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765	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abortion	Abortion	abortion is the termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus an abortion that occurs without intervention is known as a miscarriage or spontaneous abortion these occur in approximately 30 to 40 of all pregnancies when deliberate steps are taken to end a pregnancy it is called an induced abortion or less frequently induced miscarriage the unmodified word abortion generally refers to an induced abortion the reasons why women have abortions are diverse and vary across the world reasons include maternal health an inability to afford a child domestic violence lack of support feeling they are too young wishing to complete education or advance a career and not being able or willing to raise a child conceived as a result of rape or incest when done legally in industrialized societies induced abortion is one of the safest procedures in medicine in the united states the risk of maternal mortality is 14 times lower after induced abortion than after childbirth unsafe abortionsthose performed by people lacking the necessary skills or in inadequately resourced settingsare responsible for between 513 of maternal deaths especially in the developing world however medication abortions that are selfmanaged are highly effective and safe throughout the first trimester public health data shows that making safe abortion legal and accessible reduces maternal deaths modern methods use medication or surgery for abortions the drug mifepristone in combination with prostaglandin appears to be as safe and effective as surgery during the first and second trimesters of pregnancy the most common surgical technique involves dilating the cervix and using a suction device birth control such as the pill or intrauterine devices can be used immediately following abortion when performed legally and safely on a woman who desires it induced abortions do not increase the risk of longterm mental or physical problems in contrast unsafe abortions performed by unskilled individuals with hazardous equipment or in unsanitary facilities cause between 22000 and 44000 deaths and 69 million hospital admissions each year the world health organization states that access to legal safe and comprehensive abortion care including postabortion care is essential for the attainment of the highest possible level of sexual and reproductive health historically abortions have been attempted using herbal medicines sharp tools forceful massage or other traditional methods around 73 million abortions are performed each year in the world with about 45 done unsafely abortion rates changed little between 2003 and 2008 before which they decreased for at least two decades as access to family planning and birth control increased 37 of the worlds women had access to legal abortions without limits as to reason countries that permit abortions have different limits on how late in pregnancy abortion is allowed abortion rates are similar between countries that restrict abortion and countries that broadly allow it though this is partly because countries which restrict abortion tend to have higher unintended pregnancy rates globally there has been a widespread trend towards greater legal access to abortion since 1973 but there remains debate with regard to moral religious ethical and legal issues those who oppose abortion often argue that an embryo or fetus is a person with a right to life and thus equate it with murder those who support its legality often argue that it is a womans reproductive right others favor legal and accessible abortion as a public health measure abortion laws and views of the procedure are different around the world in some countries abortion is legal and women have the right to make the choice about abortion in some areas abortion is legal only in specific cases such as rape fetal defects poverty risk to a womans health or incest types induced approximately 205 million pregnancies occur each year worldwide over a third are unintended and about a fifth end in induced abortion most abortions result from unintended pregnancies in the united kingdom 1 to 2 of abortions are done due to genetic problems in the fetus a pregnancy can be intentionally aborted in several ways the manner selected often depends upon the gestational age of the embryo or fetus which increases in size as the pregnancy progresses specific procedures may also be selected due to legality regional availability and doctor or a womans personal preference reasons for procuring induced abortions are typically characterized as either therapeutic or elective an abortion is medically referred to as a therapeutic abortion when it is performed to save the life of the pregnant woman to prevent harm to the womans physical or mental health to terminate a pregnancy where indications are that the child will have a significantly increased chance of mortality or morbidity or to selectively reduce the number of fetuses to lessen health risks associated with multiple pregnancy an abortion is referred to as an elective or voluntary abortion when it is performed at the request of the woman for nonmedical reasons confusion sometimes arises over the term elective because elective surgery generally refers to all scheduled surgery whether medically necessary or not spontaneous miscarriage also known as spontaneous abortion is the unintentional expulsion of an embryo or fetus before the 24th week of gestation a pregnancy that ends before 37 weeks of gestation resulting in a liveborn infant is a premature birth or a preterm birth when a fetus dies in utero after viability or during delivery it is usually termed stillborn premature births and stillbirths are generally not considered to be miscarriages although usage of these terms can sometimes overlap studies of pregnant women in the us and china have shown that between 40 and 60 of embryos do not progress to birth the vast majority of miscarriages occur before the woman is aware that she is pregnant and many pregnancies spontaneously abort before medical practitioners can detect an embryo between 15 and 30 of known pregnancies end in clinically apparent miscarriage depending upon the age and health of the pregnant woman 80 of these spontaneous abortions happen in the first trimester the most common cause of spontaneous abortion during the first trimester is chromosomal abnormalities of the embryo or fetus accounting for at least 50 of sampled early pregnancy losses other causes include vascular disease such as lupus diabetes other hormonal problems infection and abnormalities of the uterus advancing maternal age and a womans history of previous spontaneous abortions are the two leading factors associated with a greater risk of spontaneous abortion a spontaneous abortion can also be caused by accidental trauma intentional trauma or stress to cause miscarriage is considered induced abortion or feticide methods medical medical abortions are those induced by abortifacient pharmaceuticals medical abortion became an alternative method of abortion with the availability of prostaglandin analogs in the 1970s and the antiprogestogen mifepristone also known as ru486 in the 1980s the most common early first trimester medical abortion regimens use mifepristone in combination with misoprostol or sometimes another prostaglandin analog gemeprost up to 10 weeks 70 days gestational age methotrexate in combination with a prostaglandin analog up to 7 weeks gestation or a prostaglandin analog alone mifepristonemisoprostol combination regimens work faster and are more effective at later gestational ages than methotrexatemisoprostol combination regimens and combination regimens are more effective than misoprostol alone particularly in the second trimester medical abortion regimens involving mifepristone followed by misoprostol in the cheek between 24 and 48 hours later are effective when performed before 70 days gestation in very early abortions up to 7 weeks gestation medical abortion using a mifepristonemisoprostol combination regimen is considered to be more effective than surgical abortion vacuum aspiration especially when clinical practice does not include detailed inspection of aspirated tissue early medical abortion regimens using mifepristone followed 2448 hours later by buccal or vaginal misoprostol are 98 effective up to 9 weeks gestational age from 9 to 10 weeks efficacy decreases modestly to 94 if medical abortion fails surgical abortion must be used to complete the procedure early medical abortions account for the majority of abortions before 9 weeks gestation in britain france switzerland united states and the nordic countries medical abortion regimens using mifepristone in combination with a prostaglandin analog are the most common methods used for second trimester abortions in canada most of europe china and india in contrast to the united states where 96 of second trimester abortions are performed surgically by dilation and evacuation a 2020 cochrane systematic review concluded that providing women with medications to take home to complete the second stage of the procedure for an early medical abortion results in an effective abortion further research is required to determine if selfadministered medical abortion is as safe as provideradministered medical abortion where a health care professional is present to help manage the medical abortion safely permitting women to selfadminister abortion medication has the potential to improve access to abortion other research gaps that were identified include how to best support women who choose to take the medication home for a selfadministered abortion surgical up to 15 weeks gestation suctionaspiration or vacuum aspiration are the most common surgical methods of induced abortion manual vacuum aspiration mva consists of removing the fetus or embryo placenta and membranes by suction using a manual syringe while electric vacuum aspiration eva uses an electric pump these techniques can both be used very early in pregnancy mva can be used up to 14 weeks but is more often used earlier in the us eva can be used later mva also known as minisuction and menstrual extraction or eva can be used in very early pregnancy when cervical dilation may not be required dilation and curettage dc refers to opening the cervix dilation and removing tissue curettage via suction or sharp instruments dc is a standard gynecological procedure performed for a variety of reasons including examination of the uterine lining for possible malignancy investigation of abnormal bleeding and abortion the world health organization recommends sharp curettage only when suction aspiration is unavailable dilation and evacuation de used after 12 to 16 weeks consists of opening the cervix and emptying the uterus using surgical instruments and suction de is performed vaginally and does not require an incision intact dilation and extraction dx refers to a variant of de sometimes used after 18 to 20 weeks when removal of an intact fetus improves surgical safety or for other reasons abortion may also be performed surgically by hysterotomy or gravid hysterectomy hysterotomy abortion is a procedure similar to a caesarean section and is performed under general anesthesia it requires a smaller incision than a caesarean section and can be used during later stages of pregnancy gravid hysterectomy refers to removal of the whole uterus while still containing the pregnancy hysterotomy and hysterectomy are associated with much higher rates of maternal morbidity and mortality than de or induction abortion first trimester procedures can generally be performed using local anesthesia while second trimester methods may require deep sedation or general anesthesia labor induction abortion in places lacking the necessary medical skill for dilation and extraction or when preferred by practitioners an abortion can be induced by first inducing labor and then inducing fetal demise if necessary this is sometimes called induced miscarriage this procedure may be performed from 13 weeks gestation to the third trimester although it is very uncommon in the united states more than 80 of induced abortions throughout the second trimester are laborinduced abortions in sweden and other nearby countries only limited data are available comparing laborinduced abortion with the dilation and extraction method unlike de laborinduced abortions after 18 weeks may be complicated by the occurrence of brief fetal survival which may be legally characterized as live birth for this reason laborinduced abortion is legally risky in the united states other methods historically a number of herbs reputed to possess abortifacient properties have been used in folk medicine among these are tansy pennyroyal black cohosh and the nowextinct silphium in 1978 one woman in colorado died and another developed organ damage when they attempted to terminate their pregnancies by taking pennyroyal oil because the indiscriminant use of herbs as abortifacients can cause seriouseven lethalside effects such as multiple organ failure such use is not recommended by physicians abortion is sometimes attempted by causing trauma to the abdomen the degree of force if severe can cause serious internal injuries without necessarily succeeding in inducing miscarriage in southeast asia there is an ancient tradition of attempting abortion through forceful abdominal massage one of the bas reliefs decorating the temple of angkor wat in cambodia depicts a demon performing such an abortion upon a woman who has been sent to the underworld reported methods of unsafe selfinduced abortion include misuse of misoprostol and insertion of nonsurgical implements such as knitting needles and clothes hangers into the uterus these and other methods to terminate pregnancy may be called induced miscarriage such methods are rarely used in countries where surgical abortion is legal and available safety the health risks of abortion depend principally upon whether the procedure is performed safely or unsafely the world health organization who defines unsafe abortions as those performed by unskilled individuals with hazardous equipment or in unsanitary facilities legal abortions performed in the developed world are among the safest procedures in medicine in the united states as of 2012 abortion was estimated to be about 14 times safer for women than childbirth cdc estimated in 2019 that us pregnancyrelated mortality was 172 maternal deaths per 100000 live births while the us abortion mortality rate is 07 maternal deaths per 100000 procedures in the uk guidelines of the royal college of obstetricians and gynaecologists state that women should be advised that abortion is generally safer than continuing a pregnancy to term worldwide on average abortion is safer than carrying a pregnancy to term a 2007 study reported that 26 of all pregnancies worldwide are terminated by induced abortion whereas deaths from improperly performed abortion procedures constitute 13 of maternal mortality globally in indonesia in 2000 it was estimated that 2 million pregnancies ended in abortion 45 million pregnancies were carried to term and 1416 percent of maternal deaths resulted from abortion in the us from 2000 to 2009 abortion had a mortality rate lower than plastic surgery lower or similar to running a marathon and about equivalent to traveling in a passenger car five years after seeking abortion services women who gave birth after being denied an abortion reported worse health than women who had either first or second trimester abortions the risk of abortionrelated mortality increases with gestational age but remains lower than that of childbirth outpatient abortion is as safe from 64 to 70 days gestation as it before 63 days there is little difference in terms of safety and efficacy between medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol and surgical abortion vacuum aspiration in early first trimester abortions up to 10 weeks gestation medical abortion using the prostaglandin analog misoprostol alone is less effective and more painful than medical abortion using a combined regimen of mifepristone and misoprostol or surgical abortion vacuum aspiration in the first trimester is the safest method of surgical abortion and can be performed in a primary care office abortion clinic or hospital complications which are rare can include uterine perforation pelvic infection and retained products of conception requiring a second procedure to evacuate infections account for onethird of abortionrelated deaths in the united states the rate of complications of vacuum aspiration abortion in the first trimester is similar regardless of whether the procedure is performed in a hospital surgical center or office preventive antibiotics such as doxycycline or metronidazole are typically given before abortion procedures as they are believed to substantially reduce the risk of postoperative uterine infection however antibiotics are not routinely given with abortion pills the rate of failed procedures does not appear to vary significantly depending on whether the abortion is performed by a doctor or a midlevel practitioner complications after second trimester abortion are similar to those after first trimester abortion and depend somewhat on the method chosen the risk of death from abortion approaches roughly half the risk of death from childbirth the farther along a woman is in pregnancy from one in a million before 9 weeks gestation to nearly one in ten thousand at 21 weeks or more as measured from the last menstrual period it appears that having had a prior surgical uterine evacuation whether because of induced abortion or treatment of miscarriage correlates with a small increase in the risk of preterm birth in future pregnancies the studies supporting this did not control for factors not related to abortion or miscarriage and hence the causes of this correlation have not been determined although multiple possibilities have been suggested some purported risks of abortion are promoted primarily by antiabortion groups but lack scientific support for example the question of a link between induced abortion and breast cancer has been investigated extensively major medical and scientific bodies including the who national cancer institute american cancer society royal college of obgyn and american congress of obgyn have concluded that abortion does not cause breast cancer in the past even illegality has not automatically meant that the abortions were unsafe referring to the us historian linda gordon states in fact illegal abortions in this country have an impressive safety record according to rickie solinger authors jerome bates and edward zawadzki describe the case of an illegal abortionist in the eastern us in the early 20th century who was proud of having successfully completed 13844 abortions without any fatality in 1870s new york city the famous abortionistmidwife madame restell anna trow lohman appears to have lost very few women among her more than 100000 patientsa lower mortality rate than the childbirth mortality rate at the time in 1936 the prominent professor of obstetrics and gynecology frederick j taussig wrote that a cause of increasing mortality during the years of illegality in the us was that mental health current evidence finds no relationship between most induced abortions and mental health problems other than those expected for any unwanted pregnancy a report by the american psychological association concluded that a womans first abortion is not a threat to mental health when carried out in the first trimester with such women no more likely to have mentalhealth problems than those carrying an unwanted pregnancy to term the mentalhealth outcome of a womans second or greater abortion is less certain some older reviews concluded that abortion was associated with an increased risk of psychological problems however later reviews of the medical literature found that they did not use an appropriate control group when a control group is utilized receiving abortion is not associated with adverse psychological outcomes however women seeking abortion who are denied access to abortion have an increase in anxiety after the denial although some studies show negative mentalhealth outcomes in women who choose abortions after the first trimester because of fetal abnormalities more rigorous research would be needed to show this conclusively some proposed negative psychological effects of abortion have been referred to by antiabortion advocates as a separate condition called postabortion syndrome but this is not recognized by medical or psychological professionals in the united states a 2020 long termstudy among us women found that about 99 of women felt that they made the right decision five years after they had an abortion relief was the primary emotion with few women feeling sadness or guilt social stigma was a main factor predicting negative emotions and regret years later unsafe abortion women seeking an abortion may use unsafe methods especially when it is legally restricted they may attempt selfinduced abortion or seek the help of a person without proper medical training or facilities this can lead to severe complications such as incomplete abortion sepsis hemorrhage and damage to internal organs unsafe abortions are a major cause of injury and death among women worldwide although data are imprecise it is estimated that approximately 20 million unsafe abortions are performed annually with 97 taking place in developing countries unsafe abortions are believed to result in millions of injuries estimates of deaths vary according to methodology and have ranged from 37000 to 70000 in the past decade deaths from unsafe abortion account for around 13 of all maternal deaths the world health organization believes that mortality has fallen since the 1990s to reduce the number of unsafe abortions public health organizations have generally advocated emphasizing the legalization of abortion training of medical personnel and ensuring access to reproductivehealth services a major factor in whether abortions are performed safely or not is the legal standing of abortion countries with restrictive abortion laws have higher rates of unsafe abortion and similar overall abortion rates compared to those where abortion is legal and available for example the 1996 legalization of abortion in south africa had an immediate positive impact on the frequency of abortionrelated complications with abortionrelated deaths dropping by more than 90 similar reductions in maternal mortality have been observed after other countries have liberalized their abortion laws such as romania and nepal a 2011 study concluded that in the united states some statelevel antiabortion laws are correlated with lower rates of abortion in that state the analysis however did not take into account travel to other states without such laws to obtain an abortion in addition a lack of access to effective contraception contributes to unsafe abortion it has been estimated that the incidence of unsafe abortion could be reduced by up to 75 from 20 million to 5 million annually if modern family planning and maternal health services were readily available globally rates of such abortions may be difficult to measure because they can be reported variously as miscarriage induced miscarriage menstrual regulation miniabortion and regulation of a delayedsuspended menstruation forty percent of the worlds women are able to access therapeutic and elective abortions within gestational limits while an additional 35 percent have access to legal abortion if they meet certain physical mental or socioeconomic criteria while maternal mortality seldom results from safe abortions unsafe abortions result in 70000 deaths and 5 million disabilities per year complications of unsafe abortion account for approximately an eighth of maternal mortalities worldwide though this varies by region secondary infertility caused by an unsafe abortion affects an estimated 24 million women the rate of unsafe abortions has increased from 44 to 49 between 1995 and 2008 health education access to family planning and improvements in health care during and after abortion have been proposed to address consequences of unsafe abortion incidence there are two commonly used methods of measuring the incidence of abortion abortion rate number of abortions annually per 1000 women between 15 and 44 years of age some sources use a range of 1549 abortion percentage number of abortions out of 100 known pregnancies pregnancies include live births abortions and miscarriages in many places where abortion is illegal or carries a heavy social stigma medical reporting of abortion is not reliable for this reason estimates of the incidence of abortion must be made without determining certainty related to standard error the number of abortions performed worldwide seems to have remained stable in the early 2000s with 416 million having been performed in 2003 and 438 million having been performed in 2008 the abortion rate worldwide was 28 per 1000 women per year though it was 24 per 1000 women per year for developed countries and 29 per 1000 women per year for developing countries the same 2012 study indicated that in 2008 the estimated abortion percentage of known pregnancies was at 21 worldwide with 26 in developed countries and 20 in developing countries on average the incidence of abortion is similar in countries with restrictive abortion laws and those with more liberal access to abortion restrictive abortion laws are associated with increases in the percentage of abortions performed unsafely the unsafe abortion rate in developing countries is partly attributable to lack of access to modern contraceptives according to the guttmacher institute providing access to contraceptives would result in about 145 million fewer unsafe abortions and 38000 fewer deaths from unsafe abortion annually worldwide the rate of legal induced abortion varies extensively worldwide according to the report of employees of guttmacher institute it ranged from 7 per 1000 women per year germany and switzerland to 30 per 1000 women per year estonia in countries with complete statistics in 2008 the proportion of pregnancies that ended in induced abortion ranged from about 10 israel the netherlands and switzerland to 30 estonia in the same group though it might be as high as 36 in hungary and romania whose statistics were deemed incomplete an american study in 2002 concluded that about half of women having abortions were using a form of contraception at the time of becoming pregnant inconsistent use was reported by half of those using condoms and threequarters of those using the birth control pill 42 of those using condoms reported failure through slipping or breakage the guttmacher institute estimated that most abortions in the united states are obtained by minority women because minority women have much higher rates of unintended pregnancy in a 2022 analysis by the kaiser family foundation while people of color comprise 44 of the population in mississippi 59 of the population in texas 42 of the population in louisiana by the state health department and 35 of the population in alabama they comprise 80 74 72 and 70 of those receiving abortions the abortion rate may also be expressed as the average number of abortions a woman has during her reproductive years this is referred to as total abortion rate tar gestational age and method abortion rates also vary depending on the stage of pregnancy and the method practiced in 2003 the centers for disease control and prevention cdc reported that 26 of reported legal induced abortions in the united states were known to have been obtained at less than 6 weeks gestation 18 at 7 weeks 15 at 8 weeks 18 at 9 through 10 weeks 10 at 11 through 12 weeks 6 at 13 through 15 weeks 4 at 16 through 20 weeks and 1 at more than 21 weeks 91 of these were classified as having been done by curettage suctionaspiration dilation and curettage dilation and evacuation 8 by medical means mifepristone 1 by intrauterine instillation saline or prostaglandin and 1 by other including hysterotomy and hysterectomy according to the cdc due to data collection difficulties the data must be viewed as tentative and some fetal deaths reported beyond 20 weeks may be natural deaths erroneously classified as abortions if the removal of the dead fetus is accomplished by the same procedure as an induced abortion the guttmacher institute estimated there were 2200 intact dilation and extraction procedures in the us during 2000 this accounts for 02 of the total number of abortions performed that year similarly in england and wales in 2006 89 of terminations occurred at or under 12 weeks 9 between 13 and 19 weeks and 2 at or over 20 weeks 64 of those reported were by vacuum aspiration 6 by de and 30 were medical there are more second trimester abortions in developing countries such as china india and vietnam than in developed countries there are both medical and nonmedical reasons to have an abortion later in pregnancy after 20 weeks a study was conducted from 2008 to 2010 at the university of california san francisco where more than 440 women were asked about why they experienced delays in obtaining abortion care if there were any this study found that almost half of individuals who obtained an abortion after 20 weeks did not suspect that they were pregnant until later in their pregnancy other barriers to abortion care found in the study included lack of information about where to access an abortion difficulties with transportation lack of insurance coverage and inability to pay for the abortion procedure medical reasons for seeking an abortion later in pregnancy include fetal anomalies and health risk to the pregnant person there are diagnostic tests that can diagnose down syndrome or cystic fibrosis as early as 10 weeks into gestation but structural fetal anomalies are often detected much later in pregnancy a proportion of structural fetal anomalies are lethal which means that the fetus will almost certainly die before or shortly after birth lifethreatening conditions may also develop later in pregnancy such as early severe preeclampsia newly diagnosed cancer in need of urgent treatment and intrauterine infection chorioamnionitis which often occurs along with premature rupture of the amniotic sac pprom if serious medical conditions such as these arise before the fetus is viable the person carrying the pregnancy may pursue an abortion to preserve their own health motivation personal the reasons why women have abortions are diverse and vary across the world some of the reasons may include an inability to afford a child domestic violence lack of support feeling they are too young and the wish to complete education or advance a career additional reasons include not being able or willing to raise a child conceived as a result of rape or incest societal some abortions are undergone as the result of societal pressures these might include the preference for children of a specific sex or race disapproval of single or early motherhood stigmatization of people with disabilities insufficient economic support for families lack of access to or rejection of contraceptive methods or efforts toward population control such as chinas onechild policy these factors can sometimes result in compulsory abortion or sexselective abortion maternal and fetal health an additional factor is maternal health which was listed as the main reason by about a third of women in 3 of 27 countries and about 7 of women in a further 7 of these 27 countries in the us the supreme court decisions in roe v wade and doe v bolton ruled that the states interest in the life of the fetus became compelling only at the point of viability defined as the point at which the fetus can survive independently of its mother even after the point of viability the state cannot favor the life of the fetus over the life or health of the pregnant woman under the right of privacy physicians must be free to use their medical judgment for the preservation of the life or health of the mother on the same day that the court decided roe it also decided doe v bolton in which the court defined health very broadly the medical judgment may be exercised in the light of all factorsphysical emotional psychological familial and the womans agerelevant to the wellbeing of the patient all these factors may relate to health this allows the attending physician the room he needs to make his best medical judgment public opinion shifted in america following television personality sherri finkbines discovery during her fifth month of pregnancy that she had been exposed to thalidomide unable to obtain a legal abortion in the united states she traveled to sweden from 1962 to 1965 an outbreak of german measles left 15000 babies with severe birth defects in 1967 the american medical association publicly supported liberalization of abortion laws a national opinion research center poll in 1965 showed 73 supported abortion when the mothers life was at risk 57 when birth defects were present and 59 for pregnancies resulting from rape or incest cancer the rate of cancer during pregnancy is 0021 and in many cases cancer of the mother leads to consideration of abortion to protect the life of the mother or in response to the potential damage that may occur to the fetus during treatment this is particularly true for cervical cancer the most common type of which occurs in 1 of every 200013000 pregnancies for which initiation of treatment cannot coexist with preservation of fetal life unless neoadjuvant chemotherapy is chosen very early stage cervical cancers i and iia may be treated by radical hysterectomy and pelvic lymph node dissection radiation therapy or both while later stages are treated by radiotherapy chemotherapy may be used simultaneously treatment of breast cancer during pregnancy also involves fetal considerations because lumpectomy is discouraged in favor of modified radical mastectomy unless lateterm pregnancy allows followup radiation therapy to be administered after the birth exposure to a single chemotherapy drug is estimated to cause a 7517 risk of teratogenic effects on the fetus with higher risks for multiple drug treatments treatment with more than 40 gy of radiation usually causes spontaneous abortion exposure to much lower doses during the first trimester especially 8 to 15 weeks of development can cause intellectual disability or microcephaly and exposure at this or subsequent stages can cause reduced intrauterine growth and birth weight exposures above 00050025 gy cause a dosedependent reduction in iq it is possible to greatly reduce exposure to radiation with abdominal shielding depending on how far the area to be irradiated is from the fetus the process of birth itself may also put the mother at risk according to li et al vaginal delivery may result in dissemination of neoplastic cells into lymphovascular channels haemorrhage cervical laceration and implantation of malignant cells in the episiotomy site while abdominal delivery may delay the initiation of nonsurgical treatment history and religion since ancient times abortions have been done using a number of methods including herbal medicines acting as abortifacients sharp tools through the use of force or through other traditional medicine methods induced abortion has a long history and can be traced back to civilizations as varied as ancient china abortifacient knowledge is often attributed to the mythological ruler shennong ancient india since its vedic age ancient egypt with its ebers papyrus and the roman empire in the time of juvenal one of the earliest known artistic representations of abortion is in a bas relief at angkor wat found in a series of friezes that represent judgment after death in hindu and buddhist culture it depicts the technique of abdominal abortion in judaism the fetus is not considered to have a human soul until it is safely outside of the woman is viable and has taken its first breath the fetus is considered valuable property of the woman and not a human life while in the womb while judaism encourages people to be fruitful and multiply by having children abortion is allowed and is deemed necessary when a pregnant womans life is in danger several religions including judaism which disagree that human life begins at conception support the legality of abortion on religious freedom grounds in islam abortion is traditionally permitted until a point in time when muslims believe the soul enters the fetus considered by various theologians to be at conception 40 days after conception 120 days after conception or quickening abortion is largely heavily restricted or forbidden in areas of high islamic faith such as the middle east and north africa some medical scholars and abortion opponents have suggested that the hippocratic oath forbade physicians in ancient greece from performing abortions other scholars disagree with this interpretation and state that the medical texts of hippocratic corpus contain descriptions of abortive techniques right alongside the oath the physician scribonius largus wrote in 43 ce that the hippocratic oath prohibits abortion as did soranus of ephesus although apparently not all doctors adhered to it strictly at the time according to soranus 1st or 2nd century ce work gynaecology one party of medical practitioners banished all abortives as required by the hippocratic oath the other party to which he belonged was willing to prescribe abortions only for the sake of the mothers health in politics 350 bce aristotle condemned infanticide as a means of population control he preferred abortion in such cases with the restriction that it must be practised on it before it has developed sensation and life for the line between lawful and unlawful abortion will be marked by the fact of having sensation and being alive in the catholic church opinion was divided on how serious abortion was in comparison with such acts as contraception oral sex and sex in marriage for pleasure rather than procreation the catholic church did not begin vigorously opposing abortion until the 19th century as early as 100 ce the didache taught that abortion was sinful several historians argue that prior to the 19th century most catholic authors did not regard termination of pregnancy before quickening or ensoulment as an abortion among these authors were the doctors of the church such as st augustine st thomas aquinas and st alphonsus liguori in 1588 pope sixtus v 15851590 was the only pope before pope pius ix in his 1869 bull apostolicae sedis to institute a church policy labeling all abortion as homicide and condemning abortion regardless of the stage of pregnancy sixtus vs pronouncement was reversed in 1591 by pope gregory xiv in the recodification of 1917 code of canon law apostolicae sedis was strengthened in part to remove a possible reading that excluded excommunication of the mother statements made in the catechism of the catholic church the codified summary of the churchs teachings considers abortion from the moment of conception as homicide and called for the end of legal abortion denominations that support abortion rights with some limits include the united methodist church episcopal church evangelical lutheran church in america and presbyterian church usa a 2014 guttmacher survey of abortion patients in the united states found that many reported a religious affiliation 24 were catholic while 30 were protestant a 1995 survey reported that catholic women are as likely as the general population to terminate a pregnancy protestants are less likely to do so and evangelical christians are the least likely to do so a 2019 pew research center study found that most christian denominations were against overturning roe v wade which in the united states legalized abortion at around 70 except white evangelicals at 35 abortion has been a fairly common practice and was not always illegal or controversial until the 19th century under common law including early english common law dating back to edward coke in 1648 abortion was generally permitted before quickening 1426 weeks after conception or between the fourth and sixth month and at womens discretion it was whether abortion was performed after quickening that determined if it was a crime in europe and north america abortion techniques advanced starting in the 17th century the conservatism of most in the medical profession with regards to sexual matters prevented the wide expansion of abortion techniques other medical practitioners in addition to some physicians advertised their services and they were not widely regulated until the 19th century when the practice sometimes called restellism was banned in both the united states and the united kingdom some 19thcentury physicians one of the most famous and consequential being american horatio storer argued for antiabortion laws on racist and misogynist as well as moral grounds church groups were also highly influential in antiabortion movements and religious groups more so since the 20th century some of the early antiabortion laws punished only the doctor or abortionist and while women could be criminally tried for a selfinduced abortion they were rarely prosecuted in general in the united states some argued that abortion was more dangerous than childbirth until about 1930 when incremental improvements in abortion procedures relative to childbirth made abortion safer others maintain that in the 19th century early abortions under the hygienic conditions in which midwives usually worked were relatively safe several scholars argue that despite improved medical procedures the period from the 1930s until the 1970s saw more zealous enforcement of antiabortion laws alongside an increasing control of abortion providers by organized crime in 1920 soviet russia became the first country to legalize abortion after lenin insisted that no woman be forced to give birth iceland 1935 and sweden 1938 would follow suit to legalize certain or all forms of abortion in nazi germany 1935 a law permitted abortions for those deemed hereditarily ill while women considered of german stock were specifically prohibited from having abortions beginning in the second half of the 20th century abortion was legalized in a greater number of countries in japan abortion was first legalized by the 1948 eugenics protection law meant to prevent the births of inferior humans due to japans continuing strongly patriarchal culture and traditional views on womens societal roles women who want an abortion must normally get written permission from their partner society and culture abortion debate induced abortion has long been the source of considerable debate ethical moral philosophical biological religious and legal issues surrounding abortion are related to value systems opinions of abortion may be about fetal rights governmental authority and womens rights in both public and private debate arguments presented in favor of or against abortion access focus on either the moral permissibility of an induced abortion or the justification of laws permitting or restricting abortion the world medical association declaration on therapeutic abortion notes circumstances bringing the interests of a mother into conflict with the interests of her unborn child create a dilemma and raise the question as to whether or not the pregnancy should be deliberately terminated abortion debates especially pertaining to abortion laws are often spearheaded by groups advocating one of these two positions groups who favor greater legal restrictions on abortion including complete prohibition most often describe themselves as prolife while groups who are against such legal restrictions describe themselves as prochoice modern abortion law current laws pertaining to abortion are diverse religious moral and cultural factors continue to influence abortion laws throughout the world the right to life the right to liberty the right to security of person and the right to reproductive health are major issues of human rights that sometimes constitute the basis for the existence or absence of abortion laws in jurisdictions where abortion is legal certain requirements must often be met before a woman may obtain a legal abortion an abortion performed without the womans consent is considered feticide these requirements usually depend on the age of the fetus often using a trimesterbased system to regulate the window of legality or as in the us on a doctors evaluation of the fetus viability some jurisdictions require a waiting period before the procedure prescribe the distribution of information on fetal development or require that parents be contacted if their minor daughter requests an abortion other jurisdictions may require that a woman obtain the consent of the fetus father before aborting the fetus that abortion providers inform women of health risks of the proceduresometimes including risks not supported by the medical literatureand that multiple medical authorities certify that the abortion is either medically or socially necessary many restrictions are waived in emergency situations china which has ended their onechild policy and now has a two child policy has at times incorporated mandatory abortions as part of their population control strategy other jurisdictions ban abortion almost entirely many but not all of these allow legal abortions in a variety of circumstances these circumstances vary based on jurisdiction but may include whether the pregnancy is a result of rape or incest the fetus development is impaired the womans physical or mental wellbeing is endangered or socioeconomic considerations make childbirth a hardship in countries where abortion is banned entirely such as nicaragua medical authorities have recorded rises in maternal death directly and indirectly due to pregnancy as well as deaths due to doctors fears of prosecution if they treat other gynecological emergencies some countries such as bangladesh that nominally ban abortion may also support clinics that perform abortions under the guise of menstrual hygiene this is also a terminology in traditional medicine in places where abortion is illegal or carries heavy social stigma pregnant women may engage in medical tourism and travel to countries where they can terminate their pregnancies women without the means to travel can resort to providers of illegal abortions or attempt to perform an abortion by themselves the organization women on waves has been providing education about medical abortions since 1999 the ngo created a mobile medical clinic inside a shipping container which then travels on rented ships to countries with restrictive abortion laws because the ships are registered in the netherlands dutch law prevails when the ship is in international waters while in port the organization provides free workshops and education while in international waters medical personnel are legally able to prescribe medical abortion drugs and counseling sexselective abortion sonography and amniocentesis allow parents to determine sex before childbirth the development of this technology has led to sexselective abortion or the termination of a fetus based on its sex the selective termination of a female fetus is most common sexselective abortion is partially responsible for the noticeable disparities between the birth rates of male and female children in some countries the preference for male children is reported in many areas of asia and abortion used to limit female births has been reported in taiwan south korea india and china this deviation from the standard birth rates of males and females occurs despite the fact that the country in question may have officially banned sexselective abortion or even sexscreening in china a historical preference for a male child has been exacerbated by the onechild policy which was enacted in 1979 many countries have taken legislative steps to reduce the incidence of sexselective abortion at the international conference on population and development in 1994 over 180 states agreed to eliminate all forms of discrimination against the girl child and the root causes of son preference conditions also condemned by a pace resolution in 2011 the world health organization and unicef along with other united nations agencies have found that measures to restrict access to abortion in an effort to reduce sexselective abortions have unintended negative consequences largely stemming from the fact that women may seek or be coerced into seeking unsafe extralegal abortions on the other hand measures to reduce gender inequality can reduce the prevalence of such abortions without attendant negative consequences antiabortion violence in a number of cases abortion providers and these facilities have been subjected to various forms of violence including murder attempted murder kidnapping stalking assault arson and bombing antiabortion violence is classified by both governmental and scholarly sources as terrorism in the us and canada over 8000 incidents of violence trespassing and death threats have been recorded by providers since 1977 including over 200 bombingsarsons and hundreds of assaults the majority of abortion opponents have not been involved in violent acts in the united states four physicians who performed abortions have been murdered david gunn 1993 john britton 1994 barnett slepian 1998 and george tiller 2009 also murdered in the us and australia have been other personnel at abortion clinics including receptionists and security guards such as james barrett shannon lowney lee ann nichols and robert sanderson woundings eg garson romalis and attempted murders have also taken place in the united states and canada hundreds of bombings arsons acid attacks invasions and incidents of vandalism against abortion providers have occurred notable perpetrators of antiabortion violence include eric robert rudolph scott roeder shelley shannon and paul jennings hill the first person to be executed in the united states for murdering an abortion provider legal protection of access to abortion has been brought into some countries where abortion is legal these laws typically seek to protect abortion clinics from obstruction vandalism picketing and other actions or to protect women and employees of such facilities from threats and harassment far more common than physical violence is psychological pressure in 2003 chris danze organized antiabortion organizations throughout texas to prevent the construction of a planned parenthood facility in austin the organizations released the personal information online of those involved with construction sent them up to 1200 phone calls a day and contacted their churches some protestors record women entering clinics on camera nonhuman examples spontaneous abortion occurs in various animals for example in sheep it may be caused by stress or physical exertion such as crowding through doors or being chased by dogs in cows abortion may be caused by contagious disease such as brucellosis or campylobacter but can often be controlled by vaccination eating pine needles can also induce abortions in cows several plants including broomweed skunk cabbage poison hemlock and tree tobacco are known to cause fetal deformities and abortion in cattle and in sheep and goats in horses a fetus may be aborted or resorbed if it has lethal white syndrome congenital intestinal aganglionosis foal embryos that are homozygous for the dominant white gene ww are theorized to also be aborted or resorbed before birth in many species of sharks and rays stressinduced abortions occur frequently on capture viral infection can cause abortion in dogs cats can experience spontaneous abortion for many reasons including hormonal imbalance a combined abortion and spaying is performed on pregnant cats especially in trapneuterreturn programs to prevent unwanted kittens from being born female rodents may terminate a pregnancy when exposed to the smell of a male not responsible for the pregnancy known as the bruce effect abortion may also be induced in animals in the context of animal husbandry for example abortion may be induced in mares that have been mated improperly or that have been purchased by owners who did not realize the mares were pregnant or that are pregnant with twin foals feticide can occur in horses and zebras due to male harassment of pregnant mares or forced copulation although the frequency in the wild has been questioned male gray langur monkeys may attack females following male takeover causing miscarriage see also abortion doula forced abortion indirect abortion notes references bibliography external links firsttrimester abortion in women with medical conditions us department of health and human services safe abortion technical policy guidance for health systems world health organization 2015 human reproduction wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate wikipedia emergency medicine articles ready to translate	8,326
766	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract%20%28law%29	Abstract (law)	in law an abstract is a brief statement that contains the most important points of a long legal document or of several related legal papers types of legislation the abstract of title used in real estate transactions is the more common form of abstract an abstract of title lists all the owners of a piece of land a house or a building before it came into possession of the present owner the abstract also records all deeds wills mortgages and other documents that affect ownership of the property an abstract describes a chain of transfers from owner to owner and any agreements by former owners that are binding on later owners patent law in the context of patent law and specifically in prior art searches searching through abstracts is a common way to find relevant prior art document to question to novelty or inventive step or nonobviousness in united states patent law of an invention under united states patent law the abstract may be called abstract of the disclosure references external links defining the requirements regarding the abstract in an international application filed under patent cooperation treaty pct and previously defining the abstractrelated requirements in a european patent application legal research	201
771	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Revolutionary%20War	American Revolutionary War	the american revolutionary war april 19 1775 september 3 1783 also known as the revolutionary war or american war of independence was the military conflict of the american revolution in which american patriot forces under george washingtons command defeated the british resulting in the treaty of paris 1783 recognizing the independence and sovereignty of the united states fighting began on april 19 1775 at the battles of lexington and concord the war was formalized and intensified following passage of the lee resolution which asserted that the thirteen colonies were free and independent states by the second continental congress in philadelphia on july 2 1776 and the unanimous ratification of the declaration of independence two days later on july 4 1776 american patriot forces eventually gained the support of the kingdom of france and the kingdom of spain the british and loyalist forces also included hessian soldiers from germany the conflict was fought in north america the caribbean and the atlantic ocean the american colonies were established by royal charter in the 17th and 18th centuries they were initially largely autonomous in domestic affairs and commercially prosperous trading with britain its caribbean colonies and other european powers via their caribbean entrepôts after the british gained victory over the french in the seven years war in 1763 tensions and disputes arose between britain and the colonies over the lack of political representation in the homeland and policies related to trade transappalachian settlement and taxation including the stamp and townshend acts resulting british military occupation led to the boston massacre in 1770 which strengthened american patriots desire for independence from britain the british responded by repealing earlier taxation measures but in 1773 the british parliament adopted the tea act to demonstrate supremacy a measure which led to the boston tea party on december 16 1773 in response the british parliament imposed the intolerable acts in mid1774 closed boston harbor and revoked massachusetts charter which placed the colony under the british monarchys direct governance these measures rallied the other colonies 12 of which sent delegates to the first continental congress in philadelphia in early september 1774 to protest the measures and deliberate on potential responses the congress drafted a petition to the king asking for peace and threatened a boycott of british goods known as the continental association if the intolerable acts were not withdrawn the british attempted to disarm the americans and the resulting fighting at the battle of lexington on april 19 1775 in effect ignited the war in june the second continental congress formalized patriot militias into the continental army and appointed george washington its commanderinchief the coercion policy advocated by the north ministry was opposed by a faction within the british parliament but both sides began to see military conflict as inevitable congress sent the olive branch petition to king george iii in july 1775 but he rejected it and the british parliament declared the colonies to be in a state of rebellion in august as the revolutionary war formally launched washingtons forces drove the british army out of boston during the siege of boston in march 1776 and british commander in chief william howe responded by launching the new york and new jersey campaign howe captured new york city in november and washington responded by clandestinely crossing the delaware river and winning small but significant victories at trenton and princeton which restored patriot confidence in summer 1777 as howe was poised to capture philadelphia the continental congress prepared for philadelphias fall by fleeing the city for baltimore in october 1777 a separate british force under the command of john burgoyne was forced to surrender at saratoga in an american victory that proved crucial in convincing france and spain that an independent united states was a viable possibility with philadelphia still occupied by the british washington and 12000 continental army troops secured refuge in valley forge from december 1777 to june 1778 at valley forge general von steuben drilled the continental army into a more viable fighting unit but as many as 2000 continental army troops died from disease and possibly malnutrition over a brutal winter france provided the continental army with informal economic and military support from the beginning of the war after saratoga the two countries signed a commercial agreement and a treaty of alliance in february 1778 in 1779 spain also allied with france against britain in the treaty of aranjuez though spain did not formally ally with the americans access to ports in spanish louisiana allowed american patriots to import arms and supplies while the spanish gulf coast campaign deprived the british royal navy of key bases in the american south closure of american ports undermined the 1778 strategy devised by howes replacement henry clinton which intended to take the war against the americans into the south despite some initial success cornwallis was besieged by a francoamerican force in yorktown in september and october 1781 cornwallis attempted to resupply the garrison but failed and was forced to surrender in october the british wars with france and spain continued for another two years but britains forces in america were largely confined to several harbors and forts in great lakes and fighting largely ceased in america in april 1782 the north ministry was replaced by a new british government which accepted american independence and began negotiating the treaty of paris ratified on september 3 1783 and britain acknowledged the sovereignty and independence of the united states of america bringing the american revolutionary war to an end the treaties of versailles resolved britains conflicts with france and spain prelude to revolution the french and indian war part of the wider global conflict known as the seven years war ended with the 1763 peace of paris which expelled france from britains possessions in new france acquisition of territories in atlantic canada and west florida inhabited largely by french or spanishspeaking catholics led british authorities to consolidate their hold by populating them with englishspeaking settlers preventing conflict between settlers and indian tribes west of the appalachian mountains also avoided the cost of an expensive military occupation the royal proclamation of 1763 was designed to achieve these aims by refocusing colonial expansion north into nova scotia and south into florida with the mississippi river as the dividing line between british and spanish possessions in america settlement was tightly restricted beyond the 1763 limits and claims west of this line including by virginia and massachusetts were rescinded despite the fact that each colony argued that their boundaries extended from the atlantic ocean to the pacific ocean the vast exchange of territory ultimately destabilized existing alliances and trade networks between settlers and indians in the west while it proved impossible to prevent encroachment beyond the proclamation line with the exception of virginia and others deprived of rights to western lands the colonial legislatures agreed on the boundaries but disagreed on where to set them many settlers resented the restrictions entirely and enforcement required permanent garrisons along the frontier which led to increasingly bitter disputes over who should pay for them taxation and legislation although directly administered by the crown acting through a local governor the colonies were largely governed by nativeborn property owners while external affairs were managed by london colonial militia were funded locally but with the ending of the french threat in 1763 the legislatures expected less taxation not more at the same time the huge debt incurred by the seven years war and demands from british taxpayers for cuts in government expenditure meant parliament expected the colonies to fund their own defense the 1763 to 1765 grenville ministry instructed the royal navy to cease trading smuggled goods and enforce customs duties levied in american ports the most important was the 1733 molasses act routinely ignored prior to 1763 it had a significant economic impact since 85 of new england rum exports were manufactured from imported molasses these measures were followed by the sugar act and stamp act which imposed additional taxes on the colonies to pay for defending the western frontier in july 1765 the whigs formed the first rockingham ministry which repealed the stamp act and reduced tax on foreign molasses to help the new england economy but reasserted parliamentary authority in the declaratory act however this did little to end the discontent in 1768 a riot started in boston when the authorities seized the sloop liberty on suspicion of smuggling tensions escalated further in march 1770 when british troops fired on rockthrowing civilians killing five in what became known as the boston massacre the massacre coincided with the partial repeal of the townshend acts by the torybased north ministry which came to power in january 1770 and remained in office until 1781 north insisted on retaining duty on tea to enshrine parliaments right to tax the colonies the amount was minor but ignored the fact it was that very principle americans found objectionable tensions escalated following the destruction of a customs vessel in the june 1772 gaspee affair then came to a head in 1773 a banking crisis led to the nearcollapse of the east india company which dominated the british economy to support it parliament passed the tea act giving it a trading monopoly in the thirteen colonies since most american tea was smuggled by the dutch the act was opposed by those who managed the illegal trade while being seen as yet another attempt to impose the principle of taxation by parliament in december 1773 a group called the sons of liberty disguised as mohawk natives dumped 342 crates of tea into boston harbor an event later known as the boston tea party the british parliament responded by passing the socalled intolerable acts aimed specifically at massachusetts although many colonists and members of the whig opposition considered them a threat to liberty in general this led to increased sympathy for the patriot cause locally in british parliament and in the london press break with the british crown throughout the 18th century the elected lower houses in the colonial legislatures gradually wrested power from their royal governors dominated by smaller landowners and merchants these assemblies now established adhoc provincial legislatures variously called congresses conventions and conferences effectively replacing royal control with the exception of georgia twelve colonies sent representatives to the first continental congress to agree on a unified response to the crisis many of the delegates feared that an allout boycott would result in war and sent a petition to the king calling for the repeal of the intolerable acts however after some debate on september 17 1774 congress endorsed the massachusetts suffolk resolves and on october 20 passed the continental association based on a draft prepared by the first virginia convention in august the association instituted economic sanctions and a full boycott of goods against britain while denying its authority over internal american affairs a faction led by james duane and future loyalist joseph galloway insisted congress recognize parliaments right to regulate colonial trade expecting concessions by the north administration congress authorized the extralegal committees and conventions of the colonial legislatures to enforce the boycott this succeeded in reducing british imports by 97 from 1774 to 1775 however on february 9 parliament declared massachusetts to be in a state of rebellion and instituted a blockade of the colony in july the restraining acts limited colonial trade with the british west indies and britain and barred new england ships from the newfoundland cod fisheries the increase in tension led to a scramble for control of militia stores which each assembly was legally obliged to maintain for defense on april 19 a british attempt to secure the concord arsenal culminated in the battles of lexington and concord which began the revolutionary war political reactions after the patriot victory at concord moderates in congress led by john dickinson drafted the olive branch petition offering to accept royal authority in return for george iii mediating in the dispute however since the petition was immediately followed by the declaration of the causes and necessity of taking up arms colonial secretary lord dartmouth viewed the offer as insincere he refused to present the petition to the king which was therefore rejected in early september although constitutionally correct since george could not oppose his own government it disappointed those americans who hoped he would mediate in the dispute while the hostility of his language annoyed even loyalist members of congress combined with the proclamation of rebellion issued on august 23 in response to the battle at bunker hill it ended hopes of a peaceful settlement backed by the whigs parliament initially rejected the imposition of coercive measures by 170 votes fearing an aggressive policy would simply drive the americans towards independence however by the end of 1774 the collapse of british authority meant both lord north and george iii were convinced war was inevitable after boston gage halted operations and awaited reinforcements the irish parliament approved the recruitment of new regiments while allowing catholics to enlist for the first time britain also signed a series of treaties with german states to supply additional troops within a year it had an army of over 32000 men in america the largest ever sent outside europe at the time the employment of german soldiers against people viewed as british citizens was opposed by many in parliament and by the colonial assemblies combined with the lack of activity by gage opposition to the use of foreign troops allowed the patriots to take control of the legislatures declaration of independence support for independence was boosted by thomas paines pamphlet common sense which was published january 10 1776 and argued for american selfgovernment and was widely reprinted to draft the declaration of independence the second continental congress appointed the committee of five consisting of thomas jefferson john adams benjamin franklin roger sherman and robert livingston the declaration was written almost exclusively by jefferson who wrote it largely in isolation between june 11 and june 28 1776 in a threestory residence at 700 market street in philadelphia identifying inhabitants of the thirteen colonies as one people the declaration simultaneously dissolved political links with britain while including a long list of alleged violations of english rights committed by george iii this is also one of the foremost times that the colonies were referred to as united states rather than the more common united colonies on july 2 congress voted for independence and published the declaration on july 4 which washington read to his troops in new york city on july 9 at this point the revolution ceased to be an internal dispute over trade and tax policies and had evolved into a civil war since each state represented in congress was engaged in a struggle with britain but also split between american patriots and american loyalists patriots generally supported independence from britain and a new national union in congress while loyalists remained faithful to british rule estimates of numbers vary one suggestion being the population as a whole was split evenly between committed patriots committed loyalists and those who were indifferent others calculate the split as 40 patriot 40 neutral 20 loyalist but with considerable regional variations at the onset of the war the second continental congress realized defeating britain required foreign alliances and intelligencegathering the committee of secret correspondence was formed for the sole purpose of corresponding with our friends in great britain and other parts of the world from 1775 to 1776 the committee shared information and built alliances through secret correspondence as well as employing secret agents in europe to gather intelligence conduct undercover operations analyze foreign publications and initiate patriot propaganda campaigns paine served as secretary while benjamin franklin and silas deane sent to france to recruit military engineers were instrumental in securing french aid in paris war breaks out the revolutionary war included two principal campaign theaters within the thirteen colonies and a smaller but strategically important third one west of the appalachian mountains fighting began in the northern theater and was at its most severe from 1775 to 1778 american patriots achieved several strategic victories in the south the americans defeated the british army at saratoga in october 1777 and the french seeing the possibility for an american patriot victory in the war formally entered the war as an american ally during 1778 washington prevented the british army from breaking out of new york city while militia under george rogers clark conquered western quebec supported by francophone settlers and their indian allies which became the northwest territory the war became a stalemate in the north in 1779 so the british initiated their southern strategy which aimed to mobilize loyalist support in the region and occupy american patriotcontrolled territory north to chesapeake bay the campaign was initially successful with the british capture of charleston being a major setback for southern patriots however a francoamerican force surrounded the british army at yorktown and their surrender in october 1781 effectively ended fighting in america early engagements on april 14 1775 sir thomas gage commanderinchief north america since 1763 and also governor of massachusetts from 1774 received orders to take action against the patriots he decided to destroy militia ordnance stored at concord massachusetts and capture john hancock and samuel adams who were considered the principal instigators of the rebellion the operation was to begin around midnight on april 19 in the hope of completing it before the american patriots could respond however paul revere learned of the plan and notified captain parker commander of the concord militia who prepared to resist the attempted seizure the first action of the war commonly referred to as the shot heard round the world was a brief skirmish at lexington followed by the fullscale battles of lexington and concord british troops suffered around 300 casualties before withdrawing to boston which was then besieged by the militia in may 1775 4500 british reinforcements arrived under generals william howe john burgoyne and sir henry clinton on june 17 they seized the charlestown peninsula at the battle of bunker hill a frontal assault in which they suffered over 1000 casualties dismayed at the costly attack which had gained them little gage appealed to london for a larger army to suppress the revolt but instead was replaced as commander by howe on june 14 1775 congress took control of american patriot forces outside boston and congressional leader john adams nominated george washington as commanderinchief of the newly formed continental army washington previously commanded virginia militia regiments in the french and indian war and on june 16 john hancock officially proclaimed him general and commander in chief of the army of the united colonies he assumed command on july 3 preferring to fortify dorchester heights outside boston rather than assaulting it in early march 1776 colonel henry knox arrived with heavy artillery acquired in the capture of fort ticonderoga under cover of darkness on march 5 washington placed these on dorchester heights from where they could fire on the town and british ships in boston harbor fearing another bunker hill howe evacuated the city on march 17 without further loss and sailed to halifax nova scotia while washington moved south to new york city beginning in august 1775 american privateers raided towns in nova scotia including saint john charlottetown and yarmouth in 1776 john paul jones and jonathan eddy attacked canso and fort cumberland respectively british officials in quebec began negotiating with the iroquois for their support while us envoys urged them to remain neutral aware of native american leanings toward the british and fearing an angloindian attack from canada congress authorized a second invasion in april 1775 after defeat at the battle of quebec on december 31 the americans maintained a loose blockade of the city until they retreated on may 6 1776 a second defeat at troisrivières on june 8 ended operations in quebec british pursuit was initially blocked by american naval vessels on lake champlain until victory at valcour island on october 11 forced the americans to withdraw to fort ticonderoga while in december an uprising in nova scotia sponsored by massachusetts was defeated at fort cumberland these failures impacted public support for the patriot cause and aggressive antiloyalist policies in the new england colonies alienated the canadians in virginia an attempt by governor lord dunmore to seize militia stores on april 20 1775 led to an increase in tension although conflict was avoided for the time being this changed after the publication of dunmores proclamation on november 7 1775 promising freedom to any slaves who fled their patriot masters and agreed to fight for the crown british forces were defeated at great bridge on december 9 and took refuge on british ships anchored near the port of norfolk when the third virginia convention refused to disband its militia or accept martial law dunmore ordered the burning of norfolk on january 1 1776 the siege of savages old fields began on november 19 in south carolina between loyalist and patriot militias and the loyalists were subsequently driven out of the colony in the snow campaign loyalists were recruited in north carolina to reassert british rule in the south but they were decisively defeated in the battle of moores creek bridge a british expedition sent to reconquer south carolina launched an attack on charleston in the battle of sullivans island on june 28 1776 but it failed and left the south under patriot control until 1780 a shortage of gunpowder led congress to authorize a naval expedition against the bahamas to secure ordnance stored there on march 3 1776 an american squadron under the command of esek hopkins landed at the east end of nassau and encountered minimal resistance at fort montagu hopkins troops then marched on fort nassau hopkins had promised governor montfort browne and the civilian inhabitants of the area that their lives and property would not be in any danger if they offered no resistance to which they complied hopkins captured large stores of powder and other munitions that was so great he had to impress an extra ship in the harbor to transport the supplies back home when he departed on march 17 a month later after a brief skirmish with they returned to new london connecticut the base for american naval operations during the revolution british new york counteroffensive after regrouping at halifax in nova scotia howe was determined to take the fight to the americans he set sail for new york in june 1776 and began landing troops on staten island near the entrance to new york harbor on july 2 the americans rejected howes informal attempt to negotiate peace on july 30 washington knew that an attack on the city was imminent and realized that he needed advance information to deal with disciplined british regular troops on august 12 1776 patriot thomas knowlton was given orders to form an elite group for reconnaissance and secret missions knowltons rangers which included nathan hale became the armys first intelligence unit when washington was driven off long island he soon realized that he would need more than military might and amateur spies to defeat the british he was committed to professionalizing military intelligence with aid from benjamin tallmadge washington launched the sixman culper spy ring the efforts of washington and the culper spy ring substantially increased effective allocation and deployment of continental regiments in the field over the course of the war washington spent more than 10 percent of his total military funds on military intelligence operations washington split the continental army into positions on manhattan and across the east river in western long island on august 27 at the battle of long island howe outflanked washington and forced him back to brooklyn heights but he did not attempt to encircle washingtons forces through the night of august 28 general henry knox bombarded the british knowing they were up against overwhelming odds washington ordered the assembly of a war council on august 29 all agreed to retreat to manhattan washington quickly had his troops assembled and ferried them across the east river to manhattan on flatbottomed freight boats without any losses in men or ordnance leaving general thomas mifflins regiments as a rearguard howe met with a delegation from the second continental congress at the september staten island peace conference but it failed to conclude peace largely because the british delegates only had authority to offer pardons and could not recognize independence on september 15 howe seized control of new york city when the british landed at kips bay and unsuccessfully engaged the americans at the battle of harlem heights the following day on october 18 howe failed to encircle the americans at the battle of pells point and the americans withdrew howe declined to close with washingtons army on october 28 at the battle of white plains and instead attacked a hill that was of no strategic value washingtons retreat isolated his remaining forces and the british captured fort washington on november 16 the british victory there amounted to washingtons most disastrous defeat with the loss of 3000 prisoners the remaining american regiments on long island fell back four days later general henry clinton wanted to pursue washingtons disorganized army but he was first required to commit 6000 troops to capture newport rhode island to secure the loyalist port general charles cornwallis pursued washington but howe ordered him to halt leaving washington unmolested the outlook following the defeat at fort washington appeared bleak for the american cause the reduced continental army had dwindled to fewer than 5000 men and was reduced further when enlistments expired at the end of the year popular support wavered and morale declined on december 20 1776 the continental congress abandoned the revolutionary capital of philadelphia and moved to baltimore where it remained for over two months until february 27 1777 loyalist activity surged in the wake of the american defeat especially in new york state in london news of the victorious long island campaign was well received with festivities held in the capital public support reached a peak and king george iii awarded the order of the bath to howe strategic deficiencies among patriot forces were evident washington divided a numerically weaker army in the face of a stronger one his inexperienced staff misread the military situation and american troops fled in the face of enemy fire the successes led to predictions that the british could win within a year in the meantime the british established winter quarters in the new york city area and anticipated renewed campaigning the following spring patriot resurgence two weeks after congress withdrew to baltimore on the night of december 2526 1776 washington crossed the delaware river leading a column of continental army troops from todays bucks county pennsylvania located about 30 miles upriver from philadelphia to todays mercer county new jersey in a logistically challenging and dangerous operation meanwhile the hessians were involved with numerous clashes with small bands of patriots and were often aroused by false alarms at night in the weeks before the actual battle of trenton by christmas they were tired and weary while a heavy snow storm led their commander colonel johann rall to assume no attack of any consequence would occur at daybreak on the 26th the american patriots surprised and overwhelmed rall and his troops who lost over 20 killed including rall while 900 prisoners german cannons and much supply were captured the battle of trenton restored the american armys morale reinvigorated the patriot cause and dispelled their fear of what they regarded as hessian mercenaries a british attempt to retake trenton was repulsed at assunpink creek on january 2 during the night washington outmaneuvered cornwallis then defeated his rearguard in the battle of princeton the following day the two victories helped convince the french that the americans were worthy military allies after his success at princeton washington entered winter quarters at morristown new jersey where he remained until may and received congressional direction to inoculate all patriot troops against smallpox with the exception of a minor skirmishing between the two armies which continued until march howe made no attempt to attack the americans british northern strategy fails the 1776 campaign demonstrated that regaining new england would be a prolonged affair which led to a change in british strategy this involved isolating the north from the rest of the country by taking control of the hudson river allowing them to focus on the south where loyalist support was believed to be substantial in december 1776 howe wrote to the colonial secretary lord germain proposing a limited offensive against philadelphia while a second force moved down the hudson from canada germain received this on february 23 1777 followed a few days later by a memorandum from burgoyne then in london on leave burgoyne supplied several alternatives all of which gave him responsibility for the offensive with howe remaining on the defensive the option selected required him to lead the main force south from montreal down the hudson valley while a detachment under barry st leger moved east from lake ontario the two would meet at albany leaving howe to decide whether to join them reasonable in principle this did not account for the logistical difficulties involved and burgoyne erroneously assumed howe would remain on the defensive germains failure to make this clear meant he opted to attack philadelphia instead burgoyne set out on june 14 1777 with a mixed force of british regulars professional german soldiers and canadian militia and captured fort ticonderoga on july 5 as general horatio gates retreated his troops blocked roads destroyed bridges dammed streams and stripped the area of food this slowed burgoynes progress and forced him to send out large foraging expeditions on one of these more than 700 british troops were captured at the battle of bennington on august 16 st leger moved east and besieged fort stanwix despite defeating an american relief force at the battle of oriskany on august 6 he was abandoned by his indian allies and withdrew to quebec on august 22 now isolated and outnumbered by gates burgoyne continued onto albany rather than retreating to fort ticonderoga reaching saratoga on september 13 he asked clinton for support while constructing defenses around the town morale among his troops rapidly declined and an unsuccessful attempt to break past gates at the battle of freeman farms on september 19 resulted in 600 british casualties when clinton advised he could not reach them burgoynes subordinates advised retreat a reconnaissance in force on october 7 was repulsed by gates at the battle of bemis heights forcing them back into saratoga with heavy losses by october 11 all hope of escape had vanished persistent rain reduced the camp to a squalid hell of mud and starving cattle supplies were dangerously low and many of the wounded in agony burgoyne capitulated on october 17 around 6222 soldiers including german forces commanded by general friedrich adolf riedesel surrendered their arms before being taken to boston where they were to be transported to england after securing additional supplies howe made another attempt on philadelphia by landing his troops in chesapeake bay on august 24 he now compounded failure to support burgoyne by missing repeated opportunities to destroy his opponent defeating washington at the battle of brandywine on september 11 then allowing him to withdraw in good order after dispersing an american detachment at paoli on september 20 cornwallis occupied philadelphia on september 26 with the main force of 9000 under howe based just to the north at germantown washington attacked them on october 4 but was repulsed to prevent howes forces in philadelphia being resupplied by sea the patriots erected fort mifflin and nearby fort mercer on the east and west banks of the delaware respectively and placed obstacles in the river south of the city this was supported by a small flotilla of continental navy ships on the delaware supplemented by the pennsylvania state navy commanded by john hazelwood an attempt by the royal navy to take the forts in the october 20 to 22 battle of red bank failed a second attack captured fort mifflin on november 16 while fort mercer was abandoned two days later when cornwallis breached the walls his supply lines secured howe tried to tempt washington into giving battle but after inconclusive skirmishing at the battle of white marsh from december 5 to 8 he withdrew to philadelphia for the winter on december 19 the americans followed suit and entered winter quarters at valley forge while washingtons domestic opponents contrasted his lack of battlefield success with gates victory at saratoga foreign observers such as frederick the great were equally impressed with germantown which demonstrated resilience and determination over the winter poor conditions supply problems and low morale resulted in 2000 deaths with another 3000 unfit for duty due to lack of shoes however baron friedrich wilhelm von steuben took the opportunity to introduce prussian army drill and infantry tactics to the entire continental army he did this by training model companies in each regiment who then instructed their home units despite valley forge being only twenty miles away howe made no effort to attack their camp an action some critics argue could have ended the war foreign intervention like his predecessors french foreign minister vergennes considered the 1763 peace a national humiliation and viewed the war as an opportunity to weaken britain he initially avoided open conflict but allowed american ships to take on cargoes in french ports a technical violation of neutrality although public opinion favored the american cause finance minister turgot argued they did not need french help to gain independence and war was too expensive instead vergennes persuaded louis xvi to secretly fund a government front company to purchase munitions for the patriots carried in neutral dutch ships and imported through sint eustatius in the caribbean many americans opposed a french alliance fearing to exchange one tyranny for another but this changed after a series of military setbacks in early 1776 as france had nothing to gain from the colonies reconciling with britain congress had three choices making peace on british terms continuing the struggle on their own or proclaiming independence guaranteed by france although the declaration of independence in july 1776 had wide public support adams was among those reluctant to pay the price of an alliance with france and over 20 of congressmen voted against it congress agreed to the treaty with reluctance and as the war moved in their favor increasingly lost interest in it silas deane was sent to paris to begin negotiations with vergennes whose key objectives were replacing britain as the united states primary commercial and military partner while securing the french west indies from american expansion these islands were extremely valuable in 1772 the value of sugar and coffee produced by saintdomingue on its own exceeded that of all american exports combined talks progressed slowly until october 1777 when british defeat at saratoga and their apparent willingness to negotiate peace convinced vergennes only a permanent alliance could prevent the disaster of angloamerican rapprochement assurances of formal french support allowed congress to reject the carlisle peace commission and insist on nothing short of complete independence on february 6 1778 france and the united states signed the treaty of amity and commerce regulating trade between the two countries followed by a defensive military alliance against britain the treaty of alliance in return for french guarantees of american independence congress undertook to defend their interests in the west indies while both sides agreed not to make a separate peace conflict over these provisions would lead to the 1798 to 1800 quasiwar charles iii of spain was invited to join on the same terms but refused largely due to concerns over the impact of the revolution on spanish colonies in the americas spain had complained on multiple occasions about encroachment by american settlers into louisiana a problem that could only get worse once the united states replaced britain although spain ultimately made important contributions to american success in the treaty of aranjuez 1779 charles agreed only to support frances war with britain outside america in return for help in recovering gibraltar menorca and spanish florida the terms were confidential since several conflicted with american aims for example the french claimed exclusive control of the newfoundland cod fisheries a nonnegotiable for colonies like massachusetts one less wellknown impact of this agreement was the abiding american distrust of foreign entanglements the us would not sign another treaty with france until their nato agreement of 1949 this was because the us had agreed not to make peace without france while aranjuez committed france to keep fighting until spain recovered gibraltar effectively making it a condition of us independence without the knowledge of congress to encourage french participation in the struggle for independence the us representative in paris silas deane promised promotion and command positions to any french officer who joined the continental army such as gilbert du motier marquis de lafayette whom congress via dean appointed a major general on july 31 1777 when the war started britain tried to borrow the dutchbased scots brigade for service in america but propatriot sentiment led the states general to refuse although the republic was no longer a major power prior to 1774 they still dominated the european carrying trade and dutch merchants made large profits shipping frenchsupplied munitions to the patriots this ended when britain declared war in december 1780 a conflict that proved disastrous to the dutch economy the dutch were also excluded from the first league of armed neutrality formed by russia sweden and denmark in march 1780 to protect neutral shipping from being stopped and searched for contraband by britain and france the british government failed to take into account the strength of the american merchant marine and support from european countries which allowed the colonies to import munitions and continue trading with relative impunity while well aware of this the north administration delayed placing the royal navy on a war footing for cost reasons this prevented the institution of an effective blockade and restricted them to ineffectual diplomatic protests traditional british policy was to employ european landbased allies to divert the opposition a role filled by prussia in the seven years war in 1778 they were diplomatically isolated and faced war on multiple fronts meanwhile george iii had given up on subduing america while britain had a european war to fight he did not welcome war with france but he believed the british victories over france in the seven years war as a reason to believe in ultimate victory over france britain could not find a powerful ally among the great powers to engage france on the european continent britain subsequently changed its focus into the caribbean theater and diverted major military resources away from america vergenness colleague stated for her honour france had to seize this opportunity to rise from her degradation if she neglected it if fear overcame duty she would add debasement to humiliation and become an object of contempt to her own century and to all future peoples stalemate in the north at the end of 1777 howe resigned and was replaced by sir henry clinton on may 24 1778 with french entry into the war he was ordered to consolidate his forces in new york on june 18 the british departed philadelphia with the reinvigorated americans in pursuit the battle of monmouth on june 28 was inconclusive but boosted patriot morale washington had rallied charles lees broken regiments the continentals repulsed british bayonet charges the british rear guard lost perhaps 50 percent more casualties and the americans held the field at the end of the day that midnight the newly installed clinton continued his retreat to new york a french naval force under admiral charles henri hector destaing was sent to assist washington deciding new york was too formidable a target in august they launched a combined attack on newport with general john sullivan commanding land forces the resulting battle of rhode island was indecisive badly damaged by a storm the french withdrew to avoid putting their ships at risk further activity was limited to british raids on chestnut neck and little egg harbor in october in july 1779 the americans captured british positions at stony point and paulus hook clinton unsuccessfully tried to tempt washington into a decisive engagement by sending general william tryon to raid connecticut in july a large american naval operation the penobscot expedition attempted to retake maine then part of massachusetts but was defeated persistent iroquois raids along the border with quebec led to the punitive sullivan expedition in april 1779 destroying many settlements but failing to stop them during the winter of 17791780 the continental army suffered greater hardships than at valley forge morale was poor public support fell away in the long war the continental dollar was virtually worthless the army was plagued with supply problems desertion was common and mutinies occurred in the pennsylvania line and new jersey line regiments over the conditions in early 1780 in june 1780 clinton sent 6000 men under wilhelm von knyphausen to retake new jersey but they were halted by local militia at the battle of connecticut farms although the americans withdrew knyphausen felt he was not strong enough to engage washingtons main force and retreated a second attempt two weeks later ended in a british defeat at the battle of springfield effectively ending their ambitions in new jersey in july washington appointed benedict arnold commander of west point his attempt to betray the fort to the british failed due to incompetent planning and the plot was revealed when his british contact john andré was captured and later executed arnold escaped to new york and switched sides an action justified in a pamphlet addressed to the inhabitants of america the patriots condemned his betrayal while he found himself almost as unpopular with the british war in the south the southern strategy was developed by lord germain based on input from londonbased loyalists including joseph galloway they argued that it made no sense to fight the patriots in the north where they were strongest while the new england economy was reliant on trade with britain regardless of who governed it on the other hand duties on tobacco made the south far more profitable for britain while local support meant securing it required small numbers of regular troops victory would leave a truncated united states facing british possessions in the south canada to the north and ohio on their western border with the atlantic seaboard controlled by the royal navy congress would be forced to agree to terms however assumptions about the level of loyalist support proved wildly optimistic germain accordingly ordered augustine prévost the british commander in east florida to advance into georgia in december 1778 lieutenantcolonel archibald campbell an experienced officer taken prisoner earlier in the war before being exchanged for ethan allen captured savannah on december 29 1778 he recruited a loyalist militia of nearly 1100 many of whom allegedly joined only after campbell threatened to confiscate their property poor motivation and training made them unreliable troops as demonstrated in their defeat by patriot militia at the battle of kettle creek on february 14 1779 although this was offset by british victory at brier creek on march 3 in june 1779 prévost launched an abortive assault on charleston before retreating to savannah an operation notorious for widespread looting by british troops that enraged both loyalists and patriots in october a joint french and american operation under admiral destaing and general benjamin lincoln failed to recapture savannah prévost was replaced by lord cornwallis who assumed responsibility for germains strategy he soon realized estimates of loyalist support were considerably overstated and he needed far larger numbers of regular forces reinforced by clinton cornwallis troops captured charleston in may 1780 inflicting the most serious patriot defeat of the war over 5000 prisoners were taken and the continental army in the south effectively destroyed on may 29 lieutenantcolonel banastre tarletons mainly loyalist force routed a continental army force nearly three times its size under the command of colonel abraham buford at the battle of waxhaws the battle is controversial for allegations of a massacre which were later used as a recruiting tool by the patriots clinton returned to new york leaving cornwallis to oversee the south despite their success the two men left barely on speaking terms with dire consequences for the future conduct of the war the southern strategy depended on local support but this was undermined by a series of coercive measures previously captured patriots were sent home after swearing not to take up arms against the king they were now required to fight their former comrades while the confiscation of patriotowned plantations led formerly neutral grandees to side with them skirmishes at williamsons plantation cedar springs rocky mount and hanging rock signaled widespread resistance to the new oaths throughout south carolina in july 1780 congress appointed general horatio gates commander in the south he was defeated at the battle of camden on august 16 leaving cornwallis free to enter north carolina despite battlefield success the british could not control the countryside and patriot attacks continued before moving north cornwallis sent loyalist militia under major patrick ferguson to cover his left flank leaving their forces too far apart to provide mutual support in early october ferguson was defeated at the battle of kings mountain dispersing organized loyalist resistance in the region despite this cornwallis continued into north carolina hoping for loyalist support while washington replaced gates with general nathanael greene in december 1780 greene divided his army leading his main force southeast pursued by cornwallis a detachment was sent southwest under daniel morgan who defeated tarletons british legion at cowpens on january 17 1781 nearly eliminating it as a fighting force the patriots now held the initiative in the south with the exception of a raid on richmond led by benedict arnold in january 1781 greene led cornwallis on a series of countermarches around north carolina by early march the british were exhausted and short of supplies and greene felt strong enough to fight the battle of guilford court house on march 15 although victorious cornwallis suffered heavy casualties and retreated to wilmington north carolina seeking supplies and reinforcements the patriots now controlled most of the carolinas and georgia outside the coastal areas after a minor reversal at the battle of hobkirks hill they recaptured fort watson and fort motte on april 15 on june 6 brigadier general andrew pickens captured augusta leaving the british in georgia confined to charleston and savannah the assumption loyalists would do most of the fighting left the british short of troops and battlefield victories came at the cost of losses they could not replace despite halting greenes advance at the battle of eutaw springs on september 8 cornwallis withdrew to charleston with little to show for his campaign western campaign from the beginning of the war bernardo de gálvez the governor of spanish louisiana allowed the americans to import supplies and munitions into new orleans then ship them to pittsburgh this provided an alternative transportation route for the continental army bypassing the british blockade of the atlantic coast the trade was organized by oliver pollock a successful merchant in havana and new orleans who was appointed us commercial agent it also helped support the american campaign in the west in the 1778 illinois campaign militia under general george rogers clark in february 1778 an expedition of militia to destroy british military supplies in settlements along the cuyahoga river was halted by adverse weather later in the year a second campaign was undertaken to seize the illinois country from the british virginia militia canadien settlers and indian allies commanded by colonel george rogers clark captured kaskaskia on july 4 and then secured vincennes though vincennes was recaptured by quebec governor henry hamilton in early 1779 the virginians counterattacked in the siege of fort vincennes and took hamilton prisoner clark secured western british quebec as the american northwest territory in the treaty of paris brought the revolutionary war to an end when spain joined frances war against britain in the anglofrench war in 1779 their treaty specifically excluded spanish military action in north america later that year however gálvez initiated offensive operations against british outposts first he cleared british garrisons in baton rouge louisiana fort bute and natchez mississippi and captured five forts in doing so gálvez opened navigation on the mississippi river north to the american settlement in pittsburgh on may 25 1780 british colonel henry bird invaded kentucky as part of a wider operation to clear american resistance from quebec to the gulf coast their pensacola advance on new orleans was repelled by spanish governor gálvezs offensive on mobile simultaneous british attacks were repulsed on st louis by the spanish lieutenant governor de leyba and on the virginia county courthouse in cahokia illinois by lieutenant colonel clark the british initiative under bird from detroit was ended at the rumored approach of clark the scale of violence in the licking river valley was extreme even for frontier standards it led to english and german settlements who joined clarks militia when the british and their hired german soldiers withdrew to the great lakes the americans responded with a major offensive along the mad river in august which met with some success in the battle of piqua but did not end indian raids french soldier augustin de la balme led a canadian militia in an attempt to capture detroit but they dispersed when miami natives led by little turtle attacked the encamped settlers on november 5 the war in the west stalemated with the british garrison sitting in detroit and the virginians expanding westward settlements north of the ohio river in the face of britishallied indian resistance in 1781 galvez and pollock campaigned east along the gulf coast to secure west florida including britishheld mobile and pensacola the spanish operations impaired the british supply of armaments to british indian allies which effectively suspended a military alliance to attack settlers between the mississippi river and the appalachian mountains in 1782 large scale retaliations between settlers and native americans in the region included the gnadenhutten massacre and the crawford expedition the 1782 battle of blue licks was one of the last major engagements of the american revolutionary war news of the treaty between great britain and the united states arrived late that year by this time about 7 of kentucky settlers had been killed in battles against native americans contrasted with 1 of the population killed in the thirteen colonies lingering resentments led to continued fighting in the west after the war officially ended british defeat clinton spent most of 1781 based in new york city he failed to construct a coherent operational strategy partly due to his difficult relationship with admiral marriot arbuthnot in charleston cornwallis independently developed an aggressive plan for a campaign in virginia which he hoped would isolate greenes army in the carolinas and cause the collapse of patriot resistance in the south this strategy was approved by lord germain in london but neither of them informed clinton washington and rochambeau meanwhile discussed their options washington wanted to attack the british in new york and rochambeau wanted to attack them in virginia where cornwallis forces were less established and arguably easier to defeat washington eventually gave way and lafayette took a combined francoamerican force into virginia but clinton misinterpreted his movements as preparations for an attack on new york concerned by a perceived threat to his positions in new york he instructed cornwallis to establish a fortified sea base where the royal navy could evacuate british troops to help defend new york when lafayette entered virginia cornwallis complied with clintons orders and withdrew to yorktown where he constructed strong defenses and awaited evacuation an agreement by the spanish navy to defend the french west indies allowed admiral de grasse to relocate to the atlantic seaboard a move arbuthnot did not anticipate this provided lafayette naval support while the failure of previous combined operations at newport and savannah meant their coordination was planned more carefully despite repeated urging from his subordinates cornwallis made no attempt to engage lafayette before he could establish siege lines expecting to be withdrawn within a few days he also abandoned the outer defenses which were promptly occupied by the besiegers and hastened british defeat on august 31 a royal navy fleet under thomas graves left new york for yorktown after landing troops and munitions for the besiegers on august 30 de grasse remained in chesapeake bay and intercepted him on september 5 although the battle of the chesapeake was indecisive in terms of losses graves was forced to retreat leaving cornwallis isolated an attempted breakout over york river at gloucester point failed due to bad weather under heavy bombardment with dwindling supplies cornwallis felt his situation was hopeless and on october 16 sent emissaries to general washington to negotiate their surrender after twelve hours of negotiations the terms of surrender were finalized the following day responsibility for defeat was the subject of fierce public debate between cornwallis clinton and germain despite criticism from his junior officers cornwallis retained the confidence of his peers and later held a series of senior government positions clinton ultimately took most of the blame and spent the rest of his life in relative obscurity subsequent to yorktown american forces were assigned to supervise the armistice between washington and clinton made to facilitate british departure following the january 1782 law of parliament forbidding any further british offensive action in north america britishamerican negotiations in paris led to signed preliminary agreements in november 1782 which acknowledged us independence the enacted congressional war objective a british withdrawal from north america and cession of these regions to the us was completed in stages in east coast cities in the us south generals greene and wayne loosely invested the withdrawing british at savannah and charleston where they observed the british remove their troops from charleston on december 14 1782 loyalist provincial militias of whites and free blacks and loyalists with slaves were transported to nova scotia and the british west indies native american allies of the british and some freed blacks were left to escape unaided through the american lines washington moved his army to new windsor on the hudson river about sixty miles north of new york city and there the substance of the continental army was furloughed home with officers at half pay until the treaty of paris formally ended the war on september 3 1783 at that time congress decommissioned the regiments of washingtons continental army and began issuing land grants to veterans in the northwest territories for their war service the last british occupation of new york city ended on november 25 1783 with the departure of clintons replacement general sir guy carleton strategy and commanders to win their insurrection washington and the continental army needed to outlast the british will to continue the fight to restore their british america empire the british had to defeat the continental army in the early months and compel second continental congress in philadelphia to dissolve and retract its claim to selfgovernance historian terry m mays of the citadel identifies three separate types of warfare during the revolutionary war the first was a colonial conflict in which objections to imperial trade regulation were as significant as taxation policy the second was a civil war with all thirteen colonies split between american patriots american loyalists and those who preferred to remain neutral in the revolution and war particularly in the south many battles were fought between patriots and loyalists with no british involvement leading to divisions that continued after independence was achieved the third element was a global war between france spain the dutch republic and britain with america serving as one of several different war theaters after entering the revolutionary war in 1778 france provided the americans money weapons soldiers and naval assistance while french troops fought under us command in north america while spain did not formally join the war in america they provided access to the mississippi river and captured british possessions on the gulf of mexico that denied bases to the royal navy retook menorca and besieged gibraltar in europe although the dutch republic was no longer a major power prior to 1774 they still dominated the european carrying trade and dutch merchants made large profits by shipping frenchsupplied munitions to the patriots this ended when britain declared war in december 1780 and the conflict proved disastrous to dutch economy the dutch were also excluded from the first league of armed neutrality formed by russia sweden and denmark in march 1780 that protected neutral ships from being stopped and searched for contraband by britain and france while of limited effect these interventions forced the british to divert men and resources away from north america american strategy the second continental congress meeting in philadelphia stood to benefit if the american revolution evolved into a protracted war their thirteen colonial state populations were largely prosperous and depended on local production for food and supplies rather than on imports from britain which took six to twelve weeks to arrive by crossatlantic shipping the thirteen colonies were spread across most of north american atlantic seaboard stretching 1000 miles most colonial farms were remote from the seaports and control of four or five major ports did not give britain control over american inland areas each state had established internal distribution systems each of the thirteen colonies also had a longestablished system of local militia which were combattested in support of british regulars thirteen years before to secure an expanded british empire together these militias denied frances claims to north america west of the mississippi river in the french and indian war the thirteen colonial state legislatures independently funded and controlled their local militias in the american revolution they trained and provided continental line regiments to the regular army each with their own state officer corps motivation was also a major asset each colonial capital had its own newspapers and printers and the patriots enjoyed more popular support than the loyalists britain hoped that the loyalists would do much of the fighting but found that the loyalists did not engage as significantly as they had hoped continental army when the revolutionary war began the second continental congress lacked a professional army or navy but each colony maintained local militias militiamen were lightly armed had little training and usually did not have uniforms their units served for only a few weeks or months at a time and lacked the training and discipline of more experienced soldiers local county militias were reluctant to travel far from home and they were unavailable for extended operations to compensate for this the continental congress established a regular force known as the continental army on june 14 1775 which proved to be the origin of the modern united states army and appointed washington as its commanderinchief however it suffered significantly from the lack of an effective training program and from largely inexperienced officers and sergeants offset by a few senior officers each state legislature appointed officers for both county and state militias and their regimental continental line officers although washington was required to accept congressional appointments he was still permitted to choose and command his own generals such as nathanael greene his chief of artillery henry knox and alexander hamilton the chief of staff one of washingtons most successful general officer recruits was baron friedrich wilhelm von steuben a veteran of the prussian general staff who wrote the revolutionary war drill manual the development of the continental army was always a work in progress and washington used both his regulars and state militias throughout the war when properly employed the combination allowed them to overwhelm smaller british forces as they did in battles at concord boston bennington and saratoga both sides used partisan warfare but the state militias effectively suppressed loyalist activity when british regulars were not in the area washington designed the overall military strategy of the revolutionary war in cooperation with congress established the principle of civilian supremacy in military affairs personally recruited his senior officer corps and kept the states focused on a common goal for the first three years until after fall of philadelphia and the sixmonth encampment at valley forge the continental army was largely supplemented by local state militias washington initially employed the inexperienced officers and untrained troops in fabian strategies rather than risk frontal assaults against britains professional soldiers and officers over the course of the entire war washington lost more battles than he won but he never surrendered his troops and maintained a fighting force in the face of british field armies and never gave up fighting for the american cause by prevailing european standards the armies in america were relatively small limited by lack of supplies and logistics the british were constrained by the logistical difficulty of transporting troops across the atlantic and their dependence on local supplies throughout the war washington never directly commanded more than 17000 men and the combined francoamerican army in the decisive american victory at yorktown was only about 19000 at the beginning of 1776 patriot forces consisted of 20000 men with twothirds of them in the continental army and the other third in the various state militias about 250000 american men served as regulars or as militia for the revolutionary cause over eight years during wartime but there were never more than 90000 men under arms at any time on the whole american officers never equaled their british opponents in tactics and maneuvers and they lost most of the pitched battles the great successes at boston 1776 saratoga 1777 and yorktown 1781 were won by trapping the british far from base with a greater number of troops after 1778 however washingtons army was transformed into a more disciplined and effective force mostly as a product of baron von steubens military training immediately after the continental army emerged from valley forge in june 1778 it proved its ability to match the military capabilities of the british at the battle of monmouth including a black rhode island regiment fending off a british bayonet attack and then counter charging the british for the first time as part of washingtons army after the battle of monmouth washington came to realize that saving entire towns was not necessary but preserving his army and keeping the revolutionary spirit alive was more important washington informed henry laurens then president of the second continental congress that the possession of our towns while we have an army in the field will avail them little although the continental congress was responsible for the war effort and provided supplies to the troops washington took it upon himself to pressure congress and the state legislatures to provide the essentials of war there was never nearly enough congress evolved in its committee oversight and established the board of war which included members of the military because the board of war was also a committee ensnared with its own internal procedures congress also created the post of secretary of war appointing major general benjamin lincoln to the position in february 1781 washington worked closely with lincoln to coordinate civilian and military authorities and took charge of training and supplying the army continental navy during the first summer of the war washington began outfitting schooners and other small seagoing vessels to prey on ships supplying the british in boston the second continental congress established the continental navy on october 13 1775 and appointed esek hopkins as its first commander for most of the war the continental navy included only a handful of small frigates and sloops supported by numerous privateers on november 10 1775 congress authorized the creation of the continental marines which ultimately evolved into and was named the united states marine corps john paul jones became the first american naval hero when he captured hms drake on april 24 1778 the first victory for any american military vessel in british waters the last such victory was by the frigate uss alliance commanded by captain john barry on march 10 1783 the alliance outgunned hms sybil in a 45minute duel while escorting spanish gold from havana to the congress in philadelphia after yorktown all us navy ships were sold or given away it was the first time in americas history that it had no fighting forces on the high seas congress primarily commissioned privateers to reduce costs and to take advantage of the large proportion of colonial sailors found in the british empire in total they included 1700 ships that successfully captured 2283 enemy ships to damage the british effort and to enrich themselves with the proceeds from the sale of cargo and the ship itself about 55000 sailors served aboard american privateers during the war france at the beginning of the revolutionary war the americans had no major international allies since most nationstates watched and waited to see how developments unfolded in the conflict in british america over time the continental army established its military credibility defeating or holding their own against british regulars and their hired hessians known to all european great powers battles such as the battle of bennington the battles of saratoga and even defeats such as the battle of germantown proved decisive in gaining the attention and support of powerful european nations including france spain and the dutch republic the dutch impressed by these american victories and conflicts moved from covertly supplying the americans with weapons and supplies to overtly supporting them the decisive american victory at saratoga convinced france which was already a longtime rival of britain to offer the americans the treaty of amity and commerce the two nations also agreed to a defensive treaty of alliance to protect their trade and also guaranteed american independence from britain to engage the united states as a french ally militarily the treaty was conditioned on britain initiating a war on france to stop it from trading with the us spain and the dutch republic were invited to join by both france and the united states in the treaty but neither was responsive to the request on june 13 1778 france declared war on great britain and it invoked the french military alliance with the us which ensured additional us private support for french possessions in the caribbean washington worked closely with the soldiers and navy that france would send to america primarily through lafayette on his staff french assistance made critical contributions required to defeat general charles cornwallis at yorktown in 1781 british strategy the british military had considerable experience of fighting in north america most recently during the seven years war which forced france to give up new france in 1763 however in previous conflicts they benefited from local logistics as well as support from the colonial militia which was not available in the american revolutionary war reinforcements had to come from europe and maintaining large armies over such distances was extremely complex ships could take three months to cross the atlantic and orders from london were often outdated by the time they arrived prior to the conflict the colonies were largely autonomous economic and political entities with no centralized area of ultimate strategic importance this meant that unlike europe where the fall of a capital city often ended wars that in america continued even after the loss of major settlements such as philadelphia the seat of congress new york and charleston british power was reliant on the royal navy whose dominance allowed them to resupply their own expeditionary forces while preventing access to enemy ports however the majority of the american population was agrarian rather than urban supported by the french navy and blockade runners based in the dutch caribbean their economy was able to survive the geographical size of the colonies and limited manpower meant the british could not simultaneously conduct military operations and occupy territory without local support debate persists over whether their defeat was inevitable one british statesman described it as like trying to conquer a map while ferling argues patriot victory was nothing short of a miracle ellis suggests the odds always favored the americans especially after howe squandered the chance of a decisive british success in 1776 an opportunity that would never come again the us military history speculates the additional commitment of 10000 fresh troops in 1780 would have placed british victory within the realm of possibility british army the expulsion of france from north america in 1763 led to a drastic reduction in british troop levels in the colonies in 1775 there were only 8500 regular soldiers among a civilian population of 28 million the bulk of military resources in the americas were focused on defending sugar islands in the caribbean jamaica alone generated more revenue than all thirteen american colonies combined with the end of the seven years war the permanent army in britain was also cut back which resulted in administrative difficulties when the war began a decade later over the course of the war there were four separate british commandersinchief the first was thomas gage appointed in 1763 whose initial focus was establishing british rule in former french areas of canada rightly or wrongly many in london blamed the revolt on his failure to take firm action earlier and he was relieved after the heavy losses incurred at the battle of bunker hill in charlestown massachusetts his replacement was sir william howe a member of the whig faction in parliament who opposed the policy of coercion advocated by lord north cornwallis who later surrendered at yorktown was one of many senior officers who initially refused to serve in north america the 1775 campaign showed the british overestimated the capabilities of their own troops and underestimated the colonial militia requiring a reassessment of tactics and strategy however it allowed the patriots to take the initiative and british authorities rapidly lost control over every colony howes responsibility is still debated despite receiving large numbers of reinforcements bunker hill seems to have permanently affected his selfconfidence and lack of tactical flexibility meant he often failed to follow up opportunities many of his decisions were attributed to supply problems such as the delay in launching the new york campaign and failure to pursue washingtons beaten army having lost the confidence of his subordinates he was recalled after burgoyne surrendered at saratoga following the failure of the carlisle commission british policy changed from treating the patriots as subjects who needed to be reconciled to enemies who had to be defeated in 1778 howe was replaced by sir henry clinton appointed instead of carleton who was considered overly cautious regarded as an expert on tactics and strategy like his predecessors clinton was handicapped by chronic supply issues as a result he was largely inactive in 1779 and much of 1780 in october 1780 he warned germain of fatal consequences if matters did not improve in addition clintons strategy was compromised by conflict with political superiors in london and his colleagues in north america especially admiral mariot arbuthnot replaced in early 1781 by rodney he was neither notified nor consulted when germain approved cornwallis invasion of the south in 1781 and delayed sending him reinforcements believing the bulk of washingtons army was still outside new york city after the surrender at yorktown clinton was relieved by carleton whose major task was to oversee the evacuation of loyalists and british troops from savannah charleston and new york city german troops during the 18th century states commonly hired foreign soldiers including britain during the seven years war foreign soldiers comprised 10 of the british army and their use caused little debate when it became clear additional troops were needed to suppress the revolt in america it was decided to employ professional german soldiers there were several reasons for this including public sympathy for the patriot cause an historical reluctance to expand the british army and the time needed to recruit and train new regiments an alternate source was readily available in the holy roman empire where many smaller states had a long tradition of renting their armies to the highest bidder the most important was hessekassel known as the mercenary state the first supply agreements were signed by the north administration in late 1775 over the next decade more than 40000 germans fought in north america gibraltar south africa and india of whom 30000 served in the american war often generically referred to as hessians they included men from many other states including hanover and brunswick sir henry clinton recommended recruiting russian troops whom he rated very highly having seen them in action against the ottomans however negotiations with catherine the great made little progress unlike previous wars their use led to intense political debate in britain france and even germany where frederick the great refused to provide passage through his territories for troops hired for the american war in march 1776 the agreements were challenged in parliament by whigs who objected to coercion in general and the use of foreign soldiers to subdue british subjects the debates were covered in detail by american newspapers which reprinted key speeches and in may 1776 they received copies of the treaties themselves provided by british sympathizers these were smuggled into north america from london by george merchant a recently released american prisoner the prospect of foreign german soldiers being used in the colonies bolstered support for independence more so than taxation and other acts combined the king was accused of declaring war on his own subjects leading to the idea there were now two separate governments by apparently showing britain was determined to go to war it made hopes of reconciliation seem naive and hopeless while the employment of what was regarded as foreign mercenaries became one of the charges levelled against george iii in the declaration of independence the hessian reputation within germany for brutality also increased support for the patriot cause among germanamerican immigrants the presence of over 150000 german americans meant both sides felt the german soldiers might be persuaded to desert one reason clinton suggested employing russians was that he felt they were less likely to defect when the first german troops arrived on staten island in august 1776 congress approved the printing of handbills promising land and citizenship to any willing to join the patriot cause the british launched a countercampaign claiming deserters could well be executed for meddling in a war that was not theirs desertion among the germans occurred throughout the war with the highest rate of desertion occurring during the time between the surrender at yorktown and the treaty of paris german regiments were central to the british war effort of the estimated 30000 sent to america some 13000 became casualties revolution as civil war loyalists wealthy loyalists convinced the british government that most of the colonists were sympathetic toward the crown consequently british military planners relied on recruiting loyalists but had trouble recruiting sufficient numbers as the patriots had widespread support nevertheless they continued to deceive themselves on their level of american support as late as 1780 a year before hostilities ended approximately 25000 loyalists fought for the british throughout the war although loyalists constituted about twenty percent of the colonial population they were concentrated in distinct communities many of them lived among large plantation owners in the tidewater region and south carolina who produced cash crops in tobacco and indigo comparable to global markets in caribbean sugar when the british began probing the backcountry in 17771778 they were faced with a major problem any significant level of organized loyalist activity required a continued presence of british regulars the available manpower that the british had in america was insufficient to protect loyalist territory and counter american offensives the loyalist militias in the south were constantly defeated by neighboring patriot militia the most critical combat between the two partisan militias was at the battle of kings mountain the patriot victory irreversibly impaired any further loyalist militia capability in the south when the early war policy was administered by general william howe the crowns need to maintain loyalist support prevented it from using the traditional revolt suppression methods the british cause suffered when their troops ransacked local homes during an aborted attack on charleston in 1779 that enraged both patriots and loyalists after congress rejected the carlisle peace commission in 1778 and westminster turned to hard war during clintons command neutral colonists in the carolinas often allied with the patriots whenever brutal combat broke out between tories and whigs conversely loyalists gained support when patriots intimidated suspected tories by destroying property or tarring and feathering a loyalist militia unitthe british legionprovided some of the best troops in british service it received a commission in the british army it was a mixed regiment of 250 dragoons and 200 infantry supported by batteries of flying artillery it was commanded by banastre tarleton and gained a fearsome reputation in the colonies for brutality and needless slaughterin may 1779 the british legion was one of five regiments that formed the american establishment women women played various roles during the revolutionary war they often accompanied their husbands when permitted to do so for example throughout the war martha washington was known to visit and provide aid to her husband george at various american camps and frederika charlotte riedesel documented the saratoga campaign women often accompanied armies as camp followers to sell goods and perform necessary tasks in hospitals and camps they were a necessary part of eighteenthcentury armies and numbered in the thousands during the war women also assumed military roles aside from military tasks like treating the wounded or setting up camp some dressed as men to directly support combat fight or act as spies on both sides of the revolutionary war anna maria lane joined her husband in the army and wore mens clothes by the time the battle of germantown happened the virginia general assembly later cited her bravery she fought while dressed as a man and performed extraordinary military services and received a severe wound at the battle of germantown with the courage of a soldier on april 26 1777 sybil ludington is said to have ridden to alert militia forces of putnam county new york and danbury connecticut to warn them of the britishs approach she has been called the female paul revere a report in the new england quarterly says there is little evidence backing the story and whether the ride occurred is questioned a few others disguised themselves as men deborah sampson fought until her gender was discovered and discharged as a result sally st clair was killed in action during the war african americans when war began the population of the thirteen colonies included an estimated 500000 slaves predominantly used as labor on southern plantations in november 1775 lord dunmore the royal governor of virginia issued a proclamation that promised freedom to any patriotowned slaves willing to bear arms although the announcement helped to fill a temporary manpower shortage white loyalist prejudice meant recruits were eventually redirected to noncombatant roles the loyalists motive was to deprive patriot planters of labor rather than to end slavery loyalistowned slaves were returned the 1779 philipsburg proclamation issued by clinton extended the offer of freedom to patriotowned slaves throughout the colonies it persuaded entire families to escape to british lines many of which were employed on farms to grow food for the army by removing the requirement for military service while clinton organized the black pioneers he also ensured fugitive slaves were returned to loyalist owners with orders that they were not to be punished for their attempted escape as the war progressed service as regular soldiers in british units became increasingly common black loyalists formed two regiments of the charleston garrison in 1783 estimates of the numbers who served the british during the war vary from 25000 to 50000 excluding those who escaped during wartime thomas jefferson estimated that virginia may have lost 30000 slaves in total escapes in south carolina nearly 25000 slaves about 30 percent of the enslaved population either fled migrated or died which significantly disrupted the plantation economies both during and after the war black patriots were barred from the continental army until washington convinced congress in january 1778 that there was no other way to replace losses from disease and desertion the 1st rhode island regiment formed in february included former slaves whose owners were compensated however only 140 of its 225 soldiers were black and recruitment stopped in june 1788 ultimately around 5000 africanamericans served in the continental army and navy in a variety of roles while another 4000 were employed in patriot militia units aboard privateers or as teamsters servants and spies after the war a small minority received land grants or congressional pensions in old age many others were returned to their masters postwar despite earlier promises of freedom as a patriot victory became increasingly likely the treatment of black loyalists became a point of contention after the surrender of yorktown in 1781 washington insisted all escapees be returned but cornwallis refused in 1782 and 1783 around 8000 to 10000 freed blacks were evacuated by the british from charleston savannah and new york some moved onto london while 3000 to 4000 settled in nova scotia where they founded settlements such as birchtown white loyalists transported 15000 enslaved blacks to jamaica and the bahamas the free black loyalists who migrated to the british west indies included regular soldiers from dunmores ethiopian regiment and those from charleston who helped garrison the leeward islands native americans most native americans east of the mississippi river were affected by the war and many tribes were divided over how to respond to the conflict a few tribes were friendly with the colonists but most natives opposed the union of the colonies as a potential threat to their territory approximately 13000 natives fought on the british side with the largest group coming from the iroquois tribes who deployed around 1500 men early in july 1776 cherokee allies of britain attacked the