 film an irish documentary film awarded best irish documentary at the 2016 dublin international film festival enterprises and organizations atlantic cinema a movie theater in warsaw poland atlantic toy company a defunct italian toy manufacturer atlantic supermarkets a defunct supermarket chain in greece atlantic broadband a cable company in massachusetts atlantic city electric a division of elexon supplying electricity in new jersey atlantic lng a liquefied natural gas producing company based in trinidad and tobago atlantic petroleum a former oil company in the united states atlantic petroleum faroe islands an oil and gas production company atlantic philanthropies a defunct private foundation atlantic superstore a canadian supermarket chain atlantic technological university northwestern ireland atlantic university virginia beach virginia groupe atlantic a french climate control engineering company sports atlantic championship developmental openwheel racing series in north america atlantic league of professional baseball an american professional baseball league structures atlantic building or edificio atlantic a condominium building in havana cuba the atlantic atlanta a skyscraper in atlanta georgia united states transportation airlines air atlantic a canadian airline atlantic airways a faroese airline company aircraft breguet atlantic a french longrange maritime patrol aircraft 1961 motor vehicles atlantic 1921 automobile a defunct automobile company austin atlantic a british car produced by the austin motor company from 1949 to 1952 fisker atlantic a 2012 plugin electric concept car railroads and trains atlantic locomotive name of an early steampowered locomotive of the baltimore and ohio railroad atlantic station los angeles metro atlantic station staten island railway atlantic train a named passenger train operated by canadian pacific railway and later via rail atlantic a type of steam locomotive with a 442 wheel arrangement uic classification 2b1 ships any one of several vessels by that name atlantic yacht a threemasted gaffrigged schooner atlantic 85class lifeboats lifeboats that serve the shores of the united kingdom and ireland as a part of the rnli inshore fleet other uses atlantic period of palaeoclimatology atlantic languages formerly west atlantic a language family in west africa atlantic horse britishbred thoroughbred racehorse of the 1870s see also atlantik disambiguation atlantique disambiguation atlantic beach disambiguation atlantic bridge disambiguation atlantic city disambiguation | 547 |
1158 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic%20number | Algebraic number | an algebraic number is a number that is a root of a nonzero polynomial in one variable with integer or equivalently rational coefficients for example the golden ratio is an algebraic number because it is a root of the polynomial that is it is a value for x for which the polynomial evaluates to zero as another example the complex number is algebraic because it is a root of all integers and rational numbers are algebraic as are all roots of integers real and complex numbers that are not algebraic such as and are called transcendental numbers the set of algebraic numbers is countably infinite and has measure zero in the lebesgue measure as a subset of the uncountable complex numbers in that sense almost all complex numbers are transcendental examples all rational numbers are algebraic any rational number expressed as the quotient of an integer and a nonzero natural number satisfies the above definition because is the root of a nonzero polynomial namely quadratic irrational numbers irrational solutions of a quadratic polynomial with integer coefficients and are algebraic numbers if the quadratic polynomial is monic the roots are further qualified as quadratic integers gaussian integers complex numbers for which both and are integers are also quadratic integers this is because and are the two roots of the quadratic a constructible number can be constructed from a given unit length using a straightedge and compass it includes all quadratic irrational roots all rational numbers and all numbers that can be formed from these using the basic arithmetic operations and the extraction of square roots by designating cardinal directions for 1 1 and complex numbers such as are considered constructible any expression formed from algebraic numbers using any combination of the basic arithmetic operations and extraction of th roots gives another algebraic number polynomial roots that cannot be expressed in terms of the basic arithmetic operations and extraction of th roots such as the roots of that happens with many but not all polynomials of degree 5 or higher values of trigonometric functions of rational multiples of except when undefined for example and satisfy this polynomial is irreducible over the rationals and so the three cosines are conjugate algebraic numbers likewise and satisfy the irreducible polynomial and so are conjugate algebraic integers some but not all irrational numbers are algebraic the numbers and are algebraic since they are roots of polynomials and respectively the golden ratio is algebraic since it is a root of the polynomial the numbers and e are not algebraic numbers see the lindemannweierstrass theorem properties if a polynomial with rational coefficients is multiplied through by the least common denominator the resulting polynomial with integer coefficients has the same roots this shows that an algebraic number can be equivalently defined as a root of a polynomial with either integer or rational coefficients given an algebraic number there is a unique monic polynomial with rational coefficients of least degree that has the number as a root this polynomial is called its minimal polynomial if its minimal polynomial has degree then the algebraic number is said to be of degree for example all rational numbers have degree 1 and an algebraic number of degree 2 is a quadratic irrational the algebraic numbers are dense in the reals this follows from the fact they contain the rational numbers which are dense in the reals themselves the set of algebraic numbers is countable enumerable and therefore its lebesgue measure as a subset of the complex numbers is 0 essentially the algebraic numbers take up no space in the complex numbers that is to say almost all real and complex numbers are transcendental all algebraic numbers are computable and therefore definable and arithmetical for real numbers and the complex number is algebraic if and only if both and are algebraic field the sum difference product and quotient if the denominator is nonzero of two algebraic numbers is again algebraic as can be demonstrated by using the resultant and algebraic numbers thus form a field sometimes denoted by but that usually denotes the adele ring every root of a polynomial equation whose coefficients are algebraic numbers is again algebraic that can be rephrased by saying that the field of algebraic numbers is algebraically closed in fact it is the smallest algebraicallyclosed field containing the rationals and so it is called the algebraic closure of the rationals the set of real algebraic numbers itself forms a field related fields numbers defined by radicals any number that can be obtained from the integers using a finite number of additions subtractions multiplications divisions and taking possibly complex th roots where is a positive integer are algebraic the converse however is not true there are algebraic numbers that cannot be obtained in this manner these numbers are roots of polynomials of degree 5 or higher a result of galois theory see quintic equations and the abelruffini theorem for example the equation has a unique real root that cannot be expressed in terms of only radicals and arithmetic operations closedform number algebraic numbers are all numbers that can be defined explicitly or implicitly in terms of polynomials starting from the rational numbers one may generalize this to closedform numbers which may be defined in various ways most broadly all numbers that can be defined explicitly or implicitly in terms of polynomials exponentials and logarithms are called elementary numbers and these include the algebraic numbers plus some transcendental numbers most narrowly one may consider numbers explicitly defined in terms of polynomials exponentials and logarithms this does not include all algebraic numbers but does include some simple transcendental numbers such as or ln 2 algebraic integers an algebraic integer is an algebraic number that is a root of a polynomial with integer coefficients with leading coefficient 1 a monic polynomial examples of algebraic integers are and therefore the algebraic integers constitute a proper superset of the integers as the latter are the roots of monic polynomials for all in this sense algebraic integers are to algebraic numbers what integers are to rational numbers the sum difference and product of algebraic integers are again algebraic integers which means that the algebraic integers form a ring the name algebraic integer comes from the fact that the only rational numbers that are algebraic integers are the integers and because the algebraic integers in any number field are in many ways analogous to the integers if is a number field its ring of integers is the subring of algebraic integers in and is frequently denoted as these are the prototypical examples of dedekind domains special classes algebraic solution gaussian integer eisenstein integer quadratic irrational number fundamental unit root of unity gaussian period pisotvijayaraghavan number salem number notes references | 1,123 |
1160 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphism | Automorphism | in mathematics an automorphism is an isomorphism from a mathematical object to itself it is in some sense a symmetry of the object and a way of mapping the object to itself while preserving all of its structure the set of all automorphisms of an object forms a group called the automorphism group it is loosely speaking the symmetry group of the object definition in the context of abstract algebra a mathematical object is an algebraic structure such as a group ring or vector space an automorphism is simply a bijective homomorphism of an object with itself the definition of a homomorphism depends on the type of algebraic structure see for example group homomorphism ring homomorphism and linear operator the identity morphism identity mapping is called the trivial automorphism in some contexts respectively other nonidentity automorphisms are called nontrivial automorphisms the exact definition of an automorphism depends on the type of mathematical object in question and what precisely constitutes an isomorphism of that object the most general setting in which these words have meaning is an abstract branch of mathematics called category theory category theory deals with abstract objects and morphisms between those objects in category theory an automorphism is an endomorphism ie a morphism from an object to itself which is also an isomorphism in the categorical sense of the word meaning there exists a right and left inverse endomorphism this is a very abstract definition since in category theory morphisms are not necessarily functions and objects are not necessarily sets in most concrete settings however the objects will be sets with some additional structure and the morphisms will be functions preserving that structure automorphism group if the automorphisms of an object form a set instead of a proper class then they form a group under composition of morphisms this group is called the automorphism group of closure composition of two automorphisms is another automorphism associativity it is part of the definition of a category that composition of morphisms is associative identity the identity is the identity morphism from an object to itself which is an automorphism inverses by definition every isomorphism has an inverse that is also an isomorphism and since the inverse is also an endomorphism of the same object it is an automorphism the automorphism group of an object x in a category c is denoted autcx or simply autx if the category is clear from context examples in set theory an arbitrary permutation of the elements of a set x is an automorphism the automorphism group of x is also called the symmetric group on x in elementary arithmetic the set of integers z considered as a group under addition has a unique nontrivial automorphism negation considered as a ring however it has only the trivial automorphism generally speaking negation is an automorphism of any abelian group but not of a ring or field a group automorphism is a group isomorphism from a group to itself informally it is a permutation of the group elements such that the structure remains unchanged for every group g there is a natural group homomorphism g autg whose image is the group inng of inner automorphisms and whose kernel is the center of g thus if g has trivial center it can be embedded into its own automorphism group in linear algebra an endomorphism of a vector space v is a linear operator v v an automorphism is an invertible linear operator on v when the vector space is finitedimensional the automorphism group of v is the same as the general linear group glv the algebraic structure of all endomorphisms of v is itself an algebra over the same base field as v whose invertible elements precisely consist of glv a field automorphism is a bijective ring homomorphism from a field to itself in the cases of the rational numbers q and the real numbers r there are no nontrivial field automorphisms some subfields of r have nontrivial field automorphisms which however do not extend to all of r because they cannot preserve the property of a number having a square root in r in the case of the complex numbers c there is a unique nontrivial automorphism that sends r into r complex conjugation but there are infinitely uncountably many wild automorphisms assuming the axiom of choice field automorphisms are important to the theory of field extensions in particular galois extensions in the case of a galois extension lk the subgroup of all automorphisms of l fixing k pointwise is called the galois group of the extension the automorphism group of the quaternions h as a ring are the inner automorphisms by the skolemnoether theorem maps of the form this group is isomorphic to so3 the group of rotations in 3dimensional space the automorphism group of the octonions o is the exceptional lie group g2 in graph theory an automorphism of a graph is a permutation of the nodes that preserves edges and nonedges in particular if two nodes are joined by an edge so are their images under the permutation in geometry an automorphism may be called a motion of the space specialized terminology is also used in metric geometry an automorphism is a selfisometry the automorphism group is also called the isometry group in the category of riemann surfaces an automorphism is a biholomorphic map also called a conformal map from a surface to itself for example the automorphisms of the riemann sphere are möbius transformations an automorphism of a differentiable manifold m is a diffeomorphism from m to itself the automorphism group is sometimes denoted diffm in topology morphisms between topological spaces are called continuous maps and an automorphism of a topological space is a homeomorphism of the space to itself or selfhomeomorphism see homeomorphism group in this example it is not sufficient for a morphism to be bijective to be an isomorphism history one of the earliest group automorphisms automorphism of a group not simply a group of automorphisms of points was given by the irish mathematician william rowan hamilton in 1856 in his icosian calculus where he discovered an order two automorphism writing so that is a new fifth root of unity connected with the former fifth root by relations of perfect reciprocity inner and outer automorphisms in some categoriesnotably groups rings and lie algebrasit is possible to separate automorphisms into two types called inner and outer automorphisms in the case of groups the inner automorphisms are the conjugations by the elements of the group itself for each element a of a group g conjugation by a is the operation given by or a1ga usage varies one can easily check that conjugation by a is a group automorphism the inner automorphisms form a normal subgroup of autg denoted by inng this is called goursats lemma the other automorphisms are called outer automorphisms the quotient group is usually denoted by outg the nontrivial elements are the cosets that contain the outer automorphisms the same definition holds in any unital ring or algebra where a is any invertible element for lie algebras the definition is slightly different see also antiautomorphism automorphism in sudoku puzzles characteristic subgroup endomorphism ring frobenius automorphism morphism order automorphism in order theory relationpreserving automorphism fractional fourier transform references external links automorphism at encyclopaedia of mathematics morphisms abstract algebra symmetry | 1,218 |
1162 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accordion | Accordion | accordions from 19thcentury german from musical chord concord of sounds are a family of boxshaped musical instruments of the bellowsdriven free reed aerophone type producing sound as air flows past a reed in a frame the essential characteristic of the accordion is to combine in one instrument a melody section also called the diskant usually on the righthand keyboard with an accompaniment or basso continuo functionality on the lefthand the musician normally plays the melody on buttons or keys on the righthand side referred to as the keyboard or sometimes the manual and the accompaniment on bass or preset chord buttons on the lefthand side a person who plays the accordion is called an accordionist the accordion belongs to the freereed aerophone family other instruments in this family include the concertina harmonica and bandoneon the concertina and bandoneon do not have the melodyaccompaniment duality the harmoneon is also related and while having the descant vs melody dualism tries to make it less pronounced the harmonium and american reed organ are in the same family but are typically larger than an accordion and sit on a surface or the floor the accordion is played by compressing or expanding the bellows while pressing buttons or keys causing pallets to open which allow air to flow across strips of brass or steel called reeds these vibrate to produce sound inside the body valves on opposing reeds of each note are used to make the instruments reeds sound louder without air leaking from each reed block the accordion is widely spread across the world because of the waves of migration from europe to the americas and other regions in some countries for example argentina brazil colombia the dominican republic mexico and panama it is used in popular music for example chamamé in argentina gaucho forró and sertanejo in brazil vallenato in colombia merengue in the dominican republic and norteño in mexico whereas in other regions such as europe north america and other countries in south america it tends to be more used for dancepop and folk music in europe and north america some popular music acts also make use of the instrument additionally the accordion is used in cajun zydeco jazz and klezmer music and in both solo and orchestral performances of classical music many conservatories in europe have classical accordion departments the oldest name for this group of instruments is harmonika from the greek meaning harmonic musical today native versions of the name accordion are more common these names refer to the type of accordion patented by cyrill demian which concerned automatically coupled chords on the bass side history the accordions basic form is believed to have been invented in berlin in 1822 by christian friedrich ludwig buschmann although one instrument was discovered in 2006 that appears to have been built earlier the earliest history of the accordion in russia is poorly documented nevertheless according to russian researchers the earliest known simple accordions were made in tula russia by ivan sizov and timofey vorontsov around 1830 after they received an early accordion from germany by the late 1840s the instrument was already very widespreadrefhttppubllibruarchives__raritetnye_knigiirgo_etnograficheskij_sbornik_02_1854pdf etnograficheskii sbornik russkogo geograficheskogo obshchestva vol 2 saint petersburg 1854 pp 26 162ref together the factories of the two masters were producing 10000 instruments a year by 1866 over 50000 instruments were being produced yearly by tula and neighbouring villages and by 1874 the yearly production was over 700000 by the 1860s novgorod vyatka and saratov governorates also had significant accordion production by the 1880s the list included oryol ryazan moscow tver vologda kostroma nizhny novgorod and simbirsk and many of these places created their own varieties of the instrument the accordion is one of several european inventions of the early 19th century that use free reeds driven by a bellows an instrument called accordion was first patented in 1829 by cyrill demian of armenian origin in vienna demians instrument bore little resemblance to modern instruments it only had a left hand buttonboard with the right hand simply operating the bellows one key feature for which demian sought the patent was the sounding of an entire chord by depressing one key his instrument also could sound two different chords with the same key one for each bellows direction a bisonoric action at that time in vienna mouth harmonicas with kanzellen chambers had already been available for many years along with bigger instruments driven by hand bellows the diatonic key arrangement was also already in use on mouthblown instruments demians patent thus covered an accompanying instrument an accordion played with the left hand opposite to the way that contemporary chromatic hand harmonicas were played small and light enough for travelers to take with them and used to accompany singing the patent also described instruments with both bass and treble sections although demian preferred the bassonly instrument owing to its cost and weight advantages the accordion was introduced from germany into britain in about the year 1828 the instrument was noted in the times in 1831 as one new to british audiences and was not favourably reviewed but nevertheless it soon became popular it had also become popular with new yorkers by the mid1840s after demians invention other accordions appeared some featuring only the righthanded keyboard for playing melodies it took english inventor charles wheatstone to bring both chords and keyboard together in one squeezebox his 1844 patent for what he called a concertina also featured the ability to easily tune the reeds from the outside with a simple tool the austrian musician adolf müller described a great variety of instruments in his 1854 book at the time vienna and london had a close musical relationship with musicians often performing in both cities in the same year so it is possible that wheatstone was aware of this type of instrument and may have used them to put his keyarrangement ideas into practice jeunes flutina resembles wheatstones concertina in internal construction and tone colour but it appears to complement demians accordion functionally the flutina is a onesided bisonoric melodyonly instrument whose keys are operated with the right hand while the bellows is operated with the left when the two instruments are combined the result is quite similar to diatonic button accordions still manufactured today further innovations followed and continue to the present various buttonboard and keyboard systems have been developed as well as voicings the combination of multiple tones at different octaves with mechanisms to switch between different voices during performance and different methods of internal construction to improve tone stability and durability modern accordions may incorporate electronics such as condenser microphones and tone and volume controls so that the accordion can be plugged into a pa system or keyboard amplifier for live shows some 2010sera accordions may incorporate midi sensors and circuitry enabling the accordion to be plugged into a synth module and produce accordion sounds or other synthesized instrument sounds such as piano or organ construction accordions have many configurations and types what may be easy to do with one type of accordion could be technically challenging or impossible with another and proficiency with one layout may not translate to another the most obvious difference between accordions is their righthand sides piano accordions use a pianostyle musical keyboard button accordions use a buttonboard button accordions are furthermore differentiated by their usage of a chromatic or diatonic buttonboard for the righthand side accordions may be either bisonoric producing different pitches depending on the direction of bellows movement or unisonoric producing the same pitch in both directions piano accordions are unisonoric chromatic button accordions also tend to be unisonoric while diatonic button accordions tend to be bisonoric though notable exceptions exist accordion size is not standardized and may vary significantly from model to model accordions vary not only in their dimensions and weight but also in number of buttons or keys present in the right and lefthand keyboards for example piano accordions may have as few as 8 bass buttons two rows of four or up to 140 seven rows of twenty or beyond accordions also vary by their available registers and by their specific tuning and voicing despite these differences all accordions share a number of common components universal components bellows the bellows is the most recognizable part of the instrument and the primary means of articulation the production of sound in an accordion is in direct proportion to the motion of the bellows by the player in a sense the role of the bellows can be compared to the role of moving a violins bow on bowed strings for a more direct analogy the bellows can be compared to the role of breathing for a singer the bellows is located between the right and lefthand keyboards and is made from pleated layers of cloth and cardboard with added leather and metal it is used to create pressure and vacuum driving air across the internal reeds and producing sound by their vibrations applied pressure increases the volume the keyboard touch is not expressive and does not affect dynamics all expression is effected through the bellows bellows effects include volume control including swells and fades repeated short rapid changes of direction bellows shake which has been popularized by musicians such as renato borghetti gaucho music and luiz gonzaga and extensively used in forró called resfulego in brazil constant bellows motion while applying pressure at intervals constant bellows motion to produce clear tones with no resonance subtly changing the intonation to mimic the expressiveness of a singer using the bellows with the silent air button gives the sound of air moving whooshing which is sometimes used in contemporary compositions for this instrument body the accordions body consists of two boxes commonly made of wood joined by the bellows these boxes house reed chambers for the right and lefthand keyboards each side has grilles in order to facilitate the transmission of air in and out of the instrument and to allow the sound to project the grille at the righthand side is usually larger and is often shaped for decorative purposes the righthand keyboard is normally used for playing the melody and the lefthand one for playing the accompaniment however skilled players can reverse these roles and play melodies with the left hand the size and weight of an accordion varies depending on its type layout and playing range which can be as small as to have only one or two rows of basses and a single octave on the righthand keyboard to the most common 120bass accordion and through to large and heavy 160bass freebass converter models pallet mechanism the accordion is an aerophone the keyboard mechanisms of the instrument either enable the air flow or disable it variable components the term accordion covers a wide range of instruments with varying components all instruments have reed ranks of some format apart from reedless digital accordions not all have switches to change registers or ranks as some have only one treble register and one bass register the most typical accordion is the piano accordion which is used for many musical genres another type of accordion is the button accordion which is used in musical traditions including cajun conjunto and tejano music swiss and slovenianaustrogerman alpine music and argentinian tango music the helikonstyle accordion has multiple flared horns projecting out of the left side to strengthen the bass tone the word helikon refers to a deeppitched tuba righthand keyboard systems different systems exist for the righthand keyboard of an accordion which is normally used for playing the melody while it can also play chords some use a button layout arranged in one way or another while others use a pianostyle keyboard each system has different claimed benefits by those who prefer it they are also used to define one accordion or another as a different type chromatic button accordions and the bayan a russian variant use a buttonboard where notes are arranged chromatically two major systems exist referred to as the bsystem and the csystem there are also regional variants rarely some chromatic button accordions have a decorative righthand keyboard in addition to the rows of buttons an approach used by the virtuoso accordionist pietro frosini diatonic button accordions use a buttonboard designed around the notes of diatonic scales in a small number of keys the keys are often arranged in one row for each key available chromatic scales may be available by combining notes from different rows the adjective diatonic is also commonly used to describe bisonic or bisonoric accordionsthat is instruments whose righthand and in some instances even bass keys each sound two different notes depending on the direction of the bellows for instance producing major triad sequences while closing the bellows and dominant seventh or 79 while opening such is the case for instance with the argentinian bandoneon the slovenianaustrogerman steirische harmonika the czech heligonka harmonika the italian organetto the swiss schwyzerörgeli and the anglo concertina piano accordions use a musical keyboard similar to a piano at right angles to the cabinet the tops of the keys inward toward the bellows the rarely used bass accordion has only a righthand keyboard with ranks of 8 16 and 32 reeds with the lowest note being the deepest pitch on a pipe organ pedal keyboard pedal c it is intended for performing basslines in accordion orchestras the rarely used piccolo accordion also has only a righthand keyboard 6plus6 accordions use a buttonboard with three rows of buttons in a uniform or wholetone arrangement generally known as a jankó keyboard the chromatic scale consists of two rows the third row is a repetition of the first row so there is the same fingering in all twelve scales these accordions are produced only in special editions eg the logicordion produced by harmona lefthand keyboard systems different systems are also in use for the lefthand keyboard which is normally used for playing the accompaniment these usually use distinct bass buttons and often have buttons with concavities or studs to help the player navigate the layout despite not being able to see the buttons while playing there are three general categories the stradella bass system also called standard bass is arranged in a circle of fifths and uses single buttons for bass notes and additional rows of single buttons for preset major minor dominant seventh and diminished chords the dominant seventh and diminished chords are threenote chord voicings that omit the fifths of the chords the belgian bass system is a variation used in belgian chromatic accordions it is also arranged in a circle of fifths but in reverse order this system has three rows of basses three rows of chord buttons allowing easier fingering for playing melodies combined chords better use of fingers one and five and more space between the buttons this system was rarely used outside of its native belgium various freebass systems for greater access to playing melodies and complex basslines on the lefthand keyboard and to forming ones own chords notebynote these are often chosen for playing jazz and classical music some models can convert between freebass and stradella bass this is called converter bass the freebass left hand notes are arranged chromatically in three rows with one additional duplicate row of buttons luttbeg doublekeyboard piano accordions have a piano keyboard layout on both the treble and bass sides this allows pianists most notably duke ellington to double up on the accordion without difficulty the bercandeon is an improved version of that instrument also making it a keyboard bandoneon in 2021 a patent was published by valerio chiovarelli for a new bass system called the chiovarelli jazz system this system is a variation of the stradella bass system where instead of triads the chordal buttons of this system produce bichords chords with only 2 pitches instead of 3 the chiovarellia jazz system or cjs for short prioritizes the effectiveness of left hand accordion in jazz music hence the name of the system but its chordal combinations can be appliccable to many other genres according to the inventor reed ranks and switches inside the accordion are the reeds that generate the instrument tones these are organized in different sounding banks which can be further combined into registers producing differing timbres all but the smaller accordions are equipped with switches that control which combination of reed banks operate organized from high to low registers each register stop produces a separate sound timbre many of which also differ in octaves or in how different octaves are combined see the accordion reed ranks and switches article for further explanation and audio samples all but the smaller accordions usually have treble switches the larger and more expensive accordions often also have bass switches to give options for the reed bank on the bass side classification of chromatic and piano type accordions in describing or pricing an accordion the first factor is size expressed in number of keys on either side for a piano type this could for one example be 3796 meaning 37 treble keys three octaves plus one note on the treble side and 96 bass keys a second aspect of size is the width of the white keys which means that even accordions with the same number of keys have keyboards of different lengths ranging from for a childs accordion to for an adultsized instrument after size the price and weight of an accordion is largely dependent on the number of reed ranks on either side either on a cassotto or not and to a lesser degree on the number of combinations available through register switches the next but important factor is the quality of the reeds the highest grade called a mano meaning handmade the next tipo a mano like handmade lower grades including export and several more price is also affected by the use of costly woods luxury decorations and features such as a palm switch grille mute and so on some accordion makers sell a range of different models from a lessexpensive base model to a more costly luxury model typically the register switches are described as reeds 5 3 meaning five reeds on the treble side and three on the bass and registers 13 m 7 meaning 13 register buttons on the treble side plus a special master that activates all ranks like the tutti or full organ switch on an organ and seven register switches on the bass side another factor affecting the price is the presence of electronics such as condenser microphones volume and tone controls or midi sensors and connections straps the larger piano and chromatic button accordions are usually heavier than other smaller squeezeboxes and are equipped with two shoulder straps to make it easier to balance the weight and increase bellows control while sitting and avoid dropping the instrument while standing other accordions such as the diatonic button accordion have only a single shoulder strap and a right hand thumb strap all accordions have a mostly adjustable leather strap on the lefthand side to keep the players hand in position while drawing the bellows there are also straps above and below the bellows to keep it securely closed when the instrument is not being played electronic and digital in the 2010s a range of electronic and digital accordions were introduced they have an electronic sound module which creates the accordion sound and most use midi systems to encode the keypresses and transmit them to the sound module a digital accordion can have hundreds of sounds which can include different types of accordions and even nonaccordion sounds such as pipe organ piano or guitar sensors are used on the buttons and keys such as magnetic reed switches sensors are also used on the bellows to transmit the pushing and pulling of the bellows to the sound module digital accordions may have features not found in acoustic instruments such as a pianostyle sustain pedal a modulation control for changing keys and a portamento effect as an electronic instrument these types of accordions are plugged into a pa system or keyboard amplifier to produce sound some digital accordions have a small internal speaker and amplifier so they can be used without a pa system or keyboard amplifier at least for practicing and small venues like coffeehouses one benefit of electronic accordions is that they can be practiced with headphones making them inaudible to other people nearby on a digital accordion the volume of the righthand keyboard and the lefthand buttons can be independently adjusted acousticdigital hybrid accordions also exist they are acoustic accordions with reeds bellows and so on but they also contain sensors electronics and midi connections which provides a wider range of sound options an acousticdigital hybrid may be manufactured in this form or it may be an acoustic accordion which has had aftermarket electronics sensors and connections added several companies sell aftermarket electronics kits but they are typically installed by professional accordion technicians because of the complex and delicate nature of the internal parts of an accordion unusual accordions various hybrid accordions have been created between instruments of different buttonboards and actions many remain curiosities only a few have remained in use the schrammel accordion used in viennese chamber music and klezmer which has the treble buttonboard of a chromatic button accordion and a bisonoric bass buttonboard similar to an expanded diatonic button accordion the steirische harmonika a type of bisonoric diatonic button accordion particular to the alpine folk music of slovenia austria the czech republic the german state of bavaria and the italian south tyrol the schwyzerörgeli or swiss organ which usually has a threerow diatonic treble and 18 unisonoric bass buttons in a basschord arrangement a subset of the stradella system in reverse order like the belgian bass that travel parallel to the bellows motion the trikitixa of the basque people which has a tworow diatonic bisonoric treble and a 12button diatonic unisonoric bass the british chromatic accordion the favoured diatonic accordion in scotland while the right hand is bisonoric the left hand follows the stradella system the elite form of this instrument is generally considered the german manufactured shand morino produced by hohner with the input of sir jimmy shand pedal harmony a type of accordion used sometimes in polish folk music which has a pair of pump organlike bellows attached the finnish composer and accordionist veli kujala developed a quarter tone accordion together with the italian accordion manufacturer pigini in 2005 and has written works for it it deploys the same system as the concert accordion with a scale of five octaves each divided into 24 quarter tones other notable composers who have written concertos for the quarter tone accordion include jukka tiensuu and sampo haapamäki manufacturing process the most expensive accordions are typically fully handmade particularly the reeds completely handmade reeds have a better tonal quality than even the best automatically manufactured ones some accordions have been modified by individuals striving to bring a more pure sound out of lowend instruments such as the ones improved by yutaka usui a japanese craftsman the manufacture of an accordion is only a partly automated process in a sense all accordions are handmade since there is always some hand assembly of the small parts required the general process involves making the individual parts assembling the subsections assembling the entire instrument and final decorating and packaging notable centres of production are the italian cities of stradella and castelfidardo with many small and medium size manufacturers especially at the latter castelfidardo honours the memory of paolo soprani who was one of the first largescale producers maugein freres has built accordions in the french town of tulle since 1919 and the company is now the last completeprocess manufacturer of accordions in france german companies such as hohner and weltmeister made large numbers of accordions but production diminished by the end of the 20th century hohner still manufactures its topend models in germany and weltmeister instruments are still handmade by harmona akkordeon gmbh in klingenthal use in various music genres the accordion has traditionally been used to perform folk or ethnic music popular music and transcriptions from the operatic and lightclassical music repertoire it was also used by the kikuyu tribe in kenya and is the main instrument in the traditional mwomboko dance today the instrument is sometimes heard in contemporary pop styles such as rock and poprock and occasionally even in serious classical music concerts as well as advertisements use in traditional music the accordions popularity spread rapidly it has mostly been associated with the common people and was propagated by europeans who emigrated around the world the accordion in both button and piano forms became a favorite of folk musicians and has been integrated into traditional music styles all over the world see the list of music styles that incorporate the accordion use in jazz notable jazz accordionists early jazz accordionists include charles melrose who recorded wailing bluesbarrel house stomp 1930 voc 1503 with the cellar boys buster moten who played second piano and accordion in the bennie moten orchestra and jack cornell who did recordings with irving mills later jazz accordionists from the united states include steve bach milton delugg orlando digirolamo dominic frontiere guy klucevsek yuri lemeshev frank marocco john serry sr lee tomboulian and art van damme french jazz accordionists include richard galliano bernard lubat and vincent peirani norwegian jazz accordionists include asmund bjørken stian carstensen gabriel fliflet frode haltli and eivin one pedersen left hand techniques the constraints of the stradella bass system limiting the left hand to preset chord buttons is a barrier to some jazz chord conventions jazz accordionists expand the range of chord possibilities by using more than one chord button simultaneously or by using combinations of a chord button and a bass note other than the typical root of the chord an example of the former technique is used to play a minor seventh chord to play an am7add9 chord the am and em preset buttons are pressed simultaneously along with an a bassnote an example of the latter technique is used to play the halfdiminished chord to play an eø7 a gm preset button is pressed along with an e bassnote for the left hand the freebass system is used in jazz as a means of creating complex chord voicings jazz harmony that would otherwise be difficult to replicate with the stradella bass system such as tritone substitutions become more accessible using a freebass accordion use in popular music the accordion appeared in popular music from the 1900s to the 1960s this halfcentury is often called the golden age of the accordion five players pietro frosini the two brothers count guido deiro and pietro deiro and slovenian brothers vilko ovsenik and slavko avsenik charles magnante were major influences at this time most vaudeville theaters closed during the great depression but accordionists during the 1930s1950s taught and performed for radio included among this group was the concert virtuoso john serry srjacobson marion 2012 squeeze this a cultural history of the accordion in america university of illinois press chicago p 61 during the 1950s through the 1980s the accordion received significant exposure on television with performances by myron floren on the lawrence welk show in the late 1950s and early 1960s the accordion declined in popularity because of the rise of rock and roll the first accordionist to appear and perform at the newport jazz festival was angelo dipippo he can be seen playing his accordion in the motion picture the godfather he also composed and performed with his accordion on part of the soundtrack of woody allens movie to rome with love he was featured twice on the tonight show with johnny carson richard galliano is an internationally known accordionist whose repertoire covers jazz tango nuevo latin and classical some popular bands use the instrument to create distinctive sounds a notable example is grammy awardwinning parodist weird al yankovic who plays the accordion on many of his musical tracks particularly his polkas yankovic was trained in the accordion as a child the accordion has also been used in the rock genre most notably by john linnell of they might be giants featuring more prominently in the bands earlier works the instrument is still frequently used during live performances and continues to make appearances in their studio albums accordion is also used in the music of the dropkick murphys and gogol bordello accordionists in heavy metal music make their most extensive appearances in the folk metal subgenre and are otherwise generally rare fulltime accordionists in folk metal seem even rarer but they are still utilized for studio work as flexible keyboardists are usually more accessible for live performances the finnish symphonic folkmetal band turisas used to have a fulltime accordionist employing classical and polka sensibilities alongside a violinist one of their accordionists netta skog is now a member of ensiferum another folkmetal band another finnish metal band korpiklaani invokes a type of finnish polka called humppa and also has a fulltime accordionist sarah kiener the former hurdygurdy player for the swiss melodicdeathfolk metal band eluveitie played a helvetic accordion known as a zugerörgeli use in classical music although best known as a folk instrument it has grown in popularity among classical composers the earliest surviving concert piece is written in 1836 by louise reisner of paris other composers including the russian pyotr ilyich tchaikovsky the italian umberto giordano and the american charles ives wrote works for the diatonic button accordion the first composer to write specifically for the chromatic accordion was paul hindemith in 1922 the austrian alban berg included an accordion in wozzeck op 7 in 1937 the first accordion concerto was composed in russia other notable composers have written for the accordion during the first half of the 20th century included among this group was the italianamerican john serry sr whose concerto for free bass accordion was completed in 1964accordion world bedford hills ny 1968 in addition the american accordionist robert davine composed his divertimento for flute clarinet bassoon and accordion as a work for chamber orchestra american composer william p perry featured the accordion in his orchestral suite six title themes in search of a movie 2008 the experimental composer howard skempton began his musical career as an accordionist and has written numerous solo works for it in his work drang 1999 british composer john palmer pushed the expressive possibilities of the accordionbayan luciano berio wrote sequenza xiii 1995 for accordionist teodoro anzellotti accordionists like mogens ellegaard joseph macerollo nick ariondo friedrich lips hugo noth stefan hussong teodoro anzellotti and geir draugsvoll encouraged composers to write new music for the accordion solo and chamber music and also started playing baroque music on the free bass accordion french composer henri dutilleux used an accordion in both his late song cycles correspondances 2003 and le temps lhorloge 2009 russianborn composer sofia gubaidulina has composed solos concertos and chamber works for accordion astor piazzollas concert tangos are performed widely piazzolla performed on the bandoneon but his works are performed on either bandoneon or accordion australia the earliest mention of the novel accordion instrument in australian music occurs in the 1830s the accordion initially competed against cheaper and more convenient reed instruments such as mouth organ concertina and melodeon frank fracchia was an australian accordion composer and copies of his works my dear can you come out tonight and dancing with you are preserved in australian libraries other australian composers who arranged music for accordion include reginald stoneham the popularity of the accordion peaked in the late 1930s and continued until the 1950s the accordion was particularly favoured by buskers bosnia and herzegovina the accordion is a traditional instrument in bosnia and herzegovina it is the dominant instrument used in sevdalinka a traditional genre of folk music from bosnia and herzegovina it is also considered a national instrument of the country brazil the accordion was brought to brazil by settlers and immigrants from europe especially from italy and germany who mainly settled in the south rio grande do sul santa catarina and paraná the first instrument brought was a concertina a 120 button chromatic accordion the instrument was popular in the 1950s and it was common to find several accordions in the same house there are many different configurations and tunes which were adapted from the cultures that came from europe accordion is the official symbol instrument of the rio grande do sul state where was voted by unanimity in the deputy chamber during the boom of accordions there were around 65 factories in brazil where most of them 52 in the south in rio grande do sul state with only 7 outside the south one of the most famous and genuinely brazilian brands was acordeões todeschini from bento gonçalvesrs closed in 1973 the todeschini accordion is very appreciated today and survives with very few maintainers the most notable musicians of button accordions are renato borghetti adelar bertussi albino manique and edson dutra compared to many other countries the instrument is very popular in mainstream pop music in some parts of the country such as the northeast it is the most popular melodic instrument as opposed to most european folk accordions a very dry tuning is usually used in brazil outside the south the accordion predominantly the piano accordion is used in almost all styles of forró in particular in the subgenres of xote and baião as the principal instrument luiz gonzaga the king of the baião and dominguinhos being among the notable musicians in this style from the northeast in this musical style the typical combination is a trio of accordion triangle and zabumba a type of drum this style has gained popularity recently in particular among the student population of the southeast of the country in the forró universitário genre with important exponents today being falamansa and trios such as trio dona zefa trio virgulino and trio alvorada moreover the accordion is the principal instrument in junina music music of the são joão festival with mario zan having been a very important exponent of this music it is an important instrument in sertanejo and caipira music which originated in the midwest and southeast of brazil and subsequently has gained popularity throughout the country colombia the accordion is also a traditional instrument in colombia commonly associated with the vallenato and cumbia genres the accordion has been used by tropipop musicians such as carlos vives andrés cabas fonseca singer and bacilos as well as rock musicians such as juanes and pop musicians as shakira vallenato who emerged in the early twentieth century in valledupar and have come to symbolize the folk music of colombia every year in april colombia holds one of the most important musical festivals in the country the vallenato legend festival the festival holds contests for best accordion player once every decade the king of kings accordion competition takes place where winners of the previous festivals compete for the highest possible award for a vallenato accordion player the pilonera mayor prize this is the worlds largest competitive accordion festival czech republic accordion is often played at traditional czech pubs such as u flekú prague mexico norteño heavily relies on the accordion it is a genre related to polka ramón ayala known in mexico as the king of the accordion is a norteño musician cumbia which features the accordion is also popular with musicians such as celso piña creating a more contemporary style usborn mexican musician julieta venegas incorporates the sound of the instrument into rock pop and folk she was influenced by her fellow chicanos los lobos who also use the music of the accordion north korea according to barbara demick in nothing to envy the accordion is known as the peoples instrument and all north korean teachers were expected to learn the accordion china the number of accordionists in china exceeds every other country in the world and possibly every country combined introduced in 1926 the accordion has risen to popularity in china throughout the years thanks to russian teachers and its being a popular instrument in the peoples liberation army and remains popular other audio samples see also list of accordionists steirische harmonika confédération internationale des accordéonistes notes references external links folk music instruments articles containing video clips german inventions 19thcentury inventions | 6,046 |
1164 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial%20intelligence | Artificial intelligence | artificial intelligence ai is the intelligence of machines or software as opposed to the intelligence of humans or animals it is also the field of study in computer science that develops and studies intelligent machines ai may also refer to the machines themselves ai technology is widely used throughout industry government and science some highprofile applications are advanced web search engines eg google search recommendation systems used by youtube amazon and netflix understanding human speech such as siri and alexa selfdriving cars eg waymo generative or creative tools chatgpt and ai art and competing at the highest level in strategic games such as chess and go artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956 the field went through multiple cycles of optimism followed by disappointment and loss of funding but after 2012 when deep learning surpassed all previous ai techniques there was a vast increase in funding and interest the various subfields of ai research are centered around particular goals and the use of particular tools the traditional goals of ai research include reasoning knowledge representation planning learning natural language processing perception and support for robotics general intelligence the ability to solve an arbitrary problem is among the fields longterm goals to solve these problems ai researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of problemsolving techniques including search and mathematical optimization formal logic artificial neural networks and methods based on statistics operations research and economics ai also draws upon psychology linguistics philosophy neuroscience and many other fields goals the general problem of simulating or creating intelligence has been broken down into subproblems these consist of particular traits or capabilities that researchers expect an intelligent system to display the traits described below have received the most attention and cover the scope of ai research reasoning problemsolving early researchers developed algorithms that imitated stepbystep reasoning that humans use when they solve puzzles or make logical deductions by the late 1980s and 1990s methods were developed for dealing with uncertain or incomplete information employing concepts from probability and economics many of these algorithms are insufficient for solving large reasoning problems because they experience a combinatorial explosion they became exponentially slower as the problems grew larger even humans rarely use the stepbystep deduction that early ai research could model they solve most of their problems using fast intuitive judgments accurate and efficient reasoning is an unsolved problem knowledge representation knowledge representation and knowledge engineering allow ai programs to answer questions intelligently and make deductions about realworld facts formal knowledge representations are used in contentbased indexing and retrieval scene interpretation clinical decision support knowledge discovery mining interesting and actionable inferences from large databases and other areas a knowledge base is a body of knowledge represented in a form that can be used by a program an ontology is the set of objects relations concepts and properties used by a particular domain of knowledge knowledge bases need to represent things such as objects properties categories and relations between objects situations events states and time causes and effects knowledge about knowledge what we know about what other people know default reasoning things that humans assume are true until they are told differently and will remain true even when other facts are changing and many other aspects and domains of knowledge among the most difficult problems in kr are the breadth of commonsense knowledge the set of atomic facts that the average person knows is enormous and the subsymbolic form of most commonsense knowledge much of what people know is not represented as facts or statements that they could express verbally knowledge acquisition is the difficult problem of obtaining knowledge for ai applications modern ai gathers knowledge by scraping the internet including wikipedia the knowledge itself was collected by the volunteers and professionals who published the information who may or may not have agreed to provide their work to ai companies this crowd sourced technique does not guarantee that the knowledge is correct or reliable the knowledge of large language models such as chatgpt is highly unreliable it generates misinformation and falsehoods known as hallucinations providing accurate knowledge for these modern ai applications is an unsolved problem planning and decision making an agent is anything that perceives and takes actions in the world a rational agent has goals or preferences and takes actions to make them happen in automated planning the agent has a specific goal in automated decision making the agent has preferences there are some situations it would prefer to be in and some situations it is trying to avoid the decision making agent assigns a number to each situation called the utility that measures how much the agent prefers it for each possible action it can calculate the expected utility the utility of all possible outcomes of the action weighted by the probability that the outcome will occur it can then choose the action with the maximum expected utility in classical planning the agent knows exactly what the effect of any action will be in most realworld problems however the agent may not be certain about the situation they are in it is unknown or unobservable and it may not know for certain what will happen after each possible action it is not deterministic it must choose an action by making a probabilistic guess and then reassess the situation to see if the action worked in some problems the agents preferences may be uncertain especially if there are other agents or humans involved these can be learned eg with inverse reinforcement learning or the agent can seek information to improve its preferences information value theory can be used to weigh the value of exploratory or experimental actions the space of possible future actions and situations is typically intractably large so the agents must take actions and evaluate situations while being uncertain what the outcome will be a markov decision process has a transition model that describes the probability that a particular action will change the state in a particular way and a reward function that supplies the utility of each state and the cost of each action a policy associates a decision with each possible state the policy could be calculated eg by iteration be heuristic or it can be learned game theory describes rational behavior of multiple interacting agents and is used in ai programs that make decisions that involve other agents learning machine learning is the study of programs that can improve their performance on a given task automatically it has been a part of ai from the beginning there are several kinds of machine learning unsupervised learning analyzes a stream of data and finds patterns and makes predictions without any other guidance supervised learning requires a human to label the input data first and comes in two main varieties classification where the program must learn to predict what category the input belongs in and regression where the program must deduce a numeric function based on numeric input in reinforcement learning the agent is rewarded for good responses and punished for bad ones the agent learns to choose responses that are classified as good transfer learning is when the knowledge gained from one problem is applied to a new problem deep learning is a type of machine learning that runs inputs through biologically inspired artificial neural networks for all of these types of learning computational learning theory can assess learners by computational complexity by sample complexity how much data is required or by other notions of optimization natural language processing natural language processing nlp allows programs to read write and communicate in human languages such as english specific problems include speech recognition speech synthesis machine translation information extraction information retrieval and question answering early work based on noam chomskys generative grammar and semantic networks had difficulty with wordsense disambiguation unless restricted to small domains called microworlds due to the common sense knowledge problem modern deep learning techniques for nlp include word embedding how often one word appears near another transformers which finds patterns in text and others in 2019 generative pretrained transformer or gpt language models began to generate coherent text and by 2023 these models were able to get humanlevel scores on the bar exam sat gre and many other realworld applications perception machine perception is the ability to use input from sensors such as cameras microphones wireless signals active lidar sonar radar and tactile sensors to deduce aspects of the world computer vision is the ability to analyze visual input the field includes speech recognition image classification facial recognition object recognition and robotic perception robotics robotics uses ai social intelligence affective computing is an interdisciplinary umbrella that comprises systems that recognize interpret process or simulate human feeling emotion and mood for example some virtual assistants are programmed to speak conversationally or even to banter humorously it makes them appear more sensitive to the emotional dynamics of human interaction or to otherwise facilitate humancomputer interaction however this tends to give naïve users an unrealistic conception of how intelligent existing computer agents actually are moderate successes related to affective computing include textual sentiment analysis and more recently multimodal sentiment analysis wherein ai classifies the affects displayed by a videotaped subject general intelligence a machine with artificial general intelligence should be able to solve a wide variety of problems with breadth and versatility similar to human intelligence tools ai research uses a wide variety of tools to accomplish the goals above search and optimization ai can solve many problems by intelligently searching through many possible solutions there are two very different kinds of search used in ai state space search and local search state space search state space search searches through a tree of possible states to try to find a goal state for example planning algorithms search through trees of goals and subgoals attempting to find a path to a target goal a process called meansends analysis simple exhaustive searches are rarely sufficient for most realworld problems the search space the number of places to search quickly grows to astronomical numbers the result is a search that is too slow or never completes heuristics or rules of thumb can help to prioritize choices that are more likely to reach a goal adversarial search is used for gameplaying programs such as chess or go it searches through a tree of possible moves and countermoves looking for a winning position local search local search uses mathematical optimization to find a numeric solution to a problem it begins with some form of a guess and then refines the guess incrementally until no more refinements can be made these algorithms can be visualized as blind hill climbing we begin the search at a random point on the landscape and then by jumps or steps we keep moving our guess uphill until we reach the top this process is called stochastic gradient descent evolutionary computation uses a form of optimization search for example they may begin with a population of organisms the guesses and then allow them to mutate and recombine selecting only the fittest to survive each generation refining the guesses distributed search processes can coordinate via swarm intelligence algorithms two popular swarm algorithms used in search are particle swarm optimization inspired by bird flocking and ant colony optimization inspired by ant trails neural networks and statistical classifiers discussed below also use a form of local search where the landscape to be searched is formed by learning logic formal logic is used for reasoning and knowledge representation formal logic comes in two main forms propositional logic which operates on statements that are true or false and uses logical connectives such as and or not and implies and predicate logic which also operates on objects predicates and relations and uses quantifiers such as every x is a y and there are some xs that are ys logical inference or deduction is the process of proving a new statement conclusion from other statements that are already known to be true the premises a logical knowledge base also handles queries and assertions as a special case of inference an inference rule describes what is a valid step in a proof the most general inference rule is resolution inference can be reduced to performing a search to find a path that leads from premises to conclusions where each step is the application of an inference rule inference performed this way is intractable except for short proofs in restricted domains no efficient powerful and general method has been discovered fuzzy logic assigns a degree of truth between 0 and 1 and handles uncertainty and probabilistic situations nonmonotonic logics are designed to handle default reasoning other specialized versions of logic have been developed to describe many complex domains see knowledge representation above probabilistic methods for uncertain reasoning many problems in ai including in reasoning planning learning perception and robotics require the agent to operate with incomplete or uncertain information ai researchers have devised a number of tools to solve these problems using methods from probability theory and economics bayesian networks are a very general tool that can be used for many problems including reasoning using the bayesian inference algorithm learning using the expectationmaximization algorithm planning using decision networks and perception using dynamic bayesian networks probabilistic algorithms can also be used for filtering prediction smoothing and finding explanations for streams of data helping perception systems to analyze processes that occur over time eg hidden markov models or kalman filters precise mathematical tools have been developed that analyze how an agent can make choices and plan using decision theory decision analysis and information value theory these tools include models such as markov decision processes dynamic decision networks game theory and mechanism design classifiers and statistical learning methods the simplest ai applications can be divided into two types classifiers eg if shiny then diamond on one hand and controllers eg if diamond then pick up on the other hand classifiers are functions that use pattern matching to determine the closest match they can be finetuned based on chosen examples using supervised learning each pattern also called an observation is labeled with a certain predefined class all the observations combined with their class labels are known as a data set when a new observation is received that observation is classified based on previous experience there are many kinds of classifiers in use the decision tree is the simplest and most widely used symbolic machine learning algorithm knearest neighbor algorithm was the most widely used analogical ai until the mid1990s and kernel methods such as the support vector machine svm displaced knearest neighbor in the 1990s the naive bayes classifier is reportedly the most widely used learner at google due in part to its scalability neural networks are also used as classifiers artificial neural networks artificial neural networks were inspired by the design of the human brain a simple neuron n accepts input from other neurons each of which when activated or fired casts a weighted vote for or against whether neuron n should itself activate in practice the input neurons are a list of numbers the weights are a matrix the next layer is the dot product ie several weighted sums scaled by an increasing function such as the logistic function the resemblance to real neural cells and structures is superficial according to russell and norvig learning algorithms for neural networks use local search to choose the weights that will get the right output for each input during training the most common training technique is the backpropagation algorithm neural networks learn to model complex relationships between inputs and outputs and find patterns in data in theory a neural network can learn any function in feedforward neural networks the signal passes in only one direction recurrent neural networks feed the output signal back into the input which allows shortterm memories of previous input events long short term memory is the most successful network architecture for recurrent networks perceptrons use only a single layer of neurons deep learning uses multiple layers convolutional neural networks strengthen the connection between neurons that are close to each other this is especially important in image processing where a local set of neurons must identify an edge before the network can identify an object deep learning deep learning uses several layers of neurons between the networks inputs and outputs the multiple layers can progressively extract higherlevel features from the raw input for example in image processing lower layers may identify edges while higher layers may identify the concepts relevant to a human such as digits or letters or faces deep learning has drastically improved the performance of programs in many important subfields of artificial intelligence including computer vision speech recognition image classification and others the reason that deep learning performs so well in so many applications is not known as of 2023 the sudden success of deep learning in 20122015 did not occur because of some new discovery or theoretical breakthrough deep neural networks and backpropagation had been described by many people as far back as the 1950s but because of two factors the incredible increase in computer power including the hundredfold increase in speed by switching to gpus and the availability of vast amounts of training data especially the giant curated datasets used for benchmark testing such as imagenet specialized hardware and software in the late 2010s graphics processing units gpus that were increasingly designed with aispecific enhancements and used with specialized tensorflow software had replaced previously used central processing unit cpus as the dominant means for largescale commercial and academic machine learning models training historically specialized languages such as lisp prolog and others had been used applications ai and machine learning technology is used in most of the essential applications of the 2020s including search engines such as google search targeting online advertisements recommendation systems offered by netflix youtube or amazon driving internet traffic targeted advertising adsense facebook virtual assistants such as siri or alexa autonomous vehicles including drones adas and selfdriving cars automatic language translation microsoft translator google translate facial recognition apples face id or microsofts deepface and googles facenet and image labeling used by facebook apples iphoto and tiktok there are also thousands of successful ai applications used to solve specific problems for specific industries or institutions in a 2017 survey one in five companies reported they had incorporated ai in some offerings or processes a few examples are energy storage medical diagnosis military logistics applications that predict the result of judicial decisions foreign policy or supply chain management game playing programs have been used since the 1950s to demonstrate and test ais most advanced techniques deep blue became the first computer chessplaying system to beat a reigning world chess champion garry kasparov on 11 may 1997 in 2011 in a jeopardy quiz show exhibition match ibms question answering system watson defeated the two greatest jeopardy champions brad rutter and ken