shortlived washington district of north carolina their defeat splintered both cherokee settlements and people and was directly responsible for the rise of the chickamauga cherokee who perpetuated the cherokeeamerican wars against american settlers for decades after hostilities with britain ended creek and seminole allies of britain fought against americans in georgia and south carolina in 1778 a force of 800 creeks destroyed american settlements along the broad river in georgia creek warriors also joined thomas browns raids into south carolina and assisted britain during the siege of savannah many native americans were involved in the fight between britain and spain on the gulf coast and along the british side of the mississippi river thousands of creeks chickasaws and choctaws fought in major battles such as the battle of fort charlotte the battle of mobile and the siege of pensacola the iroquois confederacy was shattered as a result of the american revolutionary war whatever side they took the seneca onondaga and cayuga tribes sided with the british members of the mohawks fought on both sides and many tuscarora and oneida sided with the americans to retaliate against raids on american settlement by loyalists and their indian allies the continental army dispatched the sullivan expedition on a punitive expedition throughout new york to debilitate the iroquois tribes that had sided with the british mohawk leaders joseph louis cook and joseph brant sided with the americans and the british respectively which further exacerbated the split in the western theater of the american revolutionary war conflicts between settlers and native americans led to lingering distrust in the 1783 treaty of paris great britain ceded control of the disputed lands between the great lakes and the ohio river but the indian inhabitants were not a part of the peace negotiations tribes in the northwest territory joined as the western confederacy and allied with the british to resist american settlement and their conflict continued after the revolutionary war as the northwest indian war britains american war and peace changing prime ministers lord north prime minister since 1770 delegated control of the war in north america to lord george germain and the earl of sandwich who was head of the royal navy from 1771 to 1782 defeat at saratoga in 1777 made it clear the revolt would not be easily suppressed especially after the francoamerican alliance of february 1778 and french declaration of war in june with spain also expected to join the conflict the royal navy needed to prioritize either the war in america or in europe germain advocated the former sandwich the latter british negotiators now proposed a second peace settlement to congress the terms presented by the carlisle peace commission included acceptance of the principle of selfgovernment parliament would recognize congress as the governing body suspend any objectionable legislation surrender its right to local colonial taxation and discuss including american representatives in the house of commons in return all property confiscated from loyalists would be returned british debts honored and locally enforced martial law accepted however congress demanded either immediate recognition of independence or the withdrawal of all british troops they knew the commission were not authorized to accept these bringing negotiations to a rapid end when the commissioners returned to london in november 1778 they recommended a change in policy sir henry clinton the new british commanderinchief in america was ordered to stop treating the rebels as enemies rather than subjects whose loyalty might be regained those standing orders would be in effect for three years until clinton was relieved north initially backed the southern strategy attempting to exploit divisions between the mercantile north and slaveowning south but after the defeat of yorktown he was forced to accept the fact that this policy had failed it was clear the war was lost although the royal navy forced the french to relocate their fleet to the caribbean in november 1781 and resumed a close blockade of american trade the resulting economic damage and rising inflation meant the us was now eager to end the war while france was unable to provide further loans congress could no longer pay its soldiers on february 27 1782 a whig motion to end the offensive war in america was carried by 19 votes north now resigned obliging the king to invite lord rockingham to form a government a consistent supporter of the patriot cause he made a commitment to us independence a condition of doing so george iii reluctantly accepted and the new government took office on march 27 1782 however rockingham died unexpectedly on july 1 and was replaced by lord shelburne who acknowledged american independence american congress signs a peace when lord rockingham the whig leader and friend of the american cause was elevated to prime minister congress consolidated its diplomatic consuls in europe into a peace delegation at paris all were experienced in congressional leadership the dean of the delegation was benjamin franklin of pennsylvania he had become a celebrity in the french court but he was also an enlightenment scientist with influence in the courts of european great powers in prussia englands former ally and austria a catholic empire like spain since the 1760s franklin had been an organizer of british american intercolony cooperation and then served as a colonial lobbyist to parliament in london john adams of massachusetts had been consul to the dutch republic and was a prominent early new england patriot john jay of new york had been consul to spain and was a past president of the continental congress as consul to the dutch republic henry laurens of south carolina had secured a preliminary agreement for a trade agreement he had been a successor to john jay as president of congress and with franklin was a member of the american philosophical society although active in the preliminaries he was not a signer of the conclusive treaty the whig negotiators for lord rockingham and his successor prime minister lord shelburne included longtime friend of benjamin franklin from his time in london david hartley and richard oswald who had negotiated laurens release from the tower of london the preliminary peace signed on november 30 met four key congressional demands independence territory up to the mississippi navigation rights into the gulf of mexico and fishing rights in newfoundland british strategy was to strengthen the us sufficiently to prevent france from regaining a foothold in north america and they had little interest in these proposals however divisions between their opponents allowed them to negotiate separately with each to improve their overall position starting with the american delegation in september 1782 the french and spanish sought to improve their position by creating the us dependent on them for support against britain thus reversing the losses of 1763 both parties tried to negotiate a settlement with britain excluding the americans france proposed setting the western boundary of the us along the appalachians matching the british 1763 proclamation line the spanish suggested additional concessions in the vital mississippi river basin but required the cession of georgia in violation of the francoamerican alliance facing difficulties with spain over claims involving the mississippi river and from france who was still reluctant to agree to american independence until all her demands were met john jay promptly told the british that he was willing to negotiate directly with them cutting off france and spain and prime minister lord shelburne in charge of the british negotiations agreed key agreements for the united states in obtaining peace included recognition of united states independence including recognition that the us would gain all of the area east of the mississippi river north of florida and south of canada and the granting of fishing rights in the grand banks off the coast of newfoundland and in the gulf of saint lawrence the united states and great britain were each given perpetual access to the mississippi river an angloamerican preliminary peace was formally entered into in november 1782 and congress endorsed the settlement on april 15 1783 it announced the achievement of peace with independence and the conclusive treaty was signed on september 2 1783 in paris effective the following day on september 3 1783 when britain signed its treaty with france john adams who helped draft the treaty claimed it represented one of the most important political events that ever happened on the globe ratified respectively by congress and parliament the final versions were exchanged in paris the following spring on november 25 the last british troops remaining in the us were evacuated from new york to halifax aftermath washington expressed astonishment that the americans had won a war against a leading world power referring to the american victory as little short of a standing miracle the conflict between british subjects with the crown against those with the congress had lasted over eight years from 1775 to 1783 the last uniformed british troops departed their last east coast port cities in savannah charleston and new york city by november 25 1783 which marked the end of british occupation in the new united states on april 9 1783 washington issued orders that he had long waited to give that all acts of hostility were to cease immediately that same day by arrangement with washington general guy carleton issued a similar order to british troops british troops however were not to evacuate until a prisoner of war exchange occurred an effort that involved much negotiation and would take some seven months to effect as directed by a congressional resolution of may 26 1783 all noncommissioned officers and enlisted were furloughed to their homes until the definitive treaty of peace when they would be automatically discharged the us armies were directly disbanded in the field as of washingtons general orders on monday june 2 1783 once the treaty of paris was signed with britain on september 3 1783 washington resigned as commanderinchief of the continental army and left to retire at mount vernon territory the expanse of territory that was now the united states was ceded from its colonial mother country alone it included millions of sparsely settled acres south of the great lakes line between the appalachian mountains and the mississippi river much of which was part of canada the tentative colonial migration west became a flood during the years of the revolutionary war kentucky county virginia for instance had a 1775 population of 150 by 1790 15 years later its population had grown to over 73000 britains extended postwar policy for the us continued to try to establish an indian buffer state below the great lakes as late as 1814 during the war of 1812 the formally acquired western american lands continued to be populated by a dozen or so american indian tribes that had been british allies for the most part though british forts on their lands had been ceded to either the french or the british prior to the creation of the united states natives were not referred to in the british cession to the us while tribes were not consulted by the british for the treaty in practice the british refused to abandon the forts on territory they formally transferred instead they provisioned military allies for continuing frontier raids and sponsored the northwest indian war 17851795 including erecting an additional british fort miami in maumee ohio british sponsorship of local warfare on the us continued until the angloamerican jay treaty authored by alexander hamilton went into effect on february 29 1796 at the same time the spanish also sponsored war within the us by indian proxies in its southwest territory ceded by france to britain then britain to the americans of the european powers with american colonies adjacent to the newly created united states spain was most threatened by american independence and it was correspondingly the most hostile to it its territory adjacent to the us was relatively undefended so spanish policy developed a combination of initiatives spanish soft power diplomatically challenged the british territorial cession west to the mississippi river and the previous northern boundaries of spanish florida it imposed a high tariff on american goods then blocked american settler access to the port of new orleans spanish hard power extended war alliances and arms to southwestern natives to resist american settlement a former continental army general james wilkinson settled in kentucky county virginia in 1784 and there he fostered settler secession from virginia during the spanishallied chickamauga cherokee war beginning in 1787 he received pay as spanish agent 13 and subsequently expanded his efforts to persuade american settlers west of the appalachian mountains to secede from the united states first in the washington administration and later again in the jefferson administration casualties and losses the total loss of life throughout the conflict is largely unknown as was typical in wars of the era diseases such as smallpox claimed more lives than battle between 1775 and 1782 a smallpox epidemic broke out throughout north america killing an estimated 130000 among all its populations during those years historian joseph ellis suggests that washingtons decision to have his troops inoculated against the disease was one of his most important decisions up to 70000 american patriots died during active military service of these approximately 6800 were killed in battle while at least 17000 died from disease the majority of the latter died while prisoners of war of the british mostly in the prison ships in new york harbor the number of patriots seriously wounded or disabled by the war has been estimated from 8500 to 25000 the french suffered 2112 killed in combat in the united states the spanish lost a total of 124 killed and 247 wounded in west florida a british report in 1781 puts their total army deaths at 6046 in north america 17751779 approximately 7774 germans died in british service in addition to 4888 deserters among those labeled german deserters however it is estimated that 1800 were killed in combat legacy the american revolution established the united states with its numerous civil liberties and set an example to overthrow both monarchy and colonial governments the united states has the worlds oldest written constitution and the constitutions of other free countries often bear a striking resemblance to the us constitution often wordforword in places it inspired revolutions in france haiti latin america and elsewhere in the modern era although the revolution eliminated many forms of inequality it did little to change the status of women despite the role they played in winning independence most significantly it failed to end slavery which continued to be a serious social and political issue and caused divisions that would ultimately end in civil war while many were uneasy over the contradiction of demanding liberty for some yet denying it to others the dependence of southern states on slave labor made abolition too great a challenge between 1774 and 1780 many of the states banned the importation of slaves but the institution itself continued in 1782 virginia passed a law permitting manumission and over the next eight years more than 10000 slaves were given their freedom with support from benjamin franklin in 1790 the quakers petitioned congress to abolish slavery the number of abolitionist movements greatly increased and by 1804 all the northern states had outlawed it however even many like adams who viewed slavery as a foul contagion opposed the 1790 petition as a threat to the union in 1808 jefferson passed legislation banning the importation of slaves but allowed the domestic slave trade to continue arguing the federal government had no right to regulate individual states historiography the body of historical writings on the american revolution cite many motivations for the patriot revolt that ultimately led to the nations independence and establishment american patriots stressed the denial of their constitutional rights as englishmen especially no taxation without representation contemporaries credit the american enlightenment with laying the intellectual moral and ethical foundations for the american revolution among the founding fathers who were influenced by the classical liberalism of john locke and other enlightenment age writers and philosophers two treatises of government has long been cited as a major influence on revolutionaryera american thinking but historians david lundberg and henry f may contend that lockes essay concerning human understanding was far more widely read than were his political treatises historians since the 1960s have emphasized that the patriot constitutional argument was made possible by the emergence of a sense of american nationalism that united the 13 colonies in turn that nationalism was rooted in a republican value system that demanded consent of the governed and deeply opposed aristocratic control in britain on the other hand republicanism was largely a fringe ideology since it challenged the aristocratic control of the british monarchy and political system political power was not controlled by an aristocracy or nobility in the 13 colonies instead the colonial political system was based on the winners of free elections which were open at the time to the majority of white men in analysis of the revolution historians in recent decades have often cited three motivations behind it the atlantic history view places the american story in a broader context including subsequent revolutions in france and haiti it tends to reintegrate the historiographies of the american revolution and the british empire the new social history approach looks at community social structure to find cleavages that were magnified into colonial cleavages the ideological approach that centers on republicanism in the united states republicanism dictated there would be no royalty aristocracy or national church but allowed for continuation of the british common law which american lawyers and jurists understood and approved and used in their everyday practice historians have examined how the rising american legal profession adopted british common law to incorporate republicanism by selective revision of legal customs and by introducing more choices for courts revolutionary war commemoration stamps after the first us postage stamp was issued in 1849 the us postal service frequently issued commemorative stamps celebrating the various people and events of the revolutionary war the first such stamp was the liberty bell issue of 1926 on the 150th anniversary of american independence see also 1776 in the united states events births deaths and other years timeline of the american revolution topics of the revolution committee of safety american revolution diplomacy in the american revolutionary war financial costs of the american revolutionary war flags of the american revolution naval operations in the american revolutionary war social history of the revolution black patriot christianity in the united statesamerican revolution the colored patriots of the american revolution history of poles in the united statesamerican revolution list of clergy in the american revolution list of patriots american revolution quakers in the american revolution scotchirish americansamerican revolution others in the american revolution nova scotia in the american revolution watauga association lists of revolutionary military list of american revolutionary war battles list of british forces in the american revolutionary war list of continental forces in the american revolutionary war list of infantry weapons in the american revolution list of united states militia units in the american revolutionary war thirteen colony economy economic history of the us colonial economy to 1780 shipbuilding in the american colonies slavery in the united states legacy and related american revolution statuary commemoration of the american revolution founders online independence day united states the last men of the revolution list of plays and films about the american revolution museum of the american revolution tomb of the unknown soldier of the american revolution united states bicentennial united states semiquincentennial list of wars of independence bibliographies bibliography of the american revolutionary war bibliography of thomas jefferson bibliography of george washington notes citations year dates enclosed in brackets denote year of original printing bibliography britannicacom dictionary of american biography encyclopædia britannica p 73 highly regarded examination of british strategy and leadership an introduction by john w shy with his biographical sketch of mackesy robinson library see alsobritish warships in the age of sail websites without authors canadas digital collections program historyorg maryland state house the history place totallyhistorycom us merchant marine us national archives valley forge national historic park yale law school massachusetts act further reading a selection of works relating to the war not listed above allison david and larrie d ferreiro eds the american revolution a world war smithsonian 2018 excerpt volumes committed to the american revolution vol 7 vol 8 vol 9 vol 10 bobrick benson angel in the whirlwind the triumph of the american revolution penguin 1998 paperback reprint chartrand rene the french army in the american war of independence 1994 short 48pp very well illustrated descriptions commager henry steele and richard b morris eds the spirit of seventysix the story of the american revolution as told by participants indianapolis bobbsmerrill 1958 online conway stephen the war of american independence 17751783 publisher e arnold 1995 280 pp foner eric whose revolution the history of the united states founding from below review of woody holton liberty is sweet the hidden history of the american revolution simon schuster 2021 800 pp the nation vol 314 no 8 1825 april 2022 pp 3237 highlighted are the struggles and tragic fates of americas indians and black slaves for example in 1779 george washington dispatched a contingent of soldiers to upstate new york to burn indian towns and crops and seize hostages of every age and sex the following year while serving as governor of virginia thomas jefferson ordered troops under the command of george rogers clark to enter the ohio valley and bring about the expulsion or extermination of local indians pp 3435 kwasny mark v washingtons partisan war 17751783 kent ohio 1996 militia warfare library of congress may robin the british army in north america 17751783 1993 short 48pp very well illustrated descriptions national institute of health neimeyer charles patrick america goes to war a social history of the continental army 1995 royal navy museum stoker donald kenneth j hagan and michael t mcmaster eds strategy in the american war of independence a global approach routledge 2009 excerpt symonds craig l a battlefield atlas of the american revolution 1989 newly drawn maps emphasizing the movement of military units us army the winning of independence 17771783 american military history volume i 2005 us national park service zlatich marko copeland peter general washingtons army 1 177578 1994 short 48pp very well illustrated descriptions general washingtons army 2 177983 1994 short 48pp very well illustrated descriptions primary sources many primary sources are available at princeton university law schools avalon project and at the library of congress digital collections original editions for titles related to the american revolutionary war are also available online at internet archive and hathitrust digital library emmerich adreas the partisan in war a treatise on light infantry tactics written in 1789 bibliographies online library of congress guide to the american revolution bibliographies of the war of american independence compiled by the united states army center of military history political bibliography from omohundro institute of early american history and culture external links the american revolutionary war at united states military academy conflicts in 1775 conflicts in 1776 conflicts in 1777 conflicts in 1778 conflicts in 1779 conflicts in 1780 conflicts in 1781 conflicts in 1782 conflicts in 1783 global conflicts rebellions against the british empire wars between the united kingdom and the united states wars of independence	17,601
772	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere	Ampere	the ampere symbol a often shortened to amp is the unit of electric current in the international system of units si one ampere is equal to 1 coulomb moving past a point in 1 second or electrons worth of charge moving past a point in 1 second it is named after french mathematician and physicist andrémarie ampère 17751836 considered the father of electromagnetism along with danish physicist hans christian ørsted as of the 2019 redefinition of the si base units the ampere is defined by fixing the elementary charge to be exactly coulomb which means an ampere is an electric current equivalent to elementary charges moving every seconds or elementary charges moving in a second prior to the redefinition the ampere was defined as the current passing through 2 parallel wires 1 metre apart that produces a magnetic force of newtons per metre the earlier cgs system has two units of current one structured similar to the sis and the other using coulombs law as a fundamental relationship with the unit of charge defined by measuring the force between two charged metal plates the unit of current is then defined as one unit of charge per second in si the unit of charge the coulomb is defined as the charge carried by one ampere during one second history the ampere is named for french physicist and mathematician andrémarie ampère 17751836 who studied electromagnetism and laid the foundation of electrodynamics in recognition of ampères contributions to the creation of modern electrical science an international convention signed at the 1881 international exposition of electricity established the ampere as a standard unit of electrical measurement for electric current the ampere was originally defined as one tenth of the unit of electric current in the centimetregramsecond system of units that unit now known as the abampere was defined as the amount of current that generates a force of two dynes per centimetre of length between two wires one centimetre apart the size of the unit was chosen so that the units derived from it in the mksa system would be conveniently sized the international ampere was an early realization of the ampere defined as the current that would deposit of silver per second from a silver nitrate solution later more accurate measurements revealed that this current is since power is defined as the product of current and voltage the ampere can alternatively be expressed in terms of the other units using the relationship and thus 1 a 1 wv current can be measured by a multimeter a device that can measure electrical voltage current and resistance former definition in the si until 2019 the si defined the ampere as follows the ampere is that constant current which if maintained in two straight parallel conductors of infinite length of negligible circular crosssection and placed one metre apart in vacuum would produce between these conductors a force equal to newtons per metre of length ampères force law states that there is an attractive or repulsive force between two parallel wires carrying an electric current this force is used in the formal definition of the ampere the si unit of charge the coulomb was then defined as the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere conversely a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second in general charge was determined by steady current flowing for a time as this definition of the ampere was most accurately realised using a kibble balance but in practice the unit was maintained via ohms law from the units of electromotive force and resistance the volt and the ohm since the latter two could be tied to physical phenomena that are relatively easy to reproduce the josephson effect and the quantum hall effect respectively techniques to establish the realisation of an ampere had a relative uncertainty of approximately a few parts in 10 and involved realisations of the watt the ohm and the volt present definition the 2019 redefinition of the si base units defined the ampere by taking the fixed numerical value of the elementary charge to be when expressed in the unit c which is equal to as where the second is defined in terms of the unperturbed ground state hyperfine transition frequency of the caesium133 atom the si unit of charge the coulomb is the quantity of electricity carried in 1 second by a current of 1 ampere conversely a current of one ampere is one coulomb of charge going past a given point per second in general charge is determined by steady current flowing for a time as constant instantaneous and average current are expressed in amperes as in the charging current is 12 a and the charge accumulated or passed through a circuit over a period of time is expressed in coulombs as in the battery charge is the relation of the ampere cs to the coulomb is the same as that of the watt js to the joule units derived from the ampere the international system of units si is based on 7 si base units the second metre kilogram kelvin ampere mole and candela representing 7 fundamental types of physical quantity or dimensions time length mass temperature electric current amount of substance and luminous intensity respectively with all other si units being defined using these these si derived units can either be given special names eg watt volt lux etc or defined in terms of others eg metre per second the units with special names derived from the ampere are there are also some si units that are frequently used in the context of electrical engineering and electrical appliances but can be defined independently of the ampere notably the hertz joule watt candela lumen and lux si prefixes like other si units the ampere can be modified by adding a prefix that multiplies it by a power of 10 see also ammeter ampacity currentcarrying capacity electric current electric shock hydraulic analogy magnetic constant orders of magnitude current references external links the nist reference on constants units and uncertainty nist definition of ampere and μ0 si base units units of electric current	1,030
775	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm	Algorithm	in mathematics and computer science an algorithm is a finite sequence of rigorous instructions typically used to solve a class of specific problems or to perform a computation algorithms are used as specifications for performing calculations and data processing more advanced algorithms can use conditionals to divert the code execution through various routes referred to as automated decisionmaking and deduce valid inferences referred to as automated reasoning achieving automation eventually using human characteristics as descriptors of machines in metaphorical ways was already practiced by alan turing with terms such as memory search and stimulus in contrast a heuristic is an approach to problem solving that may not be fully specified or may not guarantee correct or optimal results especially in problem domains where there is no welldefined correct or optimal result as an effective method an algorithm can be expressed within a finite amount of space and time and in a welldefined formal language for calculating a function starting from an initial state and initial input perhaps empty the instructions describe a computation that when executed proceeds through a finite number of welldefined successive states eventually producing output and terminating at a final ending state the transition from one state to the next is not necessarily deterministic some algorithms known as randomized algorithms incorporate random input history ancient algorithms since antiquity stepbystep procedures for solving mathematical problems have been attested this includes babylonian mathematics around 2500 bc egyptian mathematics around 1550 bc indian mathematics around 800 bc and later eg shulba sutras kerala school and brāhmasphuṭasiddhānta the ifa oracle around 500 bc greek mathematics around 240 bc eg sieve of eratosthenes and euclidean algorithm and arabic mathematics 9th century eg cryptographic algorithms for codebreaking based on frequency analysis alkhwārizmī and the term algorithm around 825 muḥammad ibn mūsā alkhwārizmī wrote kitāb alḥisāb alhindī book of indian computation and kitab aljam waltafriq alḥisāb alhindī addition and subtraction in indian arithmetic both of these texts are lost in the original arabic at this time however his other book on algebra remains in the early 12th century latin translations of said alkhwarizmi texts involving the hinduarabic numeral system and arithmetic appeared liber alghoarismi de practica arismetrice attributed to john of seville and liber algorismi de numero indorum attributed to adelard of bath hereby alghoarismi or algorismi is the latinization of alkhwarizmis name the text starts with the phrase dixit algorismi thus spoke alkhwarizmi in 1240 alexander of villedieu writes a latin text titled carmen de algorismo it begins with which translates to the poem is a few hundred lines long and summarizes the art of calculating with the new styled indian dice tali indorum or hindu numerals english evolution of the word around 1230 the english word algorism is attested and then by chaucer in 1391 english adopted the french term in the 15th century under the influence of the greek word ἀριθμός arithmos number cf arithmetic the latin word was altered to algorithmus in 1656 in the english dictionary glossographia it says algorism latin algorismus the art or use of cyphers or of numbering by cyphers skill in accounting augrime latin algorithmus skil in accounting or numbring in 1658 in the first edition of the new world of english words it says algorithme a word compounded of arabick and spanish the art of reckoning by cyphers in 1706 in the sixth edition of the new world of english words it says algorithm the art of computing or reckoning by numbers which contains the five principle rules of arithmetick viz numeration addition subtraction multiplication and division to which may be added extraction of roots it is also calld logistica numeralis algorism the practical operation in the several parts of specious arithmetick or algebra sometimes it is taken for the practice of common arithmetick by the ten numeral figures in 1751 in the young algebraists companion daniel fenning contrasts the terms algorism and algorithm as follows algorithm signifies the first principles and algorism the practical part or knowing how to put the algorithm in practice the term algorithm is attested to mean a stepbystep procedure in english in 1842 in the dictionary of science literature and art it says algorithm signifies the art of computing in reference to some particular subject or in some particular way as the algorithm of numbers the algorithm of the differential calculus machine usage in 1928 a partial formalization of the modern concept of algorithms began with attempts to solve the entscheidungsproblem decision problem posed by david hilbert later formalizations were framed as attempts to define effective calculability or effective method those formalizations included the gödelherbrandkleene recursive functions of 1930 1934 and 1935 alonzo churchs lambda calculus of 1936 emil posts formulation 1 of 1936 and alan turings turing machines of 193637 and 1939 informal definition one informal definition is a set of rules that precisely defines a sequence of operations which would include all computer programs including programs that do not perform numeric calculations and for example any prescribed bureaucratic procedure or cookbook recipe in general a program is an algorithm only if it stops eventuallyeven though infinite loops may sometimes prove desirable a prototypical example of an algorithm is the euclidean algorithm which is used to determine the maximum common divisor of two integers an example there are others is described by the flowchart above and as an example in a later section offer an informal meaning of the word algorithm in the following quotation an enumerably infinite set is one whose elements can be put into onetoone correspondence with the integers thus boolos and jeffrey are saying that an algorithm implies instructions for a process that creates output integers from an arbitrary input integer or integers that in theory can be arbitrarily large for example an algorithm can be an algebraic equation such as y m n ie two arbitrary input variables m and n that produce an output y but various authors attempts to define the notion indicate that the word implies much more than this something on the order of for the addition example precise instructions in a language understood by the computer for a fast efficient good process that specifies the moves of the computer machine or human equipped with the necessary internally contained information and capabilities to find decode and then process arbitrary input integerssymbols m and n symbols and and effectively produce in a reasonable time outputinteger y at a specified place and in a specified format the concept of algorithm is also used to define the notion of decidabilitya notion that is central for explaining how formal systems come into being starting from a small set of axioms and rules in logic the time that an algorithm requires to complete cannot be measured as it is not apparently related to the customary physical dimension from such uncertainties that characterize ongoing work stems the unavailability of a definition of algorithm that suits both concrete in some sense and abstract usage of the term most algorithms are intended to be implemented as computer programs however algorithms are also implemented by other means such as in a biological neural network for example the human brain implementing arithmetic or an insect looking for food in an electrical circuit or in a mechanical device formalization algorithms are essential to the way computers process data many computer programs contain algorithms that detail the specific instructions a computer should performin a specific orderto carry out a specified task such as calculating employees paychecks or printing students report cards thus an algorithm can be considered to be any sequence of operations that can be simulated by a turingcomplete system authors who assert this thesis include minsky 1967 savage 1987 and gurevich 2000 turing machines can define computational processes that do not terminate the informal definitions of algorithms generally require that the algorithm always terminates this requirement renders the task of deciding whether a formal procedure is an algorithm impossible in the general casedue to a major theorem of computability theory known as the halting problem typically when an algorithm is associated with processing information data can be read from an input source written to an output device and stored for further processing stored data are regarded as part of the internal state of the entity performing the algorithm in practice the state is stored in one or more data structures for some of these computational processes the algorithm must be rigorously defined and specified in the way it applies in all possible circumstances that could arise this means that any conditional steps must be systematically dealt with case by case the criteria for each case must be clear and computable because an algorithm is a precise list of precise steps the order of computation is always crucial to the functioning of the algorithm instructions are usually assumed to be listed explicitly and are described as starting from the top and going down to the bottoman idea that is described more formally by flow of control so far the discussion on the formalization of an algorithm has assumed the premises of imperative programming this is the most common conceptionone that attempts to describe a task in discrete mechanical means associated with this conception of formalized algorithms is the assignment operation which sets the value of a variable it derives from the intuition of memory as a scratchpad an example of such an assignment can be found below for some alternate conceptions of what constitutes an algorithm see functional programming and logic programming expressing algorithms algorithms can be expressed in many kinds of notation including natural languages pseudocode flowcharts drakoncharts programming languages or control tables processed by interpreters natural language expressions of algorithms tend to be verbose and ambiguous and are rarely used for complex or technical algorithms pseudocode flowcharts drakoncharts and control tables are structured ways to express algorithms that avoid many of the ambiguities common in the statements based on natural language programming languages are primarily intended for expressing algorithms in a form that can be executed by a computer but are also often used as a way to define or document algorithms there is a wide variety of representations possible and one can express a given turing machine program as a sequence of machine tables see finitestate machine statetransition table and control table for more as flowcharts and drakoncharts see state diagram for more or as a form of rudimentary machine code or assembly code called sets of quadruples see turing machine for more representations of algorithms can be classed into three accepted levels of turing machine description as follows 1 highlevel description prose to describe an algorithm ignoring the implementation details at this level we do not need to mention how the machine manages its tape or head 2 implementation description prose used to define the way the turing machine uses its head and the way that it stores data on its tape at this level we do not give details of states or transition function 3 formal description most detailed lowest level gives the turing machines state table for an example of the simple algorithm add mn described in all three levels see examples design algorithm design refers to a method or a mathematical process for problemsolving and engineering algorithms the design of algorithms is part of many solution theories such as divideandconquer or dynamic programming within operation research techniques for designing and implementing algorithm designs are also called algorithm design patterns with examples including the template method pattern and the decorator pattern one of the most important aspects of algorithm design is resource runtime memory usage efficiency the big o notation is used to describe eg an algorithms runtime growth as the size of its input increases typical steps in the development of algorithms problem definition development of a model specification of the algorithm designing an algorithm checking the correctness of the algorithm analysis of algorithm implementation of algorithm program testing documentation preparation computer algorithms elegant compact programs good fast programs the notion of simplicity and elegance appears informally in knuth and precisely in chaitin knuth we want good algorithms in some loosely defined aesthetic sense one criterion is the length of time taken to perform the algorithm other criteria are adaptability of the algorithm to computers its simplicity and elegance etc chaitin a program is elegant by which i mean that its the smallest possible program for producing the output that it does chaitin prefaces his definition with ill show you cant prove that a program is elegantsuch a proof would solve the halting problem ibid algorithm versus function computable by an algorithm for a given function multiple algorithms may exist this is true even without expanding the available instruction set available to the programmer rogers observes that it is important to distinguish between the notion of algorithm ie procedure and the notion of function computable by algorithm ie mapping yielded by procedure the same function may have several different algorithms unfortunately there may be a tradeoff between goodness speed and elegance compactnessan elegant program may take more steps to complete a computation than one less elegant an example that uses euclids algorithm appears below computers and computors models of computation a computer or human computer is a restricted type of machine a discrete deterministic mechanical device that blindly follows its instructions melzaks and lambeks primitive models reduced this notion to four elements i discrete distinguishable locations ii discrete indistinguishable counters iii an agent and iv a list of instructions that are effective relative to the capability of the agent minsky describes a more congenial variation of lambeks abacus model in his very simple bases for computability minskys machine proceeds sequentially through its five or six depending on how one counts instructions unless either a conditional ifthen goto or an unconditional goto changes program flow out of sequence besides halt minskys machine includes three assignment replacement substitution operations zero eg the contents of location replaced by 0 l 0 successor eg l l1 and decrement eg l l 1 rarely must a programmer write code with such a limited instruction set but minsky shows as do melzak and lambek that his machine is turing complete with only four general types of instructions conditional goto unconditional goto assignmentreplacementsubstitution and halt however a few different assignment instructions eg decrement increment and zeroclearempty for a minsky machine are also required for turingcompleteness their exact specification is somewhat up to the designer the unconditional goto is convenient it can be constructed by initializing a dedicated location to zero eg the instruction z 0 thereafter the instruction if z0 then goto xxx is unconditional simulation of an algorithm computer computor language knuth advises the reader that the best way to learn an algorithm is to try it immediately take pen and paper and work through an example but what about a simulation or execution of the real thing the programmer must translate the algorithm into a language that the simulatorcomputercomputor can effectively execute stone gives an example of this when computing the roots of a quadratic equation the computer must know how to take a square root if they do not then the algorithm to be effective must provide a set of rules for extracting a square root this means that the programmer must know a language that is effective relative to the target computing agent computercomputor but what model should be used for the simulation van emde boas observes even if we base complexity theory on abstract instead of concrete machines the arbitrariness of the choice of a model remains it is at this point that the notion of simulation enters when speed is being measured the instruction set matters for example the subprogram in euclids algorithm to compute the remainder would execute much faster if the programmer had a modulus instruction available rather than just subtraction or worse just minskys decrement structured programming canonical structures per the churchturing thesis any algorithm can be computed by a model known to be turing complete and per minskys demonstrations turing completeness requires only four instruction typesconditional goto unconditional goto assignment halt kemeny and kurtz observe that while undisciplined use of unconditional gotos and conditional ifthen gotos can result in spaghetti code a programmer can write structured programs using only these instructions on the other hand it is also possible and not too hard to write badly structured programs in a structured language tausworthe augments the three böhmjacopini canonical structures sequence ifthenelse and whiledo with two more dowhile and case an additional benefit of a structured program is that it lends itself to proofs of correctness using mathematical induction canonical flowchart symbols the graphical aide called a flowchart offers a way to describe and document an algorithm and a computer program corresponding to it like the program flow of a minsky machine a flowchart always starts at the top of a page and proceeds down its primary symbols are only four the directed arrow showing program flow the rectangle sequence goto the diamond ifthenelse and the dot ortie the böhmjacopini canonical structures are made of these primitive shapes substructures can nest in rectangles but only if a single exit occurs from the superstructure the symbols and their use to build the canonical structures are shown in the diagram examples algorithm example one of the simplest algorithms is to find the largest number in a list of numbers of random order finding the solution requires looking at every number in the list from this follows a simple algorithm which can be stated in a highlevel description in english prose as highlevel description if there are no numbers in the set then there is no highest number assume the first number in the set is the largest number in the set for each remaining number in the set if this number is larger than the current largest number consider this number to be the largest number in the set when there are no numbers left in the set to iterate over consider the current largest number to be the largest number of the set quasiformal description written in prose but much closer to the highlevel language of a computer program the following is the more formal coding of the algorithm in pseudocode or pidgin code input a list of numbers l output the largest number in the list l if lsize 0 return null largest l0 for each item in l do if item largest then largest item return largest euclids algorithm in mathematics the euclidean algorithm or euclids algorithm is an efficient method for computing the greatest common divisor gcd of two integers numbers the largest number that divides them both without a remainder it is named after the ancient greek mathematician euclid who first described it in his elements it is one of the oldest algorithms in common use it can be used to reduce fractions to their simplest form and is a part of many other numbertheoretic and cryptographic calculations euclid poses the problem thus given two numbers not prime to one another to find their greatest common measure he defines a number to be a multitude composed of units a counting number a positive integer not including zero to measure is to place a shorter measuring length s successively q times along longer length l until the remaining portion r is less than the shorter length s in modern words remainder r l qs q being the quotient or remainder r is the modulus the integerfractional part left over after the division for euclids method to succeed the starting lengths must satisfy two requirements i the lengths must not be zero and ii the subtraction must be proper ie a test must guarantee that the smaller of the two numbers is subtracted from the larger or the two can be equal so their subtraction yields zero euclids original proof adds a third requirement the two lengths must not be prime to one another euclid stipulated this so that he could construct a reductio ad absurdum proof that the two numbers common measure is in fact the greatest while nicomachus algorithm is the same as euclids when the numbers are prime to one another it yields the number 1 for their common measure so to be precise the following is really nicomachus algorithm computer language for euclids algorithm only a few instruction types are required to execute euclids algorithmsome logical tests conditional goto unconditional goto assignment replacement and subtraction a location is symbolized by upper case letters eg s a etc the varying quantity number in a location is written in lower case letters and usually associated with the locations name for example location l at the start might contain the number l 3009 an inelegant program for euclids algorithm the following algorithm is framed as knuths fourstep version of euclids and nicomachus but rather than using division to find the remainder it uses successive subtractions of the shorter length s from the remaining length r until r is less than s the highlevel description shown in boldface is adapted from knuth 197324 input into two locations l and s put the numbers l and s that represent the two lengths input l s initialize r make the remaining length r equal to the startinginitialinput length l r l e0 ensure r s ensure the smaller of the two numbers is in s and the larger in r if r s then the contents of l is the larger number so skip over the exchangesteps 4 5 and 6 goto step 7 else swap the contents of r and s l r this first step is redundant but is useful for later discussion r s s l e1 find remainder until the remaining length r in r is less than the shorter length s in s repeatedly subtract the measuring number s in s from the remaining length r in r if s r then done measuring so goto 10 else measure again r r s remainderloop goto 7 e2 is the remainder zero either i the last measure was exact the remainder in r is zero and the program can halt or ii the algorithm must continue the last measure left a remainder in r less than measuring number in s if r 0 then done so goto step 15 else continue to step 11 e3 interchange s and r the nut of euclids algorithm use remainder r to measure what was previously smaller number s l serves as a temporary location l r r s s l repeat the measuring process goto 7 output done s contains the greatest common divisor print s done halt end stop an elegant program for euclids algorithm the flowchart of elegant can be found at the top of this article in the unstructured basic language the steps are numbered and the instruction let is the assignment instruction symbolized by 5 rem euclids algorithm for greatest common divisor 6 print type two integers greater than 0 10 input ab 20 if b0 then goto 80 30 if a b then goto 60 40 let bba 50 goto 20 60 let aab 70 goto 20 80 print a 90 end how elegant works in place of an outer euclid loop elegant shifts back and forth between two coloops an a b loop that computes a a b and a b a loop that computes b b a this works because when at last the minuend m is less than or equal to the subtrahend s difference minuend subtrahend the minuend can become s the new measuring length and the subtrahend can become the new r the length to be measured in other words the sense of the subtraction reverses the following version can be used with programming languages from the cfamily euclids algorithm for greatest common divisor int euclidalgorithm int a int b a absa b absb while b 0 while a b a ab b ba return a testing the euclid algorithms does an algorithm do what its author wants it to do a few test cases usually give some confidence in the core functionality but tests are not enough for test cases one source uses 3009 and 884 knuth suggested 40902 24140 another interesting case is the two relatively prime numbers 14157 and 5950 but exceptional cases must be identified and tested will inelegant perform properly when r s s r r s ditto for elegant b a a b a b yes to all what happens when one number is zero both numbers are zero inelegant computes forever in all cases elegant computes forever when a 0 what happens if negative numbers are entered fractional numbers if the input numbers ie the domain of the function computed by the algorithmprogram is to include only positive integers including zero then the failures at zero indicate that the algorithm and the program that instantiates it is a partial function rather than a total function a notable failure due to exceptions is the ariane 5 flight 501 rocket failure june 4 1996 proof of program correctness by use of mathematical induction knuth demonstrates the application of mathematical induction to an extended version of euclids algorithm and he proposes a general method applicable to proving the validity of any algorithm tausworthe proposes that a measure of the complexity of a program be the length of its correctness proof measuring and improving the euclid algorithms elegance compactness versus goodness speed with only six core instructions elegant is the clear winner compared to inelegant at thirteen instructions however inelegant is faster it arrives at halt in fewer steps algorithm analysis indicates why this is the case elegant does two conditional tests in every subtraction loop whereas inelegant only does one as the algorithm usually requires many loopthroughs on average much time is wasted doing a b 0 test that is needed only after the remainder is computed can the algorithms be improved once the programmer judges a program fit and effectivethat is it computes the function intended by its authorthen the question becomes can it be improved the compactness of inelegant can be improved by the elimination of five steps but chaitin proved that compacting an algorithm cannot be automated by a generalized algorithm rather it can only be done heuristically ie by exhaustive search examples to be found at busy beaver trial and error cleverness insight application of inductive reasoning etc observe that steps 4 5 and 6 are repeated in steps 11 12 and 13 comparison with elegant provides a hint that these steps together with steps 2 and 3 can be eliminated this reduces the number of core instructions from thirteen to eight which makes it more elegant than elegant at nine steps the speed of elegant can be improved by moving the b0 test outside of the two subtraction loops this change calls for the addition of three instructions b 0 a 0 goto now elegant computes the examplenumbers faster whether this is always the case for any given a b and r s would require a detailed analysis algorithmic analysis it is frequently important to know how much of a particular resource such as time or storage is theoretically required for a given algorithm methods have been developed for the analysis of algorithms to obtain such quantitative answers estimates for example an algorithm which adds up the elements of a list of n numbers would have a time requirement of using big o notation at all times the algorithm only needs to remember two values the sum of all the elements so far and its current position in the input list therefore it is said to have a space requirement of if the space required to store the input numbers is not counted or if it is counted different algorithms may complete the same task with a different set of instructions in less or more time space or effort than others for example a binary search algorithm with cost outperforms a sequential search cost when used for table lookups on sorted lists or arrays formal versus empirical the analysis and study of algorithms is a discipline of computer science and is often practiced abstractly without the use of a specific programming language or implementation in this sense algorithm analysis resembles other mathematical disciplines in that it focuses on the underlying properties of the algorithm and not on the specifics of any particular implementation usually pseudocode is used for analysis as it is the simplest and most general representation however ultimately most algorithms are usually implemented on particular hardwaresoftware platforms and their algorithmic efficiency is eventually put to the test using real code for the solution of a one off problem the efficiency of a particular algorithm may not have significant consequences unless n is extremely large but for algorithms designed for fast interactive commercial or long life scientific usage it may be critical scaling from small n to large n frequently exposes inefficient algorithms that are otherwise benign empirical testing is useful because it may uncover unexpected interactions that affect performance benchmarks may be used to compare beforeafter potential improvements to an algorithm after program optimization empirical tests cannot replace formal analysis though and are not trivial to perform in a fair manner execution efficiency to illustrate the potential improvements possible even in wellestablished algorithms a recent significant innovation relating to fft algorithms used heavily in the field of image processing can decrease processing time up to 1000 times for applications like medical imaging in general speed improvements depend on special properties of the problem which are very common in practical applications speedups of this magnitude enable computing devices that make extensive use of image processing like digital cameras and medical equipment to consume less power classification there are various ways to classify algorithms each with its own merits by implementation one way to classify algorithms is by implementation means recursion a recursive algorithm is one that invokes makes reference to itself repeatedly until a certain condition also known as termination condition matches which is a method common to functional programming iterative algorithms use repetitive constructs like loops and sometimes additional data structures like stacks to solve the given problems some problems are naturally suited for one implementation or the other for example towers of hanoi is well understood using recursive implementation every recursive version has an equivalent but possibly more or less complex iterative version and vice versa serial parallel or distributed algorithms are usually discussed with the assumption that computers execute one instruction of an algorithm at a time those computers are sometimes called serial computers an algorithm designed for such an environment is called a serial algorithm as opposed to parallel algorithms or distributed algorithms parallel algorithms are algorithms that take advantage of computer architectures where multiple processors can work on a problem at the same time distributed algorithms are algorithms that use multiple machines connected with a computer network parallel and distributed algorithms divide the problem into more symmetrical or asymmetrical subproblems and collect the results back together for example a cpu would be an example of a parallel algorithm the resource consumption in such algorithms is not only processor cycles on each processor but also the communication overhead between the processors some sorting algorithms can be parallelized efficiently but their communication overhead is expensive iterative algorithms are generally parallelizable but some problems have no parallel algorithms and are called inherently serial problems deterministic or nondeterministic deterministic algorithms solve the problem with exact decision at every step of the algorithm whereas nondeterministic algorithms solve problems via guessing although typical guesses are made more accurate through the use of heuristics exact or approximate while many algorithms reach an exact solution approximation algorithms seek an approximation that is closer to the true solution the approximation can be reached by either using a deterministic or a random strategy such algorithms have practical value for many hard problems one of the examples of an approximate algorithm is the knapsack problem where there is a set of given items its goal is to pack the knapsack to get the maximum total value each item has some weight and some value total weight that can be carried is no more than some fixed number x so the solution must consider weights of items as well as their value quantum algorithm they run on a realistic model of quantum computation the term is usually used for those algorithms which seem inherently quantum or use some essential feature of quantum computing such as quantum superposition or quantum entanglement by design paradigm another way of classifying algorithms is by their design methodology or paradigm there is a certain number of paradigms each different from the other furthermore each of these categories includes many different types of algorithms some common paradigms are bruteforce or exhaustive search brute force is a method of problemsolving that involves systematically trying every possible option until the optimal solution is found this approach can be very time consuming as it requires going through every possible combination of variables however it is often used when other methods are not available or too complex brute force can be used to solve a variety of problems including finding the shortest path between two points and cracking passwords divide and conquer a divideandconquer algorithm repeatedly reduces an instance of a problem to one or more smaller instances of the same problem usually recursively until the instances are small enough to solve easily one such example of divide and conquer is merge sorting sorting can be done on each segment of data after dividing data into segments and sorting of entire data can be obtained in the conquer phase by merging the segments a simpler variant of divide and conquer is called a decreaseandconquer algorithm which solves an identical subproblem and uses the solution of this subproblem to solve the bigger problem divide and conquer divides the problem into multiple subproblems and so the conquer stage is more complex than decrease and conquer algorithms an example of a decrease and conquer algorithm is the binary search algorithm search and enumeration many problems such as playing chess can be modeled as problems on graphs a graph exploration algorithm specifies rules for moving around a graph and is useful for such problems this category also includes search algorithms branch and bound enumeration and backtracking randomized algorithm such algorithms make some choices randomly or pseudorandomly they can be very useful in finding approximate solutions for problems where finding exact solutions can be impractical see heuristic method below for some of these problems it is known that the fastest approximations must involve some randomness whether randomized algorithms with polynomial time complexity can be the fastest algorithms for some problems is an open question known as the p versus np problem there are two large classes of such algorithms monte carlo algorithms return a correct answer with highprobability eg rp is the subclass of these that run in polynomial time las vegas algorithms always return the correct answer but their running time is only probabilistically bound eg zpp reduction of complexity this technique involves solving a difficult problem by transforming it into a betterknown problem for which we have hopefully asymptotically optimal algorithms the goal is to find a reducing algorithm whose complexity is not dominated by the resulting reduced algorithms for example one selection algorithm for finding the median in an unsorted list involves first sorting the list the expensive portion and then pulling out the middle element in the sorted list the cheap portion this technique is also known as transform and conquer back tracking in this approach multiple solutions are built incrementally and abandoned when it is determined that they cannot lead to a valid full solution optimization problems for optimization problems there is a more specific classification of algorithms an algorithm for such problems may fall into one or more of the general categories described above as well as into one of the following linear programming when searching for optimal solutions to a linear function bound to linear equality and inequality constraints the constraints of the problem can be used directly in producing the optimal solutions there are algorithms that can solve any problem in this category such as the popular simplex algorithm problems that can be solved with linear programming include the maximum flow problem for directed graphs if a problem additionally requires that one or more of the unknowns must be an integer then it is classified in integer programming a linear programming algorithm can solve such a problem if it can be proved that all restrictions for integer values are superficial ie the solutions satisfy these restrictions anyway in the general case a specialized algorithm or an algorithm that finds approximate solutions is used depending on the difficulty of the problem dynamic programming when a problem shows optimal substructuresmeaning the optimal solution to a problem can be constructed from optimal solutions to subproblemsand overlapping subproblems meaning the same subproblems are used to solve many different problem instances a quicker approach called dynamic programming avoids recomputing solutions that have already been computed for example floydwarshall algorithm the shortest path to a goal from a vertex in a weighted graph can be found by using the shortest path to the goal from all adjacent vertices dynamic programming and memoization go together the main difference between dynamic programming and divide and conquer is that subproblems are more or less independent in divide and conquer whereas subproblems overlap in dynamic programming the difference between dynamic programming and straightforward recursion is in caching or memoization of recursive calls when subproblems are independent and there is no repetition memoization does not help hence dynamic programming is not a solution for all complex problems by using memoization or maintaining a table of subproblems already solved dynamic programming reduces the exponential nature of many problems to polynomial complexity the greedy method a greedy algorithm is similar to a dynamic programming algorithm in that it works by examining substructures in this case not of the problem but of a given solution such algorithms start with some solution which may be given or have been constructed in some way and improve it by making small modifications for some problems they can find the optimal solution while for others they stop at local optima that is at solutions that cannot be improved by the algorithm but are not optimum the most popular use of greedy algorithms is for finding the minimal spanning tree where finding the optimal solution is possible with this method huffman tree kruskal prim sollin are greedy algorithms that can solve this optimization problem the heuristic method in optimization problems heuristic algorithms can be used to find a solution close to the optimal solution in cases where finding the optimal solution is impractical these algorithms work by getting closer and closer to the optimal solution as they progress in principle if run for an infinite amount of time they will find the optimal solution their merit is that they can find a solution very close to the optimal solution in a relatively short time such algorithms include local search tabu search simulated annealing and genetic algorithms some of them like simulated annealing are nondeterministic algorithms while others like tabu search are deterministic when a bound on the error of the nonoptimal solution is known the algorithm is further categorized as an approximation algorithm by field of study every field of science has its own problems and needs efficient algorithms related problems in one field are often studied together some example classes are search algorithms sorting algorithms merge algorithms numerical algorithms graph algorithms string algorithms computational geometric algorithms combinatorial algorithms medical algorithms machine learning cryptography data compression algorithms and parsing techniques fields tend to overlap with each other and algorithm advances in one field may improve those of other sometimes completely unrelated fields for example dynamic programming was invented for optimization of resource consumption in industry but is now used in solving a broad range of problems in many fields by complexity algorithms can be classified by the amount of time they need to complete compared to their input size constant time if the time needed by the algorithm is the same regardless of the input size eg an access to an array element logarithmic time if the time is a logarithmic function of the input size eg binary search algorithm linear time if the time is proportional to the input size eg the traverse of a list polynomial time if the time is a power of the input size eg the bubble sort algorithm has quadratic time complexity exponential time if the time is an exponential function of the input size eg bruteforce search some problems may have multiple algorithms of differing complexity while other problems might have no algorithms or no known efficient algorithms there are also mappings from some problems to other problems owing to this it was found to be more suitable to classify the problems themselves instead of the algorithms into equivalence classes based on the complexity of the best possible algorithms for them continuous algorithms the adjective continuous when applied to the word algorithm can mean an algorithm operating on data that represents continuous quantities even though this data is represented by discrete approximationssuch algorithms are studied in numerical analysis or an algorithm in the form of a differential equation that operates continuously on the data running on an analog computer algorithm logic control in logic programming algorithms are viewed as having both a logic component which specifies the knowledge to be used in solving problems and a control component which determines the problemsolving strategies by means of which that knowledge is used the euclidean algorithm illustrates this view of an algorithm here is a logic programming representation using to represent if and the relation gcda b c to represent the function gcda b c gcda a a gcda b c a b gcdab b c gcda b c b a gcda ba c in the logic programming language ciao the gcd relation can be represented directly in functional notation gcda a a gcda b gcdab b a b gcda b gcda ba b a the ciao implementation translates the functional notation into a relational representation in prolog extracting the embedded subtractions ab and ba as separate conditions gcda a a gcda b c a b a is ab gcda b c gcda b c b a b is ba gcda b c the resulting program has a purely logical and declarative reading as a recursive or inductive definition which is independent of how the logic is used to solve problems the gcd of a and a is a the gcd of a and b is c if a b and a is ab and the gcd of a and b is c the gcd of a and b is c if b a and b is ba and the gcd of a and b is c different problemsolving strategies turn the logic into different algorithms in theory given a pair of integers a and b forward or bottomup reasoning could be used to generate all instances of the gcd relation terminating when the desired gcd of a and b is generated of course forward reasoning is entirely useless in this case but in other cases such as the definition of the fibonacci sequence and datalog forward reasoning can be an efficient problem solving strategy see for example the logic program for computing fibonacci numbers in algorithm logic control in contrast with the inefficiency of forward reasoning in this example backward or topdown reasoning using sld resolution turns the logic into the euclidean algorithm to find the gcd c of two given numbers a and b if a b then c a if a b then let a ab and find the gcd of a and b which is c if b a then let b ba and find the gcd of a and b which is c one of the advantages of the logic programming representation of the algorithm is that its purely logical reading makes it easier to verify that the algorithm is correct relative to the standard nonrecursive definition of gcd here is the standard definition written in prolog gcda b c dividesc a dividesc b foralldividesd a dividesd b d c dividesc number between1 number c 0 is number mod c this definition which is the specification of the euclidean algorithm is also executable in prolog backward reasoning treats the specification as the bruteforce algorithm that iterates through all of the integers c between 1 and a checking whether c divides both a and b and then for each such c iterates again through all of the integers d between 1 and a until it finds a c such that c is greater than or equal to all of the d that also divide both a and b although this algorithm is hopelessly inefficient it shows that formal specifications can often be written in logic programming form and they can be executed by prolog to check that they correctly represent informal requirements legal issues algorithms by themselves are not usually patentable in the united states a claim consisting solely of simple manipulations of abstract concepts numbers or signals does not constitute processes uspto 2006 so algorithms are not patentable as in gottschalk v benson however practical applications of algorithms are sometimes patentable for example in diamond v diehr the application of a simple feedback algorithm to aid in the curing of synthetic rubber was deemed patentable the patenting of software is controversial and there are criticized patents involving algorithms especially data compression algorithms such as unisyss lzw patent additionally some cryptographic algorithms have export restrictions see export of cryptography history development of the notion of algorithm ancient near east the earliest evidence of algorithms is found in the babylonian mathematics of ancient mesopotamia modern iraq a sumerian clay tablet found in shuruppak near baghdad and dated to described the earliest division algorithm during the hammurabi dynasty babylonian clay tablets described algorithms for computing formulas algorithms were also used in babylonian astronomy babylonian clay tablets describe and employ algorithmic procedures to compute the time and place of significant astronomical events algorithms for arithmetic are also found in ancient egyptian mathematics dating back to the rhind mathematical papyrus algorithms were later used in ancient hellenistic mathematics two examples are the sieve of eratosthenes which was described in the introduction to arithmetic by nicomachus and the euclidean algorithm which was first described in euclids elements discrete and distinguishable symbols tallymarks to keep track of their flocks their sacks of grain and their money the ancients used tallying accumulating stones or marks scratched on sticks or making discrete symbols in clay through the babylonian and egyptian use of marks and symbols eventually roman numerals and the abacus evolved dilson p 1641 tally marks appear prominently in unary numeral system arithmetic used in turing machine and postturing machine computations manipulation of symbols as place holders for numbers algebra muhammad ibn mūsā alkhwārizmī a persian mathematician wrote the aljabr in the 9th century the terms algorism and algorithm are derived from the name alkhwārizmī while the term algebra is derived from the book aljabr in europe the word algorithm was originally used to refer to the sets of rules and techniques used by alkhwarizmi to solve algebraic equations before later being generalized to refer to any set of rules or techniques this eventually culminated in leibnizs notion of the calculus ratiocinator cryptographic algorithms the first cryptographic algorithm for deciphering encrypted code was developed by alkindi a 9thcentury arab mathematician in a manuscript on deciphering cryptographic messages he gave the first description of cryptanalysis by frequency analysis the earliest codebreaking algorithm mechanical contrivances with discrete states the clock bolter credits the invention of the weightdriven clock as the key invention of europe in the middle ages in particular the verge escapement that provides us with the tick and tock of a mechanical clock the accurate automatic machine led immediately to mechanical automata beginning in the 13th century and finally to computational machinesthe difference engine and analytical engines of charles babbage and countess ada lovelace mid19th century lovelace is credited with the first creation of an algorithm intended for processing on a computerbabbages analytical engine the first device considered a real turingcomplete computer instead of just a calculatorand is sometimes called historys first programmer as a result though a full implementation of babbages second device would not be realized until decades after her lifetime logical machines 1870 stanley jevons logical abacus and logical machine the technical problem was to reduce boolean equations when presented in a form similar to what is now known as karnaugh maps jevons 1880 describes first a simple abacus of slips of wood furnished with pins contrived so that any part or class of the logical combinations can be picked out mechanically more recently however i have reduced the system to a completely mechanical form and have thus embodied the whole of the indirect process of inference in what may be called a logical machine his machine came equipped with certain moveable wooden rods and at the foot are 21 keys like those of a piano etc with this machine he could analyze a syllogism or any other simple logical argument this machine he displayed in 1870 before the fellows of the royal society another logician john venn however in his 1881 symbolic logic turned a jaundiced eye to this effort i have no high estimate myself of the interest or importance of what are sometimes called logical machines it does not seem to me that any contrivances at present known or likely to be discovered really deserve the name of logical machines see more at algorithm characterizations but not to be outdone he too presented a plan somewhat analogous i apprehend to prof jevons abacus and again corresponding to prof jevonss logical machine the following contrivance may be described i prefer to call it merely a logicaldiagram machine but i suppose that it could do very completely all that can be rationally expected of any logical machine jacquard loom hollerith punch cards telegraphy and telephony the electromechanical relay bell and newell 1971 indicate that the jacquard loom 1801 precursor to hollerith cards punch cards 1887 and telephone switching technologies were the roots of a tree leading to the development of the first computers by the mid19th century the telegraph the precursor of the telephone was in use throughout the world its discrete and distinguishable encoding of letters as dots and dashes a common sound by the late 19th century the ticker tape was in use as was the use of hollerith cards in the 1890 us census then came the teleprinter with its punchedpaper use of baudot code on tape telephoneswitching networks of electromechanical relays invented 1835 was behind the work of george stibitz 1937 the inventor of the digital adding device as he worked in bell laboratories he observed the burdensome use of mechanical calculators with gears he went home one evening in 1937 intending to test his idea when the tinkering was over stibitz had constructed a binary adding device the mathematician martin davis observes the particular importance of the electromechanical relay with its two binary states open and closed it was only with the development beginning in the 1930s of electromechanical calculators using electrical relays that machines were built having the scope babbage had envisioned mathematics during the 19th century up to the mid20th century symbols and rules in rapid succession the mathematics of george boole 1847 1854 gottlob frege 1879 and giuseppe peano 18881889 reduced arithmetic to a sequence of symbols manipulated by rules peanos the principles of arithmetic presented by a new method 1888 was the first attempt at an axiomatization of mathematics in a symbolic language but heijenoort gives frege 1879 this kudos freges is perhaps the most important single work ever written in logic in which we see a formula language that is a lingua characterica a language written with special symbols for pure thought that is free from rhetorical embellishments constructed from specific symbols that are manipulated according to definite rules the work of frege was further simplified and amplified by alfred north whitehead and bertrand russell in their principia mathematica 19101913 the paradoxes at the same time a number of disturbing paradoxes appeared in the literature in particular the buraliforti paradox 1897 the russell paradox 190203 and the richard paradox the resultant considerations led to kurt gödels paper 1931he specifically cites the paradox of the liarthat completely reduces rules of recursion to numbers effective calculability in an effort to solve the entscheidungsproblem defined precisely by hilbert in 1928 mathematicians first set about to define what was meant by an effective method or effective calculation or effective calculability ie a calculation that would succeed in rapid succession the following appeared alonzo church stephen kleene and jb rossers λcalculus a finely honed definition of general recursion from the work of gödel acting on suggestions of jacques herbrand cf gödels princeton lectures of 1934 and subsequent simplifications by kleene churchs proof that the entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable emil posts definition of effective calculability as a worker mindlessly following a list of instructions to move left or right through a sequence of rooms and while there either mark or erase a paper or observe the paper and make a yesno decision about the next instruction alan turings proof of that the entscheidungsproblem was unsolvable by use of his a automatic machinein effect almost identical to posts formulation j barkley rossers definition of effective method in terms of a machine kleenes proposal of a precursor to church thesis that he called thesis i and a few years later kleenes renaming his thesis churchs thesis and proposing turings thesis emil post 1936 and alan turing 193637 1939 emil post 1936 described the actions of a computer human being as follows two concepts are involved that of a symbol space in which the work leading from problem to answer is to be carried out and a fixed unalterable set of directions his symbol space would be a twoway infinite sequence of spaces or boxes the problem solver or worker is to move and work in this symbol space being capable of being in and operating in but one box at a time a box is to admit of but two possible conditions ie being empty or unmarked and having a single mark in it say a vertical stroke one box is to be singled out and called the starting point a specific problem is to be given in symbolic form by a finite number of boxes ie input being marked with a stroke likewise the answer ie output is to be given in symbolic form by such a configuration of marked boxes a set of directions applicable to a general problem sets up a deterministic process when applied to each specific problem this process terminates only when it comes to the direction of type c ie stop see more at postturing machine alan turings work preceded that of stibitz 1937 it is unknown whether stibitz knew of the work of turing turings biographer believed that turings use of a typewriterlike model derived from a youthful interest alan had dreamt of inventing typewriters as a boy mrs turing had a typewriter and he could well have begun by asking himself what was meant by calling a typewriter mechanical given the prevalence at the time of morse code telegraphy ticker tape machines and teletypewriters it is quite possible that all were influences on turing during his youth turinghis model of computation is now called a turing machinebegins as did post with an analysis of a human computer that he whittles down to a simple set of basic motions and states of mind but he continues a step further and creates a machine as a model of computation of numbers computing is normally done by writing certain symbols on paper we may suppose this paper is divided into squares like a childs arithmetic booki assume then that the computation is carried out on onedimensional paper ie on a tape divided into squares i shall also suppose that the number of symbols which may be printed is finite the behavior of the computer at any moment is determined by the symbols which he is observing and his state of mind at that moment we may suppose that there is a bound b to the number of symbols or squares that the computer can observe at one moment if he wishes to observe more he must use successive observations we will also suppose that the number of states of mind which need be taken into account is finite let us imagine that the operations performed by the computer to be split up into simple operations which are so elementary that it is not easy to imagine them further divided turings reduction yields the following the simple operations must therefore include a changes of the symbol on one of the observed squares b changes of one of the squares observed to another square within l squares of one of the previously observed squares it may be that some of these change necessarily invoke a change of state of mind the most general single operation must therefore be taken to be one of the following a a possible change a of symbol together with a possible change of state of mind b a possible change b of observed squares together with a possible change of state of mind we may now construct a machine to do the work of this computer a few years later turing expanded his analysis thesis definition with this forceful expression of it a function is said to be effectively calculable if its values can be found by some purely mechanical process though it is fairly easy to get an intuitive grasp of this idea it is nevertheless desirable to have some more definite mathematical expressible definition he discusses the history of the definition pretty much as presented above with respect to gödel herbrand kleene church turing and post we may take this statement literally understanding by a purely mechanical process one which could be carried out by a machine it is possible to give a mathematical description in a certain normal form of the structures of these machines the development of these ideas leads to the authors definition of a computable function and to an identification of computability with effective calculability we shall use the expression computable function to mean a function calculable by a machine and we let effectively calculable refer to the intuitive idea without particular identification with any one of these definitions j b rosser 1939 and s c kleene 1943 j barkley rosser defined an effective mathematical method in the following manner italicization added effective method is used here in the rather special sense of a method each step of which is precisely determined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps with this special meaning three different precise definitions have been given to date his footnote 5 see discussion immediately below the simplest of these to state due to post and turing says essentially that an effective method of solving certain sets of problems exists if one can build a machine which will then solve any problem of the set with no human intervention beyond inserting the question and later reading the answer all three definitions are equivalent so it doesnt matter which one is used moreover the fact that all three are equivalent is a very strong argument for the correctness of any one rosser 1939225226 rossers footnote no 5 references the work of 1 church and kleene and their definition of λdefinability in particular churchs use of it in his an unsolvable problem of elementary number theory 1936 2 herbrand and gödel and their use of recursion in particular gödels use in his famous paper on formally undecidable propositions of principia mathematica and related systems i 1931 and 3 post 1936 and turing 193637 in their mechanismmodels of computation stephen c kleene defined as his nowfamous thesis i known as the churchturing thesis but he did this in the following context boldface in original 12 algorithmic theories in setting up a complete algorithmic theory what we do is to describe a procedure performable for each set of values of the independent variables which procedure necessarily terminates and in such manner that from the outcome we can read a definite answer yes or no to the question is the predicate value true kleene 1943273 history after 1950 a number of efforts have been directed toward further refinement of the definition of algorithm and activity is ongoing because of issues surrounding in particular foundations of mathematics especially the churchturing thesis and philosophy of mind especially arguments about artificial intelligence for more see algorithm characterizations see also abstract machine algol algorithm engineering algorithm characterizations algorithmic bias algorithmic composition algorithmic entities algorithmic synthesis algorithmic technique algorithmic topology garbage in garbage out introduction to algorithms textbook government by algorithm list of algorithms list of algorithm general topics regulation of algorithms theory of computation computability theory computational complexity theory computational mathematics notes bibliography bell c gordon and newell allen 1971 computer structures readings and examples mcgrawhill book company new york includes a bibliography of 56 references cf chapter 3 turing machines where they discuss certain enumerable sets not effectively mechanically enumerable campagnolo ml moore c and costa jf 2000 an analog characterization of the subrecursive functions in proc of the 4th conference on real numbers and computers odense university pp 91109 reprinted in the undecidable p 89ff the first expression of churchs thesis see in particular page 100 the undecidable where he defines the notion of effective calculability in terms of an algorithm and he uses the word terminates etc reprinted in the undecidable p 110ff church shows that the entscheidungsproblem is unsolvable in about 3 pages of text and 3 pages of footnotes davis gives commentary before each article papers of gödel alonzo church turing rosser kleene and emil post are included those cited in the article are listed here by authors name davis offers concise biographies of leibniz boole frege cantor hilbert gödel and turing with von neumann as the showstealing villain very brief bios of josephmarie jacquard babbage ada lovelace claude shannon howard aiken etc yuri gurevich sequential abstract state machines capture sequential algorithms acm transactions on computational logic vol 1 no 1 july 2000 pp 77111 includes bibliography of 33 sources 3rd edition 1976 pbk cf chapter the spirit of truth for a history leading to and a discussion of his proof presented to the american mathematical society september 1935 reprinted in the undecidable p 237ff kleenes definition of general recursion known now as murecursion was used by church in his 1935 paper an unsolvable problem of elementary number theory that proved the decision problem to be undecidable ie a negative result reprinted in the undecidable p 255ff kleene refined his definition of general recursion and proceeded in his chapter 12 algorithmic theories to posit thesis i p 274 he would later repeat this thesis in kleene 1952300 and name it churchs thesiskleene 1952317 ie the church thesis kosovsky nk elements of mathematical logic and its application to the theory of subrecursive algorithms lsu publ leningrad 1981 aa markov 1954 theory of algorithms translated by jacques j schorrkon and pst staff imprint moscow academy of sciences of the ussr 1954 ie jerusalem israel program for scientific translations 1961 available from the office of technical services us dept of commerce washington description 444 p 28 cm added tp in russian translation of works of the mathematical institute academy of sciences of the ussr v 42 original title teoriya algerifmov qa248m2943 dartmouth college library us dept of commerce office of technical services number ots minsky expands his idea of an algorithm an effective procedure in chapter 51 computability effective procedures and algorithms infinite machines reprinted in the undecidable pp 289ff post defines a simple algorithmiclike process of a man writing marks or erasing marks and going from box to box and eventually halting as he follows a list of simple instructions this is cited by kleene as one source of his thesis i the socalled churchturing thesis reprinted in the undecidable p 223ff herein is rossers famous definition of effective method a method each step of which is precisely predetermined and which is certain to produce the answer in a finite number of steps a machine which will then solve any problem of the set with no human intervention beyond inserting the question and later reading the answer p 225226 the undecidable cf in particular the first chapter titled algorithms turing machines and programs his succinct informal definition any sequence of instructions that can be obeyed by a robot is called an algorithm p 4 corrections ibid vol 431937 pp 544546 reprinted in the undecidable p 116ff turings famous paper completed as a masters dissertation while at kings college cambridge uk reprinted in the undecidable pp 155ff turings paper that defined the oracle was his phd thesis while at princeton united states patent and trademark office 2006 210602 mathematical algorithms 2100 patentability manual of patent examining procedure mpep latest revision august 2006 zaslavsky c 1970 mathematics of the yoruba people and of their neighbors in southern nigeria the twoyear college mathematics journal 12 7699 httpsdoiorg1023073027363 further reading knuth donald e 2000 selected papers on analysis of algorithms stanford california center for the study of language and information knuth donald e 2010 selected papers on design of algorithms stanford california center for the study of language and information external links dictionary of algorithms and data structures national institute of standards and technology algorithm repositories the stony brook algorithm repository state university of new york at stony brook collected algorithms of the acm associations for computing machinery the stanford graphbase stanford university articles with example pseudocode mathematical logic theoretical computer science	11,040
777	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annual%20plant	Annual plant	an annual plant is a plant that completes its life cycle from germination to the production of seeds within one growing season and then dies the length of growing seasons and period in which they take place vary according to geographical location and may not correspond to the four traditional seasonal divisions of the year description with respect to the traditional seasons annual plants are generally categorized into summer annuals and winter annuals summer annuals germinate during spring or early summer and mature by autumn of the same year winter annuals germinate during the autumn and mature during the spring or summer of the following calendar year one seedtoseed life cycle for an annual plant can occur in as little as a month in some species though most last several months oilseed rapa can go from seedtoseed in about five weeks under a bank of fluorescent lamps this style of growing is often used in classrooms for education many desert annuals are therophytes because their seedtoseed life cycle is only weeks and they spend most of the year as seeds to survive dry conditions cultivation in cultivation many food plants are or are grown as annuals including virtually all domesticated grains some perennials and biennials are grown in gardens as annuals for convenience particularly if they are not considered cold hardy for the local climate carrot celery and parsley are true biennials that are usually grown as annual crops for their edible roots petioles and leaves respectively tomato sweet potato and bell pepper are tender perennials usually grown as annuals ornamental perennials commonly grown as annuals are impatiens mirabilis wax begonia snapdragon pelargonium coleus and petunia examples of true annuals include corn wheat rice lettuce peas watermelon beans zinnia and marigold summer summer annuals sprout flower produce seed and die during the warmer months of the year the lawn weed crabgrass is a summer annual winter winter annuals germinate in autumn or winter live through the winter and then bloom in winter or spring the plants grow and bloom during the cool season when most other plants are dormant or other annuals are in seed form waiting for warmer weather to germinate winter annuals die after flowering and setting seed the seeds germinate in the autumn or winter when the soil temperature is cool winter annuals typically grow low to the ground where they are usually sheltered from the coldest nights by snow cover and make use of warm periods in winter for growth when the snow melts some common winter annuals include henbit deadnettle chickweed and winter cress winter annuals are important ecologically as they provide vegetative cover that prevents soil erosion during winter and early spring when no other cover exists and they provide fresh vegetation for animals and birds that feed on them although they are often considered to be weeds in gardens this viewpoint is not always necessary as most of them die when the soil temperature warms up again in early to late spring when other plants are still dormant and have not yet leafed out even though they do not compete directly with cultivated plants sometimes winter annuals are considered a pest in commercial agriculture because they can be hosts for insect pests or fungal diseases such as ovary smut microbotryum sp which attack crops being cultivated the property that prevents the soil from drying out can also be problematic for commercial agriculture molecular genetics in 2008 it was discovered that the inactivation of only two genes in one species of annual plant leads to its conversion into a perennial plant researchers deactivated the soc1 and ful genes which control flowering time of arabidopsis thaliana this switch established phenotypes common in perennial plants such as wood formation see also plant that flowers sets seeds once then dies ephemeral plant references external links garden plants	640
779	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthophyta	Anthophyta	the anthophytes are a paraphyletic grouping of plant taxa bearing flowerlike reproductive structures the group once thought to be a clade contained the angiosperms the extant flowering plants such as roses and grasses as well as the gnetales and the extinct bennettitales detailed morphological and molecular studies have shown that the group is not actually monophyletic with proposed floral homologies of the gnetophytes and the angiosperms having evolved in parallel this makes it easier to reconcile molecular clock data that suggests that the angiosperms diverged from the gymnosperms around 320300 mya some more recent studies have used the word anthophyte to describe a hypothetical group which includes the angiosperms and a variety of extinct seed plant groups with various suggestions including at least some of the following groups glossopterids corystosperms petriellales pentoxylales bennettitales and caytoniales but not the gnetales references historically recognized plant taxa	144
780	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas%20%28disambiguation%29	Atlas (disambiguation)	an atlas is a collection of maps atlas may also refer to mythology atlas mythology an ancient greek titanic deity atlas the first legendary king of atlantis atlas of mauretania a legendary king places united states atlas california atlas illinois atlas texas atlas west virginia atlas wisconsin atlas district in washington dc atlas peak ava a california wine region atlas township michigan other places atlas cinema a historic movie theatre in istanbul turkey atlas mountains a set of mountain ranges in northwestern africa atlas nilüfer a village in bursa province turkey people with the name atlas given name atlas graffiti artist atlas dabone american wrestler and football player charles atlas 18921972 italianamerican bodybuilder charles atlas artist david atlas born 1924 american meteorologist james atlas 19492019 american writer editor and publisher meir atlas 18481926 lithuanian rabbi natacha atlas born 1964 belgian singer nava atlas american book artist and author omar atlas born 1938 former venezuelan professional wrestler scott atlas born 1955 american conservative health care policy advisor teddy atlas born 1956 american boxing trainer and commentator tony atlas born 1954 american wrestler and bodybuilder arts entertainment and media comics atlas comic book series by dylan horrocks agents of atlas a marvel comics miniseries atlas comics 1950s a publisher atlasseaboard comics a 1970s line of comics fictional characters atlas dc comics any of several fictional characters atlas teen titans atlas an astro boy 1980 character atlas bioshock atlas a battlemech in the battletech universe atlas an antagonist in mega man zx advent atlas a portal 2 character atlas a ps238 character erik josten aka atlas a marvel comics supervillain the atlas a strong driving force from no mans sky literature atlas a photography book by gerhard richter atlas of finite groups a group theory book atlas shrugged a novel by ayn rand the atlas novel by william t vollmann music groups atlas band a new zealand rock band atlas sound the solo musical project of deerhunter lead singer and guitarist bradford cox musicians black atlass a canadian musician albums atlas kinky album atlas laurel halo album atlas parkway drive album atlas real estate album atlas rüfüs album atlas by the score 2017 operas atlas opera 1991 by meredith monk atlas an opera in three parts a 1993 recording of monks opera songs atlas battles song 2007 atlas bicep song 2020 atlas coldplay song 2013 atlas a song by caligulas horse from the album the tide the thief rivers end atlas by parkway drive atlas a song by man overboard from man overboard atlas a song by jake chudnow used as the main theme in the youtube series mind field atlas a song by coheed and cambria periodicals atlas magazine the atlas newspaper published in england from 1826 to 1869 other uses in arts entertainment and media atlas 1961 film an actionadventure film atlas upcoming film an upcoming american science fiction thriller film atlas statue iconic statue by lee lawrie in rockefeller center atlas a book about flora andor fauna of a region such as atlases of the flora and fauna of britain and ireland atlas entertainment a film production company atlas folio a book size atlas media corp a nonfiction entertainment company atlas press a uk publisher rtv atlas a broadcaster in montenegro the atlas video game a 1991 multiplatform strategy video game atlas video game a massivelymultiplayer online video game released for early access in 2018 atlas corporation a fictional arms manufacturer in the video game series borderlands atlas corporation a fictional private military company in the game call of duty advanced warfare brands and enterprises atlas appliance company in belarus atlas restaurant a michelinstarred restaurant in atlanta atlas consortium a group of technology companies atlas copco a swedish company founded in 1873 atlas corporation an investment company atlas elektronik a german navalmarine electronics and systems business atlas group a pakistani business group atlas mara limited formerly atlas mara convest limited a financial holding company that owns banks in africa atlas model railroad american maker of model trains and accessories atlas network formerly atlas economic research foundation atlas press tool company atlas solutions an online advertising subsidiary of meta platforms atlas van lines a moving company atlasimperial an american diesel engine manufacturer dresser atlas a provider of oilfield and factory automation services tele atlas a dutch mapping company western atlas an oilfield services company atlas powder company american explosives and chemicals company computing and technology atlas computer a 1960s supercomputer atlas supervisor its operating system atlas robot atlas software a tool to scan american citizenship records for candidates for denaturalization atlas a computer used at the lawrence livermore national laboratory in 2006 abbreviated test language for all systems atlas a computer language for equipment testing advanced technology leisure application simulator atlas a hydraulic motion simulator used in theme parks aspnet ajax formerly atlas a set of aspnet extensions atlas transformation language a programming language for model transformation atlasti a qualitative analysis program automatically tuned linear algebra software atlas texture atlas in computer graphics a large image containing multiple smaller images univac 1101 a 1950s american computer science astronomy atlas comet c2019 y4 atlas crater on the near side of the moon atlas moon a satellite of saturn atlas star a triple star system in the constellation of taurus and a member of the pleiades advanced topographic laser altimeter system atlas a spacebased lidar instrument on icesat2 asteroid terrestrialimpact last alert system atlas mathematics atlas topology a set of charts a set of charts which covers a manifold a smooth structure a maximal smooth atlas for a topological manifold physics argonne tandem linear accelerator system atlas at the argonne national laboratory atlas experiment a particle detector for the large hadron collider at cern atomicterrace lowangle shadowing atlas a nanofabrication technique biology and healthcare atlas anatomy part of the cervical spine atlas personality the personality of someone whose childhood was characterized by excessive responsibilities brain atlas a neuroanatomical map of the brain of a human or other animal animals and plants atlas bear atlas beetle atlas cedar atlas moth atlas pied flycatcher a bird atlas turtle sport atlas delmenhorst a german association football club atlas fc a mexican professional football club club atlético atlas an argentine amateur football club kk atlas a former serbian mens professional basketball club transport aerospace atlas rocket family sm65 atlas intercontinental ballistic missile icbm aerovelo atlas a humanpowered helicopter airbus a400m atlas a military aircraft produced from 2007present armstrong whitworth atlas a british military aeroplane produced 19271933 atlas air an american cargo airline atlas aircraft a 1940s aircraft manufacturer atlas aircraft corporation a south african military aircraft manufacturer atlas aviation an aircraft maintenance firm atlas blue a moroccan lowcost airline atlasjet a turkish airline birdman atlas an ultralight aircraft hmlat303 us marine corps helicopter training squadron la mouette atlas a french hang glider design automotive atlas 1951 automobile a french minicar atlas light trucks a greek motor vehicle manufacturer atlas pittsburgh automobile produced 19061907 atlas springfield automobile produced 19071913 atlas a british van by the standard motor company produced 19581962 atlas drop forge company a parts subsidiary of reo motor car company atlas motor buggy an american highwheeler produced in 1909 general motors atlas engine honda atlas cars pakistan a car manufacturer nissan atlas a japanese light truck volkswagen atlas a sport utility vehicle geely atlas a sport utility vehicle ships and boats atlas werke a defunct german shipbuilding company atlas ship any of several merchant ships french ship atlas any of several french navy ships hms atlas any of several royal navy ships st atlas a swedish tugboat uss atlas any of several us navy ships trains atlas an 18631885 south devon railway dido class locomotive atlas a 19271962 lms royal scot class locomotive atlas car and manufacturing company a locomotive manufacturer atlas model railroad other uses atlas architecture atlas simulation army tactical level advanced simulation a thai military system atlas storm which hit the midwestern united states in october 2013 named by the weather channel agrupación de trabajadores latinoamericanos sindicalistas atlas a 1950s latin american trade union confederation atlas languages berber languages spoken in the atlas mountains of morocco atlas network a network of european special police units atlas uranium mill atlas corporation a private military company by call of duty advanced warfare see also advanced technology largeaperture space telescope atlast altas disambiguation atlant disambiguation	1,389
782	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouthwash	Mouthwash	mouthwash mouth rinse oral rinse or mouth bath is a liquid which is held in the mouth passively or swirled around the mouth by contraction of the perioral muscles andor movement of the head and may be gargled where the head is tilted back and the liquid bubbled at the back of the mouth usually mouthwashes are antiseptic solutions intended to reduce the microbial load in the mouth although other mouthwashes might be given for other reasons such as for their analgesic antiinflammatory or antifungal action additionally some rinses act as saliva substitutes to neutralize acid and keep the mouth moist in xerostomia dry mouth cosmetic mouthrinses temporarily control or reduce bad breath and leave the mouth with a pleasant taste rinsing with water or mouthwash after brushing with a fluoride toothpaste can reduce the availability of salivary fluoride this can lower the anticavity remineralization and antibacterial effects of fluoride fluoridated mouthwash may mitigate this effect or in high concentrations increase available fluoride but is not as costeffective as leaving the fluoride toothpaste on the teeth after brushing a group of experts discussing post brushing rinsing in 2012 found that although there was clear guidance given in many public health advice publications to spit avoid rinsing with waterexcessive rinsing with water they believed there was a limited evidence base for best practice use common use involves rinsing the mouth with about 2050 ml 23 fl oz of mouthwash the wash is typically swished or gargled for about half a minute and then spat out most companies suggest not drinking water immediately after using mouthwash in some brands the expectorate is stained so that one can see the bacteria and debris mouthwash should not be used immediately after brushing the teeth so as not to wash away the beneficial fluoride residue left from the toothpaste similarly the mouth should not be rinsed out with water after brushing patients were told to spit dont rinse after toothbrushing as part of a national health service campaign in the uk a fluoride mouthrinse can be used at a different time of the day to brushing gargling is where the head is tilted back allowing the mouthwash to sit in the back of the mouth while exhaling causing the liquid to bubble gargling is practiced in japan for perceived prevention of viral infection one commonly used way is with infusions or tea in some cultures gargling is usually done in private typically in a bathroom at a sink so the liquid can be rinsed away dangerous misuse if one drinks mouthwash serious harm and even death can quickly result from the high alcohol content and other harmful substances in mouthwash it is a common cause of death among homeless people during winter months because a person can feel warmer after drinking it effects the mostcommonlyused mouthwashes are commercial antiseptics which are used at home as part of an oral hygiene routine mouthwashes combine ingredients to treat a variety of oral conditions variations are common and mouthwash has no standard formulation so its use and recommendation involves concerns about patient safety some manufacturers of mouthwash state that their antiseptic and antiplaque mouthwashes kill the bacterial plaque that causes cavities gingivitis and bad breath it is however generally agreed that the use of mouthwash does not eliminate the need for both brushing and flossing the american dental association asserts that regular brushing and proper flossing are enough in most cases in addition to regular dental checkups although they approve many mouthwashes for many patients however the mechanical methods could be tedious and timeconsuming and additionally some local conditions may render them especially difficult chemotherapeutic agents including mouthwashes could have a key role as adjuncts to daily home care preventing and controlling supragingival plaque gingivitis and oral malodor minor and transient side effects of mouthwashes are very common such as taste disturbance tooth staining sensation of a dry mouth etc alcoholcontaining mouthwashes may make dry mouth and halitosis worse as they dry out the mouth soreness ulceration and redness may sometimes occur eg aphthous stomatitis or allergic contact stomatitis if the person is allergic or sensitive to mouthwash ingredients such as preservatives coloring flavors and fragrances such effects might be reduced or eliminated by diluting the mouthwash with water using a different mouthwash eg saltwater or foregoing mouthwash entirely prescription mouthwashes are used prior to and after oral surgery procedures such as tooth extraction or to treat the pain associated with mucositis caused by radiation therapy or chemotherapy they are also prescribed for aphthous ulcers other oral ulcers and other mouth pain magic mouthwashes are prescription mouthwashes compounded in a pharmacy from a list of ingredients specified by a doctor despite a lack of evidence that prescription mouthwashes are more effective in decreasing the pain of oral lesions many patients and prescribers continue to use them there has been only one controlled study to evaluate the efficacy of magic mouthwash it shows no difference in efficacy between the most common magicmouthwash formulation on the one hand and commercial mouthwashes such as chlorhexidine or a salinebaking soda solution on the other current guidelines suggest that saline solution is just as effective as magic mouthwash in pain relief and in shortening the healing time of oral mucositis from cancer therapies history the first known references to mouth rinsing is in ayurveda for treatment of gingivitis later in the greek and roman periods mouth rinsing following mechanical cleansing became common among the upper classes and hippocrates recommended a mixture of salt alum and vinegar the jewish talmud dating back about 1800 years suggests a cure for gum ailments containing dough water and olive oil the ancient chinese had also gargled salt water tea and wine as a form of mouthwash after meals due to the antiseptic properties of those liquids before europeans came to the americas native north american and mesoamerican cultures used mouthwashes often made from plants such as coptis trifolia indeed aztec dentistry was more advanced than european dentistry of the age peoples of the americas used salt water mouthwashes for sore throats and other mouthwashes for problems such as teething and mouth ulcers anton van leeuwenhoek the famous 17th century microscopist discovered living organisms living because they were mobile in deposits on the teeth what we now call dental plaque he also found organisms in water from the canal next to his home in delft he experimented with samples by adding vinegar or brandy and found that this resulted in the immediate immobilization or killing of the organisms suspended in water next he tried rinsing the mouth of himself and somebody else with a mouthwash containing vinegar or brandy and found that living organisms remained in the dental plaque he concludedcorrectlythat the mouthwash either did not reach or was not present long enough to kill the plaque organisms in 1892 german richard seifert invented mouthwash product odol which was produced by company founder karl august lingner 18611916 in dresden that remained the state of affairs until the late 1960s when harald loe at the time a professor at the royal dental college in aarhus denmark demonstrated that a chlorhexidine compound could prevent the buildup of dental plaque the reason for chlorhexidines effectiveness is that it strongly adheres to surfaces in the mouth and thus remains present in effective concentrations for many hours since then commercial interest in mouthwashes has been intense and several newer products claim effectiveness in reducing the buildup in dental plaque and the associated severity of gingivitis in addition to fighting bad breath many of these solutions aim to control the volatile sulfur compoundcreating anaerobic bacteria that live in the mouth and excrete substances that lead to bad breath and unpleasant mouth taste for example the number of mouthwash variants in the united states of america has grown from 15 1970 to 66 1998 to 113 2012 research research in the field of microbiotas shows that only a limited set of microbes cause tooth decay with most of the bacteria in the human mouth being harmless focused attention on cavitycausing bacteria such as streptococcus mutans has led research into new mouthwash treatments that prevent these bacteria from initially growing while current mouthwash treatments must be used with a degree of frequency to prevent this bacteria from regrowing future treatments could provide a viable longterm solution a clinical trial and laboratory studies have shown that alcoholcontaining mouthwash could reduce the growth of neisseria gonorrhoeae in the pharynx however subsequent trials have found that there was no difference in gonorrhoea cases among men using daily mouthwash compared to those who did not use mouthwash for 12 weeks ingredients alcohol alcohol is added to mouthwash not to destroy bacteria but to act as a carrier agent for essential active ingredients such as menthol eucalyptol and thymol which help to penetrate plaque sometimes a significant amount of alcohol up to 27 vol is added as a carrier for the flavor to provide bite because of the alcohol content it is possible to fail a breathalyzer test after rinsing although breath alcohol levels return to normal after 10 minutes in addition alcohol is a drying agent which encourages bacterial activity in the mouth releasing more malodorous volatile sulfur compounds therefore alcoholcontaining mouthwash may temporarily worsen halitosis in those who already have it or indeed be the sole cause of halitosis in other individuals it is hypothesized that alcohol in mouthwashes acts as a carcinogen cancerinducing agent generally there is no scientific consensus about this one review stated the same researchers also state that the risk of acquiring oral cancer rises almost five times for users of alcoholcontaining mouthwash who neither smoke nor drink with a higher rate of increase for those who do in addition the authors highlight side effects from several mainstream mouthwashes that included dental erosion and accidental poisoning of children the review garnered media attention and conflicting opinions from other researchers yinka ebo of cancer research uk disputed the findings concluding that there is still not enough evidence to suggest that using mouthwash that contains alcohol will increase the risk of mouth cancer studies conducted in 1985 1995 2003 and 2012 did not support an association between alcoholcontaining mouth rinses and oral cancer andrew penman chief executive of the cancer council new south wales called for further research on the matter in a march 2009 brief the american dental association said the available evidence does not support a connection between oral cancer and alcoholcontaining mouthrinse many newer brands of mouthwash are alcoholfree not just in response to consumer concerns about oral cancer but also to cater for religious groups who abstain from alcohol consumption benzydamine analgesic in painful oral conditions such as aphthous stomatitis analgesic mouthrinses eg benzydamine mouthwash or difflam are sometimes used to ease pain commonly used before meals to reduce discomfort while eating benzoic acid benzoic acid acts as a buffer betamethasone betamethasone is sometimes used as an antiinflammatory corticosteroid mouthwash it may be used for severe inflammatory conditions of the oral mucosa such as the severe forms of aphthous stomatitis cetylpyridinium chloride antiseptic antimalodor cetylpyridinium chloride containing mouthwash eg 005 is used in some specialized mouthwashes for halitosis cetylpyridinium chloride mouthwash has less antiplaque effect than chlorhexidine and may cause staining of teeth or sometimes an oral burning sensation or ulceration chlorhexidine digluconate and hexetidine antiseptic chlorhexidine digluconate is a chemical antiseptic and is used in a 00502 solution as a mouthwash there is no evidence to support that higher concentrations are more effective in controlling dental plaque and gingivitis a randomized clinical trial conducted in rabat university in morocco found better results in plaque inhibition when chlorohexidine with alcohol base 012 was used when compared to an alcoholfree 01 chlorhexidine mouthrinse chlorhexidine has good substantivity the ability of a mouthwash to bind to hard and soft tissues in the mouth it has antiplaque action and also some antifungal action it is especially effective against gramnegative rods the proportion of gramnegative rods increase as gingivitis develops so it is also used to reduce gingivitis it is sometimes used as an adjunct to prevent dental caries and to treat periodontal disease although it does not penetrate into periodontal pockets well chlorhexidine mouthwash alone is unable to prevent plaque so it is not a substitute for regular toothbrushing and flossing instead chlorhexidine mouthwash is more effective when used as an adjunctive treatment with toothbrushing and flossing in the short term if toothbrushing is impossible due to pain as may occur in primary herpetic gingivostomatitis chlorhexidine mouthwash is used as a temporary substitute for other oral hygiene measures it is not suited for use in acute necrotizing ulcerative gingivitis however rinsing with chlorhexidine mouthwash before and after a tooth extraction may reduce the risk of a dry socket other uses of chlorhexidine mouthwash include prevention of oral candidiasis in immunocompromised persons treatment of denturerelated stomatitis mucosal ulcerationerosions and oral mucosal lesions general burning sensation and many other uses chlorhexidine mouthwash is known to have minor adverse effects chlorhexidine binds to tannins meaning that prolonged use in persons who consume coffee tea or red wine is associated with extrinsic staining ie removable staining of teeth a systematic review of commercial chlorhexidine products with antidiscoloration systems adss found that the adss were able to reduce tooth staining without affecting the beneficial effects of chlorhexidine chlorhexidine mouthwash can also cause taste disturbance or alteration chlorhexidine is rarely associated with other issues like overgrowth of enterobacteria in persons with leukemia desquamation irritation and stomatitis of oral mucosa salivary gland pain and swelling and hypersensitivity reactions including anaphylaxis hexetidine also has antiplaque analgesic astringent and antimalodor properties but is considered an inferior alternative to chlorhexidine edible oils in traditional ayurvedic medicine the use of oil mouthwashes is called kavala oil swishing or gandusha and this practice has more recently been remarketed by the complementary and alternative medicine industry as oil pulling its promoters claim it works by pulling out toxins which are known as ama in ayurvedic medicine and thereby reducing inflammation ayurvedic literature claims that oil pulling is capable of improving oral and systemic health including a benefit in conditions such as headaches migraines diabetes mellitus asthma and acne as well as whitening teeth oil pulling has received little study and there is little evidence to support claims made by the techniques advocates when compared with chlorhexidine in one small study it was found to be less effective at reducing oral bacterial load and the other health claims of oil pulling have failed scientific verification or have not been investigated there is a report of lipid pneumonia caused by accidental inhalation of the oil during oil pulling the mouth is rinsed with approximately one tablespoon of oil for 1020 minutes then spat out sesame oil coconut oil and ghee are traditionally used but newer oils such as sunflower oil are also used essential oils phenolic compounds and monoterpenes include essential oil constituents that have some antibacterial properties such as eucalyptol eugenol hinokitiol menthol phenol or thymol essential oils are oils which have been extracted from plants mouthwashes based on essential oils could be more effective than traditional mouthcare as antigingival treatments they have been found effective in reducing halitosis and are being used in several commercial mouthwashes fluoride anticavity anticavity mouthwashes use sodium fluoride to protect against tooth decay fluoridecontaining mouthwashes are used as prevention for dental caries for individuals who are considered at higher risk for tooth decay whether due to xerostomia related to salivary dysfunction or side effects of medication to not drinking fluoridated water or to being physically unable to care for their oral needs brushing and flossing and as treatment for those with dentinal hypersensitivity gingival recession root exposure flavoring agents and xylitol flavoring agents include sweeteners such as sorbitol sucralose sodium saccharin and xylitol which stimulate salivary function due to their sweetness and taste and helps restore the mouth to a neutral level of acidity xylitol rinses double as a bacterial inhibitor and have been used as substitute for alcohol to avoid dryness of mouth associated with alcohol hydrogen peroxide hydrogen peroxide can be used as an oxidizing mouthwash eg peroxyl 15 it kills anaerobic bacteria and also has a mechanical cleansing action when it froths as it comes into contact with debris in mouth it is often used in the short term to treat acute necrotising ulcerative gingivitis side effects can occur with prolonged use including hypertrophy of the lingual papillae lactoperoxidase saliva substitute enzymes and nonenzymatic proteins such as lactoperoxidase lysozyme and lactoferrin have been used in mouthwashes eg biotene to reduce levels of oral bacteria and hence of the acids produced by these bacteria lidocainexylocaine oral lidocaine is useful for the treatment of mucositis symptoms inflammation of mucous membranes induced by radiation or chemotherapy there is evidence that lidocaine anesthetic mouthwash has the potential to be systemically absorbed when it was tested in patients with oral mucositis who underwent a bone marrow transplant methyl salicylate methyl salicylate functions as an antiseptic antiinflammatory and analgesic agent a flavoring and a fragrance methyl salicylate has some antiplaque action but less than chlorhexidine methyl salicylate does not stain teeth nystatin nystatin suspension is an antifungal ingredient used for the treatment of oral candidiasis potassium oxalate a randomized clinical trial found promising results in controlling and reducing dentine hypersensitivity when potassium oxalate mouthwash was used in conjugation with toothbrushing povidoneiodine pvpi a 2005 study found that gargling three times a day with simple water or with a povidoneiodine solution was effective in preventing upper respiratory infection and decreasing the severity of symptoms if contracted other sources attribute the benefit to a simple placebo effect pvpi in general covers a wider virucidal spectrum covering both enveloped and nonenveloped viruses than the other commercially available antiseptics which also includes the novel sarscov2 virus sanguinarine sanguinarinecontaining mouthwashes are marketed as antiplaque and antimalodor treatments sanguinarine is a toxic alkaloid herbal extract obtained from plants such as sanguinaria canadensis bloodroot argemone mexicana mexican prickly poppy and others however its use is strongly associated with the development of leukoplakia a white patch in the mouth usually in the buccal sulcus this type of leukoplakia has been termed sanguinariaassociated keratosis and more than 80 of people with leukoplakia in the vestibule of the mouth have used this substance upon stopping contact with the causative substance the lesions may persist for years although this type of leukoplakia may show dysplasia the potential for malignant transformation is unknown ironically elements within the complementary and alternative medicine industry promote the use of sanguinaria as a therapy for cancer sodium bicarbonate baking soda sodium bicarbonate is sometimes combined with salt to make a simple homemade mouthwash indicated for any of the reasons that a saltwater mouthwash might be used premixed mouthwashes of 1 sodium bicarbonate and 15 sodium chloride in aqueous solution are marketed although pharmacists will easily be able to produce such a formulation from the base ingredients when required sodium bicarbonate mouthwash is sometimes used to remove viscous saliva and to aid visualization of the oral tissues during examination of the mouth sodium chloride salt saline has a mechanical cleansing action and an antiseptic action as it is a hypertonic solution in relation to bacteria which undergo lysis the heat of the solution produces a therapeutic increase in blood flow hyperemia to the surgical site promoting healing hot saltwater mouthwashes also encourage the draining of pus from dental abscesses in contrast if heat is applied on the side of the face eg hot water bottle rather than inside the mouth it may cause a dental abscess to drain extraorally which is later associated with an area of fibrosis on the face see cutaneous sinus of dental origin saltwater mouthwashes are also routinely used after oral surgery to keep food debris out of healing wounds and to prevent infection some oral surgeons consider saltwater mouthwashes the mainstay of wound cleanliness after surgery in dental extractions hot saltwater mouthbaths should start about 24 hours after a dental extraction the term mouth bath implies that the liquid is passively held in the mouth rather than vigorously swilled around which could dislodge a blood clot once the blood clot has stabilized the mouthwash can be used more vigorously these mouthwashes tend to be advised for use about 6 times per day especially after meals to remove food from the socket sodium lauryl sulfate foaming agent sodium lauryl sulfate sls is used as a foaming agent in many oral hygiene products including many mouthwashes some may suggest that it is probably advisable to use mouthwash at least an hour after brushing with toothpaste when the toothpaste contains sls since the anionic compounds in the sls toothpaste can deactivate cationic agents present in the mouthwash sucralfate sucralfate is a mucosal coating agent composed of an aluminum salt of sulfated sucrose it is not recommended for use in the prevention of oral mucositis in head and neck cancer patients receiving radiotherapy or chemoradiation due to a lack of efficacy found in a welldesigned randomized controlled trial tetracycline antibiotic tetracycline is an antibiotic which may sometimes be used as a mouthwash in adults it causes red staining of teeth in children it is sometimes use for herpetiforme ulceration an uncommon type of aphthous stomatitis but prolonged use may lead to oral candidiasis as the fungal population of the mouth overgrows in the absence of enough competing bacteria similarly minocycline mouthwashes of 05 concentrations can relieve symptoms of recurrent aphthous stomatitis erythromycin is similar tranexamic acid a 48 tranexamic acid solution is sometimes used as an antifibrinolytic mouthwash to prevent bleeding during and after oral surgery in persons with coagulopathies clotting disorders or who are taking anticoagulants blood thinners such as warfarin triclosan triclosan is a nonionic chlorinate bisphenol antiseptic found in some mouthwashes when used in mouthwash eg 003 there is moderate substantivity broad spectrum antibacterial action some antifungal action and significant antiplaque effect especially when combined with a copolymer or zinc citrate triclosan does not cause staining of the teeth the safety of triclosan has been questioned zinc astringents like zinc chloride provide a pleasanttasting sensation and shrink tissues zinc when used in combination with other antiseptic agents can limit the buildup of tartar see also sodium fluoridemalic acid virucide references external links article on badbreath prevention products from msnbc mayo clinic qa on magic mouthwash for chemotherapy sores american dental association article on mouthwash dentifrices oral hygiene drug delivery devices dosage forms	3,752