jennings by a significant margin in march 2016 alphago won 4 out of 5 games of go in a match with go champion lee sedol becoming the first computer goplaying system to beat a professional go player without handicaps then it defeated ke jie in 2017 who at the time continuously held the world no 1 ranking for two years other programs handle imperfectinformation games such as for poker at a superhuman level pluribus and cepheus deepmind in the 2010s developed a generalized artificial intelligence that could learn many diverse atari games on its own in the early 2020s generative ai gained widespread prominence chatgpt based on gpt3 and other large language models were tried by 14 of americans adults the increasing realism and easeofuse of aibased texttoimage generators such as midjourney dalle and stable diffusion sparked a trend of viral aigenerated photos widespread attention was gained by a fake photo of pope francis wearing a white puffer coat the fictional arrest of donald trump and a hoax of an attack on the pentagon as well as the usage in professional creative arts alphafold 2 2020 demonstrated the ability to approximate in hours rather than months the 3d structure of a protein ethics ai like any powerful technology has potential benefits and potential risks ai may be able to advance science and find solutions for serious problems demis hassabis of deep mind hopes to solve intelligence and then use that to solve everything else however as the use of ai has become widespread several unintended consequences and risks have been identified risks and harm privacy and copyright machine learning algorithms require large amounts of data the techniques used to acquire this data have raised concerns about privacy surveillance and copyright technology companies collect a wide range of data from their users including online activity geolocation data video and audio for example in order to build speech recognition algorithms amazon others have recorded millions of private conversations and allowed temps to listen to and transcribe some of them opinions about this widespread surveillance range from those who see it as a necessary evil to those for whom it is clearly unethical and a violation of the right to privacy ai developers argue that this is the only way to deliver valuable applications and have developed several techniques that attempt to preserve privacy while still obtaining the data such as data aggregation deidentification and differential privacy since 2016 some privacy experts such as cynthia dwork began to view privacy in terms of fairness brian christian wrote that experts have pivoted from the question of what they know to the question of what theyre doing with it generative ai is often trained on unlicensed copyrighted works including in domains such as images or computer code the output is then used under a rationale of fair use experts disagree about how well and under what circumstances this rationale will hold up in courts of law relevant factors may include the purpose and character of the use of the copyrighted work and the effect upon the potential market for the copyrighted work in 2023 leading authors including john grisham and jonathan franzen sued ai companies for using their work to train generative ai misinformation youtube facebook and others use recommender systems to guide users to more content these ai programs were given the goal of maximizing user engagement that is the only goal was to keep people watching the ai learned that users tended to choose misinformation conspiracy theories and extreme partisan content and to keep them watching the ai recommended more of it users also tended to watch more content on the same subject so the ai led people into filter bubbles where they received multiple versions of the same misinformation this convinced many users that the misinformation was true and ultimately undermined trust in institutions the media and the government the ai program had correctly learned to maximize its goal but the result was harmful to society after the us election in 2016 major technology companies took steps to mitigate the problem in 2022 generative ai began to create images audio video and text that are indistinguishable from real photographs recordings films or human writing it is possible for bad actors to use this technology to create massive amounts of misinformation or propaganda this technology has been widely distributed at minimal cost geoffrey hinton who was an instrumental developer of these tools expressed his concerns about ai disinformation he quit his job at google to freely criticize the companies developing ai algorithmic bias and fairness machine learning applications will be biased if they learn from biased data anyone looking to use machine learning as part of realworld inproduction systems needs to factor ethics into their ai training processes and strive to avoid bias this is especially true when using ai algorithms that are inherently unexplainable in deep learning the developers may not be aware that the bias exists bias can be introduced by the way training data is selected and by the way a model is deployed if a biased algorithm is used to make decisions that can seriously harm people as it can in medicine finance recruitment housing or policing then the algorithm may cause discrimination fairness in machine learning is the study of how to prevent the harm caused by algorithmic bias it has become serious area of academic study within ai researchers have discovered it is not always possible to define fairness in a way that satisfies all stakeholders on june 28 2015 google photoss new image labeling feature mistakenly identified jacky alcine and a friend as gorillas because they were black the system was trained on a dataset that contained very few images of black people a problem called sample size disparity google fixed this problem by preventing the system from labelling anything as a gorilla eight years later in 2023 google photos still could not identify a gorilla and neither could similar products from apple facebook microsoft and amazon compas is a commercial program widely used by us courts to assess the likelihood of a defendant becoming a recidivist in 2016 julia angwin at propublica discovered that compas exhibited racial bias despite the fact that the program was not told the races of the defendants although the error rate for both whites and blacks was calibrated equal at exactly 61 the errors for each race were different the system consistently overestimated the chance that a black person would reoffend and would underestimate the chance that a white person would not reoffend in 2017 several researchers showed that it was mathematically impossible for compas to accommodate all possible measures of fairness when the base rates of reoffense were different for whites and blacks in the data a program can make biased decisions even if the data does not explicitly mention a problematic feature such as race or gender the feature will correlate with other features like address shopping history or first name and the program will make the same decisions based on these features as it would on race or gender moritz hardt said the most robust fact in this research area is that fairness through blindness doesnt work criticism of compas highlighted a deeper problem with the misuse of ai machine learning models are designed to make predictions that are only valid if we assume that the future will resemble the past if they are trained on data that includes the results of racist decisions in the past machine learning models must predict that racist decisions will be made in the future unfortunately if an applications then uses these predictions as recommendations some of these recommendations will likely be racist thus machine learning is not well suited to help make decisions in areas where there is hope that the future will be better than the past it is necessarily descriptive and not proscriptive bias and unfairness may go undetected because the developers are overwhelmingly white and male among ai engineers about 4 are black and 20 are women at its 2022 conference on fairness accountability and transparency acm facct 2022 the association for computing machinery in seoul south korea presented and published findings recommending that until ai and robotics systems are demonstrated to be free of bias mistakes they are unsafe and the use of selflearning neural networks trained on vast unregulated sources of flawed internet data should be curtailed lack of transparency most modern ai applications can not explain how they have reached a decision the large amount of relationships between inputs and outputs in deep neural networks and resulting complexity makes it difficult for even an expert to explain how they produced their outputs making them a black box there have been many cases where a machine learning program passed rigorous tests but nevertheless learned something different than what the programmers intended for example justin ko and roberto novoa developed a system that could identify skin diseases better than medical professionals however it classified any image with a ruler as cancerous because pictures of malignancies typically include a ruler to show the scale a more dangerous example was discovered by rich caruana in 2015 a machine learning system that accurately predicted risk of death classified a patient that was over 65 asthma and difficulty breathing as low risk further research showed that in highrisk cases like this the hospital would allocate more resources and save the patients life decreasing the risk measured by the program mistakes like these become obvious when we know how the program has reached a decision without an explanation these problems may not not be discovered until after they have caused harm a second issue is that people who have been harmed by an algorithms decision have a right to an explanation doctors for example are required to clearly and completely explain the reasoning behind any decision they make early drafts of the european unions general data protection regulation in 2016 included an explicit statement that this right exists industry experts noted that this is an unsolved problem with no solution in sight regulators argued that nevertheless the harm is real if the problem has no solution the tools should not be used darpa established the xai explainable artificial intelligence program in 2014 to try and solve these problems there are several potential solutions to the transparency problem multitask learning provides a large number of outputs in addition to the target classification these other outputs can help developers deduce what the network has learned deconvolution deepdream and other generative methods can allow developers to see what different layers of a deep network have learned and produce output that can suggest what the network is learning supersparse linear integer models use learning to identify the most important features rather than the classification simple addition of these features can then make the classification ie learning is used to create a scoring system classifier which is transparent bad actors and weaponized ai a lethal autonomous weapon is a machine that locates selects and engages human targets without human supervision by 2015 over fifty countries were reported to be researching battlefield robots these weapons are considered especially dangerous for several reasons if they kill an innocent person it is not clear who should be held accountable it is unlikely they will reliably choose targets and if produced at scale they are potentially weapons of mass destruction in 2014 30 nations including china supported a ban on autonomous weapons under the united nations convention on certain conventional weapons however the united states and others disagreed ai provides a number of tools that are particularly useful for authoritarian governments smart spyware face recognition and voice recognition allow widespread surveillance such surveillance allows machine learning to classify potential enemies of the state and can prevent them from hiding recommendation systems can precisely target propaganda and misinformation for maximum effect deepfakes and generative ai aid in producing misinformation advanced ai can make authoritarian centralized decision making more competitive with liberal and decentralized systems such as markets terrorists criminals and rogue states can use weaponized ai such as advanced digital warfare and lethal autonomous weapons machinelearning ai is also able to design tens of thousands of toxic molecules in a matter of hours technological unemployment from the early days of the development of artificial intelligence there have been arguments for example those put forward by weizenbaum about whether tasks that can be done by computers actually should be done by them given the difference between computers and humans and between quantitative calculation and qualitative valuebased judgement economists have frequently highlighted the risks of redundancies from ai and speculated about unemployment if there is no adequate social policy for full employment in the past technology has tended to increase rather than reduce total employment but economists acknowledge that were in uncharted territory with ai a survey of economists showed disagreement about whether the increasing use of robots and ai will cause a substantial increase in longterm unemployment but they generally agree that it could be a net benefit if productivity gains are redistributed risk estimates vary for example in the 2010s michael osborne and carl benedikt frey estimated 47 of us jobs are at high risk of potential automation while an oecd report classified only 9 of us jobs as high risk the methodology of speculating about future employment levels has been criticised as lacking evidential foundation and for implying that technology rather than social policy creates unemployment as opposed to redundancies unlike previous waves of automation many middleclass jobs may be eliminated by artificial intelligence the economist stated in 2015 that the worry that ai could do to whitecollar jobs what steam power did to bluecollar ones during the industrial revolution is worth taking seriously jobs at extreme risk range from paralegals to fast food cooks while job demand is likely to increase for carerelated professions ranging from personal healthcare to the clergy in april 2023 it was reported that 70 of the jobs for chinese video game illlustrators had been eliminated by generative artificial intelligence existential risk it has been argued ai will become so powerful that humanity may irreversibly lose control of it this could as the physicist stephen hawking puts it spell the end of the human race this scenario has been common in science fiction when a computer or robot suddenly develops a humanlike selfawareness or sentience or consciousness and becomes a malevolent character these scifi scenarios are misleading in several ways first ai does not require humanlike sentience to be an existential risk modern ai programs are given specific goals and use learning and intelligence to achieve them philosopher nick bostrom argued that if one gives almost any goal to a sufficiently powerful ai it may choose to destroy humanity to achieve it he used the example of a paperclip factory manager stuart russell gives the example of household robot that tries to find a way to kill its owner to prevent it from being unplugged reasoning that you cant fetch the coffee if youre dead in order to be safe for humanity a superintelligence would have to be genuinely aligned with humanitys morality and values so that it is fundamentally on our side second yuval noah harari argues that ai does not require a robot body or physical control to pose an existential risk the essential parts of civilization are not physical things like ideologies law government money and the economy are made of language they exist because there are stories that billions of people believe the current prevalence of misinformation suggests that an ai could use language to convince people to believe anything even to take actions that are destructive the opinions amongst experts and industry insiders are mixed with sizable fractions both concerned and unconcerned by risk from eventual superintelligent ai personalities such as stephen hawking bill gates elon musk have expressed concern about existential risk from ai in the early 2010s experts argued that the risks are too distant in the future to warrant research or that humans will be valuable from the perspective of a superintelligent machine however after 2016 the study of current and future risks and possible solutions became a serious area of research in 2023 ai pioneers including geoffrey hinton yoshua bengio demis hassabis and sam altman issued the joint statement that mitigating the risk of extinction from ai should be a global priority alongside other societalscale risks such as pandemics and nuclear war ethical machines and alignment friendly ai are machines that have been designed from the beginning to minimize risks and to make choices that benefit humans eliezer yudkowsky who coined the term argues that developing friendly ai should be a higher research priority it may require a large investment and it must be completed before ai becomes an existential risk machines with intelligence have the potential to use their intelligence to make ethical decisions the field of machine ethics provides machines with ethical principles and procedures for resolving ethical dilemmas the field of machine ethics is also called computational morality and was founded at an aaai symposium in 2005 other approaches include wendell wallachs artificial moral agents and stuart j russells three principles for developing provably beneficial machines regulation the regulation of artificial intelligence is the development of public sector policies and laws for promoting and regulating artificial intelligence ai it is therefore related to the broader regulation of algorithms the regulatory and policy landscape for ai is an emerging issue in jurisdictions globally according to ai index at stanford the annual number of airelated laws passed in the 127 survey countries jumped from one passed in 2016 to 37 passed in 2022 alone between 2016 and 2020 more than 30 countries adopted dedicated strategies for ai most eu member states had released national ai strategies as had canada china india japan mauritius the russian federation saudi arabia united arab emirates us and vietnam others were in the process of elaborating their own ai strategy including bangladesh malaysia and tunisia the global partnership on artificial intelligence was launched in june 2020 stating a need for ai to be developed in accordance with human rights and democratic values to ensure public confidence and trust in the technology henry kissinger eric schmidt and daniel huttenlocher published a joint statement in november 2021 calling for a government commission to regulate ai in 2023 openai leaders published recommendations for the governance of superintelligence which they believe may happen in less than 10 years in a 2022 ipsos survey attitudes towards ai varied greatly by country 78 of chinese citizens but only 35 of americans agreed that products and services using ai have more benefits than drawbacks a 2023 reutersipsos poll found that 61 of americans agree and 22 disagree that ai poses risks to humanity in a 2023 fox news poll 35 of americans thought it very important and an additional 41 thought it somewhat important for the federal government to regulate ai versus 13 responding not very important and 8 responding not at all important history the study of mechanical or formal reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity the study of logic led directly to alan turings theory of computation which suggested that a machine by shuffling symbols as simple as 0 and 1 could simulate both mathematical deduction and formal reasoning which is known as the churchturing thesis this along with concurrent discoveries in cybernetics and information theory led researchers to consider the possibility of building an electronic brain the first paper later recognized as ai was mccullouch and pitts design for turingcomplete artificial neurons in 1943 the field of ai research was founded at a workshop at dartmouth college in 1956 the attendees became the leaders of ai research in the 1960s they and their students produced programs that the press described as astonishing computers were learning checkers strategies solving word problems in algebra proving logical theorems and speaking english by the middle of the 1960s research in the us was heavily funded by the department of defense and laboratories had been established around the world herbert simon predicted machines will be capable within twenty years of doing any work a man can do marvin minsky agreed writing within a generation the problem of creating artificial intelligence will substantially be solved they had however underestimated the difficulty of the problem both the us and british governments cut off exploratory research in response to the criticism of sir james lighthill and ongoing pressure from the us congress to fund more productive projects minskys and paperts book perceptrons was understood as proving that artificial neural networks approach would never be useful for solving realworld tasks thus discrediting the approach altogether the ai winter a period when obtaining funding for ai projects was difficult followed in the early 1980s ai research was revived by the commercial success of expert systems a form of ai program that simulated the knowledge and analytical skills of human experts by 1985 the market for ai had reached over a billion dollars at the same time japans fifth generation computer project inspired the us and british governments to restore funding for academic research however beginning with the collapse of the lisp machine market in 1987 ai once again fell into disrepute and a second longerlasting winter began many researchers began to doubt that the current practices would be able to imitate all the processes of human cognition especially perception robotics learning and pattern recognition a number of researchers began to look into subsymbolic approaches robotics researchers such as rodney brooks rejected representation in general and focussed directly on engineering machines that move and survive judea pearl lofti zadeh and others developed methods that handled incomplete and uncertain information by making reasonable guesses rather than precise logic but the most important development was the revival of connectionism including neural network research by geoffrey hinton and others in 1990 yann lecun successfully showed that convolutional neural networks can recognize handwritten digits the first of many successful applications of neural networks ai gradually restored its reputation in the late 1990s and early 21st century by exploiting formal mathematical methods and by finding specific solutions to specific problems this narrow and formal focus allowed researchers to produce verifiable results and collaborate with other fields such as statistics economics and mathematics by 2000 solutions developed by ai researchers were being widely used although in the 1990s they were rarely described as artificial intelligence several academic researchers became concerned that ai was no longer pursuing the original goal of creating versatile fully intelligent machines beginning around 2002 they founded the subfield of artificial general intelligence or agi which had several wellfunded institutions by the 2010s deep learning began to dominate industry benchmarks in 2012 and was adopted throughout the field for many specific tasks other methods were abandoned deep learnings success was based on both hardware improvements faster computers graphics processing units cloud computing and access to large amounts of data including curated datasets such as imagenet deep learnings success led to an enormous increase in interest and funding in ai the amount of machine learning research measured by total publications increased by 50 in the years 20152019 and wipo reported that ai was the most prolific emerging technology in terms of the number of patent applications and granted patents according to ai impacts about 50 billion annually was invested in ai around 2022 in the us alone and about 20 of new us computer science phd graduates have specialized in ai about 800000 airelated us job openings existed in 2022 in 2016 issues of fairness and the misuse of technology were catapulted into center stage at machine learning conferences publications vastly increased funding became available and many researchers refocussed their careers on these issues the alignment problem became a serious field of academic study philosophy defining artificial intelligence alan turing wrote in 1950 i propose to consider the question can machines think he advised changing the question from whether a machine thinks to whether or not it is possible for machinery to show intelligent behaviour he devised the turing test which measures the ability of a machine to simulate human conversation since we can only observe the behavior of the machine it does not matter if it is actually thinking or literally has a mind turing notes that we can not determine these things about other people but it is usual to have a polite convention that everyone thinks russell and norvig agree with turing that ai must be defined in terms of acting and not thinking however they are critical that the test compares machines to people aeronautical engineering texts they wrote do not define the goal of their field as making machines that fly so exactly like pigeons that they can fool other pigeons ai founder john mccarthy agreed writing that artificial intelligence is not by definition simulation of human intelligence mccarthy defines intelligence as the computational part of the ability to achieve goals in the world another ai founder marvin minsky similarly defines it as the ability to solve hard problems these definitions view intelligence in terms of welldefined problems with welldefined solutions where both the difficulty of the problem and the performance of the program are direct measures of the intelligence of the machineand no other philosophical discussion is required or may not even be possible another definition has been adopted by google a major practitioner in the field of ai this definition stipulates the ability of systems to synthesize information as the manifestation of intelligence similar to the way it is defined in biological intelligence evaluating approaches to ai no established unifying theory or paradigm has guided ai research for most of its history the unprecedented success of statistical machine learning in the 2010s eclipsed all other approaches so much so that some sources especially in the business world use the term artificial intelligence to mean machine learning with neural networks this approach is mostly subsymbolic soft and narrow see below critics argue that these questions may have to be revisited by future generations of ai researchers symbolic ai and its limits symbolic ai or gofai simulated the highlevel conscious reasoning that people use when they solve puzzles express legal reasoning and do mathematics they were highly successful at intelligent tasks such as algebra or iq tests in the 1960s newell and simon proposed the physical symbol systems hypothesis a physical symbol system has the necessary and sufficient means of general intelligent action however the symbolic approach failed on many tasks that humans solve easily such as learning recognizing an object or commonsense reasoning moravecs paradox is the discovery that highlevel intelligent tasks were easy for ai but low level instinctive tasks were extremely difficult philosopher hubert dreyfus had argued since the 1960s that human expertise depends on unconscious instinct rather than conscious symbol manipulation and on having a feel for the situation rather than explicit symbolic knowledge although his arguments had been ridiculed and ignored when they were first presented eventually ai research came to agree the issue is not resolved subsymbolic reasoning can make many of the same inscrutable mistakes that human intuition does such as algorithmic bias critics such as noam chomsky argue continuing research into symbolic ai will still be necessary to attain general intelligence in part because subsymbolic ai is a move away from explainable ai it can be difficult or impossible to understand why a modern statistical ai program made a particular decision the emerging field of neurosymbolic artificial intelligence attempts to bridge the two approaches neat vs scruffy neats hope that intelligent behavior is described using simple elegant principles such as logic optimization or neural networks scruffies expect that it necessarily requires solving a large number of unrelated problems neats defend their programs with theoretical rigor scruffies rely mainly on incremental testing to see if they work this issue was actively discussed in the 70s and 80s but eventually was seen as irrelevant modern ai has elements of both soft vs hard computing finding a provably correct or optimal solution is intractable for many important problems soft computing is a set of techniques including genetic algorithms fuzzy logic and neural networks that are tolerant of imprecision uncertainty partial truth and approximation soft computing was introduced in the late 80s and most successful ai programs in the 21st century are examples of soft computing with neural networks narrow vs general ai ai researchers are divided as to whether to pursue the goals of artificial general intelligence and superintelligence directly or to solve as many specific problems as possible narrow ai in hopes these solutions will lead indirectly to the fields longterm goals general intelligence is difficult to define and difficult to measure and modern ai has had more verifiable successes by focusing on specific problems with specific solutions the experimental subfield of artificial general intelligence studies this area exclusively machine consciousness sentience and mind the philosophy of mind does not know whether a machine can have a mind consciousness and mental states in the same sense that human beings do this issue considers the internal experiences of the machine rather than its external behavior mainstream ai research considers this issue irrelevant because it does not affect the goals of the field to build machines that can solve problems using intelligence russell and norvig add that the additional project of making a machine conscious in exactly the way humans are is not one that we are equipped to take on however the question has become central to the philosophy of mind it is also typically the central question at issue in artificial intelligence in fiction consciousness david chalmers identified two problems in understanding the mind which he named the hard and easy problems of consciousness the easy problem is understanding how the brain processes signals makes plans and controls behavior the hard problem is explaining how this feels or why it should feel like anything at all assuming we are right in thinking that it truly does feel like something dennetts consciousness illusionism says this is an illusion human information processing is easy to explain however human subjective experience is difficult to explain for example it is easy to imagine a colorblind person who has learned to identify which objects in their field of view are red but it is not clear what would be required for the person to know what red looks like computationalism and functionalism computationalism is the position in the philosophy of mind that the human mind is an information processing system and that thinking is a form of computing computationalism argues that the relationship between mind and body is similar or identical to the relationship between software and hardware and thus may be a solution to the mindbody problem this philosophical position was inspired by the work of ai researchers and cognitive scientists in the 1960s and was originally proposed by philosophers jerry fodor and hilary putnam philosopher john searle characterized this position as strong ai the appropriately programmed computer with the right inputs and outputs would thereby have a mind in exactly the same sense human beings have minds searle counters this assertion with his chinese room argument which attempts to show that even if a machine perfectly simulates human behavior there is still no reason to suppose it also has a mind robot rights if a machine has a mind and subjective experience then it may also have sentience the ability to feel and if so it could also suffer it has been argued that this could entitle it to certain rights any hypothetical robot rights would lie on a spectrum with animal rights and human rights this issue has been considered in fiction for centuries and is now being considered by for example californias institute for the future however critics argue that the discussion is premature future superintelligence and the singularity a superintelligence is a hypothetical agent that would possess intelligence far surpassing that of the brightest and most gifted human mind if research into artificial general intelligence produced sufficiently intelligent software it might be able to reprogram and improve itself the improved software would be even better at improving itself leading to what i j good called an intelligence explosion and vernor vinge called a singularity however most technologies do not improve exponentially indefinitely but rather follow an scurve slowing when they reach the physical limits of what the technology can do consider for example transportation speed increased exponentially from 1830 to 1970 but then the trend abruptly stopped when it reached physical limits transhumanism robot designer hans moravec cyberneticist kevin warwick and inventor ray kurzweil have predicted that humans and machines will merge in the future into cyborgs that are more capable and powerful than either this idea called transhumanism has roots in aldous huxley and robert ettinger edward fredkin argues that artificial intelligence is the next stage in evolution an idea first proposed by samuel butlers darwin among the machines as far back as 1863 and expanded upon by george dyson in his book of the same name in 1998 in fiction thoughtcapable artificial beings have appeared as storytelling devices since antiquity and have been a persistent theme in science fiction a common trope in these works began with mary shelleys frankenstein where a human creation becomes a threat to its masters this includes such works as arthur c clarkes and stanley kubricks 2001 a space odyssey both 1968 with hal 9000 the murderous computer in charge of the discovery one spaceship as well as the terminator 1984 and the matrix 1999 in contrast the rare loyal robots such as gort from the day the earth stood still 1951 and bishop from aliens 1986 are less prominent in popular culture isaac asimov introduced the three laws of robotics in many books and stories most notably the multivac series about a superintelligent computer of the same name asimovs laws are often brought up during lay discussions of machine ethics while almost all artificial intelligence researchers are familiar with asimovs laws through popular culture they generally consider the laws useless for many reasons one of which is their ambiguity several works use ai to force us to confront the fundamental question of what makes us human showing us artificial beings that have the ability to feel and thus to suffer this appears in karel čapeks rur the films ai artificial intelligence and ex machina as well as the novel do androids dream of electric sheep by philip k dick dick considers the idea that our understanding of human subjectivity is altered by technology created with artificial intelligence see also explanatory notes references ai textbooks the two most widely used textbooks in 2023 see the open syllabus these were the four the most widely used ai textbooks in 2008 later editions history of ai other sources was introduced by kunihiko fukushima in 1980 presidential address to the association for the advancement of artificial intelligence later published as ai ml in fusion ai ml in fusion video lecture further reading autor david h why are there still so many jobs the history and future of workplace automation 2015 293 journal of economic perspectives 3 boden margaret mind as machine oxford university press 2006 cukier kenneth ready for robots how to think about the future of ai foreign affairs vol 98 no 4 julyaugust 2019 pp 19298 george dyson historian of computing writes in what might be called dysons law that any system simple enough to be understandable will not be complicated enough to behave intelligently while any system complicated enough to behave intelligently will be too complicated to understand p 197 computer scientist alex pentland writes current ai machinelearning algorithms are at their core dead simple stupid they work but they work by brute force p 198 domingos pedro our digital doubles ai will serve our species not control it scientific american vol 319 no 3 september 2018 pp 8893 gertner jon 2023 wikipedias moment of truth can the online encyclopedia help teach ai chatbots to get their facts right without destroying itself in the process new york times magazine july 18 2023 online hughescastleberry kenna a murder mystery puzzle the literary puzzle cains jawbone which has stumped humans for decades reveals the limitations of naturallanguageprocessing algorithms scientific american vol 329 no 4 november 2023 pp 8182 this murder mystery competition has revealed that although nlp naturallanguage processing models are capable of incredible feats their abilities are very much limited by the amount of context they receive this could cause difficulties for researchers who hope to use them to do things such as analyze ancient languages in some cases there are few historical records on longgone civilizations to serve as training data for such a purpose p 82 johnston john 2008 the allure of machinic life cybernetics artificial life and the new ai mit press gary marcus artificial confidence even the newest buzziest systems of artificial general intelligence are stymmied by the same old problems scientific american vol 327 no 4 october 2022 pp 4245 introduced dqn which produced humanlevel performance on some atari games eka roivainen ais iq chatgpt aced a standard intelligence test but showed that intelligence cannot be measured by iq alone scientific american vol 329 no 1 julyaugust 2023 p 7 despite its high iq chatgpt fails at tasks that require real humanlike reasoning or an understanding of the physical and social world chatgpt seemed unable to reason logically and tried to rely on its vast database of facts derived from online texts ashish vaswani noam shazeer niki parmar et al attention is all you need advances in neural information processing systems 30 2017 seminal paper on transformers external links artificial intelligence bbc radio 4 discussion with john agar alison adam igor aleksander in our time 8 december 2005 theranostics and aithe next advance in cancer precision medicine artificial intelligence cybernetics computational neuroscience computational fields of study data science emerging technologies formal sciences intelligence by type unsolved problems in computer science | 9,489 |
1166 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro%20Celt%20Sound%20System | Afro Celt Sound System | afro celt sound system are a european and african group who fuse electronic music with traditional gaelic and west african music afro celt sound system were formed in 1995 by producerguitarist simon emmerson and feature a wide range of guest artists in 2003 they temporarily changed their name to afrocelts before reverting to their original name their albums have been released through peter gabriels real world records and they have frequently performed at womad festivals worldwide their sales on the label are exceeded only by gabriel himself their recording contract with real world was for five albums of which volume 5 anatomic was the last after a number of festival dates in 2007 the band went on hiatus in 2010 they regrouped to play a number of shows including a return to womad releasing a remastered retrospective titled capture on 20 may 2014 afro celt sound system announced the release of the album born in january 2016 a posting to that website revealed that due to a dispute with emmerson who announced his departure from the band in 2015 there were two active versions of the band a version led by emmerson and a separate lineup headed by james mcnally and martin russell emmersons version of the band released the album the source in 2016 the dispute ended on 21 december 2016 with an announcement on social media the band released their seventh studio album flight on 23 november 2018 formation the inspiration behind the project dates back to 1991 when simon emmerson a grammy awardnominated british producer and guitarist collaborated with afropop star baaba maal while making an album with maal in senegal emmerson was struck by the similarity between one african melody and a traditional irish air back in london irish musician davy spillane told emmerson about a belief that nomadic celts lived in africa or india before they migrated to western europe whether or not the theory was true emmerson was intrigued by the two regions musical affinities in an experiment that would prove successful emmerson brought two members of baaba maals band together with traditional irish musicians to see what kind of music the two groups would create adding a dash of modern sound emmerson also brought in english dance mixers for an electronic beat people thought i was mad when i touted the idea emmerson told jim carroll of the irish times at the time i was out of favour with the london club scene i was broke and on income support but the success was extraordinary career jamming in the studios at real world musician peter gabriels recording facilities in wiltshire england the group of musicians recorded the basis of their first album in one week this album volume 1 sound magic was released by real world records in 1996 and marked the debut of the afro celt sound system prior to that first album being made none of us knew if it would work musician james mcnally told larry katz of the boston herald we were strangers who didnt even speak the same language but we were bowled over by this communication that took place beyond language mcnally who grew up secondgeneration irish in london played whistles keyboards piano bodhran and bamboo flute sound magic has now sold over 300000 copies the band performed at festivals raves and dance clubs and regularly included two african musicians moussa sissokho on talking drum and djembe and nfaly kouyate on vocals kora and balafon just as the second album was getting off the ground one of the groups core musicians 27yearold keyboardist jo bruce son of cream bass player jack bruce died suddenly of an asthma attack the band was devastated and the album was put on hold sinéad oconnor then collaborated with the band and helped them cope with their loss oconnor blew into the studio on a windy november night and blew away again leaving us something incredibly emotional and powerful mcnally told katz we had this track we didnt know what to do with sinéad scribbled a few lyrics and bang she left us completely choked up the band used the name of oconnors song release for the title of their album volume 2 release was released in 1999 and by the spring of 2000 it had sold more than half a million copies worldwide release is also used as one of the gcse music set works in the uk that students are required to study for their exam in 2000 the group was nominated for a grammy award in the best world music category the band composed at the time of eight members from six countries the uk senegal guinea ireland france and kenya took pride in its ability to bring people together through music we can communicate anywhere at any corner of the planet and feel that were at home mcnally told patrick macdonald of the seattle times were breaking down categories of world music and rock music and black music we leave a door open to communicate with each others traditions and its changed our lives in 2001 the group released volume 3 further in time which climbed to number one on billboards top world music albums chart featuring guest spots by peter gabriel and robert plant the album also incorporated a heightened african sound on the first two records the pendulum swung more toward the celtic london club side of the equation emmerson told the irish times carroll for this one we wanted to have more african vocals and input than wed done before again the afro celt sound system met with success chuck taylor of billboard praised the album as a cultural phenomenon that bursts past the traditional boundaries of contemporary music the single when youre falling with vocals by gabriel became a radio hit in the united states in 2003 for the seed album they changed their name to afrocelts they reverted to the longer band name for their subsequent albums pod a compilation of new mixes of songs from the first four albums volume 5 anatomic their fifth studio album and capture 19952010 they played a number of shows to promote volume 5 anatomic in 2006 and summer 2007 ending with a gig in korea before taking an extended break to work on side projects amongst them the imagined village featuring simon emmerson and johnny kalsi starting in the summer of 2010 the band performed a series of live shows to promote capture 19952010 released on 6 september 2010 on real world records further performances continue to the present day and a new albuminprogress titled born was announced on their website in 2014 following the split see below emmersons version of the band released the album the source in 2016 split during 2015 the band had split into two formations one of them including simon emmerson nfaly kouyate and johnny kalsi the other one james mcnally and martin russell the split was announced on the bands website in january 2016 the dispute officially ended with an announcement on social media on 21 december 2016 members when afro celt sound system formed in the mid1990s during the real world recording week the difference between a guest artist and a band member was virtually nonexistent however over time a combination of people became most often associated with the name afro celt sound system while volume 5 anatomic only lists emmerson mcnally ó lionáird and russell as regulars the divided grouping of the band into two versions both operating under the name afro celt sound system began in january 2016 and was resolved in december 2016 after mcnally and russell agreed to work under a different name from emmerson simon emmerson who died on 13 march 2023 after falling ill nfaly kouyate johnny kalsi moussa sissokho griogair labhruidh ronan browne emer mayock davy spillane russellmcnally version martin russell james mcnally ian markin tim bradshaw babara bangoura dorothee munyaneza kadially kouyaté dav daheley other musicians who have performed or recorded with afro celt sound system include jimmy mahon demba barry babara bangoura iarla ó lionáird peter gabriel robert plant pete lockett sinéad oconnor pina kollar dorothee munyaneza sevara nazarkhan simon massey jesse cook martin hayes eileen ivers mundy mairéad ní mhaonaigh and ciarán tourish of altan ronan browne michael mcgoldrick myrdhin shooglenifty mairead nesbitt nigel eaton davy spillane jonas bruce heather nova julie murphy and ayub ogada caroline lavelle ross ainslie discography studio albums other albums pod remix album 2004 capture 19952010 2010 compilation no 14 nz they also recorded the soundtrack for the pc game magic and mayhem released in 1998 charted singles references external links real world records page celtic fusion groups worldbeat groups real world records artists british world music groups musical groups established in 1995 | 1,459 |
1167 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient%20philosophy | Ancient philosophy | this page lists some links to ancient philosophy namely philosophical thought extending as far as early postclassical history overview genuine philosophical thought depending upon original individual insights arose in many cultures roughly contemporaneously karl jaspers termed the intense period of philosophical development beginning around the 7th century bce and concluding around the 3rd century bce an axial age in human thought in western philosophy the spread of christianity in the roman empire marked the ending of hellenistic philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of medieval philosophy whereas in the middle east the spread of islam through the arab empire marked the end of old iranian philosophy and ushered in the beginnings of early islamic philosophy ancient greek and roman philosophy philosophers presocratic philosophers milesian school thales 624 c 546 bce anaximander 610 546 bce anaximenes of miletus c 585 c 525 bce pythagoreans pythagoras 582 496 bce philolaus 470 380 bce alcmaeon of croton archytas 428 347 bce heraclitus 535 475 bce eleatic school xenophanes 570 470 bce parmenides 510 440 bce zeno of elea 490 430 bce melissus of samos c 470 bce pluralists empedocles 490 430 bce anaxagoras 500 428 bce atomists leucippus first half of 5th century bce democritus 460 370 bce metrodorus of chios 4th century bce pherecydes of syros 6th century bce sophists protagoras 490 420 bce gorgias 487 376 bce antiphon 480 411 bce prodicus 465450 after 399 bce hippias middle of the 5th century bce thrasymachus 459 400 bce callicles critias lycophron diogenes of apollonia classical greek philosophers socrates 469 399 bce euclid of megara 450 380 bce antisthenes 445 360 bce aristippus 435 356 bce plato 428 347 bce speusippus 407 339 bce diogenes of sinope 400 325 bce xenocrates 396 314 bce aristotle 384 322 bce stilpo 380 300 bce theophrastus 370 288 bce hellenistic philosophy pyrrho 365 275 bce epicurus 341 270 bce metrodorus of lampsacus the younger 331 278 bce zeno of citium 333 263 bce cleanthes timon 320 230 bce arcesilaus 316 232 bce menippus 3rd century bce archimedes 212 bce chrysippus 280 207 bce carneades 214 129 bce clitomachus 187 109 bce metrodorus of stratonicea late 2nd century bce philo of larissa 160 80 bce posidonius 135 51 bce antiochus of ascalon 130 68 bce aenesidemus 1st century bce agrippa 1st century ce hellenistic schools of thought academic skepticism cynicism cyrenaicism eclecticism epicureanism middle platonism neoplatonism neopythagoreanism peripatetic school pyrrhonism stoicism sophism early roman and christian philosophy see also christian philosophy neoplatonism in christianity school of the sextii philosophers during roman times cicero 106 43 bce lucretius 94 55 bce seneca 4 bce 65 ce musonius rufus 30 100 ce plutarch 45 120 ce epictetus 55 135 ce favorinus marcus aurelius 121 180 ce clement of alexandria 150 215 ce alcinous philosopher 2nd century ce sextus empiricus 3rd century ce alexander of aphrodisias 3rd century ce ammonius saccas 3rd century ce plotinus 205 270 ce porphyry 232 304 ce iamblichus 242 327 ce themistius 317 388 ce ambrose 340 397 ce augustine of hippo 354 430 ce proclus 411 485 ce damascius 462 540 ce boethius 472 524 ce simplicius of cilicia 490 560 ce john philoponus 490 570 ce ancient iranian philosophy see also dualism dualism philosophy of mind while there are ancient relations between the indian vedas and the iranian avesta the two main families of the indoiranian philosophical traditions were characterized by fundamental differences in their implications for the human beings position in society and their view of mans role in the universe the first charter of human rights by cyrus the great as understood in the cyrus cylinder is often seen as a reflection of the questions and thoughts expressed by zarathustra and developed in zoroastrian schools of thought of the achaemenid era of iranian history schools of thought ideas and tenets of zoroastrian schools of early persian philosophy are part of many works written in middle persian and of the extant scriptures of the zoroastrian religion in avestan language among these are treatises such as the shikandgumanic vichar by mardanfarrux ohrmazddadan selections of denkard wizidagīhāī zātspram selections of zātspram as well as older passages of the book avesta the gathas which are attributed to zarathustra himself and regarded as his direct teachings zoroastrianism zarathustra jamasp ostanes mardanfarrux ohrmazddadan adurfarnbag farroxzadan adurbad emedan avesta gathas anacharsis premanichaean thought bardesanes manichaeism mani 276 ce ammo mazdakism mazdak the elder mazdak died c 524 or 528 ce zurvanism aesthetic zurvanism materialist zurvanism fatalistic zurvanism philosophy and the empire political philosophy tansar university of gundishapur borzouye bakhtshooa gondishapuri emperor khosraus philosophical discourses paul the persian literature pahlavi literature ancient jewish philosophy see also jewish philosophy hillel the elder 10ce philo of alexandria 30 bce 45 ce rabbi akiva ancient indian philosophy the ancient indian philosophy is a fusion of two ancient traditions the vedic tradition and the śramaṇa tradition vedic philosophy indian philosophy begins with the vedas wherein questions pertaining to laws of nature the origin of the universe and the place of man in it are asked in the famous rigvedic hymn of creation nasadiya sukta the poet asks whence all creation had its origin he whether he fashioned it or whether he did not he who surveys it all from highest heaven he knowsor maybe even he does not know in the vedic view creation is ascribed to the selfconsciousness of the primeval being purusha this leads to the inquiry into the one being that underlies the diversity of empirical phenomena and the origin of all things cosmic order is termed rta and causal law by karma nature prakriti is taken to have three qualities sattva rajas and tamas vedas upanishads hindu philosophy sramana philosophy jainism and buddhism are continuation of the sramana school of thought the sramanas cultivated a pessimistic worldview of the samsara as full of suffering and advocated renunciation and austerities they laid stress on philosophical concepts like ahimsa karma jnana samsara and moksa cārvāka sanskrit चरवक atheist philosophy also known as lokāyata it is a system of hindu philosophy that assumes various forms of philosophical skepticism and religious indifference it is named after its founder cārvāka author of the bārhaspatyasūtras classical indian philosophy in classical times these inquiries were systematized in six schools of philosophy some of the questions asked were what is the ontological nature of consciousness how is cognition itself experienced is mind chit intentional or not does cognition have its own structure the six schools of indian philosophy are nyaya vaisheshika samkhya yoga mimamsa purva mimamsa vedanta uttara mimamsa ancient indian philosophers 1st millennium bce parashara writer of viṣṇu purāṇa philosophers of vedic age c 1500 c 600 bce rishi narayana seer of the purusha sukta of the rig veda seven rishis atri bharadwaja gautama jamadagni kasyapa vasishtha viswamitra other vedic rishis gritsamada sandilya kanva etc rishaba rishi mentioned in rig veda and later in several puranas and believed by jains to be the first official religious guru of jainism as accredited by later followers yajnavalkya one of the vedic sages greatly influenced buddhistic thought lopamudra gargi vachaknavi maitreyi parshvanatha ghosha angiras one of the seers of the atharva veda and author of mundaka upanishad uddalaka aruni an upanishadic sage who authored major portions of chāndogya upaniṣad ashvapati a king in the later vedic age who authored vaishvanara vidya of chāndogya upaniṣad ashtavakra an upanishadic sage mentioned in the mahabharata who authored ashtavakra gita philosophers of axial age 600185 bce gotama logician author of nyaya sutra kanada founded the philosophical school of vaisheshika gave theory of atomism mahavira 599527 bce heavily influenced jainism the 24th tirthankara of jainism purana kassapa ajita kesakambali payasi makkhali gośāla sañjaya belaṭṭhiputta mahavira dandamis nagasena lakulisha pakudha kaccayana pāṇini 520460 bce grammarian author of ashtadhyayi kapila proponent of the samkhya system of philosophy badarayana lived between 500 bce and 400 bce author of brahma sutras jaimini author of purva mimamsa sutras pingala author of the chandas shastra gautama buddha founder of buddhist school of thought śāriputra chanakya author of arthashastra professor acharya of political science at the takshashila university patañjali developed the philosophy of raja yoga in his yoga sutras shvetashvatara author of earliest textual exposition of a systematic philosophy of shaivism philosophers of golden age 184 bce 600 ce aśvaghoṣa believed to have been the first sanskrit dramatist and is considered the greatest indian poet prior to kālidāsa vatsyana known for kama sutra samantabhadra a proponent of the jaina doctrine of anekantavada isvarakrsna aryadeva a student of nagarjuna and contributed significantly to the madhyamaka dharmakirti haribhadra pujyapada buddhaghosa kamandaka maticandra prashastapada bhāviveka dharmapala udyotakara gaudapada siddhasena valluvar wrote the kural text a tamillanguage treatise on morality and secular ethics dignāga one of the founders of buddhist school of indian logic asanga exponent of the yogacara bhartrihari 510 ce early figure in indic linguistic theory bodhidharma 528 ce founder of the zen school of buddhism siddhasena divākara 5th century ce jain logician and author of important works in sanskrit and prakrit such as nyāyāvatāra on logic and sanmatisūtra dealing with the seven jaina standpoints knowledge and the objects of knowledge vasubandhu one of the main founders of the indian yogacara school kundakunda 2nd century ce exponent of jain mysticism and jain nayas dealing with the nature of the soul and its contamination by matter author of pañcāstikāyasāra essence of the five existents the pravacanasāra essence of the scripture and the samayasāra essence of the doctrine nagarjuna 250 ce the founder of the madhyamaka middle path school of mahāyāna buddhism umāsvāti or umasvami 2nd century ce author of first jain work in sanskrit tattvārthasūtra expounding the jain philosophy in a most systematized form acceptable to all sects of jainism adi shankara philosopher and theologian most renowned exponent of the advaita vedanta school of philosophy ancient chinese philosophy chinese philosophy is the dominant philosophical thought in china and other countries within the east asian cultural sphere that share a common language including japan korea and vietnam schools of thought hundred schools of thought the hundred schools of thought were philosophers and schools that flourished from the 6th century to 221 bce an era of great cultural and intellectual expansion in china even though this period known in its earlier part as the spring and autumn period and the warring states period in its latter part was fraught with chaos and bloody battles it is also known as the golden age of chinese philosophy because a broad range of thoughts and ideas were developed and discussed freely the thoughts and ideas discussed and refined during this period have profoundly influenced lifestyles and social consciousness up to the present day in east asian countries the intellectual society of this era was characterized by itinerant scholars who were often employed by various state rulers as advisers on the methods of government war and diplomacy this period ended with the rise of the qin dynasty and the subsequent purge of dissent the book of han lists ten major schools they are confucianism which teaches that human beings are teachable improvable and perfectible through personal and communal endeavour especially including selfcultivation and selfcreation a main idea of confucianism is the cultivation of virtue and the development of moral perfection confucianism holds that one should give up ones life if necessary either passively or actively for the sake of upholding the cardinal moral values of ren and yi legalism often compared with machiavelli and foundational for the traditional chinese bureaucratic empire the legalists examined administrative methods emphasizing a realistic consolidation of the wealth and power of autocrat and state taoism also called daoism a philosophy which emphasizes the three jewels of the tao compassion moderation and humility while taoist thought generally focuses on nature the relationship between humanity and the cosmos health and longevity and wu wei action through inaction harmony with the universe or the source thereof tao is the intended result of many taoist rules and practices mohism which advocated the idea of universal love mozi believed that everyone is equal before heaven and that people should seek to imitate heaven by engaging in the practice of collective love his epistemology can be regarded as primitive materialist empiricism he believed that human cognition ought to be based on ones perceptions ones sensory experiences such as sight and hearing instead of imagination or internal logic elements founded on the human capacity for abstraction mozi advocated frugality condemning the confucian emphasis on ritual and music which he denounced as extravagant naturalism the school of naturalists or the yinyang school which synthesized the concepts of yin and yang and the five elements zou yan is considered the founder of this school agrarianism or the school of agrarianism which advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism the agrarians believed that chinese society should be modeled around that of the early sage king shen nong a folk hero which was portrayed in chinese literature as working in the fields along with everyone else and consulting with everyone else when any decision had to be reached the logicians or the school of names which focused on definition and logic it is said to have parallels with that of the ancient greek sophists or dialecticians the most notable logician was gongsun longzi the school of diplomacy or school of vertical and horizontal alliances which focused on practical matters instead of any moral principle so it stressed political and diplomatic tactics and debate and lobbying skill scholars from this school were good orators debaters and tacticians the miscellaneous school which integrated teachings from different schools for instance lü buwei found scholars from different schools to write a book called lüshi chunqiu cooperatively this school tried to integrate the merits of various schools and avoid their perceived flaws the school of minortalks which was not a unique school of thought but a philosophy constructed of all the thoughts which were discussed by and originated from normal people on the street another group is the school of the military that studied strategy and the philosophy of war sunzi and sun bin were influential leaders however this school was not one of the ten schools defined by hanshu early imperial china the founder of the qin dynasty who implemented legalism as the official philosophy quashed mohist and confucianist schools legalism remained influential until the emperors of the han dynasty adopted daoism and later confucianism as official doctrine these latter two became the determining forces of chinese thought until the introduction of buddhism confucianism was particularly strong during the han dynasty whose greatest thinker was dong zhongshu who integrated confucianism with the thoughts of the zhongshu school and the theory of the five elements he also was a promoter of the new text school which considered confucius as a divine figure and a spiritual ruler of china who foresaw and started the evolution of the world towards the universal peace in contrast there was an old text school that advocated the use of confucian works written in ancient language from this comes the denomination old text that were so much more reliable in particular they refuted the assumption of confucius as a godlike figure and considered him as the greatest sage but simply a human and mortal the 3rd and 4th centuries saw the rise of the xuanxue mysterious learning also called neotaoism the most important philosophers of this movement were wang bi xiang xiu and guo xiang the main question of this school was whether being came before notbeing in chinese ming and wuming a peculiar feature of these taoist thinkers like the seven sages of the bamboo grove was the concept of feng liu lit wind and flow a sort of romantic spirit which encouraged following the natural and instinctive impulse buddhism arrived in china around the 1st century ad but it was not until the northern and southern sui and tang dynasties that it gained considerable influence and acknowledgement at the beginning it was considered a sort of taoist sect and there was even a theory about laozi founder of taoism who went to india and taught his philosophy to buddha mahayana buddhism was far more successful in china than its rival hinayana and both indian schools and local chinese sects arose from the 5th century two chiefly important monk philosophers were sengzhao and daosheng but probably the most influential and original of these schools was the chan sect which had an even stronger impact in japan as the zen sect philosophers taoism laozi 5th4th century bce zhuangzi 4th century bce zhang daoling zhang jue died 184 ce ge hong 283 343 ce confucianism confucius mencius xun zi 230 bce legalism li si li kui han fei mi su yu shang yang shen buhai shen dao mohism mozi song xing logicians deng xi hui shi 380305 bce gongsun long agrarianism xu xing naturalism zou yan 305 240 bce neotaoism wang bi guo xiang xiang xiu school of diplomacy guiguzi su qin 380 284 bce zhang yi bef 329 309 bce yue yi li yiji 268 204 bce military strategy sunzi sun bin died 316 bce see also index of ancient philosophy articles wisdom literature references further reading luchte james early greek thought before the dawn in series bloomsbury studies in ancient philosophy bloomsbury publishing london 2011 external links | 2,880 |