783	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20the%20Great	Alexander the Great	alexander iii of macedon 2021 july 356 bc 1011 june 323 bc commonly known as alexander the great was a king of the ancient greek kingdom of macedon he succeeded his father philip ii to the throne in 336 bc at the age of 20 and spent most of his ruling years conducting a lengthy military campaign throughout western asia and egypt by the age of 30 he had created one of the largest empires in history stretching from greece to northwestern india he was undefeated in battle and is widely considered to be one of historys greatest and most successful military commanders until the age of 16 alexander was tutored by aristotle in 335 bc shortly after his assumption of kingship over macedon he campaigned in the balkans and reasserted control over thrace and parts of illyria before marching on the city of thebes which was subsequently destroyed in battle alexander then led the league of corinth and used his authority to launch the panhellenic project envisaged by his father assuming leadership over all greeks in their conquest of persia in 334 bc he invaded the achaemenid persian empire and began a series of campaigns that lasted for 10 years following his conquest of asia minor alexander broke the power of achaemenid persia in a series of decisive battles including those at issus and gaugamela he subsequently overthrew darius iii and conquered the achaemenid empire in its entirety after the fall of persia the macedonian empire held a vast swath of territory between the adriatic sea and the indus river alexander endeavored to reach the ends of the world and the great outer sea and invaded india in 326 bc achieving an important victory over porus an ancient indian king of presentday punjab at the battle of the hydaspes due to the demand of his homesick troops he eventually turned back at the beas river and later died in 323 bc in babylon the city of mesopotamia that he had planned to establish as his empires capital alexanders death left unexecuted an additional series of planned military and mercantile campaigns that would have begun with a greek invasion of arabia in the years following his death a series of civil wars broke out across the macedonian empire eventually leading to its disintegration at the hands of the diadochi with his death marking the start of the hellenistic period alexanders legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism that his conquests engendered such as grecobuddhism and hellenistic judaism he founded more than twenty cities with the most prominent being the city of alexandria in egypt alexanders settlement of greek colonists and the resulting spread of greek culture led to the overwhelming dominance of hellenistic civilization and influence as far east as the indian subcontinent the hellenistic period developed through the roman empire into modern western culture the greek language became the lingua franca of the region and was the predominant language of the byzantine empire up until its collapse in the mid15th century ad greekspeaking communities in central anatolia and in fareastern anatolia survived until the greek genocide and greekturkish population exchanges of the early 20th century ad alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould of achilles featuring prominently in the historical and mythical traditions of both greek and nongreek cultures his military achievements and unprecedented enduring successes in battle made him the measure against which many later military leaders would compare themselves and his tactics remain a significant subject of study in military academies worldwide early life lineage and childhood alexander iii was born in pella the capital of the kingdom of macedon on the sixth day of the ancient greek month of hekatombaion which probably corresponds to 20 july 356 bc although the exact date is uncertain he was the son of the erstwhile king of macedon philip ii and his fourth wife olympias daughter of neoptolemus i king of epirus although philip had seven or eight wives olympias was his principal wife for some time likely because she gave birth to alexander several legends surround alexanders birth and childhood according to the ancient greek biographer plutarch on the eve of the consummation of her marriage to philip olympias dreamed that her womb was struck by a thunderbolt that caused a flame to spread far and wide before dying away sometime after the wedding philip is said to have seen himself in a dream securing his wifes womb with a seal engraved with a lions image plutarch offered a variety of interpretations for these dreams that olympias was pregnant before her marriage indicated by the sealing of her womb or that alexanders father was zeus ancient commentators were divided about whether the ambitious olympias promulgated the story of alexanders divine parentage variously claiming that she had told alexander or that she dismissed the suggestion as impious on the day alexander was born philip was preparing a siege on the city of potidea on the peninsula of chalcidice that same day philip received news that his general parmenion had defeated the combined illyrian and paeonian armies and that his horses had won at the olympic games it was also said that on this day the temple of artemis in ephesus one of the seven wonders of the world burnt down this led hegesias of magnesia to say that it had burnt down because artemis was away attending the birth of alexander such legends may have emerged when alexander was king and possibly at his instigation to show that he was superhuman and destined for greatness from conception in his early years alexander was raised by a nurse lanike sister of alexanders future general cleitus the black later in his childhood alexander was tutored by the strict leonidas a relative of his mother and by lysimachus of acarnania alexander was raised in the manner of noble macedonian youths learning to read play the lyre ride fight and hunt when alexander was ten years old a trader from thessaly brought philip a horse which he offered to sell for thirteen talents the horse refused to be mounted and philip ordered it away alexander however detecting the horses fear of its own shadow asked to tame the horse which he eventually managed plutarch stated that philip overjoyed at this display of courage and ambition kissed his son tearfully declaring my boy you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions macedon is too small for you and bought the horse for him alexander named it bucephalas meaning oxhead bucephalas carried alexander as far as india when the animal died because of old age according to plutarch at age 30 alexander named a city after him bucephala education when alexander was 13 philip began to search for a tutor and considered such academics as isocrates and speusippus the latter offering to resign from his stewardship of the academy to take up the post in the end philip chose aristotle and provided the temple of the nymphs at mieza as a classroom in return for teaching alexander philip agreed to rebuild aristotles hometown of stageira which philip had razed and to repopulate it by buying and freeing the excitizens who were slaves or pardoning those who were in exile mieza was like a boarding school for alexander and the children of macedonian nobles such as ptolemy hephaistion and cassander many of these students would become his friends and future generals and are often known as the companions aristotle taught alexander and his companions about medicine philosophy morals religion logic and art under aristotles tutelage alexander developed a passion for the works of homer and in particular the iliad aristotle gave him an annotated copy which alexander later carried on his campaigns alexander was able to quote euripides from memory during his youth alexander was also acquainted with persian exiles at the macedonian court who received the protection of philip ii for several years as they opposed artaxerxes iii among them were artabazos ii and his daughter barsine possible future mistress of alexander who resided at the macedonian court from 352 to 342 bc as well as amminapes future satrap of alexander or a persian nobleman named sisines this gave the macedonian court a good knowledge of persian issues and may even have influenced some of the innovations in the management of the macedonian state suda writes that anaximenes of lampsacus was one of alexanders teachers and that anaximenes also accompanied alexander on his campaigns heir of philip ii regency and ascent of macedon at the age of 16 alexanders education under aristotle ended philip ii had waged war against the thracians to the north which left alexander in charge as regent and heir apparent during philips absence the thracian tribe of maedi revolted against macedonia alexander responded quickly and drove them from their territory the territory was colonized and a city named alexandropolis was founded upon philips return alexander was dispatched with a small force to subdue the revolts in southern thrace campaigning against the greek city of perinthus alexander reportedly saved his fathers life meanwhile the city of amphissa began to work lands that were sacred to apollo near delphi a sacrilege that gave philip the opportunity to further intervene in greek affairs while philip was occupied in thrace alexander was ordered to muster an army for a campaign in southern greece concerned that other greek states might intervene alexander made it look as though he was preparing to attack illyria instead during this turmoil the illyrians invaded macedonia only to be repelled by alexander philip and his army joined his son in 338 bc and they marched south through thermopylae taking it after stubborn resistance from its theban garrison they went on to occupy the city of elatea only a few days march from both athens and thebes the athenians led by demosthenes voted to seek alliance with thebes against macedonia both athens and philip sent embassies to win thebess favour but athens won the contest philip marched on amphissa ostensibly acting on the request of the amphictyonic league capturing the mercenaries sent there by demosthenes and accepting the citys surrender philip then returned to elatea sending a final offer of peace to athens and thebes who both rejected it as philip marched south his opponents blocked him near chaeronea boeotia during the ensuing battle of chaeronea philip commanded the right wing and alexander the left accompanied by a group of philips trusted generals according to the ancient sources the two sides fought bitterly for some time philip deliberately commanded his troops to retreat counting on the untested athenian hoplites to follow thus breaking their line alexander was the first to break the theban lines followed by philips generals having damaged the enemys cohesion philip ordered his troops to press forward and quickly routed them with the athenians lost the thebans were surrounded left to fight alone they were defeated after the victory at chaeronea philip and alexander marched unopposed into the peloponnese welcomed by all cities however when they reached sparta they were refused but did not resort to war at corinth philip established a hellenic alliance modelled on the old antipersian alliance of the grecopersian wars which included most greek citystates except sparta philip was then named hegemon often translated as supreme commander of this league known by modern scholars as the league of corinth and announced his plans to attack the persian empire exile and return when philip returned to pella he fell in love with and married cleopatra eurydice in 338 bc the niece of his general attalus the marriage made alexanders position as heir less secure since any son of cleopatra eurydice would be a fully macedonian heir while alexander was only halfmacedonian during the wedding banquet a drunken attalus publicly prayed to the gods that the union would produce a legitimate heir in 337 bc alexander fled macedon with his mother dropping her off with her brother king alexander i of epirus in dodona capital of the molossians he continued to illyria where he sought refuge with one or more illyrian kings perhaps with glaucias and was treated as a guest despite having defeated them in battle a few years before however it appears philip never intended to disown his politically and militarily trained son accordingly alexander returned to macedon after six months due to the efforts of a family friend demaratus who mediated between the two parties in the following year the persian satrap governor of caria pixodarus offered his eldest daughter to alexanders halfbrother philip arrhidaeus olympias and several of alexanders friends suggested this showed philip intended to make arrhidaeus his heir alexander reacted by sending an actor thessalus of corinth to tell pixodarus that he should not offer his daughters hand to an illegitimate son but instead to alexander when philip heard of this he stopped the negotiations and scolded alexander for wishing to marry the daughter of a carian explaining that he wanted a better bride for him philip exiled four of alexanders friends harpalus nearchus ptolemy and erigyius and had the corinthians bring thessalus to him in chains king of macedon accession in summer 336 bc while at aegae attending the wedding of his daughter cleopatra to olympiass brother alexander i of epirus philip was assassinated by the captain of his bodyguards pausanias as pausanias tried to escape he tripped over a vine and was killed by his pursuers including two of alexanders companions perdiccas and leonnatus alexander was proclaimed king on the spot by the nobles and army at the age of 20 consolidation of power alexander began his reign by eliminating potential rivals to the throne he had his cousin the former amyntas iv executed he also had two macedonian princes from the region of lyncestis killed for having been involved in his fathers assassination but spared a third alexander lyncestes olympias had cleopatra eurydice and europa her daughter by philip burned alive when alexander learned about this he was furious alexander also ordered the murder of attalus who was in command of the advance guard of the army in asia minor and cleopatras uncle attalus was at that time corresponding with demosthenes regarding the possibility of defecting to athens attalus also had severely insulted alexander and following cleopatras murder alexander may have considered him too dangerous to be left alive alexander spared arrhidaeus who was by all accounts mentally disabled possibly as a result of poisoning by olympias news of philips death roused many states into revolt including thebes athens thessaly and the thracian tribes north of macedon when news of the revolts reached alexander he responded quickly though advised to use diplomacy alexander mustered 3000 macedonian cavalry and rode south towards thessaly he found the thessalian army occupying the pass between mount olympus and mount ossa and ordered his men to ride over mount ossa when the thessalians awoke the next day they found alexander in their rear and promptly surrendered adding their cavalry to alexanders force he then continued south towards the peloponnese alexander stopped at thermopylae where he was recognized as the leader of the amphictyonic league before heading south to corinth athens sued for peace and alexander pardoned the rebels the famous encounter between alexander and diogenes the cynic occurred during alexanders stay in corinth when alexander asked diogenes what he could do for him the philosopher disdainfully asked alexander to stand a little to the side as he was blocking the sunlight this reply apparently delighted alexander who is reported to have said but verily if i were not alexander i would like to be diogenes at corinth alexander took the title of hegemon leader and like philip was appointed commander for the coming war against persia he also received news of a thracian uprising balkan campaign before crossing to asia alexander wanted to safeguard his northern borders in the spring of 335 bc he advanced to suppress several revolts starting from amphipolis he travelled east into the country of the independent thracians and at mount haemus the macedonian army attacked and defeated the thracian forces manning the heights the macedonians marched into the country of the triballi and defeated their army near the lyginus river a tributary of the danube alexander then marched for three days to the danube encountering the getae tribe on the opposite shore crossing the river at night he surprised them and forced their army to retreat after the first cavalry skirmish news then reached alexander that the illyrian chieftain cleitus and king glaukias of the taulantii were in open revolt against his authority marching west into illyria alexander defeated each in turn forcing the two rulers to flee with their troops with these victories he secured his northern frontier destruction of thebes while alexander campaigned north the thebans and athenians rebelled once again alexander immediately headed south while the other cities again hesitated thebes decided to fight the theban resistance was ineffective and alexander razed the city and divided its territory between the other boeotian cities the end of thebes cowed athens leaving all of greece temporarily at peace alexander then set out on his asian campaign leaving antipater as regent conquest of the achaemenid persian empire asia minor after his victory at the battle of chaeronea 338 bc philip ii began the work of establishing himself as hēgemṓn of a league which according to diodorus was to wage a campaign against the persians for the sundry grievances greece suffered in 480 and free the greek cities of the western coast and islands from achaemenid rule in 336 he sent parmenion with amyntas andromenes and attalus and an army of 10000 men into anatolia to make preparations for an invasion at first all went well the greek cities on the western coast of anatolia revolted until the news arrived that philip had been murdered and had been succeeded by his young son alexander the macedonians were demoralized by philips death and were subsequently defeated near magnesia by the achaemenids under the command of the mercenary memnon of rhodes taking over the invasion project of philip ii alexanders army crossed the hellespont in 334 bc with approximately 48100 soldiers 6100 cavalry and a fleet of 120 ships with crews numbering 38000 drawn from macedon and various greek citystates mercenaries and feudally raised soldiers from thrace paionia and illyria he showed his intent to conquer the entirety of the persian empire by throwing a spear into asian soil and saying he accepted asia as a gift from the gods this also showed alexanders eagerness to fight in contrast to his fathers preference for diplomacy after an initial victory against persian forces at the battle of the granicus alexander accepted the surrender of the persian provincial capital and treasury of sardis he then proceeded along the ionian coast granting autonomy and democracy to the cities miletus held by achaemenid forces required a delicate siege operation with persian naval forces nearby further south at halicarnassus in caria alexander successfully waged his first largescale siege eventually forcing his opponents the mercenary captain memnon of rhodes and the persian satrap of caria orontobates to withdraw by sea alexander left the government of caria to a member of the hecatomnid dynasty ada who adopted alexander from halicarnassus alexander proceeded into mountainous lycia and the pamphylian plain asserting control over all coastal cities to deny the persians naval bases from pamphylia onwards the coast held no major ports and alexander moved inland at termessos alexander humbled but did not storm the pisidian city at the ancient phrygian capital of gordium alexander undid the hitherto unsolvable gordian knot a feat said to await the future king of asia according to the story alexander proclaimed that it did not matter how the knot was undone and hacked it apart with his sword the levant and syria in spring 333 bc alexander crossed the taurus into cilicia after a long pause due to an illness he marched on towards syria though outmanoeuvered by dariuss significantly larger army he marched back to cilicia where he defeated darius at issus darius fled the battle causing his army to collapse and left behind his wife his two daughters his mother sisygambis and a fabulous treasure he offered a peace treaty that included the lands he had already lost and a ransom of 10000 talents for his family alexander replied that since he was now king of asia it was he alone who decided territorial divisions alexander proceeded to take possession of syria and most of the coast of the levant in the following year 332 bc he was forced to attack tyre which he captured after a long and difficult siege the men of military age were massacred and the women and children sold into slavery egypt when alexander destroyed tyre most of the towns on the route to egypt quickly capitulated however alexander was met with resistance at gaza the stronghold was heavily fortified and built on a hill requiring a siege when his engineers pointed out to him that because of the height of the mound it would be impossible this encouraged alexander all the more to make the attempt after three unsuccessful assaults the stronghold fell but not before alexander had received a serious shoulder wound as in tyre men of military age were put to the sword and the women and children were sold into slavery egypt was only one of a large number of territories taken by alexander from the persians after his trip to siwa alexander was crowned in the temple of ptah at memphis it appears that the egyptian people did not find it disturbing that he was a foreigner nor that he was absent for virtually his entire reign alexander restored the temples neglected by the persians and dedicated new monuments to the egyptian gods in the temple of luxor near karnak he built a chapel for the sacred barge during his brief months in egypt he reformed the taxation system on the greek models and organized the military occupation of the country but early in 331 bc he left for asia in pursuit of the persians alexander advanced on egypt in later 332 bc where he was regarded as a liberator to legitimize taking power and be recognized as the descendant of the long line of pharaohs alexander made sacrifices to the gods at memphis and went to consult the famous oracle of amunra at the siwa oasis in the libyan desert at which he was pronounced the son of the deity amun henceforth alexander often referred to zeusammon as his true father and after his death currency depicted him adorned with the horns of ammon as a symbol of his divinity the greeks interpreted this message one that the gods addressed to all pharaohs as a prophecy during his stay in egypt he founded alexandria which would become the prosperous capital of the ptolemaic kingdom after his death control of egypt passed to ptolemy i son of lagos the founder of the ptolemaic dynasty 30530 bc after the death of alexander assyria and babylonia leaving egypt in 331 bc alexander marched eastward into achaemenid assyria in upper mesopotamia now northern iraq and defeated darius again at the battle of gaugamela darius once more fled the field and alexander chased him as far as arbela gaugamela would be the final and decisive encounter between the two darius fled over the mountains to ecbatana modern hamadan while alexander captured babylon babylonian astronomical diaries say that the king of the world alexander sent his scouts with a message to the people of babylon before entering the city i shall not enter your houses persia from babylon alexander went to susa one of the achaemenid capitals and captured its treasury he sent the bulk of his army to the persian ceremonial capital of persepolis via the persian royal road alexander himself took selected troops on the direct route to the city he then stormed the pass of the persian gates in the modern zagros mountains which had been blocked by a persian army under ariobarzanes and then hurried to persepolis before its garrison could loot the treasury on entering persepolis alexander allowed his troops to loot the city for several days alexander stayed in persepolis for five months during his stay a fire broke out in the eastern palace of xerxes i and spread to the rest of the city possible causes include a drunken accident or deliberate revenge for the burning of the acropolis of athens during the second persian war by xerxes plutarch and diodorus allege that alexanders companion the hetaera thaïs instigated and started the fire even as he watched the city burn alexander immediately began to regret his decision plutarch claims that he ordered his men to put out the fires but that the flames had already spread to most of the city curtius claims that alexander did not regret his decision until the next morning plutarch recounts an anecdote in which alexander pauses and talks to a fallen statue of xerxes as if it were a live person fall of the persian empire and the east alexander then chased darius first into media and then parthia the persian king no longer controlled his own destiny and was taken prisoner by bessus his bactrian satrap and kinsman as alexander approached bessus had his men fatally stab the great king and then declared himself dariuss successor as artaxerxes v before retreating into central asia to launch a guerrilla campaign against alexander alexander buried dariuss remains next to his achaemenid predecessors in a regal funeral he claimed that while dying darius had named him as his successor to the achaemenid throne the achaemenid empire is normally considered to have fallen with darius however as basic forms of community life and the general structure of government were maintained and resuscitated by alexander under his own rule he in the words of the iranologist pierre briant may therefore be considered to have acted in many ways as the last of the achaemenids alexander viewed bessus as a usurper and set out to defeat him this campaign initially against bessus turned into a grand tour of central asia alexander founded a series of new cities all called alexandria including modern kandahar in afghanistan and alexandria eschate the furthest in modern tajikistan the campaign took alexander through media parthia aria west afghanistan drangiana arachosia south and central afghanistan bactria north and central afghanistan and scythia in 329 bc spitamenes who held an undefined position in the satrapy of sogdiana betrayed bessus to ptolemy one of alexanders trusted companions and bessus was executed however when at some point later alexander was on the jaxartes dealing with an incursion by a horse nomad army spitamenes raised sogdiana in revolt alexander personally defeated the scythians at the battle of jaxartes and immediately launched a campaign against spitamenes defeating him in the battle of gabai after the defeat spitamenes was killed by his own men who then sued for peace problems and plots during this time alexander adopted some elements of persian dress and customs at his court notably the custom of proskynesis either a symbolic kissing of the hand or prostration on the ground that persians showed to their social superiors this was one aspect of alexanders broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the iranian upper classes the greeks however regarded the gesture of proskynesis as the province of deities and believed that alexander meant to deify himself by requiring it this cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen and he eventually abandoned it during the long rule of the achaemenids the elite positions in many segments of the empire including the central government the army and the many satrapies were specifically reserved for iranians and to a major degree persian noblemen the latter were in many cases additionally connected through marriage alliances with the royal achaemenid family this created a problem for alexander as to whether he had to make use of the various segments and people that had given the empire its solidity and unity for a lengthy period of time pierre briant explains that alexander realized that it was insufficient to merely exploit the internal contradictions within the imperial system as in asia minor babylonia or egypt he also had to recreate a central government with or without the support of the iranians as early as 334 bc he demonstrated awareness of this when he challenged incumbent king darius iii by appropriating the main elements of the achaemenid monarchys ideology particularly the theme of the king who protects the lands and the peasants alexander wrote a letter in 332 bc to darius iii wherein he argued that he was worthier than darius to succeed to the achaemenid throne however alexanders eventual decision to burn the achaemenid palace at persepolis in conjunction with the major rejection and opposition of the entire persian people made it impracticable for him to pose himself as darius legitimate successor against bessus artaxerxes v however briant adds alexander reasserted his claim to legitimacy as the avenger of darius iii a plot against his life was revealed and one of his officers philotas was executed for failing to alert alexander the death of the son necessitated the death of the father and thus parmenion who had been charged with guarding the treasury at ecbatana was assassinated at alexanders command to prevent attempts at vengeance most infamously alexander personally killed the man who had saved his life at granicus cleitus the black during a violent drunken altercation at maracanda modern day samarkand in uzbekistan in which cleitus accused alexander of several judgmental mistakes and most especially of having forgotten the macedonian ways in favour of a corrupt oriental lifestyle later in the central asian campaign a second plot against his life was revealed this one instigated by his own royal pages his official historian callisthenes of olynthus was implicated in the plot and in the anabasis of alexander arrian states that callisthenes and the pages were then tortured on the rack as punishment and likely died soon after it remains unclear if callisthenes was actually involved in the plot for prior to his accusation he had fallen out of favour by leading the opposition to the attempt to introduce proskynesis macedon in alexanders absence when alexander set out for asia he left his general antipater an experienced military and political leader and part of philip iis old guard in charge of macedon alexanders sacking of thebes ensured that greece remained quiet during his absence the one exception was a call to arms by spartan king agis iii in 331 bc whom antipater defeated and killed in the battle of megalopolis antipater referred the spartans punishment to the league of corinth which then deferred to alexander who chose to pardon them there was also considerable friction between antipater and olympias and each complained to alexander about the other in general greece enjoyed a period of peace and prosperity during alexanders campaign in asia alexander sent back vast sums from his conquest which stimulated the economy and increased trade across his empire however alexanders constant demands for troops and the migration of macedonians throughout his empire depleted macedons strength greatly weakening it in the years after alexander and ultimately led to its subjugation by rome after the third macedonian war 171168 bc coinage the conquest by philip ii of pangaeum and then of the island of thasos between 356 and 342 bc brought rich gold and silver mines under macedonian control alexander appears to have introduced a new coinage in cilicia in tarsus after the battle of issus in 333 bc which went on to become the main coinage of the empire alexander minted gold staters silver tetradrachms and drachims and various fractional bronze coins the types of these coins remained constant in his empire the gold series had the head of athena on the obverse and a winged nike victory on the reverse the silver coinage had a beardless head of heracles wearing a lionskin headdress on the obverse and zeus aetophoros eagle bearer enthroned with a scepter in his left hand on the reverse there are both greek and nongreek aspects to this design heracles and zeus were important deities for the macedonians with heracles considered to be the ancestor of the temenid dynasty and zeus the patron of the main macedonian sanctuary dium however the lion was also the symbolic animal of the anatolian god sandas worshipped at tarsus the reverse design of alexanders tetradrachms is closely modelled on the depiction of the god baaltars baal of tarsus on the silver staters minted at tarsus by the persian satrap mazaeus before alexanders conquest alexander did not attempt to impose uniform imperial coinage throughout his new conquests persian coins continued to circulate in all the satrapies of the empire indian campaign forays into the indian subcontinent after the death of spitamenes and his marriage to roxana raoxshna in old iranian to cement relations with his new satrapies alexander turned to the indian subcontinent he invited the chieftains of the former satrapy of gandhara a region presently straddling eastern afghanistan and northern pakistan to come to him and submit to his authority omphis indian name ambhi the ruler of taxila whose kingdom extended from the indus to the hydaspes jhelum complied but the chieftains of some hill clans including the aspasioi and assakenoi sections of the kambojas known in indian texts also as ashvayanas and ashvakayanas refused to submit ambhi hastened to relieve alexander of his apprehension and met him with valuable presents placing himself and all his forces at his disposal alexander not only returned ambhi his title and the gifts but he also presented him with a wardrobe of persian robes gold and silver ornaments 30 horses and 1000 talents in gold alexander was emboldened to divide his forces and ambhi assisted hephaestion and perdiccas in constructing a bridge over the indus where it bends at hund supplied their troops with provisions and received alexander himself and his whole army in his capital city of taxila with every demonstration of friendship and the most liberal hospitality on the subsequent advance of the macedonian king taxiles accompanied him with a force of 5000 men and took part in the battle of the hydaspes after that victory he was sent by alexander in pursuit of porus to whom he was charged to offer favourable terms but narrowly escaped losing his life at the hands of his old enemy subsequently however the two rivals were reconciled by the personal mediation of alexander and taxiles after having contributed zealously to the equipment of the fleet on the hydaspes was entrusted by the king with the government of the whole territory between that river and the indus a considerable accession of power was granted him after the death of philip son of machatas and he was allowed to retain his authority at the death of alexander himself 323 bc as well as in the subsequent partition of the provinces at triparadisus 321 bc in the winter of 327326 bc alexander personally led a campaign against the aspasioi of the kunar valley the guraeans of the guraeus valley and the assakenoi of the swat and buner valleys a fierce contest ensued with the aspasioi in which alexander was wounded in the shoulder by a dart but eventually the aspasioi lost alexander then faced the assakenoi who fought against him from the strongholds of massaga ora and aornos the fort of massaga was reduced only after days of bloody fighting in which alexander was wounded seriously in the ankle according to curtius not only did alexander slaughter the entire population of massaga but also did he reduce its buildings to rubble a similar slaughter followed at ora in the aftermath of massaga and ora numerous assakenians fled to the fortress of aornos alexander followed close behind and captured the strategic hillfort after four bloody days after aornos alexander crossed the indus and fought and won an epic battle against king porus who ruled a region lying between the hydaspes and the acesines chenab in what is now the punjab in the battle of the hydaspes in 326 bc alexander was impressed by poruss bravery and made him an ally he appointed porus as satrap and added to poruss territory land that he did not previously own towards the southeast up to the hyphasis beas choosing a local helped him control these lands so distant from greece alexander founded two cities on opposite sides of the hydaspes river naming one bucephala in honour of his horse who died around this time the other was nicaea victory thought to be located at the site of modernday mong punjab philostratus the elder in the life of apollonius of tyana writes that in the army of porus there was an elephant who fought brave against alexanders army and alexander dedicated it to the helios sun and named it ajax because he thought that a so great animal deserved a great name the elephant had gold rings around its tusks and an inscription was on them written in greek alexander the son of zeus dedicates ajax to the helios αλεξανδρος ο διος τον αιαντα τωι ηλιωι revolt of the hellenic army east of poruss kingdom near the ganges river was the nanda empire of magadha and further east the gangaridai empire of bengal region of the indian subcontinent fearing the prospect of facing other large armies and exhausted by years of campaigning alexanders army mutinied at the hyphasis river beas refusing to march farther east this river thus marks the easternmost extent of alexanders conquests alexander tried to persuade his soldiers to march farther but his general coenus pleaded with him to change his opinion and return the men he said longed to again see their parents their wives and children their homeland alexander eventually agreed and turned south marching along the indus along the way his army conquered the malhi in modernday multan and other indian tribes while besieging the mallian citadel alexander suffered a nearfatal injury when an arrow penetrated his armor and entered his lung alexander sent much of his army to carmania modern southern iran with general craterus and commissioned a fleet to explore the persian gulf shore under his admiral nearchus while he led the rest back to persia through the more difficult southern route along the gedrosian desert and makran alexander reached susa in 324 bc but not before losing many men to the harsh desert last years in persia discovering that many of his satraps and military governors had misbehaved in his absence alexander executed several of them as examples on his way to susa as a gesture of thanks he paid off the debts of his soldiers and announced that he would send overaged and disabled veterans back to macedon led by craterus his troops misunderstood his intention and mutinied at the town of opis they refused to be sent away and criticized his adoption of persian customs and dress and the introduction of persian officers and soldiers into macedonian units after three days unable to persuade his men to back down alexander gave persians command posts in the army and conferred macedonian military titles upon persian units the macedonians quickly begged forgiveness which alexander accepted and held a great banquet with several thousand of his men in an attempt to craft a lasting harmony between his macedonian and persian subjects alexander held a mass marriage of his senior officers to persian and other noblewomen at susa but few of those marriages seem to have lasted much beyond a year meanwhile upon his return to persia alexander learned that guards of the tomb of cyrus the great in pasargadae had desecrated it and swiftly executed them alexander admired cyrus the great from an early age reading xenophons cyropaedia which described cyruss heroism in battle and governance as a king and legislator during his visit to pasargadae alexander ordered his architect aristobulus to decorate the interior of the sepulchral chamber of cyruss tomb afterwards alexander travelled to ecbatana to retrieve the bulk of the persian treasure there his closest friend hephaestion died of illness or poisoning hephaestions death devastated alexander and he ordered the preparation of an expensive funeral pyre in babylon along with a decree for public mourning back in babylon alexander planned a series of new campaigns beginning with an invasion of arabia but he would not have a chance to realize them as he died shortly after hephaestion on the evening of may 29 alexander organized a banquet for his army to celebrate the end of the campaign of india and the onset of the invasion of the arabian peninsula there is a tradition that they would only start serious drinking after everyone was done with their meals but the wine was usually heavily watered death and succession before his death someone asked alexander on who would be his designated successor should he die he responded to the strongest one he may have also added that there would be funeral games to be played after his death on either 10 or 11 june 323 bc alexander died in the palace of nebuchadnezzar ii in babylon at age 32 there are two different versions of alexanders death differing slightly in details plutarchs account is that roughly 14 days before his death alexander entertained admiral nearchus and spent the night and next day drinking with medius of larissa alexander developed a fever which worsened until he was unable to speak the common soldiers anxious about his health were granted the right to file past him as he silently waved at them in the second account diodorus recounts that alexander was struck with pain after downing a large bowl of unmixed wine in honour of heracles followed by 11 days of weakness he did not develop a fever instead dying after some agony arrian also mentioned this as an alternative but plutarch specifically denied this claim given the propensity of the macedonian aristocracy to assassination foul play featured in multiple accounts of his death diodorus plutarch arrian and justin all mentioned the theory that alexander was poisoned justin stated that alexander was the victim of a poisoning conspiracy plutarch dismissed it as a fabrication while both diodorus and arrian noted that they mentioned it only for the sake of completeness the accounts were nevertheless fairly consistent in designating antipater recently removed as macedonian viceroy replaced by craterus as the head of the alleged plot perhaps taking his summons to babylon as a death sentence and having seen the fate of parmenion and philotas antipater purportedly arranged for alexander to be poisoned by his son iollas who was alexanders winepourer there was even a suggestion that aristotle may have participated the strongest argument against the poison theory is the fact that twelve days passed between the start of his illness and his death such longacting poisons were probably not available however in a 2003 bbc documentary investigating the death of alexander leo schep from the new zealand national poisons centre proposed that the plant white hellebore veratrum album which was known in antiquity may have been used to poison alexander in a 2014 manuscript in the journal clinical toxicology schep suggested alexanders wine was spiked with veratrum album and that this would produce poisoning symptoms that match the course of events described in the alexander romance veratrum album poisoning can have a prolonged course and it was suggested that if alexander was poisoned veratrum album offers the most plausible cause another poisoning explanation put forward in 2010 proposed that the circumstances of his death were compatible with poisoning by water of the river styx modernday mavroneri in arcadia greece that contained calicheamicin a dangerous compound produced by bacteria several natural causes diseases have been suggested including malaria and typhoid fever a 1998 article in the new england journal of medicine attributed his death to typhoid fever complicated by bowel perforation and ascending paralysis another recent analysis suggested pyogenic infectious spondylitis or meningitis other illnesses fit the symptoms including acute pancreatitis west nile virus and guillainbarré syndrome naturalcause theories also tend to emphasize that alexanders health may have been in general decline after years of heavy drinking and severe wounds the anguish that alexander felt after hephaestions death may also have contributed to his declining health postdeath events alexanders body was laid in a gold anthropoid sarcophagus that was filled with honey which was in turn placed in a gold casket according to aelian a seer called aristander foretold that the land where alexander was laid to rest would be happy and unvanquishable forever perhaps more likely the successors may have seen possession of the body as a symbol of legitimacy since burying the prior king was a royal prerogative while alexanders funeral cortege was on its way to macedon ptolemy seized it and took it temporarily to memphis his successor ptolemy ii philadelphus transferred the sarcophagus to alexandria where it remained until at least late antiquity ptolemy ix lathyros one of ptolemys final successors replaced alexanders sarcophagus with a glass one so he could convert the original to coinage the recent discovery of an enormous tomb in northern greece at amphipolis dating from the time of alexander the great has given rise to speculation that its original intent was to be the burial place of alexander this would fit with the intended destination of alexanders funeral cortege however the memorial was found to be dedicated to the dearest friend of alexander the great hephaestion pompey julius caesar and augustus all visited the tomb in alexandria where augustus allegedly accidentally knocked the nose off caligula was said to have taken alexanders breastplate from the tomb for his own use around ad 200 emperor septimius severus closed alexanders tomb to the public his son and successor caracalla a great admirer visited the tomb during his own reign after this details on the fate of the tomb are hazy the socalled alexander sarcophagus discovered near sidon and now in the istanbul archaeology museum is so named not because it was thought to have contained alexanders remains but because its basreliefs depict alexander and his companions fighting the persians and hunting it was originally thought to have been the sarcophagus of abdalonymus died 311 bc the king of sidon appointed by alexander immediately following the battle of issus in 331 however more recently it has been suggested that it may date from earlier than abdalonymuss death demades likened the macedonian army after the death of alexander to the blinded cyclops due to the many random and disorderly movements that it made in addition leosthenes also likened the anarchy between the generals after alexanders death to the blinded cyclops who after he had lost his eye went feeling and groping about with his hands before him not knowing where to lay them division of the macedonian empire alexanders death was so sudden that when reports of his death reached greece they were not immediately believed alexander had no obvious or legitimate heir his son alexander iv by roxane being born after alexanders death according to diodorus alexanders companions asked him on his deathbed to whom he bequeathed his kingdom his laconic reply was tôi kratistôito the strongest another theory is that his successors wilfully or erroneously misheard tôi kraterôito craterus the general leading his macedonian troops home and newly entrusted with the regency of macedonia arrian and plutarch claimed that alexander was speechless by this point implying that this was an apocryphal story diodorus curtius and justin offered the more plausible story that alexander passed his signet ring to perdiccas a bodyguard and leader of the companion cavalry in front of witnesses thereby nominating him perdiccas initially did not claim power instead suggesting that roxanes baby would be king if male with himself craterus leonnatus and antipater as guardians however the infantry under the command of meleager rejected this arrangement since they had been excluded from the discussion instead they supported alexanders halfbrother philip arrhidaeus eventually the two sides reconciled and after the birth of alexander iv he and philip iii were appointed joint kings albeit in name only dissension and rivalry soon affected the macedonians however the satrapies handed out by perdiccas at the partition of babylon became power bases each general used to bid for power after the assassination of perdiccas in 321 bc macedonian unity collapsed and 40 years of war between the successors diadochi ensued before the hellenistic world settled into three stable power blocs ptolemaic egypt seleucid syria and east and antigonid macedonia in the process both alexander iv and philip iii were murdered last plans diodorus stated that alexander had given detailed written instructions to craterus some time before his death which are known as alexanders last plans craterus started to carry out alexanders commands but the successors chose not to further implement them on the grounds they were impractical and extravagant furthermore perdiccas had read the notebooks containing alexanders last plans to the macedonian troops in babylon who voted not to carry them out according to diodorus alexanders last plans called for military expansion into the southern and western mediterranean monumental constructions and the intermixing of eastern and western populations it included construction of 1000 ships larger than triremes along with harbours and a road running along the african coast all the way to the pillars of hercules to be used for an invasion of carthage and the western mediterranean erection of great temples in delos delphi dodona dium amphipolis all costing 1500 talents and a monumental temple to athena at troy amalgamation of small settlements into larger cities synoecisms and the transplant of populations from asia to europe and in the opposite direction from europe to asia in order to bring the largest continent to common unity and to friendship by means of intermarriage and family ties construction of a monumental tomb for his father philip to match the greatest of the pyramids of egypt conquest of arabia circumnavigation of africa the enormous scale of these plans has led many scholars to doubt their historicity ernst badian argued that they were exaggerated by perdiccas in order to ensure that the macedonian troops voted not to carry them out other scholars have proposed that they were invented by later authors within the tradition of the alexander romance character generalship alexander perhaps earned the epithet the great due to his unparalleled success as a military commander he never lost a battle despite typically being outnumbered this was due to use of terrain phalanx and cavalry tactics bold strategy and the fierce loyalty of his troops the macedonian phalanx armed with the sarissa a spear long had been developed and perfected by philip ii through rigorous training and alexander used its speed and manoeuvrability to great effect against larger but more disparate persian forces alexander also recognized the potential for disunity among his diverse army which employed various languages and weapons he overcame this by being personally involved in battle in the manner of a macedonian king in his first battle in asia at granicus alexander used only a small part of his forces perhaps 13000 infantry with 5000 cavalry against a much larger persian force of 40000 alexander placed the phalanx at the center and cavalry and archers on the wings so that his line matched the length of the persian cavalry line about by contrast the persian infantry was stationed behind its cavalry this ensured that alexander would not be outflanked while his phalanx armed with long pikes had a considerable advantage over the persians scimitars and javelins macedonian losses were negligible compared to those of the persians at issus in 333 bc his first confrontation with darius he used the same deployment and again the central phalanx pushed through alexander personally led the charge in the center routing the opposing army at the decisive encounter with darius at gaugamela darius equipped his chariots with scythes on the wheels to break up the phalanx and equipped his cavalry with pikes alexander arranged a double phalanx with the center advancing at an angle parting when the chariots bore down and then reforming the advance was successful and broke dariuss center causing the latter to flee once again when faced with opponents who used unfamiliar fighting techniques such as in central asia and india alexander adapted his forces to his opponents style thus in bactria and sogdiana alexander successfully used his javelin throwers and archers to prevent outflanking movements while massing his cavalry at the center in india confronted by poruss elephant corps the macedonians opened their ranks to envelop the elephants and used their sarissas to strike upwards and dislodge the elephants handlers physical appearance historical sources frequently give conflicting accounts of alexanders appearance and the earliest sources are the most scant in their detail during his lifetime alexander carefully curated his image by commissioning works from famous and great artists of the time this included commissioning sculptures by lysippos paintings by apelles and gem engravings by pyrgoteles ancient authors recorded that alexander was so pleased with portraits of himself created by lysippos that he forbade other sculptors from crafting his image scholars today however find the claim dubious nevertheless andrew stewart highlights the fact that artistic portraits not least because of who they are commissioned by are always partisan and that artistic portrayals of alexander seek to legitimize him or by extension his successors to interpret him to their audiences to answer their critiques and to persuade them of his greatness and thus should be considered within a framework of praise and blame in the same way sources such as praise poetry are despite those caveats lysipposs sculpture famous for its naturalism as opposed to a stiffer more static pose is thought to be the most faithful depiction curtius rufus a roman historian from the first century ad who wrote the histories of alexander the great gives this account of alexander sitting on the throne of darius iii both curtius and diodorus report a story that when darius iiis mother sisygambis first met alexander and hephaestion she assumed that the latter was alexander because he was the taller and more handsome of the two the greek biographer plutarch discusses the accuracy of his depictions historians have understood the detail of the pleasant odour attributed to alexander as stemming from a belief in ancient greece that pleasant scents are characteristic of gods and heroes the alexander mosaic and contemporary coins portray alexander with a straight nose a slightly protruding jaw full lips and eyes deep set beneath a strongly pronounced forehead he is also described as having a slight upward tilt of his head to the left the ancient historian aelian in his varia historia 1214 describes alexanders hair color as ξανθὴν that could mean yellowish reddish or brownish it is sometimes claimed that alexander had one blue and one brown eye reconstruction based on remaining traces of paint of the original polychromy on his sarcophagus indicates that he was depicted with brown eyes and chestnut brown hair personality both of alexanders parents encouraged his ambitions his father philip was probably alexanders most immediate and influential role model as the young alexander watched him campaign practically every year winning victory after victory while ignoring severe wounds alexanders relationship with his father forged the competitive side of his personality he had a need to outdo his father illustrated by his reckless behavior in battle while alexander worried that his father would leave him no great or brilliant achievement to be displayed to the world he also downplayed his fathers achievements to his companions alexanders mother olympia similarly had huge ambitions and encouraged her son to believe it was his destiny to conquer the persian empire she instilled a sense of destiny in him and plutarch tells how his ambition kept his spirit serious and lofty in advance of his years according to plutarch alexander also had a violent temper and rash impulsive nature and this could influence his decision making although alexander was stubborn and did not respond well to orders from his father he was open to reasoned debate he had a calmer sideperceptive logical and calculating he had a great desire for knowledge a love for philosophy and was an avid reader this was no doubt in part due to aristotles tutelage alexander was intelligent and quick to learn his intelligent and rational side was amply demonstrated by his ability and success as a general he had great selfrestraint in pleasures of the body in contrast with his lack of selfcontrol with alcohol alexander was erudite and patronized both arts and sciences however he had little interest in sports or the olympic games unlike his father seeking only the homeric ideals of honour timê and glory kudos he had great charisma and force of personality characteristics which made him a great leader his unique abilities were further demonstrated by the inability of any of his generals to unite macedonia and retain the empire after his deathonly alexander had the ability to do so during his final years and especially after the death of hephaestion alexander began to exhibit signs of megalomania and paranoia his extraordinary achievements coupled with his own ineffable sense of destiny and the flattery of his companions may have combined to produce this effect his delusions of grandeur are readily visible in his will and in his desire to conquer the world in as much as he is by various sources described as having boundless ambition an epithet the meaning of which has descended into a historical cliché he appears to have believed himself a deity or at least sought to deify himself olympias always insisted to him that he was the son of zeus a theory apparently confirmed to him by the oracle of amun at siwa he began to identify himself as the son of zeusammon alexander adopted elements of persian dress and customs at court notably proskynesis which was one aspect of alexanders broad strategy aimed at securing the aid and support of the iranian upper classes however the practise of proskynesis was disapproved by the macedonians and they were unwilling to perform it this behaviour cost him the sympathies of many of his countrymen however alexander also was a pragmatic ruler who understood the difficulties of ruling culturally disparate peoples many of whom lived in kingdoms where the king was divine thus rather than megalomania his behaviour may have been a practical attempt at strengthening his rule and keeping his empire together personal relationships alexander married three times roxana daughter of the sogdian nobleman oxyartes of bactria out of love and the persian princesses stateira and parysatis the former a daughter of darius iii and the latter a daughter of artaxerxes iii for political reasons he apparently had two sons alexander iv of macedon by roxana and possibly heracles of macedon from his mistress barsine he lost another child when roxana miscarried at babylon alexander also had a close relationship with his friend general and bodyguard hephaestion the son of a macedonian noble hephaestions death devastated alexander this event may have contributed to alexanders failing health and detached mental state during his final months alexanders sexuality has been the subject of speculation and controversy in modern times the roman era writer athenaeus says based on the scholar dicaearchus who was alexanders contemporary that the king was quite excessively keen on boys and that alexander kissed the eunuch bagoas in public this episode is also told by plutarch probably based on the same source none of alexanders contemporaries however are known to have explicitly described alexanders relationship with hephaestion as sexual though the pair was often compared to achilles and patroclus whom classical greek culture painted as a couple aelian writes of alexanders visit to troy where alexander garlanded the tomb of achilles and hephaestion that of patroclus the latter hinting that he was a beloved of alexander in just the same way as patroclus was of achilles some modern historians eg robin lane fox believe not only that alexanders youthful relationship with hephaestion was sexual but that their sexual contacts may have continued into adulthood which went against the social norms of at least some greek cities such as athens though some modern researchers have tentatively proposed that macedonia or at least the macedonian court may have been more tolerant of homosexuality between adults green argues that there is little evidence in ancient sources that alexander had much carnal interest in women he did not produce an heir until the very end of his life however ogden calculates that alexander who impregnated his partners thrice in eight years had a higher matrimonial record than his father at the same age two of these pregnancies stateiras and barsines are of dubious legitimacy according to diodorus siculus alexander accumulated a harem in the style of persian kings but he used it rather sparingly not wishing to offend the macedonians showing great selfcontrol in pleasures of the body nevertheless plutarch described how alexander was infatuated by roxana while complimenting him on not forcing himself on her green suggested that in the context of the period alexander formed quite strong friendships with women including ada of caria who adopted him and even dariuss mother sisygambis who supposedly died from grief upon hearing of alexanders death battle record legacy alexanders legacy extended beyond his military conquests and his reign marked a turning point in european and asian history his campaigns greatly increased contacts and trade between east and west and vast areas to the east were significantly exposed to greek civilization and influence some of the cities he founded became major cultural centers many surviving into the 21st century his chroniclers recorded valuable information about the areas through which he marched while the greeks themselves got a sense of belonging to a world beyond the mediterranean hellenistic kingdoms alexanders most immediate legacy was the introduction of macedonian rule to huge new swathes of asia at the time of his death alexanders empire covered some and was the largest state of its time many of these areas remained in macedonian hands or under greek influence for the next 200300 years the successor states that emerged were at least initially dominant forces and these 300 years are often referred to as the hellenistic period the eastern borders of alexanders empire began to collapse even during his lifetime however the power vacuum he left in the northwest of the indian subcontinent directly gave rise to one of the most powerful indian dynasties in history the maurya empire taking advantage of this power vacuum chandragupta maurya referred to in greek sources as sandrokottos of relatively humble origin took control of the punjab and with that power base proceeded to conquer the nanda empire founding of cities over the course of his conquests alexander founded some twenty cities that bore his name most of them east of the tigris the first and greatest was alexandria in egypt which would become one of the leading mediterranean cities the cities locations reflected trade routes as well as defensive positions at first the cities must have been inhospitable little more than defensive garrisons following alexanders death many greeks who had settled there tried to return to greece however a century or so after alexanders death many of the alexandrias were thriving with elaborate public buildings and substantial populations that included both greek and local peoples the foundation of the new smyrna was also associated with alexander according to the legend after alexander hunted on the mount pagus he slept under a plane tree at the sanctuary of nemesis while he was sleeping the goddess appeared and told him to found a city there and move into it the smyrnaeans from the old city the smyrnaeans sent ambassadors to the oracle at clarus to ask about this and after the response from the oracle they decided to move to the new city the city of pella in modern jordan was founded by veterans of alexanders army and named it after the city of pella in greece which was the birthplace of alexander modern cities still named after alexander the great include alexandria egypt alexandreia greece iskenderun turkey iskandariya iraq and kandahar afghanistan funding of temples in 334 bc alexander the great donated funds for the completion of the new temple of athena polias in priene in modernday western turkey an inscription from the temple now housed in the british museum declares king alexander dedicated this temple to athena polias this inscription is one of the few independent archaeological discoveries confirming an episode from alexanders life the temple was designed by pytheos one of the architects of the mausoleum at halicarnassus libanius wrote that alexander founded the temple of zeus bottiaios in the place where later the city of antioch was built suda wrote that alexander built a big temple to sarapis hellenization hellenization was coined by the german historian johann gustav droysen to denote the spread of greek language culture and population into the former persian empire after alexanders conquest this process can be seen in such great hellenistic cities as alexandria antioch and seleucia south of modern baghdad alexander sought to insert greek elements into persian culture and to hybridize greek and persian culture homogenizing the populations of asia and europe although his successors explicitly rejected such policies hellenization occurred throughout the region accompanied by a distinct and opposite orientalization of the successor states the core of the hellenistic culture promulgated by the conquests was essentially athenian the close association of men from across greece in alexanders army directly led to the emergence of the largely atticbased koine or common greek dialect koine spread throughout the hellenistic world becoming the lingua franca of hellenistic lands and eventually the ancestor of modern greek furthermore town planning education local government and art current in the hellenistic period were all based on classical greek ideals evolving into distinct new forms commonly grouped as hellenistic also the new testament was written in the koine greek language aspects of hellenistic culture were still evident in the traditions of the byzantine empire in the mid15th century hellenization in south and central asia some of the most pronounced effects of hellenization can be seen in afghanistan and india in the region of the relatively laterising grecobactrian kingdom 250125 bc in modern afghanistan pakistan and tajikistan and the indogreek kingdom 180 bc 10 ad in modern afghanistan and india on the silk road trade routes hellenistic culture hybridized with iranian and buddhist cultures the cosmopolitan art and mythology of gandhara a region spanning the upper confluence of the indus swat and kabul rivers in modern pakistan of the 3rd century bc to the 5th century ad are most evident of the direct contact between hellenistic civilization and south asia as are the edicts of ashoka which directly mention the greeks within ashokas dominion as converting to buddhism and the reception of buddhist emissaries by ashokas contemporaries in the hellenistic world the resulting syncretism known as grecobuddhism influenced the development of buddhism and created a culture of grecobuddhist art these grecobuddhist kingdoms sent some of the first buddhist missionaries to china sri lanka and hellenistic asia and europe grecobuddhist monasticism some of the first and most influential figurative portrayals of the buddha appeared at this time perhaps modelled on greek statues of apollo in the grecobuddhist style several buddhist traditions may have been influenced by the ancient greek religion the concept of boddhisatvas is reminiscent of greek divine heroes and some mahayana ceremonial practices burning incense gifts of flowers and food placed on altars are similar to those practised by the ancient greeks however similar practices were also observed amongst the native indic culture one greek king menander i probably became buddhist and was immortalized in buddhist literature as milinda the process of hellenization also spurred trade between the east and west for example greek astronomical instruments dating to the 3rd century bc were found in the grecobactrian city of ai khanoum in modernday afghanistan while the greek concept of a spherical earth surrounded by the spheres of planets eventually supplanted the longstanding indian cosmological belief of a disc consisting of four continents grouped around a central mountain mount meru like the petals of a flower the yavanajataka lit greek astronomical treatise and paulisa siddhanta texts depict the influence of greek astronomical ideas on indian astronomy following the conquests of alexander the great in the east hellenistic influence on indian art was farranging in the area of architecture a few examples of the ionic order can be found as far as pakistan with the jandial temple near taxila several examples of capitals displaying ionic influences can be seen as far as patna especially with the pataliputra capital dated to the 3rd century bc the corinthian order is also heavily represented in the art of gandhara especially through indocorinthian capitals influence on rome alexander and his exploits were admired by many romans especially generals who wanted to associate themselves with his achievements polybius began his histories by reminding romans of alexanders achievements and thereafter roman leaders saw him as a role model pompey the great adopted the epithet magnus and even alexanders anastoletype haircut and searched the conquered lands of the east for alexanders 260yearold cloak which he then wore as a sign of greatness julius caesar dedicated a lysippean equestrian bronze statue but replaced alexanders head with his own while octavian visited alexanders tomb in alexandria and temporarily changed his seal from a sphinx to alexanders profile the emperor trajan also admired alexander as did nero and caracalla the macriani a roman family that in the person of macrinus briefly ascended to the imperial throne kept images of alexander on their persons either on jewellery or embroidered into their clothes on the other hand some roman writers particularly republican figures used alexander as a cautionary tale of how autocratic tendencies can be kept in check by republican values alexander was used by these writers as an example of ruler values such as friendship and clemency but also anger and overdesire for glory emperor julian in his satire called the caesars describes a contest between the previous roman emperors with alexander the great called in as an extra contestant in the presence of the assembled gods the itinerarium alexandri is a 4thcentury latin itinerarium which describes alexander the greats campaigns julius caesar went to serve his quaestorship in hispania after his wifes funeral in the spring or early summer of 69 bc while there he encountered a statue of alexander the great and realised with dissatisfaction that he was now at an age when alexander had the world at his feet while he had achieved comparatively little pompey posed as the new alexander since he was his boyhood hero after caracalla concluded his campaign against the alamanni it became evident that he was inordinately preoccupied with alexander the great he began openly mimicking alexander in his personal style in planning his invasion of the parthian empire caracalla decided to arrange 16000 of his men in macedonianstyle phalanxes despite the roman army having made the phalanx an obsolete tactical formation the historian christopher matthew mentions that the term phalangarii has two possible meanings both with military connotations the first refers merely to the roman battle line and does not specifically mean that the men were armed with pikes and the second bears similarity to the marian mules of the late roman republic who carried their equipment suspended from a long pole which were in use until at least the 2nd century ad as a consequence the phalangarii of legio ii parthica may not have been pikemen but rather standard battle line troops or possibly triarii caracallas mania for alexander went so far that caracalla visited alexandria while preparing for his persian invasion and persecuted philosophers of the aristotelian school based on a legend that aristotle had poisoned alexander this was a sign of caracallas increasingly erratic behaviour but this mania for alexander strange as it was was overshadowed by subsequent events in alexandria in 39 caligula performed a spectacular stunt by ordering a temporary floating bridge to be built using ships as pontoons stretching for over two miles from the resort of baiae to the neighbouring port of puteoli it was said that the bridge was to rival the persian king xerxes pontoon bridge crossing of the hellespont caligula who could not swim then proceeded to ride his favourite horse incitatus across wearing the breastplate of alexander the great this act was in defiance of a prediction by tiberiuss soothsayer thrasyllus of mendes that caligula had no more chance of becoming emperor than of riding a horse across the bay of baiae the diffusion of greek culture and language cemented by alexanders conquests in west asia and north africa served as a precondition for the later roman expansion into these territories and entire basis for the byzantine empire according to errington letters alexander wrote and received numerous letters but no originals survive a few official letters addressed to the greek cities survive in copies inscribed in stone and the content of others is sometimes reported in historical sources these only occasionally quote the letters and it is an open question how reliable such quotations are several fictitious letters some perhaps based on actual letters made their way into the romance tradition in legend many of the legends about alexander derive from his own lifetime probably encouraged by alexander himself his court historian callisthenes portrayed the sea in cilicia as drawing back from him in proskynesis writing shortly after alexanders death onesicritus invented a tryst between alexander and thalestris queen of the mythical amazons he reportedly read this passage to his patron king lysimachus who had been one of alexanders generals and who quipped i wonder where i was at the time in the first centuries after alexanders death probably in alexandria a quantity of the legendary material coalesced into a text known as the alexander romance later falsely ascribed to callisthenes and therefore known as pseudocallisthenes this text underwent numerous expansions and revisions throughout antiquity and the middle ages containing many dubious stories and was translated into numerous languages for example middle persian syriac and probably arabic in ancient and modern culture alexander the greats accomplishments and legacy have been depicted in many cultures alexander has figured in both high and popular culture beginning in his own era to the present day the alexander romance in particular has had a significant impact on portrayals of alexander in later cultures from persian to medieval european to modern greek alexander features prominently in modern greek folklore more so than any other ancient figure the colloquial form of his name in modern greek o megalexandros is a household name and he is the only ancient hero to appear in the karagiozis shadow play one wellknown fable among greek seamen involves a solitary mermaid who would grasp a ships prow during a storm and ask the captain is king alexander alive the correct answer is he is alive and well and rules the world causing the mermaid to vanish and the sea to calm any other answer would cause the mermaid to turn into a raging gorgon who would drag the ship to the bottom of the sea all hands aboard in preislamic middle persian zoroastrian literature alexander is referred to by the epithet gujastak meaning accursed and is accused of destroying temples and burning the sacred texts of zoroastrianism in islamic persia under the influence of the alexander romance in iskandarnamah a more positive portrayal of alexander emerges firdausis shahnameh the book of kings includes alexander in a line of legitimate persian shahs a mythical figure who explored the far reaches of the world in search of the fountain of youth in the shahnameh alexanders first journey is to mecca to pray at the kaaba alexander was depicted as performing a hajj pilgrimage to mecca many times in subsequent islamic art and literature later persian writers associate him with philosophy portraying him at a symposium with figures such as socrates plato and aristotle in search of immortality the figure of dhu alqarnayn literally the twohorned one mentioned in the quran is believed by scholars to be based on later legends of alexander in this tradition he was a heroic figure who built a wall to defend against the nations of gog and magog he then travelled the known world in search of the water of life and immortality eventually becoming a prophet the majority of modern researchers of the quran as well as islamic commentators identify dhu alqarnayn as alexander the great the syriac version of the alexander romance portrays him as an ideal christian world conqueror who prayed to the one true god in egypt alexander was portrayed as the son of nectanebo ii the last pharaoh before the persian conquest his defeat of darius was depicted as egypts salvation proving egypt was still ruled by an egyptian according to josephus alexander was shown the book of daniel when he entered jerusalem which described a mighty greek king who would conquer the persian empire this is cited as a reason for sparing jerusalem in hindi and urdu the name sikandar derived from the persian name for alexander denotes a rising young talent and the delhi sultanate ruler aladdin khalji stylized himself as sikandarisani the second alexander the great in medieval india turkic and afghan sovereigns from the iraniancultured region of central asia brought positive cultural connotations of alexander to the indian subcontinent resulting in the efflorescence of sikandernameh alexander romances written by indopersian poets such as amir khusrow and the prominence of alexander the great as a popular subject in mughalera persian miniatures in medieval europe alexander the great was revered as a member of the nine worthies a group of heroes whose lives were believed to encapsulate all the ideal qualities of chivalry during the first italian campaign of the french revolutionary wars in a question from bourrienne asking whether he gave his preference to alexander or caesar napoleon said that he places alexander the great in the first rank the main reason being his campaign on asia in the greek anthology there are poems referring to alexander throughout time art objects related to alexander were being created in addition to speech works sculptures and paintings in modern times alexander is still the subject of musical and cinematic works the song alexander the great by the british heavy metal band iron maiden is indicative some films that have been shot with the theme of alexander are sikandar 1941 an indian production directed by sohrab modi about the conquest of india by alexander alexander the great 1956 produced by mgm and starring richard burton sikandareazam 1965 an indian production directed by kedar kapoor alexander 2004 directed by oliver stone starring colin farrell there are also many references to other movies and tv series newer novels about alexander are the trilogy alexander the great by valerio massimo manfredi consisting of the son of the dream the sand of amon and the ends of the world the trilogy of mary renault consisting of fire from heaven the persian boy and funeral games the virtues of war about alexander the great 2004 and the afghan campaign about alexander the greats conquests in afghanistan 2006 by steven pressfield irish playwright aubrey thomas de vere wrote alexander the great a dramatic poem historiography apart from a few inscriptions and fragments texts written by people who actually knew alexander or who gathered information from men who served with alexander were all lost contemporaries who wrote accounts of his life included alexanders campaign historian callisthenes alexanders generals ptolemy and nearchus aristobulus a junior officer on the campaigns and onesicritus alexanders chief helmsman their works are lost but later works based on these original sources have survived the earliest of these is diodorus siculus 1st century bc followed by quintus curtius rufus midtolate 1st century ad arrian 1st to 2nd century ad the biographer plutarch 1st to 2nd century ad and finally justin whose work dated as late as the 4th century of these arrian is generally considered the most reliable given that he used ptolemy and aristobulus as his sources closely followed by diodorus see also ancient macedonian army military tactics of alexander the great bucephalus chronology of european exploration of asia theories about alexander the great in the quran ptolemaic cult of alexander the great gates of alexander list of biblical figures identified in extrabiblical sources list of people known as the great references notes citations sources primary sources secondary sources further reading also 1974 new york e p dutton and 1986 london penguin books external links part 1 part 2 part 3 part 4 part 5 part 6 alexander the great an annotated list of primary sources livius archived from the original on 4 december 2016 retrieved 26 march 2020 in our time alexander the greatbbc discussion with paul cartledge diana spencer and rachel mairs hosted by melvyn bragg first broadcast 1 october 2015 alexander the great by kireet joshi 356 bc births 323 bc deaths 4thcentury bc macedonian monarchs 4thcentury bc pharaohs ancient macedonian generals ancient pellaeans argead kings of macedonia city founders deified greek people deified monarchs hellenisticera people kayanians monarchs of persia people in the deuterocanonical books pharaohs of the argead dynasty shahnameh characters temple of artemis	13,627
784	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Korzybski	Alfred Korzybski	alfred habdank skarbek korzybski july 3 1879 march 1 1950 was a polishamerican independent scholar who developed a field called general semantics which he viewed as both distinct from and more encompassing than the field of semantics he argued that human knowledge of the world is limited both by the human nervous system and the languages humans have developed and thus no one can have direct access to reality given that the most we can know is that which is filtered through the brains responses to reality his best known dictum is the map is not the territory early life and career born in warsaw vistula country which was then part of the russian empire korzybski belonged to an aristocratic polish family whose members had worked as mathematicians scientists and engineers for generations he learned the polish language at home and the russian language in schools and having a french and german governess he became fluent in four languages as a child korzybski studied engineering at the warsaw university of technology during the first world war 19141918 korzybski served as an intelligence officer in the russian army after being wounded in a leg and suffering other injuries he moved to north america in 1916 first to canada then to the united states to coordinate the shipment of artillery to russia he also lectured to polishamerican audiences about the conflict promoting the sale of war bonds after the war he decided to remain in the united states becoming a naturalized citizen in 1940 he met mira edgerly a painter of portraits on ivory shortly after the 1918 armistice they married in january 1919 the marriage lasted until his death e p dutton published korzybskis first book manhood of humanity in 1921 in this work he proposed and explained in detail a new theory of humankind mankind as a timebinding class of life humans perform time binding by the transmission of knowledge and abstractions through time which become accreted in cultures in 1925 and 1926 korzybski observed psychiatric patients at st elizabeths hospital in dc under the supervision of william alanson white general semantics korzybskis work culminated in the initiation of a discipline that he named general semantics gs this should not be confused with semantics the basic principles of general semantics which include timebinding are described in the publication science and sanity published in 1933 in 1938 korzybski founded the institute of general semantics in chicago the postworld war ii housing shortage in chicago cost him the institutes building lease so in 1946 he moved the institute to lakeville connecticut us where he directed it until his death in 1950 korzybski maintained that humans are limited in what they know by 1 the structure of their nervous systems and 2 the structure of their languages humans cannot experience the world directly but only through their abstractions nonverbal impressions or gleanings derived from the nervous system and verbal indicators expressed and derived from language these sometimes mislead us about what is the truth our understanding sometimes lacks similarity of structure with what is actually happening he sought to train our awareness of abstracting using techniques he had derived from his study of mathematics and science he called this awareness this goal of his system consciousness of abstracting his system included the promotion of attitudes such as i dont know lets see in order that we may better discover or reflect on its realities as revealed by modern science another technique involved becoming inwardly and outwardly quiet an experience he termed silence on the objective levels to be many devotees and critics of korzybski reduced his rather complex system to a simple matter of what he said about the verb form is of the general verb to be his system however is based primarily on such terminology as the different orders of abstraction and formulations such as consciousness of abstracting the contention that korzybski opposed the use of the verb to be would be a profound exaggeration he thought that certain uses of the verb to be called the is of identity and the is of predication were faulty in structure eg a statement such as elizabeth is a fool said of a person named elizabeth who has done something that we regard as foolish in korzybskis system ones assessment of elizabeth belongs to a higher order of abstraction than elizabeth herself korzybskis remedy was to deny identity in this example to be aware continually that elizabeth is not what we call her we find elizabeth not in the verbal domain the world of words but the nonverbal domain the two he said amount to different orders of abstraction this was expressed by korzybskis most famous premise the map is not the territory note that this premise uses the phrase is not a form of to be this and many other examples show that he did not intend to abandon to be as such in fact he said explicitly that there were no structural problems with the verb to be when used as an auxiliary verb or when used to state existence or location it was even acceptable at times to use the faulty forms of the verb to be as long as one was aware of their structural limitations anecdotes one day korzybski was giving a lecture to a group of students and he interrupted the lesson suddenly in order to retrieve a packet of biscuits wrapped in white paper from his briefcase he muttered that he just had to eat something and he asked the students on the seats in the front row if they would also like a biscuit a few students took a biscuit nice biscuit dont you think said korzybski while he took a second one the students were chewing vigorously then he tore the white paper from the biscuits in order to reveal the original packaging on it was a big picture of a dogs head and the words dog cookies the students looked at the package and were shocked two of them wanted to vomit put their hands in front of their mouths and ran out of the lecture hall to the toilet you see korzybski remarked i have just demonstrated that people dont just eat food but also words and that the taste of the former is often outdone by the taste of the latter william burroughs went to a korzybski workshop in the autumn of 1939 he was 25 years old and paid 40 his fellow studentsthere were 38 in allincluded young samuel i hayakawa later to become a republican member of the us senate and wendell johnson founder of the monster study influence korzybski was well received in numerous disciplines as evidenced by the positive reactions from leading figures in the sciences and humanities in the 1940s and 1950s these include author robert a heinlein naming a character after him in his 1940 short story blowups happen and science fiction writer a e van vogt in his novel the world of nulla published in 1948 korzybskis ideas influenced philosopher alan watts who used his phrase the map is not the territory in lectures writer robert anton wilson was also deeply influenced by korzybskis ideas as reported in the third edition of science and sanity in world war ii the us army used korzybskis system to treat battle fatigue in europe under the supervision of dr douglas m kelley who went on to become the psychiatrist in charge of the nazi war criminals at nuremberg some of the general semantics tradition was continued by samuel i hayakawa publications 1921 manhood of humanity the science and art of human engineering ep dutton new york usa 1933 science and sanity an introduction to nonaristotelian systems and general semantics science press printing co lancaster pa usa see also alfred korzybski memorial lecture concept and object eprime institute of general semantics robert pula structural differential neuro linguistic programming references further reading kodish bruce 2011 korzybski a biography pasadena ca extensional publishing softcover 9780970066428 hardcover kodish bruce and susan presby kodish 2011 drive yourself sane using the uncommon sense of general semantics third edition pasadena ca extensional publishing alfred korzybski manhood of humanity foreword by edward kasner notes by m kendig institute of general semantics 1950 hardcover 2nd edition 391 pages copy of the first edition science and sanity an introduction to nonaristotelian systems and general semantics alfred korzybski preface by robert p pula institute of general semantics 1994 hardcover 5th edition full text online alfred korzybski collected writings 19201950 institute of general semantics 1990 hardcover montagu m f a 1953 timebinding and the concept of culture the scientific monthly vol 77 no 3 sep 1953 pp 148155 murray e 1950 in memoriam alfred h korzybski sociometry vol 13 no 1 feb 1950 pp 7677 external links alfred korzybski and gestalt therapy website australian general semantics society institute of general semantics finding aid to alfred korzybski papers at columbia university rare book manuscript library 1879 births 1950 deaths writers from warsaw clan abdank polish emigrants to the united states polish engineers 20thcentury polish philosophers polish mathematicians linguists from poland general semantics people from lakeville connecticut	1,526
785	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroids%20%28video%20game%29	Asteroids (video game)	asteroids is a spacethemed multidirectional shooter arcade video game designed by lyle rains and ed logg released in november 1979 by atari inc the player controls a single spaceship in an asteroid field which is periodically traversed by flying saucers the object of the game is to shoot and destroy the asteroids and saucers while not colliding with either or being hit by the saucers counterfire the game becomes harder as the number of asteroids increases asteroids was conceived during a meeting between logg and rains who decided to use hardware developed by howard delman previously used for lunar lander asteroids was based on an unfinished game titled cosmos its physics model control scheme and gameplay elements were derived from spacewar computer space and space invaders and refined through trial and error the game is rendered on a vector display in a twodimensional view that wraps around both screen axes asteroids was one of the first major hits of the golden age of arcade games the game sold 47840 upright cabinets and 8725 cocktail cabinets arcade cabinets and proved both popular with players and influential with developers in the 1980s it was ported to ataris home systems and the atari vcs version sold over three million copies the game was widely imitated and it directly influenced defender gravitar and many other video games gameplay the objective of asteroids is to destroy asteroids and saucers the player controls a triangular ship that can rotate left and right fire shots straight forward and thrust forward once the ship begins moving in a direction it will continue in that direction for a time without player intervention unless the player applies thrust in a different direction the ship eventually comes to a stop when not thrusting the player can also send the ship into hyperspace causing it to disappear and reappear in a random location on the screen at the risk of selfdestructing or appearing on top of an asteroid each level starts with a few large asteroids drifting in various directions on the screen objects wrap around screen edges for instance an asteroid that drifts off the top edge of the screen reappears at the bottom and continues moving in the same direction as the player shoots asteroids they break into smaller asteroids that move faster and are more difficult to hit smaller asteroids are also worth more points two flying saucers appear periodically on the screen the big saucer shoots randomly and poorly while the small saucer fires frequently at the ship after reaching a score of 40000 only the small saucer appears as the players score increases the angle range of the shots from the small saucer diminishes until the saucer fires extremely accurately once the screen has been cleared of all asteroids and flying saucers a new set of large asteroids appears thus starting the next level the game gets harder as the number of asteroids increases until after the score reaches a range between 40000 and 60000 the player starts with 35 lives upon game start and gains an extra life per 10000 points play continues to the last ship lost which ends the game the machine turns over at 99990 points which is the maximum high score that can be achieved lurking exploit in the original game design saucers were supposed to begin shooting as soon as they appeared but this was changed additionally saucers can only aim at the players ship onscreen they are not capable of aiming across a screen boundary these behaviors allow a lurking strategy in which the player stays near the edge of the screen opposite the saucer by keeping just one or two rocks in play a player can shoot across the boundary and destroy saucers to accumulate points indefinitely with little risk of being destroyed arcade operators began to complain about losing revenue due to this exploit in response atari issued a patched eprom and due to the impact of this exploit atari and other companies changed their development and testing policies to try to prevent future games from having such exploits development concept asteroids was conceived by lyle rains and programmed by ed logg with collaborations from other atari staff logg was impressed with the atari video computer system later called the atari 2600 and he joined ataris coinop division to work on dirt bike which was never released due to an unsuccessful field test paul mancuso joined the development team as asteroids technician and engineer howard delman contributed to the hardware during a meeting in april 1979 rains discussed planet grab a multiplayer arcade game later renamed to cosmos logg did not know the name of the game thinking computer space as the inspiration for the twodimensional approach rains conceived of asteroids as a mixture of computer space and space invaders combining the twodimensional approach of computer space with space invaders addictive gameplay of completion and eliminate all threats the unfinished game featured a giant indestructible asteroid so rains asked logg well why dont we have a game where you shoot the rocks and blow them up in response logg described a similar concept where the player selectively shoots at rocks that break into smaller pieces both agreed on the concept hardware asteroids was implemented on hardware developed by delman and is a vector game in which the graphics are composed of lines drawn on a vector monitor rains initially wanted the game done in raster graphics but logg experienced in vector graphics suggested an xy monitor because the high image quality would permit precise aiming the hardware is chiefly a mos 6502 executing the game program and quadrascan a highresolution vector graphics processor developed by atari and referred to as an xy display system and the digital vector generator dvg the original design concepts for quadrascan came out of cyan engineering ataris offcampus research lab in grass valley california in 1978 cyan gave it to delman who finished the design and first used it for lunar lander logg received delmans modified board with five buttons 13 sound effects and additional ram and he used it to develop asteroids the size of the board was 4 by 4 inches and it was linked up to a monitor implementation logg modeled the players ship the fivebutton control scheme and the game physics after spacewar which he had played as a student at the university of california berkeley but made several changes to improve playability the ship was programmed into the hardware and rendered by the monitor and it was configured to move with thrust and inertia the hyperspace button was not placed near loggs right thumb which he was dissatisfied with as he had a problem taking his hand off the thrust button drawings of asteroids in various shapes were incorporated into the game logg copied the idea of a high score table with initials from exidys star fire the two saucers were formulated to be different from each other a steadily decreasing timer shortens intervals between saucer attacks to keep the player from not shooting asteroids and saucers a heartbeat soundtrack quickens as the game progresses the game does not have a sound chip delman created a hardware circuit for 13 sound effects by hand which was wired onto the board a prototype of asteroids was well received by several atari staff and engineers who wandered between labs passing comment and stopping to play as they went logg was often asked when he would be leaving by employees eager to play the prototype so he created a second prototype for staff to play atari tested the game in arcades in sacramento california and also observed players during focus group sessions at atari players used to spacewar struggled to maintain grip on the thrust button and requested a joystick players accustomed to space invaders noted they get no break in the game logg and other engineers observed proceedings and documented comments in four pages asteroids slows down as the player gains 50100 lives because there is no limit to the number of lives displayed the player can lose the game after more than 250 lives are collected ports asteroids was released for the atari vcs later renamed the atari 2600 and atari 8bit family in 1981 then the atari 7800 in 1986 a port for the atari 5200 identical to the atari 8bit computer version was in development in 1982 but was not published the atari 7800 version was a launch title and includes cooperative play the asteroids have colorful textures and the heartbeat sound effect remains intact programmers brad stewart and bob smith were unable to fit the atari vcs port into a 4 kb cartridge it became the first game for the console to use bank switching a technique that increases rom size from 4 kb to 8 kb reception asteroids was immediately successful upon release it displaced space invaders by popularity in the united states and became ataris best selling arcade game of all time with over 70000 units sold atari earned an estimated 150 million in sales from the game and arcade operators earned a further 500 million from coin drops atari had been in the process of manufacturing another vector game lunar lander but demand for asteroids was so high that several hundred asteroids games were shipped in lunar lander cabinets asteroids was so popular that some video arcade operators had to install large boxes to hold the number of coins spent by players it replaced space invaders at the top of the us replay amusement arcade charts in april 1980 though space invaders remained the top game at street locations asteroids went on to become the highestgrossing arcade video game of 1980 in the united states dethroning space invaders it shipped 70000 arcade units worldwide in 1980 including over 60000 sold in the united states that year and grossed about worldwide adjusted for inflation by 1980 the game remained at the top of the us replay charts through march 1981 however the game did not perform as well overseas in europe and asia it sold 30000 arcade units overseas for a total of 100000 arcade units sold worldwide atari manufactured 76312 units from its us and ireland plants including 21394 asteroids deluxe units it was a commercial failure in japan when it released there in 1980 partly due to its complex controls and partly due to the japanese market beginning to lose interest in space shoot em ups at the time asteroids received positive reviews from video game critics and has been regarded as loggs magnum opus richard a edwards reviewed the 1981 asteroids home cartridge in the space gamer no 46 edwards commented that this home cartridge is a virtual duplicate of the everpopular atari arcade game if blasting asteroids is the thing you want to do then this is the game but at this price i cant wholeheartedly recommend it video games player magazine reviewed the atari vcs version rating the graphics and sound a b while giving the game an overall b rating electronic fun with computers games magazine gave the atari vcs version an a rating william cassidy writing for gamespys classic gaming noticed its innovations including being one of the first video games to track initials and allow players to enter their initials for appearing in the top 10 high scores and commented the vector graphics fit the futuristic outer space theme very well in 1995 flux magazine ranked the arcade version 11th on their top 100 video games in 1996 next generation listed it as number 39 on their top 100 games of all time particularly lauding the control dynamics which require the constant juggling of speed positioning and direction in 1999 next generation listed asteroids as number 29 on their top 50 games of all time commenting that asteroids was a classic the day it was released and it has never lost any of its appeal asteroids was ranked fourth on retro gamers list of top 25 arcade games the retro gamer staff cited its simplicity and the lack of a proper ending as allowances of revisiting the game in 2012 asteroids was listed on time alltime 100 greatest video games list entertainment weekly named asteroids one of the top ten games for the atari 2600 in 2013 it was added to the museum of modern arts collection of video games in 2021 the guardian listed asteroids as the second greatest video game of the 1970s just below galaxian 1979 by contrast in march 1983 the atari 8bit port of asteroids won sixth place in softlines dog of the year awards for badness in computer games atari division based on reader submissions usage of the names of saturday night live characters mr bill and sluggo to refer to the saucers in an esquire article about the game led to logg receiving a cease and desist letter from a lawyer with the mr bill trademark legacy arcade sequels released in 1981 asteroids deluxe was the first sequel to asteroids dave shepperd edited the code and made enhancements to the game without loggs involvement the onscreen objects are tinted blue and hyperspace is replaced by a shield that depletes when used the asteroids rotate and new killer satellite enemies break into smaller ships that home in on the players position the arcade machines monitor displays vector graphics overlaying a holographic backdrop the game is more difficult than the original and enables saucers to shoot across the screen boundary eliminating the lurking strategy for high scores in the original space duel released in arcades in 1982 replaces the rocks with colorful geometric shapes and adds cooperative twoplayer gameplay 1987s blasteroids includes powerups ship morphing branching levels bosses and the ability to dock your ships in multiplayer for added firepower blasteroids uses raster graphics instead of vectors rereleases the game is half of the atari lynx pairing super asteroids missile command and included in the 1993 microsoft arcade compilation activision published an enhanced version of asteroids for the playstation 1998 nintendo 64 1999 microsoft windows 1998 game boy color 1999 and mac 2000 the atari flashback series of dedicated video game consoles have included both the 2600 and the arcade versions of asteroids published by crave entertainment on december 14 1999 asteroids hyper 64 made the ship and asteroids 3d and added new weapons and a multiplayer mode a technical demo of asteroids was developed by ithink for the atari jaguar but was never released unofficially referred to as asteroids 2000 it was demonstrated at ejagfest 2000 in 2001 infogrames released atari anniversary edition for the dreamcast playstation and microsoft windows developed by digital eclipse it includes emulated versions of asteroids and other games the arcade and atari 2600 versions of asteroids were included in atari anthology for both xbox and playstation 2 released on november 28 2007 the xbox live arcade port of asteroids has revamped hd graphics along with an added intense throttle monkey mode the arcade and 2600 versions were made available through microsofts game room service in 2010 glu mobile released an enhanced mobile phone port asteroids is included on atari greatest hits volume 1 for the nintendo ds an updated version of the game was announced in 2018 for the intellivision amico both the atari 2600 and atari 7800 versions of the game was included on atari collection 1 and 2 in 2020 for the evercade a remake asteroids recharged was released in december 2021 for the nintendo switch playstation 4 playstation 5 windows xbox one and xbox series xs it was developed by adamvision studios and sneakybox clones quality softwares asteroids in space 1980 was one of the best selling games for the apple ii and voted one of the most popular software titles of 197880 by softalk magazine in december 1981 byte reviewed eight asteroids clones for home computers three clones for the apple ii were reviewed together in the 1982 creative computing software buyers guide the asteroid field asteron and appleoids in the last of these the asteroids are in the shape of apples two independent clones asteroid for the apple ii and fasteroids for trs80 were renamed to planetoids and sold by adventure international others clones include acornsofts meteors moons of jupiter for the vic20 minestorm for the vectrex and quicksilvas meteor storm for the zx spectrum which uses speech synthesis a poorly implemented asteroids clone for the vic20 published by bugbyte motivated jeff minter to found llamasoft the intellivision game meteor was cancelled to avoid a lawsuit for being too similar to asteroids and was reworked as astrosmash the game borrows elements from asteroids and space invaders proposed film adaptation on july 2 2009 universal pictures offered emmerich the option to direct the film adaptation of asteroids with matt lopez writing the script and lorenzo di bonaventura will produce the film adaptation on june 8 2011 universal offered roland emmerich the option to direct the film adaptation with lopez and di bonaventura still attached to write and produce the film adaptation respectively which emmerich passed on directing while evan spiliotopoulos and f scott frazier were hired to rewrite the screenplay world records on february 6 1982 leo daniels of carolina beach north carolina set a world record score of 40101910 points on november 13 of the same year 15yearold scott safran of cherry hill new jersey set a new record at 41336440 points in 1998 to congratulate safran on his accomplishment the twin galaxies intergalactic scoreboard searched for him for four years until 2002 when it was discovered that he had died in an accident in 1989 in a ceremony in philadelphia on april 27 2002 walter day of twin galaxies presented an award to the surviving members of safrans family commemorating his achievement on april 5 2010 john mcallister broke safrans record with a high score of 41838740 in a 58hour internet livestream references external links at atari 1979 video games arcade video games atari 2600 games atari 7800 games atari 8bit family games atari arcade games atari lynx games cancelled atari 5200 games cancelled atari jaguar games ed logg games fiction about asteroids game boy games game boy color games multidirectional shooters multiplayer and singleplayer video games science fiction video games sega arcade games taito arcade games xbox 360 games xbox 360 live arcade games vector arcade video games video games developed in the united states	3,067
786	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asparagales	Asparagales	asparagales asparagoid lilies is an order of plants in modern classification systems such as the angiosperm phylogeny group apg and the angiosperm phylogeny web the order takes its name from the type family asparagaceae and is placed in the monocots amongst the lilioid monocots the order has only recently been recognized in classification systems it was first put forward by huber in 1977 and later taken up in the dahlgren system of 1985 and then the apg in 1998 2003 and 2009 before this many of its families were assigned to the old order liliales a very large order containing almost all monocots with colorful tepals and lacking starch in their endosperm dna sequence analysis indicated that many of the taxa previously included in liliales should actually be redistributed over three orders liliales asparagales and dioscoreales the boundaries of the asparagales and of its families have undergone a series of changes in recent years future research may lead to further changes and ultimately greater stability in the apg circumscription asparagales is the largest order of monocots with 14 families 1122 genera and about 36000 species the order is clearly circumscribed on the basis of molecular phylogenetics but it is difficult to define morphologically since its members are structurally diverse most species of asparagales are herbaceous perennials although some are climbers and some are treelike the order also contains many geophytes bulbs corms and various kinds of tuber according to telomere sequence at least two evolutionary switchpoints happened within the order the basal sequence is formed by tttaggg like in the majority of higher plants basal motif was changed to vertebratelike ttaggg and finally the most divergent motif ctcggttatggg appears in allium one of the defining characteristics synapomorphies of the order is the presence of phytomelanin a black pigment present in the seed coat creating a dark crust phytomelanin is found in most families of the asparagales although not in orchidaceae thought to be the sistergroup of the rest of the order the leaves of almost all species form a tight rosette either at the base of the plant or at the end of the stem but occasionally along the stem the flowers are not particularly distinctive being lily type with six tepals and up to six stamina the order is thought to have first diverged from other related monocots some 120130 million years ago early in the cretaceous period although given the difficulty in classifying the families involved estimates are likely to be uncertain from an economic point of view the order asparagales is second in importance within the monocots only to the order poales which includes grasses and cereals species are used as food and flavourings eg onion garlic leek asparagus vanilla saffron in medicinal or cosmetic applications aloe as cut flowers eg freesia gladiolus iris orchids and as garden ornamentals eg day lilies lily of the valley agapanthus description although most species in the order are herbaceous some no more than 15 cm high there are a number of climbers eg some species of asparagus as well as several genera forming trees eg agave cordyline yucca dracaena aloe which can exceed 10 m in height succulent genera occur in several families eg aloe almost all species have a tight cluster of leaves a rosette either at the base of the plant or at the end of a moreorless woody stem as with yucca in some cases the leaves are produced along the stem the flowers are in the main not particularly distinctive being of a general lily type with six tepals either free or fused from the base and up to six stamina they are frequently clustered at the end of the plant stem the asparagales are generally distinguished from the liliales by the lack of markings on the tepals the presence of septal nectaries in the ovaries rather than the bases of the tepals or stamen filaments and the presence of secondary growth they are generally geophytes but with linear leaves and a lack of fine reticular venation the seeds characteristically have the external epidermis either obliterated in most species bearing fleshy fruit or if present have a layer of black carbonaceous phytomelanin in species with dry fruits nuts the inner part of the seed coat is generally collapsed in contrast to liliales whose seeds have a well developed outer epidermis lack phytomelanin and usually display a cellular inner layer the orders which have been separated from the old liliales are difficult to characterize no single morphological character appears to be diagnostic of the order asparagales the flowers of asparagales are of a general type among the lilioid monocots compared to liliales they usually have plain tepals without markings in the form of dots if nectaries are present they are in the septa of the ovaries rather than at the base of the tepals or stamens those species which have relatively large dry seeds have a dark crustlike crustose outer layer containing the pigment phytomelan however some species with hairy seeds eg eriospermum family asparagaceae sl berries eg maianthemum family asparagaceae sl or highly reduced seeds eg orchids lack this dark pigment in their seed coats phytomelan is not unique to asparagales ie it is not a synapomorphy but it is common within the order and rare outside it the inner portion of the seed coat is usually completely collapsed in contrast the morphologically similar seeds of liliales have no phytomelan and usually retain a cellular structure in the inner portion of the seed coat most monocots are unable to thicken their stems once they have formed since they lack the cylindrical meristem present in other angiosperm groups asparagales have a method of secondary thickening which is otherwise only found in dioscorea in the monocot order disoscoreales in a process called anomalous secondary growth they are able to create new vascular bundles around which thickening growth occurs agave yucca aloe dracaena nolina and cordyline can become massive trees albeit not of the height of the tallest dicots and with less branching other genera in the order such as lomandra and aphyllanthes have the same type of secondary growth but confined to their underground stems microsporogenesis part of pollen formation distinguishes some members of asparagales from liliales microsporogenesis involves a cell dividing twice meiotically to form four daughter cells there are two kinds of microsporogenesis successive and simultaneous although intermediates exist in successive microsporogenesis walls are laid down separating the daughter cells after each division in simultaneous microsporogenesis there is no wall formation until all four cell nuclei are present liliales all have successive microsporogenesis which is thought to be the primitive condition in monocots it seems that when the asparagales first diverged they developed simultaneous microsporogenesis which the lower asparagales families retain however the core asparagales see phylogenetics have reverted to successive microsporogenesis the asparagales appear to be unified by a mutation affecting their telomeres a region of repetitive dna at the end of a chromosome the typical arabidopsistype sequence of bases has been fully or partially replaced by other sequences with the humantype predominating other apomorphic characters of the order according to stevens are the presence of chelidonic acid anthers longer than wide tapetal cells bi to tetranuclear tegmen not persistent endosperm helobial and loss of mitochondrial gene sdh3 taxonomy as circumscribed within the angiosperm phylogeny group system asparagales is the largest order within the monocotyledons with 14 families 1122 genera and about 2500042000 species thus accounting for about 50 of all monocots and 1015 of the flowering plants angiosperms the attribution of botanical authority for the name asparagales belongs to johann heinrich friedrich link 17671851 who coined the word asparaginae in 1829 for a higher order taxon that included asparagus although adanson and jussieau had also done so earlier see history earlier circumscriptions of asparagales attributed the name to bromhead 1838 who had been the first to use the term asparagales history predarwinian the type genus asparagus from which the name of the order is derived was described by carl linnaeus in 1753 with ten species he placed asparagus within the hexandria monogynia six stamens one carpel in his sexual classification in the species plantarum the majority of taxa now considered to constitute asparagales have historically been placed within the very large and diverse family liliaceae the family liliaceae was first described by michel adanson in 1763 and in his taxonomic scheme he created eight sections within it including the asparagi with asparagus and three other genera the system of organising genera into families is generally credited to antoine laurent de jussieu who formally described both the liliaceae and the type family of asparagales the asparagaceae as lilia and asparagi respectively in 1789 jussieu established the hierarchical system of taxonomy phylogeny placing asparagus and related genera within a division of monocotyledons a class iii of stamina perigynia and order asparagi divided into three subfamilies the use of the term ordo order at that time was closer to what we now understand as family rather than order in creating his scheme he used a modified form of linnaeus sexual classification but using the respective topography of stamens to carpels rather than just their numbers while de jussieus stamina perigynia also included a number of orders that would eventually form families within the asparagales such as the asphodeli asphodelaceae narcissi amaryllidaceae and irides iridaceae the remainder are now allocated to other orders jussieus asparagi soon came to be referred to as asparagacées in the french literature latin asparagaceae meanwhile the narcissi had been renamed as the amaryllidées amaryllideae in 1805 by jean henri jaume sainthilaire using amaryllis as the type species rather than narcissus and thus has the authority attribution for amaryllidaceae in 1810 brown proposed that a subgroup of liliaceae be distinguished on the basis of the position of the ovaries and be referred to as amaryllideae and in 1813 de candolle described liliacées juss and amaryllidées brown as two quite separate families the literature on the organisation of genera into families and higher ranks became available in the english language with samuel frederick grays a natural arrangement of british plants 1821 gray used a combination of linnaeus sexual classification and jussieus natural classification to group together a number of families having in common six equal stamens a single style and a perianth that was simple and petaloid but did not use formal names for these higher ranks within the grouping he separated families by the characteristics of their fruit and seed he treated groups of genera with these characteristics as separate families such as amaryllideae liliaceae asphodeleae and asparageae the circumscription of asparagales has been a source of difficulty for many botanists from the time of john lindley 1846 the other important british taxonomist of the early nineteenth century in his first taxonomic work an introduction to the natural system of botany 1830 he partly followed jussieu by describing a subclass he called endogenae or monocotyledonous plants preserving de candolles endogenæ phanerogamæ divided into two tribes the petaloidea and glumaceae he divided the former often referred to as petaloid monocots into 32 orders including the liliaceae defined narrowly but also most of the families considered to make up the asparagales today including the amaryllideae by 1846 in his final scheme lindley had greatly expanded and refined the treatment of the monocots introducing both an intermediate ranking alliances and tribes within orders ie families lindley placed the liliaceae within the liliales but saw it as a paraphyletic catchall family being all liliales not included in the other orders but hoped that the future would reveal some characteristic that would group them better the order liliales was very large and included almost all monocotyledons with colourful tepals and without starch in their endosperm the lilioid monocots the liliales was difficult to divide into families because morphological characters were not present in patterns that clearly demarcated groups this kept the liliaceae separate from the amaryllidaceae narcissales of these liliaceae was divided into eleven tribes with 133 genera and amaryllidaceae into four tribes with 68 genera yet both contained many genera that would eventually segregate to each others contemporary orders liliales and asparagales respectively the liliaceae would be reduced to a small core represented by the tribe tulipae while large groups such scilleae and asparagae would become part of asparagales either as part of the amaryllidaceae or as separate families while of the amaryllidaceae the agaveae would be part of asparagaceae but the alstroemeriae would become a family within the liliales the number of known genera and species continued to grow and by the time of the next major british classification that of the bentham hooker system in 1883 published in latin several of lindleys other families had been absorbed into the liliaceae they used the term series to indicate suprafamilial rank with seven series of monocotyledons including glumaceae but did not use lindleys terms for these however they did place the liliaceous and amaryllidaceous genera into separate series the liliaceae were placed in series coronariae while the amaryllideae were placed in series epigynae the liliaceae now consisted of twenty tribes including tulipeae scilleae and asparageae and the amaryllideae of five including agaveae and alstroemerieae an important addition to the treatment of the liliaceae was the recognition of the allieae as a distinct tribe that would eventually find its way to the asparagales as the subfamily allioideae of the amaryllidaceae postdarwinian the appearance of charles darwins origin of species in 1859 changed the way that taxonomists considered plant classification incorporating evolutionary information into their schemata the darwinian approach led to the concept of phylogeny treelike structure in assembling classification systems starting with eichler eichler having established a hierarchical system in which the flowering plants angiosperms were divided into monocotyledons and dicotyledons further divided into former into seven orders within the liliiflorae were seven families including liliaceae and amaryllidaceae liliaceae included allium and ornithogalum modern allioideae and asparagus engler in his system developed eichlers ideas into a much more elaborate scheme which he treated in a number of works including die natürlichen pflanzenfamilien engler and prantl 1888 and syllabus der pflanzenfamilien 18921924 in his treatment of liliiflorae the liliineae were a suborder which included both families liliaceae and amaryllidaceae the liliaceae had eight subfamilies and the amaryllidaceae four in this rearrangement of liliaceae with fewer subdivisions the core liliales were represented as subfamily lilioideae with tulipae and scilleae as tribes the asparagae were represented as asparagoideae and the allioideae was preserved representing the alliaceous genera allieae agapantheae and gilliesieae were the three tribes within this subfamily in the amaryllidaceae there was little change from the bentham hooker a similar approach was adopted by wettstein twentieth century in the twentieth century the wettstein system 19011935 placed many of the taxa in an order called liliiflorae next johannes paulus lotsy 1911 proposed dividing the liliiflorae into a number of smaller families including asparagaceae then herbert huber 1969 1977 following lotsys example proposed that the liliiflorae be split into four groups including the asparagoid liliiflorae the widely used cronquist system 19681988 used the very broadly defined order liliales these various proposals to separate small groups of genera into more homogeneous families made little impact till that of dahlgren 1985 incorporating new information including synapomorphy dahlgren developed hubers ideas further and popularised them with a major deconstruction of existing families into smaller units they created a new order calling it asparagales this was one of five orders within the superorder liliiflorae where cronquist saw one family dahlgren saw forty distributed over three orders predominantly liliales and asparagales over the 1980s in the context of a more general review of the classification of angiosperms the liliaceae were subjected to more intense scrutiny by the end of that decade the royal botanic gardens at kew the british museum of natural history and the edinburgh botanical gardens formed a committee to examine the possibility of separating the family at least for the organization of their herbaria that committee finally recommended that 24 new families be created in the place of the original broad liliaceae largely by elevating subfamilies to the rank of separate families phylogenetics the order asparagales as currently circumscribed has only recently been recognized in classification systems through the advent of phylogenetics the 1990s saw considerable progress in plant phylogeny and phylogenetic theory enabling a phylogenetic tree to be constructed for all of the flowering plants the establishment of major new clades necessitated a departure from the older but widely used classifications such as cronquist and thorne based largely on morphology rather than genetic data this complicated the discussion about plant evolution and necessitated a major restructuring rbcl gene sequencing and cladistic analysis of monocots had redefined the liliales in 1995 from four morphological orders sensu dahlgren the largest clade representing the liliaceae all previously included in liliales but including both the calochortaceae and liliaceae sensu tamura this redefined family that became referred to as core liliales but corresponded to the emerging circumscription of the angiosperm phylogeny group 1998 phylogeny and apg system the 2009 revision of the angiosperm phylogeny group system apg iii places the order in the clade monocots from the dahlgren system of 1985 onwards studies based mainly on morphology had identified the asparagales as a distinct group but had also included groups now located in liliales pandanales and zingiberales research in the 21st century has supported the monophyly of asparagales based on morphology 18s rdna and other dna sequences although some phylogenetic reconstructions based on molecular data have suggested that asparagales may be paraphyletic with orchidaceae separated from the rest within the monocots asparagales is the sister group of the commelinid clade this cladogram shows the placement of asparagales within the orders of lilianae sensu chase reveal monocots based on molecular phylogenetic evidence the lilioid monocot orders are bracketed namely petrosaviales dioscoreales pandanales liliales and asparagales these constitute a paraphyletic assemblage that is groups with a common ancestor that do not include all direct descendants in this case commelinids as the sister group to asparagales to form a clade all the groups joined by thick lines would need to be included while acorales and alismatales have been collectively referred to as alismatid monocots basal or early branching monocots the remaining clades lilioid and commelinid monocots have been referred to as the core monocots the relationship between the orders with the exception of the two sister orders is pectinate that is diverging in succession from the line that leads to the commelinids numbers indicate crown group most recent common ancestor of the sampled species of the clade of interest divergence times in mya million years ago subdivision a phylogenetic tree for the asparagales generally to family level but including groups which were recently and widely treated as families but which are now reduced to subfamily rank is shown below the tree shown above can be divided into a basal paraphyletic group the lower asparagales asparagoids from orchidaceae to asphodelaceae and a wellsupported monophyletic group of core asparagales higher asparagoids comprising the two largest families amaryllidaceae sensu lato and asparagaceae sensu lato two differences between these two groups although with exceptions are the mode of microsporogenesis and the position of the ovary the lower asparagales typically have simultaneous microsporogenesis ie cell walls develop only after both meiotic divisions which appears to be an apomorphy within the monocots whereas the core asparagales have reverted to successive microsporogenesis ie cell walls develop after each division the lower asparagales typically have an inferior ovary whereas the core asparagales have reverted to a superior ovary a 2002 morphological study by rudall treated possessing an inferior ovary as a synapomorphy of the asparagales stating that reversions to a superior ovary in the core asparagales could be associated with the presence of nectaries below the ovaries however stevens notes that superior ovaries are distributed among the lower asparagales in such a way that it is not clear where to place the evolution of different ovary morphologies the position of the ovary seems a much more flexible character here and in other angiosperms than previously thought changes to family structure in apg iii the apg iii system when it was published in 2009 greatly expanded the families xanthorrhoeaceae amaryllidaceae and asparagaceae thirteen of the families of the earlier apg ii system were thereby reduced to subfamilies within these three families the expanded xanthorrhoeaceae is now called asphodelaceae the apg ii families left and their equivalent apg iii subfamilies right are as follows structure of asparagales orchid clade orchidaceae is possibly the largest family of all angiosperms only asteraceae might or might not be more speciose and hence by far the largest in the order the dahlgren system recognized three families of orchids but dna sequence analysis later showed that these families are polyphyletic and so should be combined several studies suggest with high bootstrap support that orchidaceae is the sister of the rest of the asparagales other studies have placed the orchids differently in the phylogenetic tree generally among the boryaceaehypoxidaceae clade the position of orchidaceae shown above seems the best current hypothesis but cannot be taken as confirmed orchids have simultaneous microsporogenesis and inferior ovaries two characters that are typical of the lower asparagales however their nectaries are rarely in the septa of the ovaries and most orchids have dustlike seeds atypical of the rest of the order some members of vanilloideae and cypripedioideae have crustose seeds probably associated with dispersal by birds and mammals that are attracted by fermenting fleshy fruit releasing fragrant compounds eg vanilla in terms of the number of species orchidaceae diversification is remarkable however although the other asparagales may be less rich in species they are more variable morphologically including treelike forms boryaceae to hypoxidaceae the four families excluding boryaceae form a wellsupported clade in studies based on dna sequence analysis all four contain relatively few species and it has been suggested that they be combined into one family under the name hypoxidaceae sensu lato the relationship between boryaceae which includes only two genera borya and alania and other asparagales has remained unclear for a long time the boryaceae are mycorrhizal but not in the same way as orchids morphological studies have suggested a close relationship between boryaceae and blandfordiaceae there is relatively low support for the position of boryaceae in the tree shown above ixioliriaceae to xeronemataceae the relationship shown between ixioliriaceae and tecophilaeaceae is still unclear some studies have supported a clade of these two families others have not the position of doryanthaceae has also varied with support for the position shown above but also support for other positions the clade from iridaceae upwards appears to have stronger support all have some genetic characteristics in common having lost arabidopsistype telomeres iridaceae is distinctive among the asparagales in the unique structure of the inflorescence a rhipidium the combination of an inferior ovary and three stamens and the common occurrence of unifacial leaves whereas bifacial leaves are the norm in other asparagales members of the clade from iridaceae upwards have infralocular septal nectaries which rudall interpreted as a driver towards secondarily superior ovaries asphodelaceae core asparagales the next node in the tree xanthorrhoeaceae sensu lato the core asparagales has strong support anomalous secondary thickening occurs among this clade eg in xanthorrhoea family asphodelaceae and dracaena family asparagaceae sensu lato with species reaching treelike proportions the core asparagales comprising amaryllidaceae sensu lato and asparagaceae sensu lato are a strongly supported clade as are clades for each of the families relationships within these broadly defined families appear less clear particularly within the asparagaceae sensu lato stevens notes that most of its subfamilies are difficult to recognize and that significantly different divisions have been used in the past so that the use of a broadly defined family to refer to the entire clade is justified thus the relationships among subfamilies shown above based on apweb is somewhat uncertain evolution several studies have attempted to date the evolution of the asparagales based on phylogenetic evidence earlier studies generally give younger dates than more recent studies which have been preferred in the table below a 2009 study suggests that the asparagales have the highest diversification rate in the monocots about the same as the order poales although in both orders the rate is little over half that of the eudicot order lamiales the clade with the highest rate comparison of family structures the taxonomic diversity of the monocotyledons is described in detail by kubitzki uptodate information on the asparagales can be found on the angiosperm phylogeny website the apg iii systems family circumscriptions are being used as the basis of the kewhosted world checklist of selected plant families with this circumscription the order consists of 14 families dahlgren had 31 with approximately 1120 genera and 26000 species order asparagales link family amaryllidaceae jsthil including agapanthaceae fvoigt alliaceae borkh family asparagaceae juss including agavaceae dumort which includes anemarrhenaceae anthericaceae behniaceae and herreriaceae aphyllanthaceae burnett hesperocallidaceae traub hyacinthaceae batsch ex borkh laxmanniaceae bubani ruscaceae mroem which includes convallariaceae and themidaceae salisb family asteliaceae dumort family blandfordiaceae rdahlgren clifford family boryaceae mw chase rudall conran family doryanthaceae rdahlgren clifford family hypoxidaceae rbr family iridaceae juss family ixioliriaceae nakai family lanariaceae rdahlgren aevan wyk family orchidaceae juss family tecophilaeaceae leyb family xanthorrhoeaceae dumort including asphodelaceae juss and hemerocallidaceae rbr now asphodelaceae juss family xeronemataceae mwchase rudall mffay the earlier 2003 version apg ii allowed bracketed families ie families which could either be segregated from more comprehensive families or could be included in them these are the families given under including in the list above apg iii does not allow bracketed families requiring the use of the more comprehensive family otherwise the circumscription of the asparagales is unchanged a separate paper accompanying the publication of the 2009 apg iii system provided subfamilies to accommodate the families which were discontinued the first apg system of 1998 contained some extra families included in square brackets in the list above two older systems which use the order asparagales are the dahlgren system and the kubitzki system the families included in the circumscriptions of the order in these two systems are shown in the first and second columns of the table below the equivalent family in the modern apg iii system see below is shown in the third column note that although these systems may use the same name for a family the genera which it includes may be different so the equivalence between systems is only approximate in some cases uses the asparagales include many important crop plants and ornamental plants crops include allium asparagus and vanilla while ornamentals include irises hyacinths and orchids see also taxonomy of liliaceae notes references bibliography books contents chapters in in in in articles apg historical sources digital edition by the university and state library düsseldorf 1st ed 19011908 2nd ed 19101911 3rd ed 19231924 4th ed 19331935 websites families included in the checklist reference materials external links biodiversity heritage library angiosperm orders extant late cretaceous first appearances	4,497
787	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alismatales	Alismatales	the alismatales alismatids are an order of flowering plants including about 4500 species plants assigned to this order are mostly tropical or aquatic some grow in fresh water some in marine habitats perhaps the most important food crop in the order is the corm of the taro plant colocasia esculenta description the alismatales comprise herbaceous flowering plants of often aquatic and marshy habitats and the only monocots known to have green embryos other than the amaryllidaceae they also include the only marine angiosperms growing completely submerged the seagrasses the flowers are usually arranged in inflorescences and the mature seeds lack endosperm both marine and freshwater forms include those with staminate flowers that detach from the parent plant and float to the surface there they can pollinate carpellate flowers floating on the surface via long pedicels in others pollination occurs underwater where pollen may form elongated strands increasing chance of success most aquatic species have a totally submerged juvenile phase and flowers are either floating or emerge above the waters surface vegetation may be totally submersed have floating leaves or protrude from the water collectively they are commonly known as water plantain taxonomy the alismatales contain about 165 genera in 13 families with a cosmopolitan distribution phylogenetically they are basal monocots diverging early in evolution relative to the lilioid and commelinid monocot lineages together with the acorales the alismatales are referred to informally as the alismatid monocots early systems the cronquist system 1981 places the alismatales in subclass alismatidae class liliopsida monocotyledons and includes only three families as shown alismataceae butomaceae limnocharitaceae cronquists subclass alismatidae conformed fairly closely to the order alismatales as defined by apg minus the araceae the dahlgren system places the alismatales in the superorder alismatanae in the subclass liliidae monocotyledons in the class magnoliopsida angiosperms with the following families included alismataceae aponogetonaceae butomaceae hydrocharitaceae limnocharitaceae in tahktajans classification 1997 the order alismatales contains only the alismataceae and limnocharitaceae making it equivalent to the alismataceae as revised in apgiii other families included in the alismatates as currently defined are here distributed among 10 additional orders all of which are assigned with the following exception to the subclass alismatidae araceae in tahktajan 1997 is assigned to the arales and placed in the subclass aridae tofieldiaceae to the melanthiales and placed in the liliidae angiosperm phylogeny group the angiosperm phylogeny group system apg of 1998 and apg ii 2003 assigned the alismatales to the monocots which may be thought of as an unranked clade containing the families listed below the biggest departure from earlier systems see below is the inclusion of family araceae by its inclusion the order has grown enormously in number of species the family araceae alone accounts for about a hundred genera totaling over two thousand species the rest of the families together contain only about five hundred species many of which are in very small families the apg iii system 2009 differs only in that the limnocharitaceae are combined with the alismataceae it was also suggested that the genus maundia of the juncaginaceae could be separated into a monogeneric family the maundiaceae but the authors noted that more study was necessary before the maundiaceae could be recognized order alismatales sensu apg iii family alismataceae including limnocharitaceae family aponogetonaceae family araceae family butomaceae family cymodoceaceae family hydrocharitaceae family juncaginaceae family posidoniaceae family potamogetonaceae family ruppiaceae family scheuchzeriaceae family tofieldiaceae family zosteraceae in apg iv 2016 it was decided that evidence was sufficient to elevate maundia to family level as the monogeneric maundiaceae the authors considered including a number of the smaller orders within the juncaginaceae but an online survey of botanists and other users found little support for this lumping approach consequently the family structure for apg iv is family alismataceae including limnocharitaceae family aponogetonaceae family araceae family butomaceae family cymodoceaceae family hydrocharitaceae family juncaginaceae family maundiaceae family posidoniaceae family potamogetonaceae family ruppiaceae family scheuchzeriaceae family tofieldiaceae family zosteraceae phylogeny cladogram showing the orders of monocots lilianae sensu chase reveal based on molecular phylogenetic evidence references further reading b c j du mortier 1829 analyse des familles de plantes avec lindication des principaux genres qui sy rattachent imprimerie de j casterman tournay w s judd c s campbell e a kellogg p f stevens m j donoghue 2002 plant systematics a phylogenetic approach 2nd edition sinauer associates sunderland massachusetts in external links angiosperm orders	727