1168 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaximander | Anaximander | anaximander anaximandros was a presocratic greek philosopher who lived in miletus a city of ionia in modernday turkey he belonged to the milesian school and learned the teachings of his master thales he succeeded thales and became the second master of that school where he counted anaximenes and arguably pythagoras amongst his pupils little of his life and work is known today according to available historical documents he is the first philosopher known to have written down his studies although only one fragment of his work remains fragmentary testimonies found in documents after his death provide a portrait of the man anaximander was an early proponent of science and tried to observe and explain different aspects of the universe with a particular interest in its origins claiming that nature is ruled by laws just like human societies and anything that disturbs the balance of nature does not last long like many thinkers of his time anaximanders philosophy included contributions to many disciplines in astronomy he attempted to describe the mechanics of celestial bodies in relation to the earth in physics his postulation that the indefinite or apeiron was the source of all things led greek philosophy to a new level of conceptual abstraction his knowledge of geometry allowed him to introduce the gnomon in greece he created a map of the world that contributed greatly to the advancement of geography he was also involved in the politics of miletus and was sent as a leader to one of its colonies biography anaximander son of praxiades was born in the third year of the 42nd olympiad 610 bc according to apollodorus of athens greek grammarian of the 2nd century bc he was sixtyfour years old during the second year of the 58th olympiad 547546 bc and died shortly afterwards establishing a timeline of his work is now impossible since no document provides chronological references themistius a 4thcentury byzantine rhetorician mentions that he was the first of the known greeks to publish a written document on nature therefore his texts would be amongst the earliest written in prose at least in the western world by the time of plato his philosophy was almost forgotten and aristotle his successor theophrastus and a few doxographers provide us with the little information that remains however we know from aristotle that thales also from miletus precedes anaximander it is debatable whether thales actually was the teacher of anaximander but there is no doubt that anaximander was influenced by thales theory that everything is derived from water one thing that is not debatable is that even the ancient greeks considered anaximander to be from the monist school which began in miletus with thales followed by anaximander and which ended with anaximenes 3rdcentury roman rhetorician aelian depicts anaximander as leader of the milesian colony to apollonia on the black sea coast and hence some have inferred that he was a prominent citizen indeed various history iii 17 explains that philosophers sometimes also dealt with political matters it is very likely that leaders of miletus sent him there as a legislator to create a constitution or simply to maintain the colonys allegiance anaximander lived the final few years of his life as a subject of the persian achaemenid empire theories anaximanders theories were influenced by the greek mythical tradition and by some ideas of thales the father of western philosophy as well as by observations made by older civilizations in the near east especially babylon all these were developed rationally in his desire to find some universal principle he assumed like traditional religion the existence of a cosmic order and his ideas on this used the old language of myths which ascribed divine control to various spheres of reality this was a common practice for the greek philosophers in a society which saw gods everywhere and therefore could fit their ideas into a tolerably elastic system some scholars see a gap between the existing mythical and the new rational way of thought which is the main characteristic of the archaic period 8th to 6th century bc in the greek citystates this has given rise to the phrase greek miracle but there may not have been such an abrupt break as initially appears the basic elements of nature water air fire earth which the first greek philosophers believed made up the universe in fact represent the primordial forces imagined in earlier ways of thinking their collision produced what the mythical tradition had called cosmic harmony in the old cosmogonies hesiod 8th 7th century bc and pherecydes 6th century bc zeus establishes his order in the world by destroying the powers which were threatening this harmony the titans anaximander claimed that the cosmic order is not monarchic but geometric and that this causes the equilibrium of the earth which is lying in the centre of the universe this is the projection on nature of a new political order and a new space organized around a centre which is the static point of the system in the society as in nature in this space there is isonomy equal rights and all the forces are symmetrical and transferable the decisions are now taken by the assembly of demos in the agora which is lying in the middle of the city the same rational way of thought led him to introduce the abstract apeiron indefinite infinite boundless unlimited as an origin of the universe a concept that is probably influenced by the original chaos gaping void abyss formless state from which everything else appeared in the mythical greek cosmogony it also takes notice of the mutual changes between the four elements origin then must be something else unlimited in its source that could create without experiencing decay so that genesis would never stop apeiron the refutation attributed to hippolytus of rome i 5 and the later 6th century byzantine philosopher simplicius of cilicia attribute to anaximander the earliest use of the word apeiron infinite or limitless to designate the original principle he was the first philosopher to employ in a philosophical context the term archē which until then had meant beginning or origin that anaximander called this something by the name of is the natural interpretation of what theophrastos says the current statement that the term was introduced by him appears to be due to a misunderstanding and hippolytos however is not an independent authority and the only question is what theophrastos wrote for him it became no longer a mere point in time but a source that could perpetually give birth to whatever will be the indefiniteness is spatial in early usages as in homer indefinite sea and as in xenophanes 6th century bc who said that the earth went down indefinitely to apeiron ie beyond the imagination or concept of men burnet 1930 in early greek philosophy says nearly all we know of anaximanders system is derived in the last resort from theophrastos who certainly knew his book he seems once at least to have quoted anaximanders own words and he criticised his style here are the remains of what he said of him in the first book anaximander of miletos son of praxiades a fellowcitizen and associate of thales said that the material cause and first element of things was the infinite he being the first to introduce this name of the material cause he says it is neither water nor any other of the socalled elements but a substance different from them which is infinite apeiron or from which arise all the heavens and the worlds within themphys op fr 2 dox p 476 r p 16 burnets quote from the first book is his translation of theophrastos physic opinion fragment 2 as it appears in p 476 of historia philosophiae graecae 1898 by ritter and preller and section 16 of doxographi graeci 1879 by diels by ascribing the infinite with a material cause theophrastos is following the aristotelian tradition of nearly always discussing the facts from the point of view of his own system aristotle writes metaphysics iiii 34 that the presocratics were searching for the element that constitutes all things while each presocratic philosopher gave a different answer as to the identity of this element water for thales and air for anaximenes anaximander understood the beginning or first principle to be an endless unlimited primordial mass apeiron subject to neither old age nor decay that perpetually yielded fresh materials from which everything we perceive is derived he proposed the theory of the apeiron in direct response to the earlier theory of his teacher thales who had claimed that the primary substance was water the notion of temporal infinity was familiar to the greek mind from remote antiquity in the religious concept of immortality and anaximanders description was in terms appropriate to this conception this archē is called eternal and ageless hippolytus refutation i6idk b2 aristotle puts things in his own way regardless of historical considerations and it is difficult to see that it is more of an anachronism to call the boundless intermediate between the elements than to say that it is distinct from the elements indeed if once we introduce the elements at all the former description is the more adequate of the two at any rate if we refuse to understand these passages as referring to anaximander we shall have to say that aristotle paid a great deal of attention to some one whose very name has been lost and who not only agreed with some of anaximanders views but also used some of his most characteristic expressions we may add that in one or two places aristotle certainly seems to identify the intermediate with the something distinct from the elements it is certain that he anaximander cannot have said anything about elements which no one thought of before empedokles and no one could think of before parmenides the question has only been mentioned because it has given rise to a lengthy controversy and because it throws light on the historical value of aristotles statements from the point of view of his own system these may be justified but we shall have to remember in other cases that when he seems to attribute an idea to some earlier thinker we are not bound to take what he says in an historical sense for anaximander the principle of things the constituent of all substances is nothing determined and not an element such as water in thales view neither is it something halfway between air and water or between air and fire thicker than air and fire or more subtle than water and earth anaximander argues that water cannot embrace all of the opposites found in nature for example water can only be wet never dry and therefore cannot be the one primary substance nor could any of the other candidates he postulated the apeiron as a substance that although not directly perceptible to us could explain the opposites he saw around him if thales had been right in saying that water was the fundamental reality it would not be easy to see how anything else could ever have existed one side of the opposition the cold and moist would have had its way unchecked and the warm and dry would have been driven from the field long ago we must then have something not itself one of the warring opposites something more primitive out of which they arise and into which they once more pass away anaximander explains how the four elements of ancient physics air earth water and fire are formed and how earth and terrestrial beings are formed through their interactions unlike other presocratics he never defines this principle precisely and it has generally been understood eg by aristotle and by saint augustine as a sort of primal chaos according to him the universe originates in the separation of opposites in the primordial matter it embraces the opposites of hot and cold wet and dry and directs the movement of things an entire host of shapes and differences then grow that are found in all the worlds for he believed there were many anaximander taught then that there was an eternal the indestructible something out of which everything arises and into which everything returns a boundless stock from which the waste of existence is continually made good elements that is only the natural development of the thought we have ascribed to thales and there can be no doubt that anaximander at least formulated it distinctly indeed we can still follow to some extent the reasoning which led him to do so thales had regarded water as the most likely thing to be that of which all others are forms anaximander appears to have asked how the primary substance could be one of these particular things his argument seems to be preserved by aristotle who has the following passage in his discussion of the infinite further there cannot be a single simple body which is infinite either as some hold one distinct from the elements which they then derive from it or without this qualification for there are some who make this ie a body distinct from the elements the infinite and not air or water in order that the other things may not be destroyed by their infinity they are in opposition one to another air is cold water moist and fire hot and therefore if any one of them were infinite the rest would have ceased to be by this time accordingly they say that what is infinite is something other than the elements and from it the elements arisearistotle physics f 5 204 b 22 ritter and preller 1898 historia philosophiae graecae section 16 b anaximander maintains that all dying things are returning to the element from which they came apeiron the one surviving fragment of anaximanders writing deals with this matter simplicius transmitted it as a quotation which describes the balanced and mutual changes of the elements whence things have their origin thence also their destruction happens according to necessity for they give to each other justice and recompense for their injustice in conformity with the ordinance of time simplicius mentions that anaximander said all these in poetic terms meaning that he used the old mythical language the goddess justice dike keeps the cosmic order this concept of returning to the element of origin was often revisited afterwards notably by aristotle and by the greek tragedian euripides what comes from earth must return to earth friedrich nietzsche in his philosophy in the tragic age of the greeks stated that anaximander viewed all comingtobe as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being a wrong for which destruction is the only penance physicist max born in commenting upon werner heisenbergs arriving at the idea that the elementary particles of quantum mechanics are to be seen as different manifestations different quantum states of one and the same primordial substance proposed that this primordial substance be called apeiron a freefloating earth anaximander was the first to conceive a mechanical model of the world in his model the earth floats very still in the centre of the infinite not supported by anything it remains in the same place because of its indifference a point of view that aristotle considered ingenious in on the heavens its curious shape is that of a cylinder with a height onethird of its diameter the flat top forms the inhabited world which is surrounded by a circular oceanic mass carlo rovelli suggests that anaximander took the idea of the earths shape as a floating disk from thales who had imagined the earth floating in water the immense ocean from which everything is born and upon which the earth floats anaximander was then able to envisage the earth at the centre of an infinite space in which case it required no support as there was nowhere down to fall in rovellis view the shape a cylinder or a sphere is unimportant compared to the appreciation of a finite body that floats free in space anaximanders realization that the earth floats free without falling and does not need to be resting on something has been indicated by many as the first cosmological revolution and the starting point of scientific thinking karl popper calls this idea one of the boldest most revolutionary and most portentous ideas in the whole history of human thinking such a model allowed the concept that celestial bodies could pass under the earth opening the way to greek astronomy rovelli suggests that seeing the stars circling the pole star and both vanishing below the horizon on one side and reappearing above it on the other would suggest to the astronomer that there was a void both above and below the earth cosmology anaximanders bold use of nonmythological explanatory hypotheses considerably distinguishes him from previous cosmology writers such as hesiod it indicates a presocratic effort to demystify physical processes his major contribution to history was writing the oldest prose document about the universe and the origins of life for this he is often called the father of cosmology and founder of astronomy however pseudoplutarch states that he still viewed celestial bodies as deities he placed the celestial bodies in the wrong order he thought that the stars were nearest to the earth then the moon and the sun farthest away his scheme is compatible with the indoiranian philosophical traditions contained in the iranian avesta och the indian upanishads at the origin after the separation of hot and cold a ball of flame appeared that surrounded earth like bark on a tree this ball broke apart to form the rest of the universe it resembled a system of hollow concentric wheels filled with fire with the rims pierced by holes like those of a flute consequently the sun was the fire that one could see through a hole the same size as the earth on the farthest wheel and an eclipse corresponded with the occlusion of that hole the diameter of the solar wheel was twentyseven times that of the earth or twentyeight depending on the sources and the lunar wheel whose fire was less intense eighteen or nineteen times its hole could change shape thus explaining lunar phases the stars and the planets located closer followed the same model anaximander was the first astronomer to consider the sun as a huge mass and consequently to realize how far from earth it might be and the first to present a system where the celestial bodies turned at different distances furthermore according to diogenes laertius ii 2 he built a celestial sphere this invention undoubtedly made him the first to realize the obliquity of the zodiac as the roman philosopher pliny the elder reports in natural history ii 8 it is a little early to use the term ecliptic but his knowledge and work on astronomy confirm that he must have observed the inclination of the celestial sphere in relation to the plane of the earth to explain the seasons the doxographer and theologian aetius attributes to pythagoras the exact measurement of the obliquity multiple worlds according to simplicius anaximander already speculated on the plurality of worlds similar to atomists leucippus and democritus and later philosopher epicurus these thinkers supposed that worlds appeared and disappeared for a while and that some were born when others perished they claimed that this movement was eternal for without movement there can be no generation no destruction in addition to simplicius hippolytus reports anaximanders claim that from the infinite comes the principle of beings which themselves come from the heavens and the worlds several doxographers use the plural when this philosopher is referring to the worlds within which are often infinite in quantity cicero writes that he attributes different gods to the countless worlds this theory places anaximander close to the atomists and the epicureans who more than a century later also claimed that an infinity of worlds appeared and disappeared in the timeline of the greek history of thought some thinkers conceptualized a single world plato aristotle anaxagoras and archelaus while others instead speculated on the existence of a series of worlds continuous or noncontinuous anaximenes heraclitus empedocles and diogenes meteorological phenomena anaximander attributed some phenomena such as thunder and lightning to the intervention of elements rather than to divine causes in his system thunder results from the shock of clouds hitting each other the loudness of the sound is proportionate with that of the shock thunder without lightning is the result of the wind being too weak to emit any flame but strong enough to produce a sound a flash of lightning without thunder is a jolt of the air that disperses and falls allowing a less active fire to break free thunderbolts are the result of a thicker and more violent air flow he saw the sea as a remnant of the mass of humidity that once surrounded earth a part of that mass evaporated under the suns action thus causing the winds and even the rotation of the celestial bodies which he believed were attracted to places where water is more abundant he explained rain as a product of the humidity pumped up from earth by the sun for him the earth was slowly drying up and water only remained in the deepest regions which someday would go dry as well according to aristotles meteorology ii 3 democritus also shared this opinion origin of mankind anaximander speculated about the beginnings and origin of animal life and that humans came from other animals in waters according to his evolutionary theory animals sprang out of the sea long ago born trapped in a spiny bark but as they got older the bark would dry up and animals would be able to break it as the early humidity evaporated dry land emerged and in time humankind had to adapt the 3rd century roman writer censorinus reports anaximander put forward the idea that humans had to spend part of this transition inside the mouths of big fish to protect themselves from the earths climate until they could come out in open air and lose their scales he thought that considering humans extended infancy we could not have survived in the primeval world in the same manner we do presently other accomplishments cartography both strabo and agathemerus later greek geographers claim that according to the geographer eratosthenes anaximander was the first to publish a map of the world the map probably inspired the greek historian hecataeus of miletus to draw a more accurate version strabo viewed both as the first geographers after homer maps were produced in ancient times also notably in egypt lydia the middle east and babylon only some small examples survived until today the unique example of a world map comes from the late babylonian map of the world later than 9th century bc but is based probably on a much older map these maps indicated directions roads towns borders and geological features anaximanders innovation was to represent the entire inhabited land known to the ancient greeks such an accomplishment is more significant than it at first appears anaximander most likely drew this map for three reasons first it could be used to improve navigation and trade between miletuss colonies and other colonies around the mediterranean sea and black sea second thales would probably have found it easier to convince the ionian citystates to join in a federation in order to push the median threat away if he possessed such a tool finally the philosophical idea of a global representation of the world simply for the sake of knowledge was reason enough to design one surely aware of the seas convexity he may have designed his map on a slightly rounded metal surface the centre or navel of the world omphalós gẽs could have been delphi but is more likely in anaximanders time to have been located near miletus the aegean sea was near the maps centre and enclosed by three continents themselves located in the middle of the ocean and isolated like islands by sea and rivers europe was bordered on the south by the mediterranean sea and was separated from asia by the black sea the lake maeotis and further east either by the phasis river now called the rioni in georgia or the tanais the nile flowed south into the ocean separating libya which was the name for the part of the thenknown african continent from asia gnomon the suda relates that anaximander explained some basic notions of geometry it also mentions his interest in the measurement of time and associates him with the introduction in greece of the gnomon in lacedaemon he participated in the construction or at least in the adjustment of sundials to indicate solstices and equinoxes indeed a gnomon required adjustments from a place to another because of the difference in latitude in his time the gnomon was simply a vertical pillar or rod mounted on a horizontal plane the position of its shadow on the plane indicated the time of day as it moves through its apparent course the sun draws a curve with the tip of the projected shadow which is shortest at noon when pointing due south the variation in the tips position at noon indicates the solar time and the seasons the shadow is longest on the winter solstice and shortest on the summer solstice the invention of the gnomon itself cannot be attributed to anaximander because its use as well as the division of days into twelve parts came from the babylonians it is they according to herodotus histories ii 109 who gave the greeks the art of time measurement it is likely that he was not the first to determine the solstices because no calculation is necessary on the other hand equinoxes do not correspond to the middle point between the positions during solstices as the babylonians thought as the suda seems to suggest it is very likely that with his knowledge of geometry he became the first greek to determine accurately the equinoxes prediction of an earthquake in his philosophical work de divinatione i 50 112 cicero states that anaximander convinced the inhabitants of lacedaemon to abandon their city and spend the night in the country with their weapons because an earthquake was near the city collapsed when the top of the taygetus split like the stern of a ship pliny the elder also mentions this anecdote ii 81 suggesting that it came from an admirable inspiration as opposed to cicero who did not associate the prediction with divination scientific method rovelli credits anaximander with pioneering the first great scientific revolution in history by introducing the naturalistic approach to understanding the universe according to which the universe operates by inviolable laws without recourse to supernatural explanations according to rovelli anaximander not only paved the way for modern science but revolutionized the process for how we form our worldview by constantly questioning and rejecting certainty rovelli further states that anaximander has not been given his due credit largely because his naturalistic approach was strongly opposed in antiquity among others by aristotle and had yet to yield the tangible benefits it has today legacy in the 2017 essay collection anaximander in context new studies on the origins of greek philosophy dirk couprie robert hahn and gerald naddaf describe anaximander as one of the greatest minds in history but one that has not been given his due couprie goes to state that he considers him on par with newton bertrand russell in the history of western philosophy interprets anaximanders theories as an assertion of the necessity of an appropriate balance between earth fire and water all of which may be independently seeking to aggrandize their proportions relative to the others anaximander seems to express his belief that a natural order ensures balance among these elements that where there was fire ashes earth now exist his greek peers echoed this sentiment with their belief in natural boundaries beyond which not even the gods could operate friedrich nietzsche in philosophy in the tragic age of the greeks claimed that anaximander was a pessimist who asserted that the primal being of the world was a state of indefiniteness in accordance with this anything definite has to eventually pass back into indefiniteness in other words anaximander viewed all comingtobe as though it were an illegitimate emancipation from eternal being a wrong for which destruction is the only penance ibid 4 the world of individual objects in this way of thinking has no worth and should perish martin heidegger lectured extensively on anaximander and delivered a lecture entitled anaximanders saying which was subsequently included in off the beaten track the lecture examines the ontological difference and the oblivion of being or dasein in the context of the anaximander fragment heideggers lecture is in turn an important influence on the french philosopher jacques derrida the anaximander 31st high school of thessaloniki greece is named after anaximander works according to the suda on nature perì phúseôs rotation of the earth gễs períodos on fixed stars perì tỗn aplanỗn the celestial sphere sphaĩra see also indefinite monism references sources primary aelian various history iii 17 aëtius de fide iiii v agathemerus a sketch of geography in epitome i 1 aristotle meteorology ii 3 translated by e w webster aristotle on generation and corruption ii 5 translated by h h joachim aristotle on the heavens ii 13 translated by j l stocks iii 5 204 b 3334 censorinus de die natali iv 7 see original text at lacuscurtius i 50 112 cicero on the nature of the gods i 10 25 euripides the suppliants 532 translated by e p coleridge eusebius of caesarea preparation for the gospel x 14 11 translated by eh gifford heidel wa anaximanders book paaas vol 56 n7 1921 pp 239288 herodotus histories ii 109 see original text in perseus project hippolytus refutation of all heresies i 5 translated by roberts and donaldson pliny the elder natural history ii 8 see original text in perseus project pseudoplutarch the doctrines of the philosophers i 3 i 7 ii 2028 iii 216 v 19 seneca the younger natural questions ii 18 simplicius comments on aristotles physics 24 1325 1121 59 strabo geography i 1 books 17 1517 translated by h l jones themistius oratio 36 317 the suda suda on line secondary the default source anything not otherwise attributed should be in conche external links philoctete anaximandre fragments grk icon the internet encyclopedia of philosophy anaximander extensive bibliography by dirk couprie anaximander of miletus life and work fragments and testimonies by giannis stamatellos 6thcentury bc greek philosophers 610s bc births year of birth unknown 540s bc deaths year of death unknown ancient greek astronomers ancient greek cartographers ancient greek metaphysicians ancient greek physicists ancient greeks from the achaemenid empire ancient milesians natural philosophers philosophers of ancient ionia presocratic philosophers 6thcentury bc geographers 6thcentury bc astronomers | 5,155 |
1169 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APL | APL | apl is an abbreviation acronym or initialism that may refer to science and technology 132524 apl an asteroid abductor pollicis longus muscle in the human hand acute promyelocytic leukemia a subtype of acute myelogenous leukemia applied physics letters a physics journal nampula airport iata airport code apl in mozambique computers apl the file extension of the monkeys audio metadata file amd performance library renamed framewave a computer compiler library apl programming language an arraybased programming language apl codepage the character set for programming in apl address prefix list a dns record type address programming language an early highlevel programming language developed in the soviet union advanced physical layer an extension of ethernet 10baset1l for field devices alexa presentation language a language for developing amazon alexa skills software licences adaptive public license an open source license from the university of victoria canada aros public license a license of aros research operating system arphic public license a free font license organizations apl shipping company a singaporebased container and shipping company aden protectorate levies a militia force for local defense of the aden protectorate advanced production and loading a norwegian marine engineering company formed in 1993 afghanistan premier league an afghan twenty20 cricket league afghan premier league a mens football league in afghanistan american patriot league a proposed american football spring league american premiere league a twenty20 cricket league in the us american president lines a container transportation and shipping company american protective league a world war iera prowar organization applied physics laboratory at johns hopkins university applied physics laboratory at the university of washington association of pension lawyers uk aurora public library disambiguation australian professional leagues an australian soccer governing body irish antipartition league a northern ireland political organisation other uses apldeap born 1974 pseudonym of allan pineda lindo filipinoamerican musician auxiliary personal living a us navy hull classification for barracks craft see | 311 |
1170 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architect | Architect | an architect is a person who plans designs and oversees the construction of buildings to practice architecture means to provide services in connection with the design of buildings and the space within the site surrounding the buildings that have human occupancy or use as their principal purpose etymologically the term architect derives from the latin which derives from the greek chief builder ie chief builder the professional requirements for architects vary from location to location an architects decisions affect public safety and thus the architect must undergo specialized training consisting of advanced education and a practicum or internship for practical experience to earn a license to practice architecture practical technical and academic requirements for becoming an architect vary by jurisdiction though the formal study of architecture in academic institutions has played a pivotal role in the development of the profession origins throughout ancient and medieval history most architectural design and construction was carried out by artisanssuch as stone masons and carpenters rising to the role of master builder until modern times there was no clear distinction between architect and engineer in europe the titles architect and engineer were primarily geographical variations that referred to the same person often used interchangeably architect derives from greek master builder chief it is suggested that various developments in technology and mathematics allowed the development of the professional gentleman architect separate from the handson craftsman paper was not used in europe for drawing until the 15th century but became increasingly available after 1500 pencils were used for drawing by 1600 the availability of both paper and pencils allowed preconstruction drawings to be made by professionals concurrently the introduction of linear perspective and innovations such as the use of different projections to describe a threedimensional building in two dimensions together with an increased understanding of dimensional accuracy helped building designers communicate their ideas however development was gradual and slow going until the 18thcentury buildings continued to be designed and set out by craftsmen with the exception of highstatus projects architecture in most developed countries only those qualified with an appropriate license certification or registration with a relevant body often governmental may legally practice architecture such licensure usually required a university degree successful completion of exams as well as a training period representation of oneself as an architect through the use of terms and titles were restricted to licensed individuals by law although in general derivatives such as architectural designer were not legally protected to practice architecture implies the ability to practice independently of supervision the term building design professional or design professional by contrast is a much broader term that includes professionals who practice independently under an alternate profession such as engineering professionals or those who assist in the practice of architecture under the supervision of a licensed architect such as intern architects in many places independent nonlicensed individuals may perform design services outside the professional restrictions such as the design houses or other smaller structures practice in the architectural profession technical and environmental knowledge design and construction management require an understanding of business as well as design however design is the driving force throughout the project and beyond an architect accepts a commission from a client the commission might involve preparing feasibility reports building audits designing a building or several buildings structures and the spaces among them the architect participates in developing the requirements the client wants in the building throughout the project planning to occupancy the architect coordinates a design team structural mechanical and electrical engineers are hired by the client or architect who must ensure that the work is coordinated to construct the design design role the architect once hired by a client is responsible for creating a design concept that meets the requirements of that client and provides a facility suitable to the required use the architect must meet with and put questions to the client in order to ascertain all the requirements and nuances of the planned project often the full brief is not clear in the beginning it involves a degree of risk in the design undertaking the architect may make early proposals to the client which may rework the terms of the brief the program or brief is essential to producing a project that meets all the needs of the owner this becomes a guide for the architect in creating the design concept design proposals are generally expected to be both imaginative and pragmatic much depends upon the time place finance culture and available crafts and technology in which the design takes place the extent and nature of these expectations will vary foresight is a prerequisite when designing buildings as it is a very complex and demanding undertaking any design concept during the early stage of its generation must take into account a great number of issues and variables including qualities of spaces the enduse and lifecycle of these proposed spaces connections relations and aspects between spaces including how they are put together and the impact of proposals on the immediate and wider locality selection of appropriate materials and technology must be considered tested and reviewed at an early stage in the design to ensure there are no setbacks such as higherthanexpected costs which could occur later in the project the site and its surrounding environment as well as the culture and history of the place will also influence the design the design must also balance increasing concerns with environmental sustainability the architect may introduce intentionally or not aspects of mathematics and architecture new or current architectural theory or references to architectural history a key part of the design is that the architect often must consult with engineers surveyors and other specialists throughout the design ensuring that aspects such as structural supports and air conditioning elements are coordinated the control and planning of construction costs are also a part of these consultations coordination of the different aspects involves a high degree of specialized communication including advanced computer technology such as building information modeling bim computeraided design cad and cloudbased technologies finally at all times the architect must report back to the client who may have reservations or recommendations which might introduce further variables into the design architects also deal with local and federal jurisdictions regarding regulations and building codes the architect might need to comply with local planning and zoning laws such as required setbacks height limitations parking requirements transparency requirements windows and land use some jurisdictions require adherence to design and historic preservation guidelines health and safety risks form a vital part of the current design and in some jurisdictions design reports and records are required to include ongoing considerations of materials and contaminants waste management and recycling traffic control and fire safety means of design previously architects employed drawings to illustrate and generate design proposals while conceptual sketches are still widely used by architects computer technology has now become the industry standard furthermore design may include the use of photos collages prints linocuts 3d scanning technology and other media in design production increasingly computer software is shaping how architects work bim technology allows for the creation of a virtual building that serves as an information database for the sharing of design and building information throughout the lifecycle of the buildings design construction and maintenance virtual reality vr presentations are becoming more common for visualizing structural designs and interior spaces from the pointofview perspective environmental role since modern buildings are known to place carbon into the atmosphere increasing controls are being placed on buildings and associated technology to reduce emissions increase energy efficiency and make use of renewable energy sources renewable energy sources may be designed into the proposed building by local or national renewable energy providers as a result the architect is required to remain abreast of current regulations that are continually being updated some new developments exhibit extremely low energy use or passive solar building design however the architect is also increasingly being required to provide initiatives in a wider environmental sense examples of this include making provisions for lowenergy transport natural daylighting instead of artificial lighting natural ventilation instead of air conditioning pollution and waste management use of recycled materials and employment of materials which can be easily recycled construction role as the design becomes more advanced and detailed specifications and detail designs are made of all the elements and components of the building techniques in the production of a building are continually advancing which places a demand on the architect to ensure that he or she remains up to date with these advances depending on the clients needs and the jurisdictions requirements the spectrum of the architects services during each construction stage may be extensive detailed document preparation and construction review or less involved such as allowing a contractor to exercise considerable designbuild functions architects typically put projects to tender on behalf of their clients advise them on the award of the project to a general contractor facilitate and administer a contract of agreement which is often between the client and the contractor this contract is legally binding and covers a wide range of aspects including the insurance and commitments of all stakeholders the status of the design documents provisions for the architects access and procedures for the control of the works as they proceed depending on the type of contract utilized provisions for further subcontract tenders may be required the architect may require that some elements are covered by a warranty which specifies the expected life and other aspects of the material product or work in most jurisdictions prior notification to the relevant authority must be given before commencement of the project giving the local authority notice to carry out independent inspections the architect will then review and inspect the progress of the work in coordination with the local authority the architect will typically review contractor shop drawings and other submittals prepare and issue site instructions and provide certificates for payment to the contractor see also designbidbuild which is based on the work done as well as any materials and other goods purchased or hired in the future in the united kingdom and other countries a quantity surveyor is often part of the team to provide cost consulting with large complex projects an independent construction manager is sometimes hired to assist in the design and management of the construction in many jurisdictions mandatory certification or assurance of the completed work or part of works is required this demand for certification entails a high degree of risk therefore regular inspections of the work as it progresses on site is required to ensure that the design is in compliance itself as well as following all relevant statutes and permissions alternate practice and specializations recent decades have seen the rise of specializations within the profession many architects and architectural firms focus on certain project types eg healthcare retail public housing and event management technological expertise or project delivery methods some architects specialize in building code building envelope sustainable design technical writing historic preservationus or conservation uk and accessibility many architects elect to move into real estate property development corporate facilities planning project management construction management chief sustainability officers interior design city planning user experience design and design research professional requirements although there are variations in each location most of the worlds architects are required to register with the appropriate jurisdiction architects are typically required to meet three common requirements education experience and examination basic educational requirement generally consist of a university degree in architecture the experience requirement for degree candidates is usually satisfied by a practicum or internship usually two to three years finally a registration examination or a series of exams is required prior to licensure professionals who engaged in the design and supervision of construction projects prior to the late 19th century were not necessarily trained in a separate architecture program in an academic setting instead they often trained under established architects prior to modern times there was no distinction between architects and engineers and the title used varied depending on geographical location they often carried the title of master builder or surveyor after serving a number of years as an apprentice such as sir christopher wren the formal study of architecture in academic institutions played a pivotal role in the development of the profession as a whole serving as a focal point for advances in architectural technology and theory the use of architect or abbreviations such as ar as a title attached to a persons name was regulated by law in some countries fees architects fee structure was typically based on a percentage of construction value as a rate per unit area of the proposed construction hourly rates or a fixed lump sum fee combination of these structures was also common fixed fees were usually based on a projects allocated construction cost and could range between 4 and 12 of new construction cost for commercial and institutional projects depending on a projects size and complexity residential projects ranged from 12 to 20 renovation projects typically commanded higher percentages such as 1520 overall billings for architectural firms range widely depending on their location and economic climate billings have traditionally been dependent on the local economic conditions but with rapid globalization this is becoming less of a factor for large international firms salaries could also vary depending on experience position within the firm ie staff architect partner or shareholder etc and the size and location of the firm professional organizations a number of national professional organizations exist to promote career and business development in architecture the international union of architects uia the american institute of architects aia us royal institute of british architects riba uk architects registration board arb uk the australian institute of architects aia australia the south african institute of architects saia south africa association of consultant architects aca uk association of licensed architects ala us the consejo profesional de arquitectura y urbanismo cpau argentina indian institute of architects iia council of architecture coa india the national organization of minority architects noma us prizes and awards a wide variety of prizes is awarded by national professional associations and other bodies recognizing accomplished architects their buildings structures and professional careers the most lucrative award an architect can receive is the pritzker prize sometimes termed the nobel prize for architecture the inaugural pritzker prize winner was philip johnson who was cited for 50 years of imagination and vitality embodied in a myriad of museums theatres libraries houses gardens and corporate structure the pritzker prize has been awarded for fortytwo straight editions without interruption and there are now 22 countries with at least one winning architect other prestigious architectural awards are the royal gold medal the aia gold medal us aia gold medal australia and the praemium imperiale architects in the uk who have made contributions to the profession through design excellence or architectural education or have in some other way advanced the profession might until 1971 be elected fellows of the royal institute of british architects and can write friba after their name if they feel so inclined those elected to chartered membership of the riba after 1971 may use the initials riba but cannot use the old ariba and friba an honorary fellow may use the initials hon friba and an international fellow may use the initials int friba architects in the us who have made contributions to the profession through design excellence or architectural education or have in some other way advanced the profession are elected fellows of the american institute of architects and can write faia after their name architects in canada who have made outstanding contributions to the profession through contribution to research scholarship public service or professional standing to the good of architecture in canada or elsewhere may be recognized as a fellow of the royal architectural institute of canada and can write fraic after their name in hong kong those elected to chartered membership may use the initial hkia and those who have made a special contribution after nomination and election by the hong kong institute of architects hkia may be elected as fellow members of hkia and may use fhkia after their name see also references architecture occupations professional certification in architecture | 2,694 |
1171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbreviation | Abbreviation | an abbreviation from latin meaning short is a shortened form of a word or phrase by any method it may consist of a group of letters or words taken from the full version of the word or phrase for example the word abbreviation itself can be abbreviated as abbr abbrv or abbrev npo for nil or nothing per by os mouth is an abbreviated medical instruction it may also consist of initials only a mixture of initials and words or words or letters representing words in another language for example eg ie or rsvp some types of abbreviations are acronyms some pronounceable some initialisms or grammatical contractions or crasis an abbreviation is a shortening by any of these or other methods types acronyms initialisms contractions and crasis share some semantic and phonetic functions and all four are connected by the term abbreviation in loose parlance an initialism is an abbreviation pronounced by spelling out each letter ie fbi usa ibm bbc a contraction is a reduction in the length of a word or phrase made by omitting certain of its letters or syllables consequently contractions are a subset of abbreviations often but not always the contraction includes the first and last letters or elements examples of contractions are lil for little im for i am and hedve for he would have history abbreviations have a long history they were created to avoid spelling out whole words this might be done to save time and space given that many inscriptions were carved in stone and also to provide secrecy in both greece and rome the reduction of words to single letters was common in roman inscriptions words were commonly abbreviated by using the initial letter or letters of words and most inscriptions have at least one abbreviation however some could have more than one meaning depending on their context for example can be an abbreviation for many words such as and many frequent abbreviations consisted of more than one letter for example cos for consul and coss for its nominative etc plural consules abbreviations were frequently used in english from its earliest days manuscripts of copies of the old english poem beowulf used many abbreviations for example the tironian et or for and and for since so that not much space is wasted the standardisation of english in the 15th through 17th centuries included a growth in the use of such abbreviations at first abbreviations were sometimes represented with various suspension signs not only periods for example sequences like were replaced with as in for master and for exacerbate while this may seem trivial it was symptomatic of an attempt by people manually reproducing academic texts to reduce the copy time in the early modern english period between the 15th and 17th centuries the thorn was used for th as in the in modern times was often used in the form for promotional reasons as in during the growth of philological linguistic theory in academic britain abbreviating became very fashionable likewise a century earlier in boston a fad of abbreviation started that swept the united states with the globally popular term ok generally credited as a remnant of its influence over the years however the lack of convention in some style guides has made it difficult to determine which twoword abbreviations should be abbreviated with periods and which should not this question is considered below widespread use of electronic communication through mobile phones and the internet during the 1990s led to a marked rise in colloquial abbreviation this was due largely to increasing popularity of textual communication services such as instant and text messaging the original sms supported message lengths of 160 characters at most using the gsm 0338 character set for instance this brevity gave rise to an informal abbreviation scheme sometimes called textese with which 10 or more of the words in a typical sms message are abbreviated more recently twitter a popular social networking service began driving abbreviation use with 140 character message limits in html abbreviations can be annotated using abbr titlemeaning of the abbreviationabbreviationabbr to reveal its meaning by hovering the cursor style conventions in english in modern english there are several conventions for abbreviations and the choice may be confusing the only rule universally accepted is that one should be consistent and to make this easier publishers express their preferences in a style guide some questions which arise are shown below lowercase letters if the original word was capitalized then the first letter of its abbreviation should retain the capital for example lev for leviticus when a word is abbreviated to more than a single letter and was originally spelled with lower case letters then there is no need for capitalization however when abbreviating a phrase where only the first letter of each word is taken then all letters should be capitalized as in ytd for yeartodate pcb for printed circuit board and fyi for for your information however see the following section regarding abbreviations that have become common vocabulary these are no longer written with capital letters periods full stops and spaces a period full stop is often used to signify an abbreviation but opinion is divided as to when and if this should happen according to harts rules the traditional rule is that abbreviations in the narrow sense that includes only words with the ending and not the middle dropped terminate with a full stop whereas contractions in the sense of words missing a middle part do not but there are exceptions fowlers modern english usage says full stops are used to mark both abbreviations and contractions but recommends against this practice advising them only for abbreviations and lowercase initialisms and not for uppercase initialisms and contractions some british style guides such as those for the guardian and the economist require that full stops be entirely omitted from all abbreviations in american english the period is usually included regardless of whether or not it is a contraction eg dr or mrs in some cases periods are optional as in either us or us for united states eu or eu for european union and un or un for united nations there are some house styles howeveramerican ones includedthat remove the periods from almost all abbreviations for example the us manual on uniform traffic control devices advises that periods should not be used with abbreviations on road signs except for cardinal directions as part of a destination name for example northwest blvd w jefferson and ped xing all follow this recommendation ama style used in many medical journals uses no periods in abbreviations or acronyms with almost no exceptions thus eg ie vs et al dr mr mri icu and hundreds of others contain no periods the only exceptions are an abbreviation of numero number to avoid confusion with the word no initials within persons names such as george r smith and st within persons names when the person prefers it such as emily r st clair but not in city names such as st louis or st paul acronyms that were originally capitalized with or without periods but have since entered the vocabulary as generic words are no longer written with capital letters nor with any periods examples are sonar radar lidar laser snafu and scuba today spaces are generally not used between singleletter abbreviations of words in the same phrase so one almost never encounters u s when an abbreviation appears at the end of a sentence only one period is used the capital of the united states is washington dc plural forms there is a question about how to pluralize abbreviations particularly acronyms some writers tend to pluralize abbreviations by adding apostrophe s as in two pcs have broken screens although this notation typically indicates possessive case however this style is not preferred by many style guides for instance kate turabian writing about style in academic writings allows for an apostrophe to form plural acronyms only when an abbreviation contains internal periods or both capital and lowercase letters turabian would therefore prefer dvds and urls and phds while the modern language association explicitly says do not use an apostrophe to form the plural of an abbreviation also the american psychological association specifically says without an apostrophe however the 1999 style guide for the new york times states that the addition of an apostrophe is necessary when pluralizing all abbreviations preferring pcs tvs and vcrs following those who would generally omit the apostrophe to form the plural of run batted in simply add an s to the end of rbi rbis for all other rules see below to form the plural of an abbreviation a number or a capital letter used as a noun simply add a lowercase s to the end apostrophes following decades and single letters are also common a group of mps the roaring 20s mind your ps and qs to indicate the plural of the abbreviation or symbol of a unit of measure the same form is used as in the singular 1 lb or 20 lb 1 ft or 16 ft 1 min or 45 min when an abbreviation contains more than one full point harts rules recommends putting the s after the final one phds mphils the dts however subject to any house style or consistency requirement the same plurals may be rendered less formally as phds mphils the dts this is the recommended form in the new oxford dictionary for writers and editors according to harts rules an apostrophe may be used in rare cases where clarity calls for it for example when letters or symbols are referred to as objects the xs of the equation dot the is and cross the ts however the apostrophe can be dispensed with if the items are set in italics or quotes the xs of the equation dot the is and cross the ts in latin and continuing to the derivative forms in european languages as well as english singleletter abbreviations had the plural being a doubling of the letter for notetaking most of these deal with writing and publishing a few longer abbreviations use this as well conventions followed by publications and newspapers united states publications based in the us tend to follow the style guides of the chicago manual of style and the associated press the us government follows a style guide published by the us government printing office the national institute of standards and technology sets the style for abbreviations of units united kingdom many british publications follow some of these guidelines in abbreviation for the sake of convenience many british publications including the bbc and the guardian have completely done away with the use of full stops or periods in all abbreviations these include social titles eg ms or mr though these would usually have not had full stopssee above capt prof etc twoletter abbreviations for countries us not us abbreviations beyond three letters full caps for all except initialisms words seldom abbreviated with lower case letters pr instead of pr or pr names fw de klerk gb whiteley park js a notable exception is the economist which writes mr f w de klerk scientific units see measurement below acronyms are often referred to with only the first letter of the abbreviation capitalized for instance the north atlantic treaty organization can be abbreviated as nato or nato and severe acute respiratory syndrome as sars or sars compare with laser which has made the full transition to an english word and is rarely capitalised at all initialisms are always written in capitals for example the british broadcasting corporation is abbreviated to bbc never bbc an initialism is also an acronym but is not pronounced as a word when abbreviating scientific units no space is added between the number and unit 100mph 100m 10cm 10c this is contrary to the si standard see below miscellaneous and general rules a doubled letter appears in abbreviations of some welsh names as in welsh the double l is a separate sound ll george for british prime minister david lloyd george some titles such as reverend and honourable are spelt out when preceded by the rather than as rev or hon respectively this is true for most british publications and some in the united states a repeatedly used abbreviation should be spelt out for identification on its first occurrence in a written or spoken passage abbreviations likely to be unfamiliar to many readers should be avoided measurements abbreviations or symbols writers often use shorthand to denote units of measure such shorthand can be an abbreviation such as in for inch or can be a symbol such as km for kilometre in the international system of units si manual the word symbol is used consistently to define the shorthand used to represent the various si units of measure the manual also defines the way in which units should be written the principal rules being the conventions for upper and lower case letters must be observedfor example 1 mw megawatts is equal to 1000000 watts and 1000000000 mw milliwatts no periods should be inserted between lettersfor example ms which is an approximation of ms which correctly uses middle dot is the symbol for metres multiplied by seconds but ms is the symbol for milliseconds no periods should follow the symbol unless the syntax of the sentence demands otherwise for example a full stop at the end of a sentence the singular and plural versions of the symbol are identicalnot all languages use the letter s to denote a plural syllabic abbreviation a syllabic abbreviation is usually formed from the initial syllables of several words such as interpol international police it is a variant of the acronym syllabic abbreviations are usually written using lower case sometimes starting with a capital letter and are always pronounced as words rather than letter by letter syllabic abbreviations should be distinguished from portmanteaus which combine two words without necessarily taking whole syllables from each albanian in albanian syllabic acronyms are sometimes used for composing a persons name such as migjeni an abbreviation from his original name millosh gjergj nikolla a famous albanian poet and writer or asdreni aleksander stavre drenova another famous albanian poet other such names which are used commonly in recent decades are getoar composed from gegeria tosks representing the two main dialects of the albanian language gegë and toskë and arbanon which is an alternative way used to describe all albanian lands english syllabic abbreviations are not widely used in english some uk government agencies such as ofcom office of communications and the former oftel office of telecommunications use this style new york city has various neighborhoods named by syllabic abbreviation such as tribeca triangle below canal street and soho south of houston street this usage has spread into other american cities giving soma san francisco south of market and lodo denver lower downtown amongst others chicagobased electric service provider comed is a syllabic abbreviation of commonwealth and thomas edison sections of california are also often colloquially syllabically abbreviated as in norcal northern california cencal central california and socal southern california additionally in the context of los angeles the syllabic abbreviation soho southern hollywood refers to the southern portion of the hollywood neighborhood partially syllabic abbreviations are preferred by the us navy as they increase readability amidst the large number of initialisms that would otherwise have to fit into the same acronyms hence desron 6 is used in the full capital form to mean destroyer squadron 6 while comnavairlant would be commander naval air force in the atlantic syllabic abbreviations are a prominent feature of newspeak the fictional language of george orwells dystopian novel nineteen eightyfour the political contractions of newspeakingsoc english socialism minitrue ministry of truth miniplenty ministry of plentyare described by orwell as similar to real examples of german qv and russian contractions qv in the 20th century like nazi nationalsozialismus and gestapo geheime staatspolizei politburo political bureau of the central committee of the communist party of the soviet union comintern communist international kolkhoz collective farm and komsomol young communists league the contractions in newspeak are supposed to have a political function by virtue of their abbreviated structure itself nice sounding and easily pronounceable their purpose is to mask all ideological content from the speaker a more recent syllabic abbreviation has emerged with the disease covid19 corona virus disease 2019 caused by the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 itself frequently abbreviated to sarscov2 partly an initialism german syllabic abbreviations were and are common in german much like acronyms in english they have a distinctly modern connotation although contrary to popular belief many date back to before 1933 if not the end of the great war kriminalpolizei literally criminal police but idiomatically the criminal investigation department of any german police force begat kripo variously capitalised and likewise schutzpolizei protection police or uniform department begat schupo along the same lines the swiss federal railways transit policethe transportpolizeiare abbreviated as the trapo with the national socialist german workers party gaining power came a frenzy of government reorganisation and with it a series of entirely new syllabic abbreviations the single national police force amalgamated from the schutzpolizeien of the various states became the orpo ordnungspolizei order police the state kripos together formed the sipo security police and there was also the gestapo geheime staatspolizei secret state police the new order of the german democratic republic in the east brought about a conscious denazification but also a repudiation of earlier turns of phrase in favour of neologisms such as stasi for staatssicherheit state security the secret police and vopo for volkspolizei the phrase politisches büro which may be rendered literally as office of politics or idiomatically as political party steering committee became politbüro syllabic abbreviations are not only used in politics however many business names trademarks and service marks from across germany are created on the same pattern for a few examples there is aldi from theo albrecht the name of its founder followed by discount haribo from hans riegel the name of its founder followed by bonn the town of its head office and adidas from adolf adi dassler the nickname of its founder followed by his surname russian syllabic abbreviations are very common in russian belarusian and ukrainian languages they are often used as names of organizations historically popularization of abbreviations was a way to simplify masseducation in 1920s see likbez leninist organisations such as the comintern communist international and komsomol kommunisticheskii soyuz molodyozhi or communist youth union used russian language syllabic abbreviations in the modern russian language words like rosselkhozbank from rossiysky selskokhozyaystvenny bank russian agricultural bank rusag and minobrnauki from ministerstvo obrazovaniya i nauki ministry of education and science are still commonly used in nearby belarus there are beltelecom belarus telecommunication and belsat belarus satellite spanish syllabic abbreviations are common in spanish examples abound in organization names such as pemex for petróleos mexicanos mexican petroleums or fonafifo for fondo nacional de financimiento forestal national forestry financing fund malay and indonesian in southeast asian languages especially in malay languages syllabic abbreviations are also common examples include petronas for petroliam nasional national petroleum its indonesian equivalent pertamina from its original name perusahaan pertambangan minyak dan gas bumi negara state oil and natural gas mining company and kemenhub from kementerian perhubungan ministry of transportation chinese and japanese kanji east asian languages whose writing systems use chinese characters form abbreviations similarly by using key chinese characters from a term or phrase for example in japanese the term for the united nations kokusai rengō 国際連合 is often abbreviated to kokuren 国連 such abbreviations are called ryakugo 略語 in japanese see also japanese abbreviated and contracted words the syllabic abbreviation of kanji words is frequently used for universities for instance tōdai 東大 for tōkyō daigaku 東京大学 university of tokyo and is used similarly in chinese běidà 北大 for běijīng dàxué 北京大学 peking university korean universities often follow the same conventions such as hongdae 홍대 as short for hongik daehakgyo or hongik university the english phrase gung ho originated as a chinese abbreviation see also the abbreviations used in the 1913 edition of websters dictionary notes references external links | 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1174 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aphrodite | Aphrodite | aphrodite is an ancient greek goddess associated with love lust beauty pleasure passion procreation and as her syncretized roman goddess counterpart desire sex fertility prosperity and victory aphrodites major symbols include seashells myrtles roses doves sparrows and swans the cult of aphrodite was largely derived from that of the phoenician goddess astarte a cognate of the east semitic goddess ishtar whose cult was based on the sumerian cult of inanna aphrodites main cult centers were cythera cyprus corinth and athens her main festival was the aphrodisia which was celebrated annually in midsummer in laconia aphrodite was worshipped as a warrior goddess she was also the patron goddess of prostitutes an association which led early scholars to propose the concept of sacred prostitution in grecoroman culture an idea which is now generally seen as erroneous in hesiods theogony aphrodite is born off the coast of cythera from the foam produced by uranuss genitals which his son cronus had severed and thrown into the sea in homers iliad however she is the daughter of zeus and dione plato in his symposium asserts that these two origins actually belong to separate entities aphrodite urania a transcendent heavenly aphrodite and aphrodite pandemos aphrodite common to all the people aphrodite had many other epithets each emphasizing a different aspect of the same goddess or used by a different local cult thus she was also known as cytherea lady of cythera and cypris lady of cyprus because both locations claimed to be the place of her birth in greek mythology aphrodite was married to hephaestus the god of fire blacksmiths and metalworking aphrodite was frequently unfaithful to him and had many lovers in the odyssey she is caught in the act of adultery with ares the god of war in the first homeric hymn to aphrodite she seduces the mortal shepherd anchises aphrodite was also the surrogate mother and lover of the mortal shepherd adonis who was killed by a wild boar along with athena and hera aphrodite was one of the three goddesses whose feud resulted in the beginning of the trojan war and she plays a major role throughout the iliad aphrodite has been featured in western art as a symbol of female beauty and has appeared in numerous works of western literature she is a major deity in modern neopagan religions including the church of aphrodite wicca and hellenismos etymology hesiod derives aphrodite from seafoam interpreting the name as risen from the foam but most modern scholars regard this as a spurious folk etymology early modern scholars of classical mythology attempted to argue that aphrodites name was of greek or indoeuropean origin but these efforts have now been mostly abandoned aphrodites name is generally accepted to be of nongreek probably semitic origin but its exact derivation cannot be determined scholars in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries accepting hesiods foam etymology as genuine analyzed the second part of aphrodites name as odítē wanderer or dítē bright more recently michael janda also accepting hesiods etymology has argued in favor of the latter of these interpretations and claims the story of a birth from the foam as an indoeuropean mytheme similarly krzysztof tomasz witczak proposes an indoeuropean compound very and to shine also referring to eos and daniel kölligan has interpreted her name as shining up from the mistfoam other scholars have argued that these hypotheses are unlikely since aphrodites attributes are entirely different from those of both eos and the vedic deity ushas a number of improbable nongreek etymologies have also been suggested one semitic etymology compares aphrodite to the assyrian barīrītu the name of a female demon that appears in middle babylonian and late babylonian texts hammarström looks to etruscan comparing eprθni lord an etruscan honorific loaned into greek as πρύτανις this would make the theonym in origin an honorific the lady most scholars reject this etymology as implausible especially since aphrodite actually appears in etruscan in the borrowed form apru from greek clipped form of aphrodite the medieval etymologicum magnum offers a highly contrived etymology deriving aphrodite from the compound habrodíaitos she who lives delicately from habrós and díaita the alteration from b to ph is explained as a familiar characteristic of greek obvious from the macedonians in the cypriot syllabary a syllabic script used on the island of cyprus from the eleventh until the fourth century bc her name is attested in the forms aporotaoi read righttoleft aporotitai samewise and finally aporotisijo aphrodisian related to aphrodite in the context of a month origins near eastern love goddess the cult of aphrodite in greece was imported from or at least influenced by the cult of astarte in phoenicia which in turn was influenced by the cult of the mesopotamian goddess known as ishtar to the east semitic peoples and as inanna to the sumerians pausanias states that the first to establish a cult of aphrodite were the assyrians followed by the paphians of cyprus and then the phoenicians at ascalon the phoenicians in turn taught her worship to the people of cythera aphrodite took on inannaishtars associations with sexuality and procreation furthermore she was known as ourania οὐρανία which means heavenly a title corresponding to inannas role as the queen of heaven early artistic and literary portrayals of aphrodite are extremely similar on inannaishtar like inannaishtar aphrodite was also a warrior goddess the secondcentury ad greek geographer pausanias records that in sparta aphrodite was worshipped as aphrodite areia which means warlike he also mentions that aphrodites most ancient cult statues in sparta and on cythera showed her bearing arms modern scholars note that aphrodites warriorgoddess aspects appear in the oldest strata of her worship and see it as an indication of her near eastern origins nineteenth century classical scholars had a general aversion to the idea that ancient greek religion was at all influenced by the cultures of the near east but even friedrich gottlieb welcker who argued that near eastern influence on greek culture was largely confined to material culture admitted that aphrodite was clearly of phoenician origin the significant influence of near eastern culture on early greek religion in general and on the cult of aphrodite in particular is now widely recognized as dating to a period of orientalization during the eighth century bc when archaic greece was on the fringes of the neoassyrian empire indoeuropean dawn goddess some early comparative mythologists opposed to the idea of a near eastern origin argued that aphrodite originated as an aspect of the greek dawn goddess eos and that she was therefore ultimately derived from the protoindoeuropean dawn goddess haéusōs properly greek eos latin aurora sanskrit ushas most modern scholars have now rejected the notion of a purely indoeuropean aphrodite but it is possible that aphrodite originally a semitic deity may have been influenced by the indoeuropean dawn goddess both aphrodite and eos were known for their erotic beauty and aggressive sexuality and both had relationships with mortal lovers both goddesses were associated with the colors red white and gold michael janda etymologizes aphrodites name as an epithet of eos meaning she who rises from the foam of the ocean and points to hesiods theogony account of aphrodites birth as an archaic reflex of indoeuropean myth aphrodite rising out of the waters after cronus defeats uranus as a mytheme would then be directly cognate to the rigvedic myth of indra defeating vrtra liberating ushas another key similarity between aphrodite and the indoeuropean dawn goddess is her close kinship to the greek sky deity since both of the main claimants to her paternity zeus and uranus are sky deities forms and epithets aphrodites most common cultic epithet was ourania meaning heavenly but this epithet almost never occurs in literary texts indicating a purely cultic significance another common name for aphrodite was pandemos for all the folk in her role as aphrodite pandemos aphrodite was associated with peithō meaning persuasion and could be prayed to for aid in seduction the character of pausanias in platos symposium takes differing cultpractices associated with different epithets of the goddess to claim that ourania and pandemos are in fact separate goddesses he asserts that aphrodite ourania is the celestial aphrodite born from the sea foam after cronus castrated uranus and the older of the two goddesses according to the symposium aphrodite ourania is the inspiration of male homosexual desire specifically the ephebic eros and pederasty aphrodite pandemos by contrast is the younger of the two goddesses the common aphrodite born from the union of zeus and dione and the inspiration of heterosexual desire and sexual promiscuity the lesser of the two loves paphian παφία was one of her epithets after the paphos in cyprus where she had emerged from the sea at her birth among the neoplatonists and later their christian interpreters ourania is associated with spiritual love and pandemos with physical love desire a representation of ourania with her foot resting on a tortoise came to be seen as emblematic of discretion in conjugal love it was the subject of a chryselephantine sculpture by phidias for elis known only from a parenthetical comment by the geographer pausanias one of aphrodites most common literary epithets is philommeidḗs which means smileloving but is sometimes mistranslated as laughterloving this epithet occurs throughout both of the homeric epics and the first homeric hymn to aphrodite hesiod references it once in his theogony in the context of aphrodites birth but interprets it as genitalloving rather than smileloving monica cyrino notes that the epithet may relate to the fact that in many artistic depictions of aphrodite she is shown smiling other common literary epithets are cypris and cythereia which derive from her associations with the islands of cyprus and cythera respectively on cyprus aphrodite was sometimes called eleemon the merciful in athens she was known as aphrodite en kopois aphrodite of the gardens at cape colias a town along the attic coast she was venerated as genetyllis mother the spartans worshipped her as potnia mistress enoplios armed morpho shapely ambologera she who postpones old age across the greek world she was known under epithets such as melainis black one skotia dark one androphonos killer of men anosia unholy and tymborychos gravedigger all of which indicate her darker more violent nature she had the epithet automata because according to servius she was the source of spontaneous love a male version of aphrodite known as aphroditus was worshipped in the city of amathus on cyprus aphroditus was depicted with the figure and dress of a woman but had a beard and was shown lifting his dress to reveal an erect phallus this gesture was believed to be an apotropaic symbol and was thought to convey good fortune upon the viewer eventually the popularity of aphroditus waned as the mainstream fully feminine version of aphrodite became more popular but traces of his cult are preserved in the later legends of hermaphroditus worship classical period aphrodites main festival the aphrodisia was celebrated across greece but particularly in athens and corinth in athens the aphrodisia was celebrated on the fourth day of the month of hekatombaion in honor of aphrodites role in the unification of attica during this festival the priests of aphrodite would purify the temple of aphrodite pandemos on the