788	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apiales	Apiales	the apiales are an order of flowering plants the families are those recognized in the apg iii system this is typical of the newer classifications though there is some slight variation and in particular the torriceliaceae may also be divided under this definition wellknown members include carrots celery parsley and hedera helix english ivy the order apiales is placed within the asterid group of eudicots as circumscribed by the apg iii system within the asterids apiales belongs to an unranked group called the campanulids and within the campanulids it belongs to a clade known in phylogenetic nomenclature as apiidae in 2010 a subclade of apiidae named dipsapiidae was defined to consist of the three orders apiales paracryphiales and dipsacales taxonomy under the cronquist system only the apiaceae and araliaceae were included here and the restricted order was placed among the rosids rather than the asterids the pittosporaceae were placed within the rosales and many of the other forms within the family cornaceae pennantia was in the family icacinaceae in the classification system of dahlgren the families apiaceae and araliaceae were placed in the order ariales in the superorder araliiflorae also called aralianae the present understanding of the apiales is fairly recent and is based upon comparison of dna sequences by phylogenetic methods the circumscriptions of some of the families have changed in 2009 one of the subfamilies of araliaceae was shown to be polyphyletic gynoecia the largest and obviously closely related families of apiales are araliaceae myodocarpaceae and apiaceae which resemble each other in the structure of their gynoecia in this respect however the pittosporaceae is notably distinct from them typical syncarpous gynoecia exhibit four vertical zones determined by the extent of fusion of the carpels in most plants the synascidiate ie united bottleshaped and symplicate zones are fertile and bear the ovules each of the first three families possess mainly bi or multilocular ovaries in a gynoecium with a long synascidiate but very short symplicate zone where the ovules are inserted at their transition the socalled crosszone or querzone in gynoecia of the pittosporaceae the symplicate is much longer than the synascidiate zone and the ovules are arranged along the first members of the latter family consequently have unilocular ovaries with a single cavity between adjacent carpels references angiosperm orders taxa named by takenoshin nakai	386
789	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterales	Asterales	asterales is an order of dicotyledonous flowering plants that includes the large family asteraceae or compositae known for composite flowers made of florets and ten families related to the asteraceae while asterids in general are characterized by fused petals composite flowers consisting of many florets create the false appearance of separate petals as found in the rosids the order is cosmopolitan plants found throughout most of the world including desert and frigid zones and includes mostly herbaceous species although a small number of trees such as the lobelia deckenii the giant lobelia and dendrosenecio giant groundsels and shrubs are also present asterales are organisms that seem to have evolved from one common ancestor asterales share characteristics on morphological and biochemical levels synapomorphies a character that is shared by two or more groups through evolutionary development include the presence in the plants of oligosaccharide inulin a nutrient storage molecule used instead of starch and unique stamen morphology the stamens are usually found around the style either aggregated densely or fused into a tube probably an adaptation in association with the plunger brush or secondary pollination that is common among the families of the order wherein pollen is collected and stored on the length of the pistil taxonomy the name and order asterales is botanically venerable dating back to at least 1926 in the hutchinson system of plant taxonomy when it contained only five families of which only two are retained in the apg iii classification under the cronquist system of taxonomic classification of flowering plants asteraceae was the only family in the group but newer systems such as apg ii and apg iii have expanded it to 11 in the classification system of rolf dahlgren the asterales were in the superorder asteriflorae also called asteranae the order asterales currently includes 11 families the largest of which are the asteraceae with about 25000 species and the campanulaceae bellflowers with about 2000 species the remaining families count together for less than 1500 species the two large families are cosmopolitan with many of their species found in the northern hemisphere and the smaller families are usually confined to australia and the adjacent areas or sometimes south america only the asteraceae have composite flower heads the other families do not but share other characteristics such as storage of inulin that define the 11 families as more closely related to each other than to other plant families or orders such as the rosids the phylogenetic tree according to apg iii for the campanulid clade is as below phylogeny although most extant species of asteraceae are herbaceous the examination of the basal members in the family suggests that the common ancestor of the family was an arborescent plant a tree or shrub perhaps adapted to dry conditions radiating from south america less can be said about the asterales themselves with certainty although since several families in asterales contain trees the ancestral member is most likely to have been a tree or shrub because all clades are represented in the southern hemisphere but many not in the northern hemisphere it is natural to conjecture that there is a common southern origin to them asterales are angiosperms flowering plants that appeared about 140 million years ago the asterales order probably originated in the cretaceous 145 66 mya on the supercontinent gondwana which broke up from 184 80 mya forming the area that is now australia south america africa india and antarctica asterales contain about 14 of eudicot diversity from an analysis of relationships and diversities within the asterales and with their superorders estimates of the age of the beginning of the asterales have been made which range from 116 mya to 82mya however few fossils have been found of the menyanthaceaeasteraceae clade in the oligocene about 29 mya fossil evidence of the asterales is rare and belongs to rather recent epochs so the precise estimation of the orders age is quite difficult an oligocene 34 23 mya pollen is known for asteraceae and goodeniaceae and seeds from oligocene and miocene 23 53 mya are known for menyanthaceae and campanulaceae respectively biogeography the core asterales are stylidiaceae six genera apa clade alseuosmiaceae phellinaceae and argophyllaceae together seven genera mgca clade menyanthaceae goodeniaceae calyceraceae in total twenty genera and asteraceae about sixteen hundred genera other asterales are rousseaceae four genera campanulaceae eightyfour genera and pentaphragmataceae one genus all asterales families are represented in the southern hemisphere however asteraceae and campanulaceae are cosmopolitan and menyanthaceae nearly so uses the asterales by dint of being a superset of the family asteraceae include some species grown for food including the sunflower helianthus annuus lettuce lactuca sativa and chicory cichorium many are also used as spices and traditional medicines asterales are common plants and have many known uses for example pyrethrum derived from old world members of the genus chrysanthemum is a natural insecticide with minimal environmental impact wormwood derived from a genus that includes the sagebrush is used as a source of flavoring for absinthe a bitter classical liquor of european origin references further reading w s judd c s campbell e a kellogg p f stevens m j donoghue 2002 plant systematics a phylogenetic approach 2nd edition pp 476486 asterales sinauer associates sunderland massachusetts external links angiosperm orders	875
791	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid	Asteroid	an asteroid is a minor planetan object that is neither a true planet nor a cometthat orbits within the inner solar system they are rocky metallic or icy bodies with no atmosphere sizes and shapes of asteroids vary significantly ranging from 1meter rocks to a dwarf planet almost 1000 km in diameter of the roughly one million known asteroids the greatest number are located between the orbits of mars and jupiter approximately 2 to 4 au from the sun in the main asteroid belt asteroids are generally classified to be of three types ctype mtype and stype these were named after and are generally identified with carbonaceous metallic and silicaceous compositions respectively the size of asteroids varies greatly the largest ceres is almost across and qualifies as a dwarf planet the total mass of all the asteroids combined is only 3 that of earths moon the majority of main belt asteroids follow slightly elliptical stable orbits revolving in the same direction as the earth and taking from three to six years to complete a full circuit of the sun asteroids have been historically observed from earth the galileo spacecraft provided the first close observation of an asteroid several dedicated missions to asteroids were subsequently launched by nasa and jaxa with plans for other missions in progress nasas near shoemaker studied eros and dawn observed vesta and ceres jaxas missions hayabusa and hayabusa2 studied and returned samples of itokawa and ryugu respectively osirisrex studied bennu collecting a sample in 2020 which was delivered back to earth in 2023 nasas lucy launched in 2021 will study ten different asteroids two from the main belt and eight jupiter trojans psyche launched in october 2023 will study a metallic asteroid of the same name nearearth asteroids can threaten all life on the planet an asteroid impact event resulted in the cretaceouspaleogene extinction different asteroid deflection strategies have been proposed the double asteroid redirection test spacecraft or dart was launched in 2021 and intentionally impacted dimorphos in september 2022 successfully altering its orbit by crashing into it history of observations only one asteroid 4 vesta which has a relatively reflective surface is normally visible to the naked eye when favorably positioned 4 vesta can be seen in dark skies rarely small asteroids passing close to earth may be visible to the naked eye for a short amount of time the minor planet center had data on 1199224 minor planets in the inner and outer solar system of which about 614690 had enough information to be given numbered designations discovery of ceres in 1772 german astronomer johann elert bode citing johann daniel titius published a numerical procession known as the titiusbode law now discredited except for an unexplained gap between mars and jupiter bodes formula seemed to predict the orbits of the known planets he wrote the following explanation for the existence of a missing planet this latter point seems in particular to follow from the astonishing relation which the known six planets observe in their distances from the sun let the distance from the sun to saturn be taken as 100 then mercury is separated by 4 such parts from the sun venus is 4 3 7 the earth 4 6 10 mars 4 12 16 now comes a gap in this so orderly progression after mars there follows a space of 4 24 28 parts in which no planet has yet been seen can one believe that the founder of the universe had left this space empty certainly not from here we come to the distance of jupiter by 4 48 52 parts and finally to that of saturn by 4 96 100 parts bodes formula predicted another planet would be found with an orbital radius near 28 astronomical units au or 420 million km from the sun the titiusbode law got a boost with william herschels discovery of uranus near the predicted distance for a planet beyond saturn in 1800 a group headed by franz xaver von zach editor of the german astronomical journal monatliche correspondenz monthly correspondence sent requests to 24 experienced astronomers whom he dubbed the celestial police asking that they combine their efforts and begin a methodical search for the expected planet although they did not discover ceres they later found the asteroids 2 pallas 3 juno and 4 vesta one of the astronomers selected for the search was giuseppe piazzi a catholic priest at the academy of palermo sicily before receiving his invitation to join the group piazzi discovered ceres on 1 january 1801 he was searching for the 87th star of the catalogue of the zodiacal stars of mr la caille but found that it was preceded by another instead of a star piazzi had found a moving starlike object which he first thought was a comet the light was a little faint and of the colour of jupiter but similar to many others which generally are reckoned of the eighth magnitude therefore i had no doubt of its being any other than a fixed star the evening of the third my suspicion was converted into certainty being assured it was not a fixed star nevertheless before i made it known i waited till the evening of the fourth when i had the satisfaction to see it had moved at the same rate as on the preceding days piazzi observed ceres a total of 24 times the final time on 11 february 1801 when illness interrupted his work he announced his discovery on 24 january 1801 in letters to only two fellow astronomers his compatriot barnaba oriani of milan and bode in berlin he reported it as a comet but since its movement is so slow and rather uniform it has occurred to me several times that it might be something better than a comet in april piazzi sent his complete observations to oriani bode and french astronomer jérôme lalande the information was published in the september 1801 issue of the monatliche correspondenz by this time the apparent position of ceres had changed mostly due to earths motion around the sun and was too close to the suns glare for other astronomers to confirm piazzis observations toward the end of the year ceres should have been visible again but after such a long time it was difficult to predict its exact position to recover ceres mathematician carl friedrich gauss then 24 years old developed an efficient method of orbit determination in a few weeks he predicted the path of ceres and sent his results to von zach on 31 december 1801 von zach and fellow celestial policeman heinrich w m olbers found ceres near the predicted position and thus recovered it at 28 au from the sun ceres appeared to fit the titiusbode law almost perfectly however neptune once discovered in 1846 was 8 au closer than predicted leading most astronomers to conclude that the law was a coincidence piazzi named the newly discovered object ceres ferdinandea in honor of the patron goddess of sicily and of king ferdinand of bourbon further search three other asteroids 2 pallas 3 juno and 4 vesta were discovered by von zachs group over the next few years with vesta found in 1807 no new asteroids were discovered until 1845 amateur astronomer karl ludwig hencke started his searches of new asteroids in 1830 and fifteen years later while looking for vesta he found the asteroid later named 5 astraea it was the first new asteroid discovery in 38 years carl friedrich gauss was given the honor of naming the asteroid after this other astronomers joined 15 asteroids were found by the end of 1851 in 1868 when james craig watson discovered the 100th asteroid the french academy of sciences engraved the faces of karl theodor robert luther john russell hind and hermann goldschmidt the three most successful asteroidhunters at that time on a commemorative medallion marking the event in 1891 max wolf pioneered the use of astrophotography to detect asteroids which appeared as short streaks on longexposure photographic plates this dramatically increased the rate of detection compared with earlier visual methods wolf alone discovered 248 asteroids beginning with 323 brucia whereas only slightly more than 300 had been discovered up to that point it was known that there were many more but most astronomers did not bother with them some calling them vermin of the skies a phrase variously attributed to eduard suess and edmund weiss even a century later only a few thousand asteroids were identified numbered and named 19th and 20th centuries in the past asteroids were discovered by a fourstep process first a region of the sky was photographed by a widefield telescope or astrograph pairs of photographs were taken typically one hour apart multiple pairs could be taken over a series of days second the two films or plates of the same region were viewed under a stereoscope a body in orbit around the sun would move slightly between the pair of films under the stereoscope the image of the body would seem to float slightly above the background of stars third once a moving body was identified its location would be measured precisely using a digitizing microscope the location would be measured relative to known star locations these first three steps do not constitute asteroid discovery the observer has only found an apparition which gets a provisional designation made up of the year of discovery a letter representing the halfmonth of discovery and finally a letter and a number indicating the discoverys sequential number example the last step is sending the locations and time of observations to the minor planet center where computer programs determine whether an apparition ties together earlier apparitions into a single orbit if so the object receives a catalogue number and the observer of the first apparition with a calculated orbit is declared the discoverer and granted the honor of naming the object subject to the approval of the international astronomical union naming by 1851 the royal astronomical society decided that asteroids were being discovered at such a rapid rate that a different system was needed to categorize or name asteroids in 1852 when de gasparis discovered the twentieth asteroid benjamin valz gave it a name and a number designating its rank among asteroid discoveries 20 massalia sometimes asteroids were discovered and not seen again so starting in 1892 new asteroids were listed by the year and a capital letter indicating the order in which the asteroids orbit was calculated and registered within that specific year for example the first two asteroids discovered in 1892 were labeled 1892a and 1892b however there were not enough letters in the alphabet for all of the asteroids discovered in 1893 so 1893z was followed by 1893aa a number of variations of these methods were tried including designations that included year plus a greek letter in 1914 a simple chronological numbering system was established in 1925 currently all newly discovered asteroids receive a provisional designation such as consisting of the year of discovery and an alphanumeric code indicating the halfmonth of discovery and the sequence within that halfmonth once an asteroids orbit has been confirmed it is given a number and later may also be given a name eg the formal naming convention uses parentheses around the numbereg 433 erosbut dropping the parentheses is quite common informally it is also common to drop the number altogether or to drop it after the first mention when a name is repeated in running text in addition names can be proposed by the asteroids discoverer within guidelines established by the international astronomical union symbols the first asteroids to be discovered were assigned iconic symbols like the ones traditionally used to designate the planets by 1855 there were two dozen asteroid symbols which often occurred in multiple variants in 1851 after the fifteenth asteroid eunomia had been discovered johann franz encke made a major change in the upcoming 1854 edition of the berliner astronomisches jahrbuch baj berlin astronomical yearbook he introduced a disk circle a traditional symbol for a star as the generic symbol for an asteroid the circle was then numbered in order of discovery to indicate a specific asteroid the numberedcircle convention was quickly adopted by astronomers and the next asteroid to be discovered 16 psyche in 1852 was the first to be designated in that way at the time of its discovery however psyche was given an iconic symbol as well as were a few other asteroids discovered over the next few years 20 massalia was the first asteroid that was not assigned an iconic symbol and no iconic symbols were created after the 1855 discovery of 37 fides terminology the first discovered asteroid ceres was originally considered a new planet it was followed by the discovery of other similar bodies which with the equipment of the time appeared to be points of light like stars showing little or no planetary disc though readily distinguishable from stars due to their apparent motions this prompted the astronomer sir william herschel to propose the term asteroid coined in greek as ἀστεροειδής or asteroeidēs meaning starlike starshaped and derived from the ancient greek astēr star planet in the early second half of the 19th century the terms asteroid and planet not always qualified as minor were still used interchangeably traditionally small bodies orbiting the sun were classified as comets asteroids or meteoroids with anything smaller than one meter across being called a meteoroid the term asteroid never had a formal definition with the broader term small solar system bodies being preferred by the international astronomical union iau as no iau definition exists asteroid can be defined as an irregularly shaped rocky body orbiting the sun that does not qualify as a planet or a dwarf planet under the iau definitions of those terms when found asteroids were seen as a class of objects distinct from comets and there was no unified term for the two until small solar system body was coined in 2006 the main difference between an asteroid and a comet is that a comet shows a coma due to sublimation of nearsurface ices by solar radiation a few objects have ended up being duallisted because they were first classified as minor planets but later showed evidence of cometary activity conversely some perhaps all comets are eventually depleted of their surface volatile ices and become asteroidlike a further distinction is that comets typically have more eccentric orbits than most asteroids asteroids with notably eccentric orbits are probably dormant or extinct comets for almost two centuries from the discovery of ceres in 1801 until the discovery of the first centaur 2060 chiron in 1977 all known asteroids spent most of their time at or within the orbit of jupiter though a few such as 944 hidalgo ventured far beyond jupiter for part of their orbit when astronomers started finding more small bodies that permanently resided further out than jupiter now called centaurs they numbered them among the traditional asteroids there was debate over whether these objects should be considered asteroids or given a new classification then when the first transneptunian object other than pluto 15760 albion was discovered in 1992 and especially when large numbers of similar objects started turning up new terms were invented to sidestep the issue kuiperbelt object transneptunian object scattereddisc object and so on they inhabit the cold outer reaches of the solar system where ices remain solid and cometlike bodies are not expected to exhibit much cometary activity if centaurs or transneptunian objects were to venture close to the sun their volatile ices would sublimate and traditional approaches would classify them as comets and not asteroids the innermost of these are the kuiperbelt objects called objects partly to avoid the need to classify them as asteroids or comets they are thought to be predominantly cometlike in composition though some may be more akin to asteroids furthermore most do not have the highly eccentric orbits associated with comets and the ones so far discovered are larger than traditional comet nuclei the much more distant oort cloud is hypothesized to be the main reservoir of dormant comets other recent observations such as the analysis of the cometary dust collected by the stardust probe are increasingly blurring the distinction between comets and asteroids suggesting a continuum between asteroids and comets rather than a sharp dividing line the minor planets beyond jupiters orbit are sometimes also called asteroids especially in popular presentations however it is becoming increasingly common for the term asteroid to be restricted to minor planets of the inner solar system therefore this article will restrict itself for the most part to the classical asteroids objects of the asteroid belt jupiter trojans and nearearth objects when the iau introduced the class small solar system bodies in 2006 to include most objects previously classified as minor planets and comets they created the class of dwarf planets for the largest minor planetsthose that have enough mass to have become ellipsoidal under their own gravity according to the iau the term minor planet may still be used but generally the term small solar system body will be preferred currently only the largest object in the asteroid belt ceres at about across has been placed in the dwarf planet category formation many asteroids are the shattered remnants of planetesimals bodies within the young suns solar nebula that never grew large enough to become planets it is thought that planetesimals in the asteroid belt evolved much like the rest of objects in the solar nebula until jupiter neared its current mass at which point excitation from orbital resonances with jupiter ejected over 99 of planetesimals in the belt simulations and a discontinuity in spin rate and spectral properties suggest that asteroids larger than approximately in diameter accreted during that early era whereas smaller bodies are fragments from collisions between asteroids during or after the jovian disruption ceres and vesta grew large enough to melt and differentiate with heavy metallic elements sinking to the core leaving rocky minerals in the crust in the nice model many kuiperbelt objects are captured in the outer asteroid belt at distances greater than 26 au most were later ejected by jupiter but those that remained may be the dtype asteroids and possibly include ceres distribution within the solar system various dynamical groups of asteroids have been discovered orbiting in the inner solar system their orbits are perturbed by the gravity of other bodies in the solar system and by the yarkovsky effect significant populations include asteroid belt the majority of known asteroids orbit within the asteroid belt between the orbits of mars and jupiter generally in relatively loweccentricity ie not very elongated orbits this belt is estimated to contain between 11 and 19 million asteroids larger than in diameter and millions of smaller ones these asteroids may be remnants of the protoplanetary disk and in this region the accretion of planetesimals into planets during the formative period of the solar system was prevented by large gravitational perturbations by jupiter contrary to popular imagery the asteroid belt is mostly empty the asteroids are spread over such a large volume that reaching an asteroid without aiming carefully would be improbable nonetheless hundreds of thousands of asteroids are currently known and the total number ranges in the millions or more depending on the lower size cutoff over 200 asteroids are known to be larger than 100 km and a survey in the infrared wavelengths has shown that the asteroid belt has between 700000 and 17 million asteroids with a diameter of 1 km or more the absolute magnitudes of most of the known asteroids are between 11 and 19 with the median at about 16 the total mass of the asteroid belt is estimated to be kg which is just 3 of the mass of the moon the mass of the kuiper belt and scattered disk is over 100 times as large the four largest objects ceres vesta pallas and hygiea account for maybe 62 of the belts total mass with 39 accounted for by ceres alone trojans trojans are populations that share an orbit with a larger planet or moon but do not collide with it because they orbit in one of the two lagrangian points of stability and which lie 60 ahead of and behind the larger body in the solar system most known trojans share the orbit of jupiter they are divided into the greek camp at ahead of jupiter and the trojan camp at trailing jupiter more than a million jupiter trojans larger than one kilometer are thought to exist of which more than 7000 are currently catalogued in other planetary orbits only nine mars trojans 28 neptune trojans two uranus trojans and two earth trojans have been found to date a temporary venus trojan is also known numerical orbital dynamics stability simulations indicate that saturn and uranus probably do not have any primordial trojans nearearth asteroids nearearth asteroids or neas are asteroids that have orbits that pass close to that of earth asteroids that actually cross earths orbital path are known as earthcrossers a total of 28772 nearearth asteroids were known 878 have a diameter of one kilometer or larger a small number of neas are extinct comets that have lost their volatile surface materials although having a faint or intermittent cometlike tail does not necessarily result in a classification as a nearearth comet making the boundaries somewhat fuzzy the rest of the nearearth asteroids are driven out of the asteroid belt by gravitational interactions with jupiter many asteroids have natural satellites minorplanet moons there were 85 neas known to have at least one moon including three known to have two moons the asteroid 3122 florence one of the largest potentially hazardous asteroids with a diameter of has two moons measuring across which were discovered by radar imaging during the asteroids 2017 approach to earth nearearth asteroids are divided into groups based on their semimajor axis a perihelion distance q and aphelion distance q the atiras or apoheles have orbits strictly inside earths orbit an atira asteroids aphelion distance q is smaller than earths perihelion distance 0983 au that is which implies that the asteroids semimajor axis is also less than 0983 au the atens have a semimajor axis of less than 1 au and cross earths orbit mathematically and 0983 au is earths perihelion distance the apollos have a semimajor axis of more than 1 au and cross earths orbit mathematically and 1017 au is earths aphelion distance the amors have orbits strictly outside earths orbit an amor asteroids perihelion distance q is greater than earths aphelion distance 1017 au amor asteroids are also nearearth objects so in summary this implies that the asteroids semimajor axis a is also larger than 1017 au some amor asteroid orbits cross the orbit of mars martian moons it is unclear whether martian moons phobos and deimos are captured asteroids or were formed due to impact event on mars phobos and deimos both have much in common with carbonaceous ctype asteroids with spectra albedo and density very similar to those of c or dtype asteroids based on their similarity one hypothesis is that both moons may be captured mainbelt asteroids both moons have very circular orbits which lie almost exactly in marss equatorial plane and hence a capture origin requires a mechanism for circularizing the initially highly eccentric orbit and adjusting its inclination into the equatorial plane most probably by a combination of atmospheric drag and tidal forces although it is not clear whether sufficient time was available for this to occur for deimos capture also requires dissipation of energy the current martian atmosphere is too thin to capture a phobossized object by atmospheric braking geoffrey a landis has pointed out that the capture could have occurred if the original body was a binary asteroid that separated under tidal forces phobos could be a secondgeneration solar system object that coalesced in orbit after mars formed rather than forming concurrently out of the same birth cloud as mars another hypothesis is that mars was once surrounded by many phobos and deimossized bodies perhaps ejected into orbit around it by a collision with a large planetesimal the high porosity of the interior of phobos based on the density of 188 gcm3 voids are estimated to comprise 25 to 35 percent of phoboss volume is inconsistent with an asteroidal origin observations of phobos in the thermal infrared suggest a composition containing mainly phyllosilicates which are well known from the surface of mars the spectra are distinct from those of all classes of chondrite meteorites again pointing away from an asteroidal origin both sets of findings support an origin of phobos from material ejected by an impact on mars that reaccreted in martian orbit similar to the prevailing theory for the origin of earths moon characteristics size distribution asteroids vary greatly in size from almost for the largest down to rocks just 1 meter across below which an object is classified as a meteoroid the three largest are very much like miniature planets they are roughly spherical have at least partly differentiated interiors and are thought to be surviving protoplanets the vast majority however are much smaller and are irregularly shaped they are thought to be either battered planetesimals or fragments of larger bodies the dwarf planet ceres is by far the largest asteroid with a diameter of the next largest are 4 vesta and 2 pallas both with diameters of just over vesta is the brightest of the four mainbelt asteroids that can on occasion be visible to the naked eye on some rare occasions a nearearth asteroid may briefly become visible without technical aid see 99942 apophis the mass of all the objects of the asteroid belt lying between the orbits of mars and jupiter is estimated to be 325 of the mass of the moon of this ceres comprises about 40 of the total adding in the next three most massive objects vesta 11 pallas 85 and hygiea 34 brings this figure up to a bit over 60 whereas the next seven mostmassive asteroids bring the total up to 70 the number of asteroids increases rapidly as their individual masses decrease the number of asteroids decreases markedly with increasing size although the size distribution generally follows a power law there are bumps at about and where more asteroids than expected from such a curve are found most asteroids larger than approximately 120 km in diameter are primordial surviving from the accretion epoch whereas most smaller asteroids are products of fragmentation of primordial asteroids the primordial population of the main belt was probably 200 times what it is today largest asteroids three largest objects in the asteroid belt ceres vesta and pallas are intact protoplanets that share many characteristics common to planets and are atypical compared to the majority of irregularly shaped asteroids the fourthlargest asteroid hygiea appears nearly spherical although it may have an undifferentiated interior like the majority of asteroids the four largest asteroids constitute half the mass of the asteroid belt ceres is the only asteroid that appears to have a plastic shape under its own gravity and hence the only one that is a dwarf planet it has a much higher absolute magnitude than the other asteroids of around 332 and may possess a surface layer of ice like the planets ceres is differentiated it has a crust a mantle and a core no meteorites from ceres have been found on earth vesta too has a differentiated interior though it formed inside the solar systems frost line and so is devoid of water its composition is mainly of basaltic rock with minerals such as olivine aside from the large crater at its southern pole rheasilvia vesta also has an ellipsoidal shape vesta is the parent body of the vestian family and other vtype asteroids and is the source of the hed meteorites which constitute 5 of all meteorites on earth pallas is unusual in that like uranus it rotates on its side with its axis of rotation tilted at high angles to its orbital plane its composition is similar to that of ceres high in carbon and silicon and perhaps partially differentiated pallas is the parent body of the palladian family of asteroids hygiea is the largest carbonaceous asteroid and unlike the other largest asteroids lies relatively close to the plane of the ecliptic it is the largest member and presumed parent body of the hygiean family of asteroids because there is no sufficiently large crater on the surface to be the source of that family as there is on vesta it is thought that hygiea may have been completely disrupted in the collision that formed the hygiean family and recoalesced after losing a bit less than 2 of its mass observations taken with the very large telescopes sphere imager in 2017 and 2018 revealed that hygiea has a nearly spherical shape which is consistent both with it being in hydrostatic equilibrium or formerly being in hydrostatic equilibrium or with being disrupted and recoalescing internal differentiation of large asteroids is possibly related to their lack of natural satellites as satellites of main belt asteroids are mostly believed to form from collisional disruption creating a rubble pile structure rotation measurements of the rotation rates of large asteroids in the asteroid belt show that there is an upper limit very few asteroids with a diameter larger than 100 meters have a rotation period less than 22 hours for asteroids rotating faster than approximately this rate the inertial force at the surface is greater than the gravitational force so any loose surface material would be flung out however a solid object should be able to rotate much more rapidly this suggests that most asteroids with a diameter over 100 meters are rubble piles formed through the accumulation of debris after collisions between asteroids color asteroids become darker and redder with age due to space weathering however evidence suggests most of the color change occurs rapidly in the first hundred thousand years limiting the usefulness of spectral measurement for determining the age of asteroids surface features except for the big four ceres pallas vesta and hygiea asteroids are likely to be broadly similar in appearance if irregular in shape 253 mathilde is a rubble pile saturated with craters with diameters the size of the asteroids radius earthbased observations of 511 davida one of the largest asteroids after the big four reveal a similarly angular profile suggesting it is also saturated with radiussize craters mediumsized asteroids such as mathilde and 243 ida that have been observed up close also reveal a deep regolith covering the surface of the big four pallas and hygiea are practically unknown vesta has compression fractures encircling a radiussize crater at its south pole but is otherwise a spheroid dawn spacecraft revealed that ceres has a heavily cratered surface but with fewer large craters than expected models based on the formation of the current asteroid belt had suggested ceres should possess 10 to 15 craters larger than in diameter the largest confirmed crater on ceres kerwan basin is across the most likely reason for this is viscous relaxation of the crust slowly flattening out larger impacts composition asteroids are classified by their characteristic emission spectra with the majority falling into three main groups ctype mtype and stype these were named after and are generally identified with carbonaceous carbonrich metallic and silicaceous stony compositions respectively the physical composition of asteroids is varied and in most cases poorly understood ceres appears to be composed of a rocky core covered by an icy mantle where vesta is thought to have a nickeliron core olivine mantle and basaltic crust thought to be the largest undifferentiated asteroid 10 hygiea seems to have a uniformly primitive composition of carbonaceous chondrite but it may actually be a differentiated asteroid that was globally disrupted by an impact and then reassembled other asteroids appear to be the remnant cores or mantles of protoplanets high in rock and metal most small asteroids are believed to be piles of rubble held together loosely by gravity although the largest are probably solid some asteroids have moons or are coorbiting binaries rubble piles moons binaries and scattered asteroid families are thought to be the results of collisions that disrupted a parent asteroid or possibly a planet in the main asteroid belt there appear to be two primary populations of asteroid a dark volatilerich population consisting of the ctype and ptype asteroids with albedos less than 010 and densities under and a dense volatilepoor population consisting of the stype and mtype asteroids with albedos over 015 and densities greater than 27 within these populations larger asteroids are denser presumably due to compression there appears to be minimal macroporosity interstitial vacuum in the score of asteroids with masses greater than composition is calculated from three primary sources albedo surface spectrum and density the last can only be determined accurately by observing the orbits of moons the asteroid might have so far every asteroid with moons has turned out to be a rubble pile a loose conglomeration of rock and metal that may be half empty space by volume the investigated asteroids are as large as 280 km in diameter and include 121 hermione 268186183 km and 87 sylvia 384262232 km few asteroids are larger than 87 sylvia none of them have moons the fact that such large asteroids as sylvia may be rubble piles presumably due to disruptive impacts has important consequences for the formation of the solar system computer simulations of collisions involving solid bodies show them destroying each other as often as merging but colliding rubble piles are more likely to merge this means that the cores of the planets could have formed relatively quickly water scientists hypothesize that some of the first water brought to earth was delivered by asteroid impacts after the collision that produced the moon in 2009 the presence of water ice was confirmed on the surface of 24 themis using nasas infrared telescope facility the surface of the asteroid appears completely covered in ice as this ice layer is sublimating it may be getting replenished by a reservoir of ice under the surface organic compounds were also detected on the surface the presence of ice on 24 themis makes the initial theory plausible in october 2013 water was detected on an extrasolar body for the first time on an asteroid orbiting the white dwarf gd 61 on 22 january 2014 european space agency esa scientists reported the detection for the first definitive time of water vapor on ceres the largest object in the asteroid belt the detection was made by using the farinfrared abilities of the herschel space observatory the finding is unexpected because comets not asteroids are typically considered to sprout jets and plumes according to one of the scientists the lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids findings have shown that solar winds can react with the oxygen in the upper layer of the asteroids and create water it has been estimated that every cubic metre of irradiated rock could contain up to 20 litres study was conducted using an atom probe tomography numbers are given for the itokawa stype asteroid acfer 049 a meteorite discovered in algeria in 1990 was shown in 2019 to have an ultraporous lithology upl porous texture that could be formed by removal of ice that filled these pores this suggests that upl represent fossils of primordial ice organic compounds asteroids contain traces of amino acids and other organic compounds and some speculate that asteroid impacts may have seeded the early earth with the chemicals necessary to initiate life or may have even brought life itself to earth an event called panspermia in august 2011 a report based on nasa studies with meteorites found on earth was published suggesting dna and rna components adenine guanine and related organic molecules may have been formed on asteroids and comets in outer space in november 2019 scientists reported detecting for the first time sugar molecules including ribose in meteorites suggesting that chemical processes on asteroids can produce some fundamentally essential bioingredients important to life and supporting the notion of an rna world prior to a dnabased origin of life on earth and possibly as well the notion of panspermia classification asteroids are commonly categorized according to two criteria the characteristics of their orbits and features of their reflectance spectrum orbital classification many asteroids have been placed in groups and families based on their orbital characteristics apart from the broadest divisions it is customary to name a group of asteroids after the first member of that group to be discovered groups are relatively loose dynamical associations whereas families are tighter and result from the catastrophic breakup of a large parent asteroid sometime in the past families are more common and easier to identify within the main asteroid belt but several small families have been reported among the jupiter trojans main belt families were first recognized by kiyotsugu hirayama in 1918 and are often called hirayama families in his honor about 3035 of the bodies in the asteroid belt belong to dynamical families each thought to have a common origin in a past collision between asteroids a family has also been associated with the plutoid dwarf planet some asteroids have unusual horseshoe orbits that are coorbital with earth or another planet examples are 3753 cruithne and the first instance of this type of orbital arrangement was discovered between saturns moons epimetheus and janus sometimes these horseshoe objects temporarily become quasisatellites for a few decades or a few hundred years before returning to their earlier status both earth and venus are known to have quasisatellites such objects if associated with earth or venus or even hypothetically mercury are a special class of aten asteroids however such objects could be associated with the outer planets as well spectral classification in 1975 an asteroid taxonomic system based on color albedo and spectral shape was developed by chapman morrison and zellner these properties are thought to correspond to the composition of the asteroids surface material the original classification system had three categories ctypes for dark carbonaceous objects 75 of known asteroids stypes for stony silicaceous objects 17 of known asteroids and u for those that did not fit into either c or s this classification has since been expanded to include many other asteroid types the number of types continues to grow as more asteroids are studied the two most widely used taxonomies now used are the tholen classification and smass classification the former was proposed in 1984 by david j tholen and was based on data collected from an eightcolor asteroid survey performed in the 1980s this resulted in 14 asteroid categories in 2002 the small mainbelt asteroid spectroscopic survey resulted in a modified version of the tholen taxonomy with 24 different types both systems have three broad categories of c s and x asteroids where x consists of mostly metallic asteroids such as the mtype there are also several smaller classes the proportion of known asteroids falling into the various spectral types does not necessarily reflect the proportion of all asteroids that are of that type some types are easier to detect than others biasing the totals problems originally spectral designations were based on inferences of an asteroids composition however the correspondence between spectral class and composition is not always very good and a variety of classifications are in use this has led to significant confusion although asteroids of different spectral classifications are likely to be composed of different materials there are no assurances that asteroids within the same taxonomic class are composed of the same or similar materials active asteroids active asteroids are objects that have asteroidlike orbits but show cometlike visual characteristics that is they show comae tails or other visual evidence of massloss like a comet but their orbit remains within jupiters orbit like an asteroid these bodies were originally designated mainbelt comets mbcs in 2006 by astronomers david jewitt and henry hsieh but this name implies they are necessarily icy in composition like a comet and that they only exist within the mainbelt whereas the growing population of active asteroids shows that this is not always the case the first active asteroid discovered is 7968 elstpizarro it was discovered as an asteroid in 1979 but then was found to have a tail by eric elst and guido pizarro in 1996 and given the cometary designation 133pelstpizarro another notable object is 311ppanstarrs observations made by the hubble space telescope revealed that it had six cometlike tails the tails are suspected to be streams of material ejected by the asteroid as a result of a rubble pile asteroid spinning fast enough to remove material from it by smashing into the asteroid dimorphos nasas double asteroid redirection test spacecraft made it an active asteroid scientists had proposed that some active asteroids are the result of impact events but no one had ever observed the activation of an asteroid the dart mission activated dimorphos under precisely known and carefully observed impact conditions enabling the detailed study of the formation of an active asteroid for the first time observations show that dimorphos lost approximately 1 million kilograms after the collision impact produced a dust plume that temporarily brightened the didymos system and developed a long dust tail that persisted for several months observation and exploration until the age of space travel objects in the asteroid belt could only be observed with large telescopes their shapes and terrain remaining a mystery the best modern groundbased telescopes and the earthorbiting hubble space telescope can only resolve a small amount of detail on the surfaces of the largest asteroids limited information about the shapes and compositions of asteroids can be inferred from their light curves variation in brightness during rotation and their spectral properties sizes can be estimated by timing the lengths of star occultations when an asteroid passes directly in front of a star radar imaging can yield good information about asteroid shapes and orbital and rotational parameters especially for nearearth asteroids spacecraft flybys can provide much more data than any ground or spacebased observations samplereturn missions gives insights about regolith composition groundbased observations as asteroids are rather small and faint objects the data that can be obtained from groundbased observations gbo are limited by means of groundbased optical telescopes the visual magnitude can be obtained when converted into the absolute magnitude it gives a rough estimate of the asteroids size lightcurve measurements can also be made by gbo when collected over a long period of time it allows an estimate of the rotational period the pole orientation sometimes and a rough estimate of the asteroids shape spectral data both visiblelight and nearinfrared spectroscopy gives information about the objects composition used to classify the observed asteroids such observations are limited as they provide information about only the thin layer on the surface up to several micrometers as planetologist patrick michel writes mid to thermalinfrared observations along with polarimetry measurements are probably the only data that give some indication of actual physical properties measuring the heat flux of an asteroid at a single wavelength gives an estimate of the dimensions of the object these measurements have lower uncertainty than measurements of the reflected sunlight in the visiblelight spectral region if the two measurements can be combined both the effective diameter and the geometric albedothe latter being a measure of the brightness at zero phase angle that is when illumination comes from directly behind the observercan be derived in addition thermal measurements at two or more wavelengths plus the brightness in the visiblelight region give information on the thermal properties the thermal inertia which is a measure of how fast a material heats up or cools off of most observed asteroids is lower than the barerock reference value but greater than that of the lunar regolith this observation indicates the presence of an insulating layer of granular material on their surface moreover there seems to be a trend perhaps related to the gravitational environment that smaller objects with lower gravity have a small regolith layer consisting of coarse grains while larger objects have a thicker regolith layer consisting of fine grains however the detailed properties of this regolith layer are poorly known from remote observations moreover the relation between thermal inertia and surface roughness is not straightforward so one needs to interpret the thermal inertia with caution nearearth asteroids that come into close vicinity of the planet can be studied in more details with radar it provides information about the surface of the asteroid for example can show the presence of craters and boulders such observations were conducted by the arecibo observatory in puerto rico 305 meter dish and goldstone observatory in california 70 meter dish radar observations can also be used for accurate determination of the orbital and rotational dynamics of observed objects spacebased observations both space and groundbased observatories conducted asteroid search programs the spacebased searches are expected to detect more objects because there is no atmosphere to interfere and because they can observe larger portions of the sky neowise observed more than 100000 asteroids of the main belt spitzer space telescope observed more than 700 nearearth asteroids these observations determined rough sizes of the majority of observed objects but provided limited detail about surface properties such as regolith depth and composition angle of repose cohesion and porosity asteroids were also studied by the hubble space telescope such as tracking the colliding asteroids in the main belt breakup of an asteroid observing an active asteroid with six cometlike tails and observing asteroids that were chosen as targets of dedicated missions space probe missions according to patrick michel the internal structure of asteroids is inferred only from indirect evidence bulk densities measured by spacecraft the orbits of natural satellites in the case of asteroid binaries and the drift of an asteroids orbit due to the yarkovsky thermal effect a spacecraft near an asteroid is perturbed enough by the asteroids gravity to allow an estimate of the asteroids mass the volume is then estimated using a model of the asteroids shape mass and volume allow the derivation of the bulk density whose uncertainty is usually dominated by the errors made on the volume estimate the internal porosity of asteroids can be inferred by comparing their bulk density with that of their assumed meteorite analogues dark asteroids seem to be more porous 40 than bright ones the nature of this porosity is unclear dedicated missions the first asteroid to be photographed in closeup was 951 gaspra in 1991 followed in 1993 by 243 ida and its moon dactyl all of which were imaged by the galileo probe en route to jupiter other asteroids briefly visited by spacecraft en route to other destinations include 9969 braille by deep space 1 in 1999 5535 annefrank by stardust in 2002 2867 šteins and 21 lutetia by the rosetta probe in 2008 and 4179 toutatis chinas lunar orbiter change 2 which flew within in 2012 the first dedicated asteroid probe was nasas near shoemaker which photographed 253 mathilde in 1997 before entering into orbit around 433 eros finally landing on its surface in 2001 it was the first spacecraft to successfully orbit and land on an asteroid from september to november 2005 the japanese hayabusa probe studied 25143 itokawa in detail and returned samples of its surface to earth on 13 june 2010 the first asteroid samplereturn mission in 2007 nasa launched the dawn spacecraft which orbited 4 vesta for a year and observed the dwarf planet ceres for three years hayabusa2 a probe launched by jaxa 2014 orbited its target asteroid 162173 ryugu for more than a year and took samples that were delivered to earth in 2020 the spacecraft is now on an extended mission and expected to arrive at a new target in 2031 nasa launched the osirisrex in 2016 a sample return mission to asteroid 101955 bennu in 2021 the probe departed the asteroid with a sample from its surface sample was delivered to earth in september 2023 the spacecraft continues its extended mission designated osirisapex to explore nearearth asteroid apophis in 2029 in 2021 nasa launched double asteroid redirection test dart a mission to test technology for defending earth against potential hazardous objects dart deliberately crashed into the minorplanet moon dimorphos of the double asteroid didymos in september 2022 to assess the potential of a spacecraft impact to deflect an asteroid from a collision course with earth in october nasa declared dart a success confirming it had shortened dimorphos orbital period around didymos by about 32 minutes planned missions currently several asteroiddedicated missions are planned by nasa jaxa esa and cnsa nasas lucy launched in 2021 would visit eight asteroids one from the main belt and seven jupiter trojans it is the first mission to trojans the main mission would start in 2027 nasas psyche launched in october 2023 will study the large metallic asteroid of the same name and will arrive there in 2029 esas hera planned for launch in 2024 will study the results of the dart impact it will measure the size and morphology of the crater and momentum transmitted by the impact to determine the efficiency of the deflection produced by dart jaxas destiny is a mission for a flyby of the geminids meteor shower parent body 3200 phaethon as well as various minor bodies its launch is planned for 2024 cnsas tianwen2 is planned to launch in 2025 it will use solar electric propulsion to explore the coorbital nearearth asteroid 469219 kamoʻoalewa and the active asteroid 311ppanstarrs the spacecraft will collect samples of the regolith of kamooalewa asteroid mining the concept of asteroid mining was proposed in 1970s matt anderson defines successful asteroid mining as the development of a mining program that is both financially selfsustaining and profitable to its investors it has been suggested that asteroids might be used as a source of materials that may be rare or exhausted on earth or materials for constructing space habitats materials that are heavy and expensive to launch from earth may someday be mined from asteroids and used for space manufacturing and construction as resource depletion on earth becomes more real the idea of extracting valuable elements from asteroids and returning these to earth for profit or using spacebased resources to build solarpower satellites and space habitats becomes more attractive hypothetically water processed from ice could refuel orbiting propellant depots from the astrobiological perspective asteroid prospecting could provide scientific data for the search for extraterrestrial intelligence seti some astrophysicists have suggested that if advanced extraterrestrial civilizations employed asteroid mining long ago the hallmarks of these activities might be detectable mining ceres is also considered a possibility as the largest body in the asteroid belt ceres could become the main base and transport hub for future asteroid mining infrastructure allowing mineral resources to be transported to mars the moon and earth because of its small escape velocity combined with large amounts of water ice it also could serve as a source of water fuel and oxygen for ships going through and beyond the asteroid belt transportation from mars or the moon to ceres would be even more energyefficient than transportation from earth to the moon threats to earth there is increasing interest in identifying asteroids whose orbits cross earths and that could given enough time collide with earth the three most important groups of nearearth asteroids are the apollos amors and atens the nearearth asteroid 433 eros had been discovered as long ago as 1898 and the 1930s brought a flurry of similar objects in order of discovery these were 1221 amor 1862 apollo 2101 adonis and finally 69230 hermes which approached within 0005 au of earth in 1937 astronomers began to realize the possibilities of earth impact two events in later decades increased the alarm the increasing acceptance of the alvarez hypothesis that an impact event resulted in the cretaceouspaleogene extinction and the 1994 observation of comet shoemakerlevy 9 crashing into jupiter the us military also declassified the information that its military satellites built to detect nuclear explosions had detected hundreds of upperatmosphere impacts by objects ranging from one to ten meters across all of these considerations helped spur the launch of highly efficient surveys consisting of chargecoupled device ccd cameras and computers directly connected to telescopes it was estimated that 89 to 96 of nearearth asteroids one kilometer or larger in diameter had been discovered a list of teams using such systems includes lincoln nearearth asteroid research linear nearearth asteroid tracking neat spacewatch lowell observatory nearearthobject search loneos catalina sky survey css panstarrs neowise asteroid terrestrialimpact last alert system atlas campo imperatore nearearth object survey cineos japanese spaceguard association asiagodlr asteroid survey adas the linear system alone had discovered 147132 asteroids among the surveys 19266 nearearth asteroids have been discovered including almost 900 more than in diameter in april 2018 the b612 foundation reported it is 100 percent certain well be hit by a devastating asteroid but were not 100 percent sure when in june 2018 the national science and technology council warned that the united states is unprepared for an asteroid impact event and has developed and released the national nearearth object preparedness strategy action plan to better prepare according to expert testimony in the united states congress in 2013 nasa would require at least five years of preparation before a mission to intercept an asteroid could be launched the united nations declared 30 june to be international asteroid day to educate the public about asteroids the date of international asteroid day commemorates the anniversary of the tunguska asteroid impact over siberia on 30 june 1908 chicxulub impact the chicxulub crater is an impact crater buried underneath the yucatán peninsula in mexico its center is offshore near the communities of chicxulub puerto and chicxulub pueblo after which the crater is named it was formed when a large asteroid about in diameter struck the earth the crater is estimated to be in diameter and in depth it is one of the largest confirmed impact structures on earth and the only one whose peak ring is intact and directly accessible for scientific research in the late 1970s geologist walter alvarez and his father nobel prizewinning scientist luis walter alvarez put forth their theory that the cretaceouspaleogene extinction was caused by an impact event the main evidence of such an impact was contained in a thin layer of clay present in the kpg boundary in gubbio italy the alvarezes and colleagues reported that it contained an abnormally high concentration of iridium a chemical element rare on earth but common in asteroids iridium levels in this layer were as much as 160 times above the background level it was hypothesized that the iridium was spread into the atmosphere when the impactor was vaporized and settled across the earths surface among other material thrown up by the impact producing the layer of iridiumenriched clay at the time consensus was not settled on what caused the cretaceouspaleogene extinction and the boundary layer with theories including a nearby supernova climate change or a geomagnetic reversal the alvarezes impact hypothesis was rejected by many paleontologists who believed that the lack of fossils found close to the kpg boundarythe threemeter problemsuggested a more gradual dieoff of fossil species there is broad consensus that the chicxulub impactor was an asteroid with a carbonaceous chondrite composition rather than a comet the impactor was around in diameterlarge enough that if set at sea level it would have reached taller than mount everest asteroid deflection strategies various collision avoidance techniques have different tradeoffs with respect to metrics such as overall performance cost failure risks operations and technology readiness there are various methods for changing the course of an asteroidcomet these can be differentiated by various types of attributes such as the type of mitigation deflection or fragmentation energy source kinetic electromagnetic gravitational solarthermal or nuclear and approach strategy interception rendezvous or remote station strategies fall into two basic sets fragmentation and delay fragmentation concentrates on rendering the impactor harmless by fragmenting it and scattering the fragments so that they miss the earth or are small enough to burn up in the atmosphere delay exploits the fact that both the earth and the impactor are in orbit an impact occurs when both reach the same point in space at the same time or more correctly when some point on earths surface intersects the impactors orbit when the impactor arrives since the earth is approximately 12750 km in diameter and moves at approx 30 km per second in its orbit it travels a distance of one planetary diameter in about 425 seconds or slightly over seven minutes delaying or advancing the impactors arrival by times of this magnitude can depending on the exact geometry of the impact cause it to miss the earth project icarus was one of the first projects designed in 1967 as a contingency plan in case of collision with 1566 icarus the plan relied on the new saturn v rocket which did not make its first flight until after the report had been completed six saturn v rockets would be used each launched at variable intervals from months to hours away from impact each rocket was to be fitted with a single 100megaton nuclear warhead as well as a modified apollo service module and uncrewed apollo command module for guidance to the target the warheads would be detonated 30 meters from the surface deflecting or partially destroying the asteroid depending on the subsequent impacts on the course or the destruction of the asteroid later missions would be modified or cancelled as needed the lastditch launch of the sixth rocket would be 18 hours prior to impact fiction asteroids and the asteroid belt are a staple of science fiction stories asteroids play several potential roles in science fiction as places human beings might colonize resources for extracting minerals hazards encountered by spacecraft traveling between two other points and as a threat to life on earth or other inhabited planets dwarf planets and natural satellites by potential impact see also list of asteroid close approaches to earth list of exceptional asteroids lost minor planet meanings of minorplanet names notes references further reading external links nasa asteroid and comet watch site minor planets	9,739
794	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allocution	Allocution	an allocution or allocutus is a formal statement made to the court by the defendant who has been found guilty prior to being sentenced it is part of the criminal procedure in some jurisdictions using common law concept an allocution allows the defendant to explain why the sentence should be lenient in plea bargains an allocution may be required of the defendant the defendant explicitly admits specifically and in detail the actions and their reasons in exchange for a reduced sentence in principle that removes any doubt as to the exact nature of the defendants guilt in the matter the term allocution is used generally only in jurisdictions in the united states but there are vaguely similar processes in other common law countries in many other jurisdictions it is for the defense lawyer to mitigate on their clients behalf and the defendant rarely has the opportunity to speak australia in australia the term allocutus is used by the clerk of arraigns or another formal associate of the court it is generally phrased as prisoner at the bar you have been found guilty by a jury of your peers of the offense of xyz do you have anything to say as to why the sentence of this court should not now be passed upon you the defense counsel will then make a plea in mitigation also called submissions on penalty in an attempt to mitigate the relative seriousness of the offense and heavily refer to and rely upon the defendants previous good character and good works if any the right to make a plea in mitigation is absolute if a judge or magistrate refuses to hear such a plea or does not properly consider it the sentence can be overturned on appeal united states in most of the united states defendants are allowed the opportunity to allocute before a sentence is passed some jurisdictions hold that as an absolute right in its absence a sentence but not the conviction may be overturned resulting in the need for a new sentencing hearing in the federal system federal rules of criminal procedure 32i4 provides that the court must address the defendant personally in order to permit the defendant to speak or present any information to mitigate the sentence the federal public defender recommends that defendants speak in terms of how a lenient sentence will be sufficient but not greater than necessary to comply with the statutory directives set forth in see also confession law references criminal procedure evidence law	416
795	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affidavit	Affidavit	an medieval latin for he has declared under oath is a written statement voluntarily made by an affiant or deponent under an oath or affirmation which is administered by a person who is authorized to do so by law such a statement is witnessed as to the authenticity of the affiants signature by a taker of oaths such as a notary public or commissioner of oaths an affidavit is a type of verified statement or showing or in other words it contains a verification which means that it is made under oath on penalty of perjury and this serves as evidence for its veracity and is required in court proceedings definition an affidavit is typically defined as a written declaration or statement that is sworn or affirmed before a person who has authority to administer an oath there is no general defined form for an affidavit although for some proceedings an affidavit must satisfy legal or statutory requirements in order to be considered an affidavit may include a commencement which identifies the affiant an attestation clause usually a jurat at the end certifying that the affiant made the statement under oath on the specified date signatures of the affiant and person who administered the oath in some cases an introductory clause called a preamble is added attesting that the affiant personally appeared before the authenticating authority an affidavit may also recite that the statement it records was made under penalty of perjury an affidavit that is prepared for use within the context of litigation may also include a caption that identifies the venue and parties to the relevant judicial proceedings worldwide australia on 2 march 2016 the high court of australia held that the act uniform evidence legislation is neutral in the way sworn evidence and unsworn evidence is treated as being of equal weight united kingdom the term affidavit is used in the uk according the uk government website the affidavit can be sworn or affirmed by a solicitor notary or commissioner for oaths for a charge or by an authorised member of court staff india in indian law although an affidavit may be taken as proof of the facts stated therein the courts have no jurisdiction to admit evidence by way of affidavit affidavit is not treated as evidence within the meaning of section 3 of the evidence act however it was held by the supreme court that an affidavit can be used as evidence only if the court so orders for sufficient reasons namely the right of the opposite party to have the deponent produced for crossexamination therefore an affidavit cannot ordinarily be used as evidence in absence of a specific order of the court sri lanka in sri lanka under the oaths ordinance with the exception of a courtmartial a person may submit an affidavit signed in the presence of a commissioner for oaths or a justice of the peace ireland affidavits are made in a similar way as to england and wales although make oath is sometimes omitted an affirmed affidavit may be substituted for an sworn affidavit in most cases for those opposed to swearing oaths the person making the affidavit is known as the deponent and signs the affidavit the affidavit concludes in the standard format swornaffirmed declared before me name of commissioner for oathssolicitor a commissioner for oaths solicitor on the date at location in the countycity of countycity and i know the deponent and it is signed and stamped by the commissioner for oaths it is important that the commissioner states hisher name clearly sometimes documents are rejected when the name cannot be ascertained in august 2020 a new method of filing affidavits came into force under section 21 of the civil law and criminal law miscellaneous provisions act 2020 witnesses are no longer required to swear before god or make an affirmation when filing an affidavit instead witnesses will make a nonreligious statement of truth and if it is breached will be liable for up to one year in prison if convicted summarily or upon conviction on indictment to a maximum fine of 250000 or imprisonment for a term not exceeding 5 years or both this is designed to replace affidavits and statutory declarations in situations where the electronic means of lodgement or filing of documents with the court provided for in section 20 is utilised as of january 2022 it has yet to be adopted widely and it is expected it will not be used for some time by lay litigants who will still lodge papers in person united states in american jurisprudence under the rules for hearsay admission of an unsupported affidavit as evidence is unusual especially if the affiant is not available for crossexamination with regard to material facts which may be dispositive of the matter at bar affidavits from persons who are dead or otherwise incapacitated or who cannot be located or made to appear may be accepted by the court but usually only in the presence of corroborating evidence an affidavit which reflected a better grasp of the facts close in time to the actual events may be used to refresh a witnesss recollection materials used to refresh recollection are admissible as evidence if the affiant is a party in the case the affiants opponent may be successful in having the affidavit admitted as evidence as statements by a partyopponent are admissible through an exception to the hearsay rule affidavits are typically included in the response to interrogatories requests for admissions under federal rule of civil procedure 36 however are not required to be sworn when a person signs an affidavit that person is eligible to take the stand at a trial or evidentiary hearing one party may wish to summon the affiant to verify the contents of the affidavit while the other party may want to crossexamine the affiant about the affidavit some types of motions will not be accepted by the court unless accompanied by an independent sworn statement or other evidence in support of the need for the motion in such a case a court will accept an affidavit from the filing attorney in support of the motion as certain assumptions are made to wit the affidavit in place of sworn testimony promotes judicial economy the lawyer is an officer of the court and knows that a false swearing by them if found out could be grounds for severe penalty up to and including disbarment the lawyer if called upon would be able to present independent and more detailed evidence to prove the facts set forth in his affidavit affidavits should not be confused with unsworn declarations under penalty of perjury in federal courts and about 20 states as of 2006 unsworn declarations under penalty of perjury are authorized by statute as acceptable in lieu of affidavits the key differences are that an unsworn declaration does not bear the jurat of a notary public and the declarant is not required to swear an oath or affirmation rather the signature of the declarant under a carefully worded phrase binding them to the truth of their statements under penalty of perjury is deemed as a matter of law to be sufficiently solemn to remind the declarant of their duty to tell the truth the whole truth and nothing but the truth the point of such affidavit substitution statutes is that unsworn declarations can be prepared and executed far more quickly and economically than affidavits in that the witness need not meet personally with a notary public for the notarization process the acceptance of an affidavit by one society does not confirm its acceptance as a legal document in other jurisdictions equally the acceptance that a lawyer is an officer of the court for swearing the affidavit is not a given this matter is addressed by the use of the apostille a means of certifying the legalization of a document for international use under the terms of the 1961 hague convention abolishing the requirement of legalization for foreign public documents documents which have been notarized by a notary public and certain other documents and then certified with a conformant apostille are accepted for legal use in all the nations that have signed the hague convention thus most affidavits now require to be apostilled if used for cross border issues see also declaration law deposition law fishman affidavit a wellknown example of an affidavit performativity statutory declaration sworn declaration references evidence law legal documents notary	1,409
798	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aries%20%28constellation%29	Aries (constellation)	aries is one of the constellations of the zodiac it is located in the northern celestial hemisphere between pisces to the west and taurus to the east the name aries is latin for ram its old astronomical symbol is it is one of the 48 constellations described by the 2nd century astronomer ptolemy and remains one of the 88 modern constellations it is a midsized constellation ranking 39th in overall size with an area of 441 square degrees 11 of the celestial sphere aries has represented a ram since late babylonian times before that the stars of aries formed a farmhand different cultures have incorporated the stars of aries into different constellations including twin inspectors in china and a porpoise in the marshall islands aries is a relatively dim constellation possessing only four bright stars hamal alpha arietis second magnitude sheratan beta arietis third magnitude mesarthim gamma arietis fourth magnitude and 41 arietis also fourth magnitude the few deepsky objects within the constellation are quite faint and include several pairs of interacting galaxies several meteor showers appear to radiate from aries including the daytime arietids and the epsilon arietids history and mythology aries is now recognized as an official constellation albeit as a specific region of the sky by the international astronomical union it was originally defined in ancient texts as a specific pattern of stars and has remained a constellation since ancient times it now includes the ancient pattern and the surrounding stars in the description of the babylonian zodiac given in the clay tablets known as the mulapin the constellation now known as aries was the final station along the ecliptic the mulapin was a comprehensive table of the rising and settings of stars which likely served as an agricultural calendar modernday aries was known as the agrarian worker or the hired man although likely compiled in the 12th or 11th century bc the mulapin reflects a tradition that marks the pleiades as the vernal equinox which was the case with some precision at the beginning of the middle bronze age the earliest identifiable reference to aries as a distinct constellation comes from the boundary stones that date from 1350 to 1000 bc on several boundary stones a zodiacal ram figure is distinct from the other characters the shift in identification from the constellation as the agrarian worker to the ram likely occurred in later babylonian tradition because of its growing association with dumuzi the shepherd by the time the mulapin was createdin 1000 bcmodern aries was identified with both dumuzis ram and a hired labourer the exact timing of this shift is difficult to determine due to the lack of images of aries or other ram figures in ancient egyptian astronomy aries was associated with the god amunra who was depicted as a man with a rams head and represented fertility and creativity because it was the location of the vernal equinox it was called the indicator of the reborn sun during the times of the year when aries was prominent priests would process statues of amonra to temples a practice that was modified by persian astronomers centuries later aries acquired the title of lord of the head in egypt referring to its symbolic and mythological importance aries was not fully accepted as a constellation until classical times in hellenistic astrology the constellation of aries is associated with the golden ram of greek mythology that rescued phrixus and helle on orders from hermes taking phrixus to the land of colchis phrixus and helle were the son and daughter of king athamas and his first wife nephele the kings second wife ino was jealous and wished to kill his children to accomplish this she induced famine in boeotia then falsified a message from the oracle of delphi that said phrixus must be sacrificed to end the famine athamas was about to sacrifice his son atop mount laphystium when aries sent by nephele arrived helle fell off of ariess back in flight and drowned in the dardanelles also called the hellespont in her honour historically aries has been depicted as a crouched wingless ram with its head turned towards taurus ptolemy asserted in his almagest that hipparchus depicted alpha arietis as the rams muzzle though ptolemy did not include it in his constellation figure instead it was listed as an unformed star and denoted as the star over the head john flamsteed in his atlas coelestis followed ptolemys description by mapping it above the figures head flamsteed followed the general convention of maps by depicting aries lying down astrologically aries has been associated with the head and its humors it was strongly associated with mars both the planet and the god it was considered to govern western europe and syria and to indicate a strong temper in a person the first point of aries the location of the vernal equinox is named for the constellation this is because the sun crossed the celestial equator from south to north in aries more than two millennia ago hipparchus defined it in 130 bc as a point south of gamma arietis because of the precession of the equinoxes the first point of aries has since moved into pisces and will move into aquarius by around 2600 ad the sun now appears in aries from late april through midmay though the constellation is still associated with the beginning of spring medieval muslim astronomers depicted aries in various ways astronomers like alsufi saw the constellation as a ram modelled on the precedent of ptolemy however some islamic celestial globes depicted aries as a nondescript fourlegged animal with what may be antlers instead of horns some early bedouin observers saw a ram elsewhere in the sky this constellation featured the pleiades as the rams tail the generally accepted arabic formation of aries consisted of thirteen stars in a figure along with five unformed stars four of which were over the animals hindquarters and one of which was the disputed star over ariess head alsufis depiction differed from both other arab astronomers and flamsteeds in that his aries was running and looking behind itself the obsolete constellations of aries apesvespaliliummusca borealis all centred on the same the northern stars in 1612 petrus plancius introduced apes a constellation representing a bee in 1624 the same stars were used by jakob bartsch as for vespa representing a wasp in 1679 augustin royer used these stars for his constellation lilium representing the fleurdelis none of these constellations became widely accepted johann hevelius renamed the constellation musca in 1690 in his firmamentum sobiescianum to differentiate it from musca the southern fly it was later renamed musca borealis but it did not gain acceptance and its stars were ultimately officially reabsorbed into aries the asterism involved was 33 35 39 and 41 arietis in 1922 the international astronomical union defined its recommended threeletter abbreviation ari the official boundaries of aries were defined in 1930 by eugène delporte as a polygon of 12 segments its right ascension is between 1h 464m and 3h 294m and its declination is between 1036 and 3122 in the equatorial coordinate system in nonwestern astronomy in traditional chinese astronomy stars from aries were used in several constellations the brightest starsalpha beta and gamma arietisformed a constellation called lou 婁 variously translated as bond lasso and sickle which was associated with the ritual sacrifice of cattle this name was shared by the 16th lunar mansion the location of the full moon closest to the autumnal equinox this constellation has also been associated with harvesttime as it could represent a woman carrying a basket of food on her head 35 39 and 41 arietis were part of a constellation called wei 胃 which represented a fat abdomen and was the namesake of the 17th lunar mansion which represented granaries delta and zeta arietis were a part of the constellation tianyin 天陰 thought to represent the emperors hunting partner zuogeng 左更 a constellation depicting a marsh and pond inspector was composed of mu nu omicron pi and sigma arietis he was accompanied by yeoukang a constellation depicting an official in charge of pasture distribution in a similar system to the chinese the first lunar mansion in hindu astronomy was called aswini after the traditional names for beta and gamma arietis the aswins because the hindu new year began with the vernal equinox the rig veda contains over 50 newyears related hymns to the twins making them some of the most prominent characters in the work aries itself was known as aja and mesha in hebrew astronomy aries was named taleh it signified either simeon or gad and generally symbolizes the lamb of the world the neighboring syrians named the constellation amru and the bordering turks named it kuzi half a world away in the marshall islands several stars from aries were incorporated into a constellation depicting a porpoise along with stars from cassiopeia andromeda and triangulum alpha beta and gamma arietis formed the head of the porpoise while stars from andromeda formed the body and the bright stars of cassiopeia formed the tail other polynesian peoples recognized aries as a constellation the marquesas islanders called it napaika the māori constellation pipiri may correspond to modern aries as well in indigenous peruvian astronomy a constellation with most of the same stars as aries existed it was called the market moon and the kneeling terrace as a reminder of when to hold the annual harvest festival ayri huay features stars aries has three prominent stars forming an asterism designated alpha beta and gamma arietis by johann bayer alpha hamal and beta sheratan are commonly used for navigation there is also one other star above the fourth magnitude 41 arietis bharani α arietis called hamal is the brightest star in aries its traditional name is derived from the arabic word for lamb or head of the ram ras alhamal which references ariess mythological background with a spectral class of k2 and a luminosity class of iii it is an orange giant with an apparent visual magnitude of 200 which lies 66 lightyears from earth hamal has a luminosity of and its absolute magnitude is 01 β arietis also known as sheratan is a bluewhite star with an apparent visual magnitude of 264 its traditional name is derived from sharatayn the arabic word for the two signs referring to both beta and gamma arietis in their position as heralds of the vernal equinox the two stars were known to the bedouin as qarna alhamal horns of the ram it is 59 lightyears from earth it has a luminosity of and its absolute magnitude is 21 it is a spectroscopic binary star one in which the companion star is only known through analysis of the spectra the spectral class of the primary is a5 hermann carl vogel determined that sheratan was a spectroscopic binary in 1903 its orbit was determined by hans ludendorff in 1907 it has since been studied for its eccentric orbit γ arietis with a common name of mesarthim is a binary star with two whitehued components located in a rich field of magnitude 812 stars its traditional name has conflicting derivations it may be derived from a corruption of alsharatan the arabic word meaning pair or a word for fat ram however it may also come from the sanskrit for first star of aries or the hebrew for ministerial servants both of which are unusual languages of origin for star names along with beta arietis it was known to the bedouin as qarna alhamal the primary is of magnitude 459 and the secondary is of magnitude 468 the system is 164 lightyears from earth the two components are separated by 78 arcseconds and the system as a whole has an apparent magnitude of 39 the primary has a luminosity of and the secondary has a luminosity of the primary is an atype star with an absolute magnitude of 02 and the secondary is a b9type star with an absolute magnitude of 04 the angle between the two components is 1 mesarthim was discovered to be a double star by robert hooke in 1664 one of the earliest such telescopic discoveries the primary γ1 arietis is an alpha² canum venaticorum variable star that has a range of 002 magnitudes and a period of 2607 days it is unusual because of its strong silicon emission lines the constellation is home to several double stars including epsilon lambda and pi arietis ε arietis is a binary star with two white components the primary is of magnitude 52 and the secondary is of magnitude 55 the system is 290 lightyears from earth its overall magnitude is 463 and the primary has an absolute magnitude of 14 its spectral class is a2 the two components are separated by 15 arcseconds λ arietis is a wide double star with a whitehued primary and a yellowhued secondary the primary is of magnitude 48 and the secondary is of magnitude 73 the primary is 129 lightyears from earth it has an absolute magnitude of 17 and a spectral class of f0 the two components are separated by 36 arcseconds at an angle of 50 the two stars are located 05 east of 7 arietis π arietis is a close binary star with a bluewhite primary and a white secondary the primary is of magnitude 53 and the secondary is of magnitude 85 the primary is 776 lightyears from earth the primary itself is a wide double star with a separation of 252 arcseconds the tertiary has a magnitude of 108 the primary and secondary are separated by 32 arcseconds most of the other stars in aries visible to the naked eye have magnitudes between 3 and 5 δ ari called boteïn is a star of magnitude 435 170 lightyears away it has an absolute magnitude of 01 and a spectral class of k2 ζ arietis is a star of magnitude 489 263 lightyears away its spectral class is a0 and its absolute magnitude is 00 14 arietis is a star of magnitude 498 288 lightyears away its spectral class is f2 and its absolute magnitude is 06 39 arietis lilii borea is a similar star of magnitude 451 172 lightyears away its spectral class is k1 and its absolute magnitude is 00 35 arietis is a dim star of magnitude 455 343 lightyears away its spectral class is b3 and its absolute magnitude is 17 41 arietis known both as c arietis and nair al butain is a brighter star of magnitude 363 165 lightyears away its spectral class is b8 and it has a luminosity of its absolute magnitude is 02 53 arietis is a runaway star of magnitude 609 815 lightyears away its spectral class is b2 it was likely ejected from the orion nebula approximately five million years ago possibly due to supernovae finally teegardens star is the closest star to earth in aries it is a red dwarf of magnitude 1514 and spectral class m65v with a proper motion of 51 arcseconds per year it is the 24th closest star to earth overall aries has its share of variable stars including r and u arietis miratype variable stars and t arietis a semiregular variable star r arietis is a mira variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 137 to a maximum of 74 with a period of 1868 days it is 4080 lightyears away u arietis is another mira variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 152 to a maximum of 72 with a period of 3711 days t arietis is a semiregular variable star that ranges in magnitude from a minimum of 113 to a maximum of 75 with a period of 317 days it is 1630 lightyears away one particularly interesting variable in aries is sx arietis a rotating variable star considered to be the prototype of its class helium variable stars sx arietis stars have very prominent emission lines of helium i and silicon iii they are normally mainsequence b0pb9p stars and their variations are not usually visible to the naked eye therefore they are observed photometrically usually having periods that fit in the course of one night similar to alpha² canum venaticorum variables sx arietis stars have periodic changes in their light and magnetic field which correspond to the periodic rotation they differ from the alpha² canum venaticorum variables in their higher temperature there are between 39 and 49 sx arietis variable stars currently known ten are noted as being uncertain in the general catalog of variable stars deep sky objects ngc 772 is a spiral galaxy with an integrated magnitude of 103 located southeast of β arietis and 15 arcminutes west of 15 arietis it is a relatively bright galaxy and shows obvious nebulosity and ellipticity in an amateur telescope it is 72 by 42 arcminutes meaning that its surface brightness magnitude 136 is significantly lower than its integrated magnitude ngc 772 is a class sasb galaxy which means that it is an unbarred spiral galaxy without a ring that possesses a somewhat prominent bulge and spiral arms that are wound somewhat tightly the main arm on the northwest side of the galaxy is home to many star forming regions this is due to previous gravitational interactions with other galaxies ngc 772 has a small companion galaxy ngc 770 that is about 113000 lightyears away from the larger galaxy the two galaxies together are also classified as arp 78 in the arp peculiar galaxy catalog ngc 772 has a diameter of 240000 lightyears and the system is 114 million lightyears from earth another spiral galaxy in aries is ngc 673 a faceon class sabsc galaxy it is a weakly barred spiral galaxy with loosely wound arms it has no ring and a faint bulge and is 25 by 19 arcminutes it has two primary arms with fragments located farther from the core 171000 lightyears in diameter ngc 673 is 235 million lightyears from earth ngc 678 and ngc 680 are a pair of galaxies in aries that are only about 200000 lightyears apart part of the ngc 691 group of galaxies both are at a distance of approximately 130 million lightyears ngc 678 is an edgeon spiral galaxy that is 45 by 08 arcminutes ngc 680 an elliptical galaxy with an asymmetrical boundary is the brighter of the two at magnitude 129 ngc 678 has a magnitude of 1335 both galaxies have bright cores but ngc 678 is the larger galaxy at a diameter of 171000 lightyears ngc 680 has a diameter of 72000 lightyears ngc 678 is further distinguished by its prominent dust lane ngc 691 itself is a spiral galaxy slightly inclined to our line of sight it has multiple spiral arms and a bright core because it is so diffuse it has a low surface brightness it has a diameter of 126000 lightyears and is 124 million lightyears away ngc 877 is the brightest member of an 8galaxy group that also includes ngc 870 ngc 871 and ngc 876 with a magnitude of 1253 it is 24 by 18 arcminutes and is 178 million lightyears away with a diameter of 124000 lightyears its companion is ngc 876 which is about 103000 lightyears from the core of ngc 877 they are interacting gravitationally as they are connected by a faint stream of gas and dust arp 276 is a different pair of interacting galaxies in aries consisting of ngc 935 and ic 1801 ngc 821 is an e6 elliptical galaxy it is unusual because it has hints of an early spiral structure which is normally only found in lenticular and spiral galaxies ngc 821 is 26 by 20 arcminutes and has a visual magnitude of 113 its diameter is 61000 lightyears and it is 80 million lightyears away another unusual galaxy in aries is segue 2 a dwarf and satellite galaxy of the milky way recently discovered to be a potential relic of the epoch of reionization meteor showers aries is home to several meteor showers the daytime arietid meteor shower is one of the strongest meteor showers that occurs during the day lasting from 22 may to 2 july it is an annual shower associated with the marsden group of comets that peaks on 7 june with a maximum zenithal hourly rate of 54 meteors its parent body may be the asteroid icarus the meteors are sometimes visible before dawn because the radiant is 32 degrees away from the sun they usually appear at a rate of 12 per hour as earthgrazers meteors that last several seconds and often begin at the horizon because most of the daytime arietids are not visible to the naked eye they are observed in the radio spectrum this is possible because of the ionized gas they leave in their wake other meteor showers radiate from aries during the day these include the daytime epsilon arietids and the northern and southern daytime may arietids the jodrell bank observatory discovered the daytime arietids in 1947 when james hey and g s stewart adapted the world war iiera radar systems for meteor observations the delta arietids are another meteor shower radiating from aries peaking on 9 december with a low peak rate the shower lasts from 8 december to 14 january with the highest rates visible from 8 to 14 december the average delta arietid meteor is very slow with an average velocity of per second however this shower sometimes produces bright fireballs this meteor shower has northern and southern components both of which are likely associated with 1990 ha a nearearth asteroid the autumn arietids also radiate from aries the shower lasts from 7 september to 27 october and peaks on 9 october its peak rate is low the epsilon arietids appear from 12 to 23 october other meteor showers radiating from aries include the october delta arietids daytime epsilon arietids daytime may arietids sigma arietids nu arietids and beta arietids the sigma arietids a class iv meteor shower are visible from 12 to 19 october with a maximum zenithal hourly rate of less than two meteors per hour on 19 october planetary systems aries contains several stars with extrasolar planets hip 14810 a g5 type star is orbited by three giant planets those more than ten times the mass of earth hd 12661 like hip 14810 is a gtype main sequence star slightly larger than the sun with two orbiting planets one planet is 23 times the mass of jupiter and the other is 157 times the mass of jupiter hd 20367 is a g0 type star approximately the size of the sun with one orbiting planet the planet discovered in 2002 has a mass 107 times that of jupiter and orbits every 500 days in 2019 scientists conducting the carmenes survey at the calar alto observatory announced evidence of two earthmass exoplanets orbiting teegardens star located in aries within its habitable zone the star is a small red dwarf with only around a tenth of the mass and radius of the sun it has a large radial velocity see also aries chinese astronomy references explanatory notes citations bibliography online sources simbad external links the deep photographic guide to the constellations aries the clickable aries star tales aries warburg institute iconographic database medieval and early modern images of aries constellations constellations listed by ptolemy northern constellations	3,900
799	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquarius%20%28constellation%29	Aquarius (constellation)	aquarius is an equatorial constellation of the zodiac between capricornus and pisces its name is latin for watercarrier or cupcarrier and its old astronomical symbol is a representation of water aquarius is one of the oldest of the recognized constellations along the zodiac the suns apparent path it was one of the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd century astronomer ptolemy and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations it is found in a region often called the sea due to its profusion of constellations with watery associations such as cetus the whale pisces the fish and eridanus the river at apparent magnitude 29 beta aquarii is the brightest star in the constellation history and mythology aquarius is identified as the great one in the babylonian star catalogues and represents the god ea himself who is commonly depicted holding an overflowing vase the babylonian starfigure appears on entitlement stones and cylinder seals from the second millennium it contained the winter solstice in the early bronze age in old babylonian astronomy ea was the ruler of the southernmost quarter of the suns path the way of ea corresponding to the period of 45 days on either side of winter solstice aquarius was also associated with the destructive floods that the babylonians regularly experienced and thus was negatively connoted in ancient egypt astronomy aquarius was associated with the annual flood of the nile the banks were said to flood when aquarius put his jar into the river beginning spring in the greek tradition the constellation came to be represented simply as a single vase from which a stream poured down to piscis austrinus the name in the hindu zodiac is likewise kumbha waterpitcher in greek mythology aquarius is sometimes associated with deucalion the son of prometheus who built a ship with his wife pyrrha to survive an imminent flood they sailed for nine days before washing ashore on mount parnassus aquarius is also sometimes identified with beautiful ganymede a youth in greek mythology and the son of trojan king tros who was taken to mount olympus by zeus to act as cupcarrier to the gods neighboring aquila represents the eagle under zeus command that snatched the young boy some versions of the myth indicate that the eagle was in fact zeus transformed an alternative version of the tale recounts ganymedes kidnapping by the goddess of the dawn eos motivated by her affection for young men zeus then stole him from eos and employed him as cupbearer yet another figure associated with the water bearer is cecrops i a king of athens who sacrificed water instead of wine to the gods depictions in the first century ptolemys almagest established the common western depiction of aquarius his water jar an asterism itself consists of gamma pi eta and zeta aquarii it pours water in a stream of more than 20 stars terminating with fomalhaut now assigned solely to piscis austrinus the water bearers head is represented by 5th magnitude 25 aquarii while his left shoulder is beta aquarii his right shoulder and forearm are represented by alpha and gamma aquarii respectively in eastern astronomy in chinese astronomy the stream of water flowing from the water jar was depicted as the army of yulin yulimkiun or yulinjun hanzi 羽林君 the name yulin means feathers and forests referring to the numerous lightfooted soldiers from the northern reaches of the empire represented by these faint stars the constellations stars were the most numerous of any chinese constellation numbering 45 the majority of which were located in modern aquarius the celestial army was protected by the wall leibizhen 垒壁阵 which counted iota lambda phi and sigma aquarii among its 12 stars 88 89 and 98 aquarii represent fouyoue the axes used as weapons and for hostage executions also in aquarius is louipitchin the ramparts that stretch from 29 and 27 piscium and 33 and 30 aquarii through phi lambda sigma and iota aquarii to delta gamma kappa and epsilon capricorni near the border with cetus the axe fuyue was represented by three stars its position is disputed and may have instead been located in sculptor tienliecheng also has a disputed position the 13star castle replete with ramparts may have possessed nu and xi aquarii but may instead have been located south in piscis austrinus the water jar asterism was seen to the ancient chinese as the tomb fenmu nearby the emperors mausoleum xiuliang stood demarcated by kappa aquarii and three other collinear stars ku crying and qi weeping each composed of two stars were located in the same region three of the chinese lunar mansions shared their name with constellations nu also the name for the 10th lunar mansion was a handmaiden represented by epsilon mu 3 and 4 aquarii the 11th lunar mansion shared its name with the constellation xu emptiness formed by beta aquarii and alpha equulei it represented a bleak place associated with death and funerals wei the rooftop and 12th lunar mansion was a vshaped constellation formed by alpha aquarii theta pegasi and epsilon pegasi it shared its name with two other chinese constellations in modernday scorpius and aries features stars despite both its prominent position on the zodiac and its large size aquarius has no particularly bright stars its four brightest stars being less than however recent research has shown that there are several stars lying within its borders that possess planetary systems the two brightest stars α aquarii and β aquarii are luminous yellow supergiants of spectral types g0ib and g2ib respectively that were once hot bluewhite bclass main sequence stars 5 to 9 times as massive as the sun the two are also moving through space perpendicular to the plane of the milky way just shading α β aquarii is the brightest star in aquarius with apparent it also has the proper name of sadalsuud having cooled and swollen to around 50 times the suns diameter it is around 2200 times as luminous as the sun it is around 64 times as massive as the sun and around 56 million years old sadalsuud is from earth α aquarii also known as sadalmelik has apparent it is distant from earth and is around 65 times as massive as the sun and 3000 times as luminous it is 53 million years old γ aquarii also called sadachbia is a white main sequence star of spectral type star of spectral type a0v that is between 158 and 315 million years old and is around 25 times the suns mass and double its radius its magnitude is 385 and it is away hence its luminosity is the name sadachbia comes from the arabic for lucky stars of the tents sad alakhbiya δ aquarii also known as skat or scheat is a bluewhite spectral type a2 star with apparent magnitude 327 and luminosity ε aquarii also known as albali is a bluewhite spectral type a1 star with apparent magnitude 377 absolute magnitude 12 and a luminosity of ζ aquarii is a spectral type f2 double star both stars are white in combination they appear to be magnitude 36 with luminosity the primary has magnitude 453 and the secondarys magnitude is 431 but both have absolute the systems orbital period is 760 years currently the two components are moving farther apart θ aquarii sometimes called ancha is spectral type g8 with apparent magnitude 416 and an absolute κ aquarii also called situla has an apparent λ aquarii also called hudoor or ekchusis is spectral type m2 with magnitude 374 and luminosity ξ aquarii also called bunda is spectral type a7 with an apparent magnitude 469 and an absolute π aquarii also called seat is spectral type b0 with apparent magnitude 466 and absolute planetary systems twelve exoplanet systems have been found in aquarius as of 2013 gliese 876 one of the nearest stars to earth at a distance of 15 lightyears was the first red dwarf star to be found to possess a planetary system it is orbited by four planets including one terrestrial planet 66 times the mass of earth the planets vary in orbital period from 2 days to 124 days 91 aquarii is an orange giant star orbited by one planet 91 aquarii b the planets mass is 29 times the mass of jupiter and its orbital period is 182 days gliese 849 is a red dwarf star orbited by the first known longperiod jupiterlike planet gliese 849 b the planets mass is 099 times that of jupiter and its orbital period is 1852 days there are also lessprominent systems in aquarius wasp6 a type g8 star of magnitude 124 is host to one exoplanet wasp6 b the star is 307 parsecs from earth and has a mass of 0888 solar masses and a radius of 087 solar radii wasp6 b was discovered in 2008 by the transit method it orbits its parent star every 336 days at a distance of 0042 astronomical units au it is 0503 jupiter masses but has a proportionally larger radius of 1224 jupiter radii hd 206610 a k0 star located 194 parsecs from earth is host to one planet hd 206610 b the host star is larger than the sun more massive at 156 solar masses and larger at 61 solar radii the planet was discovered by the radial velocity method in 2010 and has a mass of 22 jupiter masses it orbits every 610 days at a distance of 168 au much closer to its sun is wasp47 b which orbits every 415 days only 0052 au from its sun yellow dwarf g9v wasp47 wasp47 is close in size to the sun having a radius of 115 solar radii and a mass even closer at 108 solar masses wasp47 b was discovered in 2011 by the transit method like wasp6 b it is slightly larger than jupiter with a mass of 114 jupiter masses and a radius of 115 jupiter masses there are several more singleplanet systems in aquarius hd 210277 a magnitude 663 yellow star located 2129 parsecs from earth is host to one known planet hd 210277 b the 123 jupiter mass planet orbits at nearly the same distance as earth orbits the sun11 au though its orbital period is significantly longer at around 442 days hd 210277 b was discovered earlier than most of the other planets in aquarius detected by the radial velocity method in 1998 the star it orbits resembles the sun beyond their similar spectral class it has a radius of 11 solar radii and a mass of 109 solar masses hd 212771 b a larger planet at 23 jupiter masses orbits host star hd 212771 at a distance of 122 au the star itself barely below the threshold of nakedeye visibility at magnitude 76 is a g8iv yellow subgiant star located 131 parsecs from earth though it has a similar mass to the sun115 solar massesit is significantly less dense with its radius of 5 solar radii its lone planet was discovered in 2010 by the radial velocity method like several other exoplanets in the constellation as of 2013 there were only two known multipleplanet systems within the bounds of aquarius the gliese 876 and hd 215152 systems the former is quite prominent the latter has only two planets and has a host star farther away at 215 parsecs the hd 215152 system consists of the planets hd 215152 b and hd 215152 c orbiting their k0type magnitude 813 sun both discovered in 2011 by the radial velocity method the two tiny planets orbit very close to their host star hd 215152 c is the larger at 00097 jupiter masses still significantly larger than the earth which weighs in at 000315 jupiter masses its smaller sibling is barely smaller at 00087 jupiter masses the error in the mass measurements 00032 and respectively is large enough to make this discrepancy statistically insignificant hd 215152 c also orbits further from the star than hd 215152 b 00852 au compared to 00652 on 23 february 2017 nasa announced that ultracool dwarf star trappist1 in aquarius has seven earthlike rocky planets of these as many as four may lie within the systems habitable zone and may have liquid water on their surfaces the discovery of the trappist1 system is seen by astronomers as a significant step toward finding life beyond earth deep sky objects because of its position away from the galactic plane the majority of deepsky objects in aquarius are galaxies globular clusters and planetary nebulae aquarius contains three deep sky objects that are in the messier catalog the globular clusters messier 2 messier 72 and the asterism messier 73 while m73 was originally catalogued as a sparsely populated open cluster modern analysis indicates the 6 main stars are not close enough together to fit this definition reclassifying m73 as an asterism two wellknown planetary nebulae are also located in aquarius the saturn nebula ngc 7009 to the southeast of μ aquarii and the famous helix nebula ngc 7293 southwest of δ aquarii m2 also catalogued as ngc 7089 is a rich globular cluster located approximately 37000 lightyears from earth at magnitude 65 it is viewable in smallaperture instruments but a 100 mm aperture telescope is needed to resolve any stars m72 also catalogued as ngc 6981 is a small 9th magnitude globular cluster located approximately 56000 lightyears from earth m73 also catalogued as ngc 6994 is an open cluster with highly disputed status aquarius is also home to several planetary nebulae ngc 7009 also known as the saturn nebula is an 8th magnitude planetary nebula located 3000 lightyears from earth it was given its moniker by the 19th century astronomer lord rosse for its resemblance to the planet saturn in a telescope it has faint protrusions on either side that resemble saturns rings it appears bluegreen in a telescope and has a central star of magnitude 113 compared to the helix nebula another planetary nebula in aquarius it is quite small ngc 7293 also known as the helix nebula is the closest planetary nebula to earth at a distance of 650 lightyears it covers 025 square degrees making it also the largest planetary nebula as seen from earth however because it is so large it is only viewable as a very faint object though it has a fairly high integrated magnitude of 60 one of the visible galaxies in aquarius is ngc 7727 of particular interest for amateur astronomers who wish to discover or observe supernovae a spiral galaxy type s it has an integrated magnitude of 107 and is 3 by 3 arcseconds ngc 7252 is a tangle of stars resulting from the collision of two large galaxies and is known as the atomsforpeace galaxy because of its resemblance to a cartoon atom meteor showers there are three major meteor showers with radiants in aquarius the eta aquariids the delta aquariids and the iota aquariids the eta aquariids are the strongest meteor shower radiating from aquarius it peaks between 5 and 6 may with a rate of approximately 35 meteors per hour originally discovered by chinese astronomers in 401 eta aquariids can be seen coming from the water jar beginning on 21 april and as late as 12 may the parent body of the shower is halleys comet a periodic comet fireballs are common shortly after the peak approximately between 9 may and 11 may the normal meteors appear to have yellow trails the delta aquariids is a double radiant meteor shower that peaks first on 29 july and second on 6 august the first radiant is located in the south of the constellation while the second radiant is located in the northern circlet of pisces asterism the southern radiants peak rate is about 20 meteors per hour while the northern radiants peak rate is about 10 meteors per hour the iota aquariids is a fairly weak meteor shower that peaks on 6 august with a rate of approximately 8 meteors per hour astrology the sun appears in the constellation aquarius from 16 february to 12 march in tropical astrology the sun is considered to be in the sign aquarius from 20 january to 19 february and in sidereal astrology from 15 february to 14 march aquarius is also associated with the age of aquarius a concept popular in 1960s counterculture and medieval alchemy the date of the start of the age of aquarius is a topic of much debate notes see also aquarius chinese astronomy references external links the deep photographic guide to the constellations aquarius the clickable aquarius warburg institute iconographic database medieval and early modern images of aquarius constellations equatorial constellations constellations listed by ptolemy	2,778
800	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anime	Anime	is handdrawn and computergenerated animation originating from japan outside japan and in english anime refers specifically to animation produced in japan however in japan and in japanese a term derived from a shortening of the english word animation describes all animated works regardless of style or origin many works of animation with a similar style to japanese animation are also produced outside japan video games sometimes also feature themes and artstyles that can be considered as anime the earliest commercial japanese animations date to 1917 a characteristic art style emerged in the 1960s with the works of cartoonist osamu tezuka and spread in following decades developing a large domestic audience anime is distributed theatrically through television broadcasts directly to home media and over the internet in addition to original works anime are often adaptations of japanese comics manga light novels or video games it is classified into numerous genres targeting various broad and niche audiences anime is a diverse medium with distinctive production methods that have adapted in response to emergent technologies it combines graphic art characterization cinematography and other forms of imaginative and individualistic techniques compared to western animation anime production generally focuses less on movement and more on the detail of settings and use of camera effects such as panning zooming and angle shots diverse art styles are used and character proportions and features can be quite varied with a common characteristic feature being large and emotive eyes the anime industry consists of over 430 production companies including major studios such as studio ghibli kyoto animation sunrise bones ufotable mappa wit studio comix wave films production ig and toei animation since the 1980s the medium has also seen widespread international success with the rise of foreign dubbed subtitled programming and since the 2010s its increasing distribution through streaming services and a widening demographic embrace of anime culture both within japan and worldwide japanese animation accounted for 60 of the worlds animated television shows etymology as a type of animation anime is an art form that comprises many genres found in other mediums it is sometimes mistakenly classified as a genre itself in japanese the term anime is used to refer to all animated works regardless of style or origin englishlanguage dictionaries typically define anime as a style of japanese animation or as a style of animation originating in japan other definitions are based on origin making production in japan a requisite for a work to be considered anime the etymology of the term anime is disputed the english word animation is written in japanese katakana as and as in its shortened form some sources claim that the term is derived from the french term for animation cartoon literally animated drawing but others believe this to be a myth derived from the popularity of anime in france in the late 1970s and 1980s in english animewhen used as a common nounnormally functions as a mass noun for example do you watch anime or how much anime have you collected as with a few other japanese words such as saké and pokémon english texts sometimes spell anime as animé as in french with an acute accent over the final e to cue the reader to pronounce the letter not to leave it silent as english orthography may suggest prior to the widespread use of anime the term japanimation a portmanteau of japan and animation was prevalent throughout the 1970s and 1980s in the mid1980s the term anime began to supplant japanimation in general the latter term now only appears in period works where it is used to distinguish and identify japanese animation history precursors and kagee are considered precursors of japanese animation was common in the eleventh century traveling storytellers narrated legends and anecdotes while the was unrolled from the right to left in chronological order as a moving panorama kagee was popular during the edo period and originated from the shadows play of china magic lanterns from the netherlands were also popular in the eighteenth century the paper play called kamishibai surged in the twelfth century and remained popular in the street theater until the 1930s puppets of the bunraku theater and ukiyoe prints are considered ancestors of characters of most japanese animations finally mangas were a heavy inspiration for anime cartoonists kitzawa rakuten and okamoto ippei used film elements in their strips pioneers animation in japan began in the early 20th century when filmmakers started to experiment with techniques pioneered in france germany the united states and russia a claim for the earliest japanese animation is katsudō shashin a private work by an unknown creator in 1917 the first professional and publicly displayed works began to appear animators such as ōten shimokawa seitarō kitayama and junichi kōuchi considered the fathers of anime produced numerous films the oldest surviving of which is kōuchis namakura gatana many early works were lost with the destruction of shimokawas warehouse in the 1923 great kantō earthquake by the mid1930s animation was wellestablished in japan as an alternative format to the liveaction industry it suffered competition from foreign producers such as disney and many animators including noburō ōfuji and yasuji murata continued to work with cheaper cutout animation rather than cel animation other creators including kenzō masaoka and mitsuyo seo nevertheless made great strides in technique benefiting from the patronage of the government which employed animators to produce educational shorts and propaganda in 1940 the government dissolved several artists organizations to form the the first talkie anime was chikara to onna no yo no naka 1933 a short film produced by masaoka the first featurelength anime film was momotaro sacred sailors 1945 produced by seo with a sponsorship from the imperial japanese navy the 1950s saw a proliferation of short animated advertisements created for television modern era in the 1960s manga artist and animator osamu tezuka adapted and simplified disney animation techniques to reduce costs and limit frame counts in his productions originally intended as temporary measures to allow him to produce material on a tight schedule with an inexperienced staff many of his limited animation practices came to define the mediums style three tales 1960 was the first anime film broadcast on television the first anime television series was instant history 196164 an early and influential success was astro boy 196366 a television series directed by tezuka based on his manga of the same name many animators at tezukas mushi production later established major anime studios including madhouse sunrise and pierrot the 1970s saw growth in the popularity of manga many of which were later animated tezukas workand that of other pioneers in the fieldinspired characteristics and genres that remain fundamental elements of anime today the giant robot genre also known as mecha for instance took shape under tezuka developed into the super robot genre under go nagai and others and was revolutionized at the end of the decade by yoshiyuki tomino who developed the real robot genre robot anime series such as gundam and super dimension fortress macross became instant classics in the 1980s and the genre remained one of the most popular in the following decades the bubble economy of the 1980s spurred a new era of highbudget and experimental anime films including nausicaä of the valley of the wind 1984 royal space force the wings of honnêamise 1987 and akira 1988 neon genesis evangelion 1995 a television series produced by gainax and directed by hideaki anno began another era of experimental anime titles such as ghost in the shell 1995 and cowboy bebop 1998 in the 1990s anime also began attracting greater interest in western countries major international successes include sailor moon and dragon ball z both of which were dubbed into more than a dozen languages worldwide in 2003 spirited away a studio ghibli feature film directed by hayao miyazaki won the academy award for best animated feature at the 75th academy awards it later became the highestgrossing anime film earning more than 355 million since the 2000s an increased number of anime works have been adaptations of light novels and visual novels successful examples include the melancholy of haruhi suzumiya and fatestay night both 2006 demon slayer kimetsu no yaiba the movie mugen train became the highestgrossing japanese film and one of the worlds highestgrossing films of 2020 it also became the fastest grossing film in japanese cinema because in 10 days it made 10 billion yen 953m 72m it beat the previous record of spirited away which took 25 days attributes anime differs from other forms of animation by its art styles methods of animation its production and its process visually anime works exhibit a wide variety of art styles differing between creators artists and studios while no single art style predominates anime as a whole they do share some similar attributes in terms of animation technique and character design anime is fundamentally characterized by the use of limited animation flat expression the suspension of time its thematic range the presence of historical figures its complex narrative line and above all a peculiar drawing style with characters characterized by large and oval eyes with very defined lines bright colors and reduced movement of the lips technique modern anime follows a typical animation production process involving storyboarding voice acting character design and cel production since the 1990s animators have increasingly used computer animation to improve the efficiency of the production process early anime works were experimental and consisted of images drawn on blackboards stop motion animation of paper cutouts and silhouette animation cel animation grew in popularity until it came to dominate the medium in the 21st century the use of other animation techniques is mostly limited to independent short films including the stop motion puppet animation work produced by tadahito mochinaga kihachirō kawamoto and tomoyasu murata computers were integrated into the animation process in the 1990s with works such as ghost in the shell and princess mononoke mixing cel animation with computergenerated images fuji film a major cel production company announced it would stop cel production producing an industry panic to procure cel imports and hastening the switch to digital processes prior to the digital era anime was produced with traditional animation methods using a pose to pose approach the majority of mainstream anime uses fewer expressive key frames and more inbetween animation japanese animation studios were pioneers of many limited animation techniques and have given anime a distinct set of conventions unlike disney animation where the emphasis is on the movement anime emphasizes the art quality and let limited animation techniques make up for the lack of time spent on movement such techniques are often used not only to meet deadlines but also as artistic devices anime scenes place emphasis on achieving threedimensional views and backgrounds are instrumental in creating the atmosphere of the work the backgrounds are not always invented and are occasionally based on real locations as exemplified in howls moving castle and the melancholy of haruhi suzumiya oppliger stated that anime is one of the rare mediums where putting together an allstar cast usually comes out looking tremendously impressive the cinematic effects of anime differentiates itself from the stage plays found in american animation anime is cinematically shot as if by camera including panning zooming distance and angle shots to more complex dynamic shots that would be difficult to produce in reality in anime the animation is produced before the voice acting contrary to american animation which does the voice acting first characters the body proportions of human anime characters tend to accurately reflect the proportions of the human body in reality the height of the head is considered by the artist as the base unit of proportion head heights can vary but most anime characters are about seven to eight heads tall anime artists occasionally make deliberate modifications to body proportions to produce super deformed characters that feature a disproportionately small body compared to the head many super deformed characters are two to four heads tall some anime works like crayon shinchan completely disregard these proportions in such a way that they resemble caricatured western cartoons a common anime character design convention is exaggerated eye size the animation of characters with large eyes in anime can be traced back to osamu tezuka who was deeply influenced by such early animation characters as betty boop who was drawn with disproportionately large eyes tezuka is a central figure in anime and manga history whose iconic art style and character designs allowed for the entire range of human emotions to be depicted solely through the eyes the artist adds variable color shading to the eyes and particularly to the cornea to give them greater depth generally a mixture of a light shade the tone color and a dark shade is used cultural anthropologist rachel thorn argues that japanese animators and audiences do not perceive such stylized eyes as inherently more or less foreign however not all anime characters have large eyes for example the works of hayao miyazaki are known for having realistically proportioned eyes as well as realistic hair colors on their characters hair in anime is often unnaturally lively and colorful or uniquely styled the movement of hair in anime is exaggerated and hair actions is used to emphasize the action and emotions of characters for added visual effect poitras traces hairstyle color to cover illustrations on manga where eyecatching artwork and colorful tones are attractive for childrens manga despite being produced for a domestic market anime features characters whose race or nationality is not always defined and this is often a deliberate decision such as in the pokémon animated series anime and manga artists often draw from a common canon of iconic facial expression illustrations to denote particular moods and thoughts these techniques are often different in form than their counterparts in western animation and they include a fixed iconography that is used as shorthand for certain emotions and moods for example a male character may develop a nosebleed when aroused a variety of visual symbols are employed including sweat drops to depict nervousness visible blushing for embarrassment or glowing eyes for an intense glare another recurring sight gag is the use of chibi deformed simplified character designs figures to comedically punctuate emotions like confusion or embarrassment music the opening and credits sequences of most anime television series are accompanied by jpop or jrock songs often by reputed bandsas written with the series in mindbut are also aimed at the general music market therefore they often allude only vaguely or not at all to the thematic settings or plot of the series also they are often used as incidental music insert songs in an episode in order to highlight particularly important scenes future funk a musical microgenre that evolved in the early 2010s from vaporwave with a french house euro disco influence heavily uses anime visuals and samples along with japanese city pop to build an aesthetic since the 2020s anime songs have experienced a rapid growth in global online popularity due to their widened availability on music streaming services like spotify and promotion by fans and artists on social media in 2023 the opening theme idol by yoasobi of the anime series oshi no ko topped the billboard global 200 excl us charts with 457 million streams and 24000 copies sold outside the us idol has become the first japanese song and anime song to top the billboard global chart as well as taking the first spot on the apple musics top 100 global chart genres anime are often classified by target demographic including and a diverse range of genres targeting an adult audience shoujo and shounen anime sometimes contain elements popular with children of both sexes in an attempt to gain crossover appeal adult anime may feature a slower pace or greater plot complexity that younger audiences may typically find unappealing as well as adult themes and situations a subset of adult anime works featuring pornographic elements are labeled r18 in japan and are internationally known as hentai originating from by contrast some anime subgenres incorporate ecchi sexual themes or undertones without depictions of sexual intercourse as typified in the comedic or harem genres due to its popularity among adolescent and adult anime enthusiasts the inclusion of such elements is considered a form of fan service some genres explore homosexual romances such as yaoi male homosexuality and yuri female homosexuality while often used in a pornographic context the terms yaoi and yuri can also be used broadly in a wider context to describe or focus on the themes or the development of the relationships themselves animes genre classification differs from other types of animation and does not lend itself to simple classification gilles poitras compared the labeling of gundam 0080 and its complex depiction of war as a giant robot anime akin to simply labeling war and peace a war novel science fiction is a major anime genre and includes important historical works like tezukas astro boy and yokoyamas tetsujin 28go a major subgenre of science fiction is mecha with the gundam metaseries being iconic the diverse fantasy genre includes works based on asian and western traditions and folklore examples include the japanese feudal fairytale inuyasha and the depiction of scandinavian goddesses who move to japan to maintain a computer called yggdrasil in ah my goddess genre crossing in anime is also prevalent such as the blend of fantasy and comedy in dragon half and the incorporation of slapstick humor in the crime anime film castle of cagliostro other subgenres found in anime include magical girl harem sports martial arts literary adaptations medievalism and war formats early anime works were made for theatrical viewing and required played musical components before sound and vocal components were added to the production in 1958 nippon television aired mogura no abanchūru moles adventure both the first televised and first color anime to debut it was not until the 1960s when the first televised series were broadcast and it has remained a popular medium since works released in a directtovideo format are called original video animation ova or original animation video oav and are typically not released theatrically or televised prior to home media release the emergence of the internet has led some animators to distribute works online in a format called original net animation ona the home distribution of anime releases was popularized in the 1980s with the vhs and laserdisc formats the vhs ntsc video format used in both japan and the united states is credited with aiding the rising popularity of anime in the 1990s the laserdisc and vhs formats were transcended by the dvd format which offered the unique advantages including multiple subtitling and dubbing tracks on the same disc the dvd format also has its drawbacks in its usage of region coding adopted by the industry to solve licensing piracy and export problems and restricted region indicated on the dvd player the video cd vcd format was popular in hong kong and taiwan but became only a minor format in the united states that was closely associated with bootleg copies a key characteristic of many anime television shows is serialization where a continuous story arc stretches over multiple episodes or seasons traditional american television had an episodic format with each episode typically consisting of a selfcontained story in contrast anime shows such as dragon ball z had a serialization format where continuous story arcs stretch over multiple episodes or seasons which distinguished them from traditional american television shows serialization has since also become a common characteristic of american streaming television shows during the peak tv era industry the animation industry consists of more than 430 production companies with some of the major studios including toei animation gainax madhouse gonzo sunrise bones tms entertainment nippon animation paworks studio pierrot production ig ufotable and studio ghibli many of the studios are organized into a trade association the association of japanese animations there is also a labor union for workers in the industry the japanese animation creators association studios will often work together to produce more complex and costly projects as done with studio ghiblis spirited away an anime episode can cost between us100000 and us300000 to produce in 2001 animation accounted for 7 of the japanese film market above the 46 market share for liveaction works the popularity and success of anime is seen through the profitability of the dvd market contributing nearly 70 of total sales according to a 2016 article on nikkei asian review japanese television stations have bought over worth of anime from production companies over the past few years compared with under from overseas there has been a rise in sales of shows to television stations in japan caused by late night anime with adults as the target demographic this type of anime is less popular outside japan being considered more of a niche product spirited away 2001 was the alltime highestgrossing film in japan until overtaken by demon slayer kimetsu no yaiba the movie mugen train in 2020 it was also the highestgrossing anime film worldwide until it was overtaken by makoto shinkais 2016 film your name anime films represent a large part of the highestgrossing japanese films yearly in japan with 6 out of the top 10 in 2014 in 2015 and also in 2016 anime has to be licensed by companies in other countries in order to be legally released while anime has been licensed by its japanese owners for use outside japan since at least the 1960s the practice became wellestablished in the united states in the late 1970s to early 1980s when such tv series as gatchaman and captain harlock were licensed from their japanese parent companies for distribution in the us market the trend towards american distribution of anime continued into the 1980s with the licensing of titles such as voltron and the creation of new series such as robotech through the use of source material from several original series in the early 1990s several companies began to experiment with the licensing of less childrenoriented material some such as ad vision and central park media and its imprints achieved fairly substantial commercial success and went on to become major players in the now very lucrative american anime market others such as animeigo achieved limited success many companies created directly by japanese parent companies did not do as well most releasing only one or two titles before completing their american operations licenses are expensive often hundreds of thousands of dollars for one series and tens of thousands for one movie the prices vary widely for example jinki extend cost only 91000 to license while kurau phantom memory cost 960000 simulcast internet streaming rights can be cheaper with prices around 10002000 an episode but can also be more expensive with some series costing more than per episode the anime market for the united states was worth approximately 274 billion in 2009 dubbed animation began airing in the united states in 2000 on networks like the wb and cartoon networks adult swim in 2005 this resulted in five of the top ten anime titles having previously aired on cartoon network as a part of localization some editing of cultural references may occur to better follow the references of the nonjapanese culture the cost of english localization averages us10000 per episode the industry has been subject to both praise and condemnation for fansubs the addition of unlicensed and unauthorized subtitled translations of anime series or films fansubs which were originally distributed on vhs bootlegged cassettes in the 1980s have been freely available and disseminated online since the 1990s since this practice raises concerns for copyright and piracy issues fansubbers tend to adhere to an unwritten moral code to destroy or no longer distribute an anime once an official translated or subtitled version becomes licensed they also try to encourage viewers to buy an official copy of the release once it comes out in english although fansubs typically continue to circulate through filesharing networks even so the laid back regulations of the japanese animation industry tend to overlook these issues allowing it to grow underground and thus increasing its popularity until there is a demand for official highquality releases for animation companies this has led to an increase in global popularity of japanese animations reaching 40 million in sales in 2004 since the 2010s anime has become a global multibillion industry setting a sales record in 2017 of 215 trillion 198 billion driven largely by demand from overseas audiences in 2019 japans anime industry was valued at 24 billion a year with 48 of that revenue coming from overseas which is now its largest industry sector by 2025 the anime industry is expected to reach a value of 30 billion with over 60 of that revenue coming from overseas markets japan external trade organization jetro valued the domestic anime market in japan at including from licensed products in 2005 jetro reported sales of overseas anime exports in 2004 to be jetro valued the anime market in the united states at including in home video sales and over from licensed products in 2005 jetro projected in 2005 that the worldwide anime market including sales of licensed products would grow to the anime market in china was valued at in 2017 and is projected to reach by 2020 the global anime market size was valued at 26055 billion in 2021 with 29 of the revenue coming from merchandise it is expected that the global anime market will reach a value of 4714 billion by 2028 by 2030 the global anime market is expected to reach a value of 483 billion with the largest contributors to this growth being north america europe china and the middle east in 2019 the annual overseas exports of japanese animation exceeded 10 billion for the first time in history awards the anime industry has several annual awards that honor the years best works major annual awards in japan include the ōfuji noburō award the mainichi film award for best animation film the animation kobe awards the japan media arts festival animation awards the seiyu awards for voice actors the tokyo anime award and the japan academy prize for animation of the year in the united states anime films compete in the crunchyroll anime awards there were also the american anime awards which were designed to recognize excellence in anime titles nominated by the industry and were held only once in 2006 anime productions have also been nominated and won awards not exclusively for anime like the academy award for best animated feature or the golden bear working conditions in recent years the anime industry has been accused by both japanese and foreign media of underpaying and overworking its animators in response the japanese prime minister fumio kishida promised to improve the working conditions and salary of all animators and creators working in the industry a few anime studios such as mappa have taken actions to improve the working conditions of their employees there has also been a slight increase in production costs and animator pays during the covid19 pandemic on april 27 2023 nippon anime film culture association nafca was officially founded the association aims to solve problems in the industry including the improvement of conditions of the workers globalization and cultural impact anime has become commercially profitable in western countries as demonstrated by early commercially successful western adaptations of anime such as astro boy and speed racer early american adaptions in the 1960s made japan expand into the continental european market first with productions aimed at european and japanese children such as heidi vicky the viking and barbapapa which aired in various countries italy spain and france grew a particular interest in japans output due to its cheap selling price and productive output as of 2014 italy imported the most anime outside japan anime and manga were introduced to france in the late 1970s and became massively popular in spite of a moral panic led by french politicians in the 1980s and 1990s these mass imports influenced anime popularity in south american arabic and german markets the beginning of 1980 saw the introduction of japanese anime series into the american culture in the 1990s japanese animation slowly gained popularity in america media companies such as viz and mixx began publishing and releasing animation into the american market the 1988 film akira is largely credited with popularizing anime in the western world during the early 1990s before anime was further popularized by television shows such as pokémon and dragon ball z in the late 1990s by 1997 japanese anime was the fastestgrowing genre in the american video industry the growth of the internet later provided international audiences with an easy way to access japanese content early on online piracy played a major role in this through over time many legal alternatives appeared since the 2010s various streaming services have become increasingly involved in the production and licensing of anime for the international markets this is especially the case with net services such as netflix and crunchyroll which have large catalogs in western countries although as of 2020 anime fans in many developing nonwestern countries such as india and philippines have fewer options for obtaining access to legal content and therefore still turn to online piracy however beginning with the 2020s anime has been experiencing yet another boom in global popularity and demand due to the covid19 pandemic and streaming services like netflix amazon prime video hbo max disney hulu and animeonly services like crunchyroll and hidive increasing the international availability of the amount of new licensed anime shows as well as the size of their catalogs netflix reported that between october 2019 and september 2020 more than member households worldwide had watched at least one anime title on the platform anime titles appeared on the streaming platforms topten lists in almost 100 countries within the oneyear period as of 2021 anime series are the most demanded foreignlanguage television shows in the united states accounting for 305 of the market share in comparison spanishlanguage and koreanlanguage shows account for 21 and 11 of the market share respectively in 2021 more than half of netflixs global members watched anime in 2022 the anime series attack on titan won the award of most indemand tv series in the world 2021 in the global tv demand awards attack on titan became the first ever nonenglish language series to earn the title of worlds most indemand tv show previously held by only the walking dead and game of thrones rising interest in anime as well as japanese video games has led to an increase of university students in the united kingdom wanting to get a degree in the japanese language the word anime alongside other japanese pop cultural terms like shonen and shojo have been added to the oxford english dictionary various anime and manga series have influenced hollywood in the making of numerous famous movies and characters hollywood itself has produced liveaction adaptations of various anime series such as ghost in the shell death note dragon ball evolution and cowboy bebop however most of these adaptations have been reviewed negatively by both the critics and the audience and have become boxoffice flops the main reasons for the unsuccessfulness of hollywoods adaptions of anime being the often change of plot and characters from the original source material and the limited capabilities a liveaction movie or series can do in comparison to an animated counterpart one particular exception however is alita battle angel which has become a moderate commercial success receiving generally positive reviews from both the critics and the audience for its visual effects and following the source material the movie grossed 404 million worldwide making it director robert rodriguezs highestgrossing film anime and manga alongside many other parts of japanese pop culture have helped japan to gain a positive worldwide image and improve its relations with other countries in 2015 during remarks welcoming japanese prime minister shinzo abe to the white house president barack obama thanked japan for its cultural contributions to the united states by saying in july 2020 after the approval of a chilean government project in which citizens of chile would be allowed to withdraw up to 10 of their privately held retirement savings journalist pamela jiles celebrated by running through congress with her arms spread out behind her imitating the move of many characters of the anime and manga series naruto in april 2021 peruvian politicians jorge hugo romero of the ppc and milagros juárez of the upp cosplayed as anime characters to get the otaku vote in april 2023 the japan business federation laid out a proposal aiming to spur the economic growth of japan by further promoting the contents industry abroad primarily anime manga and video games for measures to invite industry experts from abroad to come to japan to work and to link with the tourism sector to help foreign fans of manga and anime visit sites across the country associated with particular manga stories the federation seeks on quadrupling the sales of japanese content in overseas markets within the upcoming 10 years a 2018 survey conducted in 20 countries and territories using a sample consisting of 6600 respondents held by dentsu revealed that 34 of all surveyed people found excellency in anime and manga more than other japanese cultural or technological aspects which makes this mass japanese media the 3rd most liked japanese thing below japanese cuisine 346 and japanese robotics 351 the advertisement company views anime as a profitable tool for marketing campaigns in foreign countries due to its popularity and high reception anime plays a role in driving tourism to japan in surveys held by statista between 2019 and 2020 242 of tourists from the united states 77 of tourists from china and 61 of tourists from south korea said they were motivated to visit japan because of japanese popular culture in a 2021 survey held by crunchyroll market research 94 of genzs and 73 of the general population said that they are familiar with anime fan response anime clubs gave rise to anime conventions in the 1990s with the anime boom a period marked by animes increased global popularity these conventions are dedicated to anime and manga and include elements like cosplay contests and industry talk panels cosplay a portmanteau of costume play is not unique to anime and has become popular in contests and masquerades at anime conventions japanese culture and words have entered english usage through the popularity of the medium including otaku an unflattering japanese term commonly used in english to denote an obsessive fan of anime andor manga another word that has arisen describing obsessive fans in the united states is wapanese meaning white individuals who want to be japanese or later known as weeaboo or weeb individuals who demonstrate an obsession with japanese anime subculture a term that originated from abusive content posted on the website 4chanorg while originally derogatory the terms otaku and weeb have been reappropriated by the anime fandom overtime and today are used by some fans to refer to themselves in a comedic and more positive way anime enthusiasts have produced fan fiction and fan art including computer wallpapers and anime music videos amvs many fans will visit sites depicted in anime games manga and other forms of otaku culture this behavior is known as anime pilgrimage as of the 2020s many anime fans and followers use social media platforms and other sites like youtube twitch fandom facebook reddit discord tumblr 4chan tiktok and twitter with online communities and databases such as imdb myanimelist to discuss anime manga and track their progress watching respective series as well as using news outlets such as anime news network due to animes increased popularity in recent years a large number of celebrities such as elon musk bts and ariana grande have come out as anime fans anime style one of the key points that made anime different from a handful of western cartoons is the potential for visceral content once the expectation that the aspects of visual intrigue or animation are just for children is put aside the audience can realize that themes involving violence suffering sexuality pain and death can all be storytelling elements utilized in anime just as much as other media however as anime itself became increasingly popular its styling has been inevitably the subject of both satire and serious creative productions south parks chinpokomon and good times with weapons episodes adult swims perfect hair forever and nickelodeons kappa mikey are examples of western satirical depictions of japanese culture and anime but anime tropes have also been satirized by some anime such as konosuba traditionally only japanese works have been considered anime but some works have sparked debate about blurring the lines between anime and cartoons such as the american animestyle productions avatar the last airbender and avatar the legend of korra these animestyled works have become defined as animeinfluenced animation in an attempt to classify all anime styled works of nonjapanese origin some creators of these works cite anime as a source of inspiration for example the french production team for ōban starracers that moved to tokyo to collaborate with a japanese production team when anime is defined as a style rather than as a national product it leaves open the possibility of anime being produced in other countries but this has been contentious amongst fans with john oppliger stating the insistence on referring to original american art as japanese anime or manga robs the work of its cultural identity a uaefilipino produced tv series called torkaizer is dubbed as the middle easts first anime show and is currently in production and looking for funding netflix has produced multiple anime series in collaboration with japanese animation studios and in doing so has offered a more accessible channel for distribution to western markets the webbased series rwby produced by texasbased company rooster teeth is produced using an anime art style and the series has been described as anime by multiple sources for example adweek in the headline to one of its articles described the series as americanmade anime and in another headline the huffington post described it as simply anime without referencing its country of origin in 2013 monty oum the creator of rwby said some believe just like scotch needs to be made in scotland an american company cant make anime i think thats a narrow way of seeing it anime is an art form and to say only one country can make this art is wrong rwby has been released in japan with a japanese language dub the ceo of rooster teeth matt hullum commented this is the first time any americanmade anime has been marketed to japan it definitely usually works the other way around and were really pleased about that media franchises in japanese culture and entertainment media mix is a strategy to disperse content across multiple representations different broadcast media gaming technologies cell phones toys amusement parks and other methods it is the japanese term for a transmedia franchise the term gained its circulation in late 1980s but the origins of the strategy can be traced back to the 1960s with the proliferation of anime with its interconnection of media and commodity goods a number of anime and manga media franchises such as demon slayer kimetsu no yaiba dragon ball and gundam have gained considerable global popularity and are among the worlds highestgrossing media franchises pokémon in particular is estimated to be the highestgrossing media franchise of all time see also animation director aeni chinese animation cinema of japan cool japan culture of japan history of anime japanophilia japanese language japanese popular culture lists of anime mass media in japan manga mechademia otaku television in japan vtuber voice acting in japan notes references sources external links 1917 introductions anime and manga terminology japanese inventions	6,651