southwestern slope of the acropolis with the blood of a sacrificed dove next the altars would be anointed and the cult statues of aphrodite pandemos and peitho would be escorted in a majestic procession to a place where they would be ritually bathed aphrodite was also honored in athens as part of the arrhephoria festival the fourth day of every month was sacred to aphrodite pausanias records that in sparta aphrodite was worshipped as aphrodite areia which means warlike this epithet stresses aphrodites connections to ares with whom she had extramarital relations pausanias also records that in sparta and on cythera a number of extremely ancient cult statues of aphrodite portrayed her bearing arms other cult statues showed her bound in chains aphrodite was the patron goddess of prostitutes of all varieties ranging from pornai cheap street prostitutes typically owned as slaves by wealthy pimps to hetairai expensive welleducated hired companions who were usually selfemployed and sometimes provided sex to their customers the city of corinth was renowned throughout the ancient world for its many hetairai who had a widespread reputation for being among the most skilled but also the most expensive prostitutes in the greek world corinth also had a major temple to aphrodite located on the acrocorinth and was one of the main centers of her cult records of numerous dedications to aphrodite made by successful courtesans have survived in poems and in pottery inscriptions references to aphrodite in association with prostitution are found in corinth as well as on the islands of cyprus cythera and sicily aphrodites mesopotamian precursor inannaishtar was also closely associated with prostitution scholars in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries believed that the cult of aphrodite may have involved ritual prostitution an assumption based on ambiguous passages in certain ancient texts particularly a fragment of a skolion by the boeotian poet pindar which mentions prostitutes in corinth in association with aphrodite modern scholars now dismiss the notion of ritual prostitution in greece as a historiographic myth with no factual basis hellenistic and roman periods during the hellenistic period the greeks identified aphrodite with the ancient egyptian goddesses hathor and isis aphrodite was the patron goddess of the lagid queens and queen arsinoe ii was identified as her mortal incarnation aphrodite was worshipped in alexandria and had numerous temples in and around the city arsinoe ii introduced the cult of adonis to alexandria and many of the women there partook in it the tessarakonteres a gigantic catamaran galley designed by archimedes for ptolemy iv philopator had a circular temple to aphrodite on it with a marble statue of the goddess herself in the second century bc ptolemy viii physcon and his wives cleopatra ii and cleopatra iii dedicated a temple to aphrodite hathor at philae statuettes of aphrodite for personal devotion became common in egypt starting in the early ptolemaic times and extending until long after egypt became a roman province the ancient romans identified aphrodite with their goddess venus who was originally a goddess of agricultural fertility vegetation and springtime according to the roman historian livy aphrodite and venus were officially identified in the third century bc when the cult of venus erycina was introduced to rome from the greek sanctuary of aphrodite on mount eryx in sicily after this point romans adopted aphrodites iconography and myths and applied them to venus because aphrodite was the mother of the trojan hero aeneas in greek mythology and roman tradition claimed aeneas as the founder of rome venus became venerated as venus genetrix the mother of the entire roman nation julius caesar claimed to be directly descended from aeneass son iulus and became a strong proponent of the cult of venus this precedent was later followed by his nephew augustus and the later emperors claiming succession from him this syncretism greatly impacted greek worship of aphrodite during the roman era the cults of aphrodite in many greek cities began to emphasize her relationship with troy and aeneas they also began to adopt distinctively roman elements portraying aphrodite as more maternal more militaristic and more concerned with administrative bureaucracy she was claimed as a divine guardian by many political magistrates appearances of aphrodite in greek literature also vastly proliferated usually showing aphrodite in a characteristically roman manner mythology birth aphrodite is usually said to have been born near her chief center of worship paphos on the island of cyprus which is why she is sometimes called cyprian especially in the poetic works of sappho the sanctuary of aphrodite paphia marking her birthplace was a place of pilgrimage in the ancient world for centuries other versions of her myth have her born near the island of cythera hence another of her names cytherea cythera was a stopping place for trade and culture between crete and the peloponesus so these stories may preserve traces of the migration of aphrodites cult from the middle east to mainland greece according to the version of her birth recounted by hesiod in his theogony cronus severed uranus genitals and threw them behind him into the sea the foam from his genitals gave rise to aphrodite hence her name which hesiod interprets as foamarisen while the giants the erinyes furies and the meliae emerged from the drops of his blood hesiod states that the genitals were carried over the sea a long time and white foam arose from the immortal flesh with it a girl grew after aphrodite was born from the seafoam she washed up to shore in the presence of the other gods hesiods account of aphrodites birth following uranuss castration is probably derived from the song of kumarbi an ancient hittite epic poem in which the god kumarbi overthrows his father anu the god of the sky and bites off his genitals causing him to become pregnant and give birth to anus children which include ishtar and her brother teshub the hittite storm god in the iliad aphrodite is described as the daughter of zeus and dione diones name appears to be a feminine cognate to dios and dion which are oblique forms of the name zeus zeus and dione shared a cult at dodona in northwestern greece in the theogony hesiod describes dione as an oceanid but apollodorus makes her the thirteenth titan child of gaia and uranus marriage aphrodite is consistently portrayed as a nubile infinitely desirable adult having had no childhood she is often depicted nude in the iliad aphrodite is the apparently unmarried consort of ares the god of war and the wife of hephaestus is a different goddess named charis likewise in hesiods theogony aphrodite is unmarried and the wife of hephaestus is aglaea the youngest of the three charites in book eight of the odyssey however the blind singer demodocus describes aphrodite as the wife of hephaestus and tells how she committed adultery with ares during the trojan war the sungod helios saw aphrodite and ares having sex in hephaestuss bed and warned hephaestus who fashioned a fine near invisible net the next time ares and aphrodite had sex together the net trapped them both hephaestus brought all the gods into the bedchamber to laugh at the captured adulterers but apollo hermes and poseidon had sympathy for ares and poseidon agreed to pay hephaestus for aress release aphrodite returned to her temple in cyprus where she was attended by the charites this narrative probably originated as a greek folk tale originally independent of the odyssey in a much later interpolated detail ares put the young soldier alectryon by the door to warn of helioss arrival but alectryon fell asleep on guard duty helios discovered the two and alerted hephaestus ares in rage turned alectryon into a rooster which unfailingly crows to announce the sunrise after exposing them hephaestus asks zeus for his wedding gifts and dowry to be returned to him by the time of the trojan war he is married to charisaglaea one of the graces apparently divorced from aphrodite afterwards it was generally ares who was regarded as the husband or official consort of the goddess on the françois vase the two arrive at the wedding of peleus and thetis on the same chariot as do zeus with hera and poseidon with amphitrite the poets pindar and aeschylus refer to ares as aphrodites husband later stories were invented to explain aphrodites marriage to hephaestus in the most famous story zeus hastily married aphrodite to hephaestus in order to prevent the other gods from fighting over her in another version of the myth hephaestus gave his mother hera a golden throne but when she sat on it she became trapped and he refused to let her go until she agreed to give him aphrodites hand in marriage hephaestus was overjoyed to be married to the goddess of beauty and forged her beautiful jewelry including a strophion known as the a saltireshaped undergarment usually translated as girdle which accentuated her breasts and made her even more irresistible to men such strophia were commonly used in depictions of the near eastern goddesses ishtar and atargatis attendants aphrodite is almost always accompanied by eros the god of lust and sexual desire in his theogony hesiod describes eros as one of the four original primeval forces born at the beginning of time but after the birth of aphrodite from the sea foam he is joined by himeros and together they become aphrodites constant companions in early greek art eros and himeros are both shown as idealized handsome youths with wings the greek lyric poets regarded the power of eros and himeros as dangerous compulsive and impossible for anyone to resist in modern times eros is often seen as aphrodites son but this is actually a comparatively late innovation a scholion on theocrituss idylls remarks that the sixthcentury bc poet sappho had described eros as the son of aphrodite and uranus but the first surviving reference to eros as aphrodites son comes from apollonius of rhodess argonautica written in the third century bc which makes him the son of aphrodite and ares later the romans who saw venus as a mother goddess seized on this idea of eros as aphrodites son and popularized it making it the predominant portrayal in works on mythology until the present day aphrodites main attendants were the three charites whom hesiod identifies as the daughters of zeus and eurynome and names as aglaea splendor euphrosyne good cheer and thalia abundance the charites had been worshipped as goddesses in greece since the beginning of greek history long before aphrodite was introduced to the pantheon aphrodites other set of attendants was the three horae the hours whom hesiod identifies as the daughters of zeus and themis and names as eunomia good order dike justice and eirene peace aphrodite was also sometimes accompanied by harmonia her daughter by ares and hebe the daughter of zeus and hera the fertility god priapus was usually considered to be aphrodites son by dionysus but he was sometimes also described as her son by hermes adonis or even zeus a scholion on apollonius of rhodess argonautica states that while aphrodite was pregnant with priapus hera envied her and applied an evil potion to her belly while she was sleeping to ensure that the child would be hideous in another version hera cursed aphrodites unborn son because he had been fathered by zeus when aphrodite gave birth she was horrified to see that the child had a massive permanently erect penis a potbelly and a huge tongue aphrodite abandoned the infant to die in the wilderness but a herdsman found him and raised him later discovering that priapus could use his massive penis to aid in the growth of plants anchises the first homeric hymn to aphrodite hymn 5 which was probably composed sometime in the midseventh century bc describes how zeus once became annoyed with aphrodite for causing deities to fall in love with mortals so he caused her to fall in love with anchises a handsome mortal shepherd who lived in the foothills beneath mount ida near the city of troy aphrodite appears to anchises in the form of a tall beautiful mortal virgin while he is alone in his home anchises sees her dressed in bright clothing and gleaming jewelry with her breasts shining with divine radiance he asks her if she is aphrodite and promises to build her an altar on top of the mountain if she will bless him and his family aphrodite lies and tells him that she is not a goddess but the daughter of one of the noble families of phrygia she claims to be able to understand the trojan language because she had a trojan nurse as a child and says that she found herself on the mountainside after she was snatched up by hermes while dancing in a celebration in honor of artemis the goddess of virginity aphrodite tells anchises that she is still a virgin and begs him to take her to his parents anchises immediately becomes overcome with mad lust for aphrodite and swears that he will have sex with her anchises takes aphrodite with her eyes cast downwards to his bed which is covered in the furs of lions and bears he then strips her naked and makes love to her after the lovemaking is complete aphrodite reveals her true divine form anchises is terrified but aphrodite consoles him and promises that she will bear him a son she prophesies that their son will be the demigod aeneas who will be raised by the nymphs of the wilderness for five years before going to troy to become a nobleman like his father the story of aeneass conception is also mentioned in hesiods theogony and in book ii of homers iliad adonis the myth of aphrodite and adonis is probably derived from the ancient sumerian legend of inanna and dumuzid the greek name adōnis is derived from the canaanite word ʼadōn meaning lord the earliest known greek reference to adonis comes from a fragment of a poem by the lesbian poet sappho in which a chorus of young girls asks aphrodite what they can do to mourn adoniss death aphrodite replies that they must beat their breasts and tear their tunics later references flesh out the story with more details according to the retelling of the story found in the poem metamorphoses by the roman poet ovid 43 bc 1718 ad adonis was the son of myrrha who was cursed by aphrodite with insatiable lust for her own father king cinyras of cyprus after myrrhas mother bragged that her daughter was more beautiful than the goddess driven out after becoming pregnant myrrha was changed into a myrrh tree but still gave birth to adonis aphrodite found the baby and took him to the underworld to be fostered by persephone she returned for him once he was grown and discovered him to be strikingly handsome persephone wanted to keep adonis resulting in a custody battle between the two goddesses over whom should rightly possess adonis zeus settled the dispute by decreeing that adonis would spend one third of the year with aphrodite one third with persephone and one third with whomever he chose adonis chose to spend that time with aphrodite then one day while adonis was hunting he was wounded by a wild boar and bled to death in aphrodites arms in a semimocking work the dialogues of the gods the satirical author lucian comedically relates how a frustrated aphrodite complains to the moon goddess selene about her son eros making persephone fall in love with adonis and now she has to share him with her in different versions of the story the boar was either sent by ares who was jealous that aphrodite was spending so much time with adonis or by artemis who wanted revenge against aphrodite for having killed her devoted follower hippolytus in another version apollo in fury changed himself into a boar and killed adonis because aphrodite had blinded his son erymanthus when he stumbled upon aphrodite naked as she was bathing after intercourse with adonis the story also provides an etiology for aphrodites associations with certain flowers reportedly as she mourned adoniss death she caused anemones to grow wherever his blood fell and declared a festival on the anniversary of his death in one version of the story aphrodite injured herself on a thorn from a rose bush and the rose which had previously been white was stained red by her blood according to lucians on the syrian goddess each year during the festival of adonis the adonis river in lebanon now known as the abraham river ran red with blood the myth of adonis is associated with the festival of the adonia which was celebrated by greek women every year in midsummer the festival which was evidently already celebrated in lesbos by sapphos time seems to have first become popular in athens in the midfifth century bc at the start of the festival the women would plant a garden of adonis a small garden planted inside a small basket or a shallow piece of broken pottery containing a variety of quickgrowing plants such as lettuce and fennel or even quicksprouting grains such as wheat and barley the women would then climb ladders to the roofs of their houses where they would place the gardens out under the heat of the summer sun the plants would sprout in the sunlight but wither quickly in the heat then the women would mourn and lament loudly over the death of adonis tearing their clothes and beating their breasts in a public display of grief divine favoritism in hesiods works and days zeus orders aphrodite to make pandora the first woman physically beautiful and sexually attractive so that she may become an evil men will love to embrace aphrodite spills grace over pandoras head and equips her with painful desire and kneeweakening anguish thus making her the perfect vessel for evil to enter the world aphrodites attendants peitho the charites and the horae adorn pandora with gold and jewelry according to one myth aphrodite aided hippomenes a noble youth who wished to marry atalanta a maiden who was renowned throughout the land for her beauty but who refused to marry any man unless he could outrun her in a footrace atalanta was an exceedingly swift runner and she beheaded all of the men who lost to her aphrodite gave hippomenes three golden apples from the garden of the hesperides and instructed him to toss them in front of atalanta as he raced her hippomenes obeyed aphrodites order and atalanta seeing the beautiful golden fruits bent down to pick up each one allowing hippomenes to outrun her in the version of the story from ovids metamorphoses hippomenes forgets to repay aphrodite for her aid so she causes the couple to become inflamed with lust while they are staying at the temple of cybele the couple desecrate the temple by having sex in it leading cybele to turn them into lions as punishment the myth of pygmalion is first mentioned by the thirdcentury bc greek writer philostephanus of cyrene but is first recounted in detail in ovids metamorphoses according to ovid pygmalion was an exceedingly handsome sculptor from the island of cyprus who was so sickened by the immorality of women that he refused to marry he fell madly and passionately in love with the ivory cult statue he was carving of aphrodite and longed to marry it because pygmalion was extremely pious and devoted to aphrodite the goddess brought the statue to life pygmalion married the girl the statue became and they had a son named paphos after whom the capital of cyprus received its name pseudoapollodorus later mentions metharme daughter of pygmalion king of cyprus anger myths aphrodite generously rewarded those who honored her but also punished those who disrespected her often quite brutally a myth described in apollonius of rhodess argonautica and later summarized in the bibliotheca of pseudoapollodorus tells how when the women of the island of lemnos refused to sacrifice to aphrodite the goddess cursed them to stink horribly so that their husbands would never have sex with them instead their husbands started having sex with their thracian slavegirls in anger the women of lemnos murdered the entire male population of the island as well as all the thracian slaves when jason and his crew of argonauts arrived on lemnos they mated with the sexstarved women under aphrodites approval and repopulated the island from then on the women of lemnos never disrespected aphrodite again in euripidess tragedy hippolytus which was first performed at the city dionysia in 428 bc theseuss son hippolytus worships only artemis the goddess of virginity and refuses to engage in any form of sexual contact aphrodite is infuriated by his prideful behavior and in the prologue to the play she declares that by honoring only artemis and refusing to venerate her hippolytus has directly challenged her authority aphrodite therefore causes hippolytuss stepmother phaedra to fall in love with him knowing hippolytus will reject her after being rejected phaedra commits suicide and leaves a suicide note to theseus telling him that she killed herself because hippolytus attempted to rape her theseus prays to poseidon to kill hippolytus for his transgression poseidon sends a wild bull to scare hippolytuss horses as he is riding by the sea in his chariot causing the horses to bolt and smash the chariot against the cliffs dragging hippolytus to a bloody death across the rocky shoreline the play concludes with artemis vowing to kill aphrodites own mortal beloved presumably adonis in revenge glaucus of corinth angered aphrodite by refusing to let his horses for chariot racing mate since doing so would hinder their speed during the chariot race at the funeral games of king pelias aphrodite drove his horses mad and they tore him apart polyphonte was a young woman who chose a virginal life with artemis instead of marriage and children as favoured by aphrodite aphrodite cursed her causing her to have children by a bear the resulting offspring agrius and oreius were wild cannibals who incurred the hatred of zeus ultimately he transformed all the members of the family into birds of ill omen according to apollodorus a jealous aphrodite cursed eos the goddess of dawn to be perpetually in love and have insatiable sexual desire because eos once had lain with aphrodites sweetheart ares the god of war according to ovid in his metamorphoses book 10238 ff propoetides who are the daughters of propoetus from the city of amathus on the island of cyprus denied aphrodites divinity and failed to worship her properly therefore aphrodite turned them into the worlds first prostitutes according to diodorus siculus when the rhodian sea nymphe halias six sons by poseidon arrogantly refused to let aphrodite land upon their shore the goddess cursed them with insanity in their madness they raped halia as punishment poseidon buried them in the islands seacaverns xanthius a descendant of bellerophon had two children leucippus and an unnamed daughter through the wrath of aphrodite reasons unknown leucippus fell in love with his own sister they started a secret relationship but the girl was already betrothed to another man and he went on to inform her father xanthius without telling him the name of the seducer xanthius went straight to his daughters chamber where she was together with leucippus right at the moment on hearing him enter she tried to escape but xanthius hit her with a dagger thinking that he was slaying the seducer and killed her leucippus failing to recognize his father at first slew him when the truth was revealed he had to leave the country and took part in colonization of crete and the lands in asia minor queen cenchreis of cyprus wife of king cinyras bragged that her daughter myrrha was more beautiful than aphrodite therefore myrrha was cursed by aphrodite with insatiable lust for her own father king cinyras of cyprus and he slept with her unknowingly in the dark she eventually transformed into the myrrh tree and gave birth to adonis in this form cinyras also had three other daughters braesia laogora and orsedice these girls by the wrath of aphrodite reasons unknown cohabited with foreigners and ended their life in egypt the muse clio derided the goddess own love for adonis therefore clio fell in love with pierus son of magnes and bore hyacinth aegiale was a daughter of adrastus and amphithea and was married to diomedes because of anger of aphrodite whom diomedes had wounded in the war against troy she had multiple lovers including a certain hippolytus when aegiale went so far as to threaten his life he fled to italy according to stesichorus and hesiod while tyndareus sacrificing to the gods he forgot aphrodite therefore goddess made his daughters twice and thrice wed and deserters of their husbands timandra deserted echemus and went and came to phyleus and clytaemnestra deserted agamemnon and lay with aegisthus who was a worse mate for her and eventually killed her husband with her lover and finally helen of troy deserted menelaus under the influence of aphrodite for paris and her unfaitfulness eventually causes the war of troy as a result of her actions aphrodite caused the war of troy in order to take priams kingdom and pass it down to her descendants in one of the versions of the legend pasiphae did not make offerings to the goddess venus aphrodite because of this venus aphrodite inspired in her an unnatural love for a bull or she cursed her because she was helioss daughter who revealed her adultery to hephaestus for helios own taletelling she cursed him with uncontrollable lust over the mortal princess leucothoe which led to him abandoning his thenlover clytie leaving her heartbroken lysippe was the mother of tanais by berossos her son only venerated ares and was fully devoted to war neglecting love and marriage aphrodite cursed him with falling in love with his own mother preferring to die rather than give up his chastity he threw himself into the river amazonius which was subsequently renamed tanais according to hyginus at the behest of zeus orpheuss mother the muse calliope judged the dispute between the goddesses aphrodite and persephone over adonis and decided that both shall possess him half of the year this enraged venus aphrodite because she had not been granted what she thought was her right therefore venus aphrodite inspired love for orpheus in the women of thrace causing them to tear him apart as each of them sought orpheus for herself aphrodite personally witnessed the young huntress rhodopis swear eternal devotion and chastity to artemis when she joined her group aphrodite then summoned her son eros and convinced him that such lifestyle was an insult to them both so under her command eros made rhodopis and euthynicus another young hunter who had shunned love and romance just like her to fall in love with each other despite their chaste life rhodopis and euthynicus withdrew to some cavern where they violated their vows artemis was not slow to take notice after seeing aphrodite laugh so she changed rhodopis into a fountain as a punishment judgment of paris and trojan war the myth of the judgement of paris is mentioned briefly in the iliad but is described in depth in an epitome of the cypria a lost poem of the epic cycle which records that all the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of peleus and thetis the eventual parents of achilles only eris goddess of discord was not invited she was annoyed at this so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ kallistēi for the fairest which she threw among the goddesses aphrodite hera and athena all claimed to be the fairest and thus the rightful owner of the apple the goddesses chose to place the matter before zeus who not wanting to favor one of the goddesses put the choice into the hands of paris a trojan prince after bathing in the spring of mount ida where troy was situated the goddesses appeared before paris for his decision in the extant ancient depictions of the judgement of paris aphrodite is only occasionally represented nude and athena and hera are always fully clothed since the renaissance however western paintings have typically portrayed all three goddesses as completely naked all three goddesses were ideally beautiful and paris could not decide between them so they resorted to bribes hera tried to bribe paris with power over all asia and europe and athena offered wisdom fame and glory in battle but aphrodite promised paris that if he were to choose her as the fairest she would let him marry the most beautiful woman on earth this woman was helen who was already married to king menelaus of sparta paris selected aphrodite and awarded her the apple the other two goddesses were enraged and as a direct result sided with the greeks in the trojan war aphrodite plays an important and active role throughout the entirety of homers iliad in book iii she rescues paris from menelaus after he foolishly challenges him to a oneonone duel she then appears to helen in the form of an old woman and attempts to persuade her to have sex with paris reminding her of his physical beauty and athletic prowess helen immediately recognizes aphrodite by her beautiful neck perfect breasts and flashing eyes and chides the goddess addressing her as her equal aphrodite sharply rebukes helen reminding her that if she vexes her she will punish her just as much as she has favored her already helen demurely obeys aphrodites command in book v aphrodite charges into battle to rescue her son aeneas from the greek hero diomedes diomedes recognizes aphrodite as a weakling goddess and thrusting his spear nicks her wrist through her ambrosial robe aphrodite borrows aress chariot to ride back to mount olympus zeus chides her for putting herself in danger reminding her that her specialty is love not war according to walter burkert this scene directly parallels a scene from tablet vi of the epic of gilgamesh in which ishtar aphrodites akkadian precursor cries to her mother antu after the hero gilgamesh rejects her sexual advances but is mildly rebuked by her father anu in book xiv of the iliad during the dios apate episode aphrodite lends her kestos himas to hera for the purpose of seducing zeus and distracting him from the combat while poseidon aids the greek forces on the beach in the theomachia in book xxi aphrodite again enters the battlefield to carry ares away after he is wounded offspring sometimes poets and dramatists recounted ancient traditions which varied and sometimes they invented new details later scholiasts might draw on either or simply guess thus while aeneas and phobos were regularly described as offspring of aphrodite others listed here such as priapus and eros were sometimes said to be children of aphrodite but with varying fathers and sometimes given other mothers or none at all iconography symbols aphrodites most prominent avian symbol was the dove which was originally an important symbol of her near eastern precursor inannaishtar in fact the ancient greek word for dove peristerá may be derived from a semitic phrase peraḥ ištar meaning bird of ishtar aphrodite frequently appears with doves in ancient greek pottery and the temple of aphrodite pandemos on the southwest slope of the athenian acropolis was decorated with relief sculptures of doves with knotted fillets in their beaks votive offerings of small white marble doves were also discovered in the temple of aphrodite at daphni in addition to her associations with doves aphrodite was also closely linked with sparrows and she is described riding in a chariot pulled by sparrows in sapphos ode to aphrodite according to myth the dove was originally a nymph named peristera who helped aphrodite win in a flowerpicking contest over her son eros for this eros turned her into a dove but aphrodite took the dove under her wing and made it her sacred bird because of her connections to the sea aphrodite was associated with a number of different types of water fowl including swans geese and ducks aphrodites other symbols included the sea conch shells and roses the rose and myrtle flowers were both sacred to aphrodite a myth explaining the origin of aphrodites connection to myrtle goes that originally the myrtle was a maiden myrina a dedicated priestess of aphrodite when her previous betrothed carried her away from the temple to marry her myrina killed him and aphrodite turned her into a myrtle forever under her protection her most important fruit emblem was the apple and in myth she turned melus childhood friend and kininlaw to adonis into an apple after he killed himself mourning over adonis death likewise meluss wife pelia was turned into a dove she was also associated with pomegranates possibly because the red seeds suggested sexuality or because greek women sometimes used pomegranates as a method of birth control in greek art aphrodite is often also accompanied by dolphins and nereids in classical art a scene of aphrodite rising from the sea appears on the back of the ludovisi throne 460 bc which was probably originally part of a massive altar that was constructed as part of the ionic temple to aphrodite in the greek polis of locri epizephyrii in magna graecia in southern italy the throne shows aphrodite rising from the sea clad in a diaphanous garment which is drenched with seawater and clinging to her body revealing her upturned breasts and the outline of her navel her hair hangs dripping as she reaches to two attendants standing barefoot on the rocky shore on either side of her lifting her out of the water scenes with aphrodite appear in works of classical greek pottery including a famous whiteground kylix by the pistoxenos painter dating the between 470 and 460 bc showing her riding on a swan or goose aphrodite was often described as goldenhaired and portrayed with this color hair in art in bc the athenian sculptor praxiteles carved the marble statue aphrodite of knidos which pliny the elder later praised as the greatest sculpture ever made the statue showed a nude aphrodite modestly covering her pubic region while resting against a water pot with her robe draped over it for support the aphrodite of knidos was the first fullsized statue to depict aphrodite completely naked and one of the first sculptures that was intended to be viewed from all sides the statue was purchased by the people of knidos in around 350 bc and proved to be tremendously influential on later depictions of aphrodite the original sculpture has been lost but written descriptions of it as well several depictions of it on coins are still extant and over sixty copies smallscale models and fragments of it have been identified the greek painter apelles of kos a contemporary of praxiteles produced the panel painting aphrodite anadyomene aphrodite rising from the sea according to athenaeus apelles was inspired to paint the painting after watching the courtesan phryne take off her clothes untie her hair and bathe naked in the sea at eleusis the painting was displayed in the asclepeion on the island of kos the aphrodite anadyomene went unnoticed for centuries but pliny the elder records that in his own time it was regarded as apelless most famous work during the hellenistic and roman periods statues depicting aphrodite proliferated many of these statues were modeled at least to some extent on praxiteless aphrodite of knidos some statues show aphrodite crouching naked others show her wringing water out of her hair as she rises from the sea another common type of statue is known as aphrodite kallipygos the name of which is greek for aphrodite of the beautiful buttocks this type of sculpture shows aphrodite lifting her peplos to display her buttocks to the viewer while looking back at them from over her shoulder the ancient romans produced massive numbers of copies of greek sculptures of aphrodite and more sculptures of aphrodite have survived from antiquity than of any other deity postclassical culture middle ages early christians frequently adapted pagan iconography to suit christian purposes in the early middle ages christians adapted elements of aphroditevenuss iconography and applied them to eve and prostitutes but also female saints and even the virgin mary christians in the east reinterpreted the story of aphrodites birth as a metaphor for baptism in a coptic stele from the sixth century ad a female orant is shown wearing aphrodites conch shell as a sign that she is newly baptized throughout the middle ages villages and communities across europe still maintained folk tales and traditions about aphroditevenus and travelers reported a wide variety of stories numerous roman mosaics of venus survived in britain preserving memory of the pagan past in north africa in the late fifth century ad fulgentius of ruspe encountered mosaics of aphrodite and reinterpreted her as a symbol of the sin of lust arguing that she was shown naked because the sin of lust is never cloaked and that she was often shown swimming because all lust suffers shipwreck of its affairs he also argued that she was associated with doves and conchs because these are symbols of copulation and that she was associated with roses because as the rose gives pleasure but is swept away by the swift movement of the seasons so lust is pleasant for a moment but is swept away forever while fulgentius had appropriated aphrodite as a symbol of lust isidore of seville 560636 interpreted her as a symbol of marital procreative sex and declared that the moral of the story of aphrodites birth is that sex can only be holy in the presence of semen blood and heat which he regarded as all being necessary for procreation meanwhile isidore denigrated aphroditevenuss son eroscupid as a demon of fornication daemon fornicationis aphroditevenus was best known to western european scholars through her appearances in virgils aeneid and ovids metamorphoses venus is mentioned in the latin poem pervigilium veneris the eve of saint venus written in the third or fourth century ad and in giovanni boccaccios genealogia deorum gentilium since the late middle ages the myth of the venusberg german french mont de vénus mountain of venus a subterranean realm ruled by venus hidden underneath christian europe became a motif of european folklore rendered in various legends and epics in german folklore of the 16th century the narrative becomes associated with the minnesinger tannhäuser and in that form the myth was taken up in later literature and opera art aphrodite is the central figure in sandro botticellis painting primavera which has been described as one of the most written about and most controversial paintings in the world and one of the most popular paintings in western art the story of aphrodites birth from the foam was a popular subject matter for painters during the italian renaissance who were attempting to consciously reconstruct apelles of koss lost masterpiece aphrodite anadyomene based on the literary ekphrasis of it preserved by cicero and pliny the elder artists also drew inspiration from ovids description of the birth of venus in his metamorphoses sandro botticellis the birth of venus 1485 was also partially inspired by a description by poliziano of a relief on the subject later italian renditions of the same scene include titians venus anadyomene 1525 and raphaels painting in the stufetta del cardinal bibbiena 1516 titians biographer giorgio vasari identified all of titians paintings of naked women as paintings of venus including an erotic painting from 1534 which he called the venus of urbino even though the painting does not contain any of aphroditevenuss traditional iconography and the woman in it is clearly shown in a contemporary setting not a classical one the birth of venus 1863 by alexandre cabaneljacqueslouis davids final work was his 1824 magnum opus mars being disarmed by venus which combines elements of classical renaissance traditional french art and contemporary artistic styles while he was working on the painting david described it saying this is the last picture i want to paint but i want to surpass myself in it i will put the date of my seventyfive years on it and afterwards i will never again pick up my brush the painting was exhibited first in brussels and then in paris where over 10000 people came to see it jeanaugustedominique ingress painting venus anadyomene was one of his major works louis geofroy described it as a dream of youth realized with the power of maturity a happiness that few obtain artists or others théophile gautier declared nothing remains of the marvelous painting of the greeks but surely if anything could give the idea of antique painting as it was conceived following the statues of phidias and the poems of homer it is m ingress painting the venus anadyomene of apelles has been found other critics dismissed it as a piece of unimaginative sentimental kitsch but ingres himself considered it to be among his greatest works and used the same figure as the model for his later 1856 painting la source paintings of venus were favorites of the late nineteenthcentury academic artists in france in 1863 alexandre cabanel won widespread critical acclaim at the paris salon for his painting the birth of venus which the french emperor napoleon iii immediately purchased for his own personal art collection édouard manets 1865 painting olympia parodied the nude venuses of the academic painters particularly cabanels birth of venus in 1867 the english academic painter frederic leighton displayed his venus disrobing for the bath at the academy the art critic j b atkinson praised it declaring that mr leighton instead of adopting corrupt roman notions regarding venus such as rubens embodied has wisely reverted to the greek idea of aphrodite a goddess worshipped and by artists painted as the perfection of female grace and beauty a year later the english painter dante gabriel rossetti a founding member of the preraphaelite brotherhood painted venus verticordia latin for aphrodite the changer of hearts showing aphrodite as a nude redheaded woman in a garden of roses though he was reproached for his outré subject matter rossetti refused to alter the painting and it was soon purchased by j mitchell of bradford in 1879 william adolphe bouguereau exhibited at the paris salon his own birth of venus which imitated the classical tradition of contrapposto and was met with widespread critical acclaim rivalling the popularity of cabanels version from nearly two decades prior literature william shakespeares erotic narrative poem venus and adonis 1593 a retelling of the courtship of aphrodite and adonis from ovids metamorphoses was the most popular of all his works published within his own lifetime six editions of it were published before shakespeares death more than any of his other works and it enjoyed particularly strong popularity among young adults in 1605 richard barnfield lauded it declaring that the poem had placed shakespeares name in fames immortall booke despite this the poem has received mixed reception from modern critics samuel taylor coleridge defended it but samuel butler complained that it bored him and c s lewis described an attempted reading of it as suffocating aphrodite appears in richard garnetts short story collection the twilight of the gods and other tales 1888 in which the gods temples have been destroyed by christians stories revolving around sculptures of aphrodite were common in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries examples of such works of literature include the novel the tinted venus a farcical romance 1885 by thomas anstey guthrie and the short story the venus of ille 1887 by prosper mérimée both of which are about statues of aphrodite that come to life another noteworthy example is aphrodite in aulis by the angloirish writer george moore which revolves around an ancient greek family who moves to aulis the french writer pierre louÿs titled his erotic historical novel aphrodite mœurs antiques 1896 after the greek goddess the novel enjoyed widespread commercial success but scandalized french audiences due to its sensuality and its decadent portrayal of greek society in the early twentieth century stories of aphrodite were used by feminist poets such as amy lowell and alicia ostriker many of these poems dealt with aphrodites legendary birth from the foam of the sea other feminist writers including claude cahun thit jensen and anaïs nin also made use of the myth of aphrodite in their writings ever since the publication of isabel allendes book aphrodite a memoir of the senses in 1998 the name aphrodite has been used as a title for dozens of books dealing with all topics even superficially connected to her domain frequently these books do not even mention aphrodite or mention her only briefly but make use of her name as a selling point modern worship in 1938 gleb botkin a russian immigrant to the united states founded the church of aphrodite a neopagan religion centered around the worship of a mother goddess whom its practitioners identified as aphrodite the church of aphrodites theology was laid out in the book in search of reality published in 1969 two years before botkins death the book portrayed aphrodite in a drastically different light than the one in which the greeks envisioned her instead casting her as the sole goddess of a somewhat neoplatonic pagan monotheism it claimed that the worship of aphrodite had been brought to greece by the mystic teacher orpheus but that the greeks had misunderstood orpheuss teachings and had not realized the importance of worshipping aphrodite alone aphrodite is a major deity in wicca a contemporary naturebased syncretic neopagan religion wiccans regard aphrodite as one aspect of the goddess and she is frequently invoked by name during enchantments dealing with love and romance wiccans regard aphrodite as the ruler of human emotions erotic spirituality creativity and art as one of the twelve olympians aphrodite is a major deity within hellenismos hellenic polytheistic reconstructionism a neopagan religion which seeks to authentically revive and recreate the religion of ancient greece in the modern world unlike wiccans hellenists are usually strictly polytheistic or pantheistic hellenists venerate aphrodite primarily as the goddess of romantic love but also as a goddess of sexuality the sea and war her many epithets include sea born killer of men she upon the graves fair sailing and ally in war genealogy see also anchises cupid girdle of aphrodite history of nude art lakshmi rose from the ocean like aphrodite and has 8pointed star like ishtar explanatory notes citations general and cited references homer the iliad with an english translation by at murray phd in two volumes cambridge ma harvard university press london william heinemann ltd 1924 online version at the perseus digital library hesiod theogony in the homeric hymns and homerica with an english translation by hugh g evelynwhite cambridge ma harvard university press london william heinemann ltd 1914 online version at the perseus digital library evelynwhite hugh the homeric hymns and homerica with an english translation by hugh g evelynwhite homeric hymns cambridge massachusetts harvard university press london william heinemann ltd 1914 pindar odes diane arnson svarlien 1990 online version at the perseus digital library euripides the complete greek drama edited by whitney j oates and eugene oneill jr in two volumes 2 the phoenissae translated by e p coleridge new york random house 1938 apollonius rhodius argonautica translated by robert cooper seaton 18531915 r c loeb classical library volume 001 london william heinemann ltd 1912 online version at the topos text project apollodorus apollodorus the library with an english translation by sir james george frazer fba frs in 2 volumes cambridge ma harvard university press london william heinemann ltd 1921 online version at the perseus digital library pausanias pausanias description of greece with an english translation by whs jones littd and ha ormerod ma in 4 volumes cambridge ma harvard university press london william heinemann ltd 1918 online version at the perseus digital library diodorus siculus bibliotheca historica vol 12 immanel bekker ludwig dindorf friedrich vogel in aedibus b g teubneri leipzig 18881890 greek text available at the perseus digital library ovid metamorphoses translated by a d melville introduction and notes by e j kenney oxford oxford university press 2008 hyginus gaius julius the myths of hyginus edited and translated by mary a grant lawrence university of kansas press 1960 gaius julius hyginus astronomica from the myths of hyginus translated and edited by mary grant university of kansas publications in humanistic studies online version at the topos text project hard robin the routledge handbook of greek mythology based on hj roses handbook of greek mythology psychology press 2004 google books external links aphrodite from the theoi project information from classical literature greek and roman art the glory which was greece from a female perspective sapphos hymn to aphrodite with a brief explanation warburg institute iconographic database ca 2450 images of aphrodite beauty goddesses characters in the argonautica characters in the odyssey children of zeus consorts of dionysus consorts of hephaestus cypriot mythology deities in the iliad divine women of zeus extramarital relationships fertility goddesses greek love and lust goddesses homosexuality and bisexuality deities kourotrophoi metamorphoses characters new religious movement deities nudity in mythology prostitution sexuality in ancient greece temporary marriages twelve olympians venusian deities planetary goddesses women of ares women of hermes women of poseidon women of the trojan war | 10,138 |
1175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/April%201 | April 1 | events pre1600 527 byzantine emperor justin i names his nephew justinian i as coruler and successor to the throne 1081 alexios i komnenos overthrows the byzantine emperor nikephoros iii botaneiates and after his troops spend three days extensively looting constantinople is formally crowned on april 4 1572 in the eighty years war the watergeuzen capture brielle from the seventeen provinces gaining the first foothold on land for what would become the dutch republic 16011900 1789 in new york city the united states house of representatives achieves its first quorum and elects frederick muhlenberg of pennsylvania as its first speaker 1833 the convention of 1833 a political gathering of settlers in mexican texas to help draft a series of petitions to the mexican government begins in san felipe de austin 1865 american civil war union troops led by philip sheridan decisively defeat confederate troops led by george pickett cutting the army of northern virginias last supply line during the siege of petersburg 1867 singapore becomes a british crown colony 1873 the white star steamer ss atlantic sinks off nova scotia killing 547 in one of the worst marine disasters of the 19th century 1900 prince george becomes absolute monarch of the cretan state 1901present 1908 the territorial force renamed territorial army in 1920 is formed as a volunteer reserve component of the british army 1918 the royal air force is created by the merger of the royal flying corps and the royal naval air service 1924 adolf hitler is sentenced to five years imprisonment for his participation in the beer hall putsch but spends only nine months in jail 1924 the royal canadian air force is formed 1933 the recently elected nazis under julius streicher organize a oneday boycott of all jewishowned businesses in germany ushering in a series of antisemitic acts 1935 indias central banking institution the reserve bank of india is formed 1937 aden becomes a british crown colony 1937 the royal new zealand air force is formed as an independent service 1939 spanish civil war generalísimo francisco franco of the spanish state announces the end of the spanish civil war when the last of the republican forces surrender 1941 fântâna albă massacre between two hundred and two thousand romanian civilians are killed by soviet border troops 1941 a military coup in iraq overthrows the regime of abd alilah and installs rashid ali algaylani as prime minister 1944 world war ii navigation errors lead to an accidental american bombing of the swiss city of schaffhausen 1945 world war ii the tenth united states army attacks the thirtysecond japanese army on okinawa 1946 the 86 aleutian islands earthquake shakes the aleutian islands with a maximum mercalli intensity of vi strong a destructive tsunami reaches the hawaiian islands resulting in dozens of deaths mostly in hilo hawaii 1946 the malayan union is established protests from locals led to the establishment of the federation of malaya two years later 1947 the only mutiny in the history of the royal new zealand navy begins 1948 cold war communist forces respond to the introduction of the deutsche mark by attempting to force the western powers to withdraw from berlin 1948 faroe islands gain autonomy from denmark 1949 chinese civil war the chinese communist party holds unsuccessful peace talks with the nationalist party in beijing after three years of fighting 1949 the government of canada repeals japanesecanadian internment after seven years 1954 united states president dwight d eisenhower authorizes the creation of the united states air force academy in colorado springs colorado 1955 the eoka rebellion against the british empire begins in cyprus with the goal of unifying with greece 1960 the tiros1 satellite transmits the first television picture from space 1964 the british admiralty war office and air ministry are replaced by a unified defence council of the united kingdom 1969 the hawker siddeley harrier the first operational fighter aircraft with verticalshort takeoff and landing capabilities enters service with the royal air force 1970 president richard nixon signs the public health cigarette smoking act into law 1971 bangladesh liberation war the pakistan army massacre more than a thousand people in keraniganj upazila bangladesh 1973 project tiger a tiger conservation project is launched in the jim corbett national park india 1974 the local government act 1972 of england and wales comes into effect 1976 steve jobs and steve wozniak found apple computer inc 1979 iran becomes an islamic republic by a 99 vote officially overthrowing the shah 1984 singer marvin gaye is shot to death by his father in his home in arlington heights los angeles california 1986 communist party of nepal mashal cadres attack a number of police stations in kathmandu seeking to incite a popular rebellion 1989 margaret thatchers new local government tax the community charge commonly known as the poll tax is introduced in scotland 1993 nascar racer alan kulwicki is killed in a plane crash near the tricities regional airport in blountville tennessee 1997 comet halebopp is seen passing at perihelion 1999 nunavut is established as a canadian territory carved out of the eastern part of the northwest territories 2001 an ep3e united states navy surveillance aircraft collides with a chinese peoples liberation army shenyang j8 fighter jet the chinese pilot ejected but is subsequently lost the navy crew makes an emergency landing in hainan china and is detained 2001 former president of federal republic of yugoslavia slobodan milošević surrenders to police special forces to be tried on war crimes charges 2001 samesex marriage becomes legal in the netherlands the first contemporary country to allow it 2004 google launches its email service gmail 2006 serious organised crime agency soca of the government of the united kingdom is enforced but later merged into national crime agency on 7 october 2013 2011 after protests against the burning of the quran turn violent a mob attacks a united nations compound in mazarisharif afghanistan resulting in the deaths of thirteen people including eight foreign workers 2016 the 2016 nagornokarabakh conflict begins along the nagornokarabakh line of contact births pre1600 1220 emperor gosaga of japan d 1272 1282 louis iv holy roman emperor d 1347 1328 blanche of france duchess of orléans d 1382 1543 françois de bonne duke of lesdiguières d 1626 1578 william harvey english physician and academic d 1657 16011900 1610 charles de saintévremond french soldier and critic d 1703 1629 jeanhenri danglebert french organist and composer d 1691 1640 georg mohr danish mathematician and academic d 1697 1647 john wilmot 2nd earl of rochester english poet and courtier d 1680 1697 antoine françois prévost french novelist and translator d 1763 1721 pieter hellendaal dutchenglish organist violinist and composer d 1799 1741 george dance the younger english architect and surveyor d 1825 1753 joseph de maistre french philosopher lawyer and diplomat d 1821 1755 jean anthelme brillatsavarin french lawyer and politician d 1826 1765 luigi schiavonetti italian engraver and etcher d 1810 1776 sophie germain french mathematician physicist and philosopher d 1831 1786 william mulready irish genre painter d 1863 1815 otto von bismarck german lawyer and politician 1st chancellor of the german empire d 1898 1815 edward clark american lawyer and politician 8th governor of texas d 1880 1823 simon bolivar buckner american general and politician 30th governor of kentucky d 1891 1824 louiszéphirin moreau canadian bishop d 1901 1834 james fisk american businessman d 1872 1852 edwin austin abbey american painter and illustrator d 1911 1865 richard adolf zsigmondy austriangerman chemist and academic nobel prize laureate d 1929 1866 william blomfield new zealand cartoonist and politician d 1938 1866 ferruccio busoni italian pianist composer and conductor d 1924 1866 ève lavallière french actress d 1929 1868 edmond rostand french poet and playwright d 1918 1868 walter mead english cricketer d 1954 1871 f melius christiansen norwegianamerican violinist and conductor d 1955 1873 sergei rachmaninoff russian pianist composer and conductor d 1943 1874 ernest barnes english mathematician and theologian d 1953 1874 prince karl of bavaria d 1927 1875 edgar wallace english journalist author and playwright d 1932 1878 c ganesha iyer ceylon tamil philologist d 1958 1879 stanislaus zbyszko polish wrestler and strongman d 1967 1881 octavian goga romanian prime minister d 1938 1883 lon chaney american actor director and screenwriter d 1930 1883 edvard drabløs norwegian actor and director d 1976 1883 laurette taylor irishamerican actress d 1946 1885 wallace beery american actor d 1949 1885 clementine churchill english wife of winston churchill d 1977 1889 k b hedgewar indian physician and activist d 1940 1893 cicely courtneidge australianenglish actress d 1980 1895 alberta hunter africanamerican singersongwriter and nurse d 1984 1898 william james sidis ukrainianrussian jewish american mathematician anthropologist and historian d 1944 1899 gustavs celmiņš latvian academic and politician d 1968 1900 stefanie clausen danish olympic diver d 1981 1901present 1901 whittaker chambers american journalist and spy d 1961 1902 maria polydouri greek poet d 1930 1905 gaston eyskens belgian economist and politician 47th prime minister of belgium d 1988 1905 paul hasluck australian historian poet and politician 17th governorgeneral of australia d 1993 1906 alexander sergeyevich yakovlev russian engineer founded the yakovlev design bureau d 1989 1907 shivakumara swami indian religious leader and philanthropist d 2019 1908 abraham maslow american psychologist and academic d 1970 1908 harlow rothert american shot putter lawyer and academic d 1997 1909 abner biberman american actor director and screenwriter d 1977 1909 eddy duchin american pianist and bandleader d 1951 1910 harry carney american saxophonist and clarinet player d 1974 1910 bob van osdel american high jumper and soldier d 1987 1911 augusta braxton baker african american librarian d 1998 1913 memos makris greek sculptor d 1993 1915 o w fischer austrianswiss actor and director d 2004 1916 sheila may edmonds british mathematician d 2002 1917 sydney newman canadian screenwriter and producer cocreated doctor who d 1997 1917 melville shavelson american director producer and screenwriter d 2007 1919 joseph murray american surgeon and soldier nobel prize laureate d 2012 1920 toshiro mifune japanese actor d 1997 1921 william bergsma american composer and educator d 1994 1921 arthur guitar boogie smith american guitarist fiddler and composer d 2014 1922 duke jordan american pianist and composer d 2006 1922 william manchester american historian and author d 2004 1924 brendan byrne american lieutenant judge and politician 47th governor of new jersey d 2018 1926 anne mccaffrey americanirish author d 2011 1927 walter bahr american soccer player coach and manager d 2018 1927 amos milburn american rb singersongwriter and pianist d 1980 1927 ferenc puskás hungarian footballer and manager d 2006 1929 jonathan haze american actor producer screenwriter and production manager 1929 milan kundera czechfrench novelist poet and playwright d 2023 1929 payut ngaokrachang thai animator and director d 2010 1929 jane powell american actress singer and dancer d 2021 1930 grace lee whitney american actress and singer d 2015 1931 george baker bulgarianenglish actor and screenwriter d 2011 1931 rolf hochhuth german author and playwright d 2020 1932 debbie reynolds american actress singer and dancer d 2016 1933 claude cohentannoudji algerianfrench physicist and academic nobel prize laureate 1933 dan flavin american sculptor and educator d 1996 1933 bengt holbek danish folklorist d 1992 1934 vladimir posner frenchamerican journalist and radio host 1935 larry mcdonald american physician and politician d 1983 1936 peter collinson englishamerican director and producer d 1980 1936 jeanpascal delamuraz swiss politician 80th president of the swiss confederation d 1998 1936 tarun gogoi indian politician 14th chief minister of assam d 2020 1936 abdul qadeer khan indianpakistani physicist chemist and engineer d 2021 1937 jordan charney american actor 1939 ali macgraw american model and actress 1939 phil niekro american baseball player and manager d 2020 1940 wangari maathai kenyan environmentalist and politician nobel prize laureate d 2011 1941 gideon gadot israeli journalist and politician d 2012 1941 ajit wadekar indian cricketer coach and manager d 2018 1942 samuel r delany american author and critic 1942 richard d wolff american economist and academic 1943 dafydd wigley welsh academic and politician 1943 titina silá bissauguinean revolutionary d 1973 1946 nikitas kaklamanis greek academic and politician greek minister of health and social security 1946 ronnie lane english bass player songwriter and producer d 1997 1946 arrigo sacchi italian footballer coach and manager 1947 alain connes french mathematician and academic 1948 javier irureta spanish footballer and manager 1948 peter law welsh politician and independent member of parliament d 2006 1949 gérard mestrallet french businessman 1949 paul manafort american lobbyist political consultant and convicted felon 1949 sammy nelson northern irish footballer and coach 1949 gil scottheron american singersongwriter and author d 2011 1950 samuel alito american lawyer and jurist associate justice of the supreme court of the united states 1950 loris kessel swiss racing driver d 2010 1950 daniel paillé canadian academic and politician 1951 john abizaid american general 1952 annette otoole american actress 1952 bernard stiegler french philosopher and academic d 2020 1953 barry sonnenfeld american cinematographer director and producer 1953 alberto zaccheroni italian footballer and manager 1954 jeff porcaro american drummer songwriter and producer d 1992 1955 don hasselbeck american football player and sportscaster 1955 humayun akhtar khan pakistani politician 5th commerce minister of pakistan 1957 david gower english cricketer and sportscaster 1957 denise nickerson american actress d 2019 1958 d boon american singer and musician d 1985 1959 helmuth duckadam romanian footballer 1961 susan boyle scottish singer 1961 sergio scariolo italian professional basketball head coach 1961 mark white english singersongwriter and guitarist 1962 mark shulman american author 1962 chris grayling english journalist and politician lord high chancellor of great britain 1962 samboy lim filipino basketball player and manager 1962 phillip schofield english television host 1963 teodoro de villa diaz filipino guitarist and songwriter d 1988 1963 aprille ericssonjackson american aerospace engineer 1964 erik breukink dutch cyclist and manager 1964 kevin duckworth american basketball player d 2008 1964 john morris english cricketer 1964 josé rodrigues dos santos portuguese journalist author and educator 1965 jane adams american film television and stage actress 1965 mark jackson american basketball player and coach 1966 chris evans english radio and television host 1966 mehmet özdilek turkish footballer and manager 1967 nicola roxon australian lawyer and politician 34th attorneygeneral for australia 1968 mike baird australian politician 44th premier of new south wales 1968 andreas schnaas german actor and director 1968 alexander stubb finnish academic and politician 43rd prime minister of finland 1969 lev lobodin ukrainianrussian decathlete 1969 andrew vlahov australian basketball player 1969 dean windass english footballer and manager 1970 brad meltzer american author screenwriter and producer 1971 sonia bisset cuban javelin thrower 1971 shinji nakano japanese racing driver 1972 darren mccarty canadian ice hockey player and sportscaster 1972 jesse tobias american guitarist and songwriter 1973 christian finnegan american comedian and actor 1973 stephen fleming new zealand cricketer and coach 1973 rachel maddow american journalist and author 1974 hugo ibarra argentinian footballer and manager 1975 john butler americanaustralian singersongwriter and producer 1975 magdalena maleeva bulgarian tennis player 1976 hazem el masri lebaneseaustralian rugby league player and educator 1976 david gilliland american race car driver 1976 david oyelowo english actor 1976 clarence seedorf dutchbrazilian footballer and manager 1976 yuka yoshida japanese tennis player 1977 vitor belfort brazilianamerican boxer and mixed martial artist 1977 haimar zubeldia spanish cyclist 1978 antonio de nigris mexican footballer d 2009 1978 mirka federer slovakswiss tennis player 1978 anamaria marinca romanianenglish actress 1978 etan thomas american basketball player 1979 ruth beitia spanish high jumper 1980 dennis kruppke german footballer 1980 randy orton american wrestler 1980 bijou phillips american actress and model 1981 antonis fotsis greek basketball player 1981 bjørn einar romøren norwegian ski jumper 1982 taran killam american actor voice artist comedian and writer 1982 andreas thorkildsen norwegian javelin thrower 1983 ólafur ingi skúlason icelandic footballer 1983 sean taylor american football player d 2007 1984 gilberto macena brazilian footballer 1985 daniel murphy american baseball player 1985 beth tweddle english gymnast 1986 nikolaos kourtidis greek weightlifter 1986 hillary scott american country singersongwriter 1987 ding junhui chinese professional snooker player 1987 gianluca musacci italian footballer 1987 oliver turvey english racing driver 1988 brook lopez american basketball player 1988 robin lopez american basketball player 1989 jan blokhuijsen dutch speed skater 1989 david ngog french footballer 1989 christian vietoris german racing driver 1990 julia fischer german discus thrower 1992 deng linlin chinese gymnast 1995 jofra archer barbadianenglish cricketer 1995 logan paul american youtuber actor and wrestler 1997 asa butterfield english actor 1997 álex palou spanish racing driver deaths pre1600 996 john xv pope of the catholic church 1085 shen zong chinese emperor b 1048 1132 hugh of châteauneuf french bishop b 1053 1204 eleanor of aquitaine queen of france and england b 1122 1205 amalric ii king of cyprus and jerusalem 1282 abaqa khan ruler of the mongol ilkhanate b 1234 1431 nuno álvares pereira portuguese general b 1360 1441 blanche i queen of navarre and sicily b 1387 1455 zbigniew oleśnicki polish cardinal and statesman b 1389 1528 francisco de peñalosa spanish composer b 1470 1548 sigismund i king of poland b 1467 1580 alonso mudarra spanish guitarist and composer b 1510 16011900 1621 cristofano allori italian painter and educator b 1577 1682 franz egon of fürstenberg bavarian bishop b 1625 1787 floyer sydenham english scholar and academic b 1710 1839 benjamin pierce american soldier and politician 11th governor of new hampshire b 1757 1865 antonios kriezis greek navy officer and prime minister of greece b 1796 1865 giuditta pasta italian soprano b 1797 1872 frederick denison maurice english theologian and academic b 1805 1878 john cw daly englishcanadian soldier and politician b 1796 1890 david wilber american politician b 1820 1890 alexander mozhaysky russian soldier pilot and engineer b 1825 1901present 1914 rube waddell american baseball player b 1876 1914 charles wells english founder of charles wells ltd b 1842 1917 scott joplin american pianist and composer b 1868 1920 walter simon german banker and philanthropist b 1857 1922 charles i emperor of austria b 1887 1924 jacob bolotin american physician b 1888 1924 lloyd hildebrand english cyclist b 1870 1924 stan rowley australian sprinter b 1876 1946 noah beery sr american actor b 1882 1947 george ii king of greece b 1890 1950 charles r drew american physician and surgeon b 1904 1950 recep peker turkish soldier and politician 6th prime minister of turkey b 1889 1962 jussi kekkonen finnish captain and businessman b 1910 1965 helena rubinstein polishamerican businesswoman b 1870 1966 brian onolan irish author b 1911 1968 lev landau azerbaijanirussian physicist and academic nobel prize laureate b 1908 1971 kathleen lonsdale irish crystallographer and prison reformer b 1903 1976 max ernst german painter and sculptor b 1891 1981 eua sunthornsanan thai singersongwriter and bandleader b 1910 1984 marvin gaye american singersongwriter b 1939 1984 elizabeth goudge english author b 1900 1986 erik bruhn danish actor director and choreographer b 1928 1986 edwin boston english clergyman author and railway preservationist 1987 henri cochet french tennis player b 1901 1991 martha graham american dancer and choreographer b 1894 1991 jaime guzmán chilean lawyer and politician b 1946 1992 michael havers baron havers english lawyer and politician lord high chancellor of great britain b 1923 1993 alan kulwicki american race car driver b 1954 1994 robert doisneau french photographer b 1912 1995 h adams carter american mountaineer journalist and educator b 1914 1995 francisco moncion dominican american ballet dancer choreographer charter member of the new york city ballet b 1918 1995 lucie rie austrianenglish potter b 1902 1997 makar honcharenko ukrainian footballer and manager b 1912 1998 rozz williams american singersongwriter and guitarist b 1963 1999 jesse stone american pianist songwriter and producer b 1901 2001 trịnh công sơn vietnamese guitarist and composer b 1939 2002 simo häyhä finnish soldier and sniper b 1905 2003 leslie cheung hong kong singersongwriter and actor b 1956 2004 ioannis kyrastas greek footballer and manager b 1952 2004 carrie snodgress american actress b 1945 2005 paul bomani tanzanian politician and diplomat 1st tanzanian minister of finance b 1925 2005 robert coldwell wood american political scientist and academic b 1923 2006 in tam cambodian general and politician 26th prime minister of cambodia b 1916 2010 john forsythe american actor b 1918 2010 tzannis tzannetakis greek soldier and politician 175th prime minister of greece b 1927 2012 lionel bowen australian soldier lawyer and politician deputy prime minister of australia b 1922 2012 giorgio chinaglia italianamerican soccer player and radio host b 1947 2012 miguel de la madrid mexican banker academic and politician 52nd president of mexico b 1934 2013 moses blah liberian general and politician 23rd president of liberia b 1947 2013 karen muir south african swimmer and physician b 1952 2014 king fleming american pianist and bandleader b 1922 2014 jacques le goff french historian and author b 1924 2014 rolf rendtorff german theologian and academic b 1925 2015 nicolae rainea romanian footballer and referee b 1933 2017 lonnie brooks american blues singer and guitarist b 1933 2017 yevgeny yevtushenko soviet and russian poet and writer b 1932 2018 steven bochco american television writer and producer b 1943 2019 vonda n mcintyre american science fiction author b 1948 holidays and observances christian feast day cellach of armagh hugh of grenoble frederick denison maurice church of england mary of egypt melito of sardis tewdrig theodora walric abbot of leuconay april 1 eastern orthodox liturgics april fools day odisha day odisha india arbor day tanzania civil service day thailand cyprus national day cyprus edible book day fossil fools day kha bnisan the assyrian new year assyrian people references external links bbc on this day historical events on april 1 days of the year april | 3,597 |
1176 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisymmetric%20relation | Antisymmetric relation | in mathematics a binary relation on a set is antisymmetric if there is no pair of distinct elements of each of which is related by to the other more formally is antisymmetric precisely if for all or equivalently the definition of antisymmetry says nothing about whether actually holds or not for any an antisymmetric relation on a set may be reflexive that is for all irreflexive that is for no or neither reflexive nor irreflexive a relation is asymmetric if and only if it is both antisymmetric and irreflexive examples the divisibility relation on the natural numbers is an important example of an antisymmetric relation in this context antisymmetry means that the only way each of two numbers can be divisible by the other is if the two are in fact the same number equivalently if and are distinct and is a factor of then cannot be a factor of for example 12 is divisible by 4 but 4 is not divisible by 12 the usual order relation on the real numbers is antisymmetric if for two real numbers and both inequalities and hold then and must be equal similarly the subset order on the subsets of any given set is antisymmetric given two sets and if every element in also is in and every element in is also in then and must contain all the same elements and therefore be equal a reallife example of a relation that is typically antisymmetric is paid the restaurant bill of understood as restricted to a given occasion typically some people pay their own bills while others pay for their spouses or friends as long as no two people pay each others bills the relation is antisymmetric properties partial and total orders are antisymmetric by definition a relation can be both symmetric and antisymmetric in this case it must be coreflexive and there are relations which are neither symmetric nor antisymmetric for example the preys on relation on biological species antisymmetry is different from asymmetry a relation is asymmetric if and only if it is antisymmetric and irreflexive see also symmetry in mathematics references nlab antisymmetric relation binary relations | 356 |
1177 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleister%20Crowley | Aleister Crowley | aleister crowley born edward alexander crowley 12 october 1875 1 december 1947 was an english occultist philosopher ceremonial magician poet painter novelist and mountaineer he founded the religion of thelema identifying himself as the prophet entrusted with guiding humanity into the æon of horus in the early 20th century a prolific writer he published widely over the course of his life born to a wealthy family in royal leamington spa warwickshire crowley rejected his parents fundamentalist christian plymouth brethren faith to pursue an interest in western esotericism he was educated at trinity college at the university of cambridge where he focused his attentions on mountaineering and poetry resulting in several publications some biographers allege that here he was recruited into a british intelligence agency further suggesting that he remained a spy throughout his life in 1898 he joined the esoteric hermetic order of the golden dawn where he was trained in ceremonial magic by samuel liddell macgregor mathers and allan bennett he went mountaineering in mexico with oscar eckenstein before studying hindu and buddhist practices in india in 1904 he married rose edith kelly and they honeymooned in cairo egypt where crowley claimed to have been contacted by a supernatural entity named aiwass who provided him with the book of the law a sacred text that served as the basis for thelema announcing the start of the æon of horus the book declared that its followers should do what thou wilt and seek to align themselves with their true will through the practice of ceremonial magic after the unsuccessful 1905 kanchenjunga expedition and a visit to india and china crowley returned to britain where he attracted attention as a prolific author of poetry novels and occult literature in 1907 he and george cecil jones cofounded an esoteric order the aa through which they propagated thelema after spending time in algeria in 1912 he was initiated into another esoteric order the germanbased ordo templi orientis oto rising to become the leader of its british branch which he reformulated in accordance with his thelemite beliefs through the oto thelemite groups were established in britain australia and north america crowley spent the first world war in the united states where he took up painting and campaigned for the german war effort against britain later revealing that he had infiltrated the progerman movement to assist the british intelligence services in 1920 he established the abbey of thelema a religious commune in cefalù sicily where he lived with various followers his libertine lifestyle led to denunciations in the british press and the italian government evicted him in 1923 he divided the following two decades between france germany and england and continued to promote thelema until his death crowley gained widespread notoriety during his lifetime being a drug user bisexual and an individualist social critic crowley has remained a highly influential figure over western esotericism and the counterculture of the 1960s and continues to be considered a prophet in thelema he is the subject of various biographies and academic studies early life youth crowley was born edward alexander crowley at 30 clarendon square in royal leamington spa warwickshire on 12 october 1875 his father edward crowley 18291887 was trained as an engineer but his share in a lucrative family brewing business crowleys alton ales had allowed him to retire before his son was born his mother emily bertha bishop 18481917 came from a devonshiresomerset family and had a strained relationship with her son she described him as the beast a name that he revelled in the couple had been married at londons kensington registry office in november 1874 and were evangelical christians crowleys father had been born a quaker but had converted to the exclusive brethren a faction of a christian fundamentalist group known as the plymouth brethren emily likewise converted upon marriage crowleys father was particularly devout spending his time as a travelling preacher for the sect and reading a chapter from the bible to his wife and son after breakfast every day following the death of their baby daughter in 1880 in 1881 the crowleys moved to redhill surrey at the age of 8 crowley was sent to ht habershons evangelical christian boarding school in hastings and then to ebor preparatory school in cambridge run by the reverend henry darcy champney whom crowley considered a sadist in march 1887 when crowley was 11 his father died of tongue cancer crowley described this as a turning point in his life and he always maintained an admiration of his father describing him as my hero and my friend inheriting a third of his fathers wealth he began misbehaving at school and was harshly punished by champney crowleys family removed him from the school when he developed albuminuria he then attended malvern college and tonbridge school both of which he despised and left after a few terms he became increasingly sceptical regarding christianity pointing out inconsistencies in the bible to his religious teachers and went against the christian morality of his upbringing by smoking masturbating and having sex with prostitutes from whom he contracted gonorrhea sent to live with a brethren tutor in eastbourne he undertook chemistry courses at eastbourne college crowley developed interests in chess poetry and mountain climbing and in 1894 climbed beachy head before visiting the alps and joining the scottish mountaineering club the following year he returned to the bernese alps climbing the eiger trift jungfrau mönch and wetterhorn cambridge university 18951898 having adopted the name of aleister over edward in october 1895 crowley began a threeyear course at trinity college cambridge where he was entered for the moral science tripos studying philosophy with approval from his personal tutor he changed to english literature which was not then part of the curriculum offered crowley spent much of his time at university engaged in his pastimes becoming president of the chess club and practising the game for two hours a day he briefly considered a professional career as a chess player crowley also embraced his love of literature and poetry particularly the works of richard francis burton and percy bysshe shelley many of his own poems appeared in student publications such as the granta cambridge magazine and cantab he continued his mountaineering going on holiday to the alps to climb every year from 1894 to 1898 often with his friend oscar eckenstein and in 1897 he made the first ascent of the mönch without a guide these feats led to his recognition in the alpine mountaineering community crowley had his first significant mystical experience while on holiday in stockholm in december 1896 several biographers including lawrence sutin richard kaczynski and tobias churton believed that this was the result of crowleys first samesex sexual experience which enabled him to recognize his bisexuality at cambridge crowley maintained a vigorous sex life with womenlargely with female prostitutes from one of whom he caught syphilisbut eventually he took part in samesex activities despite their illegality in october 1897 crowley met herbert charles pollitt president of the cambridge university footlights dramatic club and the two entered into a relationship they broke apart because pollitt did not share crowleys increasing interest in western esotericism a breakup that crowley would regret for many years in 1897 crowley travelled to saint petersburg in russia later saying that he was trying to learn russian as he was considering a future diplomatic career there in october 1897 a brief illness triggered considerations of mortality and the futility of all human endeavour and crowley abandoned all thoughts of a diplomatic career in favour of pursuing an interest in the occult in march 1898 he obtained ae waites the book of black magic and of pacts and then karl von eckartshausens the cloud upon the sanctuary furthering his occult interests that same year crowley privately published 100 copies of his poem aceldama a place to bury strangers in but it was not a particular success aceldama was issued by leonard smithers that same year crowley published a string of other poems including white stains a decadent collection of erotic poetry that was printed abroad lest its publication be prohibited by the british authorities in july 1898 he left cambridge not having taken any degree at all despite a first class showing in his 1897 exams and consistent second class honours results before that the golden dawn 18981899 in august 1898 crowley was in zermatt switzerland where he met the chemist julian l baker and the two began discussing their common interest in alchemy back in london baker introduced crowley to george cecil jones bakers brotherinlaw and a fellow member of the occult society known as the hermetic order of the golden dawn which had been founded in 1888 crowley was initiated into the outer order of the golden dawn on 18 november 1898 by the groups leader samuel liddell macgregor mathers the ceremony took place in the golden dawns isisurania temple held at londons mark masons hall where crowley took the magical motto and name frater perdurabo which he interpreted as i shall endure to the end crowley moved into his own luxury flat at 6769 chancery lane and soon invited a senior golden dawn member allan bennett to live with him as his personal magical tutor bennett taught crowley more about ceremonial magic and the ritual use of drugs and together they performed the rituals of the goetia until bennett left for south asia to study buddhism in november 1899 crowley purchased boleskine house in foyers on the shore of loch ness in scotland he developed a love of scottish culture describing himself as the laird of boleskine and took to wearing traditional highland dress even during visits to london he continued writing poetry publishing jezebel and other tragic poems tales of archais songs of the spirit appeal to the american republic and jephthah in 189899 most gained mixed reviews from literary critics although jephthah was considered a particular critical success crowley soon progressed through the lower grades of the golden dawn and was ready to enter the groups inner second order he was unpopular in the group his bisexuality and libertine lifestyle had gained him a bad reputation and he had developed feuds with some of the members including w b yeats when the golden dawns london lodge refused to initiate crowley into the second order he visited mathers in paris who personally admitted him into the adeptus minor grade a schism had developed between mathers and the london members of the golden dawn who were unhappy with his autocratic rule acting under mathers orders crowleywith the help of his mistress and fellow initiate elaine simpsonattempted to seize the vault of the adepts a temple space at 36 blythe road in west kensington from the london lodge members when the case was taken to court the judge ruled in favour of the london lodge as they had paid for the spaces rent leaving both crowley and mathers isolated from the group mexico india paris and marriage 19001903 in 1900 crowley travelled to mexico via the united states settling in mexico city and starting a relationship with a local woman developing a love of the country he continued experimenting with ceremonial magic working with john dees enochian invocations he later claimed to have been initiated into freemasonry while there and he wrote a play based on richard wagners tannhäuser as well as a series of poems published as oracles 1905 eckenstein joined him later in 1900 and together they climbed several mountains including iztaccihuatl popocatepetl and colima the latter of which they had to abandon owing to a volcanic eruption leaving mexico crowley headed to san francisco before sailing for hawaii aboard the nippon maru on the ship he had a brief affair with a married woman named mary alice rogers saying he had fallen in love with her he wrote a series of poems about the romance published as alice an adultery 1903 briefly stopping in japan and hong kong crowley reached ceylon where he met with allan bennett who was there studying shaivism the pair spent some time in kandy before bennett decided to become a buddhist monk in the theravada tradition travelling to burma to do so crowley decided to tour india devoting himself to the hindu practice of rāja yoga from which he claimed to have achieved the spiritual state of dhyana he spent much of this time studying at the meenakshi temple in madura at this time he also wrote poetry which was published as the sword of song 1904 he contracted malaria and had to recuperate from the disease in calcutta and rangoon in 1902 he was joined in india by eckenstein and several other mountaineers guy knowles h pfannl v wesseley and jules jacotguillarmod together the eckensteincrowley expedition attempted k2 which had never been climbed on the journey crowley was afflicted with influenza malaria and snow blindness and other expedition members were also struck with illness they reached an altitude of before turning back having arrived in paris in november 1902 he socialized with his friend the painter gerald kelly and through him became a fixture of the parisian arts scene whilst there crowley wrote a series of poems on the work of an acquaintance the sculptor auguste rodin these poems were later published as rodin in rime 1907 one of those frequenting this milieu was w somerset maugham who after briefly meeting crowley later used him as a model for the character of oliver haddo in his novel the magician 1908 he returned to boleskine in april 1903 in august crowley wed gerald kellys sister rose edith kelly in a marriage of convenience to prevent her from entering an arranged marriage the marriage appalled the kelly family and damaged his friendship with gerald heading on a honeymoon to paris cairo and then ceylon crowley fell in love with rose and worked to prove his affections while on his honeymoon he wrote her a series of love poems published as rosa mundi and other love songs 1906 as well as authoring the religious satire why jesus wept 1904 developing thelema egypt and the book of the law 1904 in february 1904 crowley and rose arrived in cairo claiming to be a prince and princess they rented an apartment in which crowley set up a temple room and began invoking ancient egyptian deities while studying islamic mysticism and arabic according to crowleys later account rose regularly became delirious and informed him they are waiting for you on 18 march she explained that they were the god horus and on 20 march proclaimed that the equinox of the gods has come she led him to a nearby museum where she showed him a seventhcentury bce mortuary stele known as the stele of ankhefenkhonsu crowley thought it important that the exhibits number was 666 the number of the beast in christian belief and in later years termed the artefact the stele of revealing according to crowleys later statements on 8 april he heard a disembodied voice claiming to be that of aiwass the messenger of horus or hoorpaarkraat crowley said that he wrote down everything the voice told him over the course of the next three days and titled it liber al vel legis or the book of the law the book proclaimed that humanity was entering a new aeon and that crowley would serve as its prophet it stated that a supreme moral law was to be introduced in this aeon do what thou wilt shall be the whole of the law and that people should learn to live in tune with their will this book and the philosophy that it espoused became the cornerstone of crowleys religion thelema crowley said that at the time he had been unsure what to do with the book of the law often resenting it he said that he ignored the instructions which the text commanded him to perform which included taking the stele of revealing from the museum fortifying his own island and translating the book into all the worlds languages according to his account he instead sent typescripts of the work to several occultists he knew putting the manuscript away and ignoring it kanchenjunga and china 19051906 returning to boleskine crowley came to believe that mathers had begun using magic against him and the relationship between the two broke down on 28 july 1905 rose gave birth to crowleys first child a daughter named lilith with crowley writing the pornographic snowdrops from a curates garden to entertain his recuperating wife he also founded a publishing company through which to publish his poetry naming it the society for the propagation of religious truth in parody of the society for promoting christian knowledge among its first publications were crowleys collected works edited by ivor back an old friend of crowleys who was both a practicing surgeon and an enthusiast of literature his poetry often received strong reviews either positive or negative but never sold well in an attempt to gain more publicity he issued a reward of 100 for the best essay on his work the winner of this was j f c fuller a british army officer and military historian whose essay the star in the west 1907 heralded crowleys poetry as some of the greatest ever written crowley decided to climb kanchenjunga in the himalayas of nepal widely recognised as the worlds most treacherous mountain the collaboration between jacotguillarmod charles adolphe reymond alexis pache and alcesti c rigo de righi the expedition was marred by much argument between crowley and the others who thought that he was reckless they eventually mutinied against crowleys control with the other climbers heading back down the mountain as nightfall approached despite crowleys warnings that it was too dangerous subsequently pache and several porters were killed in an accident something for which crowley was widely blamed by the mountaineering community spending time in moharbhanj where he took part in biggame hunting and wrote the homoerotic work the scented garden crowley met up with rose and lilith in calcutta before being forced to leave india after nonlethally shooting two men who tried to mug him briefly visiting bennett in burma crowley and his family decided to tour southern china hiring porters and a nanny for the purpose crowley smoked opium throughout the journey which took the family from tengyueh through to yungchang tali yunnanfu and then hanoi on the way he spent much time on spiritual and magical work reciting the bornless ritual an invocation to his holy guardian angel on a daily basis while rose and lilith returned to europe crowley headed to shanghai to meet old friend elaine simpson who was fascinated by the book of the law together they performed rituals in an attempt to contact aiwass crowley then sailed to japan and canada before continuing to new york city where he unsuccessfully solicited support for a second expedition up kanchenjunga upon arrival in britain crowley learned that his daughter lilith had died of typhoid in rangoon something he later blamed on roses increasing alcoholism under emotional distress his health began to suffer and he underwent a series of surgical operations he began shortlived romances with actress vera lola neville née snepp and author ada leverson while rose gave birth to crowleys second daughter lola zaza in february 1907 the aa and the holy books of thelema 19071909 with his old mentor george cecil jones crowley continued performing the abramelin rituals at the ashdown park hotel in coulsdon surrey crowley claimed that in doing so he attained samadhi or union with godhead thereby marking a turning point in his life making heavy use of hashish during these rituals he wrote an essay on the psychology of hashish 1909 in which he championed the drug as an aid to mysticism he also claimed to have been contacted once again by aiwass in late october and november 1907 adding that aiwass dictated two further texts to him liber vii and liber cordis cincti serpente both of which were later classified in the corpus of the holy books of thelema crowley wrote down more thelemic holy books during the last two months of the year including liber lxvi liber arcanorum liber porta lucis sub figura x liber tau liber trigrammaton and liber dcccxiii vel ararita which he again claimed to have received from a preternatural source crowley stated that in june 1909 when the manuscript of the book of the law was rediscovered at boleskine he developed the opinion that thelema represented objective truth crowleys inheritance was running out trying to earn money he was hired by george montagu bennett the earl of tankerville to help protect him from witchcraft recognising bennetts paranoia as being based in his cocaine addiction crowley took him on holiday to france and morocco to recuperate in 1907 he also began taking in paying students whom he instructed in occult and magical practice victor neuburg whom crowley met in february 1907 became his sexual partner and closest disciple in 1908 the pair toured northern spain before heading to tangier morocco the following year neuburg stayed at boleskine where he and crowley engaged in sadomasochism crowley continued to write prolifically producing such works of poetry as ambergris clouds without water and konx om pax as well as his first attempt at an autobiography the worlds tragedy recognizing the popularity of short horror stories crowley wrote his own some of which were published and he also published several articles in vanity fair a magazine edited by his friend frank harris he also wrote liber 777 a book of magical and qabalistic correspondences that borrowed from mathers and bennett in november 1907 crowley and jones decided to found an occult order to act as a successor to the hermetic order of the golden dawn being aided in doing so by fuller the result was the aa the groups headquarters and temple were situated at 124 victoria street in central london and their rites borrowed much from those of the golden dawn but with an added thelemic basis its earliest members included solicitor richard noel warren artist austin osman spare horace sheridanbickers author george raffalovich francis henry everard joseph feilding engineer herbert edward inman kenneth ward and charles stansfeld jones in march 1909 crowley began production of a biannual periodical titled the equinox he billed this periodical which was to become the official organ of the aa as the review of scientific illuminism crowley had become increasingly frustrated with roses alcoholism and in november 1909 he divorced her on the grounds of his own adultery lola was entrusted to roses care the couple remained friends and rose continued to live at boleskine her alcoholism worsened and as a result she was institutionalized in september 1911 algeria and the rites of eleusis 19091911 in november 1909 crowley and neuburg travelled to algeria touring the desert from el arba to aumale bou saâda and then dāleh addin with crowley reciting the quran on a daily basis during the trip he invoked the thirty aethyrs of enochian magic with neuburg recording the results later published in the equinox as the vision and the voice following a mountaintop sex magic ritual crowley also performed an evocation to the demon choronzon involving blood sacrifice and considered the results to be a watershed in his magical career returning to london in january 1910 crowley found that mathers was suing him for publishing golden dawn secrets in the equinox the court found in favour of crowley the case was widely reported in the press with crowley gaining wider fame crowley enjoyed this and played up to the sensationalist stereotype of being a satanist and advocate of human sacrifice despite being neither the publicity attracted new members to the aa among them frank bennett james bayley herbert close and james windram the australian violinist leila waddell soon became crowleys lover deciding to expand his teachings to a wider audience crowley developed the rites of artemis a public performance of magic and symbolism featuring aa members personifying various deities it was first performed at the aa headquarters with attendees given a fruit punch containing peyote to enhance their experience various members of the press attended and reported largely positively on it in october and november 1910 crowley decided to stage something similar the rites of eleusis at caxton hall westminster this time press reviews were mixed crowley came under particular criticism from west de wend fenton editor of the looking glass newspaper who called him one of the most blasphemous and coldblooded villains of modern times fentons articles suggested that crowley and jones were involved in homosexual activity crowley did not mind but jones unsuccessfully sued for libel fuller broke off his friendship and involvement with crowley over the scandal and crowley and neuburg returned to algeria for further magical workings the equinox continued publishing and various books of literature and poetry were also published under its imprint like crowleys ambergris the winged beetle and the scented garden as well as neuburgs the triumph of pan and ethel archers the whirlpool in 1911 crowley and waddell holidayed in montignysurloing where he wrote prolifically producing poems short stories plays and 19 works on magic and mysticism including the two final holy books of thelema in paris he met mary desti who became his next scarlet woman with the two undertaking magical workings in st moritz crowley believed that one of the secret chiefs abuldiz was speaking through her based on destis statements when in trance crowley wrote the twovolume book 4 191213 and at the time developed the spelling magick in reference to the paranormal phenomenon as a means of distinguishing it from the stage magic of illusionists ordo templi orientis and the paris working 19121914 in early 1912 crowley published the book of lies a work of mysticism that biographer lawrence sutin described as his greatest success in merging his talents as poet scholar and magus the german occultist theodor reuss later accused him of publishing some of the secrets of his own occult order the ordo templi orientis oto within the book crowley convinced reuss that the similarities were coincidental and the two became friends reuss appointed crowley as head of the otos british branch the mysteria mystica maxima mmm and at a ceremony in berlin crowley adopted the magical name of baphomet and was proclaimed x supreme rex and sovereign grand master general of ireland iona and all the britons with reuss permission crowley set about advertising the mmm and rewriting many oto rituals which were then based largely on freemasonry his incorporation of thelemite elements proved controversial in the group fascinated by the otos emphasis on sex magic crowley devised a magical working based on anal sex and incorporated it into the syllabus for those oto members who had been initiated into the eleventh degree in march 1913 crowley acted as producer for the ragged ragtime girls a group of female violinists led by waddell as they performed at londons old tivoli theatre they subsequently performed in moscow for six weeks where crowley had a sadomasochistic relationship with the hungarian anny ringler in moscow crowley continued to write plays and poetry including hymn to pan and the gnostic mass a thelemic ritual that became a key part of oto liturgy churton suggested that crowley had travelled to moscow on the orders of british intelligence to spy on revolutionary elements in the city in january 1914 crowley and neuburg settled into an apartment in paris where the former was involved in the controversy surrounding jacob epsteins new monument to oscar wilde together crowley and neuburg performed the sixweek paris working a period of intense ritual involving strong drug use in which they invoked the gods mercury and jupiter as part of the ritual the couple performed acts of sex magic together at times being joined by journalist walter duranty inspired by the results of the working crowley wrote liber agapé a treatise on sex magic following the paris working neuburg began to distance himself from crowley resulting in an argument in which crowley cursed him united states 19141919 by 1914 crowley was living a handtomouth existence relying largely on donations from aa members and dues payments made to oto in may he transferred ownership of boleskine house to the mmm for financial reasons and in july he went mountaineering in the swiss alps during this time the first world war broke out after recuperating from a bout of phlebitis crowley set sail for the united states aboard the rms lusitania in october 1914 arriving in new york city he moved into a hotel and began earning money writing for the american edition of vanity fair and undertaking freelance work for the famed astrologer evangeline adams in the city he continued experimenting with sex magic through the use of masturbation female prostitutes and male clients of a turkish bathhouse all of these encounters were documented in his diaries professing to be of irish ancestry and a supporter of irish independence from great britain crowley began to espouse support for germany in their war against britain he became involved in new yorks progerman movement and in january 1915 german spy george sylvester viereck employed him as a writer for his propagandist paper the fatherland which was dedicated to keeping the us neutral in the conflict in later years detractors denounced crowley as a traitor to britain for this action crowley entered into a relationship with jeanne robert foster with whom he toured the west coast in vancouver headquarters of the north american oto he met with charles stansfeld jones and wilfred talbot smith to discuss the propagation of thelema on the continent in detroit he experimented with peyote at parkedavis then visited seattle san francisco santa cruz los angeles san diego tijuana and the grand canyon before returning to new york there he befriended ananda coomaraswamy and his wife alice richardson crowley and richardson performed sex magic in april 1916 following which she became pregnant and then miscarried later that year he took a magical retirement to a cabin by lake pasquaney owned by evangeline adams there he made heavy use of drugs and undertook a ritual after which he proclaimed himself master therion he also wrote several short stories based on jg frazers the golden bough and a work of literary criticism the gospel according to bernard shaw in december he moved to new orleans his favourite us city before spending february 1917 with evangelical christian relatives in titusville florida returning to new york city he moved in with artist and aa member leon engers kennedy in may learning of his mothers death after the collapse of the fatherland crowley continued his association with viereck who appointed him contributing editor of arts journal the international crowley used it to promote thelema but it soon ceased publication he then moved to the studio apartment of roddie minor who became his partner and scarlet woman through their rituals which crowley called the amalantrah workings he believed that they were contacted by a preternatural entity named lam the relationship soon ended in 1918 crowley went on a magical retreat in the wilderness of esopus island on the hudson river here he began a translation of the tao te ching painted thelemic slogans on the riverside cliffs andhe later claimedexperienced past life memories of being ge xuan pope alexander vi alessandro cagliostro and eliphas levi back in new york city he moved to greenwich village where he took leah hirsig as his lover and next scarlet woman he took up painting as a hobby exhibiting his work at the greenwich village liberal club and attracting the attention of the new york evening world with the financial assistance of sympathetic freemasons crowley revived the equinox with the first issue of volume iii known as the blue equinox he spent mid1919 on a climbing holiday in montauk before returning to london in december abbey of thelema 19201923 now destitute and back in london crowley came under attack from the tabloid john bull which labelled him traitorous scum for his work with the german war effort several friends aware of his intelligence work urged him to sue but he decided not to when he was suffering from asthma a doctor prescribed him heroin to which he soon became addicted in january 1920 he moved to paris renting a house in fontainebleau with leah hirsig they were soon joined in a ménage à trois by ninette shumway and also in living arrangement by leahs newborn daughter anne poupée leah crowley had ideas of forming a community of thelemites which he called the abbey of thelema after the abbaye de thélème in françois rabelais satire gargantua and pantagruel after consulting the i ching he chose cefalù on sicily italy as a location and after arriving there began renting the old villa santa barbara as his abbey on 2 april moving to the commune with hirsig shumway and their children hansi howard and poupée crowley described the scenario as perfectly happy my idea of heaven they wore robes and performed rituals to the sun god ra at set times during the day also occasionally performing the gnostic mass the rest of the day they were left to follow their own interests undertaking widespread correspondences crowley continued to paint wrote a commentary on the book of the law and revised the third part of book 4 he offered a libertine education for the children allowing them to play all day and witness acts of sex magic he occasionally travelled to palermo to visit rent boys and buy supplies including drugs his heroin addiction came to dominate his life and cocaine began to erode his nasal cavity there was no cleaning rota and wild dogs and cats wandered throughout the building which soon became unsanitary poupée died in october 1920 and ninette gave birth to a daughter astarte lulu panthea soon afterwards new followers continued to arrive at the abbey to be taught by crowley among them was film star jane wolfe who arrived in july 1920 where she was initiated into the aa and became crowleys secretary another was cecil frederick russell who often argued with crowley disliking the samesex sexual magic that he was required to perform and left after a year more conducive was the australian thelemite frank bennett who also spent several months at the abbey in february 1922 crowley returned to paris for a retreat in an unsuccessful attempt to kick his heroin addiction he then went to london in search of money where he published articles in the english review criticising the dangerous drugs act 1920 and wrote a novel diary of a drug fiend completed in july on publication it received mixed reviews he was lambasted by the sunday express which called for its burning and used its influence to prevent further reprints subsequently a young thelemite named raoul loveday moved to the abbey with his wife betty may while loveday was devoted to crowley may detested him and life at the commune she later said that loveday was made to drink the blood of a sacrificed cat and that they were required to cut themselves with razors every time they used the pronoun i loveday drank from a local polluted stream soon developing a liver infection resulting in his death in february 1923 returning to london may told her story to the press john bull proclaimed crowley the wickedest man in the world and a man wed like to hang and although crowley deemed many of their accusations against him to be slanderous he was unable to afford the legal fees to sue them as a result john bull continued its attack with its stories being repeated in newspapers throughout europe and in north america the fascist government of benito mussolini learned of crowleys activities and in april 1923 he was given a deportation notice forcing him to leave italy without him the abbey closed later life tunisia paris and london 19231929 crowley and hirsig went to tunis where dogged by continuing poor health he unsuccessfully tried again to give up heroin and began writing what he termed his autohagiography the confessions of aleister crowley they were joined in tunis by the thelemite norman mudd who became crowleys public relations consultant employing a local boy mohammad ben brahim as his servant crowley went with him on a retreat to nefta where they performed sex magic together in january 1924 crowley travelled to nice france where he met with frank harris underwent a series of nasal operations and visited the institute for the harmonious development of man and had a positive opinion of its founder george gurdjieff destitute he took on a wealthy student alexander zu zolar before taking on another american follower dorothy olsen crowley took olsen back to tunisia for a magical retreat in nefta where he also wrote to man 1924 a declaration of his own status as a prophet entrusted with bringing thelema to humanity after spending the winter in paris in early 1925 crowley and olsen returned to tunis where he wrote the heart of the master 1938 as an account of a vision he experienced in a trance in march olsen became pregnant and hirsig was called to take care of her she miscarried following which crowley took olsen back to france hirsig later distanced herself from crowley who then denounced her according to crowley reuss had named him head of the oto upon his death but this was challenged by a leader of the german oto heinrich tränker tränker called the hohenleuben conference in thuringia germany which crowley attended there prominent members like karl germer and martha küntzel championed crowleys leadership but other key figures like albin grau oskar hopfer and henri birven backed tränker by opposing it resulting in a split in the oto moving to paris where he broke with olsen in 1926 crowley went through a large number of lovers over the following years with whom he experimented in sex magic throughout he was dogged by poor health largely caused by his heroin and cocaine addictions in 1928 crowley was introduced to young englishman israel regardie who embraced thelema and became crowleys secretary for the next three years that year crowley also met gerald yorke who began organising crowleys finances but never became a thelemite he also befriended the journalist tom driberg driberg did not accept thelema either it was here that crowley also published one of his most significant works magick in theory and practice which received little attention at the time in december 1928 crowley met the nicaraguan maria teresa sanchez maria teresa ferrari de miramar crowley was deported from france by the authorities who disliked his reputation and feared that he was a german agent so that she could join him in britain crowley married sanchez in august 1929 now based in london mandrake press agreed to publish his autobiography in a limited edition sixvolume set also publishing his novel moonchild and book of short stories the stratagem mandrake went into liquidation in november 1930 before the entirety of crowleys confessions could be published mandrakes owner pr stephenson meanwhile wrote the legend of aleister crowley an analysis of the media coverage surrounding him berlin and london 19301938 in april 1930 crowley moved to berlin where he took hanni jaegar as his magical partner the relationship was troubled in september he went to lisbon in portugal to meet the poet fernando pessoa there he decided to fake his own death doing so with pessoas help at the boca do inferno rock formation he then returned to berlin where he reappeared three weeks later at the opening of his art exhibition at the gallery neumannnierendorf crowleys paintings fitted with the fashion for german expressionism few of them sold but the press reports were largely favourable in august 1931 he took bertha busch as his new lover they had a violent relationship and often physically assaulted one another he continued to have affairs with both men and women while in the city and met with famous people like aldous huxley and alfred adler after befriending him in january 1932 he took the communist gerald hamilton as a lodger through whom he was introduced to many figures within the berlin far left it is possible that he was operating as a spy for british intelligence at this time monitoring the communist movement crowley left busch and returned to london where he took pearl brooksmith as his new scarlet woman undergoing further nasal surgery it was here in 1932 that he was invited to be guest of honour at foyles literary luncheon also being invited by harry price to speak at the national laboratory of psychical research in need of money he launched a series of court cases against people whom he believed to have libelled him some of which proved successful he gained much publicity for his lawsuit against constable and co for publishing nina hamnetts laughing torso 1932a book he claimed libelled him by referring to his occult practice as black magicbut lost the case the court case added to crowleys financial problems and in february 1935 he was declared bankrupt during the hearing it was revealed that crowley had been spending three times his income for several years crowley developed a friendship with deidre patricia doherty she offered to bear his child who was born in may 1937 named randall gair crowley nicknamed him aleister atatürk he died in a car accident in 2002 at the age of 65 crowley continued to socialize with friends holding curry parties in which he cooked particularly spicy food for them in 1936 he published his first book in six years the equinox of the gods which contained a facsimile of the book of the law and was considered to be volume iii number 3 of the equinox periodical the work sold well resulting in a second print run in 1937 he gave a series of public lectures on yoga in soho crowley was now living largely off contributions supplied by the otos agape lodge in california led by rocket scientist john whiteside jack parsons crowley was intrigued by the rise of nazism in germany and influenced by his friend martha küntzel believed that adolf hitler might convert to thelema when the nazis abolished the german oto and imprisoned germer who fled to the us crowley then lambasted hitler as a black magician second world war and death 19391947 when the second world war broke out crowley wrote to the naval intelligence division offering his services but they declined he associated with a variety of figures in britains intelligence community at the time including dennis wheatley roald dahl ian fleming and maxwell knight and claimed to have been behind the v for victory sign first used by the bbc this has never been proven in 1940 his asthma worsened and with his germanproduced medication unavailable he returned to using heroin once again becoming addicted as the blitz hit london crowley relocated to torquay where he was briefly admitted to hospital with asthma and entertained himself with visits to the local chess club tiring of torquay he returned to london where he was visited by american thelemite grady mcmurtry to whom crowley awarded the title of hymenaeus alpha he stipulated that though germer would be his immediate successor mcmurty should succeed germer as head of the oto after the latters death with oto initiate lady frieda harris crowley developed plans to produce a tarot card set designed by him and painted by harris accompanying this was a book published in a limited edition as the book of thoth by chiswick press in 1944 to aid the war effort he wrote a proclamation on the rights of humanity liber oz and a poem for the liberation of france le gauloise crowleys final publication during his lifetime was a book of poetry olla an anthology of sixty years of song another of his projects aleister explains everything was posthumously published as magick without tears in april 1944 crowley briefly moved to aston clinton in buckinghamshire where he was visited by the poet nancy cunard before relocating to hastings in sussex where he took up residence at the netherwood boarding house he took a young man named kenneth grant as his secretary paying him in magical teaching rather than wages he was also introduced to john symonds whom he appointed to be his literary executor symonds thought little of crowley later publishing negative biographies of him corresponding with the illusionist arnold crowther it was through him that crowley was introduced to gerald gardner the future founder of gardnerian wicca they became friends with crowley authorising gardner to revive britains ailing oto another visitor was eliza marian butler who interviewed crowley for her book the myth of the magus other friends and family also spent time with him among them doherty and crowleys son aleister atatürk on 1 december 1947 crowley died at netherwood of chronic bronchitis aggravated by pleurisy and myocardial degeneration aged 72 his funeral was held at a brighton crematorium on 5 december about a dozen people attended and louis wilkinson read excerpts from the gnostic mass the book of the law and hymn to pan the funeral generated press controversy and was labelled a black mass by the tabloids crowleys body was cremated his ashes were sent to karl germer in the us who buried them in his garden in hampton new jersey beliefs and thought crowleys belief system thelema has been described by scholars as a religion and more specifically as both a new religious movement and as a magicoreligious doctrine it has also been characterized as a form of esotericism and modern paganism although holding the book of the lawwhich was composed in 1904as its central text thelema took shape as a complete system in the years after 1904 in his autobiography crowley claimed that his purpose in life had been to bring oriental wisdom to europe and to restore paganism in a purer form although what he meant by paganism was unclear crowley also wrote in the 4th book of magick about a great pagan umbral fleet ruled by ottovius that would be handed down to the great spartan the esoteric nature of this was also unclear crowleys thought was not always cohesive and was influenced by a variety of sources ranging from eastern religious movements and practices like hindu yoga and buddhism scientific naturalism and various currents within western esotericism among them ceremonial magic alchemy astrology rosicrucianism kabbalah and the tarot he was steeped in the esoteric teachings he had learned from the hermetic order of the golden dawn although pushed further with his own interpretations and strategies than the golden dawn had done crowley incorporated concepts and terminology from south asian religious traditions like yoga and tantra into his thelemic system believing that there was a fundamental underlying resemblance between western and eastern spiritual systems the historian alex owen noted that crowley adhered to the modus operandi of the decadent movement throughout his life crowley believed that the twentieth century marked humanitys entry to the aeon of horus a new era in which humans would take increasing control of their destiny he believed that this aeon follows on from the aeon of osiris in which paternalistic religions like christianity islam and buddhism dominated the world and that this in turn had followed the aeon of isis which had been maternalistic and dominated by goddess worship he believed that thelema was the proper religion of the aeon of horus and also deemed himself to be the prophet of this new aeon thelema revolves around the idea that human beings each have their own true will that they should discover and pursue and that this exists in harmony with the cosmic will that pervades the universe crowley referred to this process of searching and discovery of ones true will to be the great work or the attaining of the knowledge and conversation of the holy guardian angel his favoured method of doing so was through the performance of the abramelin operation a ceremonial magic ritual obtained from a 17thcentury grimoire the moral code of do what thou wilt is believed by thelemites to be the religions ethical law although the historian of religion marco pasi noted that this was not anarchistic or libertarian in structure as crowley saw individuals as part of a wider societal organism magick and theology crowley believed in the objective existence of magic which he chose to spell as magick which is an archaic spelling of the word he provided various different definitions of this term over his career in his book magick in theory and practice crowley defined magick as the science and art of causing change to occur in conformity with will he also told his disciple karl germer that magick is getting into communication with individuals who exist on a higher plane than ours mysticism is the raising of oneself to their level crowley saw magick as a third way between religion and science giving the equinox the subtitle of the method of science the aim of religion within that journal he expressed positive sentiments toward science and the scientific method and urged magicians to keep detailed records of their magical experiments having said the more scientific the record is the better his understanding of magic was also influenced by the work of the anthropologist james frazer in particular the belief that magic was a precursor to science in a cultural evolutionary framework unlike frazer however crowley did not see magic as a survival from the past that required eradication but rather he believed that magic had to be adapted to suit the new age of science in crowleys alternative schema old systems of magic had to decline per frazers framework so that science and magic could synthesize into magick which would simultaneously accept the existence of the supernatural and an experimental method crowley deliberately adopted an exceptionally broad definition of magick that included almost all forms of technology as magick adopting an instrumentalist definition of magic science and technology sexuality played an important role in crowleys ideas about magick and his practice of it and has been described as being central to thelema he outlined three forms of sex magickthe autoerotic homosexual and heterosexualand argued that such acts could be used to focus the magicians will onto a specific goal such as financial gain or personal creative success for crowley sex was treated as a sacrament with the consumption of sexual fluids interpreted as a eucharist this was often manifested as the cakes of light a biscuit containing either menstrual blood or a mixture of semen and vaginal fluids the gnostic mass is the central religious ceremony within thelema crowleys theological beliefs were not clear the historian ronald hutton noted that some of crowleys writings could be used to argue that he was an atheist while some support the idea that he was a polytheist and others would bolster the idea that he was a mystical monotheist on the basis of the teachings in the book of the law crowley described a pantheon of three deities taken from the ancient egyptian pantheon nuit hadit and rahoorkhuit in 1928 he made the claim that all true deities were derived from this trinity jason josephsonstorm has argued that crowley built on 19thcentury attempts to link early christianity to prechristian religions such as frazers golden bough to synthesize christian theology and neopaganism while remaining critical of institutional and traditional christianity both during his life and after it crowley has been widely described as a satanist usually by detractors crowley stated he did not consider himself a satanist nor did he worship satan as he did not accept the christian world view in which satan was believed to exist he nevertheless used satanic imagery for instance by describing himself as the beast 666 and referring to the whore of babylon in his work while in later life he sent antichristmas cards to his friends in his writings crowley occasionally identified aiwass as satan and designated him as our lord god the devil at one occasion the scholar of religion gordan djurdjevic stated that crowley was emphatically not a satanist if for no other reason than simply because he did not identify himself as such crowley nevertheless expressed strong antichristian sentiment stating that he hated christianity as socialists hate soap an animosity probably stemming from his experiences among the plymouth brethren he was nevertheless influenced by the king james bible especially the book of revelation the impact of which can be seen in his writings he was also accused of advocating human sacrifice largely because of a passage in book 4 in which he stated that a male child of perfect innocence and high intelligence is the most satisfactory victim and added that he had sacrificed about 150 every year this was a tongueincheek reference to ejaculation something not realized by his critics image and opinions crowley considered himself to be one of the outstanding figures of his time the historian ronald hutton stated that in crowleys youth he was a selfindulgent and flamboyant young man who set about a deliberate flouting and provocation of social and religious norms while being shielded from an outraged public opinion by his inherited wealth hutton also described crowley as having both an unappeasable desire to take control of any organisation that he belonged to and a tendency to quarrel savagely with those who challenged him crowley biographer martin booth asserted that crowley was selfconfident brash eccentric egotistic highly intelligent arrogant witty wealthy and when it suited him cruel similarly richard b spence noted that crowley was capable of immense physical and emotional cruelty biographer lawrence sutin noted that crowley exhibited courage skill dauntless energy and remarkable focus of will while at the same time showing a blind arrogance petty fits of bile and contempt for the abilities of his fellow men the thelemite lon milo duquette noted that crowley was by no means perfect and often alienated those who loved him dearest political opinions crowley enjoyed being outrageous and flouting conventional morality with john symonds noting that he was in revolt against the moral and religious values of his time crowleys political thought was studied by academic marco pasi who noted that for crowley sociopolitical concerns were subordinate to metaphysical and spiritual ones he was neither on the political left nor right but perhaps best categorized as a conservative revolutionary despite not being affiliated with the germanbased movement of the same name pasi described crowleys fascination to the extreme ideologies of nazism and marxismleninism which aimed to violently overturn society what crowley liked about nazism and communism or at least what made him curious about them was the antichristian position and the revolutionary and socially subversive implications of these two movements in their subversive powers he saw the possibility of an annihilation of old religious traditions and the creation of a void that thelema subsequently would be able to fill crowley described democracy as an imbecile and nauseating cult of weakness and commented that the book of the law proclaimed that there is the master and there is the slave the noble and the serf the lone wolf and the herd in this attitude he was influenced by the work of friedrich nietzsche and by social darwinism although he had contempt for most of the british aristocracy he regarded himself as an aristocrat and styled himself as laird boleskine once describing his ideology as aristocratic communism opinions on race and gender crowley was bisexual but exhibited a preference for women with his relationships with men being fewer and mostly in the early part of his life in particular he had an attraction toward exotic women and claimed to have fallen in love on multiple occasions kaczynski stated that when he loved he did so with his whole being but the passion was typically shortlived even in later life crowley was able to attract young bohemian women to be his lovers largely due to his charisma he applied the term scarlet woman to various female lovers whom he believed played an important role in his magical work during homosexual acts he usually played the passive role which booth believed appealed to his masochistic side an underlying theme in many of his writings is that spiritual enlightenment arises through transgressing sociosexual norms crowley advocated complete sexual freedom for both men and women he argued that homosexual and bisexual people should not suppress their sexual orientation commenting that a person must not be ashamed or afraid of being homosexual if he happens to be so at heart he must not attempt to violate his own true nature because of public opinion or medieval morality or religious prejudice which would wish he were otherwise on other issues he adopted a more conservative attitude he opposed abortion on moral grounds believing that no woman following her true will would ever desire one biographer lawrence sutin stated that blatant bigotry is a persistent minor element in crowleys writings sutin thought crowley a spoiled scion of a wealthy victorian family who embodied many of the worst john bull racial and social prejudices of his upperclass contemporaries noting that he embodied the contradiction that writhed within many western intellectuals of the time deeply held racist viewpoints courtesy of society coupled with a fascination with people of colour crowley is said to have insulted his close jewish friend victor benjamin neuburg using antisemitic slurs and he had mixed opinions about jewish people as a group although he praised their sublime poetry and stated that they exhibited imagination romance loyalty probity and humanity he also thought that centuries of persecution had led some jewish people to exhibit avarice servility falseness cunning and the rest he was also known to praise various ethnic and cultural groups for instance he thought that the chinese people exhibited a spiritual superiority to the english and praised muslims for exhibiting manliness straightforwardness subtlety and selfrespect both critics of crowley and adherents of thelema have accused crowley of sexism booth described crowley as exhibiting a general misogyny something the biographer believed arose from crowleys bad relationship with his mother sutin noted that crowley largely accepted the notion implicitly embodied in victorian sexology of women as secondary social beings in terms of intellect and sensibility the scholar of religion manon hedenborg white noted that some of crowleys statements are undoubtedly misogynist by contemporary standards but characterized crowleys attitude toward women as complex and multifaceted crowleys comments on womens role varied dramatically within his written work even that produced in similar periods crowley described women as moral inferiors who had to be treated with firmness kindness and justice while also arguing that thelema was essential to womens emancipation intelligence work biographers richard b spence and tobias churton have suggested that crowley was a spy for the british secret services and that among other things he joined the golden dawn under their command to monitor the activities of mathers who was known to be a carlist spence suggested that the conflict between mathers and the london lodge for the temple was part of an intelligence operation to undermine mathers authority spence has suggested that the purpose of crowleys trip to mexico might have been to explore mexican oil prospects for british intelligence spence has suggested that his trip to china was orchestrated as part of a british intelligence scheme to monitor the regions opium trade churton suggested that crowley had travelled to moscow on the orders of british intelligence to spy on revolutionary elements in the city spence and sutin both claim that crowleys progerman work in the united states was actually a cover for him being a double agent for britain citing his hyperbolic articles in the fatherland to make the german lobby appear ridiculous in the eyes of the american public spence also claims that crowley encouraged the german navy to destroy the lusitania informing them that it would ensure the us stayed out of the war while in reality hoping that it would bring the us into the war on britains side legacy and influence crowley has remained an influential figure both amongst occultists and in popular culture particularly that of britain but also of other parts of the world in 2002 a bbc poll placed crowley seventythird in a list of the 100 greatest britons richard cavendish has written of him that in native talent penetrating intelligence and determination aleister crowley was the bestequipped magician to emerge since the seventeenth century the scholar of esotericism egil asprem described him as one of the most wellknown figures in modern occultism the scholar of esotericism wouter hanegraaff asserted that crowley was an extreme representation of the dark side of the occult adding that he was the most notorious occultist magician of the twentieth century the philosopher john moore opined that crowley stood out as a modern master when compared with other prominent occult figures like george gurdjieff p d ouspensky rudolf steiner or helena blavatsky also describing him as a living embodiment of oswald spenglers faustian man biographer tobias churton considered crowley a pioneer of consciousness research hutton noted that crowley had an important place in the history of modern western responses to oriental spiritual traditions while sutin thought that he had made distinctly original contributions to the study of yoga in the west thelema continued to develop and spread following crowleys death in 1969 the oto was reactivated in california under the leadership of grady louis mcmurtry in 1985 its right to the title was unsuccessfully challenged in court by a rival group the society ordo templi orientis led by brazilian thelemite marcelo ramos motta another american thelemite is the filmmaker kenneth anger who had been influenced by crowleys writings from a young age in the united kingdom kenneth grant propagated a tradition known as typhonian thelema through his organisation the typhonian oto later renamed the typhonian order also in britain an occultist known as amado crowley claimed to be crowleys son this has been refuted by academic investigation amado argued that thelema was a false religion created by crowley to hide his true esoteric teachings which amado claimed to be propagating several western esoteric traditions other than thelema were also influenced by crowley with djurdjevic observing that crowleys influence on twentiethcentury and contemporary esotericism has been enormous gerald gardner founder of gardnerian wicca made use of much of crowleys published material when composing the gardnerian ritual liturgy and the australian witch rosaleen norton was also heavily influenced by crowleys ideas more widely crowley became a dominant figure in the modern pagan community l ron hubbard the american founder of scientology was involved in thelema in the early 1940s with jack parsons and it has been argued that crowleys ideas influenced some of hubbards work the scholars of religion asbjørn dyrendel james r lewis and jesper petersen noted that despite the fact that crowley was not a satanist he in many ways embodies the presatanist esoteric discourse on satan and satanism through his lifestyle and his philosophy with his image and ought becoming an important influence on the later development of religious satanism for instance two prominent figures in religious satanism anton lavey and michael aquino were influenced by crowleys work in popular culture crowley also had a wider influence in british popular culture after his time in cefalù which had brought him to public attention in britain various literary crowleys appeared characters in fiction based upon him one of the earliest was the character of the poet shelley arabin in john buchans 1926 novel the dancing floor in his novel the devil rides out the writer dennis wheatley used crowley as a partial basis for the character of damien morcata a portly bald defrocked priest who engages in black magic the occultist dion fortune used crowley as a basis for characters in her books the secrets of doctor taverner 1926 and the winged bull 1935 he was included as one of the figures on the cover art of the beatles album sgt peppers lonely hearts club band 1967 and his motto of do what thou wilt was inscribed on the vinyl of led zeppelins album led zeppelin iii 1970 led zeppelin cofounder jimmy page bought boleskine in 1971 and part of the bands film the song remains the same was filmed in the grounds he sold it in 1992 though david bowie makes but a fleeting reference to crowley in the lyrics of his song quicksand 1971 it has been suggested that the lyrics of bowies no 1 hit single lets dance 1983 may substantially paraphrase crowleys 1923 poem lyric of love to leah ozzy osbourne and his lyricist bob daisley wrote a song titled mr crowley 1980 a prophetic quote about the coming of the new aeon borrowed from crowleys work magick in theory and practice 1911 has been featured as the opening introduction to the video game blood omen legacy of kain 1996 crowley began to receive scholarly attention from academics in the late 1990s bibliography references footnotes sources further reading crowley aleister john symonds and kenneth grant the confessions of aleister crowley an autohagiography 1989 london arkana external links aleister crowley collection at the harry ransom center university of texas aleister crowley and the abbey of thelema in cefalù at wondersofsicilycom with photos perdurabo where is aleister crowley film on the abbey of thelema by carlos atanes 1875 births 1947 deaths 19thcentury english poets 20thcentury english novelists alumni of trinity college cambridge atlantis proponents english bisexual writers bisexual sportsmen bisexual poets bisexual novelists bisexual dramatists and playwrights british psychedelic drug advocates burials in new jersey ceremonial magicians channellers british critics of christianity deaths from bronchitis english astrologers english astrological writers english autobiographers english dramatists and playwrights english expatriates in india english expatriates in switzerland english freemasons english male dramatists and playwrights english male novelists english mountain climbers english occultists english occult writers english spiritual writers english thelemites founders of new religious movements free love advocates goetia hermetic order of the golden dawn hermetic qabalists lgbt climbers english lgbt poets english lgbt novelists english lgbt dramatists and playwrights english lgbt sportspeople members of ordo templi orientis 20thcentury mystics obscenity controversies in literature people educated at eastbourne college people educated at malvern college people educated at tonbridge school people from leamington spa people who faked their own death prophets tarotologists thelema victorian writers 19thcentury pseudonymous writers 20thcentury pseudonymous writers british people of world war i | 11,120 |