801	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asterism	Asterism	asterism may refer to asterism astronomy a pattern of stars asterism gemology an optical phenomenon in gemstones asterism typography a moderately rare typographical symbol denoting a break in passages see also aster disambiguation asterisk disambiguation	35
802	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ankara	Ankara	ankara historically known as ancyra and angora is the capital of turkey located in the central part of anatolia the city has a population of 51 million in its urban center and 57 million in ankara province making it turkeys secondlargest city after istanbul but first by the urban area 2767 km2 serving as the capital of the ancient celtic state of galatia 28064 bc and later of the roman province with the same name 25 bc7th century the city is very old with various hattian hittite lydian phrygian galatian greek persian roman byzantine and ottoman archeological sites the ottomans made the city the capital first of the anatolia eyalet 1393 late 15th century and then the angora eyalet 18271864 and the angora vilayet 18671922 the historical center of ankara is a rocky hill rising over the left bank of the ankara river a tributary of the sakarya river the hill remains crowned by the ruins of ankara castle although few of its outworks have survived there are wellpreserved examples of roman and ottoman architecture throughout the city the most remarkable being the 20 bc temple of augustus and rome that boasts the monumentum ancyranum the inscription recording the on 23 april 1920 the grand national assembly of turkey was established in ankara which became the headquarters of the turkish national movement during the turkish war of independence ankara became the new turkish capital upon the establishment of the republic on 29 october 1923 succeeding in this role as the former turkish capital istanbul following the fall of the ottoman empire the government is a prominent employer but ankara is also an important commercial and industrial city located at the center of turkeys road and railway networks the city gave its name to the angora wool shorn from angora rabbits the longhaired angora goat the source of mohair and the angora cat the area is also known for its pears honey and muscat grapes although situated in one of the driest regions of turkey and surrounded mostly by steppe vegetation except for the forested areas on the southern periphery ankara can be considered a green city in terms of green areas per inhabitant at per head etymology the orthography of the name ankara has varied over the ages it has been identified with the hittite cult center ankuwaš although this remains a matter of debate in classical antiquity and during the medieval period the city was known as ánkyra anchor in greek and ancyra in latin the galatian celtic name was probably a similar variant following its annexation by the seljuk turks in 1073 the city became known in many european languages as angora it was also known in ottoman turkish as engürü the form angora is preserved in the names of breeds of many different kinds of animals and in the names of several locations in the us see angora history the regions history can be traced back to the bronze age hattic civilization which was succeeded in the 2nd millennium bc by the hittites in the 10th century bc by the phrygians and later by the lydians persians greeks galatians romans byzantines and turks the seljuk sultanate of rûm the ottoman empire and finally republican turkey ancient history the oldest settlements in and around the city center of ankara belonged to the hattic civilization which existed during the bronze age and was gradually absorbed c 2000 1700 bc by the indoeuropean hittites the city grew significantly in size and importance under the phrygians starting around 1000 bc and experienced a large expansion following the mass migration from gordion the capital of phrygia after an earthquake which severely damaged that city around that time in phrygian tradition king midas was venerated as the founder of ancyra but pausanias mentions that the city was actually far older which accords with present archeological knowledge phrygian rule was succeeded first by lydian and later by persian rule though the strongly phrygian character of the peasantry remained as evidenced by the gravestones of the much later roman period persian sovereignty lasted until the persians defeat at the hands of alexander the great who conquered the city in 333 bc alexander came from gordion to ankara and stayed in the city for a short period after his death at babylon in 323 bc and the subsequent division of his empire among his generals ankara and its environs fell into the share of antigonus another important expansion took place under the greeks of pontos who came there around 300 bc and developed the city as a trading center for the commerce of goods between the black sea ports and crimea to the north assyria cyprus and lebanon to the south and georgia armenia and persia to the east by that time the city also took its name ἄγκυρα ánkyra meaning anchor in greek which in slightly modified form provides the modern name of ankara celtic history in 278 bc the city along with the rest of central anatolia was occupied by a celtic group the galatians who were the first to make ankara one of their main tribal centers the headquarters of the tectosages tribe other centers were pessinus todays ballıhisar for the trocmi tribe and tavium to the east of ankara for the tolistobogii tribe the city was then known as ancyra the celtic element was probably relatively small in numbers a warrior aristocracy which ruled over phrygianspeaking peasants however the celtic language continued to be spoken in galatia for many centuries at the end of the 4th century st jerome a native of dalmatia observed that the language spoken around ankara was very similar to that being spoken in the northwest of the roman world near trier roman history the city was subsequently passed under the control of the roman empire in 25 bc emperor augustus raised it to the status of a polis and made it the capital city of the roman province of galatia ankara is famous for the monumentum ancyranum temple of augustus and rome which contains the official record of the acts of augustus known as the res gestae divi augusti an inscription cut in marble on the walls of this temple the ruins of ancyra still furnish today valuable basreliefs inscriptions and other architectural fragments two other galatian tribal centers tavium near yozgat and pessinus balhisar to the west near sivrihisar continued to be reasonably important settlements in the roman period but it was ancyra that grew into a grand metropolis an estimated 200000 people lived in ancyra in good times during the roman empire a far greater number than was to be the case from after the fall of the roman empire until the early 20th century the small ankara river ran through the center of the roman town it has now been covered and diverted but it formed the northern boundary of the old town during the roman byzantine and ottoman periods çankaya the rim of the majestic hill to the south of the present city center stood well outside the roman city but may have been a summer resort in the 19th century the remains of at least one roman villa or large house were still standing not far from where the çankaya presidential residence stands today to the west the roman city extended until the area of the gençlik park and railway station while on the southern side of the hill it may have extended downwards as far as the site presently occupied by hacettepe university it was thus a sizeable city by any standards and much larger than the roman towns of gaul or britannia ancyras importance rested on the fact that it was the junction point where the roads in northern anatolia running northsouth and eastwest intersected giving it major strategic importance for romes eastern frontier the great imperial road running east passed through ankara and a succession of emperors and their armies came this way they were not the only ones to use the roman highway network which was equally convenient for invaders in the second half of the 3rd century ancyra was invaded in rapid succession by the goths coming from the west who rode far into the heart of cappadocia taking slaves and pillaging and later by the arabs for about a decade the town was one of the western outposts of one of palmyrean empress zenobia in the syrian desert who took advantage of a period of weakness and disorder in the roman empire to set up a shortlived state of her own the town was reincorporated into the roman empire under emperor aurelian in 272 the tetrarchy a system of multiple up to four emperors introduced by diocletian 284305 seems to have engaged in a substantial program of rebuilding and of road construction from ancyra westwards to germe and dorylaeum now eskişehir in its heyday roman ancyra was a large market and trading center but it also functioned as a major administrative capital where a high official ruled from the citys praetorium a large administrative palace or office during the 3rd century life in ancyra as in other anatolian towns seems to have become somewhat militarized in response to the invasions and instability of the town byzantine history the city is well known during the 4th century as a center of christian activity see also below due to frequent imperial visits and through the letters of the pagan scholar libanius bishop marcellus of ancyra and basil of ancyra were active in the theological controversies of their day and the city was the site of no fewer than three church synods in 314 358 and 375 the latter two in favor of arianism the city was visited by emperor constans i r 337350 in 347 and 350 julian r 361363 during his persian campaign in 362 and julians successor jovian r 363364 in winter 363364 he entered his consulship while in the city after jovians death soon after valentinian i r 364375 was acclaimed emperor at ancyra and in the next year his brother valens r 364378 used ancyra as his base against the usurper procopius when the province of galatia was divided sometime in 39699 ancyra remained the civil capital of galatia i as well as its ecclesiastical center metropolitan see emperor arcadius r 383408 frequently used the city as his summer residence and some information about the ecclesiastical affairs of the city during the early 5th century is found in the works of palladius of galatia and nilus of ancyra in 479 the rebel marcian attacked the city without being able to capture it in 61011 comentiolus brother of emperor phocas r 602610 launched his own unsuccessful rebellion in the city against heraclius r 610641 ten years later in 620 or more likely 622 it was captured by the sassanid persians during the byzantinesassanid war of 602628 although the city returned to byzantine hands after the end of the war the persian presence left traces in the citys archeology and likely began the process of its transformation from a late antique city to a medieval fortified settlement in 654 the city also known in arabic sources as qalat assalasil fortress of the chains was captured for the first time by the arabs of the rashidun caliphate under muawiyah the future founder of the umayyad caliphate at about the same time the themes were established in anatolia and ancyra became capital of the opsician theme which was the largest and most important theme until it was split up under emperor constantine v r 741775 ancyra then became the capital of the new bucellarian theme the city was captured at least temporarily by the umayyad prince maslama ibn hisham in 73940 the last of the umayyads territorial gains from the byzantine empire ancyra was attacked without success by abbasid forces in 776 and in 79899 in 805 emperor nikephoros i r 802811 strengthened its fortifications a fact which probably saved it from sack during the largescale invasion of anatolia by caliph harun alrashid in the next year arab sources report that harun and his successor almamun r 813833 took the city but this information is later invention in 838 however during the amorium campaign the armies of caliph almutasim r 833842 converged and met at the city abandoned by its inhabitants ancara was razed to the ground before the arab armies went on to besiege and destroy amorium reaching as far as smyrna in 859 emperor michael iii r 842867 came to the city during a campaign against the arabs and ordered its fortifications restored in 872 the city was menaced but not taken by the paulicians under chrysocheir the last arab raid to reach the city was undertaken in 931 by the abbasid governor of tarsus thamal aldulafi but the city again was not captured ecclesiastical history early christian martyrs of ancyra about whom little is known included proklos and hilarios who were natives of the otherwise unknown nearby village of kallippi and suffered repression under the emperor trajan 98117 in the 280s we hear of philumenos a christian corn merchant from southern anatolia being captured and martyred in ankara and eustathius as in other roman towns the reign of diocletian marked the culmination of the persecution of the christians in 303 ancyra was one of the towns where the coemperors diocletian and his deputy galerius launched their antichristian persecution in ancyra their first target was the 38yearold bishop of the town whose name was clement clements life describes how he was taken to rome then sent back and forced to undergo many interrogations and hardship before he and his brother and various companions were put to death the remains of the church of st clement can be found today in a building just off işıklar caddesi in the ulus district quite possibly this marks the site where clement was originally buried four years later a doctor of the town named plato and his brother antiochus also became celebrated martyrs under galerius theodotus of ancyra is also venerated as a saint however the persecution proved unsuccessful and in 314 ancyra was the center of an important council of the early church its 25 disciplinary canons constitute one of the most important documents in the early history of the administration of the sacrament of penance the synod also considered ecclesiastical policy for the reconstruction of the christian church after the persecutions and in particular the treatment of lapsichristians who had given in to forced paganism sacrifices to avoid martyrdom during these persecutions though paganism was probably tottering in ancyra in clements day it may still have been the majority religion twenty years later christianity and monotheism had taken its place ancyra quickly turned into a christian city with a life dominated by monks and priests and theological disputes the town council or senate gave way to the bishop as the main local figurehead during the middle of the 4th century ancyra was involved in the complex theological disputes over the nature of christ and a form of arianism seems to have originated there in 362363 emperor julian passed through ancyra on his way to an illfated campaign against the persians and according to christian sources engaged in a persecution of various holy men the stone base for a statue with an inscription describing julian as lord of the whole world from the british ocean to the barbarian nations can still be seen built into the eastern side of the inner circuit of the walls of ankara castle the column of julian which was erected in honor of the emperors visit to the city in 362 still stands today in 375 arian bishops met at ancyra and deposed several bishops among them st gregory of nyssa in the late 4th century ancyra became something of an imperial holiday resort after constantinople became the east roman capital emperors in the 4th and 5th centuries would retire from the humid summer weather on the bosporus to the drier mountain atmosphere of ancyra theodosius ii 408450 kept his court in ancyra in the summers laws issued in ancyra testify to the time they spent there the metropolis of ancyra continued to be a residential see of the eastern orthodox church until the 20th century with about 40000 faithful mostly turkishspeaking but that situation ended as a result of the 1923 convention concerning the exchange of greek and turkish populations the earlier armenian genocide put an end to the residential eparchy of ancyra of the armenian catholic church which had been established in 1850 it is also a titular metropolis of the ecumenical patriarchate of constantinople both the ancient byzantine metropolitan archbishopric and the modern armenian eparchy are now listed by the catholic church as titular sees with separate apostolic successions seljuk and ottoman history after the battle of manzikert in 1071 the seljuk turks overran much of anatolia by 1073 the turkish settlers had reached the vicinity of ancyra and the city was captured shortly after at the latest by the time of the rebellion of nikephoros melissenos in 1081 in 1101 when the crusade under raymond iv of toulouse arrived the city had been under danishmend control for some time the crusaders captured the city and handed it over to the byzantine emperor alexios i komnenos r 10811118 byzantine rule did not last long and the city was captured by the seljuk sultanate of rum at some unknown point in 1127 it returned to danishmend control until 1143 when the seljuks of rum retook it after the battle of köse dağ in 1243 in which the mongols defeated the seljuks most of anatolia became part of the dominion of the mongols taking advantage of seljuk decline a semireligious cast of craftsmen and trade people named ahiler chose angora as their independent citystate in 1290 orhan the second bey of the ottoman empire captured the city in 1356 timur defeated bayezid i at the battle of ankara in 1402 and took the city but in 1403 angora was again under ottoman control the levant company maintained a factory in the town from 1639 to 1768 in the 19th century its population was estimated at 20000 to 60000 it was sacked by egyptians under ibrahim pasha in 1832 from 1867 to 1922 the city served as the capital of the angora vilayet which included most of ancient galatia prior to world war i the town had a british consulate and a population of around 28000 roughly of whom were christian turkish republican capital following the ottoman defeat in world war i the ottoman capital constantinople modern istanbul and much of anatolia was occupied by the allies who planned to share these lands between armenia france greece italy and the united kingdom leaving for the turks the core piece of land in central anatolia in response the leader of the turkish nationalist movement mustafa kemal atatürk established the headquarters of his resistance movement in angora in 1920 after the turkish war of independence was won and the treaty of sèvres was superseded by the treaty of lausanne 1923 the turkish nationalists replaced the ottoman empire with the republic of turkey on 29 october 1923 a few days earlier angora had officially replaced constantinople as the new turkish capital city on 13 october 1923 and republican officials declared that the citys name is ankara after ankara became the capital of the newly founded republic of turkey new development divided the city into an old section called ulus and a new section called yenişehir ancient buildings reflecting roman byzantine and ottoman history and narrow winding streets mark the old section the new section now centered on kızılay square has the trappings of a more modern city wide streets hotels theaters shopping malls and highrises government offices and foreign embassies are also located in the new section ankara has experienced a phenomenal growth since it was made turkeys capital in 1923 when it was a small town of no importance in 1924 the year after the government had moved there ankara had about 35000 residents by 1927 there were 44553 residents and by 1950 the population had grown to 286781 after 1930 the city officially became known in western languages as ankara by the late 1930s the english name angora was no longer in popular use ankara continued to grow rapidly during the latter half of the 20th century and eventually outranked izmir as turkeys secondlargest city after istanbul ankaras urban population reached 4587558 in 2014 while the population of ankara province reached 5150072 in 2015 the presidential palace of turkey is situated in ankara this building serves as the main residence of the president geography geographically ankara is located in the middle of the kızılırmak and sakarya rivers and the sakarya river forms its border with eskişehir in the west ankara shares its borders with bolu and çankırı in the north konya in the south and kırıkkale in the east ankara and its province are located in the central anatolia region of turkey the çubuk brook flows through the city center of ankara it is connected in the western suburbs of the city to the ankara river which is a tributary of the sakarya river climate ankara has a cold semiarid climate köppen climate classification bsk under the trewartha climate classification ankara has a temperate humid continental climate dc due to its elevation and inland location ankara has cold and snowy winters and hot and dry summers rainfall occurs mostly during the spring and autumn the city lies in usda hardiness zone 7b and its annual average precipitation is fairly low at nevertheless precipitation can be observed throughout the year monthly mean temperatures range from in january to in july with an annual mean of demographics ankara had a population of 75000 in 1927 as of 2019 the population of the ankara province was 5639076 when ankara became the capital of the republic of turkey in 1923 it was designated as a planned city for 500000 future inhabitants during the 1920s 1930s and 1940s the city grew in a planned and orderly pace however from the 1950s onward the city grew much faster than envisioned because unemployment and poverty forced people to migrate from the countryside into the city in order to seek a better standard of living as a result many illegal houses called gecekondu were built around the city causing the unplanned and uncontrolled urban landscape of ankara as not enough planned housing could be built fast enough although precariously built the vast majority of them have electricity running water and modern household amenities nevertheless many of these gecekondus have been replaced by huge public housing projects in the form of tower blocks such as elvankent eryaman and güzelkent and also as mass housing compounds for military and civil service accommodation although many gecekondus still remain they too are gradually being replaced by mass housing compounds as empty land plots in the city of ankara for new construction projects are becoming impossible to find çorum and yozgat which are located in central anatolia and whose population is decreasing are the provinces with the highest net migration to ankara about one third of the central anatolia population of 15608868 people resides in ankara the literacy rate in the whole province for people who are 15 years old or older is 9818 according to 2020 tüi̇k data ankara province also has the highest percentage of tertiary education graduates in turkey with 2908 of the population having either an undergraduate masters or doctors degree economy and infrastructure ankara has long been a productive agricultural region in anatolia in the ottoman period ankara was well known for producing grain cotton and fruits the city has exported mohair from the angora goat and angora wool from the angora rabbit internationally for centuries in the 19th century the city also exported substantial amounts of goat and cat skins gum wax honey berries and madder root it was connected to istanbul by railway before the first world war continuing to export mohair wool berries and grain the central anatolia region is one of the primary locations of grape and wine production in turkey and ankara is particularly famous for its kalecik karası and muscat grapes and its kavaklıdere wine which is produced in the kavaklıdere neighborhood within the çankaya district of the city ankara is also famous for its pears another renowned natural product of ankara is its indigenous type of honey ankara balı which is known for its light color and is mostly produced by the atatürk forest farm and zoo in the gazi district and by other facilities in the elmadağ çubuk and beypazarı districts çubuk1 and çubuk2 dams on the çubuk brook in ankara were among the first dams constructed in the turkish republic ankara is the center of the stateowned and private turkish defence and aerospace companies where the industrial plants and headquarters of the turkish aerospace industries mke aselsan havelsan roketsan fnss nurol makina and numerous other firms are located exports to foreign countries from these defense and aerospace firms have steadily increased in the past decades the idef in ankara is one of the largest international expositions of the global arms industry a number of the global automotive companies also have production facilities in ankara such as the german bus and truck manufacturer man se ankara hosts the ostim industrial zone turkeys largest industrial park a large percentage of the complicated employment in ankara is provided by the state institutions such as the ministries subministries and other administrative bodies of the turkish government there are also many foreign citizens working as diplomats or clerks in the embassies of their respective countries transportation the electricity gas bus general directorate ego operates the ankara metro and other forms of public transportation ankara is served by a suburban rail named ankaray a1 and three subway lines m1 m2 m3 of the ankara metro with about 300000 total daily commuters while an additional subway line m4 is under construction a long gondola lift with four stations connects the district of şentepe to the yenimahalle metro station the ankara central station is a major rail hub in turkey the turkish state railways operates passenger train service from ankara to other major cities such as istanbul eskişehir balıkesir kütahya i̇zmir kayseri adana kars elazığ malatya diyarbakır karabük zonguldak and sivas commuter rail also runs between the stations of sincan and kayaş on 13 march 2009 the new yüksek hızlı tren yht highspeed rail service began operation between ankara and eskişehir on 23 august 2011 another yht highspeed line commercially started its service between ankara and konya on 25 july 2014 the ankaraistanbul highspeed line of yht entered service esenboğa international airport located in the northeast of the city is ankaras main airport ankara public transportation statistics the average amount of time people spend commuting on public transit in ankara on a weekday is 71 minutes 17 of public transit passengers ride for more than two hours every day the average amount of time people wait at a stop or station for public transit is sixteen minutes while 28 of users wait for over twenty minutes on average every day the average distance people usually ride in a single trip with public transit is while 27 travel for over in a single direction politics since 8 april 2019 the mayor of ankara is mansur yavaş from the republican peoples party chp who won the mayoral election in 2019 ankara is politically a triple battleground between the ruling conservative ak party the opposition kemalist centerleft republican peoples party chp and the nationalist farright mhp the province of ankara is divided into 25 districts the chps key and almost only political stronghold in ankara lies within the central area of çankaya which is the citys most populous district while the chp has always gained between 60 and 70 of the vote in çankaya since 2002 political support elsewhere throughout ankara is minimal the high population within çankaya as well as yenimahalle to an extent has allowed the chp to take overall second place behind the ak party in both local and general elections with the mhp a close third despite the fact that the mhp is politically stronger than the chp in almost every other district overall the ak party enjoys the most support throughout the city the electorate of ankara thus tend to vote in favor of the political right far more so than the other main cities of istanbul and i̇zmir in retrospect the 201314 protests against the ak party government were particularly strong in ankara proving to be fatal on multiple occasions the city suffered from a series of terrorist attacks in 2015 and 2016 most notably on 10 october 2015 17 february 2016 13 march 2016 and 15 july 2016 melih gökçek was the metropolitan mayor of ankara between 1994 and 2017 initially elected in the 1994 local elections he was reelected in 1999 2004 and 2009 in the 2014 local elections gökçek stood for a fifth term the mhps metropolitan mayoral candidate for the 2009 local elections mansur yavaş stood as the chps candidate against gökçek in 2014 in a heavily controversial election gökçek was declared the winner by just 1 ahead of yavaş amid allegations of systematic electoral fraud with the supreme electoral council and courts rejecting his appeals yavaş declared his intention to take the irregularities to the european court of human rights although gökçek was inaugurated for a fifth term most election observers believe that yavaş was the winner of the election gökçek resigned on 28 october 2017 and was replaced by the former mayor of sincan district mustafa tuna who was succeeded by mansur yavaş of the chp the current mayor of ankara elected in 2019 main sights ancientarcheological sites ankara citadel the foundations of the ankara castle and citadel were laid by the galatians on a prominent lava outcrop and the rest was completed by the romans the byzantines and seljuks further made restorations and additions the area around and inside the citadel being the oldest part of ankara contains many fine examples of traditional architecture there are also recreational areas to relax many restored traditional turkish houses inside the citadel area have found new life as restaurants serving local cuisine the citadel was depicted in various turkish banknotes during 19271952 and 19831989 roman theater the remains the stage and the backstage of the roman theater can be seen outside the castle roman statues that were found here are exhibited in the museum of anatolian civilizations the seating area is still under excavation temple of augustus and rome the augusteum now known as the temple of augustus and rome was built 25 20 bc following the conquest of central anatolia by the roman empire ancyra then formed the capital of the new province of galatia after the death of augustus in ad 14 a copy of the text of the res gestae divi augusti the monumentum ancyranum was inscribed on the interior of the temples in latin and a greek translation on an exterior wall of the the temple on the ancient acropolis of ancyra was enlarged in the 2nd century and converted into a church in the 5th century it is located in the ulus quarter of the city it was subsequently publicized by the austrian ambassador ogier ghiselin de busbecq in the 16th century roman baths the roman baths of ankara have all the typical features of a classical roman bath complex a frigidarium cold room a tepidarium warm room and a caldarium hot room the baths were built during the reign of the roman emperor caracalla in the early 3rd century to honor asclepios the god of medicine today only the basement and first floors remain it is situated in the ulus quarter roman road the roman road of ankara or cardo maximus was found in 1995 by turkish archeologist cevdet bayburtluoğlu it is long and wide many ancient artifacts were discovered during the excavations along the road and most of them are displayed at the museum of anatolian civilizations column of julian the column of julian or julianus now in the ulus district was erected in honor of the roman emperor julian the apostates visit to ancyra in 362 mosques kocatepe mosque kocatepe mosque is the largest mosque in the city located in the kocatepe quarter it was constructed between 1967 and 1987 in classical ottoman style with four minarets its size and prominent location have made it a landmark for the city ahmet hamdi akseki mosque ahmet hamdi akseki mosque is located near the presidency of religious affairs on the eskişehir road built in the turkish neoclassical style it is one of the largest new mosques in the city completed and opened in 2013 it can accommodate 6 thousand people during general prayers and up to 30 thousand people during funeral prayers the mosque was decorated with anatolian seljuk style patterns yeni cenab ahmet mosque it is the largest ottoman mosque in ankara and was built by the famous architect sinan in the 16th century the mimber pulpit and mihrap prayer niche are of white marble and the mosque itself is of ankara stone an example of very fine workmanship hacı bayram mosque this mosque in the ulus quarter next to the temple of augustus was built in the early 15th century in seljuk style by an unknown architect it was subsequently restored by architect mimar sinan in the 16th century with kütahya tiles being added in the 18th century the mosque was built in honor of hacı bayramı veli whose tomb is next to the mosque two years before his death 142728 the usable space inside this mosque is on the first floor and on the second floor ahi elvan mosque it was founded in the ulus quarter near the ankara citadel and was constructed by the ahi fraternity during the late 14th and early 15th centuries the finely carved walnut mimber pulpit is of particular interest alâeddin mosque the alâeddin mosque is the oldest mosque in ankara it has a carved walnut mimber the inscription on which records that the mosque was completed in early ah 574 which corresponds to the summer of 1178 ad and was built by the seljuk prince muhiddin mesud şah died 1204 the bey of ankara who was the son of the anatolian seljuk sultan kılıç arslan ii reigned 11561192 modern monuments victory monument the victory monument turkish zafer anıtı was crafted by austrian sculptor heinrich krippel in 1925 and was erected in 1927 at ulus square the monument is made of marble and bronze and features an equestrian statue of mustafa kemal atatürk who wears a republic era modern military uniform with the rank field marshal statue of atatürk located at zafervictory square turkish zafer meydanı the marble and bronze statue was crafted by the renowned italian sculptor pietro canonica in 1927 and depicts a standing atatürk who wears a republic era modern military uniform with the rank field marshal monument to a secure confident future this monument located in güven park near kızılay square was erected in 1935 and bears atatürks advice to his people turk be proud work hard and believe in yourself there is debate on whether or not atatürk actually said use your mindturkish öğün instead of be proudturkish övün the monument was depicted on the reverse of the turkish 5 lira banknote of 19371952 and of the 1000 lira banknotes of 19391946 hatti monument erected in 1978 at sıhhiye square this impressive monument symbolizes the hatti sun disc which was later adopted by the hittites and commemorates anatolias earliest known civilization the hatti sun disc has been used in the previous logo of ankara metropolitan municipality it was also used in the previous logo of the ministry of culture tourism inns suluhan suluhan is a historical inn in ankara it is also called the hasanpaşa han it is about southeast of ulus square and situated in the hacıdoğan neighborhood according to the vakfiye inscription of the building the ottoman era han was commissioned by hasan pasha a regional beylerbey and was constructed between 1508 and 1511 during the final years of the reign of sultan bayezid ii there are 102 rooms now shops which face the two yards in each room there is a window a niche and a chimney çengelhan rahmi m koç museum çengelhan rahmi m koç museum is a museum of industrial technology situated in çengel han an ottoman era inn which was completed in 1523 during the early years of the reign of sultan suleiman the magnificent the exhibits include industrialtechnological artifacts from the 1850s onwards there are also sections about mustafa kemal atatürk the founder of modern turkey vehbi koç rahmi koçs father and one of the first industrialists of turkey and ankara city shopping foreign visitors to ankara usually like to visit the old shops in çıkrıkçılar yokuşu weavers road near ulus where myriad things ranging from traditional fabrics handwoven carpets and leather products can be found at bargain prices bakırcılar çarşısı bazaar of coppersmiths is particularly popular and many interesting items not just of copper can be found here like jewelry carpets costumes antiques and embroidery up the hill to the castle gate there are many shops selling a huge and fresh collection of spices dried fruits nuts and other produce modern shopping areas are mostly found in kızılay or on tunalı hilmi avenue including the modern mall of karum named after the ancient assyrian merchant colonies called kârum that were established in central anatolia at the beginning of the 2nd millennium bc which is located towards the end of the avenue and in çankaya the quarter with the highest elevation in the city atakule tower next to atrium mall in çankaya has views over ankara and also has a revolving restaurant at the top the symbol of the armada shopping mall is an anchor and theres a large anchor monument at its entrance as a reference to the ancient greek name of the city ἄγκυρα ánkyra which means anchor likewise the anchor monument is also related with the spanish name of the mall armada which means naval fleet as ankara started expanding westward in the 1970s several modern suburbiastyle developments and minicities began to rise along the western highway also known as the eskişehir road the armada cepa and kentpark malls on the highway the galleria arcadium and gordion in ümitköy and a huge mall real in bilkent center offer north american and european style shopping opportunities these places can be reached through the eskişehir highway there is also the newly expanded ankamall at the outskirts on the istanbul highway which houses most of the wellknown international brands this mall is the largest throughout the ankara region in 2014 a few more shopping malls were open in ankara they are next level and taurus on the boulevard of mevlana also known as konya road culture the arts turkish state opera and ballet the national directorate of opera and ballet companies of turkey has its headquarters in ankara and serves the city with three venues ankara opera house opera sahnesi also known as büyük tiyatro is the largest of the three venues for opera and ballet in ankara music ankara is host to five classical music orchestras presidential symphony orchestra turkish presidential symphony orchestra bilkent symphony orchestra bso is a major symphony orchestra of turkey hacettepe symphony orchestra was founded in 2003 and directed by erol erdinç başkent oda orkestrası chamber orchestra of the capital there are four concert halls in the city cso concert hall bilkent concert hall is a performing arts center in ankara it is located in the bilkent university campus meb şura salonu also known as the festival hall it is noted for its tango performances çankaya çağdaş sanatlar merkezi concert hall was founded in 1994 the city has been host to several wellestablished annual theater music film festivals ankara international music festival a music festival organized in the turkish capital presenting classical music and ballet programs ankara also has a number of concert venues such as eskiyeni if performance hall jolly joker kite nefes bar and route which host the live performances and events of popular musicians theater the turkish state theatres also has its head office in ankara and runs the following stages in the city 125 yıl çayyolu sahnesi büyük tiyatro küçük tiyatro şinasi sahnesi akün sahnesi altındağ tiyatrosu i̇rfan şahinbaş atölye sahnesi oda tiyatrosu mahir canova sahnesi muhsin ertuğrul sahnesi in addition the city is served by several private theater companies among which ankara sanat tiyatrosu who have their own stage in the city center is a notable example museums there are about 50 museums in the city museum of anatolian civilizations the museum of anatolian civilizations anadolu medeniyetleri müzesi is situated at the entrance of the ankara castle it is an old 15th century bedesten covered bazaar that has been restored and now houses a collection of paleolithic neolithic hatti hittite phrygian urartian and roman works as well as a major section dedicated to lydian treasures anıtkabir anıtkabir is located on an imposing hill which forms the anıttepe quarter of the city where the mausoleum of mustafa kemal atatürk founder of the republic of turkey stands completed in 1953 it is a fusion of ancient and modern architectural styles an adjacent museum houses a wax statue of atatürk his writings letters and personal items as well as an exhibition of photographs recording important moments in his life and during the establishment of the republic anıtkabir is open every day while the adjacent museum is open every day except mondays ankara ethnography museum ankara ethnography museum etnoğrafya müzesi is located opposite to the ankara opera house on talat paşa boulevard in the ulus district there is a fine collection of folkloric items as well as artifacts from the seljuk and ottoman periods in front of the museum building there is a marble and bronze equestrian statue of mustafa kemal atatürk who wears a republic era modern military uniform with the rank field marshal which was crafted in 1927 by the renowned italian sculptor pietro canonica state art and sculpture museum the state art and sculpture museum resimheykel müzesi which opened to the public in 1980 is close to the ethnography museum and houses a rich collection of turkish art from the late 19th century to the present day there are also galleries which host guest exhibitions cer modern cer modern is the modernarts museum of ankara inaugurated on 1 april 2010 it is situated in the renovated building of the historic tcdd cer atölyeleri formerly a workshop of the turkish state railways the museum incorporates the largest exhibition hall in turkey the museum holds periodic exhibitions of modern and contemporary art as well as hosting other contemporary arts events war of independence museum the war of independence museum kurtuluş savaşı müzesi is located on ulus square it was originally the first parliament building tbmm of the republic of turkey the war of independence was planned and directed here as recorded in various photographs and items presently on exhibition in another display wax figures of former presidents of the republic of turkey are on exhibit mehmet akif literature museum library the mehmet akif literature museum library is an important literary museum and archive opened in 2011 and dedicated to mehmet akif ersoy 18731936 the poet of the turkish national anthem tcdd open air steam locomotive museum the tcdd open air steam locomotive museum is an openair museum which traces the history of steam locomotives ankara aviation museum ankara aviation museum hava kuvvetleri müzesi komutanlığı is located near the istanbul road in etimesgut the museum opened to the public in september 1998 it is home to various missiles avionics aviation materials and aircraft that have served in the turkish air force eg combat aircraft such as the f86 sabre f100 super sabre f102 delta dagger f104 starfighter f5 freedom fighter f4 phantom and cargo planes such as the transall c160 also a hungarian mig21 a pakistani mig19 and a bulgarian mig17 are on display at the museum metu science and technology museum the metu science and technology museum odtü bilim ve teknoloji müzesi is located inside the middle east technical university campus sports as with all other cities of turkey football is the most popular sport in ankara the city has two football clubs competing in the turkish süper lig ankaragücü founded in 1910 is the oldest club in ankara and is associated with ankaras military arsenal manufacturing company mke they were the turkish cup winners in 1972 and 1981 gençlerbirliği founded in 1923 are known as the ankara gale or the poppies because of their colors red and black they were the turkish cup winners in 1987 and 2001 gençlerbirliğis b team hacettepe sk formerly known as gençlerbirliği oftaş played in the süper lig but currently plays in the tff second league a fourth team büyükşehir belediye ankaraspor played in the süper lig until 2010 when they were expelled the club was reconstituted in 2014 as osmanlıspor but have since returned to their old identity as ankaraspor ankaraspor currently play in the tff first league at the osmanlı stadium in the sincan district of yenikent outside the city center keçiörengücü also currently play in the tff first league ankara has a large number of minor teams playing at regional levels in the tff second league mamak fk in mamak ankara demirspor in çankaya etimesgut belediyespor in etimesgut in the tff third league çankaya fk in keçiören altındağspor in altındağ in the amateur league turanspor in etimesgut türk telekomspor owned by the phone company in yenimahalle çubukspor in çubuk and bağlumspor in keçiören in the turkish basketball league ankara is represented by türk telekom whose home is the ankara arena and casa ted kolejliler whose home is the tobb sports hall halkbank ankara is the leading domestic powerhouse in mens volleyball having won many championships and cups in the turkish mens volleyball league and even the cev cup in 2013 ankara buz pateni sarayı is where the ice skating and ice hockey competitions take place in the city there are many popular spots for skateboarding which is active in the city since the 1980s skaters in ankara usually meet in the park near the grand national assembly of turkey the 2012built thf sport hall hosts the handball super league and womens handball super league matches scheduled in ankara parks ankara has many parks and open spaces mainly established in the early years of the republic and well maintained and expanded thereafter the most important of these parks are gençlik parkı houses an amusement park with a large pond for rowing the botanical garden seğmenler park anayasa park kuğulu park famous for the swans received as a gift from the chinese government abdi i̇pekçi park esertepe parkı güven park see above for the monument kurtuluş park has an iceskating rink altınpark also a prominent expositionfair area harikalar diyarı claimed to be biggest park of europe inside city borders and göksu park dikmen vadisi dikmen valley is a park and recreation area situated in çankaya district gençlik park was depicted on the reverse of the turkish 100 lira banknotes of 19521976 atatürk forest farm and zoo atatürk orman çiftliği is an expansive recreational farming area which houses a zoo several small agricultural farms greenhouses restaurants a dairy farm and a brewery it is a pleasant place to spend a day with family be it for having picnics hiking biking or simply enjoying good food and nature there is also an exact replica of the house where atatürk was born in 1881 in thessaloniki greece visitors to the çiftlik farm as it is affectionately called by ankarans can sample such famous products of the farm such as oldfashioned beer and ice cream fresh dairy products and meat rollskebabs made on charcoal at a traditional restaurant merkez lokantası central restaurant cafés and other establishments scattered around the farm education universities ankara is noted within turkey for the multitude of universities it is home to these include the following several of them being among the most reputable in the country ankara university atılım university başkent university bilkent university çankaya university gazi university gülhane military medical academy hacettepe university middle east technical university ted university tobb university of economics and technology turkish aeronautical association university turkish military academy turkish national police academy ufuk university yıldırım beyazıt university fauna angora cat ankara is home to a worldfamous domestic cat breed the turkish angora called ankara kedisi ankara cat in turkish turkish angoras are one of the ancient naturally occurring cat breeds having originated in ankara and its surrounding region in central anatolia they mostly have a white silky medium to long length coat no undercoat and a fine bone structure there seems to be a connection between the angora cats and persians and the turkish angora is also a distant cousin of the turkish van although they are known for their shimmery white coat there are more than twenty varieties including black blue and reddish fur they come in tabby and tabbywhite along with smoke varieties and are in every color other than pointed lavender and cinnamon all of which would indicate breeding to an outcross eyes may be blue green or amber or even one blue and one amber or green the w gene which is responsible for the white coat and blue eye is closely related to the hearing ability and the presence of a blue eye can indicate that the cat is deaf to the side the blue eye is located however a great many blue and oddeyed white cats have normal hearing and even deaf cats lead a very normal life if kept indoors ears are pointed and large eyes are almond shaped and the head is massive with a two plane profile another characteristic is the tail which is often kept parallel to the back angora goat the angora goat is a breed of domestic goat that originated in ankara and its surrounding region in central anatolia this breed was first mentioned in the time of moses roughly in 1500 bc the first angora goats were brought to europe by charles v holy roman emperor about 1554 but like later imports were not very successful angora goats were first introduced in the united states in 1849 by james p davis seven adult goats were a gift from sultan abdülmecid i in appreciation for his services and advice on the raising of cotton the fleece taken from an angora goat is called mohair a single goat produces between of hair per year angoras are shorn twice a year unlike sheep which are shorn only once angoras have high nutritional requirements due to their rapid hair growth a poor quality diet will curtail mohair development the united states turkey and south africa are the top producers of mohair for a long period of time angora goats were bred for their white coat in 1998 the colored angora goat breeders association was set up to promote breeding of colored angoras today angora goats produce white black deep black to greys and silver red the color fades significantly as the goat gets older and brownish fiber angora goats were depicted on the reverse of the turkish 50 lira banknotes of 19381952 angora rabbit the angora rabbit is a variety of domestic rabbit bred for its long soft hair the angora is one of the oldest types of domestic rabbit originating in ankara and its surrounding region in central anatolia along with the angora cat and angora goat the rabbits were popular pets with french royalty in the mid18th century and spread to other parts of europe by the end of the century they first appeared in the united states in the early 20th century they are bred largely for their long angora wool which may be removed by shearing combing or plucking gently pulling loose wool angoras are bred mainly for their wool because it is silky and soft they have a humorous appearance as they oddly resemble a fur ball most are calm and docile but should be handled carefully grooming is necessary to prevent the fiber from matting and felting on the rabbit a condition called wool block is common in angora rabbits and should be treated quickly sometimes they are shorn in the summer as the long fur can cause the rabbits to overheat international relations twin towns and sister cities ankara is twinned with seoul south korea since 1971 islamabad pakistan since 1982 kuala lumpur malaysia since 1984 beijing china since 1990 amman jordan since 1992 bishkek kyrgyzstan since 1992 budapest hungary since 1992 khartoum sudan since 1992 moscow russia since 1992 sofia bulgaria since 1992 havana cuba since 1993 kyiv ukraine since 1993 ashgabat turkmenistan since 1994 kuwait city kuwait since 1994 sarajevo bosnia and herzegovina since 1994 tirana albania since 1995 tbilisi georgia since 1996 ufa bashkortostan russia since 1997 alanya turkey bucharest romania since 1998 hanoi vietnam since 1998 manama bahrain since 2000 mogadishu somalia since 2000 santiago chile since 2000 astana kazakhstan since 2001 dushanbe tajikistan since 2003 kabul afghanistan since 2003 ulan bator mongolia since 2003 cairo egypt since 2004 chișinău moldova since 2004 sanaa yemen since 2004 tashkent uzbekistan since 2004 pristina kosovo since 2005 kazan tatarstan russia since 2005 kinshasa democratic republic of the congo since 2005 addis ababa ethiopia since 2006 minsk belarus since 2007 zagreb croatia since 2008 damascus syria since 2010 bissau guineabissau since 2011 washington dc usa since 2011 bangkok thailand since 2012 tehran iran since 2013 doha qatar since 2016 podgorica montenegro since 7 march 2019 north nicosia northern cyprus djibouti city djibouti since 2017 partner cities skopje north macedonia since 1995 vienna austria see also angora cat angora goat angora rabbit ankara agreement ankara arena ankara central station ankara esenboğa international airport ankara metro ankara province ankara university ato congresium basil of ancyra battle of ancyra battle of ankara clement of ancyra gemellus of ancyra history of ankara list of hospitals in ankara province list of mayors of ankara list of municipalities in ankara province list of districts of ankara list of people from ankara list of tallest buildings in ankara marcellus of ancyra monumentum ancyranum nilus of ancyra roman baths of ankara synod of ancyra theodotus of ancyra bishop theodotus of ancyra martyr timeline of ankara treaty of ankara disambiguation victory monument ankara notes references attribution further reading external links governorate of ankara municipality of ankara gcatholic former and latin titular see gcatholic former and titular armenian catholic see ankara development agency esenboğa international airport capitals in asia populated places in ankara province	9,142
803	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic	Arabic	arabic or is a semitic language spoken primarily across the arab world having emerged in the 1st century ad it is named after the arab people the term arab was initially used to describe those living in the arabian peninsula as perceived by geographers from ancient greece since the 7th century arabic has been characterized by diglossia with an opposition between a standard prestige languageie literary arabic modern standard arabic msa or classical arabicand diverse vernacular varieties which serve as mother tongues colloquial dialects vary significantly from msa impeding mutual intelligibility msa is only acquired through formal education and is not spoken natively it is the language of literature official documents and formal written media in spoken form msa is used in formal contexts news bulletins and for prayers this variety is the lingua franca of the arab world and the liturgical language of islam it is an official language of 26 states and 1 disputed territory the third most after english and french it is also one of six official languages of the united nations spoken varieties are the usual medium of communication in all other domains they are not standardized and vary significantly some of them being mutually unintelligible the international organization for standardization assigns language codes to 33 varieties of arabic including msa arabic vernaculars do not descend from msa or classical arabic combined arabic dialects have 362 million native speakers while msa is spoken by 274 million l2 speakers making it the sixth most spoken language in the world and the most spoken that is neither chinese nor indoeuropean arabic is traditionally written with the arabic alphabet a righttoleft abjad and the official script for msa colloquial varieties were not traditionally written however the emergence of social media has seen a significant increase in dialects written online besides the arabic alphabet dialects are also often written in latin script from left to right or in hebrew characters in israel with no standardized orthography hassaniya is the only variety officially written in a latin alphabet in senegal maltese also uses a latin script though it is widely classified as distinct from arabic dialects classification arabic is usually classified as a central semitic language linguists still differ as to the best classification of semitic language subgroups the semitic languages changed significantly between protosemitic and the emergence of central semitic languages particularly in grammar innovations of the central semitic languagesall maintained in arabicinclude the conversion of the suffixconjugated stative formation jalas into a past tense the conversion of the prefixconjugated preteritetense formation yajlis into a present tense the elimination of other prefixconjugated moodaspect forms eg a present tense formed by doubling the middle root a perfect formed by infixing a after the first root consonant probably a jussive formed by a stress shift in favor of new moods formed by endings attached to the prefixconjugation forms eg u for indicative a for subjunctive no ending for jussive an or anna for energetic the development of an internal passive there are several features which classical arabic the modern arabic varieties as well as the safaitic and hismaic inscriptions share which are unattested in any other central semitic language variety including the dadanitic and taymanitic languages of the northern hejaz these features are evidence of common descent from a hypothetical ancestor protoarabic the following features of protoarabic can be reconstructed with confidence negative particles to classical arabic gpassive participle prepositions and adverbs a subjunctive in demonstratives leveling of the allomorph of the feminine ending complementizer and subordinator the use of to introduce modal clauses independent object pronoun in vestiges of nunation on the other hand several arabic varieties are closer to other semitic languages and maintain features not found in classical arabic indicating that these varieties cannot have developed from classical arabic thus arabic vernaculars do not descend from classical arabic classical arabic is a sister language rather than their direct ancestor history old arabic arabia had a wide variety of semitic languages in antiquity in the southwest various central semitic languages both belonging to and outside the ancient south arabian family eg southern thamudic were spoken it is believed that the ancestors of the modern south arabian languages noncentral semitic languages were spoken in southern arabia at this time to the north in the oases of northern hejaz dadanitic and taymanitic held some prestige as inscriptional languages in and parts of western arabia a language known to scholars as thamudic c is attested in eastern arabia inscriptions in a script derived from asa attest to a language known as hasaitic on the northwestern frontier of arabia various languages known to scholars as thamudic b thamudic d safaitic and hismaic are attested the last two share important isoglosses with later forms of arabic leading scholars to theorize that safaitic and hismaic are early forms of arabic and that they should be considered old arabic linguists generally believe that old arabic a collection of related dialects that constitute the precursor of arabic first emerged around the 1st century ce previously the earliest attestation of old arabic was thought to be a single 1st century ce inscription in sabaic script at in southern presentday saudi arabia however this inscription does not participate in several of the key innovations of the arabic language group such as the conversion of semitic mimation to nunation in the singular it is best reassessed as a separate language on the central semitic dialect continuum it was also thought that old arabic coexisted alongsideand then gradually displacedepigraphic ancient north arabian ana which was theorized to have been the regional tongue for many centuries ana despite its name was considered a very distinct language and mutually unintelligible from arabic scholars named its variant dialects after the towns where the inscriptions were discovered dadanitic taymanitic hismaic safaitic however most arguments for a single ana language or language family were based on the shape of the definite article a prefixed h it has been argued that the h is an archaism and not a shared innovation and thus unsuitable for language classification rendering the hypothesis of an ana language family untenable safaitic and hismaic previously considered ana should be considered old arabic due to the fact that they participate in the innovations common to all forms of arabic the earliest attestation of continuous arabic text in an ancestor of the modern arabic script are three lines of poetry by a man named garmallāhe found in en avdat israel and dated to around 125 ce this is followed by the namara inscription an epitaph of the king imru alqays bar amro dating to 328 ce found at namaraa syria from the 4th to the 6th centuries the nabataean script evolves into the arabic script recognizable from the early islamic era there are inscriptions in an undotted 17letter arabic script dating to the 6th century ce found at four locations in syria zabad jabal usays the oldest surviving papyrus in arabic dates to 643 ce and it uses dots to produce the modern 28letter arabic alphabet the language of that papyrus and of the quran are referred to by linguists as quranic arabic as distinct from its codification soon thereafter into classical arabic old hejazi and classical arabic in late preislamic times a transdialectal and transcommunal variety of arabic emerged in the hejaz which continued living its parallel life after literary arabic had been institutionally standardized in the 2nd and 3rd century of the hijra most strongly in judeochristian texts keeping alive ancient features eliminated from the learned tradition classical arabic this variety and both its classicizing and lay iterations have been termed middle arabic in the past but they are thought to continue an old higazi register it is clear that the orthography of the quran was not developed for the standardized form of classical arabic rather it shows the attempt on the part of writers to record an archaic form of old higazi in the late 6th century ad a relatively uniform intertribal poetic koine distinct from the spoken vernaculars developed based on the bedouin dialects of najd probably in connection with the court of alḥīra during the first islamic century the majority of arabic poets and arabicwriting persons spoke arabic as their mother tongue their texts although mainly preserved in far later manuscripts contain traces of nonstandardized classical arabic elements in morphology and syntax standardization abu alaswad alduali 689 is credited with standardizing arabic grammar or annaḥw the way and pioneering a system of diacritics to differentiate consonants nuqat lijām pointing for nonarabs and indicate vocalization attashkil alkhalil ibn ahmad alfarahidi 718786 compiled the first arabic dictionary kitāb alayn the book of the letter ع and is credited with establishing the rules of arabic prosody aljahiz 776868 proposed to alakhfash alakbar an overhaul of the grammar of arabic but it would not come to pass for two centuries the standardization of arabic reached completion around the end of the 8th century the first comprehensive description of the ʿarabiyya arabic sībawayhis alkitāb is based first of all upon a corpus of poetic texts in addition to quran usage and bedouin informants whom he considered to be reliable speakers of the ʿarabiyya spread arabic spread with the spread of islam following the early muslim conquests arabic gained vocabulary from middle persian and turkish in the early abbasid period many classical greek terms entered arabic through translations carried out at baghdads house of wisdom by the 8th century knowledge of classical arabic had become an essential prerequisite for rising into the higher classes throughout the islamic world both for muslims and nonmuslims for example maimonides the andalusi jewish philosopher authored works in judeoarabicarabic written in hebrew script development ibn jinni of mosul a pioneer in phonology wrote prolifically in the 10th century on arabic morphology and phonology in works such as kitāb almunṣif kitāb almuḥtasab and ibn mada of cordoba 11161196 realized the overhaul of arabic grammar first proposed by aljahiz 200 years prior the maghrebi lexicographer ibn manzur compiled lisān alʿarab tongue of arabs a major reference dictionary of arabic in 1290 neoarabic charles fergusons koine theory claims that the modern arabic dialects collectively descend from a single military koine that sprang up during the islamic conquests this view has been challenged in recent times ahmad aljallad proposes that there were at least two considerably distinct types of arabic on the eve of the conquests northern and central aljallad 2009 the modern dialects emerged from a new contact situation produced following the conquests instead of the emergence of a single or multiple koines the dialects contain several sedimentary layers of borrowed and areal features which they absorbed at different points in their linguistic histories according to veersteegh and bickerton colloquial arabic dialects arose from pidginized arabic formed from contact between arabs and conquered peoples pidginization and subsequent creolization among arabs and arabized peoples could explain relative morphological and phonological simplicity of vernacular arabic compared to classical and msa in around the 11th and 12th centuries in alandalus the zajal and muwashah poetry forms developed in the dialectical arabic of cordoba and the maghreb nahda the nahda was a cultural and especially literary renaissance of the 19th century in which writers sought to fuse arabic and european forms of expression according to james l gelvin nahda writers attempted to simplify the arabic language and script so that it might be accessible to a wider audience in the wake of the industrial revolution and european hegemony and colonialism pioneering arabic presses such as the amiri press established by muhammad ali 1819 dramatically changed the diffusion and consumption of arabic literature and publications rifaa altahtawi proposed the establishment of madrasat alalsun in 1836 and led a translation campaign that highlighted the need for a lexical injection in arabic to suit concepts of the industrial and postindustrial age such as sayāra automobile or bākhira steamship in response a number of arabic academies modeled after the were established with the aim of developing standardized additions to the arabic lexicon to suit these transformations first in damascus 1919 then in cairo 1932 baghdad 1948 rabat 1960 amman 1977 1993 and tunis 1993 they review language development monitor new words and approve inclusion of new words into their published standard dictionaries they also publish old and historical arabic manuscripts in 1997 a bureau of arabization standardization was added to the educational cultural and scientific organization of the arab league these academies and organizations have worked toward the arabization of the sciences creating terms in arabic to describe new concepts toward the standardization of these new terms throughout the arabicspeaking world and toward the development of arabic as a world language this gave rise to what western scholars call modern standard arabic from the 1950s arabization became a postcolonial nationalist policy in countries such as tunisia algeria morocco and sudan classical modern standard and spoken arabic arabic usually refers to standard arabic which western linguists divide into classical arabic and modern standard arabic it could also refer to any of a variety of regional vernacular arabic dialects which are not necessarily mutually intelligibleclassical arabic is the language found in the quran used from the period of preislamic arabia to that of the abbasid caliphate classical arabic is prescriptive according to the syntactic and grammatical norms laid down by classical grammarians such as sibawayh and the vocabulary defined in classical dictionaries such as the lisān alʻarab modern standard arabic msa largely follows the grammatical standards of classical arabic and uses much of the same vocabulary however it has discarded some grammatical constructions and vocabulary that no longer have any counterpart in the spoken varieties and has adopted certain new constructions and vocabulary from the spoken varieties much of the new vocabulary is used to denote concepts that have arisen in the industrial and postindustrial era especially in modern times due to its grounding in classical arabic modern standard arabic is removed over a millennium from everyday speech which is construed as a multitude of dialects of this language these dialects and modern standard arabic are described by some scholars as not mutually comprehensible the former are usually acquired in families while the latter is taught in formal education settings however there have been studies reporting some degree of comprehension of stories told in the standard variety among preschoolaged children the relation between modern standard arabic and these dialects is sometimes compared to that of classical latin and vulgar latin vernaculars which became romance languages in medieval and early modern europe msa is the variety used in most current printed arabic publications spoken by some of the arabic media across north africa and the middle east and understood by most educated arabic speakers literary arabic and standard arabic are less strictly defined terms that may refer to modern standard arabic or classical arabic some of the differences between classical arabic ca and modern standard arabic msa are as follows certain grammatical constructions of ca that have no counterpart in any modern vernacular dialect eg the energetic mood are almost never used in modern standard arabic case distinctions are very rare in arabic vernaculars as a result msa is generally composed without case distinctions in mind and the proper cases are added after the fact when necessary because most case endings are noted using final short vowels which are normally left unwritten in the arabic script it is unnecessary to determine the proper case of most words the practical result of this is that msa like english and standard chinese is written in a strongly determined word order and alternative orders that were used in ca for emphasis are rare in addition because of the lack of case marking in the spoken varieties most speakers cannot consistently use the correct endings in extemporaneous speech as a result spoken msa tends to drop or regularize the endings except when reading from a prepared text the numeral system in ca is complex and heavily tied in with the case system this system is never used in msa even in the most formal of circumstances instead a significantly simplified system is used approximating the system of the conservative spoken varieties msa uses much classical vocabulary eg to go that is not present in the spoken varieties but deletes classical words that sound obsolete in msa in addition msa has borrowed or coined many terms for concepts that did not exist in quranic times and msa continues to evolve some words have been borrowed from other languagesnotice that transliteration mainly indicates spelling and not real pronunciation eg film or democracy the current preference is to avoid direct borrowings preferring to either use loan translations eg branch also used for the branch of a company or organization wing is also used for the wing of an airplane building air force etc or to coin new words using forms within existing roots apoptosis using the root mwt death put into the xth form or university based on to gather unite republic based on multitude an earlier tendency was to redefine an older word although this has fallen into disuse eg telephone invisible caller in sufism newspaper palmleaf stalk colloquial or dialectal arabic refers to the many national or regional varieties which constitute the everyday spoken language colloquial arabic has many regional variants geographically distant varieties usually differ enough to be mutually unintelligible and some linguists consider them distinct languages however research indicates a high degree of mutual intelligibility between closely related arabic variants for native speakers listening to words sentences and texts and between more distantly related dialects in interactional situationsthe varieties are typically unwritten they are often used in informal spoken media such as soap operas and talk shows as well as occasionally in certain forms of written media such as poetry and printed advertising hassaniya arabic maltese and cypriot arabic are only varieties of modern arabic to have acquired official recognition hassaniya is official in mali and recognized as a minority language in morocco while the senegalese government adopted the latin script to write it maltese is official in predominantly catholic malta and written with the latin script linguists agree that it is a variety of spoken arabic descended from siculoarabic though it has experienced extensive changes as a result of sustained and intensive contact with italoromance varieties and more recently also with english due to a mix of social cultural historical political and indeed linguistic factors many maltese people today consider their language semitic but not a type of arabic cypriot arabic is recognized as a minority language in cyprus status and usage diglossia the sociolinguistic situation of arabic in modern times provides a prime example of the linguistic phenomenon of diglossia which is the normal use of two separate varieties of the same language usually in different social situations tawleed is the process of giving a new shade of meaning to an old classical word for example alhatif lexicographically means the one whose sound is heard but whose person remains unseen now the term alhatif is used for a telephone therefore the process of tawleed can express the needs of modern civilization in a manner that would appear to be originally arabic in the case of arabic educated arabs of any nationality can be assumed to speak both their schooltaught standard arabic as well as their native dialects which depending on the region may be mutually unintelligible some of these dialects can be considered to constitute separate languages which may have subdialects of their own when educated arabs of different dialects engage in conversation for example a moroccan speaking with a lebanese many speakers codeswitch back and forth between the dialectal and standard varieties of the language sometimes even within the same sentence arabic speakers often improve their familiarity with other dialects via music or film the issue of whether arabic is one language or many languages is politically charged in the same way it is for the varieties of chinese hindi and urdu serbian and croatian scots and english etc in contrast to speakers of hindi and urdu who claim they cannot understand each other even when they can speakers of the varieties of arabic will claim they can all understand each other even when they cannot while there is a minimum level of comprehension between all arabic dialects this level can increase or decrease based on geographic proximity for example levantine and gulf speakers understand each other much better than they do speakers from the maghreb the issue of diglossia between spoken and written language is a significant complicating factor a single written form significantly different from any of the spoken varieties learned natively unites a number of sometimes divergent spoken forms for political reasons arabs mostly assert that they all speak a single language despite significant issues of mutual incomprehensibility among differing spoken versions from a linguistic standpoint it is often said that the various spoken varieties of arabic differ among each other collectively about as much as the romance languages this is an apt comparison in a number of ways the period of divergence from a single spoken form is similarperhaps 1500 years for arabic 2000 years for the romance languages also while it is comprehensible to people from the maghreb a linguistically innovative variety such as moroccan arabic is essentially incomprehensible to arabs from the mashriq much as french is incomprehensible to spanish or italian speakers but relatively easily learned by them this suggests that the spoken varieties may linguistically be considered separate languages status in the arab world visàvis other languages with the sole example of medieval linguist abu hayyan algharnati who while a scholar of the arabic language was not ethnically arab medieval scholars of the arabic language made no efforts at studying comparative linguistics considering all other languages inferior in modern times the educated upper classes in the arab world have taken a nearly opposite view yasir suleiman wrote in 2011 that studying and knowing english or french in most of the middle east and north africa have become a badge of sophistication and modernity and feigning or asserting weakness or lack of facility in arabic is sometimes paraded as a sign of status class and perversely even education through a mélange of codeswitching practises as a foreign language arabic has been taught worldwide in many elementary and secondary schools especially muslim schools universities around the world have classes that teach arabic as part of their foreign languages middle eastern studies and religious studies courses arabic language schools exist to assist students to learn arabic outside the academic world there are many arabic language schools in the arab world and other muslim countries because the quran is written in arabic and all islamic terms are in arabic millions of muslims both arab and nonarab study the language software and books with tapes are an important part of arabic learning as many of arabic learners may live in places where there are no academic or arabic language school classes available radio series of arabic language classes are also provided from some radio stations a number of websites on the internet provide online classes for all levels as a means of distance education most teach modern standard arabic but some teach regional varieties from numerous countries vocabulary lexicography premodern arabic lexicography the tradition of arabic lexicography extended for about a millennium before the modern period early lexicographers lughawiyyūn sought to explain words in the quran that were unfamiliar or had a particular contextual meaning and to identify words of nonarabic origin that appear in the quran they gathered shawāhid instances of attested usage from poetry and the speech of the arabsparticularly the bedouin who were perceived to speak the purest most eloquent form of arabicinitiating a process of jamʿ allugha compiling the language which took place over the 8th and early 9th centurieskitāb alayn attributed to alkhalil ibn ahmad alfarahidi is considered the first lexicon to include all arabic roots it sought to exhaust all possible root permutationslater called taqālīb calling those that are actually used mustaʿmal and those that are not used muhmal lisān alʿarab 1290 by ibn manzur gives 9273 roots while tāj alʿarūs 1774 by murtada azzabidi gives 11978 roots this lexicographic tradition was traditionalist and corrective in natureholding that linguistic correctness and eloquence derive from qurʾānic usage and bedouin speechpositioning itself against laḥn alʿāmma the solecism it viewed as defective western lexicography of arabic in the second half of the 19th century the british arabist edward william lane working with the egyptian scholar compiled the arabicenglish lexicon by translating material from earlier arabic lexica into english the german arabist hans wehr with contributions from hedwig klein compiled the arabisches wörterbuch für die schriftsprache der gegenwart 1952 later translated into english as a dictionary of modern written arabic 1961 based on established usage especially in literature modern arabic lexicography the academy of the arabic language in cairo sought to publish a historical dictionary of arabic in the vein of the oxford english dictionary tracing the changes of meanings and uses of arabic words over time a first volume of almuʿjam alkabīr was published in 1956 under the leadership of taha hussein the project is not yet complete its 15th volume covering the letter ṣād was published in 2022 loanwords the most important sources of borrowings into preislamic arabic are from the related semitic languages aramaic which used to be the principal international language of communication throughout the ancient near and middle east and ethiopic many cultural religious and political terms have entered arabic from iranian languages notably middle persian parthian and classical persian and hellenistic greek kīmiyāʼ has as origin the greek khymia meaning in that language the melting of metals see roger dachez histoire de la médecine de lantiquité au xxe siècle tallandier 2008 p 251 alembic distiller from ambix cup almanac climate from almenichiakon calendar for the origin of the last three borrowed words see alfredlouis de prémare foundations of islam seuil lunivers historique 2002 some arabic borrowings from semitic or persian languages are as presented in de prémares abovecited book madīnahmedina مدينة city or city square a word of aramaic origin ܡܕܝܢܬܐməḏīnttā in which it means statecity jazīrah جزيرة as in the wellknown form الجزيرة aljazeera means island and has its origin in the syriac ܓܙܪܬܐ gāzartā lāzaward لازورد is taken from persian لاژورد lājvard the name of a blue stone lapis lazuli this word was borrowed in several european languages to mean light blue azure in english azur in french and azul in portuguese and spanish a comprehensive overview of the influence of other languages on arabic is found in lucas manfredi 2020 influence of arabic on other languages the influence of arabic has been most important in islamic countries because it is the language of the islamic sacred book the quran arabic is also an important source of vocabulary for languages such as amharic azerbaijani baluchi bengali berber bosnian chaldean chechen chittagonian croatian dagestani dhivehi english german gujarati hausa hindi kazakh kurdish kutchi kyrgyz malay malaysian and indonesian pashto persian punjabi rohingya romance languages french catalan italian portuguese sicilian spanish etc saraiki sindhi somali sylheti swahili tagalog tigrinya turkish turkmen urdu uyghur uzbek visayan and wolof as well as other languages in countries where these languages are spoken modern hebrew has been also influenced by arabic especially during the process of revival as msa was used as a source for modern hebrew vocabulary and roots english has many arabic loanwords some directly but most via other mediterranean languages examples of such words include admiral adobe alchemy alcohol algebra algorithm alkaline almanac amber arsenal assassin candy carat cipher coffee cotton ghoul hazard jar kismet lemon loofah magazine mattress sherbet sofa sumac tariff and zenith other languages such as maltese and kinubi derive ultimately from arabic rather than merely borrowing vocabulary or grammatical rules terms borrowed range from religious terminology like berber taẓallit prayer from salat academic terms like uyghur mentiq logic and economic items like english coffee to placeholders like spanish fulano soandso everyday terms like hindustani lekin but or spanish taza and french tasse meaning cup and expressions like catalan a betzef galore in quantity most berber varieties such as kabyle along with swahili borrow some numbers from arabic most islamic religious terms are direct borrowings from arabic such as salat prayer and imam prayer leader in languages not directly in contact with the arab world arabic loanwords are often transferred indirectly via other languages rather than being transferred directly from arabic for example most arabic loanwords in hindustani and turkish entered through persian older arabic loanwords in hausa were borrowed from kanuri most arabic loanwords in yoruba entered through hausa arabic words made their way into several west african languages as islam spread across the sahara variants of arabic words such as kitāb book have spread to the languages of african groups who had no direct contact with arab traders since throughout the islamic world arabic occupied a position similar to that of latin in europe many of the arabic concepts in the fields of science philosophy commerce etc were coined from arabic roots by nonnative arabic speakers notably by aramaic and persian translators and then found their way into other languages this process of using arabic roots especially in kurdish and persian to translate foreign concepts continued through to the 18th and 19th centuries when swaths of arabinhabited lands were under ottoman rule spoken varieties colloquial arabic is a collective term for the spoken dialects of arabic used throughout the arab world which differ radically from the literary language the main dialectal division is between the varieties within and outside of the arabian peninsula followed by that between sedentary varieties and the much more conservative bedouin varieties all the varieties outside of the arabian peninsula which include the large majority of speakers have many features in common with each other that are not found in classical arabic this has led researchers to postulate the existence of a prestige koine dialect in the one or two centuries immediately following the arab conquest whose features eventually spread to all newly conquered areas these features are present to varying degrees inside the arabian peninsula generally the arabian peninsula varieties have much more diversity than the nonpeninsula varieties but these have been understudiedwithin the nonpeninsula varieties the largest difference is between the nonegyptian north african dialects especially moroccan arabic and the others moroccan arabic in particular is hardly comprehensible to arabic speakers east of libya although the converse is not true in part due to the popularity of egyptian films and other media one factor in the differentiation of the dialects is influence from the languages previously spoken in the areas which have typically provided a significant number of new words and have sometimes also influenced pronunciation or word order however a much more significant factor for most dialects is as among romance languages retention or change of meaning of different classical forms thus iraqi aku levantine fīh and north african kayən all mean there is and all come from classical arabic forms yakūn fīhi kāin respectively but now sound very different koiné according to charles a ferguson the following are some of the characteristic features of the koiné that underlies all the modern dialects outside the arabian peninsula although many other features are common to most or all of these varieties ferguson believes that these features in particular are unlikely to have evolved independently more than once or twice and together suggest the existence of the koine loss of the dual number except on nouns with consistent plural agreement cf feminine singular agreement in plural inanimates change of a to i in many affixes eg nonpasttense prefixes ti yi ni wi and il the feminine it in the construct state loss of thirdweak verbs ending in w which merge with verbs ending in y reformation of geminate verbs eg i untied conversion of separate words lī to me laka to you etc into indirectobject clitic suffixes certain changes in the cardinal number system eg five days where certain words have a special plural with prefixed t loss of the feminine elative comparative adjective plurals of the form big change of nisba suffix certain lexical items eg bring come with see what or similar which thing relative pronoun merger of and dialect groups egyptian arabic is spoken by 67 million people in egypt it is one of the most understood varieties of arabic due in large part to the widespread distribution of egyptian films and television shows throughout the arabicspeaking world levantine arabic is spoken by about 44 million people in lebanon syria jordan palestine israel and turkey lebanese arabic is a variety of levantine arabic spoken primarily in lebanon jordanian arabic is a continuum of mutually intelligible varieties of levantine arabic spoken by the population of the kingdom of jordan palestinian arabic is a name of several dialects of the subgroup of levantine arabic spoken by the palestinians in palestine by arab citizens of israel and in most palestinian populations around the world samaritan arabic spoken by only several hundred in the nablus region cypriot maronite arabic spoken in cyprus by around 9800 people 2013 unsd maghrebi arabic also called darija spoken by about 70 million people in morocco algeria tunisia and libya it also forms the basis of maltese via the extinct sicilian arabic dialect maghrebi arabic is very hard to understand for arabic speakers from the mashriq or mesopotamia the most comprehensible being libyan arabic and the most difficult moroccan arabic the others such as algerian arabic can be considered in between the two in terms of difficulty libyan arabic spoken in libya and neighboring countries tunisian arabic spoken in tunisia and northeastern algeria algerian arabic spoken in algeria judeoalgerian arabic was spoken by jews in algeria until 1962 moroccan arabic spoken in morocco hassaniya arabic 3 million speakers spoken in mauritania western sahara some parts of the azawad in northern mali southern morocco and southwestern algeria andalusian arabic spoken in spain until the 16th century siculoarabic sicilian arabic was spoken in sicily and malta between the end of the 9th century and the end of the 12th century and eventually evolved into the maltese language maltese spoken on the island of malta is the only fully separate standardized language to have originated from an arabic dialect the extinct siculoarabic dialect with independent literary norms maltese has evolved independently of modern standard arabic and its varieties into a standardized language over the past 800 years in a gradual process of latinisation maltese is therefore considered an exceptional descendant of arabic that has no diglossic relationship with standard arabic or classical arabic maltese is different from arabic and other semitic languages since its morphology has been deeply influenced by romance languages italian and sicilian it is the only semitic language written in the latin script in terms of basic everyday language speakers of maltese are reported to be able to understand less than a third of what is said to them in tunisian arabic which is related to siculoarabic whereas speakers of tunisian are able to understand about 40 of what is said to them in maltese this asymmetric intelligibility is considerably lower than the mutual intelligibility found between maghrebi arabic dialects maltese has its own dialects with urban varieties of maltese being closer to standard maltese than rural varieties mesopotamian arabic spoken by about 412 million people in iraq where it is called aamiyah eastern syria and southwestern iran khuzestan and in the southeastern of turkey in the eastern mediterranean southeastern anatolia region north mesopotamian arabic is a spoken north of the hamrin mountains in iraq in western iran northern syria and in southeastern turkey in the eastern mediterranean region southeastern anatolia region and southern eastern anatolia region judeomesopotamian arabic also known as iraqi judeo arabic and yahudic is a variety of arabic spoken by iraqi jews of mosul baghdad arabic is the arabic dialect spoken in baghdad and the surrounding cities and it is a subvariety of mesopotamian arabic baghdad jewish arabic is the dialect spoken by the iraqi jews of baghdad south mesopotamian arabic basrawi dialect is the dialect spoken in southern iraq such as basra dhi qar and najaf khuzestani arabic is the dialect spoken in the iranian province of khuzestan this dialect is a mix of southern mesopotamian arabic and gulf arabic khorasani arabic spoken in the iranian province of khorasan kuwaiti arabic is a gulf arabic dialect spoken in kuwait sudanese arabic is spoken by 17 million people in sudan and some parts of southern egypt sudanese arabic is quite distinct from the dialect of its neighbor to the north rather the sudanese have a dialect similar to the hejazi dialect juba arabic spoken in south sudan and southern sudan gulf arabic spoken by around four million people predominantly in kuwait bahrain some parts of oman eastern saudi arabia coastal areas and some parts of uae and qatar also spoken in irans bushehr and hormozgan provinces although gulf arabic is spoken in qatar most qatari citizens speak najdi arabic bedawi omani arabic distinct from the gulf arabic of eastern arabia and bahrain spoken in central oman with recent oil wealth and mobility has spread over other parts of the sultanate hadhrami arabic spoken by around 8 million people predominantly in hadhramaut and in parts of the arabian peninsula south and southeast asia and east africa by hadhrami descendants yemeni arabic spoken in yemen and southern saudi arabia by 15 million people similar to gulf arabic najdi arabic spoken by around 10 million people mainly spoken in najd central and northern saudi arabia most qatari citizens speak najdi arabic bedawi hejazi arabic 6 million speakers spoken in hejaz western saudi arabia saharan arabic spoken in some parts of algeria niger and mali baharna arabic 800000 speakers spoken by bahrani shiʻah in bahrain and qatif the dialect exhibits many big differences from gulf arabic it is also spoken to a lesser extent in oman judeoarabic dialects these are the dialects spoken by the jews that had lived or continue to live in the arab world as jewish migration to israel took hold the language did not thrive and is now considered endangered socalled qəltu arabic chadian arabic spoken in chad sudan some parts of south sudan central african republic niger nigeria cameroon central asian arabic spoken in uzbekistan tajikistan and afghanistan by around 8000 people tajiki arabic is highly endangered shirvani arabic spoken in azerbaijan and dagestan until the 1930s now extinct phonology history of the 29 protosemitic consonants only one has been lost which merged with while became see semitic languages various other consonants have changed their sound too but have remained distinct an original lenited to and consistently attested in preislamic greek transcription of arabic languages became palatalized to or by the time of the quran and or after early muslim conquests and in msa see arabic phonologylocal variations for more detail an original voiceless alveolar lateral fricative became its emphatic counterpart was considered by arabs to be the most unusual sound in arabic hence the classical arabics appellation or language of the for most modern dialects it has become an emphatic stop with loss of the laterality or with complete loss of any pharyngealization or velarization the classical pronunciation of pharyngealization still occurs in the mehri language and the similar sound without velarization exists in other modern south arabian languagesother changes may also have happened classical arabic pronunciation is not thoroughly recorded and different reconstructions of the sound system of protosemitic propose different phonetic values one example is the emphatic consonants which are pharyngealized in modern pronunciations but may have been velarized in the eighth century and glottalized in protosemitic reduction of and between vowels occurs in a number of circumstances and is responsible for much of the complexity of thirdweak defective verbs early akkadian transcriptions of arabic names shows that this reduction had not yet occurred as of the early part of the 1st millennium bc the classical arabic language as recorded was a poetic koine that reflected a conscious ly archaizing dialect chosen based on the tribes of the western part of the arabian peninsula who spoke the most conservative variants of arabic even at the time of muhammed and before other dialects existed with many more changes including the loss of most glottal stops the loss of case endings the reduction of the diphthongs and into monophthongs etc most of these changes are present in most or all modern varieties of arabic an interesting feature of the writing system of the quran and hence of classical arabic is that it contains certain features of muhammads native dialect of mecca corrected through diacritics into the forms of standard classical arabic among these features visible under the corrections are the loss of the glottal stop and a differing development of the reduction of certain final sequences containing evidently final became as in the classical language but final became a different sound possibly rather than again in the classical language this is the apparent source of the alif maqṣūrah restricted alif where a final is reconstructed a letter that would normally indicate or some similar highvowel sound but is taken in this context to be a logical variant of alif and represent the sound literary arabic the colloquial spoken dialects of arabic are learned at home and constitute the native languages of arabic speakers formal modern standard arabic is learned at school although many speakers have a nativelike command of the language it is technically not the native language of any speakers both varieties can be both written and spoken although the colloquial varieties are rarely written down and the formal variety is spoken mostly in formal circumstances eg in radio and tv broadcasts formal lectures parliamentary discussions and to some extent between speakers of different colloquial dialects even when the literary language is spoken it is normally only spoken in its pure form when reading a prepared text out loud and communication between speakers of different colloquial dialects when speaking extemporaneously ie making up the language on the spot as in a normal discussion among people speakers tend to deviate somewhat from the strict literary language in the direction of the colloquial varieties there is a continuous range of inbetween spoken varieties from nearly pure modern standard arabic msa to a form that still uses msa grammar and vocabulary but with significant colloquial influence to a form of the colloquial language that imports a number of words and grammatical constructions in msa to a form that is close to pure colloquial but with the rough edges the most noticeably vulgar or nonclassical aspects smoothed out to pure colloquial the particular variant or register used depends on the social class and education level of the speakers involved and the level of formality of the speech situation often it will vary within a single encounter eg moving from nearly pure msa to a more mixed language in the process of a radio interview as the interviewee becomes more comfortable with the interviewer this type of variation is characteristic of the diglossia that exists throughout the arabicspeaking world although modern standard arabic msa is a unitary language its pronunciation varies somewhat from country to country and from region to region within a country the variation in individual accents of msa speakers tends to mirror corresponding variations in the colloquial speech of the speakers in question but with the distinguishing characteristics moderated somewhat it is important in descriptions of arabic phonology to distinguish between pronunciation of a given colloquial spoken dialect and the pronunciation of msa by these same speakers although they are related they are not the same for example the phoneme that derives from classical arabic has many different pronunciations in the modern spoken varieties eg including the proposed original speakers whose native variety has either or will use the same pronunciation when speaking msa even speakers from cairo whose native egyptian arabic has normally use when speaking msa the of persian gulf speakers is the only variant pronunciation which is not found in msa is used instead but may use j in msa for comfortable pronunciation another reason of different pronunciations is influence of colloquial dialects the differentiation of pronunciation of colloquial dialects is the influence from other languages previously spoken and some still presently spoken in the regions such as coptic in egypt berber punic or phoenician in north africa himyaritic modern south arabian and old south arabian in yemen and oman and aramaic and canaanite languages including phoenician in the levant and mesopotamia another example many colloquial varieties are known for a type of vowel harmony in which the presence of an emphatic consonant triggers backed allophones of nearby vowels especially of the low vowels which are backed to in these circumstances and very often fronted to in all other circumstances in many spoken varieties the backed or emphatic vowel allophones spread a fair distance in both directions from the triggering consonant in some varieties most notably egyptian arabic the emphatic allophones spread throughout the entire word usually including prefixes and suffixes even at a distance of several syllables from the triggering consonant speakers of colloquial varieties with this vowel harmony tend to introduce it into their msa pronunciation as well but usually with a lesser degree of spreading than in the colloquial varieties for example speakers of colloquial varieties with extremely longdistance harmony may allow a moderate but not extreme amount of spreading of the harmonic allophones in their msa speech while speakers of colloquial varieties with moderatedistance harmony may only harmonize immediately adjacent vowels in msa vowels modern standard arabic has six pure vowels while most modern dialects have eight pure vowels which includes the long vowels with short and corresponding long vowels there are also two diphthongs and the pronunciation of the vowels differs from speaker to speaker in a way that tends to reflect the pronunciation of the corresponding colloquial variety nonetheless there are some common trends most noticeable is the differing pronunciation of and which tend towards fronted or in most situations but a back in the neighborhood of emphatic consonants some accents and dialects such as those of the hejaz region have an open or a central in all situations the vowel varies towards too listen to the final vowel in the recording of at the beginning of this article for example the point is arabic has only three short vowel phonemes so those phonemes can have a very wide range of allophones the vowels and are often affected somewhat in emphatic neighborhoods as well with generally more back or centralized allophones but the differences are less great than for the low vowels the pronunciation of short and tends towards and respectively in many dialects the definition of both emphatic and neighborhood vary in ways that reflect to some extent corresponding variations in the spoken dialects generally the consonants triggering emphatic allophones are the pharyngealized consonants and if not followed immediately by frequently the fricatives trigger emphatic allophones occasionally also the pharyngeal consonants the former more than the latter many dialects have multiple emphatic allophones of each vowel depending on the particular nearby consonants in most msa accents emphatic coloring of vowels is limited to vowels immediately adjacent to a triggering consonant although in some it spreads a bit farther eg time homeland downtown also or similar in a nonemphatic environment the vowel in the diphthong is pronounced or hence sword but summer however in accents with no emphatic allophones of eg in the hejaz the pronunciation or occurs in all situations consonants the phoneme is represented by the arabic letter and has many standard pronunciations is characteristic of north algeria iraq and most of the arabian peninsula but with an allophonic in some positions occurs in most of the levant and most of north africa and is standard in egypt coastal yemen as well as eastern and coastal western oman generally this corresponds with the pronunciation in the colloquial dialects in sudan and yemen as well as in some sudanese and yemeni varieties it may be either or representing the original pronunciation of classical arabic foreign words containing may be transcribed with or depending on the regional practice in northern egypt where the arabic letter is normally pronounced a separate phoneme which may be transcribed with occurs in a small number of mostly nonarabic loanwords eg jacket can be pronounced as in some places of maghreb it can be also pronounced as and are velar postvelar or uvular in many varieties are epiglottal in west asia is pronounced as velarized in الله the name of god qe allah when the word follows a ā u or ū after i or ī it is unvelarized bismi llāh the emphatic consonant was actually pronounced or possibly either way a highly unusual sound the medieval arabs actually termed their language the language of the ḍād the name of the letter used for this sound since they thought the sound was unique to their language in fact it also exists in a few other minority semitic languages eg mehri arabic has consonants traditionally termed emphatic which exhibit simultaneous pharyngealization as well as varying degrees of velarization depending on the region so they may be written with the velarized or pharyngealized diacritic as this simultaneous articulation is described as retracted tongue root by phonologists in some transcription systems emphasis is shown by capitalizing the letter for example is written in others the letter is underlined or has a dot below it for example vowels and consonants can be phonologically short or long long geminate consonants are normally written doubled in latin transcription ie bb dd etc reflecting the presence of the arabic diacritic mark which indicates doubled consonants in actual pronunciation doubled consonants are held twice as long as short consonants this consonant lengthening is phonemically contrastive he accepted vs he kissed syllable structure arabic has two kinds of syllables open syllables cv and cvvand closed syllables cvc cvvc and cvcc the syllable types with two morae units of time ie cvc and cvv are termed heavy syllables while those with three morae ie cvvc and cvcc are superheavy syllables superheavy syllables in classical arabic occur in only two places at the end of the sentence due to pausal pronunciation and in words such as hot stuff substance they disputed with each other where a long occurs before two identical consonants a former short vowel between the consonants has been lost in less formal pronunciations of modern standard arabic superheavy syllables are common at the end of words or before clitic suffixes such as us our due to the deletion of final short vowels in surface pronunciation every vowel must be preceded by a consonant which may include the glottal stop there are no cases of hiatus within a word where two vowels occur next to each other without an intervening consonant some words do have an underlying vowel at the beginning such as the definite article al or words such as he bought meeting when actually pronounced one of three things happens if the word occurs after another word ending in a consonant there is a smooth transition from final consonant to initial vowel eg meeting if the word occurs after another word ending in a vowel the initial vowel of the word is elided eg house of the director if the word occurs at the beginning of an utterance a glottal stop is added onto the beginning eg the house is stress word stress is not phonemically contrastive in standard arabic it bears a strong relationship to vowel length the basic rules for modern standard arabic are a final vowel long or short may not be stressed only one of the last three syllables may be stressed given this restriction the last heavy syllable containing a long vowel or ending in a consonant is stressed if it is not the final syllable if the final syllable is super heavy and closed of the form cvvc or cvcc it receives stress if no syllable is heavy or super heavy the first possible syllable ie third from end is stressed as a special exception in form vii and viii verb forms stress may not be on the first syllable despite the above rules hence he subscribed whether or not the final short vowel is pronounced he subscribes whether or not the final short vowel is pronounced he should subscribe juss likewise form viii he bought he buys these rules may result in differently stressed syllables when final case endings are pronounced vs the normal situation where they are not pronounced as in the above example of library in full pronunciation but library in short pronunciation the restriction on final long vowels does not apply to the spoken dialects where original final long vowels have been shortened and secondary final long vowels have arisen from loss of original final huhi some dialects have different stress rules in the egyptian arabic dialect a heavy syllable may not carry stress more than two syllables from the end of a word hence school cairo this also affects the way that modern standard arabic is pronounced in egypt in the arabic of sanaa stress is often retracted two houses their table desks sometimes their school in this dialect only syllables with long vowels or diphthongs are considered heavy in a twosyllable word the final syllable can be stressed only if the preceding syllable is light and in longer words the final syllable cannot be stressed levels of pronunciation the final short vowels eg the case endings a i u and mood endings u a are often not pronounced in this language despite forming part of the formal paradigm of nouns and verbs the following levels of pronunciation exist full pronunciation with pausa this is the most formal level actually used in speech all endings are pronounced as written except at the end of an utterance where the following changes occur final short vowels are not pronounced but possibly an exception is made for feminine plural na and shortened vowels in the jussiveimperative of defective verbs eg irmi throw the entire indefinite noun endings in and un with nunation are left off the ending an is left off of nouns preceded by a tāʾ marbūṭah ة ie the t in the ending at that typically marks feminine nouns but pronounced as ā in other nouns hence its writing in this fashion in the arabic script the tāʼ marbūṭah itself typically of feminine nouns is pronounced as h at least this is the case in extremely formal pronunciation eg some quranic recitations in practice this h is usually omitted formal short pronunciation this is a formal level of pronunciation sometimes seen it is somewhat like pronouncing all words as if they were in pausal position with influence from the colloquial varieties the following changes occur most final short vowels are not pronounced the following short vowels are pronounced feminine plural na shortened vowels in the jussiveimperative of defective verbs eg irmi throw secondperson singular feminine pasttense ti and likewise anti you fem sg sometimes firstperson singular pasttense tu sometimes secondperson masculine pasttense ta and likewise anta you masc sg final a in certain short words eg laysa is not sawfa futuretense marker the nunation endings an in un are not pronounced they are pronounced in adverbial accusative formations eg تقريبا almost approximately عادة usually the tāʾ marbūṭah ending ة is unpronounced except in construct state nouns where it sounds as t and in adverbial accusative constructions eg عادة usually where the entire tan is pronounced the masculine singular nisbah ending is pronounced and is unstressed but plural and feminine singular forms ie when followed by a suffix still sound as full endings including case endings occur when a clitic object or possessive suffix is added eg usour informal short pronunciation this is the pronunciation used by speakers of modern standard arabic in extemporaneous speech ie when producing new sentences rather than reading a prepared text it is similar to formal short pronunciation except that the rules for dropping final vowels apply even when a clitic suffix is added basically shortvowel case and mood endings are never pronounced and certain other changes occur that echo the corresponding colloquial pronunciations specifically all the rules for formal short pronunciation apply except as follows the past tense singular endings written formally as tu ta ti are pronounced t t ti but masculine is pronounced in full unlike in formal short pronunciation the rules for dropping or modifying final endings are also applied when a clitic object or possessive suffix is added eg usour if this produces a sequence of three consonants then one of the following happens depending on the speakers native colloquial variety a short vowel eg i or ǝ is consistently added either between the second and third or the first and second consonants or a short vowel is added only if an otherwise unpronounceable sequence occurs typically due to a violation of the sonority hierarchy eg rtn is pronounced as a threeconsonant cluster but trn needs to be broken up or a short vowel is never added but consonants like r l m n occurring between two other consonants will be pronounced as a syllabic consonant as in the english words butter bottle bottom button when a doubled consonant occurs before another consonant or finally it is often shortened to a single consonant rather than a vowel added moroccan arabic never shortens doubled consonants or inserts short vowels to break up clusters instead tolerating arbitrarylength series of arbitrary consonants and hence moroccan arabic speakers are likely to follow the same rules in their pronunciation of modern standard arabic the clitic suffixes themselves tend also to be changed in a way that avoids many possible occurrences of threeconsonant clusters in particular ka ki hu generally sound as ak ik uh final long vowels are often shortened merging with any short vowels that remain depending on the level of formality the speakers education level etc various grammatical changes may occur in ways that echo the colloquial variants any remaining case endings eg masculine plural nominative ūn vs oblique īn will be leveled with the oblique form used everywhere in words like father and brother with special longvowel case endings in the construct state the nominative is used everywhere hence father of brother of feminine plural endings in verbs and clitic suffixes will often drop out with the masculine plural endings used instead if the speakers native variety has feminine plural endings they may be preserved but will often be modified in the direction of the forms used in the speakers native variety eg an instead of na dual endings will often drop out except on nouns and then used only for emphasis similar to their use in the colloquial varieties elsewhere the plural endings are used or feminine singular if appropriate colloquial varieties vowels as mentioned above many spoken dialects have a process of emphasis spreading where the emphasis pharyngealization of emphatic consonants spreads forward and back through adjacent syllables pharyngealizing all nearby consonants and triggering the back allophone in all nearby low vowels the extent of emphasis spreading varies for example in moroccan arabic it spreads as far as the first full vowel ie sound derived from a long vowel or diphthong on either side in many levantine dialects it spreads indefinitely but is blocked by any or while in egyptian arabic it usually spreads throughout the entire word including prefixes and suffixes in moroccan arabic also have emphatic allophones and respectively unstressed short vowels especially are deleted in many contexts many sporadic examples of short vowel change have occurred especially and interchange most levantine dialects merge short i u into in most contexts all except directly before a single final consonant in moroccan arabic on the other hand short triggers labialization of nearby consonants especially velar consonants and uvular consonants and then short a i u all merge into which is deleted in many contexts the labialization plus is sometimes interpreted as an underlying phoneme this essentially causes the wholesale loss of the shortlong vowel distinction with the original long vowels remaining as halflong phonemically which are used to represent both short and long vowels in borrowings from literary arabic most spoken dialects have monophthongized original to in most circumstances including adjacent to emphatic consonants while keeping them as the original diphthongs in others eg in most of the moroccan algerian and tunisian except sahel and southeastern arabic dialects they have subsequently merged into original consonants in most dialects there may be more or fewer phonemes than those listed in the chart above for example is considered a native phoneme in most arabic dialects except in levantine dialects like syrian or lebanese where is pronounced and is pronounced or is considered a native phoneme in most dialects except in egyptian and a number of yemeni and omani dialects where is pronounced or and are distinguished in the dialects of egypt sudan the levant and the hejaz they have merged as in most dialects of the arabian peninsula iraq and tunisia and have merged as in morocco and algeria the usage of nonnative and depends on the usage of each speaker but they might be more prevalent in some dialects than others the iraqi and gulf arabic has the sound and writes it and with the persian letters and as in plum truffle early in the expansion of arabic the separate emphatic phonemes and coalesced into a single phoneme many dialects such as egyptian levantine and much of the maghreb subsequently lost fricatives converting into most dialects borrow learned words from the standard language using the same pronunciation as for inherited words some dialects without interdental fricatives particularly in egypt and the levant render original in borrowed words as another key distinguishing mark of arabic dialects is how they render the original velar and uvular plosives protosemitic and retains its original pronunciation in widely scattered regions such as yemen morocco and urban areas of the maghreb it is pronounced as a glottal stop in several prestige dialects such as those spoken in cairo beirut and damascus it is rendered as a voiced velar plosive in the persian gulf upper egypt parts of the maghreb and less urban parts of the levant eg jordan in iraqi arabic it sometimes retains its original pronunciation and is sometimes rendered as a voiced velar plosive depending on the word some traditionally christian villages in rural areas of the levant render the sound as as do shii bahrainis in some gulf dialects it is palatalized to or it is pronounced as a voiced uvular constrictive in sudanese arabic many dialects with a modified pronunciation for maintain the pronunciation in certain words often with religious or educational overtones borrowed from the classical language is pronounced as an affricate in iraq and much of the arabian peninsula it is pronounced in most of north egypt and parts of yemen and oman in morocco tunisia and the levant and in most words in much of the persian gulf usually retains its original pronunciation but is palatalized to in many words in israel and the palestinian territories iraq and countries in the eastern part of the arabian peninsula often a distinction is made between the suffixes you masc and you fem which become and respectively in sanaa omani and bahrani is pronounced pharyngealization of the emphatic consonants tends to weaken in many of the spoken varieties and to spread from emphatic consonants to nearby sounds the emphatic allophone automatically triggers pharyngealization of adjacent sounds in many dialects as a result it may be difficult or impossible to determine whether a given coronal consonant is phonemically emphatic or not especially in dialects with longdistance emphasis spreading a notable exception is the sounds vs in moroccan arabic because the former is pronounced as an affricate but the latter is not grammar literary arabic as in other semitic languages arabic has a complex and unusual morphology ie method of constructing words from a basic root arabic has a nonconcatenative rootandpattern morphology a root consists of a set of bare consonants usually three which are fitted into a discontinuous pattern to form words for example the word for i wrote is constructed by combining the root write with the pattern i xed to form i wrote other verbs meaning i xed will typically have the same pattern but with different consonants eg i read i ate i went although other patterns are possible eg i drank i said i spoke where the subpattern used to signal the past tense may change but the suffix is always used from a single root numerous words can be formed by applying different patterns i wrote i had something written i corresponded with someone i dictated i subscribed we corresponded with each other i write i have something written i correspond with someone i dictate i subscribe we correspond each other it was written it was dictated written dictated book books writer writers desk office library bookshop etc nouns and adjectives nouns in literary arabic have three grammatical cases nominative accusative and genitive also used when the noun is governed by a preposition three numbers singular dual and plural two genders masculine and feminine and three states indefinite definite and construct the cases of singular nouns other than those that end in long ā are indicated by suffixed short vowels u for nominative a for accusative i for genitive the feminine singular is often marked by at which is pronounced as ah before a pause plural is indicated either through endings the sound plural or internal modification the broken plural definite nouns include all proper nouns all nouns in construct state and all nouns which are prefixed by the definite article al indefinite singular nouns other than those that end in long ā add a final n to the casemarking vowels giving un an or in which is also referred to as nunation or tanwīn adjectives in literary arabic are marked for case number gender and state as for nouns the plural of all nonhuman nouns is always combined with a singular feminine adjective which takes the at suffix pronouns in literary arabic are marked for person number and gender there are two varieties independent pronouns and enclitics enclitic pronouns are attached to the end of a verb noun or preposition and indicate verbal and prepositional objects or possession of nouns the firstperson singular pronoun has a different enclitic form used for verbs nī and for nouns or prepositions ī after consonants ya after vowels nouns verbs pronouns and adjectives agree with each other in all respects nonhuman plural nouns are grammatically considered to be feminine singular a verb in a verbinitial sentence is marked as singular regardless of its semantic number when the subject of the verb is explicitly mentioned as a noun numerals between three and ten show chiasmic agreement in that grammatically masculine numerals have feminine marking and vice versa verbs verbs in literary arabic are marked for person first second or third gender and number they are conjugated in two major paradigms past and nonpast two voices active and passive and six moods indicative imperative subjunctive jussive shorter energetic and longer energetic the fifth and sixth moods the energetics exist only in classical arabic but not in msa there are two participles active and passive and a verbal noun but no infinitive the past and nonpast paradigms are sometimes termed perfective and imperfective indicating the fact that they actually represent a combination of tense and aspect the moods other than the indicative occur only in the nonpast and the future tense is signaled by prefixing or onto the nonpast the past and nonpast differ in the form of the stem eg past vs nonpast and use completely different sets of affixes for indicating person number and gender in the past the person number and gender are fused into a single suffixal morpheme while in the nonpast a combination of prefixes primarily encoding person and suffixes primarily encoding gender and number are used the passive voice uses the same personnumbergender affixes but changes the vowels of the stem the following shows a paradigm of a regular arabic verb to write in modern standard the energetic mood in either long or short form which have the same meaning is almost never used derivation like other semitic languages and unlike most other languages arabic makes much more use of nonconcatenative morphology applying many templates applied roots to derive words than adding prefixes or suffixes to words for verbs a given root can occur in many different derived verb stems of which there are about fifteen each with one or more characteristic meanings and each with its own templates for the past and nonpast stems active and passive participles and verbal noun these are referred to by western scholars as form i form ii and so on through form xv although forms xi to xv are rare these stems encode grammatical functions such as the causative intensive and reflexive stems sharing the same root consonants represent separate verbs albeit often semantically related and each is the basis for its own conjugational paradigm as a result these derived stems are part of the system of derivational morphology not part of the inflectional system examples of the different verbs formed from the root write using red for form ix which is limited to colors and physical defects form ii is sometimes used to create transitive denominative verbs verbs built from nouns form v is the equivalent used for intransitive denominatives the associated participles and verbal nouns of a verb are the primary means of forming new lexical nouns in arabic this is similar to the process by which for example the english gerund meeting similar to a verbal noun has turned into a noun referring to a particular type of social often workrelated event where people gather together to have a discussion another lexicalized verbal noun another fairly common means of forming nouns is through one of a limited number of patterns that can be applied directly to roots such as the nouns of location in ma eg desk office write kitchen cook the only three genuine suffixes are as follows the feminine suffix ah variously derives terms for women from related terms for men or more generally terms along the same lines as the corresponding masculine eg library also a writingrelated place but different from as above the nisbah suffix iyy this suffix is extremely productive and forms adjectives meaning related to x it corresponds to english adjectives in ic al an y ist etc the feminine nisbah suffix iyyah this is formed by adding the feminine suffix ah onto nisba adjectives to form abstract nouns for example from the basic root share can be derived the form viii verb to cooperate participate and in turn its verbal noun cooperation participation can be formed this in turn can be made into a nisbah adjective socialist from which an abstract noun socialism can be derived other recent formations are republic lit publicness multitude general public and the gaddafispecific variation peoples republic lit massesness the masses pl of as above colloquial varieties the spoken dialects have lost the case distinctions and make only limited use of the dual it occurs only on nouns and its use is no longer required in all circumstances they have lost the mood distinctions other than imperative but many have since gained new moods through the use of prefixes most often bi for indicative vs unmarked subjunctive they have also mostly lost the indefinite nunation and the internal passive the following is an example of a regular verb paradigm in egyptian arabic writing system the arabic alphabet derives from the aramaic through nabatean to which it bears a loose resemblance like that of coptic or cyrillic scripts to greek script traditionally there were several differences between the western north african and middle eastern versions of the alphabetin particular the faʼ had a dot underneath and qaf a single dot above in the maghreb and the order of the letters was slightly different at least when they were used as numerals however the old maghrebi variant has been abandoned except for calligraphic purposes in the maghreb itself and remains in use mainly in the quranic schools zaouias of west africa arabic like all other semitic languages except for the latinwritten maltese and the languages with the geez script is written from right to left there are several styles of scripts such as thuluth muhaqqaq tawqi rayhan and notably naskh which is used in print and by computers and ruqʻah which is commonly used for correspondence originally arabic was made up of only rasm without diacritical marks later diacritical points which in arabic are referred to as nuqaṯ were added which allowed readers to distinguish between letters such as b t th n and y finally signs known as tashkil were used for short vowels known as harakat and other uses such as final postnasalized or long vowels calligraphy after khalil ibn ahmad al farahidi finally fixed the arabic script around 786 many styles were developed both for the writing down of the quran and other books and for inscriptions on monuments as decoration arabic calligraphy has not fallen out of use as calligraphy has in the western world and is still considered by arabs as a major art form calligraphers are held in great esteem being cursive by nature unlike the latin script arabic script is used to write down a verse of the quran a hadith or a proverb the composition is often abstract but sometimes the writing is shaped into an actual form such as that of an animal one of the current masters of the genre is hassan massoudy in modern times the intrinsically calligraphic nature of the written arabic form is haunted by the thought that a typographic approach to the language necessary for digitized unification will not always accurately maintain meanings conveyed through calligraphy romanization there are a number of different standards for the romanization of arabic ie methods of accurately and efficiently representing arabic with the latin script there are various conflicting motivations involved which leads to multiple systems some are interested in transliteration ie representing the spelling of arabic while others focus on transcription ie representing the pronunciation of arabic they differ in that for example the same letter is used to represent both a consonant as in you or yet and a vowel as in me or eat some systems eg for scholarly use are intended to accurately and unambiguously represent the phonemes of arabic generally making the phonetics more explicit than the original word in the arabic script these systems are heavily reliant on diacritical marks such as š for the sound equivalently written sh in english other systems eg the baháí orthography are intended to help readers who are neither arabic speakers nor linguists with intuitive pronunciation of arabic names and phrases these less scientific systems tend to avoid diacritics and use digraphs like sh and kh these are usually simpler to read but sacrifice the definiteness of the scientific systems and may lead to ambiguities eg whether to interpret sh as a single sound as in gash or a combination of two sounds as in gashouse the alalc romanization solves this problem by separating the two sounds with a prime symbol eg ashal easier during the last few decades and especially since the 1990s westerninvented text communication technologies have become prevalent in the arab world such as personal computers the world wide web email bulletin board systems irc instant messaging and mobile phone text messaging most of these technologies originally had the ability to communicate using the latin script only and some of them still do not have the arabic script as an optional feature as a result arabic speaking users communicated in these technologies by transliterating the arabic text using the latin script sometimes known as im arabic to handle those arabic letters that cannot be accurately represented using the latin script numerals and other characters were appropriated for example the numeral 3 may be used to represent the arabic letter there is no universal name for this type of transliteration but some have named it arabic chat alphabet other systems of transliteration exist such as using dots or capitalization to represent the emphatic counterparts of certain consonants for instance using capitalization the letter may be represented by d its emphatic counterpart may be written as d numerals in most of presentday north africa the western arabic numerals 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 are used however in egypt and arabicspeaking countries to the east of it the eastern arabic numerals are in use when representing a number in arabic the lowestvalued position is placed on the right so the order of positions is the same as in lefttoright scripts sequences of digits such as telephone numbers are read from left to right but numbers are spoken in the traditional arabic fashion with units and tens reversed from the modern english usage for example 24 is said four and twenty just like in the german language vierundzwanzig and classical hebrew and 1975 is said a thousand and ninehundred and five and seventy or more eloquently a thousand and ninehundred five seventy arabic alphabet and nationalism there have been many instances of national movements to convert arabic script into latin script or to romanize the language currently the only arabic variety to use latin script is maltese lebanon the beirut newspaper la syrie pushed for the change from arabic script to latin letters in 1922 the major head of this movement was louis massignon a french orientalist who brought his concern before the arabic language academy in damascus in 1928 massignons attempt at romanization failed as the academy and population viewed the proposal as an attempt from the western world to take over their country said afghani a member of the academy mentioned that the movement to romanize the script was a zionist plan to dominate lebanon said akl created a latinbased alphabet for lebanese and used it in a newspaper he founded lebnaan as well as in some books he wrote egypt after the period of colonialism in egypt egyptians were looking for a way to reclaim and reemphasize egyptian culture as a result some egyptians pushed for an egyptianization of the arabic language in which the formal arabic and the colloquial arabic would be combined into one language and the latin alphabet would be used there was also the idea of finding a way to use hieroglyphics instead of the latin alphabet but this was seen as too complicated to use a scholar salama musa agreed with the idea of applying a latin alphabet to arabic as he believed that would allow egypt to have a closer relationship with the west he also believed that latin script was key to the success of egypt as it would allow for more advances in science and technology this change in alphabet he believed would solve the problems inherent with arabic such as a lack of written vowels and difficulties writing foreign words that made it difficult for nonnative speakers to learn ahmad lutfi as sayid and muhammad azmi two egyptian intellectuals agreed with musa and supported the push for romanization the idea that romanization was necessary for modernization and growth in egypt continued with abd alaziz fahmi in 1944 he was the chairman for the writing and grammar committee for the arabic language academy of cairo this effort failed as the egyptian people felt a strong cultural tie to the arabic alphabet in particular the older egyptian generations believed that the arabic alphabet had strong connections to arab values and history due to the long history of the arabic alphabet shrivtiel 189 in muslim societies see also arabic ontology arabic diglossia arabic language influence on the spanish language arabic language international council arabic literature arabicenglish lexicon arabist a dictionary of modern written arabic glossary of islam international association of arabic dialectology list of arab newspapers list of arabiclanguage television channels list of arabic given names list of arabophones list of countries where arabic is an official language list of french words of arabic origin replacement of loanwords in turkish notes references citations sources suileman yasir arabic self and identity a study in conflict and displacement oxford university press 2011 external links languages attested from the 9th century bc articles containing video clips central semitic languages fusional languages languages of algeria languages of bahrain languages of cameroon languages of chad languages of the comoros languages of djibouti languages of eritrea languages of gibraltar languages of israel languages of iran languages of iraq languages of jordan languages of kurdistan languages of kuwait languages of lebanon languages of libya languages of mali languages of mauritania languages of morocco languages of niger languages of oman languages of the state of palestine languages of qatar languages of saudi arabia languages of senegal languages of south sudan languages of sicily languages of somalia languages of sudan languages of syria languages of the united arab emirates languages of tunisia languages of yemen languages with own distinct writing systems lingua francas stresstimed languages subjectverbobject languages verbsubjectobject languages	13,588