1178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afterlife | Afterlife | the afterlife or life after death is a purported existence in which the essential part of an individuals stream of consciousness or identity continues to exist after the death of their physical body the surviving essential aspect varies between belief systems it may be some partial element or the entire soul or spirit which carries with it ones personal identity belief in an afterlife is in contrast to the belief in oblivion after death in some views this continued existence takes place in a spiritual realm while in others the individual may be reborn into this world and begin the life cycle over again likely with no memory of what they have done in the past in this latter view such rebirths and deaths may take place over and over again continuously until the individual gains entry to a spiritual realm or otherworld major views on the afterlife derive from religion esotericism and metaphysics some belief systems such as those in the abrahamic tradition hold that the dead go to a specific place eg paradise after death as determined by god based on their actions and beliefs during life in contrast in systems of reincarnation such as those in the indian religions the nature of the continued existence is determined directly by the actions of the individual in the ended life different metaphysical models theist immortalists generally believe some afterlife awaits people when they die members of some generally nontheistic religions believe in an afterlife without reference to a deity the sadducees were an ancient jewish sect that generally believed that there was a god but no existence after death many religions whether they believe in the souls existence in another world like christianity islam and many pagan belief systems or reincarnation like many forms of hinduism and buddhism believe that ones status in the afterlife is a consequence of ones conduct during life reincarnation reincarnation is the philosophical or religious concept that an aspect of a living being starts a new life in a different physical body or form after each death this concept is also known as rebirth or transmigration and is part of the saṃsārakarma doctrine of cyclic existence samsara refers to the process in which souls jivas go through a sequence of human and animal forms traditional hinduism teaches that each life helps the soul jivas learn until the soul becomes purified to the point of enlightenment unity with the cosmos all major indian religions namely buddhism hinduism jainism and sikhism have their own interpretations of the idea of reincarnation the human idea of reincarnation is found in many diverse ancient cultures and a belief in rebirthmetempsychosis was held by historic greek figures such as pythagoras and plato it is also a common belief of various ancient and modern religions such as spiritism theosophy and eckankar it is found as well in many tribal societies around the world in places such as australia east asia siberia and south america although the majority of denominations within the abrahamic religions of judaism christianity and islam do not believe that individuals reincarnate particular groups within these religions do refer to reincarnation these groups include the mainstream historical and contemporary followers of kabbalah the cathars alawites the druze and the rosicrucians the historical relations between these sects and the beliefs about reincarnation that were characteristic of neoplatonism orphism hermeticism manicheanism and gnosticism of the roman era as well as the indian religions have been the subject of recent scholarly research unity church and its founder charles fillmore teach reincarnation rosicrucians speak of a life review period occurring immediately after death and before entering the afterlifes planes of existence before the silver cord is broken followed by a judgment more akin to a final review or end report over ones life heaven and hell heaven the heavens seven heavens pure lands tian jannah valhalla or the summerland is a common religious cosmological or transcendent place where beings such as gods angels jinn saints or venerated ancestors are said to originate be enthroned or live according to the beliefs of some religions heavenly beings can descend to earth or incarnate and earthly beings can ascend to heaven in the afterlife or in exceptional cases enter heaven alive heaven is often described as a higher place the holiest place a paradise in contrast to hell or the underworld or the low places and universally or conditionally accessible by earthly beings according to various standards of divinity goodness piety faith or other virtues or right beliefs or the will of god some believe in the possibility of a heaven on earth in a world to come in hinduism heaven is considered as svarga loka there are seven positive regions the soul can go to after death and seven negative regions after completing its stay in the respective region the soul is subjected to rebirth in different living forms according to its karma this cycle can be broken after a soul achieves moksha or nirvana any place of existence either of humans souls or deities outside the tangible world heaven hell or other is referred to as otherworld hell in many religious and folkloric traditions is a place of torment and punishment in the afterlife religions with a linear divine history often depict hell as an eternal destination while religions with a cyclic history often depict a hell as an intermediary period between incarnations typically these traditions locate hell in another dimension or under the earths surface and often include entrances to hell from the land of the living other afterlife destinations include purgatory and limbo traditions that do not conceive of the afterlife as a place of punishment or reward merely describe hell as an abode of the dead the grave a neutral place for example sheol or hades located under the surface of earth ancient religions ancient egyptian religion the afterlife played an important role in ancient egyptian religion and its belief system is one of the earliest known in recorded history when the body died parts of its soul known as ka body double and the ba personality would go to the kingdom of the dead while the soul dwelt in the fields of aaru osiris demanded work as restitution for the protection he provided statues were placed in the tombs to serve as substitutes for the deceased arriving at ones reward in afterlife was a demanding ordeal requiring a sinfree heart and the ability to recite the spells passwords and formulae of the book of the dead in the hall of two truths the deceaseds heart was weighed against the shu feather of truth and justice taken from the headdress of the goddess maat if the heart was lighter than the feather they could pass on but if it were heavier they would be devoured by the demon ammit egyptians also believed that being mummified and put in a sarcophagus an ancient egyptian coffin carved with complex symbols and designs as well as pictures and hieroglyphs was the only way to have an afterlife what are referred to as the coffin texts are inscribed on a coffin and serve as a guide for the challenges in the afterlife the coffin texts are more or less a duplication of the pyramid texts which would serve as a guide for egyptian pharaohs or queens in the afterlife only if the corpse had been properly embalmed and entombed in a mastaba could the dead live again in the fields of yalu and accompany the sun on its daily ride due to the dangers the afterlife posed the book of the dead was placed in the tomb with the body as well as food jewelry and curses they also used the opening of the mouth ancient egyptian civilization was based on religion the belief in the rebirth after death became the driving force behind funeral practices for them death was a temporary interruption rather than complete cessation of life eternal life could be ensured by means like piety to the gods preservation of the physical form through mummification and the provision of statuary and other funerary equipment each human consisted of the physical body the ka the ba and the akh the name and shadow were also living entities to enjoy the afterlife all these elements had to be sustained and protected from harm on 30 march 2010 a spokesman for the egyptian culture ministry claimed it had unearthed a large red granite door in luxor with inscriptions by user a powerful adviser to the 18th dynasty queen hatshepsut who ruled between 1479 bc and 1458 bc the longest of any woman it believes the false door is a door to the afterlife according to the archaeologists the door was reused in a structure in roman egypt ancient greek and roman religions the greek god hades is known in greek mythology as the king of the underworld a place where souls live after death the greek god hermes the messenger of the gods would take the dead soul of a person to the underworld sometimes called hades or the house of hades hermes would leave the soul on the banks of the river styx the river between life and death charon also known as the ferryman would take the soul across the river to hades if the soul had gold upon burial the family of the dead soul would put coins under the deceaseds tongue once crossed the soul would be judged by aeacus rhadamanthus and king minos the soul would be sent to elysium tartarus or asphodel fields the elysian fields were for the ones that lived pure lives it consisted of green fields valleys and mountains everyone there was peaceful and contented and the sun always shone there tartarus was for the people that blasphemed against the gods or were rebellious and consciously evil in tartarus the soul would be punished by being burned in lava or stretched on racks the asphodel fields were for a varied selection of human souls including those whose sins equaled their goodness those who were indecisive in their lives and those who were not judged some heroes of greek legend are allowed to visit the underworld the romans had a similar belief system about the afterlife with hades becoming known as pluto in the ancient greek myth about the labours of heracles the hero heracles had to travel to the underworld to capture cerberus the threeheaded guard dog as one of his tasks in dream of scipio cicero describes what seems to be an out of body experience of the soul traveling high above the earth looking down at the small planet from far away in book vi of virgils aeneid the hero aeneas travels to the underworld to see his father by the river styx he sees the souls of those not given a proper burial forced to wait by the river until someone buries them while down there along with the dead he is shown the place where the wrongly convicted reside the fields of sorrow where those who committed suicide and now regret it reside including aeneas former lover the warriors and shades tartarus where the titans and powerful nonmortal enemies of the olympians reside where he can hear the groans of the imprisoned the palace of pluto and the fields of elysium where the descendants of the divine and bravest heroes reside he sees the river of forgetfulness lethe which the dead must drink to forget their life and begin anew lastly his father shows him all of the future heroes of rome who will live if aeneas fulfills his destiny in founding the city other eschatological views populate the ancientgreek worldview for instance plato argued for reincarnation in several dialogues including the timaeus norse religion the poetic and prose eddas the oldest sources for information on the norse concept of the afterlife vary in their description of the several realms that are described as falling under this topic the most wellknown are valhalla lit hall of the slain ie the chosen ones half the warriors who die in battle join the god odin who rules over a majestic hall called valhalla in asgard fólkvangr lit field of the host the other half join the goddess freyja in a great meadow known as fólkvangr niflhel lit the dark or misty hel niflhel is believed to be a place of punishment where the oathbreakers and other wicked people go hel lit the covered hall hel was the daughter of god loki and her kingdom was located in downward and northward snorri sturlusons gylfaginning tells of evil men going to niflhel via hel abrahamic religions judaism sheol sheol in the hebrew bible is a place of darkness job x 21 22 to which all the dead go both the righteous and the unrighteous regardless of the moral choices made in life gen xxxvii 36 ezek xxxii isa xiv job xxx 23 a place of stillness ps lxxxviii 13 xciv 17 eccl ix 10 at the longest possible distance from heaven job xi 8 amos ix 2 ps cxxxix 8 the inhabitants of sheol were the shades rephaim entities without personality or strength under some circumstances they were thought to be able to be contacted by the living as the witch of endor contacts the shade of samuel for saul but such practices were forbidden deuteronomy 1810 while the hebrew bible appears to describe sheol as the permanent place of the dead in the second temple period roughly 500 bc 70 ad a more diverse set of ideas developed in some texts sheol is considered to be the home of both the righteous and the wicked separated into respective compartments in others it was considered a place of punishment meant for the wicked dead alone when the hebrew scriptures were translated into greek in ancient alexandria around 200 bc the word hades the greek underworld was substituted for sheol this is reflected in the new testament where hades is both the underworld of the dead and the personification of the evil it represents world to come the talmud offers a number of thoughts relating to the afterlife after death the soul is brought for judgment those who have led pristine lives enter immediately into the olam haba or world to come most do not enter the world to come immediately but experience a period of reflection of their earthly actions and are made aware of what they have done wrong some view this period as being a reschooling with the soul gaining wisdom as ones errors are reviewed others view this period to include spiritual discomfort for past wrongs at the end of this period not longer than one year the soul then takes its place in the world to come although discomforts are made part of certain jewish conceptions of the afterlife the concept of eternal damnation is not a tenet of the jewish afterlife according to the talmud extinction of the soul is reserved for a far smaller group of malicious and evil leaders either whose very evil deeds go way beyond norms or who lead large groups of people to utmost evil this is also part of maimonides 13 principles of faith maimonides describes the olam haba in spiritual terms relegating the prophesied physical resurrection to the status of a future miracle unrelated to the afterlife or the messianic era according to maimonides an afterlife continues for the soul of every human being a soul now separated from the body in which it was housed during its earthly existence the zohar describes gehenna not as a place of punishment for the wicked but as a place of spiritual purification for souls reincarnation in jewish tradition although there is no reference to reincarnation in the talmud or any prior writings according to rabbis such as avraham arieh trugman reincarnation is recognized as being part and parcel of jewish tradition trugman explains that it is through oral tradition that the meanings of the torah its commandments and stories are known and understood the classic work of jewish mysticism the zohar is quoted liberally in all jewish learning in the zohar the idea of reincarnation is mentioned repeatedly trugman states that in the last five centuries the concept of reincarnation which until then had been a much hidden tradition within judaism was given open exposure shraga simmons commented that within the bible itself the idea of reincarnation is intimated in deut 25510 deut 336 and isaiah 2214 656 yirmiyahu ullman wrote that reincarnation is an ancient mainstream belief in judaism the zohar makes frequent and lengthy references to reincarnation onkelos a righteous convert and authoritative commentator of the same period explained the verse let reuben live and not die deuteronomy 336 to mean that reuben should merit the world to come directly and not have to die again as a result of being reincarnated torah scholar commentator and kabbalist nachmanides ramban 11951270 attributed jobs suffering to reincarnation as hinted in jobs saying god does all these things twice or three times with a man to bring back his soul from the pit to the light of the living job 3329 30 reincarnation called gilgul became popular in folk belief and is found in much yiddish literature among ashkenazi jews among a few kabbalists it was posited that some human souls could end up being reincarnated into nonhuman bodies these ideas were found in a number of kabbalistic works from the 13th century and also among many mystics in the late 16th century martin bubers early collection of stories of the baal shem tovs life includes several that refer to people reincarnating in successive lives among well known generally nonkabbalist or antikabbalist rabbis who rejected the idea of reincarnation are saadia gaon david kimhi hasdai crescas yedayah bedershi early 14th century joseph albo abraham ibn daud the rosh and leon de modena saadia gaon in emunoth vedeoth hebrew beliefs and opinions concludes section vi with a refutation of the doctrine of metempsychosis reincarnation while rebutting reincarnation saadia gaon further states that jews who hold to reincarnation have adopted nonjewish beliefs by no means do all jews today believe in reincarnation but belief in reincarnation is not uncommon among many jews including orthodox other wellknown rabbis who are reincarnationists include yonassan gershom abraham isaac kook talmud scholar adin steinsaltz dovber pinson david m wexelman zalman schachter and many others reincarnation is cited by authoritative biblical commentators including ramban nachmanides menachem recanti and rabbenu bachya among the many volumes of yitzchak luria most of which come down from the pen of his primary disciple chaim vital are insights explaining issues related to reincarnation his shaar hagilgulim the gates of reincarnation is a book devoted exclusively to the subject of reincarnation in judaism rabbi naftali silberberg of the rohr jewish learning institute notes that many ideas that originate in other religions and belief systems have been popularized in the media and are taken for granted by unassuming jews christianity mainstream christianity professes belief in the nicene creed and english versions of the nicene creed in current use include the phrase we look for the resurrection of the dead and the life of the world to come when questioned by the sadducees about the resurrection of the dead in a context relating to who ones spouse would be if one had been married several times in life jesus said that marriage will be irrelevant after the resurrection as the resurrected will be like the angels in heaven jesus also maintained that the time would come when the dead would hear the voice of the son of god and all who were in the tombs would come out those who have heard his commandments and believes in the one who sent him to the resurrection of life but those who do not to the resurrection of condemnation the book of enoch describes sheol as divided into four compartments for four types of the dead the faithful saints who await resurrection in paradise the merely virtuous who await their reward the wicked who await punishment and the wicked who have already been punished and will not be resurrected on judgment day the book of enoch is considered apocryphal by most denominations of christianity and all denominations of judaism the book of 2 maccabees gives a clear account of the dead awaiting a future resurrection and judgment in addition to prayers and offerings for the dead to remove the burden of sin the author of luke recounts the story of lazarus and the rich man which shows people in hades awaiting the resurrection either in comfort or torment the author of the book of revelation writes about god and the angels versus satan and demons in an epic battle at the end of times when all souls are judged there is mention of ghostly bodies of past prophets and the transfiguration the noncanonical acts of paul and thecla speak of the efficacy of prayer for the dead so that they might be translated to a state of happiness hippolytus of rome pictures the underworld hades as a place where the righteous dead awaiting in the bosom of abraham their resurrection rejoice at their future prospect while the unrighteous are tormented at the sight of the lake of unquenchable fire into which they are destined to be cast gregory of nyssa discusses the longbefore believed possibility of purification of souls after death pope gregory i repeats the concept articulated over a century earlier by gregory of nyssa that the saved suffer purification after death in connection with which he wrote of purgatorial flames the noun purgatorium latin place of cleansing is used for the first time to describe a state of painful purification of the saved after life the same word in adjectival form purgatorius a um cleansing which appears also in nonreligious writing was already used by christians such as augustine of hippo and pope gregory i to refer to an afterdeath cleansing during the age of enlightenment theologians and philosophers presented various philosophies and beliefs a notable example is emanuel swedenborg who wrote some 18 theological works which describe in detail the nature of the afterlife according to his claimed spiritual experiences the most famous of which is heaven and hell his report of life there covers a wide range of topics such as marriage in heaven where all angels are married children in heaven where they are raised by angel parents time and space in heaven there are none the afterdeath awakening process in the world of spirits a place halfway between heaven and hell and where people first wake up after death the allowance of a free will choice between heaven or hell as opposed to being sent to either one by god the eternity of hell one could leave but would never want to and that all angels or devils were once people on earth the catholic church the catholic conception of the afterlife teaches that after the body dies the soul is judged the righteous and free of sin enter heaven however those who die in unrepented mortal sin go to hell in the 1990s the catechism of the catholic church defined hell not as punishment imposed on the sinner but rather as the sinners selfexclusion from god unlike other christian groups the catholic church teaches that those who die in a state of grace but still carry venial sin go to a place called purgatory where they undergo purification to enter heaven limbo despite popular opinion limbo which was elaborated upon by theologians beginning in the middle ages was never recognized as a dogma of the catholic church yet at times it has been a very popular theological theory within the church limbo is a theory that unbaptized but innocent souls such as those of infants virtuous individuals who lived before jesus christ was born on earth or those that die before baptism exist in neither heaven nor hell proper therefore these souls neither merit the beatific vision nor are subjected to any punishment because they are not guilty of any personal sin although they have not received baptism so still bear original sin so they are generally seen as existing in a state of natural but not supernatural happiness until the end of time in other christian denominations it has been described as an intermediate place or state of confinement in oblivion and neglect purgatory the notion of purgatory is associated particularly with the catholic church in the catholic church all those who die in gods grace and friendship but still imperfectly purified are indeed assured of their eternal salvation but after death they undergo purification so as to achieve the holiness necessary to enter the joy of heaven or the final purification of the elect which is entirely different from the punishment of the damned the tradition of the church by reference to certain texts of scripture speaks of a cleansing fire although it is not always called purgatory anglicans of the anglocatholic tradition generally also hold to the belief john wesley the founder of methodism believed in an intermediate state between death and the resurrection of the dead and in the possibility of continuing to grow in holiness there but methodism does not officially affirm this belief and denies the possibility of helping by prayer any who may be in that state orthodox christianity the orthodox church is intentionally reticent on the afterlife as it acknowledges the mystery especially of things that have not yet occurred beyond the second coming of jesus bodily resurrection and final judgment all of which is affirmed in the nicene creed 325 ce orthodoxy does not teach much else in any definitive manner unlike western forms of christianity however orthodoxy is traditionally nondualist and does not teach that there are two separate literal locations of heaven and hell but instead acknowledges that the location of ones final destinyheaven or hellas being figurative instead orthodoxy teaches that the final judgment is ones uniform encounter with divine love and mercy but this encounter is experienced multifariously depending on the extent to which one has been transformed partaken of divinity and is therefore compatible or incompatible with god the monadic immutable and ceaseless object of eschatological encounter is therefore the love and mercy of god his glory which infuses the heavenly temple and it is the subjective human reaction which engenders multiplicity or any division of experience for instance st isaac the syrian observes in his ascetical homilies that those who are punished in gehenna are scourged by the scourge of love the power of love works in two ways it torments sinners as bitter regret but love inebriates the souls of the sons of heaven by its delectability in this sense the divine action is always immutably and uniformly love and if one experiences this love negatively the experience is then one of selfcondemnation because of free will rather than condemnation by god orthodoxy therefore uses the description of jesus judgment in john 31921 as their model 19 and this is the judgment the light has come into the world and people loved the darkness rather than the light because their works were evil 20 for everyone who does wicked things hates the light and does not come to the light lest his works should be exposed 21 but whoever does what is true comes to the light so that it may be clearly seen that his works have been carried out in god as a characteristically orthodox understanding then fr thomas hopko writes it is precisely the presence of gods mercy and love which cause the torment of the wicked god does not punish he forgives in a word god has mercy on all whether all like it or not if we like it it is paradise if we do not it is hell every knee will bend before the lord everything will be subject to him god in christ will indeed be all and in all with boundless mercy and unconditional pardon but not all will rejoice in gods gift of forgiveness and that choice will be judgment the selfinflicted source of their sorrow and pain moreover orthodoxy includes a prevalent tradition of apokatastasis or the restoration of all things in the end this has been taught most notably by origen but also many other church fathers and saints including gregory of nyssa the second council of constantinople 553 ce affirmed the orthodoxy of gregory of nyssa while simultaneously condemning origens brand of universalism because it taught the restoration back to our preexistent state which orthodoxy doesnt teach it is also a teaching of such eminent orthodox theologians as olivier clément metropolitan kallistos ware and bishop hilarion alfeyev although apokatastasis is not a dogma of the church but instead a theologoumenon it is no less a teaching of the orthodox church than its rejection as met kallistos ware explains it is heretical to say that all must be saved for this is to deny free will but it is legitimate to hope that all may be saved as insisting on torment without end also denies free will the church of jesus christ of latterday saints joseph f smith of the church of jesus christ of latterday saints presents an elaborate vision of the afterlife it is revealed as the scene of an extensive missionary effort by righteous spirits in paradise to redeem those still in darknessa spirit prison or hell where the spirits of the dead remain until judgment it is divided into two parts spirit prison and paradise together these are also known as the spirit world also abrahams bosom see luke 161925 they believe that christ visited spirit prison 1 peter 31820 and opened the gate for those who repent to cross over to paradise this is similar to the harrowing of hell doctrine of some mainstream christian faiths both spirit prison and paradise are temporary according to latterday saint beliefs after the resurrection spirits are assigned permanently to three degrees of heavenly glory determined by how they lived celestial terrestrial and telestial 1 cor 154442 doctrine and covenants section 76 sons of perdition or those who have known and seen god and deny it will be sent to the realm of satan which is called outer darkness where they shall live in misery and agony forever however according to the beliefs of the church of jesus christ of latter day saints most persons lack the amount of knowledge to commit the eternal sin and are therefore incapable of becoming sons of perdition the celestial kingdom is believed to be a place where the righteous can live eternally with their families progression does not end once one has entered the celestial kingdom but extends eternally according to true to the faith a handbook on doctrines in the lds faith the celestial kingdom is the place prepared for those who have received the testimony of jesus and been made perfect through jesus the mediator of the new covenant who wrought out this perfect atonement through the shedding of his own blood doctrine and covenants 7651 69 to inherit this gift we must receive the ordinances of salvation keep the commandments and repent of our sins jehovahs witnesses jehovahs witnesses occasionally use terms such as afterlife to refer to any hope for the dead but they understand ecclesiastes 95 to preclude belief in an immortal soul individuals judged by god to be wicked such as in the great flood or at armageddon are given no hope of an afterlife however they believe that after armageddon there will be a bodily resurrection of both righteous and unrighteous dead but not the wicked survivors of armageddon and those who are resurrected are then to gradually restore earth to a paradise after armageddon unrepentant sinners are punished with eternal death nonexistence seventhday adventists the seventhday adventist churchs beliefs regarding the afterlife differ from other christian churches rather than ascend to heaven or descend to hell adventists believe the dead remain unconscious until the return of christ in judgement the concept that the dead remain dead until resurrection is one of the fundamental beliefs of seventhday adventism adventists believe that death is an unconscious state a sleep this is based on matt 924 mark 539 john 111114 1 cor 1551 52 1 thess 41317 2 peter 34 eccl 95 6 10 at death all consciousness ends the dead person does not know anything and does not do anything they believe that death is a decreation or an undoing of what was created this is described in ecclesiastes 127 when a person dies the body turns to dust again and the spirit goes back to god who gave it the spirit of every person who dieswhether saved or unsavedreturns to god at death the spirit that returns to god at death is the breath of life islam the quran the holy book of islam emphasizes the insignificance of worldly life ḥayāt addunyā usually translated as this world visavis the hereafter a central doctrine of islamic faith is the last day alyawm alākhir also known by other names on which the world will come to an end and god will raise all mankind as well as the jinn from the dead and evaluate their worldly actions the resurrected will be judged according to their deeds records of which are kept on two books compiled for every human beingone for their good deeds and one for their evil ones having been judged the resurrected will cross the bridge of assirāt over the pit of hell when the condemned attempt to they will be made to fall off into hellfire below while the righteous will have no trouble and continue on to their eternal abode of heaven afterlife in islam actually begins before the last day after death humans will be questioned about their faith by two angels munkar and nakīr those who die as martyrs go immediately to paradise others who have died and been buried will receive a taste of their eternal reward from the alqabr or the grave compare the jewish concept of sheol those bound for hell will suffer punishment of the grave while those bound for heaven will find the grave peaceful and blessed islamic scripture the quran and hadith reports of the words and deeds of the islamic prophet muhammad who is believed to have visited heaven and hell during his isra and miraj journey give vivid descriptions of the pleasures of paradise jannah and sufferings of hell jahannam the gardens of jannah have cool shade adorned couchs and cushions rich carpets spread out cups full of wine and every meat and fruit men will be provided with perpetually youthful beautiful ḥūr untouched beforehand by man or jinn with large beautiful eyes in recent years some have argued that the term ḥūr refers both to pure men and pure women andor that quranic references to immortal boys or young men ghilmān wildān and suqāh who serve wine and meals to the blessed are the male equivalents of hur in contrast those in jahannam will dwell in a land infested with thousands of serpents and scorpions be burnt by scorching fire and when their skins are roasted through we shall change them for fresh skins to repeat the process forever they will have nothing to drink but boiling water and running sores their cries of remorse and pleading for forgiveness will be in vain traditionally jannah and jahannam are thought to have different levels eight gates and eight levels in jannah where the higher the level the better it is and the happier you are jahannam possess seven layers each layer more horrible than the one above the quran teaches that the purpose of mans creation is to worship god and god alone those it describes as being punished in hell are most typically unbelievers including those who worship others besides allah those who deny the divine origin of the quran or the coming of judgement day straightforward crimessins against other people are also grounds for going to hell the murder of a believer usury q2275 devouring the property of an orphan slander particularly of a chaste woman however it is a common belief among muslims that whatever crimessins muslims may have committed their punishment in hell will be temporary only unbelievers will reside in hell permanently thus jahannam combines both the concept of an eternal hell for unbelievers and what is known in christian catholicism as purgatory for believers eventually destined for heaven after punishment for their sins the common belief holds that jahannam coexists with the temporal world mainstream islam teaches the continued existence of the soul and a transformed physical existence after death the resurrection that will take place on the last day is physical and is explained by suggesting that god will recreate the decayed body have they not realized that allah who created the heavens and the earth can easily recreate them ahmadiyya ahmadi muslims believe that the afterlife is not material but of a spiritual nature according to mirza ghulam ahmad founder of the ahmadiyya muslim community the soul will give birth to another rarer entity and will resemble the life on this earth in the sense that this entity will bear a similar relationship to the soul as the soul bears relationship with the human existence on earth on earth if a person leads a righteous life and submits to the will of god his or her tastes become attuned to enjoying spiritual pleasures as opposed to carnal desires with this an embryonic soul begins to take shape different tastes are said to be born which a person given to carnal passions finds no enjoyment for example sacrifice of ones own rights over that of others becomes enjoyable or that forgiveness becomes second nature in such a state a person finds contentment and peace at heart and at this stage according to ahmadiyya beliefs it can be said that a soul within the soul has begun to take shape sufism the sufi muslim scholar ibn arabi defined barzakh as the intermediate realm or isthmus it is between the world of corporeal bodies and the world of spirits and is a means of contact between the two worlds without it there would be no contact between the two and both would cease to exist he described it as simple and luminous like the world of spirits but also able to take on many different forms just like the world of corporeal bodies can in broader terms barzakh is anything that separates two things it has been called the dream world in which the dreamer is in both life and death baháʼí faith the teachings of the baháʼí faith state that the nature of the afterlife is beyond the understanding of those living just as an unborn fetus cannot understand the nature of the world outside of the womb the baháʼí writings state that the soul is immortal and after death it will continue to progress until it finally attains gods presence in baháʼí belief souls in the afterlife will continue to retain their individuality and consciousness and will be able to recognize and communicate spiritually with other souls whom they have made deep profound friendships with such as their spouses the baháʼí scriptures also state there are distinctions between souls in the afterlife and that souls will recognize the worth of their own deeds and understand the consequences of their actions it is explained that those souls that have turned toward god will experience gladness while those who have lived in error will become aware of the opportunities they have lost also in the baháʼí view souls will be able to recognize the accomplishments of the souls that have reached the same level as themselves but not those that have achieved a rank higher than them indian religions early indian religions were characterized by the belief in an afterlife ancestor worship and related rites these concepts started to significantly change after the period of the upanishads buddhism afterlife in buddhism is complex consisting of an intermediated spirit world the six realms of existence and the pure land after achieving enlightenment ancestor worship and links to ones ancestors was once an important component of early buddhism but became less relevant already before the formation of the different buddhist streams the concepts and importance of afterlife vary among modern buddhist teachings buddhists maintain that rebirth takes place without an unchanging self or soul passing from one form to another the type of rebirth will be conditioned by the moral tone of the persons actions kamma or karma for example if a person has committed harmful actions by body speech and mind based on greed hate and delusion would have hisher rebirth in a lower realm ie an animal a hungry ghost or a hell realm is to be expected on the other hand where a person has performed skillful actions based on generosity lovingkindness metta compassion and wisdom rebirth in a happy realm ie human or one of the many heavenly realms can be expected however the mechanism of rebirth with kamma is not deterministic it depends on various levels of kamma the most important moment that determines where a person is reborn into is the last thought moment at that moment heavy kamma would ripen if there were performed if not near death kamma would ripen and if not death kamma then habitual kamma would ripen finally if none of the above happened then residual kamma from previous actions can ripen according to theravada buddhism there are 31 realms of existence that one can be reborn into according to these 31 existences comprise 20 existences of supreme deities brahmas 6 existences of deities devas the human existence manussa and lastly 4 existences of deprivation or unhappiness apaya pure land buddhism of mahayana believes in a special place apart from the 31 planes of existence called pure land it is believed that each buddha has their own pure land created out of their merits for the sake of sentient beings who recall them mindfully to be able to be reborn in their pure land and train to become a buddha there thus the main practice of pure land buddhism is to chant a buddhas name in tibetan buddhism the tibetan book of the dead explains the intermediate state of humans between death and reincarnation the deceased will find the bright light of wisdom which shows a straightforward path to move upward and leave the cycle of reincarnation there are various reasons why the deceased do not follow that light some had no briefing about the intermediate state in the former life others only used to follow their basic instincts like animals and some have fear which results from foul deeds in the former life or from insistent haughtiness in the intermediate state the awareness is very flexible so it is important to be virtuous adopt a positive attitude and avoid negative ideas ideas which are rising from subconsciousness can cause extreme tempers and cowing visions in this situation they have to understand that these manifestations are just reflections of the inner thoughts no one can really hurt them because they have no more material body the deceased get help from different buddhas who show them the path to the bright light the ones who do not follow the path after all will get hints for a better reincarnation they have to release the things and beings on which or whom they still hang from the life before it is recommended to choose a family where the parents trust in the dharma and to reincarnate with the will to care for the welfare of all beings hinduism there are two major views of afterlife in hinduism mythical and philosophical the philosophies of hinduism consider each individual consists of 3 bodies physical body compose of water and biomatter sthūla śarīra an energeticpsychicmentalsubtle body sūkṣmaśarīra and a causal body kāraṇa śarīra comprising subliminal stuff ie mental impressions etc the individual is a stream of consciousness ātman which flows through all the physical changes of the body and at the death of the physical body flows on into another physical body the two components that transmigrate are the subtle body and the causal body the thought that occupies the mind at the time of death determines the quality of our rebirth antim smaraṇa hence hinduism advises to be mindful of ones thoughts and cultivate positive wholesome thoughts mantra chanting japa is commonly practiced for this the mythical includes the philosophical but adds heaven and hell myths when one leaves the physical body at death he appears in the court of lord yama the god of death for an exit interview the panel consists of yama and chitragupta the cosmic accountant he has a book which consists the history of the dead persons according to hisher mistakes the lord yama decides the punishment is and varuna the cosmic intelligence officer he is counseled about his life achievements and failures and is shown a mirror in which his entire life is reflected philosophically these three men are projections of ones mind yama the lord of justice then sends him to a heavenly realm svarga if he has been exceptionally benevolent and beneficent for a period of rest and recreation his period is limited in time by the weight of his good deeds if he has been exceptionally malevolent and caused immense suffering to other beings then he is sent to a hell realm naraka for his sins after one has exhausted his karmas he takes birth again to continue his spiritual evolution however belief in rebirth was not a part of early vedic religions and texts it was later developed by rishis who challenged the idea of one life as being simplistic rebirth can take place as a god deva a human manuṣya an animal tiryak but it is generally taught that the spiritual evolution takes place from lower to higher species in certain cases of traumatic death a person can take the form of a preta or hungry ghost and remains in an earthbound state interminably until certain ceremonies are done to liberate them this mythological part is extensively elaborated in the hindu puranas especially in the garuda purana the upanishads are the first scriptures in hinduism which explicitly mention about afterlife the bhagavad gita a famous hindu script says that just as a man discards his old clothes and wears new ones similarly the atman discards the old body and takes on a new one in hinduism the belief is that the body is nothing but a shell the consciousness inside is immutable and indestructible and takes on different lives in a cycle of birth and death the end of this cycle is called mukti sanskrit मकत and staying finally with the ultimate reality forever is moksha sanskrit मकष or liberation the diverse views of modern hinduism in part differ significantly from the historical vedic religion jainism jainism also believes in the afterlife they believe that the soul takes on a body form based on previous karmas or actions performed by that soul through eternity jains believe the soul is eternal and that the freedom from the cycle of reincarnation is the means to attain eternal bliss sikhism the essential doctrine of sikhism is to experience the divine through simple living meditation and contemplation while being alive sikhism also has the belief of being in union with god while living accounts of afterlife are considered to be aimed at the popular prevailing views of the time so as to provide a referential framework without necessarily establishing a belief in the afterlife thus while it is also acknowledged that living the life of a householder is above the metaphysical truth sikhism can be considered agnostic to the question of an afterlife some scholars also interpret the mention of reincarnation to be naturalistic akin to the biogeochemical cycles but if one analyses the sikh scriptures carefully one may find that on many occasions the afterlife and the existence of heaven and hell are mentioned and criticised in guru granth sahib and in dasam granth as non true man made ideas so from that it can be concluded that sikhism does not believe in the existence of heaven and hell however heaven and hell are created to temporarily reward and punish and one will then take birth again until one merges in god according to the sikh scriptures the human form is the closet form to god if the guru is read and understood and the best opportunity for a human being to attain salvation and merge back with god and fully understand him sikh gurus said that nothing dies nothing is born everything is ever present and it just changes forms like standing in front of a wardrobe you pick up a dress and wear it and then you discard it you wear another one thus in the view of sikhism your soul is never born and never dies your soul is a part of god and hence lives forever others confucianism confucius did not directly discuss the afterlife nonetheless chinese folk religion has had a strong influence on confucianism so adherents believe that their ancestors become deified spirits after death ancestor veneration in china is widespread gnosticism in gnostic teachings humans contain a divine spark within them said to have been trapped in their bodies by the creator of the material universe known as the demiurge it was believed that this spark could be released from the material world and enter into the heavenly spiritual world beyond it if special knowledge or gnosis was attained the cathars for example viewed reincarnation as a trap made by satan who tricked angels from the heavenly realm into entering the physical bodies of humans they viewed the purpose of life as a way to escape the constant cycle of spiritual incarnations by letting go of worldly attachments shinto it is common for families to participate in ceremonies for children at a shrine yet have a buddhist funeral at the time of death in old japanese legends it is often claimed that the dead go to a place called yomi 黄泉 a gloomy underground realm with a river separating the living from the dead mentioned in the legend of izanami and izanagi this yomi very closely resembles the greek hades however later myths include notions of resurrection and even elysiumlike descriptions such as in the legend of ōkuninushi and susanoo shinto tends to hold negative views on death and corpses as a source of pollution called kegare however death is also viewed as a path towards apotheosis in shintoism as can be evidenced by how legendary individuals become enshrined after death perhaps the most famous would be emperor ōjin who was enshrined as hachiman the god of war after his death spiritualism according to edgar cayce the afterlife consisted of nine realms equated with the nine planets of astrology the first symbolized by saturn was a level for the purification of the souls the second mercurys realm gives us the ability to consider problems as a whole the third of the nine soul realms is ruled by earth and is associated with the earthly pleasures the fourth realm is where we find out about love and is ruled by venus the fifth realm is where we meet our limitations and is ruled by mars the sixth realm is ruled by neptune and is where we begin to use our creative powers and free ourselves from the material world the seventh realm is symbolized by jupiter which strengthens the souls ability to depict situations to analyze people and places things and conditions the eighth afterlife realm is ruled by uranus and develops psychic ability the ninth afterlife realm is symbolized by pluto the astrological realm of the unconscious this afterlife realm is a transient place where souls can choose to travel to other realms or other solar systems it is the souls liberation into eternity and is the realm that opens the doorway from our solar system into the cosmos point of view mainstream spiritualists postulate a series of seven realms that are not unlike edgar cayces nine realms ruled by the planets as it evolves the soul moves higher and higher until it reaches the ultimate realm of spiritual oneness the first realm equated with hell is the place where troubled souls spend a long time before they are compelled to move up to the next level the second realm where most souls move directly is thought of as an intermediate transition between the lower planes of life and hell and the higher perfect realms of the universe the third level is for those who have worked with their karmic inheritance the fourth level is that from which evolved souls teach and direct those on earth the fifth level is where the soul leaves human consciousness behind at the sixth plane the soul is finally aligned with the cosmic consciousness and has no sense of separateness or individuality finally the seventh level the goal of each soul is where the soul transcends its own sense of soulfulness and reunites with the world soul and the universe taoism taoism views life as an illusion and death as a transformation into immortality taoists believe that immortality of the soul can be achieved by living a virtuous life in harmony with the tao they are taught not to fear death as it is simply part of nature traditional african religions traditional african religions are diverse in their beliefs in an afterlife huntergatherer societies such as the hadza have no particular belief in an afterlife and the death of an individual is a straightforward end to their existence ancestor cults are found throughout subsaharan africa including cultures like the yombe beng yoruba and ewe the belief that the dead come back into life and are reborn into their families is given concrete expression in the personal names that are given to childrenwhat is reincarnated are some of the dominant characteristics of the ancestor and not his soul for each soul remains distinct and each birth represents a new soul the yoruba dogon and lodagoa have eschatological ideas similar to abrahamic religions but in most african societies there is a marked absence of such clearcut notions of heaven and hell although there are notions of god judging the soul after death in some societies like the mende multiple beliefs coexist the mende believe that people die twice once during the process of joining the secret society and again during biological death after which they become ancestors however some mende also believe that after people are created by god they live ten consecutive lives each in progressively descending worlds one crosscultural theme is that the ancestors are part of the world of the living interacting with it regularly unitarian universalism some unitarian universalists believe in universalism that all souls will ultimately be saved and that there are no torments of hell unitarian universalists differ widely in their theology hence there is no exact same stance on the issue although unitarians historically believed in a literal hell and universalists historically believed that everyone goes to heaven modern unitarian universalists can be categorized into those believing in a heaven reincarnation and oblivion most unitarian universalists believe that heaven and hell are symbolic places of consciousness and the faith is largely focused on the worldly life rather than any possible afterlife wicca the wiccan afterlife is most commonly described as the summerland here souls rest recuperate from life and reflect on the experiences they had during their lives after a period of rest the souls are reincarnated and the memory of their previous lives is erased many wiccans see the summerland as a place to reflect on their life actions it is not a place of reward but rather the end of a life journey at an end point of incarnations zoroastrianism zoroastrianism states that the urvan the disembodied spirit lingers on earth for three days before departing downward to the kingdom of the dead that is ruled by yima for the three days that it rests on earth righteous souls sit at the head of their body chanting the ustavaiti gathas with joy while a wicked person sits at the feet of the corpse wails and recites the yasna zoroastrianism states that for the righteous souls a beautiful maiden which is the personification of the souls good thoughts words and deeds appears for a wicked person a very old ugly naked hag appears after three nights the soul of the wicked is taken by the demon vizaresa vīzarəša to chinvat bridge and is made to go to darkness hell yima is believed to have been the first king on earth to rule as well as the first man to die inside of yimas realm the spirits live a shadowy existence and are dependent on their own descendants which are still living on earth their descendants are to satisfy their hunger and clothe them through rituals done on earth rituals which are done on the first three days are vital and important as they protect the soul from evil powers and give it strength to reach the underworld after three days the soul crosses chinvat bridge which is the final judgment of the soul rashnu and sraosha are present at the final judgment the list is expanded sometimes and include vahman and ormazd rashnu is the yazata who holds the scales of justice if the good deeds of the person outweigh the bad the soul is worthy of paradise if the bad deeds outweigh the good the bridge narrows down to the width of a bladeedge and a horrid hag pulls the soul in her arms and takes it down to hell with her misvan gatu is the place of the mixed ones where the souls lead a gray existence lacking both joy and sorrow a soul goes here if hisher good deeds and bad deeds are equal and rashnus scale is equal parapsychology the society for psychical research was founded in 1882 with the express intention of investigating phenomena relating to spiritualism and the afterlife its members continue to conduct scientific research on the paranormal to this day some of the earliest attempts to apply scientific methods to the study of phenomena relating to an afterlife were conducted by this organization its earliest members included noted scientists like william crookes and philosophers such as henry sidgwick and william james parapsychological investigation of the afterlife includes the study of haunting apparitions of the deceased instrumental transcommunication electronic voice phenomena and mediumship a study conducted in 1901 by physician duncan macdougall sought to measure the weight lost by a human when the soul departed the body upon death macdougall weighed dying patients in an attempt to prove that the soul was material tangible and thus measurable although macdougalls results varied considerably from 21 grams for some people this figure has become synonymous with the measure of a souls mass the title of the 2003 movie 21 grams is a reference to macdougalls findings his results have never been reproduced and are generally regarded either as meaningless or considered to have had little if any scientific merit frank tipler has argued that physics can explain immortality although such arguments are not falsifiable and in karl poppers views they do not qualify as science after 25 years of parapsychological research susan blackmore came to the conclusion that according to her experiences there is not enough empirical evidence for many of these cases mediumship mediums purportedly act as a vessel for communications from spirits in other realms mediumship is not specific to one culture or religion it can be identified in several belief systems most notably spiritualism while the practice gained popularity in europe and north america in the 19th century evidence of mediumship dates back thousands of years in asia mediums who claim to have contact with deceased people include tyler henry and pascal voggenhuber near death research research also includes the study of the near death experience scientists who have worked in this area include elisabeth küblerross raymond moody sam parnia michael sabom bruce greyson peter fenwick jeffrey long susan blackmore charles tart william james ian stevenson michael persinger pim van lommel penny sartori walter van laack among others past life regression past life regression is a method that uses hypnosis to recover what practitioners believe are memories of past lives or incarnations the technique used during pastlife regression involves the subject answering a series of questions while hypnotized to reveal identity and events of alleged past lives a method similar to that used in recovered memory therapy and one that similarly often misrepresents memory as a faithful recording of previous events rather than a constructed set of recollections however medical experts and practitioners do not agree that the past life memories gained from past life regressions are truly from past lives experts generally regard claims of recovered memories of past lives as fantasies or delusions or a type of confabulation because the use of hypnosis and suggestive questions can tend to leave the subject particularly likely to hold distorted or false memories philosophy modern philosophy there is a view based on the philosophical question of personal identity termed open individualism by daniel kolak that concludes that individual conscious experience is illusory and because consciousness continues after death in all conscious beings you do not die this position has allegedly been supported by physicists such as erwin schrödinger and freeman dyson certain problems arise with the idea of a particular person continuing after death peter van inwagen in his argument regarding resurrection notes that the materialist must have some sort of physical continuity john hick also raises questions regarding personal identity in his book death and eternal life using an example of a person ceasing to exist in one place while an exact replica appears in another if the replica had all the same experiences traits and physical appearances of the first person we would all attribute the same identity to the second according to hick process philosophy in the panentheistic model of process philosophy and theology the writers alfred north whitehead and charles hartshorne rejected the idea that the universe was made of substance instead saying reality is composed of living experiences occasions of experience according to hartshorne people do not experience subjective or personal immortality in the afterlife but they do have objective immortality because their experiences live on forever in god who contains all that was however other process philosophers such as david ray griffin have written that people may have subjective experience after death science psychological proposals for the origin of a belief in an afterlife include cognitive disposition cultural learning and as an intuitive religious idea in 2008 a largescale study conducted by the university of southampton involving 2060 patients from 15 hospitals in the united kingdom united states and austria was launched the aware awareness during resuscitation study examined the broad range of mental experiences in relation to death in a large study researchers also tested the validity of conscious experiences for the first time using objective markers to determine whether claims of awareness compatible with outofbody experiences correspond with real or hallucinatory events the results revealed that 40 of those who survived a cardiac arrest were aware during the time that they were clinically dead and before their hearts were restarted one patient also had a verified outofbody experience over 80 of patients did not survive their cardiac arrest or were too sick to be interviewed but his cardiac arrest occurred in a room without markers dr parnia in the interview stated the evidence thus far suggests that in the first few minutes after death consciousness is not annihilated the aware study drew the following primary conclusions in some cases of cardiac arrest memories of visual awareness compatible with so called outofbody experiences may correspond with actual events a number of nders may have vivid death experiences but do not recall them due to the effects of brain injury or sedative drugs on memory circuits the recalled experience surrounding death merits a genuine investigation without prejudice studies have also been done on the widely reported phenomenon of near death experiences nde experiencers commonly report being transported to a different realm or plane of existence and they have been shown to display a lasting positive aftereffect on most experiencers see also allegory of the long spoons astral plane bardo brig of dread bridge of dread empiricism epistemology eternal oblivion exaltation mormonism fate of the unlearned heaven rebecca hensler hell immortality mictlan mind uploading nirvana omega point paradise phowa preexistence purgatory rebirth reincarnation soul soul flight soul retrieval spiritism suspended animation spirit world undead underworld references explanatory notes citations bibliography philip c almond afterlife a history of life after death london and ithaca ny ib tauris and cornell university press 2015 campbell douglas r platos theory of reincarnation eschatology and natural philosophy review of metaphysics 75 4 643665 2022 dan cohnsherbok and christopher lewis eds beyond death theological and philosophical reflections on life after death pelgravemacmillan 1995 david fontana is there an afterlife a comprehensive overview of the evidence o books 2005 jane idelman smith and yazbeck haddad the islamic understanding of death and resurrection oxford up 2002 michael martin and keith augustine eds the myth of an afterlife the case against life after death rowman littlefield 2015 john j mcgraw brain belief an exploration of the human soul aegis press 2004 mark mirabello a travelers guide to the afterlife traditions and beliefs on death dying and what lies beyond inner traditions 2016 christopher m moreman beyond the threshold afterlife beliefs and experiences in world religions rowman littlefield 2008 robert a morey death and the afterlife minneapolis minn bethany house publishers 1984 315 p hiroshi obayashi ed death and afterlife perspectives of world religions praeger 1991 alan f segal life after death a history of the afterlife in western religion doubleday 2004 gregory shushan conceptions of the afterlife in early civilizations universalism constructivism and neardeath experience new york london continuum 2009 further reading extensive 1878 text by william rounseville alger external links vaticanva catechism of the catholic church islamic guide life after death judaism 101 olam haba the afterlife stewart salmond christian doctrine of immortality dictionary of the history of ideas death and immortality online searchable edition of swedenborgs heaven and hell swedenborg foundation 2000 collection heaven hell and afterlives from the university of michigan museum of art philosophy of religion religious belief and doctrine | 11,131 |
1181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrometry | Astrometry | astrometry is a branch of astronomy that involves precise measurements of the positions and movements of stars and other celestial bodies it provides the kinematics and physical origin of the solar system and this galaxy the milky way history the history of astrometry is linked to the history of star catalogues which gave astronomers reference points for objects in the sky so they could track their movements this can be dated back to hipparchus who around 190 bc used the catalogue of his predecessors timocharis and aristillus to discover earths precession in doing so he also developed the brightness scale still in use today hipparchus compiled a catalogue with at least 850 stars and their positions hipparchuss successor ptolemy included a catalogue of 1022 stars in his work the almagest giving their location coordinates and brightness in the 10th century abd alrahman alsufi carried out observations on the stars and described their positions magnitudes and star color furthermore he provided drawings for each constellation which are depicted in his book of fixed stars ibn yunus observed more than 10000 entries for the suns position for many years using a large astrolabe with a diameter of nearly 14 metres his observations on eclipses were still used centuries later in simon newcombs investigations on the motion of the moon while his other observations of the motions of the planets jupiter and saturn inspired laplaces obliquity of the ecliptic and inequalities of jupiter and saturn in the 15th century the timurid astronomer ulugh beg compiled the zijisultani in which he catalogued 1019 stars like the earlier catalogs of hipparchus and ptolemy ulugh begs catalogue is estimated to have been precise to within approximately 20 minutes of arc in the 16th century tycho brahe used improved instruments including large mural instruments to measure star positions more accurately than previously with a precision of 1535 arcsec taqi aldin measured the right ascension of the stars at the constantinople observatory of taqi addin using the observational clock he invented when telescopes became commonplace setting circles sped measurements james bradley first tried to measure stellar parallaxes in 1729 the stellar movement proved too insignificant for his telescope but he instead discovered the aberration of light and the nutation of the earths axis his cataloguing of 3222 stars was refined in 1807 by friedrich bessel the father of modern astrometry he made the first measurement of stellar parallax 03 arcsec for the binary star 61 cygni in 1872 william huggins used spectroscopy to measure the radial velocity of several prominent stars including sirius being very difficult to measure only about 60 stellar parallaxes had been obtained by the end of the 19th century mostly by use of the filar micrometer astrographs using astronomical photographic plates sped the process in the early 20th century automated platemeasuring machines and more sophisticated computer technology of the 1960s allowed more efficient compilation of star catalogues started in the late 19th century the project carte du ciel to improve star mapping couldnt be finished but made photography a common technique for astrometry in the 1980s chargecoupled devices ccds replaced photographic plates and reduced optical uncertainties to one milliarcsecond this technology made astrometry less expensive opening the field to an amateur audience in 1989 the european space agencys hipparcos satellite took astrometry into orbit where it could be less affected by mechanical forces of the earth and optical distortions from its atmosphere operated from 1989 to 1993 hipparcos measured large and small angles on the sky with much greater precision than any previous optical telescopes during its 4year run the positions parallaxes and proper motions of 118218 stars were determined with an unprecedented degree of accuracy a new tycho catalog drew together a database of 1058332 stars to within 2030 mas milliarcseconds additional catalogues were compiled for the 23882 double and multiple stars and 11597 variable stars also analyzed during the hipparcos mission in 2013 the gaia satellite was launched and improved the accuracy of hipparcos the precision was improved by a factor of 100 and enabled the mapping of a billion stars today the catalogue most often used is usnob10 an allsky catalogue that tracks proper motions positions magnitudes and other characteristics for over one billion stellar objects during the past 50 years 7435 schmidt camera plates were used to complete several sky surveys that make the data in usnob10 accurate to within 02 arcsec applications apart from the fundamental function of providing astronomers with a reference frame to report their observations in astrometry is also fundamental for fields like celestial mechanics stellar dynamics and galactic astronomy in observational astronomy astrometric techniques help identify stellar objects by their unique motions it is instrumental for keeping time in that utc is essentially the atomic time synchronized to earths rotation by means of exact astronomical observations astrometry is an important step in the cosmic distance ladder because it establishes parallax distance estimates for stars in the milky way astrometry has also been used to support claims of extrasolar planet detection by measuring the displacement the proposed planets cause in their parent stars apparent position on the sky due to their mutual orbit around the center of mass of the system astrometry is more accurate in space missions that are not affected by the distorting effects of the earths atmosphere nasas planned space interferometry mission sim planetquest now cancelled was to utilize astrometric techniques to detect terrestrial planets orbiting 200 or so of the nearest solartype stars the european space agencys gaia mission launched in 2013 applies astrometric techniques in its stellar census in addition to the detection of exoplanets it can also be used to determine their mass astrometric measurements are used by astrophysicists to constrain certain models in celestial mechanics by measuring the velocities of pulsars it is possible to put a limit on the asymmetry of supernova explosions also astrometric results are used to determine the distribution of dark matter in the galaxy astronomers use astrometric techniques for the tracking of nearearth objects astrometry is responsible for the detection of many recordbreaking solar system objects to find such objects astrometrically astronomers use telescopes to survey the sky and largearea cameras to take pictures at various determined intervals by studying these images they can detect solar system objects by their movements relative to the background stars which remain fixed once a movement per unit time is observed astronomers compensate for the parallax caused by earths motion during this time and the heliocentric distance to this object is calculated using this distance and other photographs more information about the object including its orbital elements can be obtained 50000 quaoar and 90377 sedna are two solar system objects discovered in this way by michael e brown and others at caltech using the palomar observatorys samuel oschin telescope of and the palomarquest largearea ccd camera the ability of astronomers to track the positions and movements of such celestial bodies is crucial to the understanding of the solar system and its interrelated past present and future with others in the universe statistics a fundamental aspect of astrometry is error correction various factors introduce errors into the measurement of stellar positions including atmospheric conditions imperfections in the instruments and errors by the observer or the measuring instruments many of these errors can be reduced by various techniques such as through instrument improvements and compensations to the data the results are then analyzed using statistical methods to compute data estimates and error ranges computer programs xparallax viu free application for windows astrometrica application for windows astrometrynet online blind astrometry see also references further reading external links mpc guide to minor body astrometry astrometry department of the us naval observatory usno astrometric catalog and related products planetlike body discovered at fringes of our solar system 20040315 mike browns caltech home page scientific paper describing sednas discovery the hipparcos space astrometry mission on esa astronomical subdisciplines astrological aspects measurement | 1,317 |
1182 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena | Athena | athena or athene often given the epithet pallas is an ancient greek goddess associated with wisdom warfare and handicraft who was later syncretized with the roman goddess minerva athena was regarded as the patron and protectress of various cities across greece particularly the city of athens from which she most likely received her name the parthenon on the acropolis of athens is dedicated to her her major symbols include owls olive trees snakes and the gorgoneion in art she is generally depicted wearing a helmet and holding a spear from her origin as an aegean palace goddess athena was closely associated with the city she was known as polias and poliouchos both derived from polis meaning citystate and her temples were usually located atop the fortified acropolis in the central part of the city the parthenon on the athenian acropolis is dedicated to her along with numerous other temples and monuments as the patron of craft and weaving athena was known as ergane she was also a warrior goddess and was believed to lead soldiers into battle as athena promachos her main festival in athens was the panathenaia which was celebrated during the month of hekatombaion in midsummer and was the most important festival on the athenian calendar in greek mythology athena was believed to have been born from the forehead of her father zeus in some versions of the story athena has no mother and is born from zeus forehead by parthenogenesis in others such as hesiods theogony zeus swallows his consort metis who was pregnant with athena in this version athena is first born within zeus and then escapes from his body through his forehead in the founding myth of athens athena bested poseidon in a competition over patronage of the city by creating the first olive tree she was known as athena parthenos athena the virgin but in one archaic attic myth the god hephaestus tried and failed to rape her resulting in gaia giving birth to erichthonius an important athenian founding hero athena was the patron goddess of heroic endeavor she was believed to have aided the heroes perseus heracles bellerophon and jason along with aphrodite and hera athena was one of the three goddesses whose feud resulted in the beginning of the trojan war she plays an active role in the iliad in which she assists the achaeans and in the odyssey she is the divine counselor to odysseus in the later writings of the roman poet ovid athena was said to have competed against the mortal arachne in a weaving competition afterward transforming arachne into the first spider ovid also describes how she transformed medusa into a gorgon after witnessing her being raped by poseidon in her temple since the renaissance athena has become an international symbol of wisdom the arts and classical learning western artists and allegorists have often used athena as a symbol of freedom and democracy etymology athena is associated with the city of athens the name of the city in ancient greek is a plural toponym designating the place whereaccording to mythshe presided over the athenai a sisterhood devoted to her worship in ancient times scholars argued whether athena was named after athens or athens after athena now scholars generally agree that the goddess takes her name from the city the ending ene is common in names of locations but rare for personal names testimonies from different cities in ancient greece attest that similar city goddesses were worshipped in other cities and like athena took their names from the cities where they were worshipped for example in mycenae there was a goddess called mykene whose sisterhood was known as mykenai whereas at thebes an analogous deity was called thebe and the city was known under the plural form thebai or thebes in english where the s is the plural formation the name athenai is likely of pregreek origin because it contains the presumably pregreek morpheme ān in his dialogue cratylus the ancient greek philosopher plato 428347 bc gives some rather imaginative etymologies of athenas name based on the theories of the ancient athenians and his etymological speculations thus plato believed that athenas name was derived from greek which the later greeks rationalised as from the deitys mind the secondcentury ad orator aelius aristides attempted to derive natural symbols from the etymological roots of athenas names to be aether air earth and moon origins athena was originally the aegean goddess of the palace who presided over household crafts and protected the king a single mycenaean greek inscription appears at knossos in the linear b tablets from the late minoan iiera room of the chariot tablets these comprise the earliest linear b archive anywhere although athana potnia is often translated as mistress athena it could also mean the potnia of athana or the lady of athens however any connection to the city of athens in the knossos inscription is uncertain a sign series appears in the still undeciphered corpus of linear a tablets written in the unclassified minoan language this could be connected with the linear b mycenaean expressions and or diwia of zeus or possibly related to a homonymous goddess resulting in a translation athena of zeus or divine athena similarly in the greek mythology and epic tradition athena figures as a daughter of zeus cfr dyeus however the inscription quoted seems to be very similar to quoted as sy za 1 by jan best best translates the initial which is recurrent in line beginnings as i have given a mycenean fresco depicts two women extending their hands towards a central figure who is covered by an enormous figureeight shield this may depict the warriorgoddess with her palladium or her palladium in an aniconic representation in the procession fresco at knossos which was reconstructed by the mycenaeans two rows of figures carrying vessels seem to meet in front of a central figure which is probably the minoan precursor to athena the early twentiethcentury scholar martin persson nilsson argued that the minoan snake goddess figurines are early representations of athena nilsson and others have claimed that in early times athena was either an owl herself or a bird goddess in general in the third book of the odyssey she takes the form of a seaeagle proponents of this view argue that she dropped her prophylactic owl mask before she lost her wings athena by the time she appears in art jane ellen harrison remarks has completely shed her animal form has reduced the shapes she once wore of snake and bird to attributes but occasionally in blackfigure vasepaintings she still appears with wings it is generally agreed that the cult of athena preserves some aspects of the protoindoeuropean transfunctional goddess the cult of athena may have also been influenced by those of near eastern warrior goddesses such as the east semitic ishtar and the ugaritic anat both of whom were often portrayed bearing arms classical scholar charles penglase notes that athena resembles inanna in her role as a terrifying warrior goddess and that both goddesses were closely linked with creation athenas birth from the head of zeus may be derived from the earlier sumerian myth of inannas descent into and return from the underworld plato notes that the citizens of sais in egypt worshipped a goddess known as neith whom he identifies with athena neith was the ancient egyptian goddess of war and hunting who was also associated with weaving her worship began during the egyptian predynastic period in greek mythology athena was reported to have visited mythological sites in north africa including libyas triton river and the phlegraean plain based on these similarities the sinologist martin bernal created the black athena hypothesis which claimed that neith was brought to greece from egypt along with an enormous number of features of civilization and culture in the third and second millennia the black athena hypothesis stirred up widespread controversy near the end of the twentieth century but it has now been widely rejected by modern scholars epithets and attributes athena was known as atrytone the unwearying parthenos virgin and promachos she who fights in front the epithet polias πολιάς of the city refers to athenas role as protectress of the city the epithet ergane εργάνη the industrious pointed her out as the patron of craftsmen and artisans burkert notes that the athenians sometimes simply called athena the goddess hē theós ἡ θεός certainly an ancient title after serving as the judge at the trial of orestes in which he was acquitted of having murdered his mother clytemnestra athena won the epithet areia αρεία some have described athena along with the goddesses hestia and artemis as being asexual this is mainly supported by the fact that in the homeric hymns 5 to aphrodite where aphrodite is described as having no power over the three goddesses athena was sometimes given the epithet hippia ἵππια of the horses equestrian referring to her invention of the bit bridle chariot and wagon the greek geographer pausanias mentions in his guide to greece that the temple of athena chalinitis the bridler in corinth was located near the tomb of medeas children other epithets include ageleia itonia and aethyia under which she was worshiped in megara the word aíthyia signifies a diver also some diving bird species possibly the shearwater and figuratively a ship so the name must reference athena teaching the art of shipbuilding or navigation in a temple at phrixa in elis reportedly built by clymenus she was known as cydonia κυδωνία pausanias wrote that at buporthmus there was a sanctuary of athena promachorma προμαχόρμα meaning protector of the anchorage the greek biographer plutarch ad 46120 refers to an instance during the construction of the propylaia of her being called athena hygieia ὑγίεια i e personified health after inspiring a physician to a successful course of treatment at athens there is the temple of athena phratria as patron of a phratry in the ancient agora of athens pallas athena athenas epithet pallas her most renowned one is derived either from meaning to brandish as a weapon or more likely from and related words meaning youth young woman on this topic walter burkert says she is the pallas of athens pallas athenaie just as hera of argos is here argeie in later times after the original meaning of the name had been forgotten the greeks invented myths to explain its origins such as those reported by the epicurean philosopher philodemus and the bibliotheca of pseudoapollodorus which claim that pallas was originally a separate entity whom athena had slain in combat in one version of the myth pallas was the daughter of the seagod triton she and athena were childhood friends but athena accidentally killed her during a friendly sparring match distraught over what she had done athena took the name pallas for herself as a sign of her grief in another version of the story pallas was a giant athena slew him during the gigantomachy and flayed off his skin to make her cloak which she wore as a victory trophy in an alternative variation of the same myth pallas was instead athenas father who attempted to assault his own daughter causing athena to kill him and take his skin as a trophy the palladium was a statue of athena that was said to have stood in her temple on the trojan acropolis athena was said to have carved the statue herself in the likeness of her dead friend pallas the statue had special talismanlike properties and it was thought that as long as it was in the city troy could never fall when the greeks captured troy cassandra the daughter of priam clung to the palladium for protection but ajax the lesser violently tore her away from it and dragged her over to the other captives athena was infuriated by this violation of her protection although agamemnon attempted to placate her anger with sacrifices athena sent a storm at cape kaphereos to destroy almost the entire greek fleet and scatter all of the surviving ships across the aegean glaukopis in homers epic works athenas most common epithet is which usually is translated as brighteyed or with gleaming eyes the word is a combination of meaning gleaming silvery and later bluishgreen or gray and eye face the word little owl is from the same root presumably according to some because of the birds own distinctive eyes athena was associated with the owl from very early on in archaic images she is frequently depicted with an owl perched on her hand through its association with athena the owl evolved into the national mascot of the athenians and eventually became a symbol of wisdom tritogeneia in the iliad 4514 the odyssey 3378 the homeric hymns and in hesiods theogony athena is also given the curious epithet tritogeneia τριτογένεια whose significance remains unclear it could mean various things including tritonborn perhaps indicating that the homonymous seadeity was her parent according to some early myths one myth relates the foster father relationship of this triton towards the halforphan athena whom he raised alongside his own daughter pallas kerényi suggests that tritogeneia did not mean that she came into the world on any particular river or lake but that she was born of the water itself for the name triton seems to be associated with water generally in ovids metamorphoses athena is occasionally referred to as tritonia another possible meaning may be tripleborn or thirdborn which may refer to a triad or to her status as the third daughter of zeus or the fact she was born from metis zeus and herself various legends list her as being the first child after artemis and apollo though other legends identify her as zeus first child several scholars have suggested a connection to the rigvedic god trita who was sometimes grouped in a body of three mythological poets michael janda has connected the myth of trita to the scene in the iliad in which the three brothers zeus poseidon and hades divide the world between them receiving the broad sky the sea and the underworld respectively janda further connects the myth of athena being born of the head i e the uppermost part of zeus understanding trito which perhaps originally meant the third as another word for the sky in jandas analysis of indoeuropean mythology this heavenly sphere is also associated with the mythological body of water surrounding the inhabited world cfr tritons mother amphitrite yet another possible meaning is mentioned in diogenes laertius biography of democritus that athena was called tritogeneia because three things on which all mortal life depends come from her cult and patronages panhellenic and athenian cult in her aspect of athena polias athena was venerated as the goddess of the city and the protectress of the citadel in athens the plynteria or feast of the bath was observed every year at the end of the month of thargelion the festival lasted for five days during this period the priestesses of athena or plyntrídes performed a cleansing ritual within the erechtheion a sanctuary devoted to athena and poseidon here athenas statue was undressed her clothes washed and body purified athena was worshipped at festivals such as chalceia as athena ergane the patroness of various crafts especially weaving she was also the patron of metalworkers and was believed to aid in the forging of armor and weapons during the late fifth century bc the role of goddess of philosophy became a major aspect of athenas cult as athena promachos she was believed to lead soldiers into battle athena represented the disciplined strategic side of war in contrast to her brother ares the patron of violence bloodlust and slaughterthe raw force of war athena was believed to only support those fighting for a just cause and was thought to view war primarily as a means to resolve conflict the greeks regarded athena with much higher esteem than ares athena was especially worshipped in this role during the festivals of the panathenaea and pamboeotia both of which prominently featured displays of athletic and military prowess as the patroness of heroes and warriors athena was believed to favor those who used cunning and intelligence rather than brute strength in her aspect as a warrior maiden athena was known as parthenos virgin because like her fellow goddesses artemis and hestia she was believed to remain perpetually a virgin athenas most famous temple the parthenon on the athenian acropolis takes its name from this title according to karl kerényi a scholar of greek mythology the name parthenos is not merely an observation of athenas virginity but also a recognition of her role as enforcer of rules of sexual modesty and ritual mystery even beyond recognition the athenians allotted the goddess value based on this pureness of virginity which they upheld as a rudiment of female behavior kerényis study and theory of athena explains her virginal epithet as a result of her relationship to her father zeus and a vital cohesive piece of her character throughout the ages this role is expressed in several stories about athena marinus of neapolis reports that when christians removed the statue of the goddess from the parthenon a beautiful woman appeared in a dream to proclus a devotee of athena and announced that the athenian lady wished to dwell with him athena was also credited with creating the pebblebased form of divination those pebbles were called thriai which was also the collective name of a group of nymphs with prophetic powers her halfbrother apollo however angered and spiteful at the practitioners of an art rival to his own complained to their father zeus about it with the pretext that many people took to casting pebbles but few actually were true prophets zeus sympathizing with apollos grievances discredited the pebble divination by rendering the pebbles useless apollos words became the basis of an ancient greek idiom regional cults athena was not only the patron goddess of athens but also other cities including argos sparta gortyn lindos and larisa the various cults of athena were all branches of her panhellenic cult and often proctored various initiation rites of grecian youth such as the passage into citizenship by young men or the passage of young women into marriage these cults were portals of a uniform socialization even beyond mainland greece athena was frequently equated with aphaea a local goddess of the island of aegina originally from crete and also associated with artemis and the nymph britomartis in arcadia she was assimilated with the ancient goddess alea and worshiped as athena alea sanctuaries dedicated to athena alea were located in the laconian towns of mantineia and tegea the temple of athena alea in tegea was an important religious center of ancient greece the geographer pausanias was informed that the temenos had been founded by aleus athena had a major temple on the spartan acropolis where she was venerated as poliouchos and khalkíoikos of the brazen house often latinized as chalcioecus this epithet may refer to the fact that cult statue held there may have been made of bronze that the walls of the temple itself may have been made of bronze or that athena was the patron of metalworkers bells made of terracotta and bronze were used in sparta as part of athenas cult an ionicstyle temple to athena polias was built at priene in the fourth century bc it was designed by pytheos of priene the same architect who designed the mausoleum at halicarnassus the temple was dedicated by alexander the great and an inscription from the temple declaring his dedication is now held in the british museum mythology birth she was the daughter of zeus produced without a mother and emerged fullgrown from his forehead there was an alternate story that zeus swallowed metis the goddess of counsel while she was pregnant with athena and when she was fully grown she emerged from zeus forehead being the favorite child of zeus she had great power in the classical olympian pantheon athena was regarded as the favorite child of zeus born fully armed from his forehead the story of her birth comes in several versions the earliest mention is in book v of the iliad when ares accuses zeus of being biased in favor of athena because autos egeinao literally you fathered her but probably intended as you gave birth to her she was essentially urban and civilized the antithesis in many respects of artemis goddess of the outdoors athena was probably a prehellenic goddess and was later taken over by the greeks in the version recounted by hesiod in his theogony zeus married the goddess metis who is described as the wisest among gods and mortal men and engaged in sexual intercourse with her after learning that metis was pregnant however he became afraid that the unborn offspring would try to overthrow him because gaia and ouranos had prophesied that metis would bear children wiser than their father in order to prevent this zeus tricked metis into letting him swallow her but it was too late because metis had already conceived a later account of the story from the bibliotheca of pseudoapollodorus written in the second century ad makes metis zeuss unwilling sexual partner rather than his wife according to this version of the story metis transformed into many different shapes in effort to escape zeus but zeus successfully raped her and swallowed her after swallowing metis zeus took six more wives in succession until he married his seventh and present wife hera then zeus experienced an enormous headache he was in such pain that he ordered someone either prometheus hephaestus hermes ares or palaemon depending on the sources examined to cleave his head open with the labrys the doubleheaded minoan axe athena leaped from zeuss head fully grown and armed the first homeric hymn to athena states in lines 916 that the gods were awestruck by athenas appearance and even helios the god of the sun stopped his chariot in the sky pindar in his seventh olympian ode states that she cried aloud with a mighty shout and that the sky and mother earth shuddered before her hesiod states that hera was so annoyed at zeus for having given birth to a child on his own that she conceived and bore hephaestus by herself but in imagines 2 27 trans fairbanks the thirdcentury ad greek rhetorician philostratus the elder writes that hera rejoices at athenas birth as though athena were her daughter also the secondcentury ad christian apologist justin martyr takes issue with those pagans who erect at springs images of kore whom he interprets as athena they said that athena was the daughter of zeus not from intercourse but when the god had in mind the making of a world through a word logos his first thought was athena according to a version of the story in a scholium on the iliad found nowhere else when zeus swallowed metis she was pregnant with athena by the cyclops brontes the etymologicum magnum instead deems athena the daughter of the daktyl itonos fragments attributed by the christian eusebius of caesarea to the semilegendary phoenician historian sanchuniathon which eusebius thought had been written before the trojan war make athena instead the daughter of cronus a king of byblos who visited the inhabitable world and bequeathed attica to athena lady of athens in homers iliad athena as a war goddess inspired and fought alongside the greek heroes her aid was synonymous with military prowess also in the iliad zeus the chief god specifically assigned the sphere of war to ares the god of war and athena athenas moral and military superiority to ares derived in part from the fact that she represented the intellectual and civilized side of war and the virtues of justice and skill whereas ares represented mere blood lust her superiority also derived in part from the vastly greater variety and importance of her functions and the patriotism of homers predecessors ares being of foreign origin in the iliad athena was the divine form of the heroic martial ideal she personified excellence in close combat victory and glory the qualities that led to victory were found on the aegis or breastplate that athena wore when she went to war fear strife defense and assault athena appears in homers odyssey as the tutelary deity of odysseus and myths from later sources portray her similarly as the helper of perseus and heracles hercules as the guardian of the welfare of kings athena became the goddess of good counsel prudent restraint and practical insight and war in a founding myth reported by pseudoapollodorus athena competed with poseidon for the patronage of athens they agreed that each would give the athenians one gift and that cecrops the king of athens would determine which gift was better poseidon struck the ground with his trident and a salt water spring sprang up this gave the athenians access to trade and water athens at its height was a significant sea power defeating the persian fleet at the battle of salamisbut the water was salty and undrinkable in an alternative version of the myth from vergils georgics poseidon instead gave the athenians the first horse athena offered the first domesticated olive tree cecrops accepted this gift and declared athena the patron goddess of athens the olive tree brought wood oil and food and became a symbol of athenian economic prosperity robert graves was of the opinion that poseidons attempts to take possession of certain cities are political myths which reflect the conflict between matriarchal and patriarchal religions afterwards poseidon was so angry over his defeat that he sent one of his sons halirrhothius to cut down the tree but as he swung his axe he missed his aim and it fell in himself killing him this was supposedly the origin of calling athenas sacred olive tree moria for halirrhotiuss attempt at revenge proved fatal moros in greek poseidon in fury accused ares of murder and the matter was eventually settled on the areopagus hill of ares in favour of ares which was thereafter named after the event pseudoapollodorus records an archaic legend which claims that hephaestus once attempted to rape athena but she pushed him away causing him to ejaculate on her thigh athena wiped the semen off using a tuft of wool which she tossed into the dust impregnating gaia and causing her to give birth to erichthonius athena adopted erichthonius as her son and raised him the roman mythographer hyginus records a similar story in which hephaestus demanded zeus to let him marry athena since he was the one who had smashed open zeuss skull allowing athena to be born zeus agreed to this and hephaestus and athena were married but when hephaestus was about to consummate the union athena vanished from the bridal bed causing him to ejaculate on the floor thus impregnating gaia with erichthonius the geographer pausanias records that athena placed the infant erichthonius into a small chest cista which she entrusted to the care of the three daughters of cecrops herse pandrosos and aglauros of athens she warned the three sisters not to open the chest but did not explain to them why or what was in it aglauros and possibly one of the other sisters opened the chest differing reports say that they either found that the child itself was a serpent that it was guarded by a serpent that it was guarded by two serpents or that it had the legs of a serpent in pausaniass story the two sisters were driven mad by the sight of the chests contents and hurled themselves off the acropolis dying instantly but an attic vase painting shows them being chased by the serpent off the edge of the cliff instead erichthonius was one of the most important founding heroes of athens and the legend of the daughters of cecrops was a cult myth linked to the rituals of the arrhephoria festival pausanias records that during the arrhephoria two young girls known as the arrhephoroi who lived near the temple of athena polias would be given hidden objects by the priestess of athena which they would carry on their heads down a natural underground passage they would leave the objects they had been given at the bottom of the passage and take another set of hidden objects which they would carry on their heads back up to the temple the ritual was performed in the dead of night and no one not even the priestess knew what the objects were the serpent in the story may be the same one depicted coiled at athenas feet in pheidiass famous statue of the athena parthenos in the parthenon many of the surviving sculptures of athena show this serpent herodotus records that a serpent lived in a crevice on the north side of the summit of the athenian acropolis and that the athenians left a honey cake for it each month as an offering on the eve of the second persian invasion of greece in 480 bc the serpent did not eat the honey cake and the athenians interpreted it as a sign that athena herself had abandoned them another version of the myth of the athenian maidens is told in metamorphoses by the roman poet ovid 43 bc17 ad in this late variant hermes falls in love with herse herse aglaulus and pandrosus go to the temple to offer sacrifices to athena hermes demands help from aglaulus to seduce herse aglaulus demands money in exchange hermes gives her the money the sisters have already offered to athena as punishment for aglauluss greed athena asks the goddess envy to make aglaulus jealous of herse when hermes arrives to seduce herse aglaulus stands in his way instead of helping him as she had agreed he turns her to stone athena gave her favour to an attic girl named myrsine a chaste girl who outdid all her fellow athletes in both the palaestra and the race out of envy the other athletes murdered her but athena took pity in her and transformed her dead body into a myrtle a plant thereafter as favoured by her as the olive was an almost exact story was said about another girl elaea who transformed into an olive athenas sacred tree patron of heroes according to pseudoapollodoruss bibliotheca athena advised argos the builder of the argo the ship on which the hero jason and his band of argonauts sailed and aided in the ships construction pseudoapollodorus also records that athena guided the hero perseus in his quest to behead medusa she and hermes the god of travelers appeared to perseus after he set off on his quest and gifted him with tools he would need to kill the gorgon athena gave perseus a polished bronze shield to view medusas reflection rather than looking at her directly and thereby avoid being turned to stone hermes gave him an adamantine scythe to cut off medusas head when perseus swung his blade to behead medusa athena guided it allowing his scythe to cut it clean off according to pindars thirteenth olympian ode athena helped the hero bellerophon tame the winged horse pegasus by giving him a bit in ancient greek art athena is frequently shown aiding the hero heracles she appears in four of the twelve metopes on the temple of zeus at olympia depicting heracless twelve labors including the first in which she passively watches him slay the nemean lion and the tenth in which she is shown actively helping him hold up the sky she is presented as his stern ally but also the gentle acknowledger of his achievements artistic depictions of heracless apotheosis show athena driving him to mount olympus in her chariot and presenting him to zeus for his deification in aeschyluss tragedy orestes athena intervenes to save orestes from the wrath of the erinyes and presides over his trial for the murder of his mother clytemnestra when half the jury votes to acquit and the other half votes to convict athena casts the deciding vote to acquit orestes and declares that from then on whenever a jury is tied the defendant shall always be acquitted in the odyssey odysseus cunning and shrewd nature quickly wins athenas favour for the first part of the poem however she largely is confined to aiding him only from afar mainly by implanting thoughts in his head during his journey home from troy her guiding actions reinforce her role as the protectress of heroes or as mythologian walter friedrich otto dubbed her the goddess of nearness due to her mentoring and motherly probing it is not until he washes up on the shore of the island of the phaeacians where nausicaa is washing her clothes that athena arrives personally to provide more tangible assistance she appears in nausicaas dreams to ensure that the princess rescues odysseus and plays a role in his eventual escort to ithaca athena appears to odysseus upon his arrival disguised as a herdsman she initially lies and tells him that penelope his wife has remarried and that he is believed to be dead but odysseus lies back to her employing skillful prevarications to protect himself impressed by his resolve and shrewdness she reveals herself and tells him what he needs to know to win back his kingdom she disguises him as an elderly beggar so that he will not be recognized by the suitors or penelope and helps him to defeat the suitors athena also appears to odysseuss son telemachus her actions lead him to travel around to odysseuss comrades and ask about his father he hears stories about some of odysseuss journey athenas push for telemachuss journey helps him grow into the man role that his father once held she also plays a role in ending the resultant feud against the suitors relatives she instructs laertes to throw his spear and to kill eupeithes the father of antinous punishment myths the gorgoneion appears to have originated as an apotropaic symbol intended to ward off evil in a late myth invented to explain the origins of the gorgon medusa is described as having been a young priestess who served in the temple of athena in athens poseidon lusted after medusa and raped her in the temple of athena refusing to allow her vow of chastity to stand in his way upon discovering the desecration of her temple athena transformed medusa into a hideous monster with serpents for hair whose gaze would turn any mortal to stone in his twelfth pythian ode pindar recounts the story of how athena invented the aulos a kind of flute in imitation of the lamentations of medusas sisters the gorgons after she was beheaded by the hero perseus according to pindar athena gave the aulos to mortals as a gift later the comic playwright melanippides of melos 480430 bc embellished the story in his comedy marsyas claiming that athena looked in the mirror while she was playing the aulos and saw how blowing into it puffed up her cheeks and made her look silly so she threw the aulos away and cursed it so that whoever picked it up would meet an awful death the aulos was picked up by the satyr marsyas who was later killed by apollo for his hubris later this version of the story became accepted as canonical and the athenian sculptor myron created a group of bronze sculptures based on it which was installed before the western front of the parthenon in around 440 bc a myth told by the early thirdcentury bc hellenistic poet callimachus in his hymn 5 begins with athena bathing in a spring on mount helicon at midday with one of her favorite companions the nymph chariclo chariclos son tiresias happened to be hunting on the same mountain and came to the spring searching for water he inadvertently saw athena naked so she struck him blind to ensure he would never again see what man was not intended to see chariclo intervened on her sons behalf and begged athena to have mercy athena replied that she could not restore tiresiass eyesight so instead she gave him the ability to understand the language of the birds and thus foretell the future myrmex was a clever and chaste attic girl who became quickly a favourite of athena however when athena invented the plough myrmex went to the atticans and told them that it was in fact her own invention hurt by the girls betrayal athena transformed her into the small insect bearing her name the ant the fable of arachne appears in ovids metamorphoses 8 ad vi554 and 129145 which is nearly the only extant source for the legend the story does not appear to have been well known prior to ovids rendition of it and the only earlier reference to it is a brief allusion in virgils georgics 29 bc iv 246 that does not mention arachne by name according to ovid arachne whose name means spider in ancient greek was the daughter of a famous dyer in tyrian purple in hypaipa of lydia and a weaving student of athena she became so conceited of her skill as a weaver that she began claiming that her skill was greater than that of athena herself athena gave arachne a chance to redeem herself by assuming the form of an old woman and warning arachne not to offend the deities arachne scoffed and wished for a weaving contest so she could prove her skill athena wove the scene of her victory over poseidon in the contest for the patronage of athens athenas tapestry also depicted the 12 olympian gods and defeat of mythological figures who challenged their authority arachnes tapestry featured twentyone episodes of the deities infidelity including zeus being unfaithful with leda with europa and with danaë it represented the unjust and discrediting behavior of the gods towards mortals athena admitted that arachnes work was flawless but was outraged at arachnes offensive choice of subject which displayed the failings and transgressions of the deities finally losing her temper athena destroyed arachnes tapestry and loom striking it with her shuttle athena then struck arachne across the face with her staff four times arachne hanged herself in despair but athena took pity on her and brought her back from the dead in the form of a spider in a rarer version surviving in the scholia of an unnamed scholiast on nicander whose works heavily influenced ovid arachne is placed in attica instead and has a brother named phalanx athena taught arachne the art of weaving and phalanx the art of war but when brother and sister laid together in bed athena was so disgusted with them that she turned them both into spiders animals forever doomed to be eaten by their own young trojan war the myth of the judgement of paris is mentioned briefly in the iliad but is described in depth in an epitome of the cypria a lost poem of the epic cycle which records that all the gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of peleus and thetis the eventual parents of achilles only eris goddess of discord was not invited she was annoyed at this so she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word καλλίστῃ kallistēi for the fairest which she threw among the goddesses aphrodite hera and athena all claimed to be the fairest and thus the rightful owner of the apple the goddesses chose to place the matter before zeus who not wanting to favor one of the goddesses put the choice into the hands of paris a trojan prince after bathing in the spring of mount ida where troy was situated the goddesses appeared before paris for his decision in the extant ancient depictions of the judgement of paris aphrodite is only occasionally represented nude and athena and hera are always fully clothed since the renaissance however western paintings have typically portrayed all three goddesses as completely naked all three goddesses were ideally beautiful and paris could not decide between them so they resorted to bribes hera tried to bribe paris with power over all asia and europe and athena offered fame and glory in battle but aphrodite promised paris that if he were to choose her as the fairest she would let him marry the most beautiful woman on earth this woman was helen who was already married to king menelaus of sparta paris selected aphrodite and awarded her the apple the other two goddesses were enraged and as a direct result sided with the greeks in the trojan war in books vvi of the iliad athena aids the hero diomedes who in the absence of achilles proves himself to be the most effective greek warrior several artistic representations from the early sixth century bc may show athena and diomedes including an early sixthcentury bc shield band depicting athena and an unidentified warrior riding on a chariot a vase painting of a warrior with his charioteer facing athena and an inscribed clay plaque showing diomedes and athena riding in a chariot numerous passages in the iliad also mention athena having previously served as the patron of diomedess father tydeus when the trojan women go to the temple of athena on the acropolis to plead her for protection from diomedes athena ignores them athena also gets into a duel with ares the god of the brutal wars and her male counterpart ares blames her for encouraging diomedes to tear his beautiful flesh he curses her and strikes with all his strength athena deflects his blow with her aegis a powerful shield that even zeuss thunderbolt and lightning cannot blast through athena picked up a massive boulder and threw it at ares who immediately crumpled to the ground aphrodite who was a lover of ares came down from olympus to carry ares away but was struck by athenas golden spear and fell athena taunted the gods who supported troy saying that they will too eventually end up like ares and aphrodite which scared them therefore proving her power and reputation among the other gods in book xxii of the iliad while achilles is chasing hector around the walls of troy athena appears to hector disguised as his brother deiphobus and persuades him to hold his ground so that they can fight achilles together then hector throws his spear at achilles and misses expecting deiphobus to hand him another but athena disappears instead leaving hector to face achilles alone without his spear in sophocless tragedy ajax she punishes odysseuss rival ajax the great driving him insane and causing him to massacre the achaeans cattle thinking that he is slaughtering the achaeans themselves even after odysseus himself expresses pity for ajax athena declares to laugh at your enemies what sweeter laughter can there be than that lines 789 ajax later commits suicide as a result of his humiliation classical art athena appears frequently in classical greek art including on coins and in paintings on ceramics she is especially prominent in works produced in athens in classical depictions athena is usually portrayed standing upright wearing a fulllength chiton she is most often represented dressed in armor like a male soldier and wearing a corinthian helmet raised high atop her forehead her shield bears at its centre the aegis with the head of the gorgon gorgoneion in the center and snakes around the edge sometimes she is shown wearing the aegis as a cloak as athena promachos she is shown brandishing a spear scenes in which athena was represented include her birth from the head of zeus her battle with the gigantes the birth of erichthonius and the judgement of paris the mourning athena or athena meditating is a famous relief sculpture dating to around 470460 bc that has been interpreted to represent athena polias the most famous classical depiction of athena was the athena parthenos a nowlost gold and ivory statue of her in the parthenon created by the athenian sculptor phidias copies reveal that this statue depicted athena holding her shield in her left hand with nike the winged goddess of victory standing in her right athena polias is also represented in a neoattic relief now held in the virginia museum of fine arts which depicts her holding an owl in her hand and wearing her characteristic corinthian helmet while resting her shield against a nearby herma the roman goddess minerva adopted most of athenas greek iconographical associations but was also integrated into the capitoline triad postclassical culture art and symbolism early christian writers such as clement of alexandria and firmicus denigrated athena as representative of all the things that were detestable about paganism they condemned her as immodest and immoral during the middle ages however many attributes of athena were given to the virgin mary who in fourthcentury portrayals was often depicted wearing the gorgoneion some even viewed the virgin mary as a warrior maiden much like athena parthenos one anecdote tells that the virgin mary once appeared upon the walls of constantinople when it was under siege by the avars clutching a spear and urging the people to fight during the middle ages athena became widely used as a christian symbol and allegory and she appeared on the family crests of certain noble houses during the renaissance athena donned the mantle of patron of the arts and human endeavor allegorical paintings involving athena were a favorite of the italian renaissance painters in sandro botticellis painting pallas and the centaur probably painted sometime in the 1480s athena is the personification of chastity who is shown grasping the forelock of a centaur who represents lust andrea mantegnas 1502 painting minerva expelling the vices from the garden of virtue uses athena as the personification of graecoroman learning chasing the vices of medievalism from the garden of modern scholarship athena is also used as the personification of wisdom in bartholomeus sprangers 1591 painting the triumph of wisdom or minerva victorious over ignorance during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries athena was used as a symbol for female rulers in his book a revelation of the true minerva 1582 thomas blennerhassett portrays queen elizabeth i of england as a new minerva and the greatest goddesse nowe on earth a series of paintings by peter paul rubens depict athena as marie de medicis patron and mentor the final painting in the series goes even further and shows marie de medici with athenas iconography as the mortal incarnation of the goddess herself the flemish sculptor jeanpierreantoine tassaert jan peter anton tassaert later portrayed catherine ii of russia as athena in a marble bust in 1774 during the french revolution statues of pagan gods were torn down all throughout france but statues of athena were not instead athena was transformed into the personification of freedom and the republic and a statue of the goddess stood in the center of the place de la revolution in paris in the years following the revolution artistic representations of athena proliferated a statue of athena stands directly in front of the austrian parliament building in vienna and depictions of athena have influenced other symbols of western freedom including the statue of liberty and britannia for over a century a fullscale replica of the parthenon has stood in nashville tennessee in 1990 the curators added a gilded fortytwofoot 125 m tall replica of phidiass athena parthenos built from concrete and fiberglass the great seal of california bears the image of athena kneeling next to a brown grizzly bear athena has occasionally appeared on modern coins as she did on the ancient athenian drachma her head appears on the 50 1915s panamapacific commemorative coin modern interpretations one of sigmund freuds most treasured possessions was a small bronze sculpture of athena which sat on his desk freud once described athena as a woman who is unapproachable and repels all sexual desires since she displays the terrifying genitals of the mother feminist views on athena are sharply divided some feminists regard her as a symbol of female empowerment while others regard her as the ultimate patriarchal sell out who uses her powers to promote and advance men rather than others of her sex in contemporary wicca athena is venerated as an aspect of the goddess and some wiccans believe that she may bestow the owl gift the ability to write and communicate clearly upon her worshippers due to her status as one of the twelve olympians athena is a major deity in hellenismos a neopagan religion which seeks to authentically revive and recreate the religion of ancient greece in the modern world athena is a natural patron of universities at bryn mawr college in pennsylvania a statue of athena a replica of the original bronze one in the arts and archaeology library resides in the great hall it is traditional at exam time for students to leave offerings to the goddess with a note asking for good luck or to repent for accidentally breaking any of the colleges numerous other traditions pallas athena is the tutelary goddess of the international social fraternity phi delta theta her owl is also a symbol of the fraternity genealogy see also athenaeum disambiguation ambulia a spartan epithet used for athena zeus and castor and pollux notes references bibliography ancient sources apollodorus library 3180 augustine de civitate dei xviii89 cicero de natura deorum iii2153 2359 eusebius chronicon 302126 421114 homer the iliad with an english translation by at murray phd in two volumes cambridge massachusetts harvard university press london william heinemann ltd 1924 online version at the perseus digital library homer the odyssey with an english translation by at murray phd in two volumes cambridge massachusetts harvard university press london william heinemann ltd 1919 online version at the perseus digital library hesiod theogony in the homeric hymns and homerica with an english translation by hugh g evelynwhite cambridge massachusetts harvard university press london william heinemann ltd 1914 online version at the perseus digital library lactantius divinae institutions i171213 182223 livy ab urbe condita libri vii37 lucan bellum civile ix350 modern sources gantz timothy early greek myth a guide to literary and artistic sources johns hopkins university press 1996 two volumes vol 1 vol 2 harrison jane ellen 1903 prolegomena to the study of greek religion telenius seppo sakari 2005 2006 athenaartemis helsinki kirja kerrallaan external links athena on the perseus project athena from the theoi project athena from mythopedia the warburg institute iconographic database images of athena crafts goddesses greek war deities greek virgin goddesses justice goddesses peace goddesses smithing goddesses tutelary goddesses war goddesses wisdom goddesses women metalsmiths snake goddesses agricultural goddesses new religious movement deities children of zeus metamorphoses characters deeds of poseidon rape of persephone deities in the iliad attic mythology civic personifications women in greek mythology textiles in folklore characters in the odyssey women warriors women of the trojan war twelve olympians kourotrophoi arts goddesses shapeshifters in greek mythology odyssean gods | 8,502 |
1183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber%20Diceless%20Roleplaying%20Game | Amber Diceless Roleplaying Game | the amber diceless roleplaying game is a roleplaying game created and written by erick wujcik set in the fictional universe created by author roger zelazny for his chronicles of amber the game is unusual in that no dice are used in resolving conflicts or player actions instead a simple diceless system of comparative ability and narrative description of the action by the players and gamemaster is used to determine how situations are resolved amber drpg was created in the 1980s and is much more focused on relationships and roleplaying than most of the roleplaying games of that era most amber characters are members of the two ruling classes in the amber multiverse and are much more advanced in matters of strength endurance psyche warfare and sorcery than ordinary beings this often means that the only individuals who are capable of opposing a character are from his or her family a fact that leads to much suspicion and intrigue history erick wujcik wanted to design a roleplaying game based on amber for west end games and they agreed to look at his work wujcik intended to integrate the feel of the amber setting from the novels into a roleplaying game and playtested his system for a few months at the michigan gaming center where he decided to try it out as a diceless game west end games was not interested in a diceless roleplaying game so wujcik acquired the roleplaying game rights to amber and offered the game to r talsorian games until he withdrew over creative differences wujcik then founded phage press and published amber diceless roleplaying in 1991 the original 256page game book was published in 1991 by phage press covering material from the first five novels the corwin cycle and some details sorcery and the logrus from the remaining five novels the merlin cycle in order to allow players to roleplay characters from the courts of chaos some details were changed slightly to allow more player choice for example players can be full trump artists without having walked the pattern or the logrus which merlin says is impossible and players psychic abilities are far greater than those shown in the books a 256page companion volume shadow knight was published in 1993 this supplemental rule book includes the remaining elements from the merlin novels such as broken patterns and allows players to create constructs such as merlins ghostwheel the book presents the second series of novels not as additions to the series continuity but as an example of a roleplaying campaign with merlin luke julia jurt and coral as the pcs the remainder of the book is a collection of essays on the game statistics for the new characters and an update of the older ones in light of their appearance in the second series and perhaps most usefully for gms plot summaries of each of the ten books the book includes some material from the short story the salesmans tale and some unpublished material cut from prince of chaos notably corals pregnancy by merlin both books were translated into french and published by jeux descartes in 1994 and 1995 a third book rebma was promised cover art was commissioned and preorders were taken but it was never published wujcik also expressed a desire to create a book giving greater detail to the courts of chaos the publishing rights to the amber drpg games were acquired in 2004 by guardians of order who took over sales of the game and announced their intention to release a new edition of the game however no new edition was released before guardians of order went out of business in 2006 the two existing books are now outofprint but they have been made available as pdf downloads in june 2007 a new publishing company headed by edwin voskamp and eric todd was formed with the express purpose of bringing amber drpg back into print the new company is named diceless by design in may 2010 rite publishing secured a license from diceless by design to use the rules system with a new setting in the creation of a new product to be written by industry and system veteran jason durall the project lords of gossamer shadow diceless was funded via kickstarter in may 2013 in sept 2013 the project was completed and on in nov 2013 lords of gossamer and shadow diceless was released publicly in fullcolor print and pdf along with additional supplements and continued support setting the game is set in the multiverse described in zelaznys chronicles of amber the first book assumes that gamemasters will set their campaigns after the patternfall war that is after the end of the fifth book in the series the courts of chaos but uses material from the following books to describe those parts of zelaznys cosmology that were featured there in more detail the amber multiverse consists of amber a city at one pole of the universe wherein is found the pattern the symbol of order the courts of chaos an assembly of worlds at the other pole where can be found the logrus the manifestation of chaos and the abyss the source or end of all reality and shadow the collection of all possible universes shadows between and around them inhabitants of either pole can use one or both of the pattern and the logrus to travel through shadow it is assumed that players will portray the children of the main characters from the books the ruling family of amber known as the elder amberites or a resident of the courts however since some feel that being the children of the main characters is too limiting it is fairly common to either start with king oberons death before the book begins and roleplay the elder amberites as they vie for the throne or to populate amber from scratch with a different set of elder amberites the former option is one presented in the book the latter is known in the amber community as an amethyst game a third option is to have the players portray corwins children in an amberlike city built around corwins pattern this is sometimes called an argent game since one of corwins heraldic colours is silver system attributes characters in amber drpg are represented by four attributes psyche strength endurance and warfare psyche is used for feats of willpower or magic strength is used for feats of strength or unarmed combat endurance is used for feats of endurance warfare is used for armed combat from duelling to commanding armies the attributes run from 25 normal human level through 10 normal level for a denizen of the courts of chaos and 0 normal level for an inhabitant of amber upwards without limit scores above 0 are ranked with the highest score being ranked 1st the nexthighest 2nd and so on the character with 1st rank in each attribute is considered superior in that attribute being considered to be substantially better than the character with 2nd rank even if the difference in scores is small all else being equal a character with a higher rank in an attribute will always win a contest based on that attribute the attribute auction a characters ability scores are purchased during character creation in an auction players get 100 character points and bid on each attribute in turn the character who bids the most for an attribute is ranked first and is considered superior to all other characters in that attribute unlike conventional auctions bids are nonrefundable if one player bids 65 for psyche and another wins with a bid of 66 then the character with 66 is superior to the character with 65 even though there is only one bid difference instead lower bidding characters are ranked in ascending order according to how much they have bid the characters becoming progressively weaker in that attribute as they pay less for it after the auction players can secretly pay extra points to raise their ranks but they can only pay to raise their scores to an existing rank further a character with a bidfor rank is considered to have a slight advantage over character with a boughtup rank the auction simulates a history of competition between the descendants of oberon for player characters who have not had dozens of decades to get to know each other through the competitive auction characters may begin the game vying for standings the auction serves to introduce some unpredictability into character creation without the need to resort to dice cards or other randomizing devices a player may intend for example to create a character who is a strong mighty warrior but being outplayed in the auction may result in lower attribute scores than anticipated therefore necessitating a change of character concept since a player cannot control another players bids and since all bids are nonrefundable the auction involves a considerable amount of strategizing and prioritization by players a willingness to spend as many points as possible on an attribute may improve your chances of a high ranking but too reckless a spending strategy could leave a player with few points to spend on powers and objects in a hotly contested auction such as for the important attribute of warfare the most valuable skill is the ability to force ones opponents to back down with two or more equally determined players this can result in a bidding war in which the attribute is driven up by increments to large sums an alternative strategy is to try to cow other players into submission with a high opening bid most players bid low amounts between one and ten points in an initial bid in order to feel out the competition and to save points for other uses a high enough opening bid could signal a players determination to be first ranked in that attribute thereby dissuading others from competing psyche in amber drpg compared to the chronicles characters with high psyche are presented as having strong telepathic abilities being able to hypnotise and even mentally dominate any character with lesser psyche with whom they can make eyecontact this is likely due to three scenes in the chronicles first when eric paralyzes corwin with an attack across the trump and refuses to desist because one or the other would be dominated second when corwin faces the demon strygalldwir it is able to wrestle mentally with him when their gazes meet and third when fiona is able to keep brand immobile in the final battle at the courts of chaos however in general the books only feature mental battles when there is some reason for mindtomind contact for example trump contact and magic or trump is involved in all three of the above conflicts so it is not clear whether zelazny intended his characters to have such a power the combination of brands living trump powers and his high psyche as presented in the roleplaying game would have guaranteed him victory over corwin shadow knight does address this inconsistency somewhat by presenting the living trump abilities as somewhat limited powers characters in amber drpg have access to the powers seen in the chronicles of amber pattern logrus shapeshifting trump and magic pattern a character who has walked the pattern can walk in shadow to any possible universe and while there can manipulate probability logrus a character who has mastered the logrus can send out logrus tendrils and pull themselves or objects through shadow shapeshifting shapeshifters can alter their physical form and abilities trump trump artists can create trumps a sort of tarot card which allows mental communication and travel the book features trump portraits of each of the elder amberites the trump picture of corwin is executed in a subtly different style and has features very similar to roger zelaznys magic three types of magic are detailed power words with a quick small effect sorcery with preprepared spells as in many other game systems and conjuration the creation of small objects each of the first four powers is available in an advanced form artifacts personal shadows and constructs while a character with pattern logrus or conjuration can acquire virtually any object players can choose to spend character points to obtain objects with particular virtues unbreakability or a mind of their own since they have paid points for the items they are a part of the characters legend and cannot lightly be destroyed similarly a character can find any possible universe but they can spend character points to know of or inhabit shadows which are in some sense real and therefore useful the expansion shadow knight adds constructs artifacts with connections to shadows stuff unspent character points become good stuff a good luck for the character players are also allowed to overspend in moderation with the points becoming bad stuff bad luck which the gamemaster should inflict on the character stuff governs how nonplayer characters perceive and respond to the character characters with good stuff will often receive friendly or helpful reactions while characters with bad stuff are often treated with suspicion or hostility as well as representing luck stuff can be seen as representing a characters outlook on the universe characters with good stuff seeing the multiverse as a cheerful place while characters with bad stuff see it as hostile conflict resolution in any given fair conflict between two characters the character with the higher score in the relevant attribute will eventually win the key words here are fair and eventually if characters ranks are close and the weaker character has obtained some advantage then the weaker character can escape defeat or perhaps prevail close ranks result in longer contests while greater difference between ranks result in fast resolution alternatively if characters attribute ranks are close the weaker character can try to change the relevant attribute by changing the nature of the conflict for example if two characters are wrestling the relevant attribute is strength a character could reveal a weapon changing it to warfare they could try to overcome the other characters mind using a power changing it to psyche or they could concentrate their strength on defense changing it to endurance if there is a substantial difference between characters ranks the conflict is generally over before the weaker character can react the golden rule amber drpg advises gamemasters to change rules as they see fit even to the point of adding or removing powers or attributes reception in the june 1992 edition of dragon issue 182 both lester smith and allen varney published reviews of this game smith admired the professional production qualities of the 256page rulebook noting that because it was smyth sewn in 32page signatures the book would always lie flat when opened however he found the typeface difficult to read and the lack a coherent hierarchy of rules increased the reading difficulty as well smith admired the attribute auction and pointbuy system for skills and the focus on roleplaying in place of dicerolling but he mused that all of the roleplaying would mean gms have to spend quite a bit of time and creative effort coming up with widereaching plots for their players to work through canned linear adventures just wont serve he concluded by stating that the diceless system is not for every gamer as impressed as i am with the game do i think it is the endall of roleplaying games or that diceless systems are the wave of the future ill give a firm no on both counts however i certainly do think that the amber diceless roleplaying game is destined for great popularity and a niche among the most respected of roleplaying game designs allen varney thought the attribute auction to be brilliant and elegant but he wondered if character advancement was perhaps too slow to keep marginal players interested he also believed that being a gamemaster would be tough work proceed with caution varney recommended that players need some familiarity with the first five amber novels by zelazny he concluded the intensity of the amber game indicates game designer erik wujcik is on to something when success in every action depends on the role and not the roll players develop a sense of both control and urgency along with creativity that borders on mania in issue 65 of challenge dirk dejong had a good first impression of the game especially the information provided about the amber family members and their various flaws and strengths however he found that the biggest problem with this endeavor and its downfall is the nature of the conflict systems first they are diceless really diceless and dont involve any sort of random factors at all aside from those that you can introduce by roleplaying them out thus if you get involved with a character whos better than you at swordfighting even if only by one point out of 100 youre pretty much dead meat unless you can act your way out dejong also disagreed with the suggestion that if the referee and players disagreed with a rule to simply remove it from the game i thought the entire idea of using rules and random results was to prevent the type of arguments that i can see arising from this setup dejong concluded on an ambivalent note saying if you love zelazny and the amber series jump on it as this is the premier sourcebook for running an amber campaign personally i just cant get turned on by a system that expects me to either be content with a simple subtraction of numbers to find out who won or to describe an entire combat blow by blow just so that i can attempt some trick to win loyd blankenship reviewed amber in pyramid 2 julyaug 1993 and stated that amber is a valuable resource to a gm even if he isnt running an amber game for gamers who have an aspiring actor or actress lurking within their breast or for someone running a campaign via electronic mail or message base amber should be given serious consideration community despite the games outofprint status a thriving convention scene exists supporting the game amber conventions known as ambercons are held yearly in massachusetts michigan portland united states milton keynes england belfast northern ireland and modena italy additionally phage press published 12 volumes of a dedicated amber drpg magazine called amberzine some amberzine issues are still available from phage press references review external links the official amber drpg and erick wujcik forum the official amber drpg and erick wujcik forum this site is no longer live the chronicles of amber fantasy roleplaying games roleplaying games based on novels american roleplaying games roleplaying games introduced in 1991 roleplaying game systems | 3,115 |
1184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athene%20%28disambiguation%29 | Athene (disambiguation) | athene or athena is the shrewd companion of heroes and the goddess of heroic endeavour in greek mythology athene may also refer to 881 athene a mainbelt asteroid athene bird a genus of small owls athene cynuria a town in ancient cynuria greece athene glacier a glacier in antarctica hms athene an aircraft transport uss athene aka22 an artemisclass attack cargo ship bachir boumaaza or athene born 1980 belgian youtube personality and social activist athene research center stylized as athene an it security research institute in darmstadt germany athene an insurance company acquired by apollo global management people with the given name athene seyler 18891990 english actress athene donald born 1953 british physicist see also altena disambiguation atena disambiguation athen disambiguation athena disambiguation athens disambiguation | 125 |
1187 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy | Alloy | an alloy is a mixture of chemical elements of which at least one is a metal unlike chemical compounds with metallic bases an alloy will retain all the properties of a metal in the resulting material such as electrical conductivity ductility opacity and luster but may have properties that differ from those of the pure metals such as increased strength or hardness in some cases an alloy may reduce the overall cost of the material while preserving important properties in other cases the mixture imparts synergistic properties to the constituent metal elements such as corrosion resistance or mechanical strength in an alloy the atoms are joined by metallic bonding rather than by covalent bonds typically found in chemical compounds the alloy constituents are usually measured by mass percentage for practical applications and in atomic fraction for basic science studies alloys are usually classified as substitutional or interstitial alloys depending on the atomic arrangement that forms the alloy they can be further classified as homogeneous consisting of a single phase or heterogeneous consisting of two or more phases or intermetallic an alloy may be a solid solution of metal elements a single phase where all metallic grains crystals are of the same composition or a mixture of metallic phases two or more solutions forming a microstructure of different crystals within the metal examples of alloys include red gold gold and copper white gold gold and silver sterling silver silver and copper steel or silicon steel iron with nonmetallic carbon or silicon respectively solder brass pewter duralumin bronze and amalgams alloys are used in a wide variety of applications from the steel alloys used in everything from buildings to automobiles to surgical tools to exotic titanium alloys used in the aerospace industry to berylliumcopper alloys for nonsparking tools characteristics an alloy is a mixture of chemical elements which forms an impure substance admixture that retains the characteristics of a metal an alloy is distinct from an impure metal in that with an alloy the added elements are well controlled to produce desirable properties while impure metals such as wrought iron are less controlled but are often considered useful alloys are made by mixing two or more elements at least one of which is a metal this is usually called the primary metal or the base metal and the name of this metal may also be the name of the alloy the other constituents may or may not be metals but when mixed with the molten base they will be soluble and dissolve into the mixture the mechanical properties of alloys will often be quite different from those of its individual constituents a metal that is normally very soft malleable such as aluminium can be altered by alloying it with another soft metal such as copper although both metals are very soft and ductile the resulting aluminium alloy will have much greater strength adding a small amount of nonmetallic carbon to iron trades its great ductility for the greater strength of an alloy called steel due to its veryhigh strength but still substantial toughness and its ability to be greatly altered by heat treatment steel is one of the most useful and common alloys in modern use by adding chromium to steel its resistance to corrosion can be enhanced creating stainless steel while adding silicon will alter its electrical characteristics producing silicon steel like oil and water a molten metal may not always mix with another element for example pure iron is almost completely insoluble with copper even when the constituents are soluble each will usually have a saturation point beyond which no more of the constituent can be added iron for example can hold a maximum of 667 carbon although the elements of an alloy usually must be soluble in the liquid state they may not always be soluble in the solid state if the metals remain soluble when solid the alloy forms a solid solution becoming a homogeneous structure consisting of identical crystals called a phase if as the mixture cools the constituents become insoluble they may separate to form two or more different types of crystals creating a heterogeneous microstructure of different phases some with more of one constituent than the other however in other alloys the insoluble elements may not separate until after crystallization occurs if cooled very quickly they first crystallize as a homogeneous phase but they are supersaturated with the secondary constituents as time passes the atoms of these supersaturated alloys can separate from the crystal lattice becoming more stable and forming a second phase that serves to reinforce the crystals internally some alloys such as electruman alloy of silver and goldoccur naturally meteorites are sometimes made of naturally occurring alloys of iron and nickel but are not native to the earth one of the first alloys made by humans was bronze which is a mixture of the metals tin and copper bronze was an extremely useful alloy to the ancients because it is much stronger and harder than either of its components steel was another common alloy however in ancient times it could only be created as an accidental byproduct from the heating of iron ore in fires smelting during the manufacture of iron other ancient alloys include pewter brass and pig iron in the modern age steel can be created in many forms carbon steel can be made by varying only the carbon content producing soft alloys like mild steel or hard alloys like spring steel alloy steels can be made by adding other elements such as chromium molybdenum vanadium or nickel resulting in alloys such as highspeed steel or tool steel small amounts of manganese are usually alloyed with most modern steels because of its ability to remove unwanted impurities like phosphorus sulfur and oxygen which can have detrimental effects on the alloy however most alloys were not created until the 1900s such as various aluminium titanium nickel and magnesium alloys some modern superalloys such as incoloy inconel and hastelloy may consist of a multitude of different elements an alloy is technically an impure metal but when referring to alloys the term impurities usually denotes undesirable elements such impurities are introduced from the base metals and alloying elements but are removed during processing for instance sulfur is a common impurity in steel sulfur combines readily with iron to form iron sulfide which is very brittle creating weak spots in the steel lithium sodium and calcium are common impurities in aluminium alloys which can have adverse effects on the structural integrity of castings conversely otherwise puremetals that contain unwanted impurities are often called impure metals and are not usually referred to as alloys oxygen present in the air readily combines with most metals to form metal oxides especially at higher temperatures encountered during alloying great care is often taken during the alloying process to remove excess impurities using fluxes chemical additives or other methods of extractive metallurgy theory alloying a metal is done by combining it with one or more other elements the most common and oldest alloying process is performed by heating the base metal beyond its melting point and then dissolving the solutes into the molten liquid which may be possible even if the melting point of the solute is far greater than that of the base for example in its liquid state titanium is a very strong solvent capable of dissolving most metals and elements in addition it readily absorbs gases like oxygen and burns in the presence of nitrogen this increases the chance of contamination from any contacting surface and so must be melted in vacuum inductionheating and special watercooled copper crucibles however some metals and solutes such as iron and carbon have very high meltingpoints and were impossible for ancient people to melt thus alloying in particular interstitial alloying may also be performed with one or more constituents in a gaseous state such as found in a blast furnace to make pig iron liquidgas nitriding carbonitriding or other forms of case hardening solidgas or the cementation process used to make blister steel solidgas it may also be done with one more or all of the constituents in the solid state such as found in ancient methods of pattern welding solidsolid shear steel solidsolid or crucible steel production solidliquid mixing the elements via solidstate diffusion by adding another element to a metal differences in the size of the atoms create internal stresses in the lattice of the metallic crystals stresses that often enhance its properties for example the combination of carbon with iron produces steel which is stronger than iron its primary element the electrical and thermal conductivity of alloys is usually lower than that of the pure metals the physical properties such as density reactivity youngs modulus of an alloy may not differ greatly from those of its base element but engineering properties such as tensile strength ductility and shear strength may be substantially different from those of the constituent materials this is sometimes a result of the sizes of the atoms in the alloy because larger atoms exert a compressive force on neighboring atoms and smaller atoms exert a tensile force on their neighbors helping the alloy resist deformation sometimes alloys may exhibit marked differences in behavior even when small amounts of one element are present for example impurities in semiconducting ferromagnetic alloys lead to different properties as first predicted by white hogan suhl tian abrie and nakamura unlike pure metals most alloys do not have a single melting point but a melting range during which the material is a mixture of solid and liquid phases a slush the temperature at which melting begins is called the solidus and the temperature when melting is just complete is called the liquidus for many alloys there is a particular alloy proportion in some cases more than one called either a eutectic mixture or a peritectic composition which gives the alloy a unique and low melting point and no liquidsolid slush transition heat treatment alloying elements are added to a base metal to induce hardness toughness ductility or other desired properties most metals and alloys can be work hardened by creating defects in their crystal structure these defects are created during plastic deformation by hammering bending extruding et cetera and are permanent unless the metal is recrystallized otherwise some alloys can also have their properties altered by heat treatment nearly all metals can be softened by annealing which recrystallizes the alloy and repairs the defects but not as many can be hardened by controlled heating and cooling many alloys of aluminium copper magnesium titanium and nickel can be strengthened to some degree by some method of heat treatment but few respond to this to the same degree as does steel the base metal iron of the ironcarbon alloy known as steel undergoes a change in the arrangement allotropy of the atoms of its crystal matrix at a certain temperature usually between and depending on carbon content this allows the smaller carbon atoms to enter the interstices of the iron crystal when this diffusion happens the carbon atoms are said to be in solution in the iron forming a particular single homogeneous crystalline phase called austenite if the steel is cooled slowly the carbon can diffuse out of the iron and it will gradually revert to its low temperature allotrope during slow cooling the carbon atoms will no longer be as soluble with the iron and will be forced to precipitate out of solution nucleating into a more concentrated form of iron carbide fe3c in the spaces between the pure iron crystals the steel then becomes heterogeneous as it is formed of two phases the ironcarbon phase called cementite or carbide and pure iron ferrite such a heat treatment produces a steel that is rather soft if the steel is cooled quickly however the carbon atoms will not have time to diffuse and precipitate out as carbide but will be trapped within the iron crystals when rapidly cooled a diffusionless martensite transformation occurs in which the carbon atoms become trapped in solution this causes the iron crystals to deform as the crystal structure tries to change to its low temperature state leaving those crystals very hard but much less ductile more brittle while the high strength of steel results when diffusion and precipitation is prevented forming martensite most heattreatable alloys are precipitation hardening alloys that depend on the diffusion of alloying elements to achieve their strength when heated to form a solution and then cooled quickly these alloys become much softer than normal during the diffusionless transformation but then harden as they age the solutes in these alloys will precipitate over time forming intermetallic phases which are difficult to discern from the base metal unlike steel in which the solid solution separates into different crystal phases carbide and ferrite precipitation hardening alloys form different phases within the same crystal these intermetallic alloys appear homogeneous in crystal structure but tend to behave heterogeneously becoming hard and somewhat brittle in 1906 precipitation hardening alloys were discovered by alfred wilm precipitation hardening alloys such as certain alloys of aluminium titanium and copper are heattreatable alloys that soften when quenched cooled quickly and then harden over time wilm had been searching for a way to harden aluminium alloys for use in machinegun cartridge cases knowing that aluminiumcopper alloys were heattreatable to some degree wilm tried quenching a ternary alloy of aluminium copper and the addition of magnesium but was initially disappointed with the results however when wilm retested it the next day he discovered that the alloy increased in hardness