808	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Hitchcock	Alfred Hitchcock	sir alfred joseph hitchcock 13 august 1899 29 april 1980 was an english film director screenwriter producer and editor he is widely regarded as one of the most influential figures in the history of cinema in a career spanning six decades he directed over 50 feature films many of which are still widely watched and studied today known as the master of suspense he became as well known as any of his actors thanks to his many interviews his cameo roles in most of his films and his hosting and producing the television anthology alfred hitchcock presents 195565 his films garnered 46 academy award nominations including six wins although he never won the award for best director despite five nominations hitchcock initially trained as a technical clerk and copywriter before entering the film industry in 1919 as a title card designer his directorial debut was the britishgerman silent film the pleasure garden 1925 his first successful film the lodger a story of the london fog 1927 helped to shape the thriller genre and blackmail 1929 was the first british talkie his thrillers the 39 steps 1935 and the lady vanishes 1938 are ranked among the greatest british films of the 20th century by 1939 he had international recognition and producer david o selznick persuaded him to move to hollywood a string of successful films followed including rebecca 1940 foreign correspondent 1940 suspicion 1941 shadow of a doubt 1943 and notorious 1946 rebecca won the academy award for best picture with hitchcock nominated as best director he also received oscar nominations for lifeboat 1944 spellbound 1945 rear window 1954 and psycho 1960 hitchcocks other notable films include rope 1948 strangers on a train 1951 dial m for murder 1954 to catch a thief 1955 the trouble with harry 1955 vertigo 1958 north by northwest 1959 the birds 1963 and marnie 1964 all of which were also financially successful and are highly regarded by film historians hitchcock made multiple films with some of the biggest stars in hollywood including four with cary grant four with james stewart three with ingrid bergman and three consecutively with grace kelly hitchcock became an american citizen in 1955 in 2012 hitchcocks psychological thriller vertigo starring stewart displaced orson welles citizen kane 1941 as the british film institutes greatest film ever made based on its worldwide poll of hundreds of film critics nine of his films had been selected for preservation in the united states national film registry including his personal favourite shadow of a doubt 1943 he received the bafta fellowship in 1971 the afi life achievement award in 1979 and was knighted in december of that year four months before his death on 29 april 1980 biography early life 18991919 early childhood and education alfred joseph hitchcock was born on 13 august 1899 in the flat above his parents leased greengrocers shop at 517 high road in leytonstone which was then part of essex now on the outskirts of east london he was the son of emma jane née whelan 18631942 and william edgar hitchcock 18621914 and had an older brother named william daniel 18901943 and an older sister named ellen kathleen 18921979 who used the nickname nellie his parents were both roman catholics with partial irish ancestry his father was a greengrocer as his grandfather had been there was a large extended family including uncle john hitchcock with his fivebedroom victorian house on campion road in putney complete with a maid cook chauffeur and gardener every summer his uncle rented a seaside house for the family in cliftonville hitchcock said that he first became classconscious there noticing the differences between tourists and locals describing himself as a wellbehaved boy his father called him his little lamb without a spot hitchcock said he could not remember ever having had a playmate one of his favourite stories for interviewers was about his father sending him to the local police station with a note when he was five the policeman looked at the note and locked him in a cell for a few minutes saying this is what we do to naughty boys the experience left him with a lifelong phobia of law enforcement and he told tom snyder in 1973 that he was scared stiff of anything to do with the law and that he would refuse to even drive a car in case he got a parking ticket when he was six the family moved to limehouse and leased two stores at 130 and 175 salmon lane which they ran as a fishandchip shop and fishmongers respectively they lived above the former hitchcock attended his first school the howrah house convent in poplar which he entered in 1907 at age 7 according to biographer patrick mcgilligan he stayed at howrah house for at most two years he also attended a convent school the wode street school for the daughters of gentlemen and little boys run by the faithful companions of jesus he then attended a primary school near his home and was for a short time a boarder at salesian college in battersea the family moved again when hitchcock was eleven this time to stepney and on 5 october 1910 he was sent to st ignatius college in stamford hill a jesuit grammar school with a reputation for discipline as corporal punishment the priests used a flat hard springy tool made of guttapercha and known as a ferula which struck the whole palm punishment was always at the end of the day so the boys had to sit through classes anticipating the punishment if they had been written up for it he later said that this is where he developed his sense of fear the school register lists his year of birth as 1900 rather than 1899 biographer donald spoto says he was deliberately enrolled as a tenyearold because he was a year behind with his schooling while biographer gene adair reports that hitchcock was an average or slightly aboveaverage pupil hitchcock said that he was usually among the four or five at the top of the class at the end of his first year his work in latin english french and religious education was noted he told peter bogdanovich the jesuits taught me organisation control and to some degree analysis hitchcocks favourite subject was geography and he became interested in maps and the timetables of trains trams and buses according to john russell taylor he could recite all the stops on the orient express he had a particular interest in london trams an overwhelming majority of his films include rail or tram scenes in particular the lady vanishes strangers on a train and number seventeen a clapperboard shows the number of the scene and the number of takes and hitchcock would often take the two numbers on the clapperboard and whisper the london tram route names for example if the clapperboard showed scene 23 take 3 he would whisper woodford hampsteadwoodford being the terminus of the route 23 tram and hampstead the end of route 3 henleys hitchcock told his parents that he wanted to be an engineer and on 25 july 1913 he left st ignatius and enrolled in night classes at the london county council school of engineering and navigation in poplar in a booklength interview in 1962 he told françois truffaut that he had studied mechanics electricity acoustics and navigation then on 12 december 1914 his father who had been suffering from emphysema and kidney disease died at the age of 52 to support himself and his mother his older siblings had left home by then hitchcock took a job for 15 shillings a week in as a technical clerk at the henley telegraph and cable company in blomfield street near london wall he continued night classes this time in art history painting economics and political science his older brother ran the family shops while he and his mother continued to live in salmon lane hitchcock was too young to enlist when the first world war started in july 1914 and when he reached the required age of 18 in 1917 he received a c3 classification free from serious organic disease able to stand service conditions in garrisons at home only suitable for sedentary work he joined a cadet regiment of the royal engineers and took part in theoretical briefings weekend drills and exercises john russell taylor wrote that in one session of practical exercises in hyde park hitchcock was required to wear puttees he could never master wrapping them around his legs and they repeatedly fell down around his ankles after the war hitchcock took an interest in creative writing in june 1919 he became a founding editor and business manager of henleys inhouse publication the henley telegraph sixpence a copy to which he submitted several short stories henleys promoted him to the advertising department where he wrote copy and drew graphics for electric cable advertisements he enjoyed the job and would stay late at the office to examine the proofs he told truffaut that this was his first step toward cinema he enjoyed watching films especially american cinema and from the age of 16 read the trade papers he watched charlie chaplin d w griffith and buster keaton and particularly liked fritz langs der müde tod 1921 interwar career 19191939 famous playerslasky while still at henleys he read in a trade paper that famous playerslasky the production arm of paramount pictures was opening a studio in london they were planning to film the sorrows of satan by marie corelli so he produced some drawings for the title cards and sent his work to the studio they hired him and in 1919 he began working for islington studios in poole street hoxton as a titlecard designer donald spoto wrote that most of the staff were americans with strict job specifications but the english workers were encouraged to try their hand at anything which meant that hitchcock gained experience as a cowriter art director and production manager on at least 18 silent films the times wrote in february 1922 about the studios special art title department under the supervision of mr a j hitchcock his work included number 13 1922 also known as mrs peabody it was cancelled because of financial problems the few finished scenes are lost and always tell your wife 1923 which he and seymour hicks finished together when hicks was about to give up on it hicks wrote later about being helped by a fat youth who was in charge of the property room none other than alfred hitchcock gainsborough pictures and work in germany when paramount pulled out of london in 1922 hitchcock was hired as an assistant director by a new firm run in the same location by michael balcon later known as gainsborough pictures hitchcock worked on woman to woman 1923 with the director graham cutts designing the set writing the script and producing he said it was the first film that i had really got my hands onto the editor and script girl on woman to woman was alma reville his future wife he also worked as an assistant to cutts on the white shadow 1924 the passionate adventure 1924 the blackguard 1925 and the prudes fall 1925 the blackguard was produced at the babelsberg studios in potsdam where hitchcock watched part of the making of f w murnaus the last laugh 1924 he was impressed with murnaus work and later used many of his techniques for the set design in his own productions in the summer of 1925 balcon asked hitchcock to direct the pleasure garden 1925 starring virginia valli a coproduction of gainsborough and the german firm emelka at the geiselgasteig studio near munich reville by then hitchcocks fiancée was assistant directoreditor although the film was a commercial flop balcon liked hitchcocks work a daily express headline called him the young man with a master mind production of the pleasure garden encountered obstacles which hitchcock would later learn from on arrival to brenner pass he failed to declare his film stock to customs and it was confiscated one actress could not enter the water for a scene because she was on her period budget overruns meant that he had to borrow money from the actors hitchcock also needed a translator to give instructions to the cast and crew in germany hitchcock observed the nuances of german cinema and filmmaking which had a big influence on him when he was not working he would visit berlins art galleries concerts and museums he would also meet with actors writers and producers to build connections balcon asked him to direct a second film in munich the mountain eagle 1926 based on an original story titled fear o god the film is lost and hitchcock called it a very bad movie a year later hitchcock wrote and directed the ring although the screenplay was credited solely to his name elliot stannard assisted him with the writing the ring garnered positive reviews the bioscope critic called it the most magnificent british film ever made when he returned to england hitchcock was one of the early members of the london film society newly formed in 1925 through the society he became fascinated by the work by soviet filmmakers dziga vertov lev kuleshov sergei eisenstein and vsevolod pudovkin he would also socialise with fellow english filmmakers ivor montagu adrian brunel and walter mycroft hitchcock established himself as a name director with his first thriller the lodger a story of the london fog 1927 the film concerns the hunt for a jack the ripperstyle serial killer who wearing a black cloak and carrying a black bag is murdering young blonde women in london and only on tuesdays a landlady suspects that her lodger is the killer but he turns out to be innocent hitchcock had wanted the leading man to be guilty or for the film at least to end ambiguously but the star was ivor novello a matinée idol and the star system meant that novello could not be the villain hitchcock told truffaut you have to clearly spell it out in big letters he is innocent he had the same problem years later with cary grant in suspicion 1941 released in january 1927 the lodger was a commercial and critical success in the uk upon its release the trade journal bioscope wrote it is possible that this film is the finest british production ever made hitchcock told truffaut that the film was the first of his to be influenced by german expressionism in truth you might almost say that the lodger was my first picture he made his first cameo appearance in the film sitting in a newsroom marriage on 2 december 1926 hitchcock married the english screenwriter alma reville at the brompton oratory in south kensington the couple honeymooned in paris lake como and st moritz before returning to london to live in a leased flat on the top two floors of 153 cromwell road kensington reville who was born just hours after hitchcock converted from protestantism to catholicism apparently at the insistence of hitchcocks mother she was baptised on 31 may 1927 and confirmed at westminster cathedral by cardinal francis bourne on 5 june in 1928 when they learned that reville was pregnant the hitchcocks purchased winters grace a tudor farmhouse set in eleven acres on stroud lane shamley green surrey for 2500 their daughter and only child patricia alma hitchcock was born on 7 july that year patricia died on 9 august 2021 at 93 reville became her husbands closest collaborator charles champlin wrote in 1982 the hitchcock touch had four hands and two were almas when hitchcock accepted the afi life achievement award in 1979 he said that he wanted to mention four people who have given me the most affection appreciation and encouragement and constant collaboration the first of the four is a film editor the second is a scriptwriter the third is the mother of my daughter pat and the fourth is as fine a cook as ever performed miracles in a domestic kitchen and their names are alma reville reville wrote or cowrote on many of hitchcocks films including shadow of a doubt suspicion and the 39 steps early sound films hitchcock began work on his tenth film blackmail 1929 when its production company british international pictures bip converted its elstree studios to sound the film was the first british talkie this followed the rapid development of sound films in the united states from the use of brief sound segments in the jazz singer 1927 to the first full sound feature lights of new york 1928 blackmail began the hitchcock tradition of using famous landmarks as a backdrop for suspense sequences with the climax taking place on the dome of the british museum it also features one of his longest cameo appearances which shows him being bothered by a small boy as he reads a book on the london underground in the pbs series the men who made the movies hitchcock explained how he used early sound recording as a special element of the film stressing the word knife in a conversation with the woman suspected of murder during this period hitchcock directed segments for a bip revue elstree calling 1930 and directed a short film an elastic affair 1930 featuring two film weekly scholarship winners an elastic affair is one of the lost films in 1933 hitchcock signed a multifilm contract with gaumontbritish once again working for michael balcon his first film for the company the man who knew too much 1934 was a success his second the 39 steps 1935 was acclaimed in the uk and gained him recognition in the united states it also established the quintessential english hitchcock blonde madeleine carroll as the template for his succession of icecold elegant leading ladies screenwriter robert towne remarked its not much of an exaggeration to say that all contemporary escapist entertainment begins with the 39 steps john buchan author of the thirtynine steps on which the film is loosely based met with hitchcock on set and attended the highprofile premiere at the new gallery cinema in london upon viewing the film the author said it had improved on the book this film was one of the first to introduce the macguffin plot device a term coined by the english screenwriter angus macphail the macguffin is an item or goal the protagonist is pursuing one that otherwise has no narrative value in the 39 steps the macguffin is a stolen set of design plans hitchcock released two spy thrillers in 1936 sabotage was loosely based on joseph conrads novel the secret agent 1907 about a woman who discovers that her husband is a terrorist and secret agent based on two stories in ashenden or the british agent 1928 by w somerset maugham at this time hitchcock also became notorious for pranks against the cast and crew these jokes ranged from simple and innocent to crazy and maniacal for instance he hosted a dinner party where he dyed all the food blue because he claimed there werent enough blue foods he also had a horse delivered to the dressing room of his friend actor gerald du maurier hitchcock followed up with young and innocent in 1937 a crime thriller based on the 1936 novel a shilling for candles by josephine tey starring nova pilbeam and derrick de marney the film was relatively enjoyable for the cast and crew to make to meet distribution purposes in america the films runtime was cut and this included removal of one of hitchcocks favourite scenes a childrens tea party which becomes menacing to the protagonists hitchcocks next major success was the lady vanishes 1938 one of the greatest train movies from the genres golden era according to philip french in which miss froy may whitty a british spy posing as a governess disappears on a train journey through the fictional european country of bandrika the film saw hitchcock receive the 1938 new york film critics circle award for best director benjamin crisler of the new york times wrote in june 1938 three unique and valuable institutions the british have that we in america have not magna carta the tower bridge and alfred hitchcock the greatest director of screen melodramas in the world the film was based on the novel the wheel spins 1936 written by ethel lina white by 1938 hitchcock was aware that he had reached his peak in britain he had received numerous offers from producers in the united states but he turned them all down because he disliked the contractual obligations or thought the projects were repellent however producer david o selznick offered him a concrete proposal to make a film based on the sinking of which was eventually shelved but selznick persuaded hitchcock to come to hollywood in july 1938 hitchcock flew to new york and found that he was already a celebrity he was featured in magazines and gave interviews to radio stations in hollywood hitchcock met selznick for the first time selznick offered him a fourfilm contract approximately 40000 for each picture early hollywood years 19391945 selznick contract selznick signed hitchcock to a sevenyear contract beginning in april 1939 and the hitchcocks moved to hollywood the hitchcocks lived in a spacious flat on wilshire boulevard and slowly acclimatised themselves to the los angeles area he and his wife alma kept a low profile and were not interested in attending parties or being celebrities hitchcock discovered his taste for fine food in west hollywood but still carried on his way of life from england he was impressed with hollywoods filmmaking culture expansive budgets and efficiency compared to the limits that he had often faced in britain in june that year life called him the greatest master of melodrama in screen history although hitchcock and selznick respected each other their working arrangements were sometimes difficult selznick suffered from constant financial problems and hitchcock was often unhappy about selznicks creative control and interference over his films selznick was also displeased with hitchcocks method of shooting just what was in the script and nothing more which meant that the film could not be cut and remade differently at a later time as well as complaining about hitchcocks goddamn jigsaw cutting their personalities were mismatched hitchcock was reserved whereas selznick was flamboyant eventually selznick generously lent hitchcock to the larger film studios selznick made only a few films each year as did fellow independent producer samuel goldwyn so he did not always have projects for hitchcock to direct goldwyn had also negotiated with hitchcock on a possible contract only to be outbid by selznick in a later interview hitchcock said selznick was the big producer producer was king the most flattering thing mr selznick ever said about meand it shows you the amount of controlhe said i was the only director hed trust with a film hitchcock approached american cinema cautiously his first american film was set in england in which the americanness of the characters was incidental rebecca 1940 was set in a hollywood version of englands cornwall and based on a novel by english novelist daphne du maurier selznick insisted on a faithful adaptation of the book and disagreed with hitchcock with the use of humour the film starring laurence olivier and joan fontaine concerns an unnamed naïve young woman who marries a widowed aristocrat she lives in his large english country house and struggles with the lingering reputation of his elegant and worldly first wife rebecca who died under mysterious circumstances the film won best picture at the 13th academy awards the statuette was given to producer selznick hitchcock received his first nomination for best director his first of five such nominations hitchcocks second american film was the thriller foreign correspondent 1940 set in europe based on vincent sheeans book personal history 1935 and produced by walter wanger it was nominated for best picture that year hitchcock felt uneasy living and working in hollywood while britain was at war his concern resulted in a film that overtly supported the british war effort filmed in 1939 it was inspired by the rapidly changing events in europe as covered by an american newspaper reporter played by joel mccrea by mixing footage of european scenes with scenes filmed on a hollywood backlot the film avoided direct references to nazism nazi germany and germans to comply with the motion picture production code at the time early war years in september 1940 the hitchcocks bought the cornwall ranch near scotts valley california in the santa cruz mountains their primary residence was an englishstyle home in bel air purchased in 1942 hitchcocks films were diverse during this period ranging from the romantic comedy mr mrs smith 1941 to the bleak film noir shadow of a doubt 1943 suspicion 1941 marked hitchcocks first film as a producer and director it is set in england hitchcock used the north coast of santa cruz for the english coastline sequence the film is the first of four in which cary grant was cast by hitchcock and it is one of the rare occasions that grant plays a sinister character grant plays johnnie aysgarth an english conman whose actions raise suspicion and anxiety in his shy young english wife lina mclaidlaw joan fontaine in one scene hitchcock placed a light inside a glass of milk perhaps poisoned that grant is bringing to his wife the light ensures that the audiences attention is on the glass grants character is actually a killer as per written in the book before the fact by francis iles but the studio felt that grants image would be tarnished by that hitchcock therefore settled for an ambiguous finale although he would have preferred to end with the wifes murder fontaine won best actress for her performance saboteur 1942 is the first of two films that hitchcock made for universal studios during the decade hitchcock wanted gary cooper and barbara stanwyck or henry fonda and gene tierney to star but was forced by universal to use universal contract player robert cummings and priscilla lane a freelancer who signed a onepicture deal with the studio both known for their work in comedies and light dramas the story depicts a confrontation between a suspected saboteur cummings and a real saboteur norman lloyd atop the statue of liberty hitchcock took a threeday tour of new york city to scout for saboteurs filming locations he also directed have you heard 1942 a photographic dramatisation for life magazine of the dangers of rumours during wartime in 1943 he wrote a mystery story for look the murder of monty woolley a sequence of captioned photographs inviting the reader to find clues to the murderers identity hitchcock cast the performers as themselves such as woolley doris merrick and makeup man guy pearce back in england hitchcocks mother emma was severely ill she died on 26 september 1942 at age 79 hitchcock never spoke publicly about his mother but his assistant said that he admired her four months later on 4 january 1943 his brother william died of an overdose at age 52 hitchcock was not very close to william but his death made hitchcock conscious about his own eating and drinking habits he was overweight and suffering from back aches his new years resolution in 1943 was to take his diet seriously with the help of a physician in january that year shadow of a doubt was released which hitchcock had fond memories of making in the film charlotte charlie newton teresa wright suspects her beloved uncle charlie oakley joseph cotten of being a serial killer hitchcock filmed extensively on location this time in the northern california city of santa rosa at 20th century fox hitchcock approached john steinbeck with an idea for a film which recorded the experiences of the survivors of a german uboat attack steinbeck began work on the script for what would become lifeboat 1944 however steinbeck was unhappy with the film and asked that his name be removed from the credits to no avail the idea was rewritten as a short story by harry sylvester and published in colliers in 1943 the action sequences were shot in a small boat in the studio water tank the locale posed problems for hitchcocks traditional cameo appearance it was solved by having hitchcocks image appear in a newspaper that william bendix is reading in the boat showing the director in a beforeandafter advertisement for reducoobesity slayer he told truffaut in 1962 hitchcocks typical dinner before his weight loss had been a roast chicken boiled ham potatoes bread vegetables relishes salad dessert a bottle of wine and some brandy to lose weight his diet consisted of black coffee for breakfast and lunch and steak and salad for dinner but it was hard to maintain donald spoto wrote that his weight fluctuated considerably over the next 40 years at the end of 1943 despite the weight loss the occidental insurance company of los angeles refused his application for life insurance wartime nonfiction films hitchcock returned to the uk for an extended visit in late 1943 and early 1944 while there he made two short propaganda films bon voyage 1944 and aventure malgache 1944 for the ministry of information in june and july 1945 hitchcock served as treatment advisor on a holocaust documentary that used allied forces footage of the liberation of nazi concentration camps the film was assembled in london and produced by sidney bernstein of the ministry of information who brought hitchcock a friend of his on board it was originally intended to be broadcast to the germans but the british government deemed it too traumatic to be shown to a shocked postwar population instead it was transferred in 1952 from the british war office film vaults to londons imperial war museum and remained unreleased until 1985 when an edited version was broadcast as an episode of pbs frontline under the title the imperial war museum had given it memory of the camps the fulllength version of the film german concentration camps factual survey was restored in 2014 by scholars at the imperial war museum postwar hollywood years 19451953 later selznick films hitchcock worked for david selznick again when he directed spellbound 1945 which explores psychoanalysis and features a dream sequence designed by salvador dalí the dream sequence as it appears in the film is ten minutes shorter than was originally envisioned selznick edited it to make it play more effectively gregory peck plays amnesiac dr anthony edwardes under the treatment of analyst dr peterson ingrid bergman who falls in love with him while trying to unlock his repressed past two pointofview shots were achieved by building a large wooden hand which would appear to belong to the character whose point of view the camera took and outsized props for it to hold a bucketsized glass of milk and a large wooden gun for added novelty and impact the climactic gunshot was handcoloured red on some copies of the blackandwhite film the original musical score by miklós rózsa makes use of the theremin and some of it was later adapted by the composer into rozsas piano concerto op 31 1967 for piano and orchestra the spy film notorious followed next in 1946 hitchcock told françois truffaut that selznick sold him ingrid bergman cary grant and ben hechts screenplay to rko radio pictures as a package for 500000 equivalent to million in because of cost overruns on selznicks duel in the sun 1946 notorious stars bergman and grant both hitchcock collaborators and features a plot about nazis uranium and south america his prescient use of uranium as a plot device led to him being briefly placed under surveillance by the federal bureau of investigation according to patrick mcgilligan in or around march 1945 hitchcock and hecht consulted robert millikan of the california institute of technology about the development of a uranium bomb selznick complained that the notion was science fiction only to be confronted by the news of the detonation of two atomic bombs on hiroshima and nagasaki in japan in august 1945 transatlantic pictures hitchcock formed an independent production company transatlantic pictures with his friend sidney bernstein he made two films with transatlantic one of which was his first colour film with rope 1948 hitchcock experimented with marshalling suspense in a confined environment as he had done earlier with lifeboat the film appears as a very limited number of continuous shots but it was actually shot in 10 ranging from to 10 minutes each a 10minute length of film was the most that a cameras film magazine could hold at the time some transitions between reels were hidden by having a dark object fill the entire screen for a moment hitchcock used those points to hide the cut and began the next take with the camera in the same place the film features james stewart in the leading role and was the first of four films that stewart made with hitchcock it was inspired by the leopold and loeb case of the 1920s critical response at the time was mixed under capricorn 1949 set in 19thcentury australia also uses the shortlived technique of long takes but to a more limited extent he again used technicolor in this production then returned to blackandwhite for several years transatlantic pictures became inactive after the last two films hitchcock filmed stage fright 1950 at elstree studios in england where he had worked during his british international pictures contract many years before he paired one of warner bros most popular stars jane wyman with the expatriate german actor marlene dietrich and used several prominent british actors including michael wilding richard todd and alastair sim this was hitchcocks first proper production for warner bros which had distributed rope and under capricorn because transatlantic pictures was experiencing financial difficulties his thriller strangers on a train 1951 was based on the novel of the same name by patricia highsmith hitchcock combined many elements from his preceding films he approached dashiell hammett to write the dialogue but raymond chandler took over then left over disagreements with the director in the film two men casually meet one of whom speculates on a foolproof method to murder he suggests that two people each wishing to do away with someone should each perform the others murder farley grangers role was as the innocent victim of the scheme while robert walker previously known for boynextdoor roles played the villain i confess 1953 was set in quebec with montgomery clift as a catholic priest peak years 19541964 dial m for murder and rear window i confess was followed by three colour films starring grace kelly dial m for murder 1954 rear window 1954 and to catch a thief 1955 in dial m for murder ray milland plays the villain who tries to murder his unfaithful wife kelly for her money she kills the hired assassin in selfdefence so milland manipulates the evidence to make it look like murder her lover mark halliday robert cummings and police inspector hubbard john williams save her from execution hitchcock experimented with 3d cinematography for dial m for murder hitchcock moved to paramount pictures and filmed rear window 1954 starring james stewart and grace kelly as well as thelma ritter and raymond burr stewarts character is a photographer named jeff based on robert capa who must temporarily use a wheelchair out of boredom he begins observing his neighbours across the courtyard then becomes convinced that one of them raymond burr has murdered his wife jeff eventually manages to convince his policeman buddy wendell corey and his girlfriend kelly as with lifeboat and rope the principal characters are depicted in confined or cramped quarters in this case stewarts studio apartment hitchcock uses closeups of stewarts face to show his characters reactions from the comic voyeurism directed at his neighbours to his helpless terror watching kelly and burr in the villains apartment alfred hitchcock presents from 1955 to 1965 hitchcock was the host of the television series alfred hitchcock presents with his droll delivery gallows humour and iconic image the series made hitchcock a celebrity the titlesequence of the show pictured a minimalist caricature of his profile he drew it himself it is composed of only nine strokes which his real silhouette then filled the series theme tune was funeral march of a marionette by the french composer charles gounod 18181893 his introductions always included some sort of wry humour such as the description of a recent multiperson execution hampered by having only one electric chair while two are shown with a sign two chairsno waiting he directed 18 episodes of the series which aired from 1955 to 1965 it became the alfred hitchcock hour in 1962 and nbc broadcast the final episode on 10 may 1965 in the 1980s a new version of alfred hitchcock presents was produced for television making use of hitchcocks original introductions in a colourised form hitchcocks success in television spawned a set of shortstory collections in his name these included alfred hitchcocks anthology stories they wouldnt let me do on tv and tales my mother never told me in 1956 hsd publications also licensed the directors name to create alfred hitchcocks mystery magazine a monthly digest specialising in crime and detective fiction hitchcocks television series were very profitable and his foreignlanguage versions of books were bringing revenues of up to 100000 a year from to catch a thief to vertigo in 1955 hitchcock became a united states citizen in the same year his third grace kelly film to catch a thief was released it is set in the french riviera and stars kelly and cary grant grant plays retired thief john robie who becomes the prime suspect for a spate of robberies in the riviera a thrillseeking american heiress played by kelly surmises his true identity and tries to seduce him despite the obvious age disparity between grant and kelly and a lightweight plot the witty script loaded with double entendres and the goodnatured acting proved a commercial success it was hitchcocks last film with kelly she married prince rainier of monaco in 1956 and ended her film career afterward hitchcock then remade his own 1934 film the man who knew too much in 1956 this time the film starred james stewart and doris day who sang the theme song que sera sera which won the academy award for best original song and became a big hit they play a couple whose son is kidnapped to prevent them from interfering with an assassination as in the 1934 film the climax takes place at the royal albert hall the wrong man 1956 hitchcocks final film for warner bros is a lowkey blackandwhite production based on a reallife case of mistaken identity reported in life magazine in 1953 this was the only film of hitchcock to star henry fonda playing a stork club musician mistaken for a liquor store thief who is arrested and tried for robbery while his wife vera miles emotionally collapses under the strain hitchcock told truffaut that his lifelong fear of the police attracted him to the subject and was embedded in many scenes while directing episodes for alfred hitchcock presents during the summer of 1957 hitchcock was admitted to hospital for hernia and gallstones and had to have his gallbladder removed following a successful surgery he immediately returned to work to prepare for his next project vertigo 1958 again starred james stewart with kim novak and barbara bel geddes he had wanted vera miles to play the lead but she was pregnant he told oriana fallaci i was offering her a big part the chance to become a beautiful sophisticated blonde a real actress wed have spent a heap of dollars on it and she has the bad taste to get pregnant i hate pregnant women because then they have children in vertigo stewart plays scottie a former police investigator suffering from acrophobia who becomes obsessed with a woman he has been hired to shadow novak scotties obsession leads to tragedy and this time hitchcock did not opt for a happy ending some critics including donald spoto and roger ebert agree that vertigo is the directors most personal and revealing film dealing with the pygmalionlike obsessions of a man who moulds a woman into the person he desires vertigo explores more frankly and at greater length his interest in the relation between sex and death than any other work in his filmography vertigo contains a camera technique developed by irmin roberts commonly referred to as a dolly zoom which has been copied by many filmmakers the film premiered at the san sebastián international film festival and hitchcock won the silver seashell prize vertigo is considered a classic but it attracted mixed reviews and poor boxoffice receipts at the time the critic from variety opined that the film was too slow and too long bosley crowther of the new york times thought it was devilishly farfetched but praised the cast performances and hitchcocks direction the picture was also the last collaboration between stewart and hitchcock in the 2002 sight sound polls it ranked just behind citizen kane 1941 ten years later in the same magazine critics chose it as the best film ever made north by northwest and psycho after vertigo the rest of 1958 was a difficult year for hitchcock during preproduction of north by northwest 1959 which was a slow and agonising process his wife alma was diagnosed with cancer while she was in hospital hitchcock kept himself occupied with his television work and would visit her every day alma underwent surgery and made a full recovery but it caused hitchcock to imagine for the first time life without her hitchcock followed up with three more successful films which are also recognised as among his best north by northwest psycho 1960 and the birds 1963 in north by northwest cary grant portrays roger thornhill a madison avenue advertising executive who is mistaken for a government secret agent he is pursued across the united states by enemy agents including eve kendall eva marie saint at first thornhill believes kendall is helping him but then realises that she is an enemy agent he later learns that she is working undercover for the cia during its opening twoweek run at radio city music hall the film grossed 404056 equivalent to million in setting a nonholiday gross record for that theatre time magazine called the film smoothly troweled and thoroughly entertaining psycho 1960 is arguably hitchcocks bestknown film based on robert blochs 1959 novel psycho which was inspired by the case of ed gein the film was produced on a tight budget of 800000 equivalent to million in and shot in blackandwhite on a spare set using crew members from alfred hitchcock presents the unprecedented violence of the shower scene the early death of the heroine and the innocent lives extinguished by a disturbed murderer became the hallmarks of a new horrorfilm genre the film proved popular with audiences with lines stretching outside theatres as viewers waited for the next showing it broke boxoffice records in the united kingdom france south america the united states and canada and was a moderate success in australia for a brief period psycho was the most profitable of hitchcocks career and he personally earned in excess of 15 million equivalent to million in he subsequently swapped his rights to psycho and his tv anthology for 150000 shares of mca making him the third largest shareholder and his own boss at universal in theory at least although that did not stop studio interference following the first film psycho became an american horror franchise psycho ii psycho iii bates motel psycho iv the beginning and a colour 1998 remake of the original truffaut interview on 13 august 1962 hitchcocks 63rd birthday the french director françois truffaut began a 50hour interview of hitchcock filmed over eight days at universal studios during which hitchcock agreed to answer 500 questions it took four years to transcribe the tapes and organise the images it was published as a book in 1967 which truffaut nicknamed the hitchbook the audio tapes were used as the basis of a documentary in 2015 truffaut sought the interview because it was clear to him that hitchcock was not simply the massmarket entertainer the american media made him out to be it was obvious from his films truffaut wrote that hitchcock had given more thought to the potential of his art than any of his colleagues he compared the interview to oedipus consultation of the oracle the birds the film scholar peter william evans wrote that the birds 1963 and marnie 1964 are regarded as undisputed masterpieces hitchcock had intended to film marnie first and in march 1962 it was announced that grace kelly princess grace of monaco since 1956 would come out of retirement to star in it when kelly asked hitchcock to postpone marnie until 1963 or 1964 he recruited evan hunter author of the blackboard jungle 1954 to develop a screenplay based on a daphne du maurier short story the birds 1952 which hitchcock had republished in his my favorites in suspense 1959 he hired tippi hedren to play the lead role it was her first role she had been a model in new york when hitchcock saw her in october 1961 in an nbc television advert for sego a diet drink i signed her because she is a classic beauty movies dont have them any more grace kelly was the last he insisted without explanation that her first name be written in single quotation marks tippi in the birds melanie daniels a young socialite meets lawyer mitch brenner rod taylor in a bird shop jessica tandy plays his possessive mother hedren visits him in bodega bay where the birds was filmed carrying a pair of lovebirds as a gift suddenly waves of birds start gathering watching and attacking the question what do the birds want is left unanswered hitchcock made the film with equipment from the revue studio which made alfred hitchcock presents he said it was his most technically challenging film using a combination of trained and mechanical birds against a backdrop of wild ones every shot was sketched in advance an hbobbc television film the girl 2012 depicted hedrens experiences on set she said that hitchcock became obsessed with her and sexually harassed her he reportedly isolated her from the rest of the crew had her followed whispered obscenities to her had her handwriting analysed and had a ramp built from his private office directly into her trailer diane baker her costar in marnie said nothing could have been more horrible for me than to arrive on that movie set and to see her being treated the way she was while filming the attack scene in the attic which took a week to film she was placed in a caged room while two men wearing elbowlength protective gloves threw live birds at her toward the end of the week to stop the birds flying away from her too soon one leg of each bird was attached by nylon thread to elastic bands sewn inside her clothes she broke down after a bird cut her lower eyelid and filming was halted on doctors orders marnie in june 1962 grace kelly announced that she had decided against appearing in marnie 1964 hedren had signed an exclusive sevenyear 500aweek contract with hitchcock in october 1961 and he decided to cast her in the lead role opposite sean connery in 2016 describing hedrens performance as one of the greatest in the history of cinema richard brody called the film a story of sexual violence inflicted on the character played by hedren the film is to put it simply sick and its so because hitchcock was sick he suffered all his life from furious sexual desire suffered from the lack of its gratification suffered from the inability to transform fantasy into reality and then went ahead and did so virtually by way of his art a 1964 new york times review called it hitchcocks most disappointing film in years citing hedrens and connerys lack of experience an amateurish script and glaringly fake cardboard backdrops in the film marnie edgar hedren steals 10000 from her employer and goes on the run she applies for a job at mark rutlands connery company in philadelphia and steals from there too earlier she is shown having a panic attack during a thunderstorm and fearing the colour red mark tracks her down and blackmails her into marrying him she explains that she does not want to be touched but during the honeymoon mark rapes her marnie and mark discover that marnies mother had been a prostitute when marnie was a child and that while the mother was fighting with a client during a thunderstorm the mother believed the client had tried to molest marnie marnie had killed the client to save her mother cured of her fears when she remembers what happened she decides to stay with mark hitchcock told cinematographer robert burks that the camera had to be placed as close as possible to hedren when he filmed her face evan hunter the screenwriter of the birds who was writing marnie too explained to hitchcock that if mark loved marnie he would comfort her not rape her hitchcock reportedly replied evan when he sticks it in her i want that camera right on her face when hunter submitted two versions of the script one without the rape scene hitchcock replaced him with jay presson allen later years 19661980 final films failing health reduced hitchcocks output during the last two decades of his life biographer stephen rebello claimed universal imposed two films on him torn curtain 1966 and topaz 1969 the latter of which is based on a leon uris novel partly set in cuba both were spy thrillers with cold warrelated themes torn curtain with paul newman and julie andrews precipitated the bitter end of the twelveyear collaboration between hitchcock and composer bernard herrmann hitchcock was unhappy with herrmanns score and replaced him with john addison jay livingston and ray evans upon release torn curtain was a box office disappointment and topaz was disliked by both critics and the studio hitchcock returned to britain to make his penultimate film frenzy 1972 based on the novel goodbye piccadilly farewell leicester square 1966 after two espionage films the plot marked a return to the murderthriller genre richard blaney jon finch a volatile barman with a history of explosive anger becomes the prime suspect in the investigation into the necktie murders which are actually committed by his friend bob rusk barry foster this time hitchcock makes the victim and villain kindreds rather than opposites as in strangers on a train in frenzy hitchcock allowed nudity for the first time two scenes show naked women one of whom is being raped and strangled donald spoto called the latter one of the most repellent examples of a detailed murder in the history of film both actors barbara leighhunt and anna massey refused to do the scenes so models were used instead biographers have noted that hitchcock had always pushed the limits of film censorship often managing to fool joseph breen the head of the motion picture production code hitchcock would add subtle hints of improprieties forbidden by censorship until the mid1960s yet patrick mcgilligan wrote that breen and others often realised that hitchcock was inserting such material and were actually amused as well as alarmed by hitchcocks inescapable inferences family plot 1976 was hitchcocks last film it relates the escapades of madam blanche tyler played by barbara harris a fraudulent spiritualist and her taxidriver lover bruce dern making a living from her phony powers while family plot was based on the victor canning novel the rainbird pattern 1972 the novels tone is more sinister screenwriter ernest lehman originally wrote the film under the working title deception with a dark tone but was pushed to a lighter more comical tone by hitchcock where it took the name deceit then finally family plot knighthood and death toward the end of his life hitchcock was working on the script for a spy thriller the short night collaborating with james costigan ernest lehman and david freeman despite preliminary work it was never filmed hitchcocks health was declining and he was worried about his wife who had suffered a stroke the screenplay was eventually published in freemans book the last days of alfred hitchcock 1999 having refused a cbe in 1962 hitchcock was appointed a knight commander of the most excellent order of the british empire kbe in the 1980 new year honours he was too ill to travel to londonhe had a pacemaker and was being given cortisone injections for his arthritisso on 3 january 1980 the british consul general presented him with the papers at universal studios asked by a reporter after the ceremony why it had taken the queen so long hitchcock quipped i suppose it was a matter of carelessness cary grant janet leigh and others attended a luncheon afterwards his last public appearance was on 16 march 1980 when he introduced the next years winner of the american film institute award he died of kidney failure the following month on 29 april in his bel air home donald spoto one of hitchcocks biographers wrote that hitchcock had declined to see a priest but according to jesuit priest mark henninger he and another priest tom sullivan celebrated mass at the filmmakers home and sullivan heard his confession hitchcock was survived by his wife and daughter his funeral was held at good shepherd catholic church in beverly hills on 30 april after which his body was cremated his remains were scattered over the pacific ocean on 10 may 1980 filmmaking style and themes the hitchcockian style includes the use of editing and camera movement to mimic a persons gaze thereby turning viewers into voyeurs and framing shots to maximise anxiety and fear the film critic robin wood wrote that the meaning of a hitchcock film is there in the method in the progression from shot to shot a hitchcock film is an organism with the whole implied in every detail and every detail related to the whole hitchcocks film production career evolved from smallscale silent films to financially significant sound films hitchcock remarked that he was influenced by early filmmakers george méliès dw griffith and alice guyblaché his silent films between 1925 and 1929 were in the crime and suspense genres but also included melodramas and comedies whilst visual storytelling was pertinent during the silent era even after the arrival of sound hitchcock still relied on visuals in cinema he referred to this emphasis on visual storytelling as pure cinema in britain he honed his craft so that by the time he moved to hollywood the director had perfected his style and camera techniques hitchcock later said that his british work was the sensation of cinema whereas the american phase was when his ideas were fertilised scholar robin wood writes that the directors first two films the pleasure garden and the mountain eagle were influenced by german expressionism afterward he discovered soviet cinema and sergei eisensteins and vsevolod pudovkins theories of montage 1926s the lodger was inspired by both german and soviet aesthetics styles which solidified the rest of his career although hitchcocks work in the 1920s found some success several british reviewers criticised hitchcocks films for being unoriginal and conceited raymond durgnat opined that hitchcocks films were carefully and intelligently constructed but thought they can be shallow and rarely present a coherent worldview earning the title master of suspense the director experimented with ways to generate tension in his work he said my suspense work comes out of creating nightmares for the audience and i play with an audience i make them gasp and surprise them and shock them when you have a nightmare its awfully vivid if youre dreaming that youre being led to the electric chair then youre as happy as can be when you wake up because youre relieved during filming of north by northwest hitchcock explained his reasons for recreating the set of mount rushmore the audience responds in proportion to how realistic you make it one of the dramatic reasons for this type of photography is to get it looking so natural that the audience gets involved and believes for the time being whats going on up there on the screen in a 1963 interview with italian journalist oriana fallaci hitchcock was asked how in spite of appearing to be a pleasant innocuous man he seemed to enjoy making films involving suspense and terrifying crime he responded hitchcocks films from the silent to the sound era contained a number of recurring themes that he is famous for his films explored audience as a voyeur notably in rear window marnie and psycho he understood that human beings enjoy voyeuristic activities and made the audience participate in it through the characters actions of his fiftythree films eleven revolved around stories of mistaken identity where an innocent protagonist is accused of a crime and is pursued by police in most cases it is an ordinary everyday person who finds themselves in a dangerous situation hitchcock told truffaut thats because the theme of the innocent man being accused i feel provides the audience with a greater sense of danger its easier for them to identify with him than with a guilty man on the run one of his constant themes were the struggle of a personality torn between order and chaos known as the notion of double which is a comparison or contrast between two characters or objects the double representing a dark or evil side according to robin wood hitchcock retained a feeling of ambivalence towards homosexuality despite working with gay actors throughout his career donald spoto suggests that hitchcocks sexually repressive childhood may have contributed to his exploration of deviancy during the 1950s the motion picture production code prohibited direct references to homosexuality but the director was known for his subtle references and pushing the boundaries of the censors moreover shadow of a doubt has a double incest theme through the storyline expressed implicitly through images author jane sloan argues that hitchcock was drawn to both conventional and unconventional sexual expression in his work and the theme of marriage was usually presented in a bleak and skeptical manner it was also not until after his mothers death in 1942 that hitchcock portrayed motherly figures as notorious monstermothers the espionage backdrop and murders committed by characters with psychopathic tendencies were common themes too in hitchcocks depiction of villains and murderers they were usually charming and friendly forcing viewers to identify with them the directors strict childhood and jesuit education may have led to his distrust of authoritarian figures such as policemen and politicians a theme which he has explored also he used the macguffinthe use of an object person or event to keep the plot moving along even if it was nonessential to the story some examples include the microfilm in north by northwest and the stolen 40000 in psycho hitchcock appears briefly in most of his own films for example he is seen struggling to get a double bass onto a train strangers on a train walking dogs out of a pet shop the birds fixing a neighbours clock rear window as a shadow family plot sitting at a table in a photograph dial m for murder and riding a bus north by northwest to catch a thief representation of women hitchcocks portrayal of women has been the subject of much scholarly debate bidisha wrote in the guardian in 2010 theres the vamp the tramp the snitch the witch the slink the doublecrosser and best of all the demon mommy dont worry they all get punished in the end in a widely cited essay in 1975 laura mulvey introduced the idea of the male gaze the view of the spectator in hitchcocks films she argued is that of the heterosexual male protagonist the female characters in his films reflected the same qualities over and over again roger ebert wrote in 1996 they were blonde they were icy and remote they were imprisoned in costumes that subtly combined fashion with fetishism they mesmerised the men who often had physical or psychological handicaps sooner or later every hitchcock woman was humiliated the victims in the lodger are all blondes in the 39 steps madeleine carroll is put in handcuffs ingrid bergman whom hitchcock directed three times spellbound notorious and under capricorn is dark blonde in rear window lisa grace kelly risks her life by breaking into lars thorwalds apartment in to catch a thief francie also kelly offers to help a man she believes is a burglar in vertigo and north by northwest respectively kim novak and eva marie saint play the blonde heroines in psycho janet leighs character steals 40000 and is murdered by norman bates a reclusive psychopath tippi hedren a blonde appears to be the focus of the attacks in the birds in marnie the title character again played by hedren is a thief in topaz french actresses dany robin as staffords wife and claude jade as staffords daughter are blonde heroines the mistress was played by brunette karin dor hitchcocks last blonde heroine was barbara harris as a phony psychic turned amateur sleuth in family plot 1976 his final film in the same film the diamond smuggler played by karen black wears a long blonde wig in several scenes hitchcocks films often feature characters struggling in their relationships with their mothers such as norman bates in psycho in north by northwest roger thornhill cary grant is an innocent man ridiculed by his mother for insisting that shadowy murderous men are after him in the birds the rod taylor character an innocent man finds his world under attack by vicious birds and struggles to free himself from a clinging mother jessica tandy the killer in frenzy has a loathing of women but idolises his mother the villain bruno in strangers on a train hates his father but has an incredibly close relationship with his mother played by marion lorne sebastian claude rains in notorious has a clearly conflicting relationship with his mother who is rightly suspicious of his new bride alicia huberman ingrid bergman relationship with actors hitchcock became known for having remarked that actors should be treated like cattle during the filming of mr mrs smith 1941 carole lombard brought three cows onto the set wearing the name tags of lombard robert montgomery and gene raymond the stars of the film to surprise him in an episode of the dick cavett show originally broadcast on 8 june 1972 dick cavett stated as fact that hitchcock had once called actors cattle hitchcock responded by saying that at one time he had been accused of calling actors cattle i said that i would never say such an unfeeling rude thing about actors at all what i probably said was that all actors should be treated like cattlein a nice way of course he then described carole lombards joke with a smile hitchcock believed that actors should concentrate on their performances and leave work on script and character to the directors and screenwriters he told bryan forbes in 1967 i remember discussing with a method actor how he was taught and so forth he said were taught using improvisation we are given an idea and then we are turned loose to develop in any way we want to i said thats not acting thats writing recalling their experiences on lifeboat for charles chandler author of its only a movie alfred hitchcock a personal biography walter slezak said that hitchcock knew more about how to help an actor than any director i ever worked with and hume cronyn dismissed the idea that hitchcock was not concerned with his actors as utterly fallacious describing at length the process of rehearsing and filming lifeboat critics observed that despite his reputation as a man who disliked actors actors who worked with him often gave brilliant performances he used the same actors in many of his films cary grant and james stewart both worked with hitchcock four times and ingrid bergman and grace kelly three james mason said that hitchcock regarded actors as animated props for hitchcock the actors were part of the films setting he told françois truffaut the chief requisite for an actor is the ability to do nothing well which is by no means as easy as it sounds he should be willing to be used and wholly integrated into the picture by the director and the camera he must allow the camera to determine the proper emphasis and the most effective dramatic highlights writing storyboards and production hitchcock planned his scripts in detail with his writers in writing with hitchcock 2001 steven derosa noted that hitchcock supervised them through every draft asking that they tell the story visually hitchcock told roger ebert in 1969 hitchcocks films were extensively storyboarded to the finest detail he was reported to have never even bothered looking through the viewfinder since he did not need to although in publicity photos he was shown doing so he also used this as an excuse to never have to change his films from his initial vision if a studio asked him to change a film he would claim that it was already shot in a single way and that there were no alternative takes to consider this view of hitchcock as a director who relied more on preproduction than on the actual production itself has been challenged by bill krohn the american correspondent of french film magazine cahiers du cinéma in his book hitchcock at work after investigating script revisions notes to other production personnel written by or to hitchcock and other production material krohn observed that hitchcocks work often deviated from how the screenplay was written or how the film was originally envisioned he noted that the myth of storyboards in relation to hitchcock often regurgitated by generations of commentators on his films was to a great degree perpetuated by hitchcock himself or the publicity arm of the studios for example the celebrated cropspraying sequence of north by northwest was not storyboarded at all after the scene was filmed the publicity department asked hitchcock to make storyboards to promote the film and hitchcock in turn hired an artist to match the scenes in detail even when storyboards were made scenes that were shot differed from them significantly krohns analysis of the production of hitchcock classics like notorious reveals that hitchcock was flexible enough to change a films conception during its production another example krohn notes is the american remake of the man who knew too much whose shooting schedule commenced without a finished script and moreover went over schedule something that as krohn notes was not an uncommon occurrence on many of hitchcocks films including strangers on a train and topaz while hitchcock did do a great deal of preparation for all his films he was fully cognisant that the actual filmmaking process often deviated from the bestlaid plans and was flexible to adapt to the changes and needs of production as his films were not free from the normal hassles faced and common routines used during many other film productions krohns work also sheds light on hitchcocks practice of generally shooting in chronological order which he notes sent many films over budget and over schedule and more importantly differed from the standard operating procedure of hollywood in the studio system era equally important is hitchcocks tendency to shoot alternative takes of scenes this differed from coverage in that the films were not necessarily shot from varying angles so as to give the editor options to shape the film how they chose often under the producers aegis rather they represented hitchcocks tendency to give himself options in the editing room where he would provide advice to his editors after viewing a rough cut of the work according to krohn this and a great deal of other information revealed through his research of hitchcocks personal papers script revisions and the like refute the notion of hitchcock as a director who was always in control of his films whose vision of his films did not change during production which krohn notes has remained the central longstanding myth of alfred hitchcock both his fastidiousness and attention to detail also found their way into each film poster for his films hitchcock preferred to work with the best talent of his dayfilm poster designers such as bill gold and saul basswho would produce posters that accurately represented his films legacy awards and honours hitchcock was inducted into the hollywood walk of fame on 8 february 1960 with two stars one for television and a second for motion pictures in 1978 john russell taylor described him as the most universally recognizable person in the world and a straightforward middleclass englishman who just happened to be an artistic genius in 2002 moviemaker named him the most influential director of all time and a 2007 the daily telegraph critics poll ranked him britains greatest director david gritten the newspapers film critic wrote unquestionably the greatest filmmaker to emerge from these islands hitchcock did more than any director to shape modern cinema which would be utterly different without him his flair was for narrative cruelly withholding crucial information from his characters and from us and engaging the emotions of the audience like no one else in 1992 the sight sound critics poll ranked hitchcock at no 4 in its list of top 10 directors of all time in 2002 hitchcock was ranked second in the critics top ten poll and fifth in the directors top ten poll in the list of the greatest directors of all time compiled by sight sound hitchcock was voted the greatest director of 20th century in a poll conducted by japanese film magazine kinema junpo in 1996 entertainment weekly ranked hitchcock at no 1 in its 50 greatest directors list hitchcock was ranked at no 2 on empires top 40 greatest directors of alltime list in 2005 in 2007 total film ranked hitchcock at no 1 on its 100 greatest film directors ever list he won two golden globes eight laurel awards and five lifetime achievement awards including the first bafta academy fellowship award and in 1979 an afi life achievement award he was nominated five times for an academy award for best director rebecca nominated for eleven oscars won the academy award for best picture of 1940 another hitchcock film foreign correspondent was also nominated that year by 2021 nine of his films had been selected for preservation by the us national film registry rebecca 1940 inducted 2018 shadow of a doubt 1943 inducted 1991 notorious 1946 inducted 2006 strangers on a train 1951 inducted 2021 rear window 1954 inducted 1997 vertigo 1958 inducted 1989 north by northwest 1959 inducted 1995 psycho 1960 inducted 1992 and the birds 1963 inducted 2016 in 2012 hitchcock was selected by artist sir peter blake author of the beatles sgt peppers lonely hearts club band album cover to appear in a new version of the cover along with other british cultural figures and he was featured that year in a bbc radio 4 series the new elizabethans as someone whose actions during the reign of elizabeth ii have had a significant impact on lives in these islands and given the age its character in june 2013 nine restored versions of hitchcocks early silent films including the pleasure garden 1925 were shown at the brooklyn academy of musics harvey theatre known as the hitchcock 9 the travelling tribute was organised by the british film institute archives the alfred hitchcock collection is housed at the academy film archive in hollywood california it includes home movies 16mm film shot on the set of blackmail 1929 and frenzy 1972 and the earliest known colour footage of hitchcock the academy film archive has preserved many of his home movies the alfred hitchcock papers are housed at the academys margaret herrick library the david o selznick and the ernest lehman collections housed at the harry ransom humanities research center in austin texas contain material related to hitchcocks work on the production of the paradine case rebecca spellbound north by northwest and family plot hitchcock portrayals anthony hopkins in hitchcock 2012 toby jones in the girl 2012 roger ashtongriffiths in grace of monaco 2014 epiclloyd in the youtube comedy series epic rap battles of history 2014 filmography filmssilent filmssound filmssee also alfred hitchcocks unrealized projects list of alfred hitchcock cameo appearances list of film director and actor collaborations notes and sources notes references works citedbiographies chronological miscellaneous further reading articles hitchcocks style bfi screenonline alfred hitchcock englands biggest and best director goes to hollywood life 20 november 1939 p 3343 alfred hitchcock now says actors are children not cattle boston globe 1 june 1958 p a11 twas alfred hitchcock week in london variety 17 august 1966 p 16 books deflem mathieu 2016 alfred hitchcock visions of guilt and innocence pp 203227 in framing law and crime an interdisciplinary anthology edited by caroline joan s picart michael hviid jacobsen and cecil greek latham md madison nj rowman littlefield fairleigh dickinson university press slavoj žižek et aleverything you always wanted to know about lacan but were afraid to ask hitchcock london and new york verso 2nd ed 2010 external links alfred hitchcock at the british film institute 1899 births 1980 deaths 20thcentury english screenwriters afi life achievement award recipients articles containing video clips bafta fellows british army personnel of world war i cecil b demille award golden globe winners deaths from kidney failure directors guild of america award winners edgar award winners english emigrants to the united states english expatriates in the united states english film directors english film producers english male screenwriters english people of irish descent english roman catholics english television directors english television producers film directors from london film directors from los angeles film producers from california film producers from london germanlanguage film directors horror film directors horror film producers knights commander of the order of the british empire military personnel from essex people educated at st ignatius college enfield people from bel air los angeles people from leytonstone people with acquired american citizenship people with multiple nationality recipients of the irving g thalberg memorial award royal engineers soldiers silent film directors silent film screenwriters	12,442
809	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaconda	Anaconda	anacondas or water boas are a group of large snakes of the genus eunectes they are found in tropical south america four species are currently recognized description although the name applies to a group of snakes it is often used to refer only to one species in particular the common or green anaconda eunectes murinus which is the largest snake in the world by weight and the second longest after the reticulated python etymology the south american names anacauchoa and anacaona were suggested in an account by peter martyr danghiera but the idea of a south american origin was questioned by henry walter bates who in his travels in south america failed to find any similar name in use the word anaconda is derived from the name of a snake from ceylon sri lanka that john ray described in latin in his 1693 as ray used a catalogue of snakes from the leyden museum supplied by dr tancred robinson but the description of its habit was based on andreas cleyer who in 1684 described a gigantic snake that crushed large animals by coiling around their bodies and crushing their bones henry yule in his hobsonjobson notes that the word became more popular due to a piece of fiction published in 1768 in the scots magazine by a certain r edwin edwin that described a tiger being crushed to death by an anaconda when there actually never were any tigers in sri lanka yule and frank wall noted that the snake was in fact a python and suggested a tamil origin meaning elephant killer a sinhalese origin was also suggested by donald ferguson who pointed out that the word lightninglarge and stemtrunk was used in sri lanka for the small whip snake ahaetulla pulverulenta and somehow got misapplied to the python before myths were created the name commonly used for the anaconda in brazil is sucuri sucuriju or sucuriuba species and other uses of the term anaconda the term anaconda has been used to refer to any member of the genus eunectes a group of large aquatic snakes found in south america eunectes murinus the green anaconda the largest species found east of the andes in colombia venezuela the guianas ecuador peru bolivia brazil and trinidad and tobago eunectes notaeus the yellow anaconda a small species found in eastern bolivia southern brazil paraguay and northeastern argentina eunectes deschauenseei the darklyspotted anaconda a rare species found in northeastern brazil and coastal french guiana eunectes beniensis the bolivian anaconda the most recently defined species found in the departments of beni and pando in bolivia the term was previously applied imprecisely indicating any large snake that constricts its prey though this usage is now archaic anaconda is also used as a metaphor for an action aimed at constricting and suffocating an opponent for example the anaconda plan proposed at the beginning of the american civil war in which the union army was to effectively suffocate the confederacy another example is the anaconda choke in the martial art brazilian jiujitsu which is performed by wrapping your arms under the opponents neck and through the armpit and grasping the biceps of the opposing arm when caught in this move you will lose consciousness if you do not tap out see also jaguar a competitor or predator notes references external links eunectes snake common names	558
824	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altaic%20languages	Altaic languages	altaic is a controversial proposed language family that would include the turkic mongolic and tungusic language families and possibly also the japonic and koreanic languages the hypothetical language family has long been rejected by most comparative linguists although it continues to be supported by a small but stable scholarly minority speakers of the constituent languages are currently scattered over most of asia north of 35 n and in some eastern parts of europe extending in longitude from the balkan peninsula to japan the group is named after the altai mountain range in the center of asia the altaic family was first proposed in the 18th century it was widely accepted until the 1960s and is still listed in many encyclopedias and handbooks and references to altaic as a language family continue to percolate to modern sources through these older sources since the 1950s most comparative linguists have rejected the proposal after supposed cognates were found not to be valid hypothesized sound shifts were not found and turkic and mongolic languages were found to be converging rather than diverging over the centuries the relationship between the altaic languages is now generally accepted to be the result of a sprachbund rather than common ancestry with the languages showing influence from prolonged contact the continued use of the term altaic to refer to the various iterations of an altaic theory the altaic sprachbund and infrequently as a general term for the region has resulted in confusion around the status of the altaic hypothesis with the end result being many altaicists adopting the name transeurasian for modifications of the family proposal to avoid confusion this confusion is compounded by literature which refers to altaic as an accepted hypothesis which historically was the case altaic has maintained a limited degree of scholarly support in contrast to some other early macrofamily proposals continued research on altaic is still being undertaken by a core group of academic linguists but their research has not found wider support in particular it has support from the institute of linguistics of the russian academy of sciences and remains influential as a substratum of turanism where a hypothetical common linguistic ancestor has been used in part as a basis for a multiethnic nationalist movement earliest attestations the earliest attested expressions in prototurkic are recorded in various chinese sources anna dybo identifies in shizi 330 bce and the book of han 111 ce several dozen prototurkic exotisms in chinese han transcriptions lanhai wei and hui li reconstruct the name of the xiōngnú ruling house as pt alayundluğ alajuntˈluγ piebald horse clan the earliest known texts in a turkic language are the orkhon inscriptions 720735 ad they were deciphered in 1893 by the danish linguist vilhelm thomsen in a scholarly race with his rival the germanrussian linguist wilhelm radloff however radloff was the first to publish the inscriptions the first tungusic language to be attested is jurchen the language of the ancestors of the manchus a writing system for it was devised in 1119 ad and an inscription using this system is known from 1185 see list of jurchen inscriptions the earliest mongolic language of which we have written evidence is known as middle mongol it is first attested by an inscription dated to 1224 or 1225 ad the stele of yisüngge and by the secret history of the mongols written in 1228 see mongolic languages the earliest paramongolic text is the memorial for yelü yanning written in the khitan large script and dated to 986 ad however the inscription of hüis tolgoi discovered in 1975 and analysed as being in an early form of mongolic has been dated to 604620 ad the bugut inscription dates back to 584 ad japanese is first attested in the form of names contained in a few short inscriptions in classical chinese from the 5th century ad such as found on the inariyama sword the first substantial text in japanese however is the kojiki which dates from 712 ad it is followed by the nihon shoki completed in 720 and then by the manyōshū which dates from c 771785 but includes material that is from about 400 years earlier the most important text for the study of early korean is the hyangga a collection of 25 poems of which some go back to the three kingdoms period 57 bc668 ad but are preserved in an orthography that only goes back to the 9th century ad korean is copiously attested from the mid15th century on in the phonetically precise hangul system of writing history of the altaic family concept origins the earliest known reference to a unified language group of turkic mongolic and tungusic languages is from the 1692 work of nicolaes witsen which may be based on a 1661 work of abu alghazi bahadur genealogy of the turkmens a proposed grouping of the turkic mongolic and tungusic languages was published in 1730 by philip johan von strahlenberg a swedish officer who traveled in the eastern russian empire while a prisoner of war after the great northern war however he may not have intended to imply a closer relationship among those languages later proposals to include the korean and japanese languages into a macroaltaic family have always been controversial the original proposal was sometimes called microaltaic by retronymy most proponents of altaic continue to support the inclusion of korean but fewer do for japanese some proposals also included ainuic but this is not widely accepted even among altaicists themselves a common ancestral protoaltaic language for the macro family has been tentatively reconstructed by sergei starostin and others microaltaic includes about 66 living languages to which macroaltaic would add korean jeju japanese and the ryukyuan languages for a total of about 74 depending on what is considered a language and what is considered a dialect these numbers do not include earlier states of languages such as middle mongol old korean or old japanese uraloaltaic hypothesis in 1844 the finnish philologist matthias castrén proposed a broader grouping which later came to be called the uralaltaic family which included turkic mongolian and manchutungus tungusic as an altaic branch and also the finnougric and samoyedic languages as the uralic branch though castrén himself used the terms tataric and chudic the name altaic referred to the altai mountains in eastcentral asia which are approximately the center of the geographic range of the three main families the name uralic referred to the ural mountains while the uralaltaic family hypothesis can still be found in some encyclopedias atlases and similar general references since the 1960s it has been heavily criticized even linguists who accept the basic altaic family such as sergei starostin completely discard the inclusion of the uralic branch the term continues to be used for the central eurasian typological grammatical and lexical convergence zone indeed uralaltaic may be preferable to altaic in this sense for example juha janhunen states that speaking of altaic instead of uralaltaic is a misconception for there are no areal or typological features that are specific to altaic without uralic korean and japanese languages in 1857 the austrian scholar anton boller suggested adding japanese to the uralaltaic family in the 1920s gj ramstedt and ed polivanov advocated the inclusion of korean decades later in his 1952 book ramstedt rejected the uralaltaic hypothesis but again included korean in altaic an inclusion followed by most leading altaicists supporters of the theory to date his book contained the first comprehensive attempt to identify regular correspondences among the sound systems within the altaic language families in 1960 nicholas poppe published what was in effect a heavily revised version of ramstedts volume on phonology that has since set the standard in altaic studies poppe considered the issue of the relationship of korean to turkicmongolictungusic not settled in his view there were three possibilities 1 korean did not belong with the other three genealogically but had been influenced by an altaic substratum 2 korean was related to the other three at the same level they were related to each other 3 korean had split off from the other three before they underwent a series of characteristic changes roy andrew millers 1971 book japanese and the other altaic languages convinced most altaicists that japanese also belonged to altaic since then the macroaltaic has been generally assumed to include turkic mongolic tungusic korean and japanese in 1990 unger advocated a family consisting of tungusic korean and japonic languages but not turkic or mongolic however many linguists dispute the alleged affinities of korean and japanese to the other three groups some authors instead tried to connect japanese to the austronesian languages in 2017 martine robbeets proposed that japanese and possibly korean originated as a hybrid language she proposed that the ancestral home of the turkic mongolic and tungusic languages was somewhere in northwestern manchuria a group of those protoaltaic transeurasian speakers would have migrated south into the modern liaoning province where they would have been mostly assimilated by an agricultural community with an austronesianlike language the fusion of the two languages would have resulted in protojapanese and protokorean in a typological study that does not directly evaluate the validity of the altaic hypothesis yurayong and szeto 2020 discuss for koreanic and japonic the stages of convergence to the altaic typological model and subsequent divergence from that model which resulted in the present typological similarity between koreanic and japonic they state that both are still so different from the core altaic languages that we can even speak of an independent japanesekorean type of grammar given also that there is neither a strong proof of common protoaltaic lexical items nor solid regular sound correspondences but rather only lexical and structural borrowings between languages of the altaic typology our results indirectly speak in favour of a paleoasiatic origin of the japonic and koreanic languages the ainu language in 1962 john c street proposed an alternative classification with turkicmongolictungusic in one grouping and koreanjapaneseainu in another joined in what he designated as the north asiatic family the inclusion of ainu was adopted also by james patrie in 1982 the turkicmongolictungusic and koreanjapaneseainu groupings were also posited in 20002002 by joseph greenberg however he treated them as independent members of a larger family which he termed eurasiatic the inclusion of ainu is not widely accepted by altaicists in fact no convincing genealogical relationship between ainu and any other language family has been demonstrated and it is generally regarded as a language isolate early criticism and rejection starting in the late 1950s some linguists became increasingly critical of even the minimal altaic family hypothesis disputing the alleged evidence of genetic connection between turkic mongolic and tungusic languages among the earlier critics were gerard clauson 1956 gerhard doerfer 1963 and alexander shcherbak they claimed that the words and features shared by turkic mongolic and tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances in 1988 doerfer again rejected all the genetic claims over these major groups modern controversy a major continuing supporter of the altaic hypothesis has been sergei starostin who published a comparative lexical analysis of the altaic languages in 1991 he concluded that the analysis supported the altaic grouping although it was older than most other language families in eurasia such as indoeuropean or finnougric and this is the reason why the modern altaic languages preserve few common elements in 1991 and again in 1996 roy miller defended the altaic hypothesis and claimed that the criticisms of clauson and doerfer apply exclusively to the lexical correspondences whereas the most pressing evidence for the theory is the similarities in verbal morphology in 2003 claus schönig published a critical overview of the history of the altaic hypothesis up to that time siding with the earlier criticisms of clauson doerfer and shcherbak in 2003 starostin anna dybo and oleg mudrak published the etymological dictionary of the altaic languages which expanded the 1991 lexical lists and added other phonological and grammatical arguments starostins book was criticized by stefan georg in 2004 and 2005 and by alexander vovin in 2005 other defenses of the theory in response to the criticisms of georg and vovin were published by starostin in 2005 blažek in 2006 robbeets in 2007 and dybo and g starostin in 2008 in 2010 lars johanson echoed millers 1996 rebuttal to the critics and called for a muting of the polemic list of supporters and critics of the altaic hypothesis the list below comprises linguists who have worked specifically on the altaic problem since the publication of the first volume of ramstedts einführung in 1952 the dates given are those of works concerning altaic for supporters of the theory the version of altaic they favor is given at the end of the entry if other than the prevailing one of turkicmongolictungusickoreanjapanese major supporters pentti aalto 1955 turkicmongolictungusickorean anna v dybo s starostin et al 2003 a dybo and g starostin 2008 frederik kortlandt 2010 karl h menges 1975 common ancestor of korean japanese and traditional altaic dated back to the 7th or 8th millennium bc 1975 125 roy andrew miller 1971 1980 1986 1996 supported the inclusion of korean and japanese oleg a mudrak s starostin et al 2003 nicholas poppe 1965 turkicmongolictungusic and perhaps korean alexis manaster ramer martine robbeets 2004 2005 2007 2008 2015 2021 in the form of transeurasian g j ramstedt 19521957 turkicmongolictungusickorean george starostin a dybo and g starostin 2008 sergei starostin 1991 s starostin et al 2003 john c street 1962 turkicmongolictungusic and koreanjapaneseainu grouped as north asiatic talât tekin 1994 turkicmongolictungusickorean major critics gerard clauson 1956 1959 1962 gerhard doerfer 1963 1966 1967 1968 1972 1973 1974 1975 1981 1985 1988 1993 susumu ōno 1970 2000 juha janhunen 1992 1995 tentative support of mongolictungusic claus schönig 2003 stefan georg 2004 2005 alexander vovin 2005 2010 2017 formerly an advocate of altaic 1994 1995 1997 1999 2000 2001 later a critic alexander shcherbak alexander b m stiven 2008 2010 advocates of alternative hypotheses james patrie 1982 and joseph greenberg 20002002 turkicmongolictungusic and koreanjapaneseainu grouped in a common taxon cf john c street 1962 j marshall unger 1990 tungusickoreanjapanese macrotungusic with turkic and mongolic as separate language families lars johanson 2010 agnostic proponent of a transeurasian verbal morphology not necessarily genealogically linked transeurasian renaming in robbeets and johanson 2010 there was a proposal to replace the name altaic with the name transeurasian while altaic has sometimes included japonic koreanic and other languages or families but only on the consideration of particular authors transeurasian was specifically intended to always include turkic mongolic tungusic japonic and koreanic robbeets and johanson gave as their reasoning for the new term 1 to avoid confusion between the different uses of altaic as to which group of languages is included 2 to reduce the counterproductive polarization between proaltaists and antialtaists 3 to broaden the applicability of the term because the suffix ic implies affinity while an leaves room for an areal hypothesis and 4 to eliminate the reference to the altai mountains as a potential homeland in robbeets and savelyev ed 2020 there was a concerted effort to distinguish altaic as a subgroup of transeurasian consisting only of turkic mongolic and tungusic while retaining transeurasian as altaic plus japonic and koreanic arguments for the altaic grouping phonological and grammatical features the original arguments for grouping the microaltaic languages within a uraloaltaic family were based on such shared features as vowel harmony and agglutination according to roy miller the most pressing evidence for the theory is the similarities in verbal morphology the etymological dictionary by starostin and others 2003 proposes a set of sound change laws that would explain the evolution from protoaltaic to the descendant languages for example although most of todays altaic languages have vowel harmony protoaltaic as reconstructed by them lacked it instead various vowel assimilations between the first and second syllables of words occurred in turkic mongolic tungusic korean and japonic they also included a number of grammatical correspondences between the languages shared lexicon starostin claimed in 1991 that the members of the proposed altaic group shared about 1520 of apparent cognates within a 110word swadeshyakhontov list in particular turkicmongolic 20 turkictungusic 18 turkickorean 17 mongolictungusic 22 mongolickorean 16 and tungusickorean 21 the 2003 etymological dictionary includes a list of 2800 proposed cognate sets as well as a few important changes to the reconstruction of protoaltaic the authors tried hard to distinguish loans between turkic and mongolic and between mongolic and tungusic from cognates and suggest words that occur in turkic and tungusic but not in mongolic all other combinations between the five branches also occur in the book it lists 144 items of shared basic vocabulary including words for such items as eye ear neck bone blood water stone sun and two robbeets and bouckaert 2018 use bayesian phylolinguistic methods to argue for the coherence of the narrow altaic languages turkic mongolic and tungusic together with japonic and koreanic which they refer to as the transeurasian languages their results include the following phylogenetic tree martine robbeets 2020 argues that early transeurasian speakers were originally agriculturalists in northeastern china only becoming pastoralists later on against the grouping weakness of lexical and typological data according to g clauson 1956 g doerfer 1963 and a shcherbak 1963 many of the typological features of the supposed altaic languages particularly agglutinative strongly suffixing morphology and subjectobjectverb sov word order often occur together in languages those critics also argued that the words and features shared by turkic mongolic and tungusic languages were for the most part borrowings and that the rest could be attributed to chance resemblances they noted that there was little vocabulary shared by turkic and tungusic languages though more shared with mongolic languages they reasoned that if all three families had a common ancestor we should expect losses to happen at random and not only at the geographical margins of the family and that the observed pattern is consistent with borrowing according to c schönig 2003 after accounting for areal effects the shared lexicon that could have a common genetic origin was reduced to a small number of monosyllabic lexical roots including the personal pronouns and a few other deictic and auxiliary items whose sharing could be explained in other ways not the kind of sharing expected in cases of genetic relationship the sprachbund hypothesis instead of a common genetic origin clauson doerfer and shcherbak proposed in 19561966 that turkic mongolic and tungusic languages form a sprachbund a set of languages with similarities due to convergence through intensive borrowing and long contact rather than common origin asya pereltsvaig further observed in 2011 that in general genetically related languages and families tend to diverge over time the earlier forms are more similar than modern forms however she claims that an analysis of the earliest written records of mongolic and turkic languages shows the opposite suggesting that they do not share a common traceable ancestor but rather have become more similar through language contact and areal effects hypothesis about the original homeland the prehistory of the peoples speaking the altaic languages is largely unknown whereas for certain other language families such as the speakers of indoeuropean uralic and austronesian it is possible to frame substantial hypotheses in the case of the proposed altaic family much remains to be done some scholars have hypothesised a possible uralic and altaic homeland in the central asian steppes chaubey and van driem propose that the dispersal of ancient altaic language communities is reflected by the early holocene dissemination of haplogroup c2 m217 if the paternal lineage c2 m217 is correlated with altaic linguistic affinity as appears to be the case for turkic mongolic and tungusic then japanese is no father tongue and neither is korean this ychromosomal haplogroup accounts for 11 of korean paternal lineages and the frequency of the lineage is even more reduced in japan yet this molecular marker may still be a tracer for the introduction of altaic language to the archipelago where the paternal lineage has persisted albeit in a frequency of just 6 according to juha janhunen the ancestral languages of turkic mongolic tungusic korean and japanese were spoken in a relatively small area comprising presentday north korea southern manchuria and southeastern mongolia however janhunen is sceptical about an affiliation of japanese to altaic while andrás rónatas remarked that a relationship between altaic and japanese if it ever existed must be more remote than the relationship of any two of the indoeuropean languages ramsey stated that the genetic relationship between korean and japanese if it in fact exists is probably more complex and distant than we can imagine on the basis of our present state of knowledge supporters of the altaic hypothesis formerly set the date of the protoaltaic language at around 4000 bc but today at around 5000 bc or 6000 bc this would make altaic a language family older than indoeuropean around 3000 to 4000 bc according to mainstream hypotheses but considerably younger than afroasiatic c 10000 bc or 11000 to 16000 bc according to different sources see also classification of the japonic languages nostratic languages panturanism turcomongol uralosiberian languages xiongnu comparison of japanese and korean references notes citations sources aalto pentti 1955 on the altaic initial p central asiatic journal 1 916 anonymous 2008 title missing bulletin of the society for the study of the indigenous languages of the americas 31 march 2008 264 anthony david w 2007 the horse the wheel and language princeton princeton university press boller anton 1857 nachweis daß das japanische zum uralaltaischen stamme gehört wien clauson gerard 1959 the case for the altaic theory examined akten des vierundzwanzigsten internationalen orientalistenkongresses edited by h franke wiesbaden deutsche morgenländische gesellschaft in komission bei franz steiner verlag clauson gerard 1968 a lexicostatistical appraisal of the altaic theory central asiatic journal 13 123 doerfer gerhard 1973 lautgesetze und zufall betrachtungen zum omnicomparativismus innsbrucker beiträge zur sprachwissenschaft 10 doerfer gerhard 1974 ist das japanische mit den altaischen sprachen verwandt zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen gesellschaft 1141 doerfer gerhard 1985 mongolicatungusica wiesbaden otto harrassowitz georg stefan 1999 2000 haupt und glieder der altaischen hypothese die körperteilbezeichnungen im türkischen mongolischen und tungusischen head and members of the altaic hypothesis the bodypart designations in turkic mongolic and tungusic uralaltaische jahrbücher neue folge b 16 143182 lee kimoon and s robert ramsey 2011 a history of the korean language cambridge cambridge university press menges karl h 1975 altajische studien ii japanisch und altajisch wiesbaden franz steiner verlag miller roy andrew 1980 origins of the japanese language lectures in japan during the academic year 19771978 seattle university of washington press ramstedt gj 1952 einführung in die altaische sprachwissenschaft i lautlehre introduction to altaic linguistics volume 1 phonology edited and published by pentti aalto helsinki suomalaisugrilainen seura ramstedt gj 1957 einführung in die altaische sprachwissenschaft ii formenlehre introduction to altaic linguistics volume 2 morphology edited and published by pentti aalto helsinki suomalaisugrilainen seura ramstedt gj 1966 einführung in die altaische sprachwissenschaft iii register introduction to altaic linguistics volume 3 index edited and published by pentti aalto helsinki suomalaisugrilainen seura robbeets martine 2004 swadesh 100 on japanese korean and altaic tokyo university linguistic papers tulip 23 99118 robbeets martine 2005 is japanese related to korean tungusic mongolic and turkic wiesbaden otto harrassowitz strahlenberg pjt von 1730 das nord und ostliche theil von europa und asia stockholm reprint 1975 studia uraloaltaica szeged and amsterdam strahlenberg pjt von 1738 russia siberia and great tartary an historicogeographical description of the north and eastern parts of europe and asia reprint 1970 new york arno press english translation of the previous tekin talat 1994 altaic languages in the encyclopedia of language and linguistics vol 1 edited by re asher oxford and new york pergamon press vovin alexander 1993 about the phonetic value of the middle korean grapheme ᅀ bulletin of the school of oriental and african studies 562 247259 vovin alexander 1994 genetic affiliation of japanese and methodology of linguistic comparison journal de la société finnoougrienne 85 241256 vovin alexander 2001 japanese korean and tungusic evidence for genetic relationship from verbal morphology altaic affinities proceedings of the 40th meeting of piac provo utah 1997 edited by david b honey and david c wright 83202 indiana university research institute for inner asian studies vovin alexander 2010 koreojaponica a reevaluation of a common genetic origin university of hawaii press whitney coolidge jennifer 2005 southern turkmenistan in the neolithic a petrographic case study oxbow books further reading blažek václav altaic numerals in blažek václav numerals comparativeetymological analyses of numeral systems and their implications saharan nubian egyptian berber kartvelian uralic altaic and indoeuropean languages vyd 1 v brně masarykova univerzita 1999 pp 102140 dybo anna new trends in european studies on the altaic problem in journal of language relationship 14 no 12 2017 71106 httpsdoiorg1031826jlr2017141208 finch roger gender distinctions in nouns and pronouns of the altaic languages expressions of gender in the altaic world proceedings of the 56th annual meeting of the permanent international altaistic conference piac kocaeli turkey july 712 2013 edited by münevver tekcan and oliver corff berlin boston de gruyter 2021 pp 5784 httpsdoiorgwikipedialibraryidmoclcorg1015159783110748789008 greenberg joseph h 1997 does altaic exist in irén hegedus peter a michalove and alexis manaster ramer editors indoeuropean nostratic and beyond a festschrift for vitaly v shevoroshkin washington dc institute for the study of man 1997 8893 reprinted in joseph h greenberg genetic linguistics oxford oxford university press 2005 325330 hahn reinhard f 1994 linguist list 5908 18 august 1994 janhunen juha 1995 prolegomena to a comparative analysis of mongolic and tungusic proceedings of the 38th permanent international altaistic conference piac 209218 wiesbaden harrassowitz janhunen juha a 2023 the unity and diversity of altaic annual review of linguistics 9135154 january 2023 johanson lars 1999 cognates and copies in altaic verb derivation in language and literature japanese and the other altaic languages studies in honour of roy andrew miller on his 75th birthday edited by karl h menges and nelly naumann 113 wiesbaden otto harrassowitz also html version johanson lars 1999 attractiveness and relatedness notes on turkic language contacts proceedings of the twentyfifth annual meeting of the berkeley linguistics society special session on caucasian dravidian and turkic linguistics edited by jeff good and alan cl yu 8794 berkeley berkeley linguistics society johanson lars 2002 structural factors in turkic language contacts translated by vanessa karam richmond surrey curzon press kortlandt frederik 1993 the origin of the japanese and korean accent systems acta linguistica hafniensia 26 5765 robbeets martine 2004 belief or argument the classification of the japanese language eurasia newsletter 8 graduate school of letters kyoto university ruhlen merritt 1987 a guide to the worlds languages stanford university press sinor denis 1990 essays in comparative altaic linguistics bloomington indiana university research institute for inner asian studies vovin alexander 2009 japanese korean and other nonaltaic languages in central asiatic journal 53 1 105147 external links altaic at the linguist list multitree project not functional as of 2014 genealogical trees attributed to ramstedt 1957 miller 1971 and poppe 1982 swadesh vocabulary lists for altaic languages from wiktionarys swadeshlist appendix monumenta altaica altaic linguistics website maintained by ilya gruntov altaic etymological dictionary database version by sergei a starostin anna v dybo and oleg a mudrak does not include introductory chapters linguist list 5911 defense of altaic by alexis manaster ramer 1994 linguist list 5926 1 remarks by alexander vovin 2 clarification by j marshall unger 1994 agglutinative languages central asia proposed language families	4,572
825	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austrian%20German	Austrian German	austrian german austrian standard german asg standard austrian german austrian high german or simply just austrian is an official and standard variety of standard high german written and spoken in austria and italian south tyrol it has the highest sociolinguistic prestige locally as it is the variation used in the media and for other formal situations in less formal situations austrians use bavarian and alemannic dialects which are traditionally spoken but rarely written in austria it has been formalized and standardized in austria since publishing the österreichisches wörterbuch by the austrian ministry of education science and research in 1951 history austrian german has its beginning in the mid18th century when empress maria theresa and her son joseph ii introduced compulsory schooling in 1774 and several reforms of administration in their multilingual habsburg empire at the time the written standard was oberdeutsche schreibsprache upper german written language which was highly influenced by the bavarian and alemannic dialects of austria another option was to create a new standard based on the southern german dialects as proposed by the linguist johann siegmund popowitsch instead they decided for pragmatic reasons to adopt the alreadystandardized chancellery language of saxony sächsische kanzleisprache or meißner kanzleideutsch which was based on the administrative language of the nonaustrian area of meißen and dresden austria high german hochdeutsch in österreich not to be confused with the bavarian austria german dialects has the same geographic origin as the swiss high german schweizer hochdeutsch not to be confused with the alemannic swiss german dialects the process of introducing the new written standard was led by joseph von sonnenfels since 1951 the standardized form of austrian german for official texts and schools has been defined by the austrian dictionary published under the authority of the austrian federal ministry of education arts and culture standard austrian german the official austrian dictionary prescribes grammatical and spelling rules that define the official language austrian delegates participated in the international working group that drafted the german spelling reform of 1996 and several conferences leading up to the reform were hosted in vienna at the invitation of the austrian federal government austria adopted it as a signatory along with germany switzerland and liechtenstein of an international memorandum of understanding signed in vienna in 1996 the eszett or sharp s ß is used in austria as in germany but unlike in switzerland because of germans pluricentric nature german dialects in austria should not be confused with the variety of standard austrian german spoken by most austrians which is distinct from that of germany or switzerland distinctions in vocabulary persist for example in culinary terms for which communication with germans is frequently difficult and administrative and legal language because of austrias exclusion from the development of a german nationstate in the late 19th century and its manifold particular traditions a comprehensive collection of austriangerman legal administrative and economic terms is offered in markhardt heidemarie wörterbuch der österreichischen rechts wirtschafts und verwaltungsterminologie peter lang 2006 former spoken standard until 1918 the spoken standard in austria was the a sociolect spoken by the imperial habsburg family and the nobility of austriahungary the sociolect a variety of standard german is influenced by viennese german and other austrobavarian dialects spoken in eastern austria but is slightly nasalized special written forms for many years austria had a special form of the language for official government documents that is known as or austrian chancellery language it is a very traditional form of the language probably derived from medieval deeds and documents and has a very complex structure and vocabulary generally reserved for such documents for most speakers even native speakers this form of the language is generally difficult to understand as it contains many highlyspecialised terms for diplomatic internal official and military matters there are no regional variations because the special written form has been used mainly by a government that has now for centuries been based in vienna is now used less and less because of various administrative reforms that reduced the number of traditional civil servants as a result standard austrian german is replacing it in government and administrative texts european union when austria became a member of the european union 23 foodrelated terms were listed in its accession agreement as having the same legal status as the equivalent terms used in germany for example the words for potato tomato and brussels sprouts examples in vocabulary austrian german is the only variety of a pluricentric language recognized under international law or eu primary law grammar verbs in austria as in the germanspeaking parts of switzerland and in southern germany verbs that express a state tend to use as the auxiliary verb in the perfect as well as verbs of movement verbs which fall into this category include sitzen to sit liegen to lie and in parts of styria and carinthia schlafen to sleep therefore the perfect of these verbs would be ich bin gesessen ich bin gelegen and ich bin geschlafen respectively in germany the words stehen to stand and gestehen to confess are identical in the present perfect habe gestanden the austrian variant avoids that potential ambiguity bin gestanden from stehen to stand and habe gestanden from gestehen to confess der verbrecher ist vor dem richter gestanden und hat gestanden in addition the preterite simple past is very rarely used in austria especially in the spoken language with the exception of some modal verbs ich sollte ich wollte vocabulary there are many official terms that differ in austrian german from their usage in most parts of germany words used in austria are jänner january rather than januar feber seldom february along with februar heuer this year along with dieses jahr stiege stairs along with treppen rauchfang chimney instead of schornstein many administrative legal and political terms and many food terms including the following there are however some false friends between the two regional varieties kasten wardrobe along with or instead of schrank and similarly eiskasten along with kühlschrank fridge as opposed to kiste box instead of kasten kiste in germany means both box and chest sessel chair instead of stuhl sessel means in germany and stuhl means stool faeces in both varieties dialects classification dialects of the austrobavarian group which also comprises dialects from bavaria central austrobavarian along the main rivers isar and danube spoken in the northern parts of the state of salzburg upper austria lower austria and northern burgenland viennese german southern austrobavarian in tyrol south tyrol carinthia styria and the southern parts of salzburg and burgenland vorarlbergerisch spoken in vorarlberg is a high alemannic dialect regional accents in addition to the standard variety in everyday life most austrians speak one of a number of upper german dialects while strong forms of the various dialects are not fully mutually intelligible to northern germans communication is much easier in bavaria especially rural areas where the bavarian dialect still predominates as the mother tongue the central austrobavarian dialects are more intelligible to speakers of standard german than the southern austrobavarian dialects of tyrol viennese the austrobavarian dialect of vienna is seen for many in germany as quintessentially austrian the people of graz the capital of styria speak yet another dialect which is not very styrian and more easily understood by people from other parts of austria than other styrian dialects for example from western styria simple words in the various dialects are very similar but pronunciation is distinct for each and after listening to a few spoken words it may be possible for an austrian to realise which dialect is being spoken however in regard to the dialects of the deeper valleys of the tyrol other tyroleans are often unable to understand them speakers from the different provinces of austria can easily be distinguished from each other by their particular accents probably more so than bavarians those of carinthia styria vienna upper austria and the tyrol being very characteristic speakers from those regions even those speaking standard german can usually be easily identified by their accent even by an untrained listener several of the dialects have been influenced by contact with nongermanic linguistic groups such as the dialect of carinthia where in the past many speakers were bilingual and in the southeastern portions of the state many still are even today with slovene and the dialect of vienna which has been influenced by immigration during the austrohungarian period particularly from what is today the czech republic the german dialects of south tyrol have been influenced by local romance languages particularly noticeable with the many loanwords from italian and ladin the geographic borderlines between the different accents isoglosses coincide strongly with the borders of the states and also with the border with bavaria with bavarians having a markedly different rhythm of speech in spite of the linguistic similarities references notes citations works cited further reading ammon ulrich die deutsche sprache in deutschland österreich und der schweiz das problem der nationalen varietäten de gruyter berlinnew york 1995 ammon ulrich hans bickel jakob ebner u a variantenwörterbuch des deutschen die standardsprache in österreich der schweiz und deutschland sowie in liechtenstein luxemburg ostbelgien und südtirol berlinnew york 2004 dollinger stefan österreichisches deutsch oder deutsch in österreich identitäten im 21 jahrhundert new academic press 2021 available online 3rd edhttpswwwnidlibrarycomhomebookdetail512 grzega joachim deutschländisch und österreichisches deutsch mehr unterschiede als nur in wortschatz und aussprache in joachim grzega sprachwissenschaft ohne fachchinesisch shaker aachen 2001 s 726 grzega joachim on the description of national varieties examples from german and austrian german and english and american english in linguistik online 7 2000 grzega joachim nonchalance als merkmal des österreichischen deutsch in muttersprache 113 2003 242254 muhr rudolf schrodt richard österreichisches deutsch und andere nationale varietäten plurizentrischer sprachen in europa wien 1997 muhr rudolfschrodt richardwiesinger peter eds österreichisches deutsch linguistische sozialpsychologische und sprachpolitische aspekte einer nationalen variante des deutschen wien 1995 pohl heinz dieter österreichische identität und österreichisches deutsch aus dem kärntner jahrbuch für politik 1999 wiesinger peter die deutsche sprache in österreich eine einführung in wiesinger hg das österreichische deutsch schriften zur deutschen sprache band 12 wien köln graz 1988 verlag böhlau external links austrian german german dictionary das österreichische volkswörterbuch bavarian language german dialects german national varieties of german	1,698