when left to age at room temperature and far exceeded his expectations although an explanation for the phenomenon was not provided until 1919 duralumin was one of the first age hardening alloys used becoming the primary building material for the first zeppelins and was soon followed by many others because they often exhibit a combination of high strength and low weight these alloys became widely used in many forms of industry including the construction of modern aircraft mechanisms when a molten metal is mixed with another substance there are two mechanisms that can cause an alloy to form called atom exchange and the interstitial mechanism the relative size of each element in the mix plays a primary role in determining which mechanism will occur when the atoms are relatively similar in size the atom exchange method usually happens where some of the atoms composing the metallic crystals are substituted with atoms of the other constituent this is called a substitutional alloy examples of substitutional alloys include bronze and brass in which some of the copper atoms are substituted with either tin or zinc atoms respectively in the case of the interstitial mechanism one atom is usually much smaller than the other and can not successfully substitute for the other type of atom in the crystals of the base metal instead the smaller atoms become trapped in the interstitial sites between the atoms of the crystal matrix this is referred to as an interstitial alloy steel is an example of an interstitial alloy because the very small carbon atoms fit into interstices of the iron matrix stainless steel is an example of a combination of interstitial and substitutional alloys because the carbon atoms fit into the interstices but some of the iron atoms are substituted by nickel and chromium atoms history and examples meteoric iron the use of alloys by humans started with the use of meteoric iron a naturally occurring alloy of nickel and iron it is the main constituent of iron meteorites as no metallurgic processes were used to separate iron from nickel the alloy was used as it was meteoric iron could be forged from a red heat to make objects such as tools weapons and nails in many cultures it was shaped by cold hammering into knives and arrowheads they were often used as anvils meteoric iron was very rare and valuable and difficult for ancient people to work bronze and brass iron is usually found as iron ore on earth except for one deposit of native iron in greenland which was used by the inuit native copper however was found worldwide along with silver gold and platinum which were also used to make tools jewelry and other objects since neolithic times copper was the hardest of these metals and the most widely distributed it became one of the most important metals to the ancients around 10000 years ago in the highlands of anatolia turkey humans learned to smelt metals such as copper and tin from ore around 2500 bc people began alloying the two metals to form bronze which was much harder than its ingredients tin was rare however being found mostly in great britain in the middle east people began alloying copper with zinc to form brass ancient civilizations took into account the mixture and the various properties it produced such as hardness toughness and melting point under various conditions of temperature and work hardening developing much of the information contained in modern alloy phase diagrams for example arrowheads from the chinese qin dynasty around 200 bc were often constructed with a hard bronzehead but a softer bronzetang combining the alloys to prevent both dulling and breaking during use amalgams mercury has been smelted from cinnabar for thousands of years mercury dissolves many metals such as gold silver and tin to form amalgams an alloy in a soft paste or liquid form at ambient temperature amalgams have been used since 200 bc in china for gilding objects such as armor and mirrors with precious metals the ancient romans often used mercurytin amalgams for gilding their armor the amalgam was applied as a paste and then heated until the mercury vaporized leaving the gold silver or tin behind mercury was often used in mining to extract precious metals like gold and silver from their ores precious metals many ancient civilizations alloyed metals for purely aesthetic purposes in ancient egypt and mycenae gold was often alloyed with copper to produce redgold or iron to produce a bright burgundygold gold was often found alloyed with silver or other metals to produce various types of colored gold these metals were also used to strengthen each other for more practical purposes copper was often added to silver to make sterling silver increasing its strength for use in dishes silverware and other practical items quite often precious metals were alloyed with less valuable substances as a means to deceive buyers around 250 bc archimedes was commissioned by the king of syracuse to find a way to check the purity of the gold in a crown leading to the famous bathhouse shouting of eureka upon the discovery of archimedes principle pewter the term pewter covers a variety of alloys consisting primarily of tin as a pure metal tin is much too soft to use for most practical purposes however during the bronze age tin was a rare metal in many parts of europe and the mediterranean so it was often valued higher than gold to make jewellery cutlery or other objects from tin workers usually alloyed it with other metals to increase strength and hardness these metals were typically lead antimony bismuth or copper these solutes were sometimes added individually in varying amounts or added together making a wide variety of objects ranging from practical items such as dishes surgical tools candlesticks or funnels to decorative items like ear rings and hair clips the earliest examples of pewter come from ancient egypt around 1450 bc the use of pewter was widespread across europe from france to norway and britain where most of the ancient tin was mined to the near east the alloy was also used in china and the far east arriving in japan around 800 ad where it was used for making objects like ceremonial vessels tea canisters or chalices used in shinto shrines iron the first known smelting of iron began in anatolia around 1800 bc called the bloomery process it produced very soft but ductile wrought iron by 800 bc ironmaking technology had spread to europe arriving in japan around 700 ad pig iron a very hard but brittle alloy of iron and carbon was being produced in china as early as 1200 bc but did not arrive in europe until the middle ages pig iron has a lower melting point than iron and was used for making castiron however these metals found little practical use until the introduction of crucible steel around 300 bc these steels were of poor quality and the introduction of pattern welding around the 1st century ad sought to balance the extreme properties of the alloys by laminating them to create a tougher metal around 700 ad the japanese began folding bloomerysteel and castiron in alternating layers to increase the strength of their swords using clay fluxes to remove slag and impurities this method of japanese swordsmithing produced one of the purest steelalloys of the ancient world while the use of iron started to become more widespread around 1200 bc mainly because of interruptions in the trade routes for tin the metal was much softer than bronze however very small amounts of steel an alloy of iron and around 1 carbon was always a byproduct of the bloomery process the ability to modify the hardness of steel by heat treatment had been known since 1100 bc and the rare material was valued for the manufacture of tools and weapons because the ancients could not produce temperatures high enough to melt iron fully the production of steel in decent quantities did not occur until the introduction of blister steel during the middle ages this method introduced carbon by heating wrought iron in charcoal for long periods of time but the absorption of carbon in this manner is extremely slow thus the penetration was not very deep so the alloy was not homogeneous in 1740 benjamin huntsman began melting blister steel in a crucible to even out the carbon content creating the first process for the mass production of tool steel huntsmans process was used for manufacturing tool steel until the early 1900s the introduction of the blast furnace to europe in the middle ages meant that people could produce pig iron in much higher volumes than wrought iron because pig iron could be melted people began to develop processes to reduce carbon in liquid pig iron to create steel puddling had been used in china since the first century and was introduced in europe during the 1700s where molten pig iron was stirred while exposed to the air to remove the carbon by oxidation in 1858 henry bessemer developed a process of steelmaking by blowing hot air through liquid pig iron to reduce the carbon content the bessemer process led to the first large scale manufacture of steel steel is an alloy of iron and carbon but the term alloy steel usually only refers to steels that contain other elements like vanadium molybdenum or cobaltin amounts sufficient to alter the properties of the base steel since ancient times when steel was used primarily for tools and weapons the methods of producing and working the metal were often closely guarded secrets even long after the age of reason the steel industry was very competitive and manufacturers went through great lengths to keep their processes confidential resisting any attempts to scientifically analyze the material for fear it would reveal their methods for example the people of sheffield a center of steel production in england were known to routinely bar visitors and tourists from entering town to deter industrial espionage thus almost no metallurgical information existed about steel until 1860 because of this lack of understanding steel was not generally considered an alloy until the decades between 1930 and 1970 primarily due to the work of scientists like william chandler robertsausten adolf martens and edgar bain so alloy steel became the popular term for ternary and quaternary steelalloys after benjamin huntsman developed his crucible steel in 1740 he began experimenting with the addition of elements like manganese in the form of a highmanganese pigiron called spiegeleisen which helped remove impurities such as phosphorus and oxygen a process adopted by bessemer and still used in modern steels albeit in concentrations low enough to still be considered carbon steel afterward many people began experimenting with various alloys of steel without much success however in 1882 robert hadfield being a pioneer in steel metallurgy took an interest and produced a steel alloy containing around 12 manganese called mangalloy it exhibited extreme hardness and toughness becoming the first commercially viable alloysteel afterward he created silicon steel launching the search for other possible alloys of steel robert forester mushet found that by adding tungsten to steel it could produce a very hard edge that would resist losing its hardness at high temperatures r mushets special steel rms became the first highspeed steel mushets steel was quickly replaced by tungsten carbide steel developed by taylor and white in 1900 in which they doubled the tungsten content and added small amounts of chromium and vanadium producing a superior steel for use in lathes and machining tools in 1903 the wright brothers used a chromiumnickel steel to make the crankshaft for their airplane engine while in 1908 henry ford began using vanadium steels for parts like crankshafts and valves in his model t ford due to their higher strength and resistance to high temperatures in 1912 the krupp ironworks in germany developed a rustresistant steel by adding 21 chromium and 7 nickel producing the first stainless steel others due to their high reactivity most metals were not discovered until the 19th century a method for extracting aluminium from bauxite was proposed by humphry davy in 1807 using an electric arc although his attempts were unsuccessful by 1855 the first sales of pure aluminium reached the market however as extractive metallurgy was still in its infancy most aluminium extractionprocesses produced unintended alloys contaminated with other elements found in the ore the most abundant of which was copper these aluminiumcopper alloys at the time termed aluminum bronze preceded pure aluminium offering greater strength and hardness over the soft pure metal and to a slight degree were found to be heat treatable however due to their softness and limited hardenability these alloys found little practical use and were more of a novelty until the wright brothers used an aluminium alloy to construct the first airplane engine in 1903 during the time between 1865 and 1910 processes for extracting many other metals were discovered such as chromium vanadium tungsten iridium cobalt and molybdenum and various alloys were developed prior to 1910 research mainly consisted of private individuals tinkering in their own laboratories however as the aircraft and automotive industries began growing research into alloys became an industrial effort in the years following 1910 as new magnesium alloys were developed for pistons and wheels in cars and pot metal for levers and knobs and aluminium alloys developed for airframes and aircraft skins were put into use see also alloy broadening calphad ideal mixture list of alloys references bibliography external links metallurgy chemistry | 4,525 |
1192 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artistic%20revolution | Artistic revolution | throughout history forms of art have gone through periodic abrupt changes called artistic revolutions movements have come to an end to be replaced by a new movement markedly different in striking ways scientific and technological 1 not all artistic revolutions were political sometimes science and technological innovations have brought about unforeseen transformations in the works of artists the stylistic revolution known as impressionism by painters eager to more accurately capture the changing colors of light and shadow is inseparable from discoveries and inventions in the mid19th century in which the style was born michel eugène chevreul a french chemist hired as director of dyes at a french tapestry works began to investigate the optical nature of color in order to improve color in fabrics chevreul realized it was the eye and not the dye that had the greatest influence on color and from this he revolutionized color theory by grasping what came to be called the law of simultaneous contrast that colors mutually influence one another when juxtaposed each imposing its own complementary color on the other the french painter eugène delacroix who had been experimenting with what he called broken tones embraced chevreuls book the law of contrast of color 1839 with its explanations of how juxtaposed colors can enhance or diminish each other and his exploration of all the visible colors of the spectrum inspired by chevreuls 1839 treatise delacroix passed his enthusiasm on to the young artists who were inspired by him it was chevreul who led the impressionists to grasp that they should apply separate brushstrokes of pure color to a canvas and allow the viewers eye to combine them optically they were aided greatly in this by innovations in oil paint itself since the renaissance painters had to grind pigment add oil and thus create their own paints these timeconsuming paints also quickly dried out making studio painting a necessity for large works and limiting painters to mix one or two colors at a time and fill in an entire area using just that one color before it dried out in 1841 a littleknown american painter named john g rand invented a simple improvement without which the impressionist movement could not have occurred the small flexible tin tube with removable cap in which oil paints could be stored oil paints kept in such tubes stayed moist usable and portable for the first time since the renaissance painters were not trapped by the time frame of how quickly oil paint dried paints in tubes could be easily loaded up and carried out into the real world to directly observe the play of color and natural light in shadow and movement to paint in the moment selling the oil paint in tubes also brought about the arrival of dazzling new pigments chrome yellow cadmium blue invented by 19th century industrial chemists the tubes freed the impressionists to paint quickly and across an entire canvas rather than carefully delineated singlecolor sections at a time in short to sketch directly in oil racing across the canvas in every color that came to hand and thus inspiring their name of impressionists since such speedy bold brushwork and dabs of separate colors made contemporary critics think their paintings were mere impressions not finished paintings which were to have no visible brush marks at all seamless under layers of varnish pierreauguste renoir said without colors in tubes there would be no cézanne no monet no pissarro and no impressionism finally the careful hyperrealistic techniques of french neoclassicism were seen as stiff and lifeless when compared to the remarkable new vision of the world as seen through the new invention of photography by the mid1850s it was not merely that the increasing ability of this new invention particularly by the french inventor daguerre made the realism of the painted image redundant as he deliberately competed in the paris diorama with largescale historical paintings the neoclassical subject matter limited by academic tradition to greek and roman legends historical battles and biblical stories seemed oppressively clichéd and limited to artists eager to explore the actual world in front of their own eyes revealed by the camera daily life candid groupings of everyday people doing simple things paris itself rural landscapes and most particularly the play of captured light not the imaginary lionizing of unseen past events early photographs influenced impressionist style by its use of asymmetry cropping and most obviously the blurring of motion as inadvertently captured in the very slow speeds of early photography edgar degas claude monet pierreauguste renoir in their framing use of color light and shadow subject matter put these innovations to work to create a new language of visual beauty and meaning faking revolution the cia and abstract expressionism their initial break with realism into an exploration of light color and the nature of paint was brought to an ultimate conclusion by the abstract expressionists who broke away from recognizable content of any kind into works of pure shape color and painterliness which emerged at the end of the second world war at first thought of as primitive inept works as in my four year old could do that these works were misunderstood and neglected until given critical and support by the rise of art journalists and critics who championed their work in the 1940s and 50s expressing the power of such work in aesthetic terms the artists themselves seldom used or even understood jackson pollock who pioneered splatter painting dispensing with a paint brush altogether soon became lionized as the angry young man in a large spread in life magazine in fact in a deliberate secret and successful effort to separate artistic revolutions from political ones abstract expressionists like pollock robert motherwell willem de kooning and mark rothko while seemingly difficult pathbreaking artists were in fact secretly supported for twenty years by the central intelligence agency cia in a cold war policy begun in 1947 to prove that the united states could foster more artistic freedom than the soviet bloc it was recognized that abstract expressionism was the kind of art that made socialist realism look even more stylized and rigid and confined than it was said former cia case worker donald jameson who finally broke the silence on this program in 1995 ironically the covert cia support for these radical works was required because an attempt to use government funds for a european tour of these works during the truman administration led to a public uproar in conservative mccarthyera america with truman famously remarking if thats art im a hottentot thus the program was hidden under the guise of fabricated foundations and the support of wealthy patrons who were actually using cia funds not their own to sponsor traveling exhibitions of american abstract expressionists all over the world publish books and articles praising them and to purchase and exhibit abstract expressionist works in major american and british museums thomas braden in charge of these cultural programs for the cia in the early years of the cold war had formerly been executive secretary of the museum of modern art americas leading institution for 20th century art and the charges of collusion between the two echoed for many years after this program was revealed though most of the artists involved had no idea they were being used in this way and were furious when they found out see also cultural movement references art history revolutions by type | 1,237 |
1193 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agrarianism | Agrarianism | agrarianism is a social and political philosophy that has promoted subsistence agriculture family farming widespread property ownership and political decentralization adherents of agrarianism tend to value traditional bonds of local community over urban modernity agrarian political parties sometimes aim to support the rights and sustainability of small farmers and poor peasants against the wealthy in society philosophy some scholars suggest that agrarianism values rural society as superior to urban society and the independent farmer as superior to the paid worker and sees farming as a way of life that can shape the ideal social values it stresses the superiority of a simpler rural life as opposed to the complexity of city life for example m thomas inge defines agrarianism by the following basic tenets farming is the sole occupation that offers total independence and selfsufficiency urban life capitalism and technology destroy independence and dignity and foster vice and weakness the agricultural community with its fellowship of labor and cooperation is the model society the farmer has a solid stable position in the world order they have a sense of identity a sense of historical and religious tradition a feeling of belonging to a concrete family place and region which are psychologically and culturally beneficial the harmony of their life checks the encroachments of a fragmented alienated modern society cultivation of the soil has within it a positive spiritual good and from it the cultivator acquires the virtues of honor manliness selfreliance courage moral integrity and hospitality they result from a direct contact with nature and through nature a closer relationship to god the agrarian is blessed in that they follow the example of god in creating order out of chaos history the philosophical roots of agrarianism include european and chinese philosophers the chinese school of agriculturalism 农家農家 was a philosophy that advocated peasant utopian communalism and egalitarianism in societies influenced by confucianism the farmer was considered an esteemed productive member of society but merchants who made money were looked down upon that influenced european intellectuals like françois quesnay an avid confucianist and advocate of chinas agrarian policies in forming the french agrarian philosophy of physiocracy the physiocrats along with the ideas of john locke and the romantic era formed the basis of modern european and american agrarianism types of agrarianism physiocracy jeffersonian democracy the united states president thomas jefferson was an agrarian who based his ideas about the budding american democracy around the notion that farmers are the most valuable citizens and the truest republicans jefferson and his support base were committed to american republicanism which they saw as being in opposition to aristocracy and corruption and which prioritized virtue exemplified by the yeoman farmer planters and the plain folk in praising the rural farmfolk the jeffersonians felt that financiers bankers and industrialists created cesspools of corruption in the cities and should thus be avoided the jeffersonians sought to align the american economy more with agriculture than industry part of their motive to do so was jeffersons fear that the overindustrialization of america would create a class of wage slaves who relied on their employers for income and sustenance in turn these workers would cease to be independent voters as their vote could be manipulated by said employers to counter this jefferson introduced as scholar clay jenkinson noted a graduated income tax that would serve as a disincentive to vast accumulations of wealth and would make funds available for some sort of benign redistribution downward and tariffs on imported articles which were mainly purchased by the wealthy in 1811 jefferson writing to a friend explained these revenues will be levied entirely on the rich the rich alone use imported articles and on these alone the whole taxes of the general government are levied the poor man pays not a farthing of tax to the general government but on his salt there is general agreement that the substantial united states federal policy of offering land grants such as thousands of gifts of land to veterans had a positive impact on economic development in the 19th century agrarian socialism agrarian socialism is a form of agrarianism that is anticapitalist in nature and seeks to introduce socialist economic systems in their stead zapatismo notable agrarian socialists include emiliano zapata who was a leading figure in the mexican revolution as part of the liberation army of the south his group of revolutionaries fought on behalf of the mexican peasants whom they saw as exploited by the landowning classes zapata published plan of ayala which called for significant land reforms and land redistribution in mexico as part of the revolution zapata was killed and his forces crushed over the course of the revolution but his political ideas lived on in the form of zapatismo zapatismo would form the basis for neozapatismo the ideology of the zapatista army of national liberation known as ejército zapatista de liberación nacional or ezln in spanish ezln is a farleft libertarian socialist political and militant group that emerged in the state of chiapas in southmost mexico in 1994 ezln and neozapatismo as explicit in their name seek to revive the agrarian socialist movement of zapata but fuse it with new elements such as a commitment to indigenous rights and communitylevel decision making subcommander marcos a leading member of the movement argues that the peoples collective ownership of the land was and is the basis for all subsequent developments the movement sought to createwhen the land became property of the peasants when the land passed into the hands of those who work it this was the starting point for advances in government health education housing nutrition womens participation trade culture communication and information it was recovering the means of production in this case the land animals and machines that were in the hands of large property owners maoism maoism the farleft ideology of mao zedong and his followers places a heavy emphasis on the role of peasants in its goals in contrast to other marxist schools of thought which normally seek to acquire the support of urban workers maoism sees the peasantry as key believing that political power grows out of the barrel of a gun maoism saw the chinese peasantry as the prime source for a marxist vanguard because it possessed two qualities i they were poor and ii they were a political blank slate in maos words a clean sheet of paper has no blotches and so the newest and most beautiful words can be written on it during the chinese civil war and the second sinojapanese war mao and the chinese communist party made extensive use of peasants and rural bases in their military tactics often eschewing the cities following the eventual victory of the communist party in both wars the countryside and how it should be run remained a focus for mao in 1958 mao launched the great leap forward a social and economic campaign which amongst other things altered many aspects of rural chinese life it introduced mandatory collective farming and forced the peasantry to organize itself into communal living units which were known as peoples communes these communes which consisted of 5000 people on average were expected to meet high production quotas while the peasants who lived on them adapted to this radically new way of life the communes were run as cooperatives where wages and money were replaced by work points peasants who criticised this new system were persecuted as rightists and counterrevolutionaries leaving the communes was forbidden and escaping from them was difficult or impossible and those who attempted it were subjected to partyorchestrated public struggle sessions which further jeopardized their survival these public criticism sessions were often used to intimidate the peasants into obeying local officials and they often devolved into little more than public beatings on the communes experiments were conducted in order to find new methods of planting crops efforts were made to construct new irrigation systems on a massive scale and the communes were all encouraged to produce steel backyard furnaces as part of an effort to increase steel production however following the antirightist campaign mao had instilled a mass distrust of intellectuals into china and thus engineers often were not consulted with regard to the new irrigation systems and the wisdom of asking untrained peasants to produce good quality steel from scrap iron was not publicly questioned similarly the experimentation with the crops did not produce results in addition to this the four pests campaign was launched in which the peasants were called upon to destroy sparrows and other wild birds that ate crop seeds in order to protect fields pest birds were shot down or scared away from landing until they dropped from exhaustion this campaign resulted in an ecological disaster that saw an explosion of the vermin population especially cropeating insects which was consequently not in danger of being killed by predators none of these new systems were working but local leaders did not dare to state this instead they falsified reports so as not to be punished for failing to meet the quotas in many cases they stated that they were greatly exceeding their quotas and in turn the chinese state developed a completely false sense of success with regard to the commune system all of this culminated in the great chinese famine which began in 1959 lasted 3 years and saw an estimated 15 to 30 million chinese people die a combination of bad weather and the new failed farming techniques that were introduced by the state led to massive shortages of food by 1962 the great leap forward was declared to be at an end in the late 1960s and early 1970s mao once again radically altered life in rural china with the launching of the down to the countryside movement as a response to the great chinese famine the chinese president liu shaoqi began sending down urban youths to rural china in order to recover its population losses and alleviate overcrowding in the cities however mao turned the practice into a political crusade declaring that the sending down would strip the youth of any bourgeois tendencies by forcing them to learn from the unprivileged rural peasants in reality it was the communist partys attempt to reign in the red guards who had become uncontrollable during the course of the cultural revolution 10 of the 1970 urban population of china was sent out to remote rural villages often in inner mongolia the villages which were still poorly recovering from the effects of the great chinese famine did not have the excess resources that were needed to support the newcomers furthermore the socalled sentdown youth had no agricultural experience and as a result they were unaccustomed to the harsh lifestyle that existed in the countryside and their unskilled labor in the villages provided little benefit to the agricultural sector as a result many of the sentdown youth died in the countryside the relocation of the youths was originally intended to be permanent but by the end of the cultural revolution the communist party relented and some of those who had the capacity to return to the cities were allowed to do so in imitation of maos policies the khmer rouge of cambodia who were heavily funded and supported by the peoples republic of china created their own version of the great leap forward which was known as maha lout ploh with the great leap forward as its model it had similarly disastrous effects contributing to what is now known as the cambodian genocide as a part of the maha lout ploh the khmer rouge sought to create an entirely agrarian socialist society by forcibly relocating 100000 people to move from cambodias cities into newly created communes the khmer rouge leader pol pot sought to purify the country by setting it back to year zero freeing it from corrupting influences besides trying to completely deurbanize cambodia ethnic minorities were slaughtered along with anyone else who was suspected of being a reactionary or a member of the bourgeoisie to the point that wearing glasses was seen as grounds for execution the killings were only brought to an end when cambodia was invaded by the neighboring socialist nation of vietnam whose army toppled the khmer rouge however with cambodias entire society and economy in disarray including its agricultural sector the country still plunged into renewed famine due to vast food shortages however as international journalists began to report on the situation and send images of it out to the world a massive international response was provoked leading to one of the most concentrated relief efforts of its time notable agrarian parties peasant parties first appeared across eastern europe between 1860 and 1910 when commercialized agriculture and world market forces disrupted traditional rural society and the railway and growing literacy facilitated the work of roving organizers agrarian parties advocated land reforms to redistribute land on large estates among those who work it they also wanted village cooperatives to keep the profit from crop sales in local hands and credit institutions to underwrite needed improvements many peasant parties were also nationalist parties because peasants often worked their land for the benefit of landlords of different ethnicity peasant parties rarely had any power before world war i but some became influential in the interwar era especially in bulgaria and czechoslovakia for a while in the 1920s and the 1930s there was a green international international agrarian bureau based on the peasant parties in bulgaria czechoslovakia poland and serbia it functioned primarily as an information center that spread the ideas of agrarianism and combating socialism on the left and landlords on the right and never launched any significant activities europe bulgaria in bulgaria the bulgarian agrarian national union bzns was organized in 1899 to resist taxes and build cooperatives bzns came to power in 1919 and introduced many economic social and legal reforms however conservative forces crushed bzns in a 1923 coup and assassinated its leader aleksandar stamboliyski 18791923 bzns was made into a communist puppet group until 1989 when it reorganized as a genuine party czechoslovakia in czechoslovakia the republican party of agricultural and smallholder people often shared power in parliament as a partner in the fiveparty pětka coalition the partys leader antonín švehla 18731933 was prime minister several times it was consistently the strongest party forming and dominating coalitions it moved beyond its original agrarian base to reach middleclass voters the party was banned by the national front after the second world war france in france the hunting fishing nature tradition party is a moderate conservative agrarian party reaching a peak of 423 in the 2002 french presidential election it would later on become affiliated to frances main conservative party union for a popular movement more recently the resistons movement of jean lassalle espoused agrarianism hungary in hungary the first major agrarian party the smallholders party was founded in 1908 the party became part of the government in the 1920s but lost influence in the government a new party the independent smallholders agrarian workers and civic party was established in 1930 with a more radical program representing larger scale land redistribution initiatives they implemented this program together with the other coalition parties after wwii however after 1949 the party was outlawed when a oneparty system was introduced they became part of the government again 19901994 and 19982002 after which they lost political support the ruling fidesz party has an agrarian faction and promotes agrarian interest since 2010 with the emphasis now placed on supporting larger family farms versus smallholders ireland in the late 19th century the irish national land league aimed to abolish landlordism in ireland and enable tenant farmers to own the land they worked on the land war of 18781909 led to the irish land acts ending absentee landlords and ground rent and redistributing land among peasant farmers postindependence the farmers party operated in the irish free state from 1922 folding into the national centre party in 1932 it was mostly supported by wealthy farmers in the east of ireland clann na talmhan family of the land also called the national agricultural party was founded in 1938 they focused more on the poor smallholders of the west supporting land reclamation afforestation social democracy and rates reform they formed part of the governing coalition of the government of the 13th dáil and government of the 15th dáil economic improvement in the 1960s saw farmers vote for other parties and clann na talmhan disbanded in 1965 kazakhstan in kazakhstan the peasants union originally a communist organization was formed as one of first agrarian parties in independent kazakhstan and would win four seats in the 1994 legislative election the agrarian party of kazakhstan led by romin madinov was founded in 1999 which favored the privatization of agricultural land developments towards rural infrastructure as well as changes in the tax system in agrarian economy the party would go on to win three mäjilis seats in the 1999 legislative election and eventually unite with the civic party of kazakhstan to form the progovernment agrarianindustrial union of workers aist bloc that would be chaired by madinov for the 2004 legislative election with the aist bloc winning 11 seats in the mäjilis from there the bloc remained shortlived as it would merge with the ruling nur otan party in 2006 several other parties in kazakhstan over the years have embraced agrarian policies in their programs in an effort to appeal towards a large rural kazakh demographic base which included amanat adal and respublica since late 2000s the auyl peoples democratic patriotic party remains the largest and most influential agrarianoriented party in kazakhstan as its presidential candidate jiguli dairabaev had become the secondplace frontrunner in the 2022 presidential election after sweeping 34 of the vote in the 2023 legislative election the auyl party for the first time was represented the parliament after winning nine seats in the lower chamber mäjilis the party raises rural issues in regard to decaying villages rural development and the agroindustrial complex the issues of social security of the rural population and has consistently opposed the ongoing rural flight in kazakhstan latvia in latvia the union of greens and farmers is supportive of traditional small farms and perceives them as more environmentally friendly than largescale farming nature is threatened by development while small farms are threatened by large industrialscale farms lithuania in lithuania as of 2017 the government is led by the lithuanian farmers and greens union under the leadership of industrial farmer ramūnas karbauskis nordic countries poland in poland the polish peoples party polskie stronnictwo ludowe psl traces its tradition to an agrarian party in austrohungariancontrolled galician poland after the fall of the communist regime psls biggest success came in 1993 elections where it won 132 out of 460 parliamentary seats since then psls support has steadily declined until 2019 when they formed polish coalition with an anti establishment direct democracy kukiz15 party and managed to get 85 of popular vote moreover psl tends to get much better results in local elections in 2014 elections they have managed to get 2388 of votes the rightwing law and justice party has also become supportive of agrarian policies in recent years and polls show that most of their support comes from rural areas agrounia resembles the features of agrarianism romania in romania older party parties from transylvania moldavia and wallachia merged to become the national peasants party pnț in 1926 iuliu maniu 18731953 was a prime minister with an agrarian cabinet from 1928 to 1930 and briefly in 19321933 but the great depression made proposed reforms impossible the forcefullyintroduced and illegal communist regime dissolved the party in 1947 along with other historical parties such as the national liberal party but it reformed in 1989 after they fell from power the reformed party which also incorporated elements of christian democracy in its ideology governed romania as part of the romanian democratic convention cdr between 1996 and 2000 serbia in serbia nikola pašić 18451926 and his peoples radical party dominated serbian politics after 1903 the party also monopolized power in yugoslavia from 1918 to 1929 during the dictatorship of the 1930s the prime minister was from that party ukraine in ukraine the radical party of oleh lyashko has promised to purify the country of oligarchs with a pitchfork the party advocates a number of traditional leftwing positions a progressive tax structure a ban on agricultural land sale and eliminating the illegal land market a tenfold increase in budget spending on health setting up primary health centres in every village and mixes them with strong nationalist sentiments united kingdom in land law the heyday of english irish and thus welsh agrarianism was to 1603 led by the tudor royal advisors who sought to maintain a broad pool of agricultural commoners from which to draw military men against the interests of larger landowners who sought enclosure meaning complete private control of common land over which by custom and common law lords of the manor always enjoyed minor rights the heyday was eroded by hundreds of acts of parliament to expressly permit enclosure chiefly from 1650 to the 1810s politicians standing strongly as reactionaries to this included the levellers those antiindustrialists luddites going beyond opposing new weaving technology and later radicals such as william cobbett a high level of net national or local selfsufficiency has a strong base in campaigns and movements in the 19th century such empowered advocates included peelites and most conservatives the 20th century saw the growth or start of influential nongovernmental organisations such as the national farmers union of england and wales campaign for rural england friends of the earth ewni and of the england wales scottish and northern irish political parties prefixed by and focussed on green politics the 21st century has seen decarbonisation already in electricity markets following protests and charitable lobbying local food has seen growing market share sometimes backed by wording in public policy papers and manifestos the uk has many sustainabilityprioritising businesses green charity campaigns events and lobby groups ranging from espousing allotment gardens hobby community farming through to a clear policy of local food andor selfsustainability models oceania australia historian fk crowley finds that the national party of australia formerly called the country party from the 1920s to the 1970s promulgated its version of agrarianism which it called countrymindedness the goal was to enhance the status of the graziers operators of big sheep stations and small farmers and justified subsidies for them new zealand the new zealand liberal party aggressively promoted agrarianism in its heyday 18911912 the landed gentry and aristocracy ruled britain at this time new zealand never had an aristocracy but its wealthy landowners largely controlled politics before 1891 the liberal party set out to change that by a policy it called populism richard seddon had proclaimed the goal as early as 1884 it is the rich and the poor it is the wealthy and the landowners against the middle and labouring classes that sir shows the real political position of new zealand the liberal strategy was to create a large class of small landowning farmers who supported liberal ideals the liberal government also established the basis of the later welfare state such as old age pensions and developed a system for settling industrial disputes which was accepted by both employers and trade unions in 1893 it extended voting rights to women making new zealand the first country in the world to do so to obtain land for farmers the liberal government from 1891 to 1911 purchased of maori land the government also purchased from large estate holders for subdivision and closer settlement by small farmers the advances to settlers act 1894 provided lowinterest mortgages and the agriculture department disseminated information on the best farming methods the liberals proclaimed success in forging an egalitarian antimonopoly land policy the policy built up support for the liberal party in rural north island electorates by 1903 the liberals were so dominant that there was no longer an organized opposition in parliament north america the united states and canada both saw a rise of agrarianoriented parties in the early twentieth century as economic troubles motivated farming communities to become politically active it has been proposed that different responses to agrarian protest largely determined the course of power generated by these newlyenergized rural factions according to sociologist barry eidlinin the united states democrats adopted a cooptive response to farmer and labor protest incorporating these constituencies into the new deal coalition in canada both mainstream parties adopted a coercive response leaving these constituencies politically excluded and available for an independent left coalitionthese reactions may have helped determine the outcome of agrarian power and political associations in the us and canada united states of america kansas economic desperation experienced by farmers across the state of kansas in the nineteenth century spurred the creation of the peoples party in 1890 and soonafter would gain control of the governors office in 1892 this party consisting of a mix of democrats socialists populists and fusionists would find itself buckling from internal conflict regarding the unlimited coinage of silver the populists permanently lost power in 1898 oklahoma oklahoma farmers considered their political activity during the early twentieth century due to the outbreak of war depressed crop prices and an inhibited sense of progression towards owning their own farms tenancy had been reportedly as high as 55 in oklahoma by 1910 these pressures saw agrarian counties in oklahoma supporting socialist policies and politics with the socialist platform proposing a deeply agrarianradical platformthe platform proposed a renters and farmers program which was strongly agrarian radical in its insistence upon various measures to put land into the hands of the actual tillers of the soil although it did not propose to nationalize privately owned land it did offer numerous plans to enlarge the states public domain from which land would be rented at prevailing share rents to tenants until they had paid rent equal to the lands value the tenant and his children would have the right of occupancy and use but the title would remind in the commonwealth an arrangement that might be aptly termed socialist fee simple they proposed to exempt from taxation all farm dwellings animals and improvements up to the value of 1000 the state board of agriculture would encourage cooperative societies of farmers to make plans f or the purchase of land seed tools and for preparing and selling produce in order to give farmers essential services at cost the socialists called for the creation of state banks and mortgage agencies crop insurance elevators and warehousesthis agrarianbacked socialist party would win numerous offices causing a panic within the local democratic party this agrariansocialist movement would be inhibited by voter suppression laws aimed at reducing the participation of voters of color as well as national wartime policies intended to disrupt political elements considered subversive this party would peak in power in 1914 backtotheland movement agrarianism is similar to but not identical with the backtotheland movement agrarianism concentrates on the fundamental goods of the earth on communities of more limited economic and political scale than in modern society and on simple living even when the shift involves questioning the progressive character of some recent social and economic developments thus agrarianism is not industrial farming with its specialization on products and industrial scale see also agrarian socialism farmerlabor party usa early 20th century jeffersonian democracy labourfarmer party japan 1920s minnesota farmerlabor party usa early 20th century nordic agrarian parties yeoman english farmers references further reading agrarian values brass tom peasants populism and postmodernism the return of the agrarian myth 2000 inge m thomas agrarianism in american literature 1969 kolodny annette the land before her fantasy and experience of the american frontiers 16301860 1984 online edition marx leo the machine in the garden technology and the pastoral ideal in america 1964 murphy paul v the rebuke of history the southern agrarians and american conservative thought 2000 parrington vernon main currents in american thought 1927 3vol online thompson paul and thomas c hilde eds the agrarian roots of pragmatism 2000 primary sources sorokin pitirim a et al eds a systematic source book in rural sociology 3 vol 1930 vol 1 pp 1146 covers many major thinkers down to 1800 europe bell john d peasants in power alexander stamboliski and the bulgarian agrarian national union 189919231923 donnelly james s captain rock the irish agrarian rebellion of 18211824 2009 donnelly james s irish agrarian rebellion 17601800 2006 gross feliks ed european ideologies a survey of 20th century political ideas 1948 pp 391481 online edition on russia and bulgaria kubricht andrew paul the czech agrarian party 18991914 a study of national and economic agitation in the habsburg monarchy phd thesis ohio state university press 1974 narkiewicz olga a the green flag polish populist politics 18671970 1976 oren nissan revolution administered agrarianism and communism in bulgaria 1973 focus is post 1945 stefanov kristian between ideological loyalty and political adaptation the agrarian question in the development of bulgarian social democracy 18911912 east european politics societies and cultures is 4 2023 paine thomas agrarian justice 1794 roberts henry l rumania political problems of an agrarian state 1951 north america goodwyn lawrence the populist moment a short history of the agrarian revolt in america 1978 1880s and 1890s in us lipset seymour martin agrarian socialism the coöperative commonwealth federation in saskatchewan 1950 1930s1940s mcconnell grant the decline of agrarian democracy1953 20th century us mark irving agrarian conflicts in colonial new york 17111775 1940 ochiai akiko harvesting freedom african american agrarianism in civil war era south carolina 2007 robison dan merritt bob taylor and the agrarian revolt in tennessee 1935 stine harold e the agrarian revolt in south carolina ben tillman and the farmers alliance 1974 summerhill thomas harvest of dissent agrarianism in nineteenthcentury new york 2005 szatmary david p shays rebellion the making of an agrarian insurrection 1984 1787 in massachusetts woodward c vann tom watson agrarian rebel 1938 online edition global south brass tom ed new farmers movements in india 1995 304 pages handy jim revolution in the countryside rural conflict and agrarian reform in guatemala 19441954 1994 paige jeffery m agrarian revolution social movements and export agriculture in the underdeveloped world 1978 435 pages excerpt and text search sanderson steven e agrarian populism and the mexican state the struggle for land in sonora 1981 stokes eric the peasant and the raj studies in agrarian society and peasant rebellion in colonial india 1980 tannenbaum frank the mexican agrarian revolution 1930 external links writings of a deliberate agrarian the new agrarian | 5,095 |
1194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic | Atomic | atomic may refer to of or relating to the atom the smallest particle of a chemical element that retains its chemical properties atomic physics the study of the atom atomic age also known as the atomic era atomic scale distances comparable to the dimensions of an atom atom order theory in mathematics atomic cocktail a champagne cocktail atomic magazine an australian computing and technology magazine atomic skis an austrian ski producer music atomic band a norwegian jazz quintet atomic lit album 2001 atomic mogwai album 2016 atomic an album by rockets 1982 atomic ep by 2013 atomic song by blondie 1979 atomic a song by tiger army from tiger army iii ghost tigers rise see also atom disambiguation atomicity database systems nuclear disambiguation atomism philosophy about the basic building blocks of reality atomic city disambiguation atomic formula a formula without subformulas atomic number the number of protons found in the nucleus of an atom atomic chess a chess variant atomic coffee machine a 1950s stovetop coffee machine atomic operation in computer science atomic tv a channel launched in 1997 in poland nuclear power nuclear weapon | 185 |
1196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angle | Angle | in euclidean geometry an angle is the figure formed by two rays called the sides of the angle sharing a common endpoint called the vertex of the angle angles formed by two rays are also known as plane angles as they lie in the plane that contains the rays angles are also formed by the intersection of two planes these are called dihedral angles two intersecting curves may also define an angle which is the angle of the rays lying tangent to the respective curves at their point of intersection the magnitude of an angle is called an angular measure or simply angle angle of rotation is a measure conventionally defined as the ratio of a circular arc length to its radius and may be a negative number in the case of a geometric angle the arc is centered at the vertex and delimited by the sides in the case of a rotation the arc is centered at the center of the rotation and delimited by any other point and its image by the rotation history and etymology the word angle comes from the latin word meaning corner cognate words include the greek meaning crooked curved and the english word ankle both are connected with the protoindoeuropean root ank meaning to bend or bow euclid defines a plane angle as the inclination to each other in a plane of two lines that meet each other and do not lie straight with respect to each other according to the neoplatonic metaphysician proclus an angle must be either a quality a quantity or a relationship the first concept angle as quality was used by eudemus of rhodes who regarded an angle as a deviation from a straight line the second angle as quality by carpus of antioch who regarded it as the interval or space between the intersecting lines euclid adopted the third angle as a relationship identifying angles in mathematical expressions it is common to use greek letters α β γ θ φ as variables denoting the size of some angle to avoid confusion with its other meaning the symbol is typically not used for this purpose lower case roman letters a b c are also used in contexts where this is not confusing an angle may be denoted by the upper case roman letter denoting its vertex see the figures in this article for examples the three defining points may also identify angles in geometric figures for example the angle with vertex a formed by the rays ab and ac that is the halflines from point a through points b and c is denoted or where there is no risk of confusion the angle may sometimes be referred to by a single vertex alone in this case angle a potentially an angle denoted as say might refer to any of four angles the clockwise angle from b to c about a the anticlockwise angle from b to c about a the clockwise angle from c to b about a or the anticlockwise angle from c to b about a where the direction in which the angle is measured determines its sign see however in many geometrical situations it is evident from the context that the positive angle less than or equal to 180 degrees is meant and in these cases no ambiguity arises otherwise to avoid ambiguity specific conventions may be adopted so that for instance always refers to the anticlockwise positive angle from b to c about a and the anticlockwise positive angle from c to b about a types of angles individual angles there is some common terminology for angles whose measure is always nonnegative see an angle equal to 0 or not turned is called a zero angle an angle smaller than a right angle less than 90 is called an acute angle acute meaning sharp an angle equal to turn 90 or radians is called a right angle two lines that form a right angle are said to be normal orthogonal or perpendicular an angle larger than a right angle and smaller than a straight angle between 90 and 180 is called an obtuse angle obtuse meaning blunt an angle equal to turn 180 or radians is called a straight angle an angle larger than a straight angle but less than 1 turn between 180 and 360 is called a reflex angle an angle equal to 1 turn 360 or 2 radians is called a full angle complete angle round angle or perigon an angle that is not a multiple of a right angle is called an oblique angle the names intervals and measuring units are shown in the table below vertical and angle pairs when two straight lines intersect at a point four angles are formed pairwise these angles are named according to their location relative to each other a transversal is a line that intersects a pair of often parallel lines and is associated with alternate interior angles corresponding angles interior angles and exterior angles combining angle pairs three special angle pairs involve the summation of angles polygonrelated angles an angle that is part of a simple polygon is called an interior angle if it lies on the inside of that simple polygon a simple concave polygon has at least one interior angle that is a reflex angle in euclidean geometry the measures of the interior angles of a triangle add up to radians 180 or turn the measures of the interior angles of a simple convex quadrilateral add up to 2 radians 360 or 1 turn in general the measures of the interior angles of a simple convex polygon with n sides add up to n 2 radians or n 2180 degrees n 22 right angles or n 2 turn the supplement of an interior angle is called an exterior angle that is an interior angle and an exterior angle form a linear pair of angles there are two exterior angles at each vertex of the polygon each determined by extending one of the two sides of the polygon that meet at the vertex these two angles are vertical and hence are equal an exterior angle measures the amount of rotation one must make at a vertex to trace the polygon if the corresponding interior angle is a reflex angle the exterior angle should be considered negative even in a nonsimple polygon it may be possible to define the exterior angle still one will have to pick an orientation of the plane or surface to decide the sign of the exterior angle measure in euclidean geometry the sum of the exterior angles of a simple convex polygon if only one of the two exterior angles is assumed at each vertex will be one full turn 360 the exterior angle here could be called a supplementary exterior angle exterior angles are commonly used in logo turtle programs when drawing regular polygons in a triangle the bisectors of two exterior angles and the bisector of the other interior angle are concurrent meet at a single point in a triangle three intersection points each of an external angle bisector with the opposite extended side are collinear in a triangle three intersection points two between an interior angle bisector and the opposite side and the third between the other exterior angle bisector and the opposite side extended are collinear some authors use the name exterior angle of a simple polygon to mean the explement exterior angle not supplement of the interior angle this conflicts with the above usage planerelated angles the angle between two planes such as two adjacent faces of a polyhedron is called a dihedral angle it may be defined as the acute angle between two lines normal to the planes the angle between a plane and an intersecting straight line is equal to ninety degrees minus the angle between the intersecting line and the line that goes through the point of intersection and is normal to the plane measuring angles the size of a geometric angle is usually characterized by the magnitude of the smallest rotation that maps one of the rays into the other angles of the same size are said to be equal congruent or equal in measure in some contexts such as identifying a point on a circle or describing the orientation of an object in two dimensions relative to a reference orientation angles that differ by an exact multiple of a full turn are effectively equivalent in other contexts such as identifying a point on a spiral curve or describing an objects cumulative rotation in two dimensions relative to a reference orientation angles that differ by a nonzero multiple of a full turn are not equivalent to measure an angle θ a circular arc centered at the vertex of the angle is drawn eg with a pair of compasses the ratio of the length s of the arc by the radius r of the circle is the number of radians in the angle conventionally in mathematics and the si the radian is treated as being equal to the dimensionless unit 1 thus being normally omitted the angle expressed by another angular unit may then be obtained by multiplying the angle by a suitable conversion constant of the form where k is the measure of a complete turn expressed in the chosen unit for example for degrees or 400 grad for gradians the value of thus defined is independent of the size of the circle if the length of the radius is changed then the arc length changes in the same proportion so the ratio sr is unaltered angle addition postulate the angle addition postulate states that if b is in the interior of angle aoc then the measure of the angle aoc is the sum of the measure of angle aob and the measure of angle boc units throughout history angles have been measured in various units these are known as angular units with the most contemporary units being the degree the radian rad and the gradian grad though many others have been used throughout history most units of angular measurement are defined such that one turn ie the angle subtended by the circumference of a circle at its centre is equal to n units for some whole number n two exceptions are the radian and its decimal submultiples and the diameter part in the international system of quantities an angle is defined as a dimensionless quantity and in particular the radian unit is dimensionless this convention impacts how angles are treated in dimensional analysis see for a discussion the following table list some units used to represent angles signed angles although the definition of the measurement of an angle does not support the concept of a negative angle it is frequently helpful to impose a convention that allows positive and negative angular values to represent orientations andor rotations in opposite directions or sense relative to some reference in a twodimensional cartesian coordinate system an angle is typically defined by its two sides with its vertex at the origin the initial side is on the positive xaxis while the other side or terminal side is defined by the measure from the initial side in radians degrees or turns with positive angles representing rotations toward the positive yaxis and negative angles representing rotations toward the negative yaxis when cartesian coordinates are represented by standard position defined by the xaxis rightward and the yaxis upward positive rotations are anticlockwise and negative cycles are clockwise in many contexts an angle of θ is effectively equivalent to an angle of one full turn minus θ for example an orientation represented as 45 is effectively equal to an orientation defined as 360 45 or 315 although the final position is the same a physical rotation movement of 45 is not the same as a rotation of 315 for example the rotation of a person holding a broom resting on a dusty floor would leave visually different traces of swept regions on the floor in threedimensional geometry clockwise and anticlockwise have no absolute meaning so the direction of positive and negative angles must be defined in terms of an orientation which is typically determined by a normal vector passing through the angles vertex and perpendicular to the plane in which the rays of the angle lie in navigation bearings or azimuth are measured relative to north by convention viewed from above bearing angles are positive clockwise so a bearing of 45 corresponds to a northeast orientation negative bearings are not used in navigation so a northwest orientation corresponds to a bearing of 315 equivalent angles angles that have the same measure ie the same magnitude are said to be equal or congruent an angle is defined by its measure and is not dependent upon the lengths of the sides of the angle eg all right angles are equal in measure two angles that share terminal sides but differ in size by an integer multiple of a turn are called coterminal angles the reference angle sometimes called related angle for any angle θ in standard position is the positive acute angle between the terminal side of θ and the xaxis positive or negative procedurally the magnitude of the reference angle for a given angle may determined by taking the angles magnitude modulo turn 180 or radians then stopping if the angle is acute otherwise taking the supplementary angle 180 minus the reduced magnitude for example an angle of 30 degrees is already a reference angle and an angle of 150 degrees also has a reference angle of 30 degrees 180 150 angles of 210 and 510 correspond to a reference angle of 30 degrees as well 210 mod 180 30 510 mod 180 150 whose supplementary angle is 30 related quantities for an angular unit it is definitional that the angle addition postulate holds some quantities related to angles where the angle addition postulate does not hold include the slope or gradient is equal to the tangent of the angle a gradient is often expressed as a percentage for very small values less than 5 the slope of a line is approximately the measure in radians of its angle with the horizontal direction the spread between two lines is defined in rational geometry as the square of the sine of the angle between the lines as the sine of an angle and the sine of its supplementary angle are the same any angle of rotation that maps one of the lines into the other leads to the same value for the spread between the lines although done rarely one can report the direct results of trigonometric functions such as the sine of the angle angles between curves the angle between a line and a curve mixed angle or between two intersecting curves curvilinear angle is defined to be the angle between the tangents at the point of intersection various names now rarely if ever used have been given to particular casesamphicyrtic gr on both sides κυρτός convex or cissoidal gr κισσός ivy biconvex xystroidal or sistroidal gr ξυστρίς a tool for scraping concavoconvex amphicoelic gr κοίλη a hollow or angulus lunularis biconcave bisecting and trisecting angles the ancient greek mathematicians knew how to bisect an angle divide it into two angles of equal measure using only a compass and straightedge but could only trisect certain angles in 1837 pierre wantzel showed that this construction could not be performed for most angles dot product and generalisations in the euclidean space the angle θ between two euclidean vectors u and v is related to their dot product and their lengths by the formula this formula supplies an easy method to find the angle between two planes or curved surfaces from their normal vectors and between skew lines from their vector equations inner product to define angles in an abstract real inner product space we replace the euclidean dot product by the inner product ie in a complex inner product space the expression for the cosine above may give nonreal values so it is replaced with or more commonly using the absolute value with the latter definition ignores the direction of the vectors it thus describes the angle between onedimensional subspaces and spanned by the vectors and correspondingly angles between subspaces the definition of the angle between onedimensional subspaces and given by in a hilbert space can be extended to subspaces of finite dimensions given two subspaces with this leads to a definition of angles called canonical or principal angles between subspaces angles in riemannian geometry in riemannian geometry the metric tensor is used to define the angle between two tangents where u and v are tangent vectors and gij are the components of the metric tensor g hyperbolic angle a hyperbolic angle is an argument of a hyperbolic function just as the circular angle is the argument of a circular function the comparison can be visualized as the size of the openings of a hyperbolic sector and a circular sector since the areas of these sectors correspond to the angle magnitudes in each case unlike the circular angle the hyperbolic angle is unbounded when the circular and hyperbolic functions are viewed as infinite series in their angle argument the circular ones are just alternating series forms of the hyperbolic functions this weaving of the two types of angle and function was explained by leonhard euler in introduction to the analysis of the infinite angles in geography and astronomy in geography the location of any point on the earth can be identified using a geographic coordinate system this system specifies the latitude and longitude of any location in terms of angles subtended at the center of the earth using the equator and usually the greenwich meridian as references in astronomy a given point on the celestial sphere that is the apparent position of an astronomical object can be identified using any of several astronomical coordinate systems where the references vary according to the particular system astronomers measure the angular separation of two stars by imagining two lines through the center of the earth each intersecting one of the stars the angle between those lines and the angular separation between the two stars can be measured in both geography and astronomy a sighting direction can be specified in terms of a vertical angle such as altitude elevation with respect to the horizon as well as the azimuth with respect to north astronomers also measure objects apparent size as an angular diameter for example the full moon has an angular diameter of approximately 05 when viewed from earth one could say the moons diameter subtends an angle of half a degree the smallangle formula can convert such an angular measurement into a distancesize ratio other astronomical approximations include 05 is the approximate diameter of the sun and of the moon as viewed from earth 1 is the approximate width of the little finger at arms length 10 is the approximate width of a closed fist at arms length 20 is the approximate width of a handspan at arms length these measurements depend on the individual subject and the above should be treated as rough rule of thumb approximations only in astronomy right ascension and declination are usually measured in angular units expressed in terms of time based on a 24hour day see also angle measuring instrument angles between flats angular statistics mean standard deviation angle bisector angular acceleration angular diameter angular velocity argument complex analysis astrological aspect central angle clock angle problem decimal degrees dihedral angle exterior angle theorem golden angle great circle distance horn angle inscribed angle irrational angle phase waves protractor solid angle spherical angle transcendent angle trisection zenith angle notes references bibliography external links | 3,285 |
1197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asa | Asa | asa may refer to people and fictional characters asa name a given name including a list of people and fictional characters so named asa people an ethnic group based in tanzania aṣa nigerianfrench singer songwriter and recording artist bukola elemide born 1982 asa rapper finnish rapper matti salo born 1980 biblical and mythological figures asa of judah third king of the kingdom of judah and the fifth king of the house of david ása or æsir norse gods places asa hardoi uttar pradesh india a village asu south khorasan iran also spelled asa a village asa kwara state nigeria a local government area asa river japan a tributary of the tama river in tokyo japan asa kazakhstan a river asa river venezuela see list of rivers in venezuela other uses asa album the sixth studio album by the german viking metal band falkenbach asa raga a peculiar musical raga in gurmat sangeet tradition asa carriage control characters simple printing command characters used to control the movement of paper through line printers asa language spoken by the asa people of tanzania asa station a railway station in sanyōonoda yamaguchi japan asa railway station jambyl region kazakhstan naboot also called asa a quarterstaff constructed of palm wood or rattan asha romanized as aṣa a zoroastrian concept asa a song by kitt wakeley featuring starr parodi from an adoption story 2022 see also asa disambiguation åsa disambiguation aasa disambiguation asia disambiguation aza disambiguation | 240 |
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