840	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom%20of%20choice	Axiom of choice	in mathematics the axiom of choice abbreviated ac or aoc is an axiom of set theory equivalent to the statement that a cartesian product of a collection of nonempty sets is nonempty informally put the axiom of choice says that given any collection of sets each containing at least one element it is possible to construct a new set by arbitrarily choosing one element from each set even if the collection is infinite formally it states that for every indexed family of nonempty sets there exists an indexed set such that for every the axiom of choice was formulated in 1904 by ernst zermelo in order to formalize his proof of the wellordering theorem in many cases a set arising from choosing elements arbitrarily can be made without invoking the axiom of choice this is in particular the case if the number of sets from which to choose the elements is finite or if a canonical rule on how to choose the elements is available some distinguishing property that happens to hold for exactly one element in each set an illustrative example is sets picked from the natural numbers from such sets one may always select the smallest number eg given the sets 4 5 6 10 12 1 400 617 8000 the set containing each smallest element is 4 10 1 in this case select the smallest number is a choice function even if infinitely many sets were collected from the natural numbers it will always be possible to choose the smallest element from each set to produce a set that is the choice function provides the set of chosen elements however no definite choice function is known for the collection of all nonempty subsets of the real numbers in that case the axiom of choice must be invoked bertrand russell coined an analogy for any even infinite collection of pairs of shoes one can pick out the left shoe from each pair to obtain an appropriate collection ie set of shoes this makes it possible to define a choice function directly for an infinite collection of pairs of socks assumed to have no distinguishing features there is no obvious way to make a function that forms a set out of selecting one sock from each pair without invoking the axiom of choice although originally controversial the axiom of choice is now used without reservation by most mathematicians and it is included in the standard form of axiomatic set theory zermelofraenkel set theory with the axiom of choice zfc one motivation for this use is that a number of generally accepted mathematical results such as tychonoffs theorem require the axiom of choice for their proofs contemporary set theorists also study axioms that are not compatible with the axiom of choice such as the axiom of determinacy the axiom of choice is avoided in some varieties of constructive mathematics although there are varieties of constructive mathematics in which the axiom of choice is embraced statement a choice function also called selector or selection is a function f defined on a collection x of nonempty sets such that for every set a in x fa is an element of a with this concept the axiom can be stated formally this may be expressed as follows thus the negation of the axiom of choice states that there exists a collection of nonempty sets that has no choice function so where is negation each choice function on a collection x of nonempty sets is an element of the cartesian product of the sets in x this is not the most general situation of a cartesian product of a family of sets where a given set can occur more than once as a factor however one can focus on elements of such a product that select the same element every time a given set appears as factor and such elements correspond to an element of the cartesian product of all distinct sets in the family the axiom of choice asserts the existence of such elements it is therefore equivalent to given any family of nonempty sets their cartesian product is a nonempty set nomenclature zf ac and zfc in this article and other discussions of the axiom of choice the following abbreviations are common ac the axiom of choice more rarely aoc is used zf zermelofraenkel set theory omitting the axiom of choice zfc zermelofraenkel set theory extended to include the axiom of choice variants there are many other equivalent statements of the axiom of choice these are equivalent in the sense that in the presence of other basic axioms of set theory they imply the axiom of choice and are implied by it one variation avoids the use of choice functions by in effect replacing each choice function with its range given any set x of pairwise disjoint nonempty sets there exists at least one set c that contains exactly one element in common with each of the sets in x this guarantees for any partition of a set x the existence of a subset c of x containing exactly one element from each part of the partition another equivalent axiom only considers collections x that are essentially powersets of other sets for any set a the power set of a with the empty set removed has a choice function authors who use this formulation often speak of the choice function on a but this is a slightly different notion of choice function its domain is the power set of a with the empty set removed and so makes sense for any set a whereas with the definition used elsewhere in this article the domain of a choice function on a collection of sets is that collection and so only makes sense for sets of sets with this alternate notion of choice function the axiom of choice can be compactly stated as every set has a choice function which is equivalent to for any set a there is a function f such that for any nonempty subset b of a fb lies in b the negation of the axiom can thus be expressed as there is a set a such that for all functions f on the set of nonempty subsets of a there is a b such that fb does not lie in b restriction to finite sets the usual statement of the axiom of choice does not specify whether the collection of nonempty sets is finite or infinite and thus implies that every finite collection of nonempty sets has a choice function however that particular case is a theorem of the zermelofraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice zf it is easily proved by the principle of finite induction in the even simpler case of a collection of one set a choice function just corresponds to an element so this instance of the axiom of choice says that every nonempty set has an element this holds trivially the axiom of choice can be seen as asserting the generalization of this property already evident for finite collections to arbitrary collections usage until the late 19th century the axiom of choice was often used implicitly although it had not yet been formally stated for example after having established that the set x contains only nonempty sets a mathematician might have said let fs be one of the members of s for all s in x to define a function f in general it is impossible to prove that f exists without the axiom of choice but this seems to have gone unnoticed until zermelo examples the nature of the individual nonempty sets in the collection may make it possible to avoid the axiom of choice even for certain infinite collections for example suppose that each member of the collection x is a nonempty subset of the natural numbers every such subset has a smallest element so to specify our choice function we can simply say that it maps each set to the least element of that set this gives us a definite choice of an element from each set and makes it unnecessary to add the axiom of choice to our axioms of set theory the difficulty appears when there is no natural choice of elements from each set if we cannot make explicit choices how do we know that our selection forms a legitimate set as defined by the other zf axioms of set theory for example suppose that x is the set of all nonempty subsets of the real numbers first we might try to proceed as if x were finite if we try to choose an element from each set then because x is infinite our choice procedure will never come to an end and consequently we shall never be able to produce a choice function for all of x next we might try specifying the least element from each set but some subsets of the real numbers do not have least elements for example the open interval 01 does not have a least element if x is in 01 then so is x2 and x2 is always strictly smaller than x so this attempt also fails additionally consider for instance the unit circle s and the action on s by a group g consisting of all rational rotations namely these are rotations by angles which are rational multiples of π here g is countable while s is uncountable hence s breaks up into uncountably many orbits under g using the axiom of choice we could pick a single point from each orbit obtaining an uncountable subset x of s with the property that all of its translates by g are disjoint from x the set of those translates partitions the circle into a countable collection of disjoint sets which are all pairwise congruent since x is not measurable for any rotationinvariant countably additive finite measure on s finding an algorithm to form a set from selecting a point in each orbit requires that one add the axiom of choice to our axioms of set theory see nonmeasurable set for more details the reason that we are able to choose least elements from subsets of the natural numbers is the fact that the natural numbers are wellordered every nonempty subset of the natural numbers has a unique least element under the natural ordering one might say even though the usual ordering of the real numbers does not work it may be possible to find a different ordering of the real numbers which is a wellordering then our choice function can choose the least element of every set under our unusual ordering the problem then becomes that of constructing a wellordering which turns out to require the axiom of choice for its existence every set can be wellordered if and only if the axiom of choice holds criticism and acceptance a proof requiring the axiom of choice may establish the existence of an object without explicitly defining the object in the language of set theory for example while the axiom of choice implies that there is a wellordering of the real numbers there are models of set theory with the axiom of choice in which no wellordering of the reals is definable similarly although a subset of the real numbers that is not lebesgue measurable can be proved to exist using the axiom of choice it is consistent that no such set is definable the axiom of choice proves the existence of these intangibles objects that are proved to exist but which cannot be explicitly constructed which may conflict with some philosophical principles because there is no canonical wellordering of all sets a construction that relies on a wellordering may not produce a canonical result even if a canonical result is desired as is often the case in category theory this has been used as an argument against the use of the axiom of choice another argument against the axiom of choice is that it implies the existence of objects that may seem counterintuitive one example is the banachtarski paradox which says that it is possible to decompose the 3dimensional solid unit ball into finitely many pieces and using only rotations and translations reassemble the pieces into two solid balls each with the same volume as the original the pieces in this decomposition constructed using the axiom of choice are nonmeasurable sets despite these seemingly paradoxical facts most mathematicians accept the axiom of choice as a valid principle for proving new results in mathematics the debate is interesting enough however that it is considered of note when a theorem in zfc zf plus ac is logically equivalent with just the zf axioms to the axiom of choice and mathematicians look for results that require the axiom of choice to be false though this type of deduction is less common than the type which requires the axiom of choice to be true it is possible to prove many theorems using neither the axiom of choice nor its negation such statements will be true in any model of zf regardless of the truth or falsity of the axiom of choice in that particular model the restriction to zf renders any claim that relies on either the axiom of choice or its negation unprovable for example the banachtarski paradox is neither provable nor disprovable from zf alone it is impossible to construct the required decomposition of the unit ball in zf but also impossible to prove there is no such decomposition similarly all the statements listed below which require choice or some weaker version thereof for their proof are unprovable in zf but since each is provable in zf plus the axiom of choice there are models of zf in which each statement is true statements such as the banachtarski paradox can be rephrased as conditional statements for example if ac holds then the decomposition in the banachtarski paradox exists such conditional statements are provable in zf when the original statements are provable from zf and the axiom of choice in constructive mathematics as discussed above in zfc the axiom of choice is able to provide nonconstructive proofs in which the existence of an object is proved although no explicit example is constructed zfc however is still formalized in classical logic the axiom of choice has also been thoroughly studied in the context of constructive mathematics where nonclassical logic is employed the status of the axiom of choice varies between different varieties of constructive mathematics in martinlöf type theory and higherorder heyting arithmetic the appropriate statement of the axiom of choice is depending on approach included as an axiom or provable as a theorem errett bishop argued that the axiom of choice was constructively acceptable saying in constructive set theory however diaconescus theorem shows that the axiom of choice implies the law of excluded middle unlike in martinlöf type theory where it does not thus the axiom of choice is not generally available in constructive set theory a cause for this difference is that the axiom of choice in type theory does not have the extensionality properties that the axiom of choice in constructive set theory does some results in constructive set theory use the axiom of countable choice or the axiom of dependent choice which do not imply the law of the excluded middle in constructive set theory although the axiom of countable choice in particular is commonly used in constructive mathematics its use has also been questioned independence in 1938 kurt gödel showed that the negation of the axiom of choice is not a theorem of zf by constructing an inner model the constructible universe which satisfies zfc and thus showing that zfc is consistent if zf itself is consistent in 1963 paul cohen employed the technique of forcing developed for this purpose to show that assuming zf is consistent the axiom of choice itself is not a theorem of zf he did this by constructing a much more complex model which satisfies zfc zf with the negation of ac added as axiom and thus showing that zfc is consistent together these results establish that the axiom of choice is logically independent of zf the assumption that zf is consistent is harmless because adding another axiom to an already inconsistent system cannot make the situation worse because of independence the decision whether to use the axiom of choice or its negation in a proof cannot be made by appeal to other axioms of set theory the decision must be made on other grounds one argument given in favor of using the axiom of choice is that it is convenient to use it because it allows one to prove some simplifying propositions that otherwise could not be proved many theorems which are provable using choice are of an elegant general character the cardinalities of any two sets are comparable every nontrivial ring with unity has a maximal ideal every vector space has a basis every connected graph has a spanning tree and every product of compact spaces is compact among many others without the axiom of choice these theorems may not hold for mathematical objects of large cardinality the proof of the independence result also shows that a wide class of mathematical statements including all statements that can be phrased in the language of peano arithmetic are provable in zf if and only if they are provable in zfc statements in this class include the statement that p np the riemann hypothesis and many other unsolved mathematical problems when one attempts to solve problems in this class it makes no difference whether zf or zfc is employed if the only question is the existence of a proof it is possible however that there is a shorter proof of a theorem from zfc than from zf the axiom of choice is not the only significant statement which is independent of zf for example the generalized continuum hypothesis gch is not only independent of zf but also independent of zfc however zf plus gch implies ac making gch a strictly stronger claim than ac even though they are both independent of zf stronger axioms the axiom of constructibility and the generalized continuum hypothesis each imply the axiom of choice and so are strictly stronger than it in class theories such as von neumannbernaysgödel set theory and morsekelley set theory there is an axiom called the axiom of global choice that is stronger than the axiom of choice for sets because it also applies to proper classes the axiom of global choice follows from the axiom of limitation of size tarskis axiom which is used in tarskigrothendieck set theory and states in the vernacular that every set belongs to grothendieck universe is stronger than the axiom of choice equivalents there are important statements that assuming the axioms of zf but neither ac nor ac are equivalent to the axiom of choice the most important among them are zorns lemma and the wellordering theorem in fact zermelo initially introduced the axiom of choice in order to formalize his proof of the wellordering theorem set theory tarskis theorem about choice for every infinite set a there is a bijective map between the sets a and aa trichotomy if two sets are given then either they have the same cardinality or one has a smaller cardinality than the other given two nonempty sets one has a surjection to the other every surjective function has a right inverse the cartesian product of any family of nonempty sets is nonempty in other words every family of nonempty sets has a choice function ie a function which maps each of the nonempty sets to one of its elements königs theorem colloquially the sum of a sequence of cardinals is strictly less than the product of a sequence of larger cardinals the reason for the term colloquially is that the sum or product of a sequence of cardinals cannot itself be defined without some aspect of the axiom of choice wellordering theorem every set can be wellordered consequently every cardinal has an initial ordinal every element of a partially ordered set s is the minimal element of a wellordered subset having no strict upper bound in s zorns lemma every nonempty partially ordered set in which every chain ie totally ordered subset has an upper bound contains at least one maximal element hausdorff maximal principle every partially ordered set has a maximal chain equivalently in any partially ordered set every chain can be extended to a maximal chain tukeys lemma every nonempty collection of finite character has a maximal element with respect to inclusion antichain principle every partially ordered set has a maximal antichain equivalently in any partially ordered set every antichain can be extended to a maximal antichain abstract algebra every vector space has a basis ie a linearly independent spanning subset in other words vector spaces are equivalent to free modules krulls theorem every unital ring other than the trivial ring contains a maximal ideal equivalently in any nontrivial unital ring every ideal can be extended to a maximal ideal for every nonempty set s there is a binary operation defined on s that gives it a group structure a cancellative binary operation is enough see group structure and the axiom of choice every free abelian group is projective baers criterion every divisible abelian group is injective every set is a projective object in the category set of sets functional analysis the closed unit ball of the dual of a normed vector space over the reals has an extreme point pointset topology the cartesian product of any family of connected topological spaces is connected tychonoffs theorem the cartesian product of any family of compact topological spaces is compact in the product topology the closure of a product of subsets is equal to the product of the closures mathematical logic if s is a set of sentences of firstorder logic and b is a consistent subset of s then b is included in a set that is maximal among consistent subsets of s the special case where s is the set of all firstorder sentences in a given signature is weaker equivalent to the boolean prime ideal theorem see the section weaker forms below algebraic topology every connected graph has a spanning tree equivalently every nonempty graph has a spanning forest category theory there are several results in category theory which invoke the axiom of choice for their proof these results might be weaker than equivalent to or stronger than the axiom of choice depending on the strength of the technical foundations for example if one defines categories in terms of sets that is as sets of objects and morphisms usually called a small category or even locally small categories whose homobjects are sets then there is no category of all sets and so it is difficult for a categorytheoretic formulation to apply to all sets on the other hand other foundational descriptions of category theory are considerably stronger and an identical categorytheoretic statement of choice may be stronger than the standard formulation à la class theory mentioned above examples of categorytheoretic statements which require choice include every small category has a skeleton if two small categories are weakly equivalent then they are equivalent every continuous functor on a smallcomplete category which satisfies the appropriate solution set condition has a leftadjoint the freyd adjoint functor theorem weaker forms there are several weaker statements that are not equivalent to the axiom of choice but are closely related one example is the axiom of dependent choice dc a still weaker example is the axiom of countable choice acω or cc which states that a choice function exists for any countable set of nonempty sets these axioms are sufficient for many proofs in elementary mathematical analysis and are consistent with some principles such as the lebesgue measurability of all sets of reals that are disprovable from the full axiom of choice given an ordinal parameter α ω2 for every set s with rank less than α s is wellorderable given an ordinal parameter α 1 for every set s with hartogs number less than ωα s is wellorderable as the ordinal parameter is increased these approximate the full axiom of choice more and more closely other choice axioms weaker than axiom of choice include the boolean prime ideal theorem and the axiom of uniformization the former is equivalent in zf to tarskis 1930 ultrafilter lemma every filter is a subset of some ultrafilter results requiring ac or weaker forms but weaker than it one of the most interesting aspects of the axiom of choice is the large number of places in mathematics that it shows up here are some statements that require the axiom of choice in the sense that they are not provable from zf but are provable from zfc zf plus ac equivalently these statements are true in all models of zfc but false in some models of zf set theory the ultrafilter lemma with zf can be used to prove the axiom of choice for finite sets given and a collection of nonempty sets their product is not empty the union of any countable family of countable sets is countable this requires countable choice but not the full axiom of choice if the set a is infinite then there exists an injection from the natural numbers n to a see dedekind infinite eight definitions of a finite set are equivalent every infinite game in which is a borel subset of baire space is determined measure theory the vitali theorem on the existence of nonmeasurable sets which states that there exists a subset of the real numbers that is not lebesgue measurable there exist lebesguemeasurable subsets of the real numbers that are not borel sets that is the borel σalgebra on the real numbers which is generated by all real intervals is distinct from the lebesguemeasure σalgebra on the real numbers the hausdorff paradox the banachtarski paradox algebra every field has an algebraic closure every field extension has a transcendence basis every infinitedimensional vector space contains an infinite linearly independent subset this requires dependent choice but not the full axiom of choice stones representation theorem for boolean algebras needs the boolean prime ideal theorem the nielsenschreier theorem that every subgroup of a free group is free the additive groups of r and c are isomorphic functional analysis the hahnbanach theorem in functional analysis allowing the extension of linear functionals the theorem that every hilbert space has an orthonormal basis the banachalaoglu theorem about compactness of sets of functionals the baire category theorem about complete metric spaces and its consequences such as the open mapping theorem and the closed graph theorem on every infinitedimensional topological vector space there is a discontinuous linear map general topology a uniform space is compact if and only if it is complete and totally bounded every tychonoff space has a stonečech compactification mathematical logic gödels completeness theorem for firstorder logic every consistent set of firstorder sentences has a completion that is every consistent set of firstorder sentences can be extended to a maximal consistent set the compactness theorem if is a set of firstorder or alternatively zeroorder sentences such that every finite subset of has a model then has a model possibly equivalent implications of ac there are several historically important settheoretic statements implied by ac whose equivalence to ac is open the partition principle which was formulated before ac itself was cited by zermelo as a justification for believing ac in 1906 russell declared pp to be equivalent but whether the partition principle implies ac is still the oldest open problem in set theory and the equivalences of the other statements are similarly hard old open problems in every known model of zf where choice fails these statements fail too but it is unknown if they can hold without choice set theory partition principle if there is a surjection from a to b there is an injection from b to a equivalently every partition p of a set s is less than or equal to s in size converse schröderbernstein theorem if two sets have surjections to each other they are equinumerous weak partition principle if there is a injection and a surjection from a to b then a and b are equinumerous equivalently a partition of a set s cannot be strictly larger than s if wpp holds this already implies the existence of a nonmeasurable set each of the previous three statements is implied by the preceding one but it is unknown if any of these implications can be reversed there is no infinite decreasing sequence of cardinals the equivalence was conjectured by schoenflies in 1905 abstract algebra hahn embedding theorem every ordered abelian group g orderembeds as a subgroup of the additive group endowed with a lexicographical order where ω is the set of archimedean equivalence classes of g this equivalence was conjectured by hahn in 1907 stronger forms of the negation of ac if we abbreviate by bp the claim that every set of real numbers has the property of baire then bp is stronger than ac which asserts the nonexistence of any choice function on perhaps only a single set of nonempty sets strengthened negations may be compatible with weakened forms of ac for example zf dc bp is consistent if zf is it is also consistent with zf dc that every set of reals is lebesgue measurable however this consistency result due to robert m solovay cannot be proved in zfc itself but requires a mild large cardinal assumption the existence of an inaccessible cardinal the much stronger axiom of determinacy or ad implies that every set of reals is lebesgue measurable has the property of baire and has the perfect set property all three of these results are refuted by ac itself zf dc ad is consistent provided that a sufficiently strong large cardinal axiom is consistent the existence of infinitely many woodin cardinals quines system of axiomatic set theory new foundations nf takes its name from the title new foundations for mathematical logic of the 1937 article which introduced it in the nf axiomatic system the axiom of choice can be disproved statements consistent with the negation of ac there are models of zermelofraenkel set theory in which the axiom of choice is false we shall abbreviate zermelofraenkel set theory plus the negation of the axiom of choice by zfc for certain models of zfc it is possible to prove the negation of some standard facts any model of zfc is also a model of zf so for each of the following statements there exists a model of zf in which that statement is true there is a set that can be partitioned into strictly more equivalence classes than the original set has elements and a function whose domain is strictly smaller than its range in fact this is the case in all known models there is a function f from the real numbers to the real numbers such that f is not continuous at a but f is sequentially continuous at a ie for any sequence xn converging to a limn fxnfa there is an infinite set of real numbers without a countably infinite subset the real numbers are a countable union of countable sets this does not imply that the real numbers are countable as pointed out above to show that a countable union of countable sets is itself countable requires the axiom of countable choice there is a field with no algebraic closure in all models of zfc there is a vector space with no basis there is a vector space with two bases of different cardinalities there is a free complete boolean algebra on countably many generators there is a set that cannot be linearly ordered there exists a model of zfc in which every set in rn is measurable thus it is possible to exclude counterintuitive results like the banachtarski paradox which are provable in zfc furthermore this is possible whilst assuming the axiom of dependent choice which is weaker than ac but sufficient to develop most of real analysis in all models of zfc the generalized continuum hypothesis does not hold for proofs see additionally by imposing definability conditions on sets in the sense of descriptive set theory one can often prove restricted versions of the axiom of choice from axioms incompatible with general choice this appears for example in the moschovakis coding lemma axiom of choice in type theory in type theory a different kind of statement is known as the axiom of choice this form begins with two types σ and τ and a relation r between objects of type σ and objects of type τ the axiom of choice states that if for each x of type σ there exists a y of type τ such that rxy then there is a function f from objects of type σ to objects of type τ such that rxfx holds for all x of type σ unlike in set theory the axiom of choice in type theory is typically stated as an axiom scheme in which r varies over all formulas or over all formulas of a particular logical form quotations this is a joke although the three are all mathematically equivalent many mathematicians find the axiom of choice to be intuitive the wellordering principle to be counterintuitive and zorns lemma to be too complex for any intuition the observation here is that one can define a function to select from an infinite number of pairs of shoes for example by choosing the left shoe from each pair without the axiom of choice one cannot assert that such a function exists for pairs of socks because left and right socks are presumably indistinguishable polishamerican mathematician jan mycielski relates this anecdote in a 2006 article in the notices of the ams this quote comes from the famous april fools day article in the computer recreations column of the scientific american april 1989 notes references per martinlöf 100 years of zermelos axiom of choice what was the problem with it in logicism intuitionism and formalism what has become of them sten lindström erik palmgren krister segerberg and viggo stoltenberghansen editors 2008 available as a dover publications reprint 2013 herman rubin jean e rubin equivalents of the axiom of choice north holland 1963 reissued by elsevier april 1970 herman rubin jean e rubin equivalents of the axiom of choice ii north hollandelsevier july 1985 george tourlakis lectures in logic and set theory vol ii set theory cambridge university press 2003 ernst zermelo untersuchungen über die grundlagen der mengenlehre i mathematische annalen 65 1908 pp 26181 pdf download via digizeitschriftende translated in jean van heijenoort 2002 from frege to gödel a source book in mathematical logic 18791931 new edition harvard university press 1904 proof that every set can be wellordered 13941 1908 investigations in the foundations of set theory i 199215 external links axiom of choice entry in the springer encyclopedia of mathematics axiom of choice and its equivalents entry at provenmath includes formal statement of the axiom of choice hausdorffs maximal principle zorns lemma and formal proofs of their equivalence down to the finest detail consequences of the axiom of choice based on the book by paul howard and jean rubin	5,886
841	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attila	Attila	attila or frequently called attila the hun was the ruler of the huns from 434 until his death in march 453 he was also the leader of an empire consisting of huns ostrogoths alans and bulgars among others in central and eastern europe during his reign he was one of the most feared enemies of the western and eastern roman empires he crossed the danube twice and plundered the balkans but was unable to take constantinople in 441 he led an invasion of the eastern roman byzantine empire the success of which emboldened him to invade the west he also attempted to conquer roman gaul modern france crossing the rhine in 451 and marching as far as aurelianum orléans before being stopped in the battle of the catalaunian plains he subsequently invaded italy devastating the northern provinces but was unable to take rome he planned for further campaigns against the romans but died in 453 after attilas death his close adviser ardaric of the gepids led a germanic revolt against hunnic rule after which the hunnic empire quickly collapsed attila lived on as a character in germanic heroic legend etymology many scholars have argued that the name attila derives from east germanic origin attila is formed from the gothic or gepidic noun atta father by means of the diminutive suffix ila meaning little father compare wulfila from wulfs wolf and ila ie little wolf the gothic etymology was first proposed by jacob and wilhelm grimm in the early 19th century maenchenhelfen notes that this derivation of the name offers neither phonetic nor semantic difficulties and gerhard doerfer notes that the name is simply correct gothic alexander savelyev and choongwon jeong 2020 similarly state that attilas name must have been gothic in origin the name has sometimes been interpreted as a germanization of a name of hunnic origin other scholars have argued for a turkic origin of the name omeljan pritsak considered ἀττίλα attíla a composite titlename which derived from turkic es great old and til sea ocean and the suffix a the stressed back syllabic til assimilated the front member es so it became as it is a nominative in form of attíl etsíl es tíl with the meaning the oceanic universal ruler j j mikkola connected it with turkic āt name fame as another turkic possibility h althof 1902 considered it was related to turkish atli horseman cavalier or turkish at horse and dil tongue maenchenhelfen argues that pritsaks derivation is ingenious but for many reasons unacceptable while dismissing mikkolas as too farfetched to be taken seriously m snædal similarly notes that none of these proposals has achieved wide acceptance criticizing the proposals of finding turkic or other etymologies for attila doerfer notes that king george vi of the united kingdom had a name of greek origin and süleyman the magnificent had a name of arabic origin yet that does not make them greeks or arabs it is therefore plausible that attila would have a name not of hunnic origin historian hyun jin kim however has argued that the turkic etymology is more probable m snædal in a paper that rejects the germanic derivation but notes the problems with the existing proposed turkic etymologies argues that attilas name could have originated from turkicmongolian at adyyagta gelding warhorse and turkish atlı horseman cavalier meaning possessor of geldings provider of warhorses historiography and source the historiography of attila is faced with a major challenge in that the only complete sources are written in greek and latin by the enemies of the huns attilas contemporaries left many testimonials of his life but only fragments of these remain priscus was a byzantine diplomat and historian who wrote in greek and he was both a witness to and an actor in the story of attila as a member of the embassy of theodosius ii at the hunnic court in 449 he was obviously biased by his political position but his writing is a major source for information on the life of attila and he is the only person known to have recorded a physical description of him he wrote a history of the late roman empire in eight books covering the period from 430 to 476 only fragments of priscus work remain it was cited extensively by 6thcentury historians procopius and jordanes especially in jordanes the origin and deeds of the goths which contains numerous references to priscuss history and it is also an important source of information about the hunnic empire and its neighbors he describes the legacy of attila and the hunnic people for a century after attilas death marcellinus comes a chancellor of justinian during the same era also describes the relations between the huns and the eastern roman empire numerous ecclesiastical writings contain useful but scattered information sometimes difficult to authenticate or distorted by years of handcopying between the 6th and 17th centuries the hungarian writers of the 12th century wished to portray the huns in a positive light as their glorious ancestors and so repressed certain historical elements and added their own legends the literature and knowledge of the huns themselves was transmitted orally by means of epics and chanted poems that were handed down from generation to generation indirectly fragments of this oral history have reached us via the literature of the scandinavians and germans neighbors of the huns who wrote between the 9th and 13th centuries attila is a major character in many medieval epics such as the nibelungenlied as well as various eddas and sagas archaeological investigation has uncovered some details about the lifestyle art and warfare of the huns there are a few traces of battles and sieges but the tomb of attila and the location of his capital have not yet been found early life and background the huns were a group of eurasian nomads appearing from east of the volga who migrated further into western europe c 370 and built up an enormous empire there their main military techniques were mounted archery and javelin throwing they were in the process of developing settlements before their arrival in western europe yet the huns were a society of pastoral warriors whose primary form of nourishment was meat and milk products of their herds the origin and language of the huns has been the subject of debate for centuries according to some theories their leaders at least may have spoken a turkic language perhaps closest to the modern chuvash language according to the encyclopedia of european peoples the huns especially those who migrated to the west may have been a combination of central asian turkic mongolic and ugric stocks attilas father mundzuk was the brother of kings octar and ruga who reigned jointly over the hunnic empire in the early fifth century this form of diarchy was recurrent with the huns but historians are unsure whether it was institutionalized merely customary or an occasional occurrence his family was from a noble lineage but it is uncertain whether they constituted a royal dynasty attilas birthdate is debated journalist éric deschodt and writer herman schreiber have proposed a date of 395 however historian iaroslav lebedynsky and archaeologist katalin escher prefer an estimate between the 390s and the first decade of the fifth century several historians have proposed 406 as the date attila grew up in a rapidly changing world his people were nomads who had only recently arrived in europe they crossed the volga river during the 370s and annexed the territory of the alans then attacked the gothic kingdom between the carpathian mountains and the danube they were a very mobile people whose mounted archers had acquired a reputation for invincibility and the germanic tribes seemed unable to withstand them vast populations fleeing the huns moved from germania into the roman empire in the west and south and along the banks of the rhine and danube in 376 the goths crossed the danube initially submitting to the romans but soon rebelling against emperor valens whom they killed in the battle of adrianople in 378 large numbers of vandals alans suebi and burgundians crossed the rhine and invaded roman gaul on december 31 406 to escape the huns the roman empire had been split in half since 395 and was ruled by two distinct governments one based in ravenna in the west and the other in constantinople in the east the roman emperors both east and west were generally from the theodosian family in attilas lifetime despite several power struggles the huns dominated a vast territory with nebulous borders determined by the will of a constellation of ethnically varied peoples some were assimilated to hunnic nationality whereas many retained their own identities and rulers but acknowledged the suzerainty of the king of the huns the huns were also the indirect source of many of the romans problems driving various germanic tribes into roman territory yet relations between the two empires were cordial the romans used the huns as mercenaries against the germans and even in their civil wars thus the usurper joannes was able to recruit thousands of huns for his army against valentinian iii in 424 it was aëtius later patrician of the west who managed this operation they exchanged ambassadors and hostages the alliance lasting from 401 to 450 and permitting the romans numerous military victories the huns considered the romans to be paying them tribute whereas the romans preferred to view this as payment for services rendered the huns had become a great power by the time that attila came of age during the reign of his uncle ruga to the point that nestorius the patriarch of constantinople deplored the situation with these words they have become both masters and slaves of the romans campaigns against the eastern roman empire the death of rugila also known as rua or ruga in 434 left the sons of his brother mundzuk attila and bleda in control of the united hun tribes at the time of the two brothers accession the hun tribes were bargaining with eastern roman emperor theodosius iis envoys for the return of several renegades who had taken refuge within the eastern roman empire possibly hunnic nobles who disagreed with the brothers assumption of leadership the following year attila and bleda met with the imperial legation at margus požarevac all seated on horseback in the hunnic manner and negotiated an advantageous treaty the romans agreed to return the fugitives to double their previous tribute of 350 roman pounds c 115 kg of gold to open their markets to hunnish traders and to pay a ransom of eight solidi for each roman taken prisoner by the huns the huns satisfied with the treaty decamped from the roman empire and returned to their home in the great hungarian plain perhaps to consolidate and strengthen their empire theodosius used this opportunity to strengthen the walls of constantinople building the citys first sea wall and to build up his border defenses along the danube the huns remained out of roman sight for the next few years while they invaded the sassanid empire they were defeated in armenia by the sassanids abandoned their invasion and turned their attentions back to europe in 440 they reappeared in force on the borders of the roman empire attacking the merchants at the market on the north bank of the danube that had been established by the treaty of 435 crossing the danube they laid waste to the cities of illyricum and forts on the river including according to priscus viminacium a city of moesia their advance began at margus where they demanded that the romans turn over a bishop who had retained property that attila regarded as his while the romans discussed the bishops fate he slipped away secretly to the huns and betrayed the city to them while the huns attacked citystates along the danube the vandals led by geiseric captured the western roman province of africa and its capital of carthage africa was the richest province of the western empire and a main source of food for rome the sassanid shah yazdegerd ii invaded armenia in 441 the romans stripped the balkan area of forces sending them to sicily in order to mount an expedition against the vandals in africa this left attila and bleda a clear path through illyricum into the balkans which they invaded in 441 the hunnish army sacked margus and viminacium and then took singidunum belgrade and sirmium during 442 theodosius recalled his troops from sicily and ordered a large issue of new coins to finance operations against the huns he believed that he could defeat the huns and refused the hunnish kings demands attila responded with a campaign in 443 for the first time as far as the romans knew his forces were equipped with battering rams and rolling siege towers with which they successfully assaulted the military centers of ratiara and naissus niš and massacred the inhabitants priscus said when we arrived at naissus we found the city deserted as though it had been sacked only a few sick persons lay in the churches we halted at a short distance from the river in an open space for all the ground adjacent to the bank was full of the bones of men slain in war advancing along the nišava river the huns next took serdica sofia philippopolis plovdiv and arcadiopolis lüleburgaz they encountered and destroyed a roman army outside constantinople but were stopped by the double walls of the eastern capital they defeated a second army near callipolis gelibolu theodosius unable to make effective armed resistance admitted defeat sending the magister militum per orientem anatolius to negotiate peace terms the terms were harsher than the previous treaty the emperor agreed to hand over 6000 roman pounds c 2000 kg of gold as punishment for having disobeyed the terms of the treaty during the invasion the yearly tribute was tripled rising to 2100 roman pounds c 700 kg in gold and the ransom for each roman prisoner rose to 12 solidi their demands were met for a time and the hun kings withdrew into the interior of their empire bleda died following the huns withdrawal from byzantium probably around 445 attila then took the throne for himself becoming the sole ruler of the huns solitary kingship in 447 attila again rode south into the eastern roman empire through moesia the roman army under gothic magister militum arnegisclus met him in the battle of the utus and was defeated though not without inflicting heavy losses the huns were left unopposed and rampaged through the balkans as far as thermopylae constantinople itself was saved by the isaurian troops of magister militum per orientem zeno and protected by the intervention of prefect constantinus who organized the reconstruction of the walls that had been previously damaged by earthquakes and in some places to construct a new line of fortification in front of the old callinicus in his life of saint hypatius wrote in the west in 450 attila proclaimed his intent to attack the visigoth kingdom of toulouse by making an alliance with emperor valentinian iii he had previously been on good terms with the western roman empire and its influential general flavius aëtius aëtius had spent a brief exile among the huns in 433 and the troops that attila provided against the goths and bagaudae had helped earn him the largely honorary title of magister militum in the west the gifts and diplomatic efforts of geiseric who opposed and feared the visigoths may also have influenced attilas plans however valentinians sister was honoria who had sent the hunnish king a plea for helpand her engagement ringin order to escape her forced betrothal to a roman senator in the spring of 450 honoria may not have intended a proposal of marriage but attila chose to interpret her message as such he accepted asking for half of the western empire as dowry when valentinian discovered the plan only the influence of his mother galla placidia convinced him to exile honoria rather than killing her he also wrote to attila strenuously denying the legitimacy of the supposed marriage proposal attila sent an emissary to ravenna to proclaim that honoria was innocent that the proposal had been legitimate and that he would come to claim what was rightfully his attila interfered in a succession struggle after the death of a frankish ruler attila supported the elder son while aëtius supported the younger the location and identity of these kings is not known and subject to conjecture attila gathered his vassalsgepids ostrogoths rugians scirians heruls thuringians alans burgundians among othersand began his march west in 451 he arrived in belgica with an army exaggerated by jordanes to half a million strong on april 7 he captured metz other cities attacked can be determined by the hagiographic vitae written to commemorate their bishops nicasius was slaughtered before the altar of his church in rheims servatus is alleged to have saved tongeren with his prayers as saint genevieve is said to have saved paris lupus bishop of troyes is also credited with saving his city by meeting attila in person aëtius moved to oppose attila gathering troops from among the franks the burgundians and the celts a mission by avitus and attilas continued westward advance convinced the visigoth king theodoric i theodorid to ally with the romans the combined armies reached orléans ahead of attila thus checking and turning back the hunnish advance aëtius gave chase and caught the huns at a place usually assumed to be near catalaunum modern châlonsenchampagne attila decided to fight the romans on plains where he could use his cavalry the two armies clashed in the battle of the catalaunian plains the outcome of which is commonly considered to be a strategic victory for the visigothicroman alliance theodoric was killed in the fighting and aëtius failed to press his advantage according to edward gibbon and edward creasy because he feared the consequences of an overwhelming visigothic triumph as much as he did a defeat from aëtius point of view the best outcome was what occurred theodoric died attila was in retreat and disarray and the romans had the benefit of appearing victorious invasion of italy and death attila returned in 452 to renew his marriage claim with honoria invading and ravaging italy along the way communities became established in what would later become venice as a result of these attacks when the residents fled to small islands in the venetian lagoon his army sacked numerous cities and razed aquileia so completely that it was afterwards hard to recognize its original site aëtius lacked the strength to offer battle but managed to harass and slow attilas advance with only a shadow force attila finally halted at the river po by this point disease and starvation may have taken hold in attilas camp thus hindering his war efforts and potentially contributing to the cessation of invasion emperor valentinian iii sent three envoys the high civilian officers gennadius avienus and trigetius as well as the bishop of rome leo i who met attila at mincio in the vicinity of mantua and obtained from him the promise that he would withdraw from italy and negotiate peace with the emperor prosper of aquitaine gives a short description of the historic meeting but gives all the credit to leo for the successful negotiation priscus reports that superstitious fear of the fate of alaric gave him pauseas alaric died shortly after sacking rome in 410 italy had suffered from a terrible famine in 451 and her crops were faring little better in 452 attilas devastating invasion of the plains of northern italy this year did not improve the harvest to advance on rome would have required supplies which were not available in italy and taking the city would not have improved attilas supply situation therefore it was more profitable for attila to conclude peace and retreat to his homeland furthermore an east roman force had crossed the danube under the command of another officer also named aetiuswho had participated in the council of chalcedon the previous yearand proceeded to defeat the huns who had been left behind by attila to safeguard their home territories attila hence faced heavy human and natural pressures to retire from italy without ever setting foot south of the po as hydatius writes in his chronica minora death in the eastern roman empire emperor marcian succeeded theodosius ii and stopped paying tribute to the huns attila withdrew from italy to his palace across the danube while making plans to strike at constantinople once more to reclaim tribute however he died in the early months of 453 the conventional account from priscus says that attila was at a feast celebrating his latest marriage this time to the beautiful young ildico the name suggests gothic or ostrogoth origins in the midst of the revels however he suffered severe bleeding and died he may have had a nosebleed and choked to death in a stupor or he may have succumbed to internal bleeding possibly due to ruptured esophageal varices esophageal varices are dilated veins that form in the lower part of the esophagus often caused by years of excessive alcohol consumption they are fragile and can easily rupture leading to death by hemorrhage another account of his death was first recorded 80 years after the events by roman chronicler marcellinus comes it reports that attila king of the huns and ravager of the provinces of europe was pierced by the hand and blade of his wife one modern analyst suggests that he was assassinated but most reject these accounts as no more than hearsay preferring instead the account given by attilas contemporary priscus recounted in the 6th century by jordanes descendants attilas sons ellac dengizich and ernak in their rash eagerness to rule they all alike destroyed his empire they were clamoring that the nations should be divided among them equally and that warlike kings with their peoples should be apportioned to them by lot like a family estate against the treatment as slaves of the basest condition a germanic alliance led by the gepid ruler ardaric who was noted for great loyalty to attila revolted and fought with the huns in pannonia in the battle of nedao 454 ad attilas eldest son ellac was killed in that battle attilas sons regarding the goths as deserters from their rule came against them as though they were seeking fugitive slaves attacked ostrogothic coruler valamir who also fought alongside ardaric and attila at the catalaunian plains but were repelled and some group of huns moved to scythia probably those of ernak his brother dengizich attempted a renewed invasion across the danube in 468 ad but was defeated at the battle of bassianae by the ostrogoths dengizich was killed by romangothic general anagast the following year after which the hunnic dominion ended attilas many children and relatives are known by name and some even by deeds but soon valid genealogical sources all but dried up and there seems to be no verifiable way to trace attilas descendants this has not stopped many genealogists from attempting to reconstruct a valid line of descent for various medieval rulers one of the most credible claims has been that of the nominalia of the bulgarian khans for mythological avitohol and irnik from the dulo clan of the bulgars the hungarian árpád dynasty also claimed to be a direct descendant of attila medieval hungarian chronicles from the hungarian royal court like gesta hungarorum gesta hunnorum et hungarorum chronicon pictum buda chronicle chronica hungarorum claimed that the árpád dynasty and the aba clan are the descendants of attila appearance and character there is no surviving firsthand account of attilas appearance but there is a possible secondhand source provided by jordanes who cites a description given by priscus some scholars have suggested that these features are typically east asian because in combination they fit the physical type of people from eastern asia so attilas ancestors may have come from there other historians have suggested that the same features may have been typical of some scythian people later folklore and iconography the name has many variants in several languages atli and atle in old norse etzel in middle high german nibelungenlied ætla in old english attila atilla and etele in hungarian attila is the most popular attila atilla atilay or atila in turkish and adil and edil in kazakh or adil samesimilar or edil to use in mongolian attila and hun tradition in the medieval hungarian royal court the basic premise of the hungarian medieval chronicle tradition that the huns ie the hungarians coming out twice from scythia the guiding principle of the chronicles was the hunhungarian continuity the hungarian state founder royal dynasty the árpád dynasty claimed to be a direct descendant of the great hun leader attila medieval hungarian chronicles claimed that grand prince árpád of hungary was the descendants of attila árpád grand prince of the hungarians says in the gesta hungarorum king matthias of hungary 14581490 was happy to be described as the second attila the chronica hungarorum by johannes thuróczy set the goal of glorifying attila which was undeservedly neglected moreover he introduced the famous scourge of god characterization to the later hungarian writers because the earlier chronicles remained hidden for a long time thuróczy worked hard to endear attila the hun king with an effort far surpassing his predecessor chroniclers he made attila a model for his victorious ruler king matthias of hungary who had attilas abilities with this he almost brought the hammer of the world to life legends about attila and the sword of mars jordanes embellished the report of priscus reporting that attila had possessed the holy war sword of the scythians which was given to him by mars and made him a prince of the entire world lampert of hersfelds contemporary chronicles report that shortly before the year 1071 the sword of attila had been presented to otto of nordheim by the exiled queen of hungary anastasia of kiev this sword a cavalry sabre now in the kunsthistorisches museum in vienna appears to be the work of hungarian goldsmiths of the ninth or tenth century legends about attila and his meeting with pope leo i an anonymous chronicler of the medieval period represented the meeting of pope leo and atilla as attended also by saint peter and saint paul a miraculous tale calculated to meet the taste of the time this apotheosis was later portrayed artistically by the renaissance artist raphael and sculptor algardi whom eighteenthcentury historian edward gibbon praised for establishing one of the noblest legends of ecclesiastical tradition according to a version of this narrative related in the chronicon pictum a mediaeval hungarian chronicle the pope promised attila that if he left rome in peace one of his successors would receive a holy crown which has been understood as referring to the holy crown of hungary attila in germanic heroic legend some histories and chronicles describe attila as a great and noble king and he plays major roles in three norse texts atlakviða volsunga saga and atlamál the polish chronicle represents attilas name as aquila frutolf of michelsberg and otto of freising pointed out that some songs as vulgar fables and made theoderic the great attila and ermanaric contemporaries when any reader of jordanes knew that this was not the case this refers to the socalled historical poems about dietrich von bern theoderic in which etzel german for attila is dietrichs refuge in exile from his wicked uncle ermenrich ermanaric etzel is most prominent in the poems dietrichs flucht and the rabenschlacht etzel also appears as kriemhilds second noble husband in the nibelungenlied in which kriemhild causes the destruction of both the hunnish kingdom and that of her burgundian relatives early modern and modern reception in 1812 ludwig van beethoven conceived the idea of writing an opera about attila and approached august von kotzebue to write the libretto it was however never written in 1846 giuseppe verdi wrote the opera loosely based on episodes in attilas invasion of italy in world war i allied propaganda referred to germans as the huns based on a 1900 speech by emperor wilhelm ii praising attila the huns military prowess according to jawaharlal nehrus glimpses of world history der spiegel commented on 6 november 1948 that the sword of attila was hanging menacingly over austria american writer cecelia holland wrote the death of attila 1973 a historical novel in which attila appears as a powerful background figure whose life and death deeply affect the protagonists a young hunnic warrior and a germanic one in modern hungary and in turkey attila and its turkish variation atilla are commonly used as a male first name in hungary several public places are named after attila for instance in budapest there are 10 attila streets one of which is an important street behind the buda castle when the turkish armed forces invaded cyprus in 1974 the operations were named after attila the attila plan the 1954 universal international film sign of the pagan starred jack palance as attila depictions of attila see also onegesius bleda mundzuk notes sources external links works about attila at project gutenberg 5thcentury hunnic kings 5thcentury monarchs in europe 406 births 453 deaths deaths from choking genocide perpetrators attilid dynasty	4,890
842	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aegean%20Sea	Aegean Sea	the aegean sea is an elongated embayment of the mediterranean sea between europe and asia it is located between the balkans and anatolia and covers an area of some in the north the aegean is connected to the marmara sea which in turn connects to the black sea by the straits of the dardanelles and the bosphorus respectively the aegean islands are located within the sea and some bound it on its southern periphery including crete and rhodes the sea reaches a maximum depth of to the west of karpathos the thracian sea and the sea of crete are main subdivisions of the aegean sea the aegean islands can be divided into several island groups including the dodecanese the cyclades the sporades the saronic islands and the north aegean islands as well as crete and its surrounding islands the dodecanese located to the southeast includes the islands of rhodes kos and patmos the islands of delos and naxos are within the cyclades to the south of the sea lesbos is part of the north aegean islands euboea the secondlargest island in greece is located in the aegean despite being administered as part of central greece nine out of twelve of the administrative regions of greece border the sea along with the turkish provinces of edirne çanakkale balıkesir izmir aydın and muğla to the east of the sea various turkish islands in the sea are imbros tenedos cunda island and the foça islands the aegean sea has been historically important especially in regards to the civilization of ancient greece who inhabited the area around the coast of the aegean and the aegean islands the aegean islands facilitated contact between the people of the area and between europe and asia along with the greeks thracians lived among the northern coast the romans conquered the area under the roman empire and later the byzantine empire held it against advances by the first bulgarian empire the fourth crusade weakened byzantine control of the area and it was eventually conquered by the ottoman empire with the exception of crete which was a venetian colony until 1669 the greek war of independence allowed a greek state on the coast of the aegean from 1829 onwards the ottoman empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years until it was replaced by modern turkey the rocks making up the floor of the aegean are mainly limestone though often greatly altered by volcanic activity that has convulsed the region in relatively recent geologic times of particular interest are the richly coloured sediments in the region of the islands of santorini and milos in the south aegean notable cities on the aegean coastline include athens thessaloniki volos kavala and heraklion in greece and i̇zmir and bodrum in turkey a number of issues concerning sovereignty within the aegean sea are disputed between greece and turkey the aegean dispute has had a large effect on greekturkish relations since the 1970s issues include the delimitation of territorial waters national airspace exclusive economic zones and flight information regions name and etymology the name aegaeus used by late latin authors referred to aegeus who was said to have jumped into that sea to drown himself rather than throw himself from the athenian acropolis as told by some greek authors he was the father of theseus the mythical king and founderhero of athens aegeus had told theseus to put up white sails when returning if he was successful in killing the minotaur when theseus returned he forgot these instructions and aegeus thought his son had died so he drowned himself in the sea the sea was known in latin as mare aegaeum while under the control of the roman empire the venetians who ruled many greek islands in the high and late middle ages popularized the name archipelago meaning main sea or chief sea a name that held on in many european countries until the early modern period in south slavic languages the aegean is called white sea the turkish name for the sea is ege denizi which is derived from the greek name geography the aegean sea is an elongated embayment of the mediterranean sea and covers about in area measuring about longitudinally and latitudinal the seas maximum depth is located at a point west of karpathos the aegean islands are found within its waters with the following islands delimiting the sea on the south generally from west to east kythera antikythera crete kasos karpathos and rhodes the anatolian peninsula marks the eastern boundary of the sea while the greek mainland marks the west several seas are contained within the aegean sea the thracian sea is a section of the aegean located to the north the icarian sea to the east the myrtoan sea to the west while the sea of crete is the southern section the greek regions that border the sea in alphabetical order are attica central greece central macedonia crete eastern macedonia and thrace north aegean peloponnese south aegean and thessaly the traditional greek region of macedonia also borders the sea to the north the aegean islands which almost all belong to greece can be divided into seven groups northeastern aegean islands which lie in the thracian sea east aegean islands euboea northern sporades cyclades saronic islands or argosaronic islands dodecanese or southern sporades crete many of the aegean islands or island chains are geographically extensions of the mountains on the mainland one chain extends across the sea to chios another extends across euboea to samos and a third extends across the peloponnese and crete to rhodes dividing the aegean from the mediterranean the bays and gulfs of the aegean beginning at the south and moving clockwise include on crete the mirabello almyros souda and chania bays or gulfs on the mainland the myrtoan sea to the west with the argolic gulf the saronic gulf northwestward the petalies gulf which connects with the south euboic sea the pagasetic gulf which connects with the north euboic sea the thermian gulf northwestward the chalkidiki peninsula including the cassandra and the singitic gulfs northward the strymonian gulf and the gulf of kavala and the rest are in turkey saros gulf edremit gulf dikili gulf gulf of çandarlı gulf of i̇zmir gulf of kuşadası gulf of gökova güllük gulf the aegean sea is connected to the sea of marmara by the dardanelles also known from classical antiquity as the hellespont the dardanelles are located to the northeast of the sea it ultimately connects with the black sea through the bosphoros strait upon which lies the city of istanbul the dardanelles and the bosphoros are known as the turkish straits extent according to the international hydrographic organization the limits of the aegean sea as follows on the south a line running from cape aspro 2816e in asia minor to cum burnù capo della sabbia the northeast extreme of the island of rhodes through the island to cape prasonisi the southwest point thereof on to vrontos point 3533n in skarpanto karpathos through this island to castello point the south extreme thereof across to cape plaka east extremity of crete through crete to agria grabusa the northwest extreme thereof thence to cape apolitares in antikithera island through the island to psira rock off the northwest point and across to cape trakhili in kithera island through kithera to the northwest point cape karavugia and thence to cape santa maria in the morea in the dardanelles a line joining kum kale 2611e and cape helles hydrography aegean surface water circulates in a counterclockwise gyre with hypersaline mediterranean water moving northward along the west coast of turkey before being displaced by less dense black sea outflow the dense mediterranean water sinks below the black sea inflow to a depth of then flows through the dardanelles strait and into the sea of marmara at velocities of the black sea outflow moves westward along the northern aegean sea then flows southwards along the east coast of greece the physical oceanography of the aegean sea is controlled mainly by the regional climate the fresh water discharge from major rivers draining southeastern europe and the seasonal variations in the black sea surface water outflow through the dardanelles strait analysis of the aegean during 1991 and 1992 revealed three distinct water masses aegean sea surface water thick veneer with summer temperatures of 2126 c and winter temperatures ranging from in the north to in the south aegean sea intermediate water aegean sea intermediate water extends from 40 to 50 m to with temperatures ranging from 11 to 18 c aegean sea bottom water occurring at depths below 5001000 m with a very uniform temperature 1314 c and salinity 391392 climate the climate of the aegean sea largely reflects the climate of greece and western turkey which is to say predominantly mediterranean according to the köppen climate classification most of the aegean is classified as hotsummer mediterranean csa with hotter and drier summers along with milder and wetter winters however high temperatures during summers are generally not quite as high as those in arid or semiarid climates due to the presence of a large body of water this is most predominant in the west and east coasts of the aegean and within the aegean islands in the north of the aegean sea the climate is instead classified as cold semiarid bsk which feature cooler summers than hotsummer mediterranean climates the etesian winds are a dominant weather influence in the aegean basin the below table lists climate conditions of some major aegean cities population numerous greek and turkish settlements are located along their mainland coast as well as on towns on the aegean islands the largest cities are athens and thessaloniki in greece and i̇zmir in turkey the most populated of the aegean islands is crete followed by euboea and rhodes biogeography and ecology protected areas greece has established several marine protected areas along its coasts according to the network of managers of marine protected areas in the mediterranean medpan four greek mpas are participating in the network these include alonnisos marine park while the missolonghiaitoliko lagoons and the island of zakynthos are not on the aegean history ancient history the current coastline dates back to about 4000 bc before that time at the peak of the last ice age about 18000 years ago sea levels everywhere were 130 metres lower and there were large wellwatered coastal plains instead of much of the northern aegean when they were first occupied the presentday islands including milos with its important obsidian production were probably still connected to the mainland the present coastal arrangement appeared around 9000 years ago with postice age sea levels continuing to rise for another 3000 years after that the subsequent bronze age civilizations of greece and the aegean sea have given rise to the general term aegean civilization in ancient times the sea was the birthplace of two ancient civilizations the minoans of crete and the myceneans of the peloponnese the minoan civilization was a bronze age civilization on the island of crete and other aegean islands flourishing from around 3000 to 1450 bc before a period of decline finally ending at around 1100 bc it represented the first advanced civilization in europe leaving behind massive building complexes tools stunning artwork writing systems and a massive network of trade the minoan period saw extensive trade between crete aegean and mediterranean settlements particularly the near east the most notable minoan palace is that of knossos followed by that of phaistos the mycenaean greeks arose on the mainland becoming the first advanced civilization in mainland greece which lasted from approximately 1600 to 1100 bc it is believed that the site of mycenae which sits close to the aegean coast was the center of mycenaean civilization the mycenaeans introduced several innovations in the fields of engineering architecture and military infrastructure while trade over vast areas of the mediterranean including the aegean was essential for the mycenaean economy their syllabic script the linear b offers the first written records of the greek language and their religion already included several deities that can also be found in the olympic pantheon mycenaean greece was dominated by a warrior elite society and consisted of a network of palacecentered states that developed rigid hierarchical political social and economic systems at the head of this society was the king known as wanax the civilization of mycenaean greeks perished with the collapse of bronze age culture in the eastern mediterranean to be followed by the socalled greek dark ages it is undetermined what cause the collapse of the mycenaeans during the greek dark ages writing in the linear b script ceased vital trade links were lost and towns and villages were abandoned ancient greece the archaic period followed the greek dark ages in the 8th century bc greece became divided into small selfgoverning communities and adopted the phoenician alphabet modifying it to create the greek alphabet by the 6th century bc several cities had emerged as dominant in greek affairs athens sparta corinth and thebes of which athens sparta and corinth were closest to the aegean sea each of them had brought the surrounding rural areas and smaller towns under their control and athens and corinth had become major maritime and mercantile powers as well in the 8th and 7th centuries bc many greeks emigrated to form colonies in magna graecia southern italy and sicily asia minor and further afield the aegean sea was the setting for one of the most pivotal naval engagements in history when on september 20 480 bc the athenian fleet gained a decisive victory over the persian fleet of the xerxes ii of persia at the battle of salamis thus ending any further attempt of western expansion by the achaemenid empire the aegean sea would later come to be under the control albeit briefly of the kingdom of macedonia philip ii and his son alexander the great led a series of conquests that led not only to the unification of the greek mainland and the control of the aegean sea under his rule but also the destruction of the achaemenid empire after alexander the greats death his empire was divided among his generals cassander became king of the hellenistic kingdom of macedon which held territory along the western coast of the aegean roughly corresponding to modernday greece the kingdom of lysimachus had control over the seas eastern coast greece had entered the hellenistic period roman rule the macedonian wars were a series of conflicts fought by the roman republic and its greek allies in the eastern mediterranean against several different major greek kingdoms they resulted in roman control or influence over the eastern mediterranean basin including the aegean in addition to their hegemony in the western mediterranean after the punic wars during roman rule the land around the aegean sea fell under the provinces of achaea macedonia thracia asia and creta et cyrenica island of crete medieval period the fall of the western roman empire allowed its successor state the byzantine empire to continue roman control over the aegean sea however their territory would later be threatened by the early muslim conquests initiated by muhammad in the 7th century although the rashidun caliphate did not manage to obtain land along the coast of the aegean sea its conquest of the eastern anatolian peninsula as well as egypt the levant and north africa left the byzantine empire weakened the umayyad caliphate expanded the territorial gains of the rashidun caliphate conquering much of north africa and threatened the byzantine empires control of western anatolia where it meets the aegean sea during the 820s crete was conquered by a group of berbers andalusians exiles led by abu hafs umar aliqritishi and it became an independent islamic state the byzantine empire launched a campaign that took most of the island back in 842 and 843 under theoktistos but the reconquest was not completed and was soon reversed later attempts by the byzantine empire to recover the island were without success for the approximately 135 years of its existence the emirate of crete was one of the major foes of byzantium crete commanded the sea lanes of the eastern mediterranean and functioned as a forward base and haven for muslim corsair fleets that ravaged the byzantinecontrolled shores of the aegean sea crete returned to byzantine rule under nikephoros phokas who launched a huge campaign against the emirate of crete in 960 to 961 meanwhile the bulgarian empire threatened byzantine control of northern greece and the aegean coast to the south under presian i and his successor boris i the bulgarian empire managed to obtain a small portion of the northern aegean coast simeon i of bulgaria led bulgaria to its greatest territorial expansion and managed to conqueror much of the northern and western coasts of the aegean the byzantines later regained control the second bulgarian empire achieved similar success along again the northern and western coasts under ivan asen ii of bulgaria the seljuq turks under the seljuk empire invaded the byzantine empire in 1068 from which they annexed almost all the territories of anatolia including the east coast of the aegean sea during the reign of alp arslan the second sultan of the seljuk empire after the death of his successor malik shah i the empire was divided and malik shah was succeeded in anatolia by kilij arslan i who founded the sultanate of rum the byzantines yet again recaptured the eastern coast of the aegean after constantinople was occupied by western european and venetian forces during the fourth crusade the area around the aegean sea was fragmented into multiple entities including the latin empire the kingdom of thessalonica the empire of nicaea the principality of achaea and the duchy of athens the venetians created the maritime state of the duchy of the archipelago which included all the cyclades except mykonos and tinos the empire of nicaea a byzantine rump state managed to effect the recapture of constantinople from the latins in 1261 and defeat epirus byzantine successes were not to last the ottomans would conquer the area around the aegean coast but before their expansion the byzantine empire had already been weakened from internal conflict by the late 14th century the byzantine empire had lost all control of the coast of the aegean sea and could exercise power around their capital constantinople the ottoman empire then gained control of all the aegean coast with the exception of crete which was a venetian colony until 1669 modern period the greek war of independence allowed a greek state on the coast of the aegean from 1829 onward the ottoman empire held a presence over the sea for over 500 years until its dissolution following world war i when it was replaced by modern turkey during the war greece gained control over the area around the northern coast of the aegean by the 1930s greece and turkey had about resumed their presentday borders in the italoturkish war of 1912 italy captured the dodecanese islands and had occupied them since reneging on the 1919 venizelostittoni agreement to cede them to greece the grecoitalian war took place from october 1940 to april 1941 as part of the balkans campaign of world war ii the italian war aim was to establish a greek puppet state which would permit the italian annexation of the sporades and the cyclades islands in the aegean sea to be administered as a part of the italian aegean islands the german invasion resulted in the axis occupation of greece the german troops evacuated athens on 12 october 1944 and by the end of the month they had withdrawn from mainland greece greece was then liberated by allied troops economy and politics many of the islands in the aegean have safe harbours and bays in ancient times navigation through the sea was easier than travelling across the rough terrain of the greek mainland and to some extent the coastal areas of anatolia many of the islands are volcanic and marble and iron are mined on other islands the larger islands have some fertile valleys and plains of the main islands in the aegean sea two belong to turkey bozcaada tenedos and gökçeada imbros the rest belong to greece between the two countries there are political disputes over several aspects of political control over the aegean space including the size of territorial waters air control and the delimitation of economic rights to the continental shelf these issues are known as the aegean dispute transport multiple ports are located along the greek and turkish coasts of the aegean sea the port of piraeus in athens is the chief port in greece the largest passenger port in europe and the third largest in the world servicing about 20 million passengers annually with a throughput of 14 million teus piraeus is placed among the top ten ports in container traffic in europe and the top container port in the eastern mediterranean piraeus is also the commercial hub of greek shipping piraeus biannually acts as the focus for a major shipping convention known as posidonia which attracts maritime industry professionals from all over the world piraeus is currently greeces thirdbusiest port in terms of tons of goods transported behind aghioi theodoroi and thessaloniki the central port serves ferry routes to almost every island in the eastern portion of greece the island of crete the cyclades the dodecanese and much of the northern and the eastern aegean sea while the western part of the port is used for cargo services as of 2007 the port of thessaloniki was the secondlargest container port in greece after the port of piraeus making it one of the busiest ports in greece in 2007 the port of thessaloniki handled 14373245 tonnes of cargo and 222824 teus paloukia on the island of salamis is a major passenger port fishing fish are greeces secondlargest agricultural export and greece has europes largest fishing fleet fish captured include sardines mackerel grouper grey mullets sea bass and seabream there is a considerable difference between fish catches between the pelagic and demersal zones with respect to pelagic fisheries the catches from the northern central and southern aegean area groupings are dominated respectively by anchovy horse mackerels and boops for demersal fisheries the catches from the northern and southern aegean area groupings are dominated by grey mullets and pickerel spicara smaris respectively the industry has been impacted by the great recession overfishing and habitat destruction is also a concern threatening grouper and seabream populations resulting in perhaps a 50 decline of fish catch to address these concerns greek fishermen have been offered a compensation by the government although some species are defined as protected or threatened under eu legislation several illegal species such as the molluscs pinna nobilis charonia tritonis and lithophaga lithophaga can be bought in restaurants and fish markets around greece tourism the aegean islands within the aegean sea are significant tourist destinations tourism to the aegean islands contributes a significant portion of tourism in greece especially since the second half of the 20th century a total of five unesco world heritage sites are located the aegean islands these include the monastery of saint john the theologian and the cave of the apocalypse on patmos the pythagoreion and heraion of samos in samos the nea moni of chios the island of delos and the medieval city of rhodes greece is one of the most visited countries in europe and the world with over 33 million visitors in 2018 and the tourism industry around a quarter of greeces gross domestic product the islands of santorini crete lesbos delos and mykonos are common tourist destinations an estimated 2 million tourists visit santorini annually however concerns relating to overtourism have arisen in recent years such as issues of inadequate infrastructure and overcrowding alongside greece turkey has also been successful in developing resort areas and attracting large number of tourists contributing to tourism in turkey the phrase blue cruise refers to recreational voyages along the turkish riviera including across the aegean the ancient city of troy a world heritage site is on the turkish coast of the aegean greece and turkey both take part in the blue flag beach certification programme of the foundation for environmental education the certification is awarded for beaches and marinas meeting strict quality standards including environmental protection water quality safety and services criteria as of 2015 the blue flag has been awarded to 395 beaches and 9 marinas in greece southern aegean beaches on the turkish coast include muğla with 102 beaches awarded with the blue flag along with i̇zmir and aydın who have 49 and 30 beaches awarded respectively see also exclusive economic zone of greece geography of turkey list of greek place names aegean boat report references external links seas of greece seas of turkey marginal seas of the mediterranean european seas seas of asia geography of europe geography of west asia landforms of çanakkale province landforms of muğla province landforms of i̇zmir province landforms of balıkesir province landforms of edirne province landforms of aydın province	4,179
843	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Clockwork%20Orange%20%28novel%29	A Clockwork Orange (novel)	a clockwork orange is a dystopian satirical black comedy novel by english writer anthony burgess published in 1962 it is set in a nearfuture society that has a youth subculture of extreme violence the teenage protagonist alex narrates his violent exploits and his experiences with state authorities intent on reforming him the book is partially written in a russianinfluenced argot called nadsat which takes its name from the russian suffix that is equivalent to teen in english according to burgess the novel was a jeu desprit written in just three weeks in 2005 a clockwork orange was included on time magazines list of the 100 best englishlanguage novels written since 1923 and it was named by modern library and its readers as one of the 100 best englishlanguage novels of the 20th century the original manuscript of the book has been kept at mcmaster universitys william ready division of archives and research collections in hamilton ontario canada since the institution purchased the documents in 1971 it is considered one of the most influential dystopian books in 2022 the novel was included on the big jubilee read list of 70 books by commonwealth authors selected to celebrate the platinum jubilee of elizabeth ii plot summary part 1 alexs world alex is a 15yearold gang leader living in a nearfuture dystopian city his friends droogs in the novels anglorussian slang nadsat and fellow gang members are dim a slowwitted bruiser who is the gangs muscle georgie an ambitious secondincommand and pete who mostly plays along as the droogs indulge their taste for ultraviolence random violent mayhem characterised as a sociopath and hardened juvenile delinquent alex is also intelligent quickwitted and enjoys classical music he is particularly fond of beethoven whom he calls lovely ludwig van the droogs sit in their favourite hangout the korova milk bar drinking milkplus milk laced with the customers drug of choice to prepare for a night of ultraviolence they assault a scholar walking home from the public library rob a shop leaving the owner and his wife bloodied and unconscious beat up a beggar then scuffle with a rival gang joyriding through the countryside in a stolen car they break into an isolated cottage and terrorise the young couple living there beating the husband and gangraping his wife in a metafictional touch the husband is a writer working on a manuscript called a clockwork orange and alex contemptuously reads out a paragraph that states the novels main theme before shredding the manuscript at the korova alex strikes dim for his crude response to a womans singing of an operatic passage and strains within the gang become apparent at home in his parents flat alex plays classical music at top volume which he describes as giving him orgasmic bliss before falling asleep alex feigns illness to his parents to stay out of school the next day following an unexpected visit from pr deltoid his postcorrective adviser alex visits a record store where he meets two preteen girls he invites them back to the flat where he drugs and rapes them that night after a nap alex finds his droogs in a mutinous mood waiting downstairs in the tornup and graffitied lobby georgie challenges alex for leadership of the gang demanding that they focus on highervalue targets in their robberies alex quells the rebellion by slashing dims hand and fighting with georgie then soothes the gang by agreeing to georgies plan to rob the home of a wealthy elderly woman alex breaks in and knocks the woman unconscious but when he hears sirens and opens the door to flee dim strikes him as revenge for the earlier fight the gang abandons alex on the front step to be arrested by the police while in custody he learns that the woman has died from her injuries part 2 the ludovico technique alex is convicted of murder and sentenced to 14 years in prison his parents visit one day to inform him that georgie has been killed in a botched robbery two years into his term he has obtained a job in one of the prison chapels playing music on the stereo to accompany the sunday christian services the chaplain mistakes alexs bible studies for stirrings of faith in reality alex only reads scripture for the violent or sexual passages after his fellow cellmates blame him for beating a troublesome cellmate to death he is chosen to undergo an experimental behaviour modification treatment called the ludovico technique in exchange for having the remainder of his sentence commuted the technique is a form of aversion therapy in which alex is injected with nauseainducing drugs while watching graphically violent films eventually conditioning him to become severely ill at the mere thought of violence as an unintended consequence the soundtrack to one of the films beethovens ninth symphony renders alex unable to enjoy his beloved classical music as before the techniques effectiveness is demonstrated to a group of vips who watch as alex collapses before a man who slaps him and abases himself before a scantily clad young woman although the prison chaplain accuses the state of stripping alex of free will the government officials on the scene are pleased with the results and alex is released from prison part 3 after prison alex returns to his parents flat only to find that they are letting his room to a lodger now homeless he wanders the streets and enters a public library hoping to learn of a painless method for committing suicide the old scholar whom alex had assaulted in part 1 finds him and beats him with the help of several friends two policemen come to alexs rescue but they turn out to be dim and billyboy a former rival gang leader they take alex outside town brutalise him and abandon him there alex collapses at the door of an isolated cottage realising too late that it is the one he and his droogs invaded in part 1 the writer f alexander still lives here but his wife has since died of what he believes to be injuries she sustained in the rape he does not recognise alex but gives him shelter and questions him about the conditioning he has undergone alexander and his colleagues all highly critical of the government plan to use alex as a symbol of state brutality and thus prevent the incumbent government from being reelected alex inadvertently reveals that he was the ringleader of the home invasion he is removed from the cottage and locked in an upperstorey bedroom as a relentless barrage of classical music plays over speakers he attempts suicide by leaping from the window alex wakes up in a hospital where he is courted by government officials anxious to counter the bad publicity created by his suicide attempt he is informed that f alexander has been put away for alexs protection and his own alex is offered a wellpaying job if he agrees to side with the government once discharged a round of tests reveals that his old violent impulses have returned indicating that the hospital doctors have undone the effects of his conditioning as photographers snap pictures alex daydreams of orgiastic violence and reflects i was cured all right in the final chapter alexnow 18 years old and working for the nations musical recording archivesfinds himself halfheartedly preparing for another night of crime with a new gang len rick and bully after a chance encounter with pete who has reformed and married alex finds himself taking less and less pleasure in acts of senseless violence he begins contemplating giving up crime himself to become a productive member of society and start a family of his own while reflecting on the notion that his children could end up being just as destructive as he has been if not more so omission of the final chapter in the us the book has three parts each with seven chapters burgess has stated that the total of 21 chapters was an intentional nod to the age of 21 being recognised as a milestone in human maturation the 21st chapter was omitted from the editions published in the united states prior to 1986 in the introduction to the updated american text these newer editions include the missing 21st chapter burgess explains that when he first brought the book to an american publisher he was told that us audiences would never go for the final chapter in which alex sees the error of his ways decides he has lost his taste for violence and resolves to turn his life around at the american publishers insistence burgess allowed their editors to cut the redeeming final chapter from the us version so that the tale would end on a darker note with alex becoming his old ultraviolent self again an ending which the publisher insisted would be more realistic and appealing to a us audience the film adaptation directed by stanley kubrick is based on the american edition of the book and is considered to be badly flawed by burgess kubrick called chapter 21 an extra chapter and claimed that he had not read the original version until he had virtually finished the screenplay and that he had never given serious consideration to using it in kubricks opinion as in the opinion of other readers including the original american editor the final chapter was unconvincing and inconsistent with the book kubricks stance was unusual when compared to the standard hollywood practice of producing films with the familiar tropes of resolving moral messages and good triumphing over evil before the films end characters alex the novels protagonist and leader among his droogs he often refers to himself as your humble narrator having coaxed two tenyearold girls into his bedroom alex refers to himself as alexander the large while raping them this was later the basis for alexs claimed surname delarge in the 1971 film george georgie or georgie boy effectively alexs greedy secondincommand georgie attempts to undermine alexs status as leader of the gang and take over their gang as the new leader he is later killed during a botched robbery while alex is in prison pete the only one who does not take particular sides when the droogs fight among themselves he later meets and marries a girl named georgina renouncing his violent ways and even losing his former nadsat speech patterns a chance encounter with pete in the final chapter influences alex to realise that he has grown bored with violence and recognise that human energy is better expended on creation than destruction dim an idiotic and thoroughly gormless member of the gang persistently condescended to by alex but respected to some extent by his droogs for his formidable fighting abilities his weapon of choice being a length of bike chain he later becomes a police officer exacting his revenge on alex for the abuse he once suffered under his command p r deltoid a criminal rehabilitation social worker assigned the task of keeping alex on the straight and narrow he seemingly has no clue about dealing with young people and is devoid of empathy or understanding for his troublesome charge indeed when alex is arrested for murdering an old woman and then ferociously beaten by several police officers deltoid simply spits on him prison chaplain the character who first questions whether it is moral to turn a violent person into a behavioural automaton who can make no choice in such matters this is the only character who is truly concerned about alexs welfare he is not taken seriously by alex though he is nicknamed by alex prison charlie or chaplin a pun on charlie chaplin billyboy a rival of alexs early on in the story alex and his droogs battle billyboy and his droogs which ends abruptly when the police arrive later after alex is released from prison billyboy along with dim who like billyboy has become a police officer rescues alex from a mob then subsequently beats him in a location out of town prison governor the man who decides to let alex choose to be the first reformed by the ludovico technique the minister of the interior the government highofficial who determined that the ludovicos technique will be used to cut recidivism he is referred to as the inferior by alex dr branom a scientist codeveloper of the ludovico technique he appears friendly and almost paternal towards alex at first before forcing him into the theatre and what alex calls the chair of torture dr brodsky branoms colleague and codeveloper of the ludovico technique he seems much more passive than branom and says considerably less f alexander an author who was in the process of typing his magnum opus a clockwork orange when alex and his droogs broke into his house beat him tore up his work and then brutally gangraped his wife which caused her subsequent death he is left deeply scarred by these events and when he encounters alex two years later he uses him as a guinea pig in a sadistic experiment intended to prove the ludovico technique unsound the government imprisons him afterwards he is given the name frank alexander in the film cat woman an indirectly named woman who blocks alexs gangs entrance scheme and threatens to shoot alex and set her cats on him if he does not leave after alex breaks into her house she fights with him ordering her cats to join the melee but reprimands alex for fighting them off she sustains a fatal blow to the head during the scuffle she is given the name miss weathers in the film analysis background a clockwork orange was written in hove then a senescent english seaside town burgess had arrived back in britain after his stint abroad to see that much had changed a youth culture had developed based around coffee bars pop music and teenage gangs england was gripped by fears over juvenile delinquency burgess stated that the novels inspiration was his first wife lynnes beating by a gang of drunk american servicemen stationed in england during world war ii she subsequently miscarried in its investigation of free will the books target is ostensibly the concept of behaviourism pioneered by such figures as b f skinner burgess later stated that he wrote the book in three weeks title burgess has offered several clarifications about the meaning and origin of its title he had overheard the phrase as queer as a clockwork orange in a london pub in 1945 and assumed it was a cockney expression in clockwork marmalade an essay published in the listener in 1972 he said that he had heard the phrase several times since that occasion he also explained the title in response to a question from william everson on the television programme camera three in 1972 well the title has a very different meaning but only to a particular generation of london cockneys its a phrase which i heard many years ago and so fell in love with i wanted to use it the title of the book but the phrase itself i did not make up the phrase as queer as a clockwork orange is good old east london slang and it didnt seem to me necessary to explain it now obviously i have to give it an extra meaning ive implied an extra dimension ive implied the junction of the organic the lively the sweet in other words life the orange and the mechanical the cold the disciplined ive brought them together in this kind of oxymoron this soursweet word no other record of the expression being used before 1962 has ever appeared with kingsley amis going so far as to note in his memoirs 1991 that no trace of it appears in eric partridges dictionary of historical slang however saying as queer as followed by an improbable object a clockwork orange or a fourspeed walking stick or a lefthanded corkscrew etc predates burgesss novel an early example as queer as dicks hatband appeared in 1796 and was alluded to in 1757 his second explanation was that it was a pun on the malay word orang meaning man the novella contains no other malay words or links in a prefatory note to a clockwork orange a play with music he wrote that the title was a metaphor for an organic entity full of juice and sweetness and agreeable odour being turned into a mechanism in his essay clockwork oranges burgess asserts that this title would be appropriate for a story about the application of pavlovian or mechanical laws to an organism which like a fruit was capable of colour and sweetness while addressing the reader in a letter before some editions of the book the author says that when a man ceases to have free will they are no longer a man just a clockwork orange a shiny appealing object but just a toy to be woundup by either god or the devil or what is increasingly replacing both the state this title alludes to the protagonists negative emotional responses to feelings of evil which prevent the exercise of his free will subsequent to the administration of the ludovico technique to induce this conditioning alex is forced to watch scenes of violence on a screen that are systematically paired with negative physical stimulation the negative physical stimulation takes the form of nausea and feelings of terror which are caused by an emetic medicine administered just before the presentation of the films in its original drafts burgess used the working title the ludovico technique as he himself described in the foreword in the april 1995 publication along with removing the 21st chapter as insisted by his publisher in the original 1962 edition he would also change the finished products name to its current title use of slang the book narrated by alex contains many words in a slang argot which burgess invented for the book called nadsat it is a mix of modified slavic words cockney rhyming slang and derived russian like baboochka for instance these terms have the following meanings in nadsat droog друг friend moloko молоко milk gulliver голова head malchick мальчик or malchickiwick boy soomka сумка sack or bag bog бог god horrorshow хорошо good prestoopnick преступник criminal rooker рука hand cal кал crap veck человек man or guy litso лицо face malenky маленький little and so on some words burgess invented himself or just adapted from preexisting languages compare polari one of alexs doctors explains the language to a colleague as odd bits of old rhyming slang a bit of gypsy talk too but most of the roots are slav propaganda subliminal penetration some words are not derived from anything but merely easy to guess eg inout inout or the old inout means sexual intercourse cutter however means money because cutter rhymes with breadandbutter this is rhyming slang which is intended to be impenetrable to outsiders especially eavesdropping policemen additionally slang like appypolly loggy apology seems to derive from school boy slang this reflects alexs age of 15 in the first edition of the book no key was provided and the reader was left to interpret the meaning from the context in his appendix to the restored edition burgess explained that the slang would keep the book from seeming dated and served to muffle the raw response of pornography from the acts of violence the term ultraviolence referring to excessive or unjustified violence was coined by burgess in the book which includes the phrase do the ultraviolent the terms association with aesthetic violence has led to its use in the media banning and censorship history in the us in 1976 a clockwork orange was removed from an aurora colorado high school because of objectionable language a year later in 1977 it was removed from high school classrooms in westport massachusetts over similar concerns with objectionable language in 1982 it was removed from two anniston alabama libraries later to be reinstated on a restricted basis also in 1973 a bookseller was arrested for selling the novel the charges were later dropped however each of these instances came after the release of stanley kubricks popular 1971 film adaptation of a clockwork orange itself the subject of much controversy reception initial response the sunday telegraph review was positive and described the book as entertaining even profound kingsley amis in the observer acclaimed the novel as cheerful horror writing mr burgess has written a fine farrago of outrageousness one which incidentally suggests a view of juvenile violence i cant remember having met before malcolm bradbury wrote all of mr burgesss powers as a comic writer which are considerable have gone into the rich language of his inverted utopia if you can stomach the horrors youll enjoy the manner roald dahl called it a terrifying and marvellous book many reviewers praised the inventiveness of the language but expressed unease at the violent subject matter the spectator praised burgesss extraordinary technical feat but was uncomfortable with a certain arbitrariness about the plot which is slightly irritating new statesman acclaimed burgess for addressing acutely and savagely the tendencies of our time but called the book a great strain to read the sunday times review was negative and described the book as a very ordinary brutal and psychologically shallow story the times also reviewed the book negatively describing it as a somewhat clumsy experiment with science fiction with clumsy cliches about juvenile delinquency the violence was criticised as unconvincing in detail writers appraisal burgess dismissed a clockwork orange as too didactic to be artistic he said that the violent content of the novel nauseated him in 1985 burgess published flame into being the life and work of d h lawrence and while discussing lady chatterleys lover in his biography burgess compared the notoriety of d h lawrences novel with a clockwork orange we all suffer from the popular desire to make the known notorious the book i am best known for or only known for is a novel i am prepared to repudiate written a quarter of a century ago a jeu desprit knocked off for money in three weeks it became known as the raw material for a film which seemed to glorify sex and violence the film made it easy for readers of the book to misunderstand what it was about and the misunderstanding will pursue me until i die i should not have written the book because of this danger of misinterpretation and the same may be said of lawrence and lady chatterleys lover awards and nominations and rankings 1983 prometheus award preliminary nominee 1999 prometheus award nomination 2002 prometheus award nomination 2003 prometheus award nomination 2006 prometheus award nomination 2008 prometheus award hall of fame award a clockwork orange was chosen by time magazine as one of the 100 best englishlanguage books from 1923 to 2005 adaptations a 1965 film by andy warhol entitled vinyl was an adaptation of burgesss novel the best known adaptation of the novella is the 1971 film a clockwork orange by stanley kubrick featuring malcolm mcdowell as alex in 1987 burgess published a stage play titled a clockwork orange a play with music the play includes songs written by burgess which are inspired by beethoven and nadsat slang a manga anthology by osamu tezuka entitled tokeijikake no ringo clockwork apple was released in 1983 in 1988 a german adaptation of a clockwork orange at the intimate theatre of bad godesberg featured a musical score by the german punk rock band die toten hosen which combined with orchestral clips of beethovens ninth symphony and other dirty melodies so stated by the subtitle was released on the album ein kleines bisschen horrorschau the track hier kommt alex became one of the bands signature songs in february 1990 another musical version was produced at the barbican theatre in london by the royal shakespeare company titled a clockwork orange 2004 it received mostly negative reviews with john peter of the sunday times of london calling it only an intellectual rocky horror show and john gross of the sunday telegraph calling it a clockwork lemon even burgess himself who wrote the script based on his novel was disappointed according to the evening standard he called the score written by bono and the edge of the rock group u2 neowallpaper burgess had originally worked alongside the director of the production ron daniels and envisioned a musical score that was entirely classical unhappy with the decision to abandon that score he heavily criticised the bands experimental mix of hip hop liturgical and gothic music lise hand of the irish independent reported the edge as saying that burgesss original conception was a score written by a novelist rather than a songwriter calling it meaningless glitz jane edwardes of 2020 magazine said that watching this production was like being invited to an expensive french restaurant and being served with a big mac in 1994 chicagos steppenwolf theater put on a production of a clockwork orange directed by terry kinney the american premiere of novelist anthony burgesss own adaptation of his a clockwork orange starred k todd freeman as alex in 2001 uni theatre mississauga ontario presented the canadian premiere of the play under the direction of terry costa in 2002 godlight theatre company presented the new york premiere adaptation of a clockwork orange at manhattan theatre source the production went on to play at the soho playhouse 2002 ensemble studio theatre 2004 59e59 theaters 2005 and the edinburgh festival fringe 2005 while at edinburgh the production received rave reviews from the press while playing to soldout audiences the production was directed by godlights artistic director joe tantalo in 2003 los angeles director brad mays and the ark theatre company staged a multimedia adaptation of a clockwork orange which was named pick of the week by the la weekly and nominated for three of the 2004 la weekly theater awards direction revival production of a 20thcentury work and leading female performance vanessa claire smith won best actress for her genderbending portrayal of alex the musicloving teenage sociopath this production utilised three separate video streams outputted to seven onstage video monitors six 19inch and one 40inch in order to preserve the firstperson narrative of the book a prerecorded video stream of alex your humble narrator was projected onto the 40inch monitor thereby freeing the onstage character during passages which would have been awkward or impossible to sustain in the breaking of the fourth wall an adaptation of the work based on the original novel the film and burgesss own stage version was performed by the silo theatre in auckland new zealand in early 2007 in 2021 the international anthony burgess foundation premiered a webpage cataloging various productions of a clockwork orange from around the world release details 1962 uk william heinemann isbn december 1962 hardcover 1962 us w w norton co ltd isbn 1962 hardcover 1963 us w w norton co ltd 1963 paperback 1965 us ballantine books 1965 paperback 1969 us ballantine books isbn 1969 paperback 1971 us ballantine books 1971 paperback movie released 1972 uk lorrimer 11 september 1972 hardcover 1972 uk penguin books ltd 25 january 1973 paperback 1973 us caedmon records 1973 vinyl lp first 4 chapters read by anthony burgess 1977 us ballantine books 12 september 1977 paperback 1979 us ballantine books april 1979 paperback 1983 us ballantine books 12 july 1983 unbound 1986 us w w norton company november 1986 paperback adds final chapter not previously available in us versions 1987 uk w w norton co ltd july 1987 hardcover 1988 us ballantine books march 1988 paperback 1995 uk w w norton co ltd june 1995 paperback 1996 uk penguin books ltd 25 april 1996 paperback 1996 uk harperaudio september 1996 audio cassette 1997 uk heyne verlag 31 january 1997 paperback 1998 uk penguin books ltd 3 september 1998 paperback 1999 uk rebound by sagebrush october 1999 library binding 2000 uk penguin books ltd 24 february 2000 paperback 2000 uk penguin books ltd 2 march 2000 paperback 2000 uk turtleback books november 2000 hardback 2001 uk penguin books ltd 27 september 2001 paperback 2002 uk thorndike press october 2002 hardback 2005 uk buccaneer books 29 january 2005 library binding 2010 greece anubis publications 2010 paperback adds final chapter not previously available in greek versions 2012 us w w norton company 22 october 2012 hardback 50th anniversary edition revised text version andrew biswell phd director of the international burgess foundation has taken a close look at the three varying published editions alongside the original typescript to recreate the novel as anthony burgess envisioned it see also classical conditioning list of cultural references to a clockwork orange list of stories set in a future now past mkultra violence in art references further reading a clockwork orange a play with music century hutchinson ltd 1987 an extract is quoted on several web sites anthony burgess from a clockwork orange a play with music century hutchinson ltd 1987 a clockwork orange from a clockwork orange a play with music burgess anthony 1978 clockwork oranges in 1985 london hutchinson extracts quoted here external links a clockwork orange at sparknotes a clockwork orange at literapedia a clockwork orange 1962 last chapter anthony burgess 19171993 comparisons with the kubrick film adaptation dalrymple theodore a prophetic and violent masterpiece city journal giola ted a clockwork orange by anthony burgess at conceptual fiction priestley brenton of clockwork apples and oranges burgess and kubrick 2002 novel books written in fictional dialects british novellas british novels adapted into films british novels adapted into plays british philosophical novels british science fiction novels censored books crime novels dystopian novels englishlanguage novels fiction about mind control fiction with unreliable narrators gang rape in fiction heinemann publisher books metafictional novels novels about music novels about rape novels by anthony burgess obscenity controversies in literature science fiction novels adapted into films 1962 british novels 1962 science fiction novels	4,988
844	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam	Amsterdam	amsterdam literally the dam on the river amstel is the capital and most populated city of the netherlands with the hague being the seat of government it has a population of 921402 within the city proper 1457018 in the urban area and 2480394 in the metropolitan area located in the dutch province of north holland amsterdam is colloquially referred to as the venice of the north for its large number of canals now designated a unesco world heritage site amsterdam was founded at the mouth of the amstel river that was dammed to control flooding the citys name derives from a local linguistic variation of the word dam originally a small fishing village in the late 12th century amsterdam became a major world port during the dutch golden age of the 17th century when the netherlands was an economic powerhouse amsterdam was the leading centre for finance and trade as well as a hub of production of secular art in the 19th and 20th centuries the city expanded and many new neighborhoods and suburbs were planned and built the canals of amsterdam and the 1920th century defence line of amsterdam are both on the unesco world heritage list sloten annexed in 1921 by the municipality of amsterdam is the oldest part of the city dating to the 9th century the city has a long tradition of openness liberalism and tolerance cycling is key to the citys modern character and there are numerous biking paths and lanes spread throughout the entire city amsterdams main attractions include its historic canals the the state museum with a vast collection of dutch golden age art the van gogh museum the dam square where the royal palace of amsterdam and former city hall are located the amsterdam museum stedelijk museum with modern art hermitage amsterdam the concert hall the anne frank house the the heineken experience the hortus botanicus nemo the redlight district and many cannabis coffee shops the city is also well known for its nightlife and festival activity with several of its nightclubs paradiso among the worlds most famous primarily known for its artistic heritage elaborate canal system and narrow canal houses with gabled façades wellpreserved legacies of the citys 17thcentury golden age and the establishment of the van gogh museum displaying the work of the famous dutch modern artist have attracted millions of visitors to amsterdam annually the amsterdam stock exchange founded in 1602 is considered the oldest modern securities market stock exchange in the world as the commercial capital of the netherlands and one of the top financial centres in europe amsterdam is considered an alpha world city by the globalization and world cities research network the city is also the cultural capital of the netherlands many large dutch institutions have their headquarters in the city including the philips conglomerate akzonobel bookingcom tomtom and ing many of the worlds largest companies are based in amsterdam or have established their european headquarters in the city such as leading technology companies uber netflix and tesla in 2022 amsterdam was ranked the ninthbest city in the world to live in by the economist intelligence unit and 12th globally on quality of living for environment and infrastructure by mercer the city was ranked 4th place globally as top tech hub in the savills tech cities 2019 report 2nd in europe and 3rd in innovation by australian innovation agency 2thinknow in their innovation cities index 2009 the port of amsterdam is the fifth largest in europe the klm hub and amsterdams main airport schiphol is the busiest airport in the netherlands the third busiest in europe and the 11th busiest airport in the world the dutch capital is considered one of the most multicultural cities in the world with at least 177 nationalities represented immigration and ethnic segregation in amsterdam is a current issue a few of amsterdams notable residents throughout its history include painters rembrandt and vincent van gogh seventeenthcentury philosophers baruch spinoza john locke rené descartes and the holocaust victim and diarist anne frank history prehistory due to its geographical location in what used to be wet peatland the founding of amsterdam is later than other urban centres in the low countries however around the area of what later became amsterdam farmers settled as early as three millennia ago they lived along the prehistoric ij river and upstream of its tributary amstel the prehistoric ij was a shallow and quiet stream in peatland behind beach ridges this secluded area was able to grow into an important local settlement centre especially in the late bronze age the iron age and the roman age neolithic and roman artefacts have also been found in the prehistoric amstel bedding under amsterdams damrak and rokin such as shards of bell beaker culture pottery 22002000 bc and a granite grinding stone 27002750 bc but the location of these artefacts around the river banks of the amstel probably point to a presence of a modest semipermanent or seasonal settlement until water issues were controlled a permanent settlement would not have been possible since the river mouth and the banks of the amstel in this period in time were too wet for permanent habitation founding the origins of amsterdam are linked to the development of a dam on the amstel river called amestelle meaning watery area from aam river stelle site at a shoreline river bank in this area land reclamation started as early as the late 10th century amestelle was located along a side arm of the ij this side arm took the name from the eponymous land amstel amestelle was inhabited by farmers who lived more inland and more upstream where the land was not as wet as at the banks of the downstream river mouth these farmers were starting the reclamation around upstream ouderkerk aan de amstel and later at the other side of the river at amstelveen the van amstel family known in documents by this name since 1019 held the stewardship in this northwestern nook of the ecclesiastical district of the bishop of utrecht the family later served also under the count of holland a major turning point in the development of the amstel river mouth was the all saints flood of 1170 in an extremely short period of time the shallow river ij turned into a wide estuary which from then on offered the amstel an open connection to the zuiderzee ijssel and waterways further afield this made the water flow of the amstel more active so excess water could be drained better with drier banks the downstream amstel mouth became attractive for permanent habitation moreover the river had grown from an insignificant peat stream into a junction of international waterways a settlement was built here immediately after the landscape change of 1170 right from the start of its foundation it focused on traffic production and trade not on farming as opposed to how communities had lived further upstream for the past 200 years and northward for thousands of years the construction of a dam at the mouth of the amstel eponymously named dam is historically estimated to have occurred between 1264 and 1275 the settlement first appeared in a document from 1275 concerning a road toll granted by the count of holland floris v to the residents apud amestelledamme at the dam in the amstel or at the dam of amstelland this allowed the inhabitants of the village to travel freely through the county of holland paying no tolls at bridges locks and dams this was a move in a yearslong struggle for power in the area between the count of holland and the amstel family who governed the area on behalf of the bishop of utrecht by 1327 the name had developed into aemsterdam middle ages the bishop of utrecht granted amsterdam zone rights in either 1300 or 1306 het mirakel van amsterdam in 1345 rendered the city an important place of pilgrimage during the heydays of the stille omgang which became the expression of the pilgrimage after the protestant reformation up to 90000 pilgrims came to amsterdam from the 14th century on amsterdam flourished largely from trade with the hanseatic league from the 15th century on the city established an independent trade route with the baltic sea in grain and timber cutting out the hanseatic league as middlemen the city became the staple market of europe for bulk cargo this was made possible due to innovations in the herring fishery from which amsterdam reaped great wealth herring had demand in markets all around europe inventions of onboard gibbing and the haringbuis in 1415 made longer voyages feasible and hence enabled dutch fishermen to follow the herring shoals far from the coasts giving them a monopoly in the industry the herring industry relied on international trade cooperation and large initial investments in ships which needed many highly skilled and unskilled workers cooperating which required the import of the necessary raw materials to turn an unfinished product into a marketable one which required merchants to then sell it throughout the continent and bookkeepers and accountants to divide the profit in short the herring industry was setting up the foundations for what would later become the transcontinental trade system and the dutch golden age with amsterdam at its centre hence the saying amsterdam is built on herring bones conflict with spain the low countries were part of the hapsburg inheritance and came under the spanish monarchy in the early sixteenth century the dutch rebelled against philip ii of spain who led a defense of catholicism during the protestant reformation the main reasons for the uprising were the imposition of new taxes the tenth penny and the religious persecution of protestants by the newly introduced inquisition the revolt escalated into the eighty years war which ultimately led to dutch independence strongly pushed by dutch revolt leader william the silent the dutch republic became known for its relative religious tolerance jews from the iberian peninsula protestant huguenots from france prosperous merchants and printers from flanders and economic and religious refugees from the spanishcontrolled parts of the low countries found safety in amsterdam the influx of flemish printers and the citys intellectual tolerance made amsterdam a centre for the european free press centre of the dutch golden age during the 17th century amsterdam experienced what is considered its golden age during which it became the wealthiest city in the western world ships sailed from amsterdam to the baltic sea the caribbean north america and africa as well as presentday indonesia india sri lanka and brazil forming the basis of a worldwide trading network amsterdams merchants had the largest share in both the dutch east india company voc and the dutch west india company these companies acquired overseas possessions that later became dutch colonies amsterdam was europes most important hub for the shipment of goods and was the leading financial centre of the western world in 1602 the amsterdam office of the dutch east india company became the worlds first stock exchange by trading in its own shares the bank of amsterdam started operations in 1609 acting as a fullservice bank for dutch merchant bankers and as a reserve bank beginning during this period amsterdam also became involved in the trade in african slaves the city was a major destination port for dutch slave ships beginning in the 17th century which lasted until the united netherlands abolished the dutch involvement in the trade in 1814 under pressure by the british government amsterdam was also a member of the society of suriname an organization founded to oversee the management of surinam a dutch slave colony on 1 july 2021 the mayor of amsterdam femke halsema apologized for the citys involvement in the african slave trade which had contributed to the citys wealth decline and modernization amsterdams prosperity declined during the 18th and early 19th centuries the wars of the dutch republic with england latterly great britain and france took their toll on the city during the napoleonic wars amsterdams significance reached its lowest point with holland being absorbed into the french empire however the later establishment of the united kingdom of the netherlands in 1815 marked a turning point the end of the 19th century is sometimes called amsterdams second golden age new museums a railway station and the were built in this same time the industrial revolution reached the city the amsterdamrhine canal was dug to give amsterdam a direct connection to the rhine and the north sea canal was dug to give the port a shorter connection to the north sea both projects dramatically improved commerce with the rest of europe and the world in 1906 joseph conrad gave a brief description of amsterdam as seen from the seaside in the mirror of the sea 20th centurypresent shortly before the first world war the city started to expand again and new suburbs were built even though the netherlands remained neutral in this war amsterdam suffered a food shortage and heating fuel became scarce the shortages sparked riots in which several people were killed these riots are known as the aardappeloproer potato rebellion people started looting stores and warehouses in order to get supplies mainly food on 1 january 1921 after a flood in 1916 the depleted municipalities of durgerdam holysloot zunderdorp and schellingwoude all lying north of amsterdam were at their own request annexed to the city between the wars the city continued to expand most notably to the west of the jordaan district in the frederik hendrikbuurt and surrounding neighbourhoods nazi germany invaded the netherlands on 10 may 1940 and took control of the country some amsterdam citizens sheltered jews thereby exposing themselves and their families to a high risk of being imprisoned or sent to concentration camps more than 100000 dutch jews were deported to nazi concentration camps of whom some 60000 lived in amsterdam in response the dutch communist party organized the february strike attended by 300000 people to protest against the raids the most famous deportee was the young jewish girl anne frank who died in the bergenbelsen concentration camp at the end of the second world war communication with the rest of the country broke down and food and fuel became scarce many citizens traveled to the countryside to forage dogs cats raw sugar beets and tulip bulbscooked to a pulpwere consumed to stay alive many trees in amsterdam were cut down for fuel and wood was taken from the houses apartments and other buildings of deported jews the city was finally liberated by canadian forces on 5 may 1945 shortly before the end of the war in europe many new suburbs such as osdorp slotervaart slotermeer and geuzenveld were built in the years after the second world war these suburbs contained many public parks and wideopen spaces and the new buildings provided improved housing conditions with larger and brighter rooms gardens and balconies because of the war and other events of the 20th century almost the entire city centre had fallen into disrepair as society was changing politicians and other influential figures made plans to redesign large parts of it there was an increasing demand for office buildings and also for new roads as the automobile became available to most people a metro started operating in 1977 between the new suburb of bijlmermeer in the citys zuidoost southeast exclave and the centre of amsterdam further plans were to build a new highway above the metro to connect amsterdam centraal and the city centre with other parts of the city the required largescale demolitions began in amsterdams former jewish neighborhood smaller streets such as the jodenbreestraat and weesperstraat were widened and almost all houses and buildings were demolished at the peak of the demolition the nieuwmarktrellen nieuwmarkt riots broke out the rioters expressed their fury about the demolition caused by the restructuring of the city as a result the demolition was stopped and the highway into the citys centre was never fully built only the metro was completed only a few streets remained widened the new city hall was built on the almost completely demolished waterlooplein meanwhile large private organizations such as stadsherstel amsterdam were founded to restore the entire city centre although the success of this struggle is visible today efforts for further restoration are still ongoing the entire city centre has reattained its former splendour and as a whole is now a protected area many of its buildings have become monuments and in july 2010 the grachtengordel the three concentric canals herengracht keizersgracht and prinsengracht was added to the unesco world heritage list in the 21st century the amsterdam city centre has attracted large numbers of tourists between 2012 and 2015 the annual number of visitors rose from 10 to 17 million real estate prices have surged and local shops are making way for touristoriented ones making the centre unaffordable for the citys inhabitants these developments have evoked comparisons with venice a city thought to be overwhelmed by the tourist influx construction of a new metro line connecting the part of the city north of the ij to its southern part was started in 2003 the project was controversial because its cost had exceeded its budget by a factor of three by 2008 because of fears of damage to buildings in the centre and because construction had to be halted and restarted multiple times the new metro line was completed in 2018 since 2014 renewed focus has been given to urban regeneration and renewal especially in areas directly bordering the city centre such as frederik hendrikbuurt this urban renewal and expansion of the traditional centre of the citywith the construction on artificial islands of the new eastern ijburg neighbourhoodis part of the structural vision amsterdam 2040 initiative geography amsterdam is located in the western netherlands in the province of north holland the capital of which is not amsterdam but rather haarlem the river amstel ends in the city centre and connects to a large number of canals that eventually terminate in the ij amsterdam is about below sea level the surrounding land is flat as it is formed of large polders an artificial forest amsterdamse bos is in the southwest amsterdam is connected to the north sea through the long north sea canal amsterdam is intensely urbanised as is the amsterdam metropolitan area surrounding the city comprising of land the city proper has 4457 inhabitants per km2 and 2275 houses per km2 parks and nature reserves make up 12 of amsterdams land area water amsterdam has more than of canals most of which are navigable by boat the citys three main canals are the prinsengracht herengracht and keizersgracht in the middle ages amsterdam was surrounded by a moat called the singel which now forms the innermost ring in the city and gives the city centre a horseshoe shape the city is also served by a seaport it has been compared with venice due to its division into about 90 islands which are linked by more than 1200 bridges climate amsterdam has an oceanic climate köppen cfb strongly influenced by its proximity to the north sea to the west with prevailing westerly winds amsterdam as well as most of the north holland province lies in usda hardiness zone 8b frosts mainly occur during spells of easterly or northeasterly winds from the inner european continent even then because amsterdam is surrounded on three sides by large bodies of water as well as having a significant heatisland effect nights rarely fall below while it could easily be in hilversum southeast summers are moderately warm with a number of hot and humid days with occasional rain every month the average daily high in august is and or higher is only measured on average on 25 days placing amsterdam in ahs heat zone 2 the record extremes range from to days with more than of precipitation are common on average 133 days per year amsterdams average annual precipitation is a large part of this precipitation falls as light rain or brief showers cloudy and damp days are common during the cooler months of october through march demographics historical population in 1300 amsterdams population was around 1000 people while many towns in holland experienced population decline during the 15th and 16th centuries amsterdams population grew mainly due to the rise of the profitable baltic maritime trade especially in grain after the burgundian victory in the dutchhanseatic war in 1441 the population of amsterdam was only modest compared to the towns and cities of flanders and brabant which comprised the most urbanized area of the low countries this changed when during the dutch revolt many people from the southern netherlands fled to the north especially after antwerp fell to spanish forces in 1585 jews from spain portugal and eastern europe similarly settled in amsterdam as did germans and scandinavians in thirty years amsterdams population more than doubled between 1585 and 1610 by 1600 its population was around 50000 during the 1660s amsterdams population reached 200000 the citys growth levelled off and the population stabilized around 240000 for most of the 18th century in 1750 amsterdam was the fourth largest city in western europe behind london 676000 paris 560000 and naples 324000 this was all the more remarkable as amsterdam was neither the capital city nor the seat of government of the dutch republic which itself was a much smaller state than great britain france or the ottoman empire in contrast to those other metropolises amsterdam was also surrounded by large towns such as leiden about 67000 rotterdam 45000 haarlem 38000 and utrecht 30000 the citys population declined in the early 19th century dipping under 200000 in 1820 by the second half of the 19th century industrialization spurred renewed growth amsterdams population hit an alltime high of 872000 in 1959 before declining in the following decades due to governmentsponsored suburbanisation to socalled groeikernen growth centres such as purmerend and almere between 1970 and 1980 amsterdam experienced its sharp population decline peaking at a net loss of 25000 people in 1973 by 1985 the city had only 675570 residents this was soon followed by reurbanization and gentrification leading to renewed population growth in the 2010s also in the 2010s much of amsterdams population growth was due to immigration to the city immigration in the 16th and 17th century nondutch immigrants to amsterdam were mostly protestant huguenots and flemings sephardic jews and westphalians huguenots came after the edict of fontainebleau in 1685 while the flemish protestants came during the eighty years war against catholic spain the westphalians came to amsterdam mostly for economic reasons their influx continued through the 18th and 19th centuries before the second world war 10 of the city population was jewish just twenty percent of them survived the holocaust the first mass immigration in the 20th century was by people from indonesia who came to amsterdam after the independence of the dutch east indies in the 1940s and 1950s in the 1960s guest workers from turkey morocco italy and spain emigrated to amsterdam after the independence of suriname in 1975 a large wave of surinamese settled in amsterdam mostly in the bijlmer area other immigrants including refugees asylum seekers and undocumented immigrants came from europe the americas asia and africa in the 1970s and 1980s many old amsterdammers moved to new cities like almere and purmerend prompted by the third landuse planning bill of the dutch government this bill promoted suburbanization and arranged for new developments in socalled groeikernen literally cores of growth young professionals and artists moved into neighborhoods de pijp and the jordaan abandoned by these amsterdammers the nonwestern immigrants settled mostly in the social housing projects in amsterdamwest and the bijlmer today people of nonwestern origin make up approximately onefifth of the population of amsterdam and more than 30 of the citys children a slight majority of the residents of amsterdam have at least one parent who was born outside the country however a much larger majority has at least one parent who was born inside the country intercultural marriages are common in the city thus while the demographics are changing the city still has an ethnic dutch majority only one in three inhabitants under 15 is an autochthon or a person who has two parents of dutch origin segregation along ethnic lines is clearly visible with people of nonwestern origin considered a separate group by statistics netherlands concentrating in specific neighborhoods especially in nieuwwest zeeburg bijlmer and in certain areas of amsterdamnoord in 2000 christians formed the largest religious group in the city 28 of the population the next largest religion was islam 8 most of whose followers were sunni in 2015 christians formed the largest religious group in the city 28 of the population the next largest religion was islam 71 most of whose followers were sunni religion in 1578 the largely catholic city of amsterdam joined the revolt against spanish rule late in comparison to other major northern dutch cities catholic priests were driven out of the city following the dutch takeover all churches were converted to protestant worship calvinism was declared the main religion it was forbidden to openly profess roman catholicism and the catholic hierarchy was prohibited until mid19th century this led to the establishment of clandestine churches covert religious buildings hidden in preexisting buildings catholics some jews and dissenting protestants worshipped in such buildings a large influx of foreigners of many religions came to 17thcentury amsterdam in particular sefardic jews from spain and portugal huguenots from france lutherans mennonites as well as protestants from across the netherlands this led to the establishment of many nondutchspeaking churches in 1603 the jewish received permission to practice their religion in the city in 1639 the first synagogue was consecrated the jews came to call the town jerusalem of the west as they became established in the city other christian denominations used converted catholic chapels to conduct their own services the oldest englishlanguage church congregation in the world outside the united kingdom is found at the begijnhof regular services there are still offered in english under the auspices of the church of scotland being calvinists the huguenots soon integrated into the dutch reformed church though often retaining their own congregations some commonly referred by the moniker walloon are recognizable today as they offer occasional services in french in the second half of the 17th century amsterdam experienced an influx of ashkenazim jews from central and eastern europe jews often fled the pogroms in those areas the first ashkenazis who arrived in amsterdam were refugees from the khmelnytsky uprising occurring in ukraine and the thirty years war which devastated much of central europe they not only founded their own synagogues but had a strong influence on the amsterdam dialect adding a large yiddish local vocabulary despite an absence of an official jewish ghetto most jews preferred to live in the eastern part which used to be the centre of medieval amsterdam the main street of this jewish neighbourhood was jodenbreestraat the neighbourhood comprised the waterlooplein and the nieuwmarkt buildings in this neighbourhood fell into disrepair after the second world war a large section of the neighbourhood was demolished during the construction of the metro system this led to riots and as a result the original plans for largescale reconstruction were abandoned by the government the neighbourhood was rebuilt with smallerscale residence buildings on the basis of its original layout catholic churches in amsterdam have been constructed since the restoration of the episcopal hierarchy in 1853 one of the principal architects behind the citys catholic churches cuypers was also responsible for the amsterdam centraal station and the in 1924 the catholic church hosted the international eucharistic congress in amsterdam numerous catholic prelates visited the city where festivities were held in churches and stadiums catholic processions on the public streets however were still forbidden under law at the time only in the 20th century was amsterdams relation to catholicism normalised but despite its far larger population size the episcopal see of the city was placed in the provincial town of haarlem historically amsterdam has been predominantly christian in 1900 christians formed the largest religious group in the city 70 of the population dutch reformed church formed 45 of the city population while the catholic church formed 25 of the city population in recent times religious demographics in amsterdam have been changed by immigration from former colonies hinduism has been introduced from the hindu diaspora from suriname and several distinct branches of islam have been brought from various parts of the world islam is now the largest nonchristian religion in amsterdam the large community of ghanaian immigrants have established african churches often in parking garages in the bijlmer area diversity and immigration amsterdam experienced an influx of religions and cultures after the second world war with 180 different nationalities amsterdam is home to one of the widest varieties of nationalities of any city in the world the proportion of the population of immigrant origin in the city proper is about 50 and 88 of the population are dutch citizens amsterdam has been one of the municipalities in the netherlands which provided immigrants with extensive and free dutchlanguage courses which have benefited many immigrants inhabitants by origin cityscape and architecture amsterdam fans out south from the amsterdam centraal station and damrak the main street off the station the oldest area of the town is known as de wallen english the quays it lies to the east of damrak and contains the citys famous redlight district to the south of de wallen is the old jewish quarter of waterlooplein the medieval and colonial age canals of amsterdam known as grachten embraces the heart of the city where homes have interesting gables beyond the grachtengordel are the former workingclass areas of jordaan and de pijp the museumplein with the citys major museums the vondelpark a 19thcentury park named after the dutch writer joost van den vondel as well as the plantage neighbourhood with the zoo are also located outside the grachtengordel several parts of the city and the surrounding urban area are polders this can be recognised by the suffix meer which means lake as in aalsmeer bijlmermeer haarlemmermeer and watergraafsmeer canals the amsterdam canal system is the result of conscious city planning in the early 17th century when immigration was at a peak a comprehensive plan was developed that was based on four concentric halfcircles of canals with their ends emerging at the ij bay known as the grachtengordel three of the canals were mostly for residential development the herengracht where heren refers to heren regeerders van de stad amsterdam ruling lords of amsterdam whilst gracht means canal so that the name can be roughly translated as canal of the lords keizersgracht emperors canal and prinsengracht princes canal the fourth and outermost canal is the singelgracht which is often not mentioned on maps because it is a collective name for all canals in the outer ring the singelgracht should not be confused with the oldest and innermost canal the singel the canals served for defense water management and transport the defenses took the form of a moat and earthen dikes with gates at transit points but otherwise no masonry superstructures the original plans have been lost so historians such as ed taverne need to speculate on the original intentions it is thought that the considerations of the layout were purely practical and defensive rather than ornamental construction started in 1613 and proceeded from west to east across the breadth of the layout like a gigantic windshield wiper as the historian geert mak calls it and not from the centre outwards as a popular myth has it the canal construction in the southern sector was completed by 1656 subsequently the construction of residential buildings proceeded slowly the eastern part of the concentric canal plan covering the area between the amstel river and the ij bay has never been implemented in the following centuries the land was used for parks senior citizens homes theatres other public facilities and waterways without much planning over the years several canals have been filled in becoming streets or squares such as the nieuwezijds voorburgwal and the spui expansion after the development of amsterdams canals in the 17th century the city did not grow beyond its borders for two centuries during the 19th century samuel sarphati devised a plan based on the grandeur of paris and london at that time the plan envisaged the construction of new houses public buildings and streets just outside the grachtengordel the main aim of the plan however was to improve public health although the plan did not expand the city it did produce some of the largest public buildings to date like the paleis voor volksvlijt following sarphati civil engineers jacobus van niftrik and jan kalff designed an entire ring of 19thcentury neighbourhoods surrounding the citys centre with the city preserving the ownership of all land outside the 17thcentury limit thus firmly controlling development most of these neighbourhoods became home to the working class in response to overcrowding two plans were designed at the beginning of the 20th century which were very different from anything amsterdam had ever seen before plan zuid designed by the architect berlage and west these plans involved the development of new neighbourhoods consisting of housing blocks for all social classes after the second world war large new neighbourhoods were built in the western southeastern and northern parts of the city these new neighbourhoods were built to relieve the citys shortage of living space and give people affordable houses with modern conveniences the neighbourhoods consisted mainly of large housing blocks located among green spaces connected to wide roads making the neighbourhoods easily accessible by motor car the western suburbs which were built in that period are collectively called the westelijke tuinsteden the area to the southeast of the city built during the same period is known as the bijlmer architecture amsterdam has a rich architectural history the oldest building in amsterdam is the oude kerk english old church at the heart of the wallen consecrated in 1306 the oldest wooden building is het houten huys at the begijnhof it was constructed around 1425 and is one of only two existing wooden buildings it is also one of the few examples of gothic architecture in amsterdam the oldest stone building of the netherlands the moriaan is built in shertogenbosch in the 16th century wooden buildings were razed and replaced with brick ones during this period many buildings were constructed in the architectural style of the renaissance buildings of this period are very recognisable with their stepped gable façades which is the common dutch renaissance style amsterdam quickly developed its own renaissance architecture these buildings were built according to the principles of the architect hendrick de keyser one of the most striking buildings designed by hendrick de keyser is the westerkerk in the 17th century baroque architecture became very popular as it was elsewhere in europe this roughly coincided with amsterdams golden age the leading architects of this style in amsterdam were jacob van campen philips vingboons and daniel stalpaert philip vingboons designed splendid merchants houses throughout the city a famous building in baroque style in amsterdam is the royal palace on dam square throughout the 18th century amsterdam was heavily influenced by french culture this is reflected in the architecture of that period around 1815 architects broke with the baroque style and started building in different neostyles most gothic style buildings date from that era and are therefore said to be built in a neogothic style at the end of the 19th century the jugendstil or art nouveau style became popular and many new buildings were constructed in this architectural style since amsterdam expanded rapidly during this period new buildings adjacent to the city centre were also built in this style the houses in the vicinity of the museum square in amsterdam oudzuid are an example of jugendstil the last style that was popular in amsterdam before the modern era was art deco amsterdam had its own version of the style which was called the amsterdamse school whole districts were built this style such as the rivierenbuurt a notable feature of the façades of buildings designed in amsterdamse school is that they are highly decorated and ornate with oddly shaped windows and doors the old city centre is the focal point of all the architectural styles before the end of the 19th century jugendstil and georgian are mostly found outside the citys centre in the neighbourhoods built in the early 20th century although there are also some striking examples of these styles in the city centre most historic buildings in the city centre and nearby are houses such as the famous merchants houses lining the canals parks and recreational areas amsterdam has many parks open spaces and squares throughout the city the vondelpark the largest park in the city is located in the oudzuid neighbourhood and is named after the 17thcentury amsterdam author joost van den vondel yearly the park has around 10 million visitors in the park is an openair theatre a playground and several horeca facilities in the zuid borough is the beatrixpark named after queen beatrix between amsterdam and amstelveen is the amsterdamse bos amsterdam forest the largest recreational area in amsterdam annually almost 45 million people visit the park which has a size of 1000 hectares and is approximately three times the size of central park the amstelpark in the zuid borough houses the rieker windmill which dates to 1636 other parks include the sarphatipark in the de pijp neighbourhood the oosterpark in the oost borough and the westerpark in the westerpark neighbourhood the city has three beaches nemo beach citybeach het stenen hoofd silodam and blijburg all located in the centrum borough the city has many open squares plein in dutch the namesake of the city as the site of the original dam dam square is the main city square and has the royal palace and national monument museumplein hosts various museums including the van gogh museum and stedelijk museum other squares include rembrandtplein muntplein nieuwmarkt leidseplein spui and waterlooplein also near to amsterdam is the nekkeveld estate conservation project economy amsterdam is the financial and business capital of the netherlands according to the 2007 european cities monitor ecm an annual location survey of europes leading companies carried out by global real estate consultant cushman wakefield amsterdam is one of the top european cities in which to locate an international business ranking fifth in the survey with the survey determining london paris frankfurt and barcelona as the four european cities surpassing amsterdam in this regard a substantial number of large corporations and banks headquarters are located in the amsterdam area including akzonobel heineken international ing group abn amro tomtom delta lloyd group bookingcom and philips although many small offices remain along the historic canals centrally based companies have increasingly relocated outside amsterdams city centre consequently the zuidas english south axis has become the new financial and legal hub of amsterdam with the countrys five largest law firms and several subsidiaries of large consulting firms such as boston consulting group and accenture as well as the world trade centre amsterdam located in the zuidas district in addition to the zuidas there are three smaller financial districts in amsterdam around amsterdam sloterdijk railway station where one can find the offices of several newspapers such as de telegraaf as well as those of deloitte the gemeentelijk vervoerbedrijf municipal public transport company and the dutch tax offices belastingdienst around the johan cruyff arena in amsterdam zuidoost with the headquarters of ing group around the amstel railway station in the amsterdamoost district to the east of the historical city amsterdams tallest building the rembrandt tower is located here as are the headquarters of philips the dutch multinational conglomerate amsterdam has been a leading city to reduce the use of raw materials and has created a plan to become a circular city by 2050 the adjoining municipality of amstelveen is the location of kpmg internationals global headquarters other nondutch companies have chosen to settle in communities surrounding amsterdam since they allow freehold property ownership whereas amsterdam retains ground rent the amsterdam stock exchange aex now part of euronext is the worlds oldest stock exchange and due to brexit has overtaken lse as the largest bourse in europe it is near dam square in the city centre port of amsterdam the port of amsterdam is the fourthlargest port in europe the 38th largest port in the world and the secondlargest port in the netherlands by metric tons of cargo in 2014 the port of amsterdam had a cargo throughput of 974 million tons of cargo which was mostly bulk cargo amsterdam has the biggest cruise port in the netherlands with more than 150 cruise ships every year in 2019 the new lock in ijmuiden opened since then the port has been able to grow to 125 million tonnes in capacity tourism amsterdam is one of the most popular tourist destinations in europe receiving more than 534 million international visitors annually this is excluding the 16 million daytrippers visiting the city every year the number of visitors has been growing steadily over the past decade this can be attributed to an increasing number of european visitors twothirds of the hotels are located in the citys centre hotels with four or five stars contribute 42 of the total beds available and 41 of the overnight stays in amsterdam the room occupation rate was 85 in 2017 up from 78 in 2006 the majority of tourists 74 originate from europe the largest group of noneuropean visitors come from the united states accounting for 14 of the total certain years have a theme in amsterdam to attract extra tourists for example the year 2006 was designated rembrandt 400 to celebrate the 400th birthday of rembrandt van rijn some hotels offer special arrangements or activities during these years the average number of guests per year staying at the four campsites around the city range from 12000 to 65000 in 2023 the city began running a campaign to dissuade british men between the ages of 18 and 35 from coming to the city as tourists the ad shows young men being handcuffed by police and is part of a new campaign to clean up the citys reputation on may 25 2023 in a bid to crackdown on wild tourist behaviour the city banned weed smoking in public areas in and around the red light district de wallen redlight district de wallen also known as walletjes or rosse buurt is a designated area for legalised prostitution and is amsterdams largest and bestknown redlight district this neighbourhood has become a famous attraction for tourists it consists of a network of canals streets and alleys containing several hundred small oneroom apartments rented by sex workers who offer their services from behind a window or glass door typically illuminated with red lights in recent years the city government has been closing and repurposing the famous redlight district windows in an effort to clean up the area and reduce the amount of party and sex tourism retail shops in amsterdam range from large highend department stores such as founded in 1870 to small speciality shops amsterdams highend shops are found in the streets pc hooftstraat and cornelis schuytstraat which are located in the vicinity of the vondelpark one of amsterdams busiest high streets is the narrow medieval kalverstraat in the heart of the city other shopping areas include the negen straatjes and haarlemmerdijk and haarlemmerstraat negen straatjes are nine narrow streets within the grachtengordel the concentric canal system of amsterdam the negen straatjes differ from other shopping districts with the presence of a large diversity of privately owned shops the haarlemmerstraat and haarlemmerdijk were voted best shopping street in the netherlands in 2011 these streets have as the negen straatjes a large diversity of privately owned shops however as the negen straatjes are dominated by fashion stores the haarlemmerstraat and haarlemmerdijk offer a wide variety of stores just to name some specialities candy and other foodrelated stores lingerie sneakers wedding clothing interior shops books italian delis racing and mountain bikes skatewear etc the city also features a large number of openair markets such as the albert cuyp market westerstraatmarkt ten katemarkt and dappermarkt some of these markets are held daily like the albert cuypmarkt and the dappermarkt others like the westerstraatmarkt are held every week fashion several fashion brands and designers are based in amsterdam fashion designers include iris van herpen mart visser viktor rolf marlies dekkers and frans molenaar fashion models like yfke sturm doutzen kroes and kim noorda started their careers in amsterdam amsterdam has its garment centre in the world fashion center fashion photographers inez van lamsweerde and vinoodh matadin were born in amsterdam culture during the later part of the 16th century amsterdams rederijkerskamer chamber of rhetoric organised contests between different chambers in the reading of poetry and drama in 1637 schouwburg the first theatre in amsterdam was built opening on 3 january 1638 the first ballet performances in the netherlands were given in schouwburg in 1642 with the ballet of the five senses in the 18th century french theatre became popular while amsterdam was under the influence of german music in the 19th century there were few national opera productions the hollandse opera of amsterdam was built in 1888 for the specific purpose of promoting dutch opera in the 19th century popular culture was centred on the nes area in amsterdam mainly vaudeville and musichall an improved metronome was invented in 1812 by dietrich nikolaus winkel the 1885 and stedelijk museum 1895 were built and opened in 1888 the concertgebouworkest orchestra was established with the 20th century came cinema radio and television though most studios are located in hilversum and aalsmeer amsterdams influence on programming is very strong many people who work in the television industry live in amsterdam also the headquarters of the dutch sbs broadcasting group is located in amsterdam museums the most important museums of amsterdam are located on the museumplein museum square located at the southwestern side of the rijksmuseum it was created in the last quarter of the 19th century on the grounds of the former worlds fair the northeastern part of the square is bordered by the large rijksmuseum in front of the rijksmuseum on the square itself is a long rectangular pond this is transformed into an ice rink in winter the northwestern part of the square is bordered by the van gogh museum house of bols cocktail genever experience and coster diamonds the southwestern border of the museum square is the van baerlestraat which is a major thoroughfare in this part of amsterdam the concertgebouw is located across this street from the square to the southeast of the square are several large houses one of which contains the american consulate a parking garage can be found underneath the square as well as a supermarket the museumplein is covered almost entirely with a lawn except for the northeastern part of the square which is covered with gravel the current appearance of the square was realised in 1999 when the square was remodelled the square itself is the most prominent site in amsterdam for festivals and outdoor concerts especially in the summer plans were made in 2008 to remodel the square again because many inhabitants of amsterdam are not happy with its current appearance the possesses the largest and most important collection of classical dutch art it opened in 1885 its collection consists of nearly one million objects the artist most associated with amsterdam is rembrandt whose work and the work of his pupils is displayed in the rijksmuseum rembrandts masterpiece the night watch is one of the top pieces of art of the museum it also houses paintings from artists like bartholomeus van der helst johannes vermeer frans hals ferdinand bol albert cuyp jacob van ruisdael and paulus potter aside from paintings the collection consists of a large variety of decorative art this ranges from delftware to giant dollhouses from the 17th century the architect of the gothic revival building was pjh cuypers the museum underwent a 10year 375 million euro renovation starting in 2003 the full collection was reopened to the public on 13 april 2013 and the rijksmuseum has remained the most visited museum in amsterdam with 22 million visitors in 2016 and 216 million in 2017 van gogh lived in amsterdam for a short while and there is a museum dedicated to his work the museum is housed in one of the few modern buildings in this area of amsterdam the building was designed by gerrit rietveld this building is where the permanent collection is displayed a new building was added to the museum in 1999 this building known as the performance wing was designed by japanese architect kisho kurokawa its purpose is to house temporary exhibitions of the museum some of van goghs most famous paintings like the potato eaters and sunflowers are in the collection the van gogh museum is the second most visited museum in amsterdam not far behind the rijksmuseum in terms of the number of visits being approximately 21 million in 2016 for example next to the van gogh museum stands the stedelijk museum this is amsterdams most important museum of modern art the museum is as old as the square it borders and was opened in 1895 the permanent collection consists of works of art from artists like piet mondrian karel appel and kazimir malevich after renovations lasting several years the museum opened in september 2012 with a new composite extension that has been called the bathtub due to its resemblance to one amsterdam contains many other museums throughout the city they range from small museums such as the verzetsmuseum resistance museum the anne frank house and the rembrandt house museum to the very large like the tropenmuseum museum of the tropics amsterdam museum formerly known as amsterdam historical museum hermitage amsterdam a dependency of the hermitage museum in saint petersburg and the joods historisch museum jewish historical museum the modernstyled nemo is dedicated to childfriendly science exhibitions music amsterdams musical culture includes a large collection of songs that treat the city nostalgically and lovingly the 1949 song aan de amsterdamse grachten on the canals of amsterdam was performed and recorded by many artists including john kraaijkamp sr the bestknown version is probably that by wim sonneveld 1962 in the 1950s johnny jordaan rose to fame with geef mij maar amsterdam i prefer amsterdam which praises the city above all others explicitly paris jordaan sang especially about his own neighbourhood the jordaan bij ons in de jordaan colleagues and contemporaries of johnny include tante leen and manke nelis another notable amsterdam song is amsterdam by jacques brel 1964 a 2011 poll by amsterdam newspaper het parool that trio biers oude wolf was voted amsterdams lijflied notable amsterdam bands from the modern era include the osdorp posse and the ex afas live formerly known as the heineken music hall is a concert hall located near the johan cruyff arena known as the amsterdam arena until 2018 its main purpose is to serve as a podium for pop concerts for big audiences many famous international artists have performed there two other notable venues paradiso and the are located near the leidseplein both focus on broad programming ranging from indie rock to hip hop rb and other popular genres other more subcultural music venues are occii ot301 de nieuwe anita winston kingdom and zaal 100 jazz has a strong following in amsterdam with the bimhuis being the premier venue in 2012 ziggo dome was opened also near amsterdam arena a stateoftheart indoor music arena afas live is also host to many electronic dance music festivals alongside many other venues armin van buuren and tiesto some of the worlds leading trance djs hail from the netherlands and frequently perform in amsterdam each year in october the city hosts the amsterdam dance event ade which is one of the leading electronic music conferences and one of the biggest club festivals for electronic music in the world attracting over 350000 visitors each year another popular dance festival is 5daysoff which takes place in the venues paradiso and in the summertime there are several big outdoor dance parties in or nearby amsterdam such as awakenings dance valley mystery land loveland a day at the park welcome to the future and valtifest amsterdam has a worldclass symphony orchestra the royal concertgebouw orchestra their home is the which is across the van baerlestraat from the museum square it is considered by critics to be a concert hall with some of the best acoustics in the world the building contains three halls grote zaal kleine zaal and spiegelzaal some nine hundred concerts and other events per year take place in the concertgebouw for a public of over 700000 making it one of the mostvisited concert halls in the world the opera house of amsterdam is located adjacent to the city hall therefore the two buildings combined are often called the stopera a word originally coined by protesters against it very construction stop the operahouse this huge modern complex opened in 1986 lies in the former jewish neighbourhood at waterlooplein next to the river amstel the stopera is the home base of dutch national opera dutch national ballet and the holland symfonia muziekgebouw aan t ij is a concert hall which is located in the ij near the central station its concerts perform mostly modern classical music located adjacent to it is the bimhuis a concert hall for improvised and jazz music performing arts amsterdam has three main theatre buildings the stadsschouwburg at the leidseplein is the home base of toneelgroep amsterdam the current building dates from 1894 most plays are performed in the grote zaal great hall the normal program of events encompasses all sorts of theatrical forms in 2009 the new hall of the stadsschouwburg amsterdam toneelgroep amsterdam and melkweg opened and the renovation of the front end of the theatre was ready the dutch national opera and ballet formerly known as het muziektheater dating from 1986 is the principal opera house and home to dutch national opera and dutch national ballet royal theatre carré was built as a permanent circus theatre in 1887 and is currently mainly used for musicals cabaret performances and pop concerts the recently reopened delamar theater houses more commercial plays and musicals a new theatre has also moved into the amsterdam scene in 2014 joining other established venues theater amsterdam is located in the west part of amsterdam on the danzigerkade it is housed in a modern building with a panoramic view over the harbour the theatre is the firstever purposebuilt venue to showcase a single play entitled anne the play based on anne franks life on the east side of town there is a small theatre in a converted bathhouse the badhuistheater the theatre often has english programming the netherlands has a tradition of cabaret or kleinkunst which combines music storytelling commentary theatre and comedy cabaret dates back to the 1930s and artists like wim kan wim sonneveld and toon hermans were pioneers of this form of art in the netherlands in amsterdam is the kleinkunstacademie english cabaret academy and nederlied kleinkunstkoor english cabaret choir contemporary popular artists are youp van t hek freek de jonge herman finkers hans teeuwen theo maassen herman van veen najib amhali raoul heertje jörgen raymann brigitte kaandorp and comedytrain the english spoken comedy scene was established with the founding of boom chicago in 1993 they have their own theatre at leidseplein nightlife amsterdam is famous for its vibrant and diverse nightlife amsterdam has many cafés bars they range from large and modern to small and cosy the typical bruine kroeg brown café breathe a more old fashioned atmosphere with dimmed lights candles and somewhat older clientele these brown cafés mostly offer a wide range of local and international artisanal beers most cafés have terraces in summertime a common sight on the leidseplein during summer is a square full of terraces packed with people drinking beer or wine many restaurants can be found in amsterdam as well since amsterdam is a multicultural city a lot of different ethnic restaurants can be found restaurants range from being rather luxurious and expensive to being ordinary and affordable amsterdam also possesses many discothèques the two main nightlife areas for tourists are the leidseplein and the rembrandtplein the paradiso and sugar factory are cultural centres which turn into discothèques on some nights examples of discothèques near the rembrandtplein are the escape air john doe and club abe also noteworthy are panama hotel arena east trouwamsterdam and studio 80 in recent years 24hour clubs opened their doors most notably radion de school shelter and marktkantine bimhuis located near the central station with its rich programming hosting the best in the field is considered one of the best jazz clubs in the world the reguliersdwarsstraat is the main street for the lgbt community and nightlife festivals in 2008 there were 140 festivals and events in amsterdam during the same year amsterdam was designated as the world book capital for one year by unesco famous festivals and events in amsterdam include koningsdag which was named koninginnedag until the crowning of king willemalexander in 2013 kings day queens day the holland festival for the performing arts the yearly prinsengrachtconcert classical concerto on the prinsen canal in august the stille omgang a silent roman catholic evening procession held every march amsterdam gay pride the cannabis cup and the uitmarkt on koningsdagthat is held each year on 27 aprilhundreds of thousands of people travel to amsterdam to celebrate with the citys residents the entire city becomes overcrowded with people buying products from the freemarket or visiting one of the many music concerts the yearly holland festival attracts international artists and visitors from all over europe amsterdam gay pride is a yearly local lgbt parade of boats in amsterdams canals held on the first saturday in august the annual uitmarkt is a threeday cultural event at the start of the cultural season in late august it offers previews of many different artists such as musicians and poets who perform on podia sports amsterdam is home of the eredivisie football club afc ajax the stadium johan cruyff arena is the home of ajax it is located in the southeast of the city next to the new amsterdam bijlmer arena railway station before moving to their current location in 1996 ajax played their regular matches in the now demolished de meer stadion in the eastern part of the city or in the olympic stadium in 1928 amsterdam hosted the summer olympics the olympic stadium built for the occasion has been completely restored and is now used for cultural and sporting events such as the amsterdam marathon in 1920 amsterdam assisted in hosting some of the sailing events for the summer olympics held in neighbouring antwerp belgium by hosting events at buiten ij the city holds the dam to dam run a race from amsterdam to zaandam as well as the amsterdam marathon the ice hockey team amstel tijgers play in the jaap eden ice rink the team competes in the dutch ice hockey premier league speed skating championships have been held on the 400meter lane of this ice rink amsterdam holds two american football franchises the amsterdam crusaders and the amsterdam panthers the amsterdam pirates baseball team competes in the dutch major league there are three field hockey teams amsterdam pinoké and hurley who play their matches around the wagener stadium in the nearby city of amstelveen the basketball team myguide amsterdam competes in the dutch premier division and play their games in the sporthallen zuid there is one rugby club in amsterdam which also hosts sports training classes such as rtc rugby talenten centrum or rugby talent centre and the national rugby stadium since 1999 the city of amsterdam honours the best sportsmen and women at the amsterdam sports awards boxer raymond joval and field hockey midfielder carole thate were the first to receive the awards in 1999 amsterdam hosted the world gymnaestrada in 1991 and will do so again in 2023 politics the city of amsterdam is a municipality under the dutch municipalities act it is governed by a directly elected municipal council a municipal executive board and a mayor since 1981 the municipality of amsterdam has gradually been divided into semiautonomous boroughs called stadsdelen or districts over time a total of 15 boroughs were created in may 2010 under a major reform the number of amsterdam boroughs was reduced to eight amsterdamcentrum covering the city centre including the canal belt amsterdamnoord consisting of the neighbourhoods north of the ij lake amsterdamoost in the east amsterdamzuid in the south amsterdamwest in the west amsterdam nieuwwest in the far west amsterdam zuidoost in the southeast and westpoort covering the port of amsterdam area city government as with all dutch municipalities amsterdam is governed by a directly elected municipal council a municipal executive board and a government appointed mayor burgemeester the mayor is a member of the municipal executive board but also has individual responsibilities in maintaining public order on 27 june 2018 femke halsema former member of house of representatives for groenlinks from 1998 to 2011 was appointed as the first woman to be mayor of amsterdam by the kings commissioner of north holland for a sixyear term after being nominated by the amsterdam municipal council and began serving a sixyear term on 12 july 2018 she replaces eberhard van der laan labour party who was the mayor of amsterdam from 2010 until his death in october 2017 after the 2014 municipal council elections a governing majority of d66 vvd and sp was formed the first coalition without the labour party since world war ii next to the mayor the municipal executive board consists of eight wethouders alderpersons appointed by the municipal council four d66 alderpersons two vvd alderpersons and two sp alderpersons on 18 september 2017 it was announced by eberhard van der laan in an open letter to amsterdam citizens that kajsa ollongren would take up his office as acting mayor of amsterdam with immediate effect due to ill health ollongren was succeeded as acting mayor by eric van der burg on 26 october 2017 and by jozias van aartsen on 4 december 2017 unlike most other dutch municipalities amsterdam is subdivided into eight boroughs called stadsdelen or districts and the urban area of weesp a system that was implemented gradually in the 1980s to improve local governance the boroughs are responsible for many activities that had previously been run by the central city in 2010 the number of amsterdam boroughs reached fifteen fourteen of those had their own district council deelraad elected by a popular vote the fifteenth westpoort covers the harbour of amsterdam and had very few residents therefore it was governed by the central municipal council under the borough system municipal decisions are made at borough level except for those affairs pertaining to the whole city such as major infrastructure projects which are the jurisdiction of the central municipal authorities in 2010 the borough system was restructured in which many smaller boroughs merged into larger boroughs in 2014 under a reform of the dutch municipalities act the amsterdam boroughs lost much of their autonomous status as their district councils were abolished the municipal council of amsterdam voted to maintain the borough system by replacing the district councils with smaller but still directly elected district committees bestuurscommissies under a municipal ordinance the new district committees were granted responsibilities through delegation of regulatory and executive powers by the central municipal council metropolitan area amsterdam is usually understood to refer to the municipality of amsterdam colloquially some areas within the municipality such as the town of durgerdam may not be considered part of amsterdam statistics netherlands uses three other definitions of amsterdam metropolitan agglomeration amsterdam grootstedelijke agglomeratie amsterdam not to be confused with grootstedelijk gebied amsterdam a synonym of groot amsterdam greater amsterdam groot amsterdam a corop region and the urban region amsterdam stadsgewest amsterdam the amsterdam department for research and statistics uses a fourth conurbation namely the stadsregio amsterdam city region of amsterdam the city region is similar to greater amsterdam but includes the municipalities of zaanstad and wormerland it excludes graftde rijp the smallest of these areas is the municipality of amsterdam with a population of about 870000 in 2021 the larger conurbation had a population of over one million it includes the municipalities of zaanstad wormerland oostzaan diemen and amstelveen only as well as the municipality of amsterdam greater amsterdam includes 15 municipalities and had a population of 1400000 in 2021 though much larger in area the population of this area is only slightly larger because the definition excludes the relatively populous municipality of zaanstad the largest area by population the amsterdam metropolitan area dutch metropoolregio amsterdam has a population of 233 million it includes for instance zaanstad wormerland muiden abcoude haarlem almere and lelystad but excludes graftde rijp amsterdam is part of the conglomerate metropolitan area randstad with a total population of 6659300 inhabitants of these various metropolitan area configurations only the stadsregio amsterdam city region of amsterdam has a formal governmental status its responsibilities include regional spatial planning and the metropolitan public transport concessions national capital under the dutch constitution amsterdam is the capital of the netherlands since the 1983 constitutional revision the constitution mentions amsterdam and capital in chapter 2 article 32 the kings confirmation by oath and his coronation take place in the capital amsterdam de hoofdstad amsterdam previous versions of the constitution only mentioned the city of amsterdam de stad amsterdam for a royal investiture therefore the states general of the netherlands the dutch parliament meets for a ceremonial joint session in amsterdam the ceremony traditionally takes place at the nieuwe kerk on dam square immediately after the former monarch has signed the act of abdication at the nearby royal palace of amsterdam normally however the parliament sits in the hague the city which has historically been the seat of the dutch government the dutch monarchy and the dutch supreme court foreign embassies are also located in the hague symbols the coat of arms of amsterdam is composed of several historical elements first and centre are three st andrews crosses aligned in a vertical band on the citys shield although amsterdams patron saint was saint nicholas these st andrews crosses can also be found on the city shields of neighbours amstelveen and ouderamstel this part of the coat of arms is the basis of the flag of amsterdam flown by the city government but also as civil ensign for ships registered in amsterdam second is the imperial crown of austria in 1489 out of gratitude for services and loans maximilian i awarded amsterdam the right to adorn its coat of arms with the kings crown then in 1508 this was replaced with maximilians imperial crown when he was crowned holy roman emperor in the early years of the 17th century maximilians crown in amsterdams coat of arms was again replaced this time with the crown of emperor rudolph ii a crown that became the imperial crown of austria the lions date from the late 16th century when city and province became part of the republic of the seven united netherlands last came the citys official motto heldhaftig vastberaden barmhartig heroic determined merciful bestowed on the city in 1947 by queen wilhelmina in recognition of the citys bravery during the second world war transport metro tram and bus currently there are sixteen tram routes and five metro routes all are operated by municipal public transport operator gemeentelijk vervoerbedrijf gvb which also runs the city bus network four farefree gvb ferries carry pedestrians and cyclists across the ij lake to the borough of amsterdamnoord and two farecharging ferries run east and west along the harbour there are also privately operated water taxis a water bus a boat sharing operation electric rental boats and canal cruises that transport people along amsterdams waterways regional buses and some suburban buses are operated by connexxion and ebs international coach services are provided by eurolines from amsterdam amstel railway station idbus from amsterdam sloterdijk railway station and megabus from the zuiderzeeweg in the east of the city in order to facilitate easier transport to the centre of amsterdam the city has various pr locations where people can park their car at an affordable price and transfer to one of the numerous public transport lines car amsterdam was intended in 1932 to be the hub a kind of kilometre zero of the highway system of the netherlands with freeways numbered one to eight planned to originate from the city the outbreak of the second world war and shifting priorities led to the current situation where only roads a1 a2 and a4 originate from amsterdam according to the original plan the a3 to rotterdam was cancelled in 1970 in order to conserve the groene hart road a8 leading north to zaandam and the a10 ringroad were opened between 1968 and 1974 besides the a1 a2 a4 and a8 several freeways such as the a7 and a6 carry traffic mainly bound for amsterdam the a10 ringroad surrounding the city connects amsterdam with the dutch national network of freeways interchanges on the a10 allow cars to enter the city by transferring to one of the 18 city roads numbered s101 through to s118 these city roads are regional roads without grade separation and sometimes without a central reservation most are accessible by cyclists the s100 centrumring is a smaller ringroad circumnavigating the citys centre in the city centre driving a car is discouraged parking fees are expensive and many streets are closed to cars or are oneway the local government sponsors carsharing and carpooling initiatives such as autodelen and meerijdennu the local government has also started removing parking spaces in the city with the goal of removing 10000 spaces roughly 1500 per year by 2025 national rail amsterdam is served by ten stations of the nederlandse spoorwegen dutch railways five are intercity stops sloterdijk zuid amstel bijlmer arena and amsterdam centraal the stations for local services are lelylaan rai holendrecht muiderpoort and science park amsterdam centraal is also an international railway station from the station there are regular services to destinations such as austria belarus belgium czech republic denmark france germany hungary poland russia switzerland and the united kingdom among these trains are international trains of the nederlandse spoorwegen amsterdamberlin the eurostar amsterdambrusselslondon thalys amsterdambrusselsparislille and intercityexpress amsterdamcolognefrankfurt airport amsterdam airport schiphol is less than 20 minutes by train from amsterdam centraal station and is served by domestic and international intercity trains such as thalys eurostar and intercity brussel schiphol is the largest airport in the netherlands the thirdlargest in europe and the 14thlargest in the world in terms of passengers it handles over 68 million passengers per year and is the home base of four airlines klm transavia martinair and arkefly schiphol was the fifth busiest airport in the world measured by international passenger numbers this airport is 4 meters below sea level although schiphol is internationally known as amsterdam schiphol airport it actually lies in the neighbouring municipality of haarlemmermeer southwest of the city cycling amsterdam is one of the most bicyclefriendly large cities in the world and is a centre of bicycle culture with good facilities for cyclists such as bike paths and bike racks and several guarded bike storage garages fietsenstalling which can be used according to the most recent figures published by central bureau of statistics cbs in 2015 the 442693 households 850000 residents in amsterdam together owned 847000 bicycles 191 bicycle per household theft is widespreadin 2011 about 83000 bicycles were stolen in amsterdam bicycles are used by all socioeconomic groups because of their convenience amsterdams small size the of bike paths the flat terrain and the inconvenience of driving an automobile education amsterdam has two universities the university of amsterdam universiteit van amsterdam uva and the vrije universiteit amsterdam vu other institutions for higher education include an art school gerrit rietveld academie a university of applied sciences the hogeschool van amsterdam and the amsterdamse hogeschool voor de kunsten amsterdams international institute of social history is one of the worlds largest documentary and research institutions concerning social history and especially the history of the labour movement amsterdams hortus botanicus founded in the early 17th century is one of the oldest botanical gardens in the world with many old and rare specimens among them the coffee plant that served as the parent for the entire coffee culture in central and south america there are over 200 primary schools in amsterdam some of these primary schools base their teachings on particular pedagogic theories like the various montessori schools the biggest montessori high school in amsterdam is the montessori lyceum amsterdam many schools however are based on religion this used to be primarily roman catholicism and various protestant denominations but with the influx of muslim immigrants there has been a rise in the number of islamic schools jewish schools can be found in the southern suburbs of amsterdam amsterdam is noted for having five independent grammar schools dutch gymnasia the vossius gymnasium barlaeus gymnasium st ignatius gymnasium het 4e gymnasium and the cygnus gymnasium where a classical curriculum including latin and classical greek is taught though believed until recently by many to be an anachronistic and elitist concept that would soon die out the gymnasia have recently experienced a revival leading to the formation of a fourth and fifth grammar school in which the three aforementioned schools participate most secondary schools in amsterdam offer a variety of different levels of education in the same school the city also has various colleges ranging from art and design to politics and economics which are mostly also available for students coming from other countries schools for foreign nationals in amsterdam include the amsterdam international community school british school of amsterdam albert einstein international school amsterdam lycée vincent van gogh la hayeamsterdam primary campus french school international school of amsterdam and the japanese school of amsterdam notable people media amsterdam is a prominent centre for national and international media some locally based newspapers include het parool a national daily paper de telegraaf the largest dutch daily newspaper the daily newspapers trouw de volkskrant and nrc de groene amsterdammer a weekly newspaper the free newspapers metro and the holland times printed in english amsterdam is home to the secondlargest dutch commercial tv group sbs broadcasting group consisting of tvstations sbs 6 net 5 and veronica however amsterdam is not considered the media city of the netherlands the town of hilversum southeast of amsterdam has been crowned with this unofficial title hilversum is the principal centre for radio and television broadcasting in the netherlands radio netherlands heard worldwide via shortwave radio since the 1920s is also based there hilversum is home to an extensive complex of audio and television studios belonging to the national broadcast production company nos as well as to the studios and offices of all the dutch public broadcasting organisations and many commercial tv production companies in 2012 the music video of far east movement live my life was filmed in various parts of amsterdam also several movies were filmed in amsterdam such as james bonds diamonds are forever oceans twelve girl with a pearl earring and the hitmans bodyguard amsterdam is also featured in john greens book the fault in our stars which has been made into a film as well that partly takes place in amsterdam housing from the late 1960s onwards many buildings in amsterdam have been squatted both for housing and for using as social centres a number of these squats have legalised and become well known such as occii ot301 paradiso and vrankrijk sister cities manchester greater manchester united kingdom 2007 zapopan jalisco mexico 2011 see also list of populated places in the netherlands list of cities towns and villages in north holland list of cities in the netherlands by province list of national capitals list of national capitals by latitude list of capital cities by elevation list of national capitals by population van dam references citations literature charles caspers peter jan margry 2017 het mirakel van amsterdam biografie van een betwiste devotie amsterdam prometheus further reading de waard m ed imagining global amsterdam history culture and geography in a world city amsterdam amsterdam university press 2013 feddes fred a millenium of amsterdam spatial history of a marvelous city bussum thoth 2012 jonker joost merchants bankers middlemen the amsterdam money market during the first half of the nineteenth century amsterdam amsterdam university press 1996 shorto russell amsterdam a history of the worlds most liberal city new york vintage books 2014 external links amsterdamnl official government site i amsterdam portal for international visitors tourist information about amsterdam website of the netherlands capitals in europe cities in the netherlands municipalities of north holland olympic cycling venues populated places established in the 13th century populated places in north holland port cities and towns in the netherlands port cities and towns of the north sea venues of the 1928 summer olympics populated lakeshore places in the netherlands	12,898
846	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum%20of%20Work	Museum of Work	the museum of work arbetets museum is a museum located in norrköping sweden the museum is located in the strykjärn clothes iron a former weaving mill in the old industrial area on the motala ström river in the city centre of norrköping the former textile factory holmens bruk sv operated in the building from 1917 to 1962 the museum documents work and everyday life by collecting personal stories about peoples professional lives from both the past and the present the museums archive contain material from memory collections and documentation projects since 2009 the museum also houses the ewk center for political illustration art which is based on work of the satirist ewert karlsson 19182004 for decades he was frequently published in the swedish tabloid aftonbladet overview the museum is a national central museum with the task of preserving and telling about work and everyday life it has among other things exhibitions on the terms and conditions of the work and the history of the industrial society the museum is also known to highlight gender perspective in their exhibitions the work museum documents work and everyday life by collecting personal stories including peoples professional life from both the past and present in the museums archive there is a rich material of memory collections and documentation projects over 2600 interviews stories and photodocumentations have been collected since the museum opened the museum is also a support for the countrys approximately 1500 working life museums that are old workplaces preserved to convey their history exhibitions the museum of work shows exhibitions going on over several years but also shorter exhibitions including several photo exhibitions on themes that can be linked to work and everyday life the history of alva the history of alva karlsson is the only exhibition in the museum that is permanent the exhibition connects to the museums building and its history as part of the textile industry in norrköping alva worked as a rollers between the years 1927 1962 industriland one of the museum longterm exhibitions is industriland when sweden became modern the exhibition was in 20072013 and consisted of an ongoing bond with various objects that were somehow significant both for working life and everyday during the period 19301980 the exhibition also consisted of presentations of the working life museums in sweden and a number of rooms with themes such as leisure world living and consumption framtidsland future country in 2014 the exhibition was inaugurated that takes by where industriland ends future country it is an exhibition that investigates what a sustainable society is will be part of the museums exhibitions until 2019 the exhibition consists of materials that are designed based on conversations between young people and researchers around sweden the exhibition addresses themes such as work environment and everyday life a tour version of the exhibition is given in the locations falun kristianstad and örebro ewk the center for political illustration art since 2009 the museum also houses ewk center for political illustration art the museum preserves develops and conveys the political illustrator ewert karlssons production the museum also holds theme exhibitions with national and international political illustrators with the aim of highlighting and strengthening the political art see also list of museums in sweden culture of sweden references external links arbetetsmuseum official site museums in östergötland county buildings and structures in norrköping industry museums in sweden cultural heritage of sweden	564
848	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audi	Audi	audi ag is a german automotive manufacturer of luxury vehicles headquartered in ingolstadt bavaria germany a subsidiary of the volkswagen group audi produces vehicles in nine production facilities worldwide the origins of the company are complex dating back to the early 20th century and the initial enterprises horch and the audiwerke founded by engineer august horch 18681951 two other manufacturers dkw and wanderer also contributed to the foundation of auto union in 1932 the modern audi era began in the 1960s when auto union was acquired by volkswagen from daimlerbenz after relaunching the audi brand with the 1965 introduction of the audi f103 series volkswagen merged auto union with nsu motorenwerke in 1969 thus creating the presentday form of the company the company name is based on the latin translation of the surname of the founder august horch meaning listen becomes in latin the four rings of the audi logo each represent one of four car companies that banded together to create audis predecessor company auto union audis slogan is which is translated as progress through technology audi along with german brands bmw and mercedesbenz is among the bestselling luxury automobile brands in the world history birth of the company and its name automobile company wanderer was originally established in 1885 later becoming a branch of audi ag another company nsu which also later merged into audi was founded during this time and later supplied the chassis for gottlieb daimlers fourwheeler on 14 november 1899 august horch 18681951 established the company a horch cie in the ehrenfeld district of cologne in 1902 he moved with his company to reichenbach im vogtland on 10 may 1904 he founded the august horch cie motorwagenwerke ag a jointstock company in zwickau state of saxony after troubles with horch chief financial officer august horch left motorwagenwerke and founded in zwickau on 16 july 1909 his second company the august horch automobilwerke gmbh his former partners sued him for trademark infringement the german reichsgericht supreme court in leipzig eventually determined that the horch brand belonged to his former company since august horch was prohibited from using horch as a trade name in his new car business he called a meeting with close business friends paul and franz fikentscher from zwickau at the apartment of franz fikentscher they discussed how to come up with a new name for the company during this meeting franzs son was quietly studying latin in a corner of the room several times he looked like he was on the verge of saying something but would just swallow his words and continue working until he finally blurted out father audiatur et altera pars wouldnt it be a good idea to call it audi instead of horch horch in german means hark or hear which is audi in the singular imperative form of audire to listen in latin the idea was enthusiastically accepted by everyone attending the meeting on 25 april 1910 the audi automobilwerke gmbh zwickau from 1915 on audiwerke ag zwickau was entered in the companys register of zwickau registration court the first audi automobile the audi type a 10 sportphaeton was produced in the same year followed by the successor type b 1028ps in the same year audi started with a 2612 cc inlinefour engine model type a followed by a 3564 cc model as well as 4680 cc and 5720 cc models these cars were successful even in sporting events the first sixcylinder model type m 4655 cc appeared in 1924 august horch left the audiwerke in 1920 for a high position at the ministry of transport but he was still involved with audi as a member of the board of trustees in september 1921 audi became the first german car manufacturer to present a production car the audi type k with lefthanded drive lefthand drive spread and established dominance during the 1920s because it provided a better view of oncoming traffic making overtaking safer when driving on the right the merger of the four companies under the logo of four rings in august 1928 jørgen rasmussen the owner of dampfkraftwagen dkw acquired the majority of shares in audiwerke ag in the same year rasmussen bought the remains of the us automobile manufacturer rickenbacker including the manufacturing equipment for 8cylinder engines these engines were used in audi zwickau and audi dresden models that were launched in 1929 at the same time 6cylinder and 4cylinder the four with a peugeot engine models were manufactured audi cars of that era were luxurious cars equipped with special bodywork in 1932 audi merged with horch dkw and wanderer to form auto union ag chemnitz it was during this period that the company offered the audi front that became the first european car to combine a sixcylinder engine with frontwheel drive it used a power train shared with the wanderer but turned 180 degrees so that the drive shaft faced the front before world war ii auto union used the four interlinked rings that make up the audi badge today representing these four brands however this badge was used only on auto union racing cars in that period while the member companies used their own names and emblems the technological development became more and more concentrated and some audi models were propelled by horch or wandererbuilt engines reflecting the economic pressures of the time auto union concentrated increasingly on smaller cars through the 1930s so that by 1938 the companys dkw brand accounted for 179 of the german car market while audi held only 01 after the final few audis were delivered in 1939 the audi name disappeared completely from the new car market for more than two decades postworld war ii like most german manufacturing at the onset of world war ii the auto union plants were retooled for military production and were a target for allied bombing during the war which left them damaged overrun by the soviet army in 1945 on the orders of the soviet union military administration the factories were dismantled as part of war reparations following this the companys entire assets were expropriated without compensation on 17 august 1948 auto union ag of chemnitz was deleted from the commercial register these actions had the effect of liquidating germanys auto union ag the remains of the audi plant of zwickau became the veb for people owned enterprise or awz in english automobile works zwickau with no prospect of continuing production in sovietcontrolled east germany auto union executives began the process of relocating what was left of the company to west germany a site was chosen in ingolstadt bavaria to start a spare parts operation in late 1945 which would eventually serve as the headquarters of the reformed auto union in 1949 the former audi factory in zwickau restarted assembly of the prewar models in 1949 these dkw models were renamed to ifa f8 and ifa f9 and were similar to the west german versions west and east german models were equipped with the traditional and renowned dkw twostroke engines the zwickau plant manufactured the infamous trabant until 1991 when it came under volkswagen controleffectively bringing it under the same umbrella as audi since 1945 new auto union unit a new west german headquartered auto union was launched in ingolstadt with loans from the bavarian state government and marshall plan aid the reformed company was launched 3 september 1949 and continued dkws tradition of producing frontwheel drive vehicles with twostroke engines this included production of a small but sturdy 125 cc motorcycle and a dkw delivery van the dkw f89 l at ingolstadt the ingolstadt site was large consisting of an extensive complex of formerly military buildings which was suitable for administration as well as vehicle warehousing and distribution but at this stage there was at ingolstadt no dedicated plant suitable for mass production of automobiles for manufacturing the companys first postwar massmarket passenger car plant capacity in düsseldorf was rented from rheinmetallborsig it was only ten years later after the company had attracted an investor when funds became available for construction of major car plant at the ingolstadt head office site in 1958 in response to pressure from friedrich flick then the companys largest single shareholder daimlerbenz took an 87 holding in the auto union company and this was increased to a 100 holding in 1959 however small twostroke cars were not the focus of daimlerbenzs interests and while the early 1960s saw major investment in new mercedes models and in a state of the art factory for auto unions the companys aging model range at this time did not benefit from the economic boom of the early 1960s to the same extent as competitor manufacturers such as volkswagen and opel the decision to dispose of the auto union business was based on its lack of profitability ironically by the time they sold the business it also included a large new factory and near productionready modern fourstroke engine which would enable the auto union business under a new owner to embark on a period of profitable growth now producing not auto unions or dkws but using the audi name resurrected in 1965 after a 25year gap in 1964 volkswagen acquired a 50 holding in the business which included the new factory in ingolstadt the dkw and audi brands along with the rights to the new engine design which had been funded by daimlerbenz who in return retained the dormant horch trademark and the düsseldorf factory which became a mercedesbenz van assembly plant eighteen months later volkswagen bought complete control of ingolstadt and by 1966 were using the spare capacity of the ingolstadt plant to assemble an additional 60000 volkswagen beetles per year twostroke engines became less popular during the 1960s as customers were more attracted to the smoother fourstroke engines in september 1965 the dkw f102 was fitted with a fourstroke engine and a facelift for the cars front and rear volkswagen dumped the dkw brand because of its associations with twostroke technology and having classified the model internally as the f103 sold it simply as the audi later developments of the model were named after their horsepower ratings and sold as the audi 60 75 80 and super 90 selling until 1972 initially volkswagen was hostile to the idea of auto union as a standalone entity producing its own models having acquired the company merely to boost its own production capacity through the ingolstadt assembly plant to the point where volkswagen executives ordered that the auto union name and flags bearing the four rings were removed from the factory buildings then vw chief heinz nordhoff explicitly forbade auto union from any further product development fearing that volkswagen had no longterm ambition for the audi brand auto union engineers under the leadership of ludwig kraus developed the first audi 100 in secret without nordhoffs knowledge when presented with a finished prototype nordhoff was so impressed he authorised the car for production which when launched in 1968 went on to be a huge success with this the resurrection of the audi brand was now complete this being followed by the first generation audi 80 in 1972 which would in turn provide a template for vws new frontwheeldrive watercooled range which debuted from the mid1970s onward in 1969 auto union merged with nsu based in neckarsulm near stuttgart in the 1950s nsu had been the worlds largest manufacturer of motorcycles but had moved on to produce small cars like the nsu prinz the tt and tts versions of which are still popular as vintage race cars nsu then focused on new rotary engines based on the ideas of felix wankel in 1967 the new nsu ro 80 was a car well ahead of its time in technical details such as aerodynamics light weight and safety however teething problems with the rotary engines put an end to the independence of nsu the neckarsulm plant is now used to produce the larger audi models a6 and a8 the neckarsulm factory is also home of the quattro gmbh from november 2016 audi sport gmbh a subsidiary responsible for development and production of audi highperformance models the r8 and the rs model range modern era the new merged company was incorporated on 1 january 1969 and was known as audi nsu auto union ag with its headquarters at nsus neckarsulm plant and saw the emergence of audi as a separate brand for the first time since the prewar era volkswagen introduced the audi brand to the united states for the 1970 model year that same year the midsized car that nsu had been working on the k70 originally intended to slot between the rearengined prinz models and the futuristic nsu ro 80 was instead launched as a volkswagen after the launch of the audi 100 of 1968 the audi 80fox which formed the basis for the 1973 volkswagen passat followed in 1972 and the audi 50 later rebadged as the volkswagen polo in 1974 the audi 50 was a seminal design because it was the first incarnation of the golfpolo concept one that led to a hugely successful world car ultimately the audi 80 and 100 progenitors of the a4 and a6 respectively became the companys biggest sellers whilst little investment was made in the fading nsu range the prinz models were dropped in 1973 whilst the fatally flawed nsu ro80 went out of production in 1977 spelling the effective end of the nsu brand production of the audi 100 had been steadily moved from ingolstadt to neckarsulm as the 1970s had progressed and by the appearance of the second generation c2 version in 1976 all production was now at the former nsu plant neckarsulm from that point onward would produce audis higherend models the audi image at this time was a conservative one and so a proposal from chassis engineer jörg bensinger was accepted to develop the fourwheel drive technology in volkswagens iltis military vehicle for an audi performance car and rally racing car the performance car introduced in 1980 was named the audi quattro a turbocharged coupé which was also the first german largescale production vehicle to feature permanent allwheel drive through a centre differential commonly referred to as the urquattro the ur prefix is a german augmentative used in this case to mean original and is also applied to the first generation of audis s4 and s6 sport saloons as in urs4 and urs6 few of these vehicles were produced all handbuilt by a single team but the model was a great success in rallying prominent wins proved the viability of allwheeldrive racecars and the audi name became associated with advances in automotive technology in 1985 with the auto union and nsu brands effectively dead the companys official name was now shortened to simply audi ag at the same time the companys headquarters moved back to ingolstadt and two new wholly owned subsidiaries auto union gmbh and nsu gmbh were formed to own and manage the historical trademarks and intellectual property of the original constituent companies the exception being horch which had been retained by daimlerbenz after the vw takeover and to operate audis heritage operations in 1986 as the passatbased audi 80 was beginning to develop a kind of grandfathers car image the type 89 was introduced this completely new development sold extremely well however its modern and dynamic exterior belied the low performance of its base engine and its base package was quite spartan even the passengerside mirror was an option in 1987 audi put forward a new and very elegant audi 90 which had a much superior set of standard features in the early 1990s sales began to slump for the audi 80 series and some basic construction problems started to surface in the early part of the 21st century audi set forth on a german racetrack to claim and maintain several world records such as top speed endurance this effort was inline with the companys heritage from the 1930s racing era silver arrows through the early 1990s audi began to shift its target market upscale to compete against german automakers mercedesbenz and bmw this began with the release of the audi v8 in 1990 it was essentially a new engine fitted to the audi 100200 but with noticeable bodywork differences most obvious was the new grille that was now incorporated in the bonnet by 1991 audi had the fourcylinder audi 80 the 5cylinder audi 90 and audi 100 the turbocharged audi 200 and the audi v8 there was also a coupé version of the 8090 with both four and fivecylinder engines although the fivecylinder engine was a successful and robust powerplant it was still a little too different for the target market with the introduction of an allnew audi 100 in 1992 audi introduced a 28l v6 engine this engine was also fitted to a facelifted audi 80 all 80 and 90 models were now badged 80 except for the usa giving this model a choice of four five and sixcylinder engines in saloon coupé and convertible body styles the fivecylinder was soon dropped as a major engine choice however a turbocharged version remained the engine initially fitted to the 200 quattro 20v of 1991 was a derivative of the engine fitted to the sport quattro it was fitted to the audi coupé named the s2 and also to the audi 100 body and named the s4 these two models were the beginning of the massproduced s series of performance cars audi 5000 unintended acceleration allegations sales in the united states fell after a series of recalls from 1982 to 1987 of audi 5000 models associated with reported incidents of sudden unintended acceleration linked to six deaths and 700 accidents at the time nhtsa was investigating 50 car models from 20 manufacturers for sudden surges of power a 60 minutes report aired 23 november 1986 featuring interviews with six people who had sued audi after reporting unintended acceleration showing an audi 5000 ostensibly suffering a problem when the brake pedal was pushed subsequent investigation revealed that 60 minutes had engineered the failure fitting a canister of compressed air on the passengerside floor linked via a hose to a hole drilled into the transmission audi contended prior to findings by outside investigators that the problems were caused by driver error specifically pedal misapplication subsequently the national highway traffic safety administration nhtsa concluded that the majority of unintended acceleration cases including all the ones that prompted the 60 minutes report were caused by driver error such as confusion of pedals cbs did not acknowledge the test results of involved government agencies but did acknowledge the similar results of another study in a review study published in 2012 nhtsa summarized its past findings about the audi unintended acceleration problems once an unintended acceleration had begun in the audi 5000 due to a failure in the idlestabilizer system producing an initial acceleration of 03g pedal misapplication resulting from panic confusion or unfamiliarity with the audi 5000 contributed to the severity of the incident this summary is consistent with the conclusions of nhtsas most technical analysis at the time audi idlestabilization systems were prone to defects which resulted in excessive idle speeds and brief unanticipated accelerations of up to 03g which is similar in magnitude to an emergency stop in a subway car these accelerations could not be the sole cause of longduration sudden acceleration incidents sai but might have triggered some sais by startling the driver the defective idlestabilization system performed a type of electronic throttle control significantly multiple intermittent malfunctions of the electronic control unit were observed and recorded and were also observed and reported by transport canada with a series of recall campaigns audi made several modifications the first adjusted the distance between the brake and accelerator pedal on automatictransmission models later repairs of 250000 cars dating back to 1978 added a device requiring the driver to press the brake pedal before shifting out of park a legacy of the audi 5000 and other reported cases of sudden unintended acceleration are intricate gear stick patterns and brake interlock mechanisms to prevent inadvertent shifting into forward or reverse it is unclear how the defects in the idlestabilization system were addressed audis us sales which had reached 74061 in 1985 dropped to 12283 in 1991 and remained level for three years with resale values falling dramatically audi subsequently offered increased warranty protection and renamed the affected models with the 5000 becoming the 100 and 200 in 1989 and reached the same sales levels again only by model year 2000 a 2010 businessweek article outlining possible parallels between audis experience and 20092010 toyota vehicle recalls noted a classaction lawsuit filed in 1987 by about 7500 audi 5000model owners remains unsettled and remains contested in chicagos cook county after appeals at the illinois state and us federal levels model introductions in the midtolate 1990s audi introduced new technologies including the use of aluminium construction produced from 1999 to 2005 the audi a2 was a futuristic super mini born from the al2 concept with many features that helped regain consumer confidence like the aluminium space frame which was a first in production car design in the a2 audi further expanded their tdi technology through the use of frugal threecylinder engines the a2 was extremely aerodynamic and was designed around a wind tunnel the audi a2 was criticised for its high price and was never really a sales success but it planted audi as a cuttingedge manufacturer the model a mercedesbenz aclass competitor sold relatively well in europe however the a2 was discontinued in 2005 and audi decided not to develop an immediate replacement the next major model change came in 1995 when the audi a4 replaced the audi 80 the new nomenclature scheme was applied to the audi 100 to become the audi a6 with a minor facelift this also meant the s4 became the s6 and a new s4 was introduced in the a4 body the s2 was discontinued the audi cabriolet continued on based on the audi 80 platform until 1999 gaining the engine upgrades along the way a new a3 hatchback model sharing the volkswagen golf mk4s platform was introduced to the range in 1996 and the radical audi tt coupé and roadster were debuted in 1998 based on the same underpinnings the engines available throughout the range were now a 14 l 16 l and 18 l fourcylinder 18 l fourcylinder turbo 26 l and 28 l v6 22 l turbocharged fivecylinder and the 42 l v8 engine the v6s were replaced by new 24 l and 28 l 30v v6s in 1998 with marked improvement in power torque and smoothness further engines were added along the way including a 37 l v8 and 60 l w12 engine for the a8 audi ag today audis sales grew strongly in the 2000s with deliveries to customers increasing from 653000 in 2000 to 1003000 in 2008 the largest sales increases came from eastern europe 193 africa 172 and the middle east 585 china in particular has become a key market representing 108000 out of 705000 cars delivered in the first three quarters of 2009 one factor for its popularity in china is that audis have become the car of choice for purchase by the chinese government for officials and purchases by the government are responsible for 20 of its sales in china as of late 2009 audis operating profit of 117 billion 185 billion made it the biggest contributor to parent volkswagen groups ninemonth operating profit of 15 billion while the other marques in group such as bentley and seat had suffered considerable losses may 2011 saw record sales for audi of america with the new audi a7 and audi a3 tdi clean diesel in may 2012 audi reported a 10 increase in its salesfrom 408 units to 480 in the last year alone audi manufactures vehicles in seven plants around the world some of which are shared with other vw group marques although many subassemblies such as engines and transmissions are manufactured within other volkswagen group plants audis two principal assembly plants in germany are ingolstadt the former auto union site originally opened in 1945 and substantially rebuilt by daimlerbenz in 1962 and acquired by volkswagen in 1964 q2 a3 a4 a5 neckarsulm the former nsu plant acquired by volkswagen in 1969 a4 a5 cabrio a6 a7 a8 r8 and all rs variants a satellite plant at nearby böllinger höfe produces the etron gt outside of germany audi produces vehicles at aurangabad india since 2006 bratislava slovakia shared with volkswagen seat škoda and porsche q7 and q8 brussels belgium acquired from volkswagen in 2007 etron changchun china since 1995 győr hungary tt a3 q3 jakarta indonesia since 2011 martorell spain shared with seat and volkswagen a1 q3 san josé chiapa mexico 2nd gen q5 in september 2012 audi announced the construction of its first north american manufacturing plant in puebla mexico this plant became operative in 2016 and produces the second generation q5 from 2002 up to 2003 audi headed the audi brand group a subdivision of the volkswagen groups automotive division consisting of audi lamborghini and seat which was focused on sporty values with the marques product vehicles and performance being under the higher responsibility of the audi brand in january 2014 audi along with the wireless power consortium operated a booth which demonstrated a phone compartment using the qi open interface standard at the consumer electronics show ces in may most of the audi dealers in the uk falsely claimed that the audi a7 a8 and r8 were euro ncap safety tested all achieving five out of five stars in fact none were tested in 2015 audi admitted that at least 21 million audi cars had been involved in the volkswagen emissions testing scandal in which software installed in the cars manipulated emissions data to fool regulators and allow the cars to pollute at higher than governmentmandated levels the a1 a3 a4 a5 a6 tt q3 and q5 models were implicated in the scandal audi promised to quickly find a technical solution and upgrade the cars so they can function within emissions regulations ulrich hackenberg the head of research and development at audi was suspended in relation to the scandal despite widespread media coverage about the scandal through the month of september audi reported that us sales for the month had increased by 162 audis parent company volkswagen announced on 18 june 2018 that audi chief executive rupert stadler had been arrested in november 2015 the us environmental protection agency implicated the 3liter diesel engine versions of the 2016 audi a6 quattro a7 quattro a8 a8l and the q5 as further models that had emissions regulation defeatdevice software installed thus these models emitted nitrogen oxide at up to nine times the legal limit when the car detected that it was not hooked up to emissions testing equipment in november 2016 audi expressed an intention to establish an assembly factory in pakistan with the companys local partner acquiring land for a plant in korangi creek industrial park in karachi approval of the plan would lead to an investment of 30 million in the new plant audi planned to cut 9500 jobs in germany starting from 2020 till 2025 to fund electric vehicles and digital working in february 2020 volkswagen ag announced that it plans to take over all audi shares it does not own totalling 036 via a squeezeout according to german stock corporation law thus making audi a fully owned subsidiary of the volkswagen group this change took effect from 16 november 2020 when audi became a wholly owned subsidiary of the volkswagen group in january 2021 audi announced that it is planning to sell 1 million vehicles in china in 2023 comparing to 726000 vehicles in 2020 technology audi ai audi ai is a driver assist feature offered by audi the companys stated intent is to offer fully autonomous driving at a future time acknowledging that legal regulatory and technical hurdles must be overcome to achieve this goal on 4 june 2017 audi stated that its new a8 will be fully selfdriving for speeds up to 60 kmh using its audi ai contrary to other cars the driver will not have to do safety checks such as touching the steering wheel every 15 seconds to use this feature the audi a8 will therefore be the first production car to reach level 3 autonomous driving meaning that the driver can safely turn their attention away from driving tasks eg the driver can text or watch a movie audi will also be the first manufacturer to use a 3d lidar system in addition to cameras and ultrasonic sensors for their ai bodyshells audi produces 100 galvanised cars to prevent corrosion and was the first massmarket vehicle to do so following introduction of the process by porsche c 1975 along with other precautionary measures the fullbody zinc coating has proved to be very effective in preventing rust the bodys resulting durability even surpassed audis own expectations causing the manufacturer to extend its original 10year warranty against corrosion perforation to currently 12 years except for aluminium bodies which do not rust space frame audi introduced a new series of vehicles in the mid1990s and continues to pursue new technology and high performance an allaluminium car was brought forward by audi and in 1994 the audi a8 was launched which introduced aluminium space frame technology called audi space frame or asf which saves weight and improves torsion rigidity compared to a conventional steel frame prior to that effort audi used examples of the type 44 chassis fabricated out of aluminium as testbeds for the technique the disadvantage of the aluminium frame is that it is very expensive to repair and requires a specialized aluminium bodyshop the weight reduction is somewhat offset by the quattro fourwheel drive system which is standard in most markets nonetheless the a8 is usually the lightest allwheel drive car in the fullsize luxury segment also having bestinclass fuel economy the audi a2 audi tt and audi r8 also use audi space frame designs drivetrains layout for most of its lineup excluding the a3 a1 and tt models audi has not adopted the transverse engine layout which is typically found in economy cars such as peugeot and citroën since that would limit the type and power of engines that can be installed to be able to mount powerful engines such as a v8 engine in the audi s4 and audi rs4 as well as the w12 engine in the audi a8l w12 audi has usually engineered its more expensive cars with a longitudinally frontmounted engine in an overhung position over the front wheels in front of the axle line this layout dates back to the dkw and auto union saloons from the 1950s but while this allows for the easy adoption of allwheel drive it goes against the ideal 5050 weight distribution in all its post volkswagenera models audi has firmly refused to adopt the traditional rearwheel drive layout favored by its two archrivals mercedesbenz and bmw favoring either frontwheel drive or allwheel drive the majority of audis lineup in the united states features allwheel drive standard on most of its expensive vehicles only the entrylevel trims of the a4 and a6 are available with frontwheel drive in contrast to mercedesbenz and bmw whose lineup treats allwheel drive as an option bmw did not offer allwheel drive on its v8powered cars as opposed to crossover suvs until the 2010 bmw 7 series and 2011 bmw 5 series while the audi a8 has had allwheel drive availablestandard since the 1990s regarding highperformance variants audi s and rs models have always had allwheel drive unlike their direct rivals from bmw m and mercedesamg whose cars are rearwheel drive only although their performance crossover suvs are allwheel drive audi has recently applied the quattro badge to models such as the a3 and tt which do not use the torsenbased system as in prior years with a mechanical center differential but with the haldex traction electromechanical clutch awd system engines prior to the introduction of the audi 80 and audi 50 in 1972 and 1974 respectively audi had led the development of the ea111 and ea827 inlinefour engine families these new power units underpinned the watercooled revival of parent company volkswagen in the polo golf passat and scirocco whilst the many derivatives and descendants of these two basic engine designs have appeared in every generation of vw group vehicles right up to the present day in the 1980s audi along with volvo was the champion of the inlinefive cylinder 2122 l engine as a longerlasting alternative to more traditional sixcylinder engines this engine was used not only in production cars but also in their race cars the 21 l inline fivecylinder engine was used as a base for the rally cars in the 1980s providing well over after modification before 1990 there were engines produced with a displacement between 20 l and 23 l this range of engine capacity allowed for both fuel economy and power for the ultraluxury version of its audi a8 fullsize luxury flagship sedan the audi a8l w12 audi uses the volkswagen group w12 engine instead of the conventional v12 engine favored by rivals mercedesbenz and bmw the w12 engine configuration also known as a wr12 is created by forming two imaginary narrowangle 15 vr6 engines at an angle of 72 and the narrow angle of each set of cylinders allows just two overhead camshafts to drive each pair of banks so just four are needed in total the advantage of the w12 engine is its compact packaging allowing audi to build a 12cylinder sedan with allwheel drive whereas a conventional v12 engine could have only a rearwheel drive configuration as it would have no space in the engine bay for a differential and other components required to power the front wheels in fact the 60 l w12 in the audi a8l w12 is smaller in overall dimensions than the 42 l v8 that powers the audi a8 42 variants the 2011 audi a8 debuted a revised 63litre version of the w12 wr12 engine with fuel stratified injection new models of the a3 a4 a6 and a8 have been introduced with the ageing 18litre engine now having been replaced by new fuel stratified injection fsi engines nearly every petroleum burning model in the range now incorporates this fuelsaving technology directshift gearbox in 2003 volkswagen introduced the directshift gearbox dsg a type of dualclutch transmission it is a type of automatic transmission drivable like a conventional torque converter automatic transmission based on the gearbox found in the group b s1 the system includes dual electrohydraulically controlled clutches instead of a torque converter this is implemented in some vw golfs audi a3 audi a4 and tt models where dsg is called stronic led daytime running lights beginning in 2005 audi has implemented white led technology as daytime running lights drl in their products the distinctive shape of the drls has become a trademark of sorts leds were first introduced on the audi a8 w12 the worlds first production car to have led drls and have since spread throughout the entire model range the leds are present on some audi billboards since 2010 audi has also offered the led technology in low and highbeam headlights multi media interface starting with the 2003 audi a8 audi has used a centralised control interface for its onboard infotainment systems called multi media interface mmi it is essentially a rotating control knob and segment buttons designed to control all incar entertainment devices radio cd changer ipod tv tuner satellite navigation heating and ventilation and other car controls with a screen the availability of mmi has gradually filtered down the audi lineup and following its introduction on the third generation a3 in 2011 mmi is now available across the entire range it has been generally well received as it requires less menusurfing with its segment buttons around a central knob along with main function direct access buttons with shortcuts to the radio or phone functions the colour screen is mounted on the upright dashboard and on the a4 new a5 a6 a8 and q7 the controls are mounted horizontally synthetic fuels audi has assisted with technology to produce synthetic diesel from water and carbon dioxide audi calls the synthetic diesel ediesel it is also working on synthetic gasoline which it calls egasoline logistics audi uses scanning gloves for parts registration during assembly and automatic robots to transfer cars from factory to rail cars models current model range the following tables list audi production vehicles that are sold as of 2018 s and rs models electric vehicles audi is planning an alliance with the japanese electronics giant sanyo to develop a pilot hybrid electric project for the volkswagen group the alliance could result in sanyo batteries and other electronic components being used in future models of the volkswagen group concept electric vehicles unveiled to date include the audi a1 sportback concept audi a4 tdi concept e and the fully electric audi etron concept supercar selfdriving cars in december 2018 audi announced to invest 14 billion euro 159 billion in emobility selfdriving cars production figures data from 1998 to 2010 figures for different body typesversions of models have been merged to create overall figures for each model motorsport audi has competed in various forms of motorsports audis tradition in motorsport began with their former company auto union in the 1930s in the 1990s audi found success in the touring and super touring categories of motor racing after success in circuit racing in north america rallying in 1980 audi released the quattro a fourwheel drive 4wd turbocharged car that went on to win rallies and races worldwide it is considered one of the most significant rally cars of all time because it was one of the first to take advantage of the thenrecently changed rules which allowed the use of fourwheel drive in competition racing many critics doubted the viability of fourwheel drive racers thinking them to be too heavy and complex yet the quattro was to become a successful car it led its first rally before going off the road however the rally world had been served notice 4wd was the future the quattro went on to achieve much success in the world rally championship it won the 1983 hannu mikkola and the 1984 stig blomqvist drivers titles and brought audi the manufacturers title in 1982 and 1984 in 1984 audi launched the shortwheelbase sport quattro which dominated rally races in monte carlo and sweden with audi taking all podium places but succumbed to problems further into wrc contention in 1985 after another season mired in mediocre finishes walter röhrl finished the season in his sport quattro s1 and helped place audi second in the manufacturers points audi also received rally honours in the hong kong to beijing rally in that same year michèle mouton the only female driver to win a round of the world rally championship and a driver for audi took the sport quattro s1 now simply called the s1 and raced in the pikes peak international hill climb the climb race pits a driver and car to drive to the summit of the pikes peak mountain in colorado and in 1985 michèle mouton set a new record of 112539 and being the first woman to set a pikes peak record in 1986 audi formally left international rally racing following an accident in portugal involving driver joaquim santos in his ford rs200 santos swerved to avoid hitting spectators in the road and left the track into the crowd of spectators on the side killing three and injuring 30 bobby unser used an audi in that same year to claim a new record for the pikes peak hill climb at 110922 in 1987 walter röhrl claimed the title for audi setting a new pikes peak international hill climb record of 104785 in his audi s1 which he had retired from the wrc two years earlier the audi s1 employed audis timetested inlinefivecylinder turbocharged engine with the final version generating the engine was mated to a sixspeed gearbox and ran on audis famous fourwheel drive system all of audis top drivers drove this car hannu mikkola stig blomqvist walter röhrl and michèle mouton this audi s1 started the range of audi s cars which now represents an increased level of sportsperformance equipment within the mainstream audi model range in the united states as audi moved away from rallying and into circuit racing they chose to move first into america with the transam in 1988 in 1989 audi moved to international motor sports association imsa gto with the audi 90 however as they avoided the two major endurance events daytona and sebring despite winning on a regular basis they would lose out on the title touring cars in 1990 having completed their objective to market cars in north america audi returned to europe turning first to the deutsche tourenwagen meisterschaft dtm series with the audi v8 and then in 1993 being unwilling to build cars for the new formula they turned their attention to the fastgrowing super touring series which are a series of national championships audi first entered in the french supertourisme and italian superturismo in the following year audi would switch to the german super tourenwagen cup known as stw and then to british touring car championship btcc the year after that the fédération internationale de lautomobile fia having difficulty regulating the quattro fourwheel drive system and the impact it had on the competitors would eventually ban all fourwheel drive cars from competing in the series in 1998 but by then audi switched all their works efforts to sports car racing by 2000 audi would still compete in the us with their rs4 for the scca speed world gt challenge through dealerteam champion racing competing against corvettes vipers and smaller bmws where it is one of the few series to permit 4wd cars in 2003 champion racing entered an rs6 once again the quattro fourwheel drive was superior and champion audi won the championship they returned in 2004 to defend their title but a newcomer cadillac with the new omega chassis ctsv gave them a run for their money after four victories in a row the audis were sanctioned with several negative changes that deeply affected the cars performance namely added ballast weights and champion audi deciding to go with different tyres and reducing the boost pressure of the turbocharger in 2004 after years of competing with the ttr in the revitalised dtm series with privateer team abt racingchristian abt taking the 2002 title with laurent aïello audi returned as a full factory effort to touring car racing by entering two factorysupported joest racing a4 dtm cars 24 hours of le mans audi began racing prototype sportscars in 1999 debuting at the le mans 24 hour two car concepts were developed and raced in their first season the audi r8r opencockpit roadster prototype and the audi r8c closedcockpit coupé gtprototype the r8r scored a credible podium on its racing debut at le mans and was the concept which audi continued to develop into the 2000 season due to favourable rules for opencockpit prototypes however most of the competitors such as bmw toyota mercedes and nissan retired at the end of 1999 the factorysupported joest racing team won at le mans three times in a row with the audi r8 20002002 as well as winning every race in the american le mans series in its first year audi also sold the car to customer teams such as champion racing in 2003 two bentley speed 8s with engines designed by audi and driven by joest drivers loaned to the fellow volkswagen group company competed in the gtp class and finished the race in the top two positions while the champion racing r8 finished third overall and first in the lmp900 class audi returned to the winners podium at the 2004 race with the top three finishers all driving r8s audi sport japan team goh finished first audi sport uk veloqx second and champion racing third at the 2005 24 hours of le mans champion racing entered two r8s along with an r8 from the audi playstation team oreca the r8s which were built to old lmp900 regulations received a narrower air inlet restrictor reducing power and an additional of weight compared to the newer lmp1 chassis on average the r8s were about 23 seconds off pace compared to the pescarolojudd but with a team of excellent drivers and experience both champion r8s were able to take first and third while the oreca team took fourth the champion team was also the first american team to win le mans since the gulf ford gts in 1967 this also ends the long era of the r8 however its replacement for 2006 called the audi r10 tdi was unveiled on 13 december 2005 the r10 tdi employed many new and innovative features the most notable being the twinturbocharged direct injection diesel engine it was first raced in the 2006 12 hours of sebring as a racetest in preparation for the 2006 24 hours of le mans which it later went on to win audi had a win in the first diesel sports car at 12 hours of sebring the car was developed with a diesel engine due to aco regulations that favor diesel engines as well as winning the 24 hours of le mans in 2006 the r10 tdi beat the peugeot 908 hdi fap in and in however peugeot won the 24h in 2009 with a podium cleansweep all four 908 entries retired while breaking a distance record set by the porsche 917k of martini racing in in with the r15 tdi plus audis sports car racing success would continue with the audi r18s victory at the 2011 24 hours of le mans audi sport team joests benoît tréluyer earned audi their first pole position in five years while the teams sister car locked out the front row early accidents eliminated two of audis three entries but the sole remaining audi r18 tdi of tréluyer marcel fässler and andré lotterer held off the trio of peugeot 908s to claim victory by a margin of 138 seconds results american le mans series audi entered a factory racing team run by joest racing into the american le mans series under the audi sport north america name in 2000 this was a successful operation with the team winning on its debut in the series at the 2000 12 hours of sebring factorybacked audi r8s were the dominant car in alms taking 25 victories between 2000 and the end of the 2002 season in 2003 audi sold customer cars to champion racing as well as continuing to race the factory audi sport north america team champion racing won many races as a private team running audi r8s and eventually replaced team joest as the audi sport north america between 2006 and 2008 since 2009 audi has not taken part in full american le mans series championships but has competed in the series opening races at sebring using the 12hour race as a test for le mans and also as part of the 2012 fia world endurance championship season calendar results european le mans series audi participated in the 2003 1000km of le mans which was a oneoff sports car race in preparation for the 2004 european le mans series the factory team audi sport uk won races and the championship in the 2004 season but audi was unable to match their sweeping success of audi sport north america in the american le mans series partly due to the arrival of a factory competitor in lmp1 peugeot the french manufacturers 908 hdi fap became the car to beat in the series from 2008 onwards with 20 lmp wins however audi were able to secure the championship in 2008 even though peugeot scored more race victories in the season results world endurance championship 2012 in 2012 the fia sanctioned a world endurance championship which would be organised by the aco as a continuation of the ilmc audi competed won the first wec race at sebring and followed this up with a further three successive wins including the 2012 24 hours of le mans audi scored a final 5th victory in the 2012 wec in bahrain and were able to win the inaugural wec manufacturers championship 2013 as defending champions audi once again entered the audi r18 etron quattro chassis into the 2013 wec and the team won the first five consecutive races including the 2013 24 hours of le mans the victory at round 5 circuit of the americas was of particular significance as it marked the 100th win for audi in le mans prototypes audi secured their second consecutive wec manufacturers championship at round 6 after taking second place and half points in the redflagged fuji race 2014 for the 2014 season audi entered a redesigned and upgraded r18 etron quattro which featured a 2 mj energy recovery system as defending champions audi would once again face a challenge in lmp1 from toyota and additionally from porsche who returned to endurance racing after a 16year absence the seasonopening 6hrs of silverstone was a disaster for audi who saw both cars retire from the race marking the first time that an audi car has failed to score a podium in a world endurance championship race results formula e audi provide factory support to abt sportsline in the fia formula e championship the team competed under the title of audi sport abt formula e team in the inaugural 201415 formula e season on 13 february 2014 the team announced its driver line up as daniel abt and world endurance championship driver lucas di grassi formula one audi has been linked to formula one in recent years but has always resisted due to the companys opinion that it is not relevant to road cars but hybrid power unit technology has been adopted into the sport swaying the companys view and encouraging research into the program by former ferrari team principal stefano domenicali audi announced in august 2022 that it would enter the championship as an engine manufacturer in in october audi confirmed its partnership with sauber motorsport for the year 2026 acquiring a stake in the company for the german brand to enter the competition by renaming the team and supplying engines current factory drivers marketing branding the audi emblem is four overlapping rings that represent the four marques of auto union the audi emblem symbolises the amalgamation of audi with dkw horch and wanderer the first ring from the left represents audi the second represents dkw third is horch and the fourth and last ring wanderer the design is popularly believed to have been the idea of klaus von oertzen the director of sales at wanderer when berlin was chosen as the host city for the 1936 summer olympics and that a form of the olympic logo symbolized the newly established auto unions desire to succeed somewhat ironically the international olympic committee later sued audi in the international trademark court in 1995 where they lost the original audi script with the distinctive slanted tails on the a and d was created for the historic audi company in 1920 by the famous graphic designer lucian bernhard and was resurrected when volkswagen revived the brand in 1965 following the demise of nsu in 1977 less prominence was given to the four rings in preference to the audi script encased within a black later red ellipse and was commonly displayed next to the volkswagen roundel when the two brands shared a dealer network under the vag banner the ellipse known as the audi oval was phased out after 1994 when audi formed its own independent dealer network and prominence was given back to the four rings at the same time audi sans a derivative of univers was adopted as the font for all marketing materials corporate communications and was also used in the vehicles themselves as part of audis centennial celebration in 2009 the company updated the logo changing the font to leftaligned audi type and altering the shading for the overlapping rings the revised logo was designed by rayan abdullah audi developed a corporate sound concept with audi sound studio designed for producing the corporate sound the corporate sound project began with sound agency klangerfinder gmbh co kg and s12 gmbh audio samples were created in klangerfinders sound studio in stuttgart becoming part of audi sound studio collection other audi sound studio components include the brand music pool the brand voice audi also developed sound branding toolkit including certain instruments sound themes rhythm and car sounds which all are supposed to reflect the audi sound character audi started using a beating heart sound trademark beginning in 1996 an updated heartbeat sound logo developed by agencies klangerfinder gmbh co kg of stuttgart and s12 gmbh of munich was first used in 2010 in an audi a8 commercial with the slogan the art of progress slogans audis corporate tagline is meaning progress through technology the germanlanguage tagline is used in many european countries including the united kingdom but not in italy where is used and in other markets such as latin america oceania africa and parts of asia including japan originally the american tagline was innovation through technology but in canada vorsprung durch technik was used since 2007 audi has used the slogan truth in engineering in the us however since the audi emissions testing scandal came to light in september 2015 this slogan was lambasted for being discordant with reality in fact just hours after disgraced volkswagen ceo martin winterkorn admitted to cheating on emissions data an advertisement during the 2015 primetime emmy awards promoted audis latest advances in low emissions technology with kermit the frog stating its not that easy being green vorsprung durch technik was first used in englishlanguage advertising after sir john hegarty of the bartle bogle hegarty advertising agency visited the audi factory in 1982 in the original british television commercials the phrase was voiced by geoffrey palmer after its repeated use in advertising campaigns the phrase found its way into popular culture including the british comedy only fools and horses the u2 song zooropa and the blur song parklife similarsounding phrases have also been used including as the punchline for a joke in the movie lock stock and two smoking barrels and in the british tv series peep show typography audi sans based on univers extended was originally created in 1997 by ole schäfer for metadesign metadesign was later commissioned for a new corporate typeface called audi type designed by paul van der laan and pieter van rosmalen of bold monday the font began to appear in audis 2009 products and marketing materials sponsorships audi is a strong partner of different kinds of sports in football long partnerships exist between audi and domestic clubs including bayern munich hamburger sv 1 fc nürnberg hertha bsc and borussia mönchengladbach and international clubs including chelsea real madrid fc barcelona ac milan afc ajax and perspolis audi also sponsors winter sports the audi fis alpine ski world cup is named after the company additionally audi supports the german ski association dsv as well as the alpine skiing national teams of switzerland sweden finland france liechtenstein italy austria and the us for almost two decades audi fosters golf sport for example with the audi quattro cup and the hypovereinsbank ladies german open presented by audi in sailing audi is engaged in the medcup regatta and supports the team luna rossa during the louis vuitton pacific series and also is the primary sponsor of the melges 20 sailboat further audi sponsors the regional teams erc ingolstadt hockey and fc ingolstadt 04 soccer in 2009 the year of audis 100th anniversary the company organized the audi cup for the first time audi also sponsor the new york yankees as well in october 2010 they agreed to a three sponsorship yeardeal with everton audi also sponsors the england polo team and holds the audi polo awards marvel cinematic universe since the start of the marvel cinematic universe audi signed a deal to sponsor promote and provide vehicles for several films so far these have been iron man iron man 2 iron man 3 avengers age of ultron captain america civil war spiderman homecoming avengers endgame and spiderman far from home the r8 supercar became the personal vehicle for tony stark played by robert downey jr for six of these films the etron vehicles were promoted in endgame and far from home several commercials were coproduced by marvel and audi to promote several new concepts and some of the latest vehicles such as the a8 sq7 and the etron fleet multitronic campaign in 2001 audi promoted the new multitronic continuously variable transmission with television commercials throughout europe featuring an impersonator of musician and actor elvis presley a prototypical dashboard figure later named wackelelvis wobble elvis or wobbly elvis appeared in the commercials to demonstrate the smooth ride in an audi equipped with the multitronic transmission the dashboard figure was originally intended for use in the commercials only but after they aired the demand for wackelelvis fans grew among fans and the figure was massproduced in china and marketed by audi in their factory outlet store audi tdi as part of audis attempt to promote its diesel technology in 2009 the company began audi mileage marathon the driving tour featured a fleet of 23 audi tdi vehicles from 4 models audi q7 30 tdi audi q5 30 tdi audi a4 30 tdi audi a3 sportback 20 tdi with s tronic transmission travelling across the american continent from new york to los angeles passing major cities like chicago dallas and las vegas during the 13 daily stages as well as natural wonders including the rocky mountains death valley and the grand canyon audi etron the next phase of technology audi is developing is the etron electric drive powertrain system they have shown several concept cars each with different levels of size and performance the original etron concept shown at the 2009 frankfurt motor show is based on the platform of the r8 and has been scheduled for limited production power is provided by electric motors at all four wheels the second concept was shown at the 2010 detroit motor show power is provided by two electric motors at the rear axle this concept is also considered to be the direction for a future midengined gaspowered 2seat performance coupe the audi a1 etron concept based on the audi a1 production model is a hybrid vehicle with a range extending wankel rotary engine to provide power after the initial charge of the battery is depleted it is the only concept of the three to have rangeextending capability the car is powered through the front wheels always using electric power it is all set to be displayed at the auto expo 2012 in new delhi india from 5 january powered by a 14 litre engine and can cover a distance up to 54 km s on a single charge the etron was also shown in the 2013 blockbuster film iron man 3 and was driven by tony stark iron man lawsuit on the use of the letter q in early 2005 nissan north america inc filed a lawsuit against audi over the use of the letter q as a model name audi is using the q for the designation of their quattro fourwheel drive system used in production cars for over twentyfive years audis quattro trademark is actually an umbrella term for several types of fourwheeldrive systems developed by torsen haldex traction ab and borgwarner the latter being used in the q7 nissans infiniti marque first used q for their 1989 infiniti q45 flagship but later expanded to its entire lineup with q for passenger cars the q30 q40 q50 and q60 and qx for suvs the qx30 qx50 qx60 and qx70 a settlement between audi ag and nissan was reached in late 2006 the agreement stipulates that audi will only use the qprefix for three models the q3 q5 and the q7 audi has since released other q series cars as well such as the q2 q6 and q8 in video games audi has supported the european version of playstation home the playstation 3s online communitybased service by releasing a dedicated home space audi is the first carmaker to develop such a space for home on 17 december 2009 audi released two spaces the audi home terminal and the audi vertical run the audi home terminal features an audi tv channel delivering video content an internet browser feature and a view of a city the audi vertical run is where users can access the minigame vertical run a futuristic minigame featuring audis etron concept players collect energy and race for the highest possible speeds and the fastest players earn a place in the audi apartments located in a large tower in the centre of the audi space in both the home terminal and vertical run spaces there are teleports where users can teleport back and forth between the two spaces audi had stated that additional content would be added in 2010 on 31 march 2015 sony shutdown the playstation home service rendering all content for it inaccessible see also dkw horch wanderer company notes references external links car brands car manufacturers of germany companies based in badenwürttemberg companies based in bavaria companies based in ingolstadt companies formerly listed on the frankfurt stock exchange vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1909 vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 1939 vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1965 reestablished companies german brands luxury motor vehicle manufacturers companies based in saxony sports car manufacturers volkswagen group german companies established in 1909	10,332
849	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft	Aircraft	an aircraft aircraft is a vehicle that is able to fly by gaining support from the air it counters the force of gravity by using either static lift or the dynamic lift of an airfoil or in a few cases direct downward thrust from its engines common examples of aircraft include airplanes helicopters airships including blimps gliders paramotors and hot air balloons the human activity that surrounds aircraft is called aviation the science of aviation including designing and building aircraft is called aeronautics crewed aircraft are flown by an onboard pilot whereas unmanned aerial vehicles may be remotely controlled or selfcontrolled by onboard computers aircraft may be classified by different criteria such as lift type aircraft propulsion if any usage and others history flying model craft and stories of manned flight go back many centuries however the first manned ascent and safe descent in modern times took place by larger hotair balloons developed in the 18th century each of the two world wars led to great technical advances consequently the history of aircraft can be divided into five eras pioneers of flight from the earliest experiments to 1914 first world war 1914 to 1918 aviation between the world wars 1918 to 1939 second world war 1939 to 1945 postwar era also called the jet age 1945 to the present day methods of lift lighter than air aerostats aerostats use buoyancy to float in the air in much the same way that ships float on the water they are characterized by one or more large cells or canopies filled with a relatively lowdensity gas such as helium hydrogen or hot air which is less dense than the surrounding air when the weight of this is added to the weight of the aircraft structure it adds up to the same weight as the air that the craft displaces small hotair balloons called sky lanterns were first invented in ancient china prior to the 3rd century bc and used primarily in cultural celebrations and were only the second type of aircraft to fly the first being kites which were first invented in ancient china over two thousand years ago see han dynasty a balloon was originally any aerostat while the term airship was used for large powered aircraft designs usually fixedwing in 1919 frederick handley page was reported as referring to ships of the air with smaller passenger types as air yachts in the 1930s large intercontinental flying boats were also sometimes referred to as ships of the air or flyingships though none had yet been built the advent of powered balloons called dirigible balloons and later of rigid hulls allowing a great increase in size began to change the way these words were used huge powered aerostats characterized by a rigid outer framework and separate aerodynamic skin surrounding the gas bags were produced the zeppelins being the largest and most famous there were still no fixedwing aircraft or nonrigid balloons large enough to be called airships so airship came to be synonymous with these aircraft then several accidents such as the hindenburg disaster in 1937 led to the demise of these airships nowadays a balloon is an unpowered aerostat and an airship is a powered one a powered steerable aerostat is called a dirigible sometimes this term is applied only to nonrigid balloons and sometimes dirigible balloon is regarded as the definition of an airship which may then be rigid or nonrigid nonrigid dirigibles are characterized by a moderately aerodynamic gasbag with stabilizing fins at the back these soon became known as blimps during world war ii this shape was widely adopted for tethered balloons in windy weather this both reduces the strain on the tether and stabilizes the balloon the nickname blimp was adopted along with the shape in modern times any small dirigible or airship is called a blimp though a blimp may be unpowered as well as powered heavierthanair aerodynes heavierthanair aircraft such as airplanes must find some way to push air or gas downwards so that a reaction occurs by newtons laws of motion to push the aircraft upwards this dynamic movement through the air is the origin of the term there are two ways to produce dynamic upthrust aerodynamic lift and powered lift in the form of engine thrust aerodynamic lift involving wings is the most common with fixedwing aircraft being kept in the air by the forward movement of wings and rotorcraft by spinning wingshaped rotors sometimes called rotary wings a wing is a flat horizontal surface usually shaped in crosssection as an aerofoil to fly air must flow over the wing and generate lift a flexible wing is a wing made of fabric or thin sheet material often stretched over a rigid frame a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the speed of the wind over its wings which may be flexible or rigid fixed or rotary with powered lift the aircraft directs its engine thrust vertically downward vstol aircraft such as the harrier jump jet and lockheed martin f35b take off and land vertically using powered lift and transfer to aerodynamic lift in steady flight a pure rocket is not usually regarded as an aerodyne because it does not depend on the air for its lift and can even fly into space however many aerodynamic lift vehicles have been powered or assisted by rocket motors rocketpowered missiles that obtain aerodynamic lift at very high speed due to airflow over their bodies are a marginal case fixedwing the forerunner of the fixedwing aircraft is the kite whereas a fixedwing aircraft relies on its forward speed to create airflow over the wings a kite is tethered to the ground and relies on the wind blowing over its wings to provide lift kites were the first kind of aircraft to fly and were invented in china around 500 bc much aerodynamic research was done with kites before test aircraft wind tunnels and computer modelling programs became available the first heavierthanair craft capable of controlled freeflight were gliders a glider designed by george cayley carried out the first true manned controlled flight in 1853 the first powered and controllable fixedwing aircraft the airplane or aeroplane was invented by wilbur and orville wright besides the method of propulsion if any fixedwing aircraft are in general characterized by their wing configuration the most important wing characteristics are number of wings monoplane biplane etc wing support braced or cantilever rigid or flexible wing planform including aspect ratio angle of sweep and any variations along the span including the important class of delta wings location of the horizontal stabilizer if any dihedral angle positive zero or negative anhedral a variable geometry aircraft can change its wing configuration during flight a flying wing has no fuselage though it may have small blisters or pods the opposite of this is a lifting body which has no wings though it may have small stabilizing and control surfaces wingingroundeffect vehicles are generally not considered aircraft they fly efficiently close to the surface of the ground or water like conventional aircraft during takeoff an example is the russian ekranoplan nicknamed the caspian sea monster manpowered aircraft also rely on ground effect to remain airborne with minimal pilot power but this is only because they are so underpoweredin fact the airframe is capable of flying higher rotorcraft rotorcraft or rotarywing aircraft use a spinning rotor with aerofoil crosssection blades a rotary wing to provide lift types include helicopters autogyros and various hybrids such as gyrodynes and compound rotorcraft helicopters have a rotor turned by an enginedriven shaft the rotor pushes air downward to create lift by tilting the rotor forward the downward flow is tilted backward producing thrust for forward flight some helicopters have more than one rotor and a few have rotors turned by gas jets at the tips some have a tail rotor to counteract the rotation of the main rotor and to aid directional control autogyros have unpowered rotors with a separate power plant to provide thrust the rotor is tilted backward as the autogyro moves forward air blows upward across the rotor making it spin this spinning increases the speed of airflow over the rotor to provide lift rotor kites are unpowered autogyros which are towed to give them forward speed or tethered to a static anchor in highwind for kited flight compound rotorcraft have wings that provide some or all of the lift in forward flight they are nowadays classified as powered lift types and not as rotorcraft tiltrotor aircraft such as the bell boeing v22 osprey tiltwing tailsitter and coleopter aircraft have their rotorspropellers horizontal for vertical flight and vertical for forward flight other methods of lift a lifting body is an aircraft body shaped to produce lift if there are any wings they are too small to provide significant lift and are used only for stability and control lifting bodies are not efficient they suffer from high drag and must also travel at high speed to generate enough lift to fly many of the research prototypes such as the martin marietta x24 which led up to the space shuttle were lifting bodies though the space shuttle is not and some supersonic missiles obtain lift from the airflow over a tubular body powered lift types rely on enginederived lift for vertical takeoff and landing vtol most types transition to fixedwing lift for horizontal flight classes of powered lift types include vtol jet aircraft such as the harrier jump jet and tiltrotors such as the bell boeing v22 osprey among others a few experimental designs rely entirely on engine thrust to provide lift throughout the whole flight including personal fanlift hover platforms and jetpacks vtol research designs include the rollsroyce thrust measuring rig some rotor wings employ horizontalaxis wings in which airflow across a spinning rotor generates lift the flettner airplane uses a rotating cylinder obtaining lift from the magnus effect the fanwing uses a crossflow fan while the mechanically more complex cyclogyro comprises multiple wings which rotate together around a central axis the ornithopter obtains thrust by flapping its wings size and speed extremes size the smallest aircraft are toysrecreational items and nano aircraft the largest aircraft by dimensions and volume as of 2016 is the long british airlander 10 a hybrid blimp with helicopter and fixedwing features and reportedly capable of speeds up to and an airborne endurance of two weeks with a payload of up to the largest aircraft by weight and largest regular fixedwing aircraft ever built was the antonov an225 mriya that sovietbuilt ukrainian ssr sixengine transport of the 1980s was long with an wingspan it holds the world payload record after transporting of goods and has flown loads commercially with a maximum loaded weight of it was also the heaviest aircraft built to date it could cruise at the aircraft was destroyed during the russoukrainian war the largest military airplanes are the ukrainian antonov an124 ruslan worlds secondlargest airplane also used as a civilian transport and american lockheed c5 galaxy transport weighing loaded over the 8engine pistonpropeller hughes h4 hercules spruce goose an american world war ii wooden flying boat transport with a greater wingspan 94m260ft than any current aircraft and a tail height equal to the tallest airbus a380800 at 241m78ft flew only one short hop in the late 1940s and never flew out of ground effect the largest civilian airplanes apart from the abovenoted an225 and an124 are the airbus beluga cargo transport derivative of the airbus a300 jet airliner the boeing dreamlifter cargo transport derivative of the boeing 747 jet airlinertransport the 747200b was at its creation in the 1960s the heaviest aircraft ever built with a maximum weight of over and the doubledecker airbus a380 superjumbo jet airliner the worlds largest passenger airliner speeds the fastest fixedwing aircraft and fastest glider is the space shuttle which reentered the atmosphere at nearly mach 25 or the fastest recorded powered aircraft flight and fastest recorded aircraft flight of an airbreathing powered aircraft was of the nasa x43a pegasus a scramjetpowered hypersonic lifting body experimental research aircraft at mach 968 or on 16 november 2004 prior to the x43a the fastest recorded powered airplane flight and still the record for the fastest manned powered airplane was the north american x15 rocketpowered airplane at mach 67 or 7274 kmh 4520 mph on 3 october 1967 the fastest manned airbreathing powered airplane is the lockheed sr71 blackbird a us reconnaissance jet fixedwing aircraft having reached on 28 july 1976 propulsion unpowered aircraft gliders are heavierthanair aircraft that do not employ propulsion once airborne takeoff may be by launching forward and downward from a high location or by pulling into the air on a towline either by a groundbased winch or vehicle or by a powered tug aircraft for a glider to maintain its forward air speed and lift it must descend in relation to the air but not necessarily in relation to the ground many gliders can soar ie gain height from updrafts such as thermal currents the first practical controllable example was designed and built by the british scientist and pioneer george cayley whom many recognise as the first aeronautical engineer common examples of gliders are sailplanes hang gliders and paragliders balloons drift with the wind though normally the pilot can control the altitude either by heating the air or by releasing ballast giving some directional control since the wind direction changes with altitude a wingshaped hybrid balloon can glide directionally when rising or falling but a spherically shaped balloon does not have such directional control kites are aircraft that are tethered to the ground or other object fixed or mobile that maintains tension in the tether or kite line they rely on virtual or real wind blowing over and under them to generate lift and drag kytoons are balloonkite hybrids that are shaped and tethered to obtain kiting deflections and can be lighterthanair neutrally buoyant or heavierthanair powered aircraft powered aircraft have one or more onboard sources of mechanical power typically aircraft engines although rubber and manpower have also been used most aircraft engines are either lightweight reciprocating engines or gas turbines engine fuel is stored in tanks usually in the wings but larger aircraft also have additional fuel tanks in the fuselage propeller aircraft propeller aircraft use one or more propellers airscrews to create thrust in a forward direction the propeller is usually mounted in front of the power source in tractor configuration but can be mounted behind in pusher configuration variations of propeller layout include contrarotating propellers and ducted fans many kinds of power plant have been used to drive propellers early airships used man power or steam engines the more practical internal combustion piston engine was used for virtually all fixedwing aircraft until world war ii and is still used in many smaller aircraft some types use turbine engines to drive a propeller in the form of a turboprop or propfan humanpowered flight has been achieved but has not become a practical means of transport unmanned aircraft and models have also used power sources such as electric motors and rubber bands jet aircraft jet aircraft use airbreathing jet engines which take in air burn fuel with it in a combustion chamber and accelerate the exhaust rearwards to provide thrust different jet engine configurations include the turbojet and turbofan sometimes with the addition of an afterburner those with no rotating turbomachinery include the pulsejet and ramjet these mechanically simple engines produce no thrust when stationary so the aircraft must be launched to flying speed using a catapult like the v1 flying bomb or a rocket for example other engine types include the motorjet and the dualcycle pratt whitney j58 compared to engines using propellers jet engines can provide much higher thrust higher speeds and above about greater efficiency they are also much more fuelefficient than rockets as a consequence nearly all large highspeed or highaltitude aircraft use jet engines rotorcraft some rotorcraft such as helicopters have a powered rotary wing or rotor where the rotor disc can be angled slightly forward so that a proportion of its lift is directed forwards the rotor may like a propeller be powered by a variety of methods such as a piston engine or turbine experiments have also used jet nozzles at the rotor blade tips other types of powered aircraft rocketpowered aircraft have occasionally been experimented with and the messerschmitt me 163 komet fighter even saw action in the second world war since then they have been restricted to research aircraft such as the north american x15 which traveled up into space where airbreathing engines cannot work rockets carry their own oxidant rockets have more often been used as a supplement to the main power plant typically for the rocketassisted take off of heavily loaded aircraft but also to provide highspeed dash capability in some hybrid designs such as the saundersroe sr53 the ornithopter obtains thrust by flapping its wings it has found practical use in a model hawk used to freeze prey animals into stillness so that they can be captured and in toy birds design and construction aircraft are designed according to many factors such as customer and manufacturer demand safety protocols and physical and economic constraints for many types of aircraft the design process is regulated by national airworthiness authorities the key parts of an aircraft are generally divided into three categories the structure airframe comprises the main loadbearing elements and associated equipment as well as flight controls the propulsion system powerplant if it is powered comprises the power source and associated equipment as described above the avionics comprise the electrical and electronic control navigation and communication systems structure the approach to structural design varies widely between different types of aircraft some such as paragliders comprise only flexible materials that act in tension and rely on aerodynamic pressure to hold their shape a balloon similarly relies on internal gas pressure but may have a rigid basket or gondola slung below it to carry its payload early aircraft including airships often employed flexible doped aircraft fabric covering to give a reasonably smooth aeroshell stretched over a rigid frame later aircraft employed semimonocoque techniques where the skin of the aircraft is stiff enough to share much of the flight loads in a true monocoque design there is no internal structure left the key structural parts of an aircraft depend on what type it is aerostats lighterthanair types are characterised by one or more gasbags typically with a supporting structure of flexible cables or a rigid framework called its hull other elements such as engines or a gondola may also be attached to the supporting structure aerodynes heavierthanair types are characterised by one or more wings and a central fuselage the fuselage typically also carries a tail or empennage for stability and control and an undercarriage for takeoff and landing engines may be located on the fuselage or wings on a fixedwing aircraft the wings are rigidly attached to the fuselage while on a rotorcraft the wings are attached to a rotating vertical shaft smaller designs sometimes use flexible materials for part or all of the structure held in place either by a rigid frame or by air pressure the fixed parts of the structure comprise the airframe power the source of motive power for an aircraft is normally called the powerplant and includes engine or motor propeller or rotor if any jet nozzles and thrust reversers if any and accessories essential to the functioning of the engine or motor eg starter ignition system intake system exhaust system fuel system lubrication system engine cooling system and engine controls powered aircraft are typically powered by internal combustion engines piston or turbine burning fossil fuels typically gasoline avgas or jet fuel a very few are powered by rocket power ramjet propulsion or by electric motors or by internal combustion engines of other types or using other fuels a very few have been powered for short flights by human muscle energy eg gossamer condor avionics the avionics comprise any electronic aircraft flight control systems and related equipment including electronic cockpit instrumentation navigation radar monitoring and communications systems flight characteristics flight envelope the flight envelope of an aircraft refers to its approved design capabilities in terms of airspeed load factor and altitude the term can also refer to other assessments of aircraft performance such as maneuverability when an aircraft is abused for instance by diving it at toohigh a speed it is said to be flown outside the envelope something considered foolhardy since it has been taken beyond the design limits which have been established by the manufacturer going beyond the envelope may have a known outcome such as flutter or entry to a nonrecoverable spin possible reasons for the boundary range the range is the distance an aircraft can fly between takeoff and landing as limited by the time it can remain airborne for a powered aircraft the time limit is determined by the fuel load and rate of consumption for an unpowered aircraft the maximum flight time is limited by factors such as weather conditions and pilot endurance many aircraft types are restricted to daylight hours while balloons are limited by their supply of lifting gas the range can be seen as the average ground speed multiplied by the maximum time in the air the airbus a350900ulr is now the longest range airliner flight dynamics flight dynamics is the science of air vehicle orientation and control in three dimensions the three critical flight dynamics parameters are the angles of rotation around three axes which pass through the vehicles center of gravity known as pitch roll and yaw roll is a rotation about the longitudinal axis equivalent to the rolling or heeling of a ship giving an updown movement of the wing tips measured by the roll or bank angle pitch is a rotation about the sideways horizontal axis giving an updown movement of the aircraft nose measured by the angle of attack yaw is a rotation about the vertical axis giving a sidetoside movement of the nose known as sideslip flight dynamics is concerned with the stability and control of an aircrafts rotation about each of these axes stability an aircraft that is unstable tends to diverge from its intended flight path and so is difficult to fly a very stable aircraft tends to stay on its flight path and is difficult to maneuver therefore it is important for any design to achieve the desired degree of stability since the widespread use of digital computers it is increasingly common for designs to be inherently unstable and rely on computerised control systems to provide artificial stability a fixed wing is typically unstable in pitch roll and yaw pitch and yaw stabilities of conventional fixed wing designs require horizontal and vertical stabilisers which act similarly to the feathers on an arrow these stabilizing surfaces allow equilibrium of aerodynamic forces and to stabilise the flight dynamics of pitch and yaw they are usually mounted on the tail section empennage although in the canard layout the main aft wing replaces the canard foreplane as pitch stabilizer tandem wing and tailless aircraft rely on the same general rule to achieve stability the aft surface being the stabilising one a rotary wing is typically unstable in yaw requiring a vertical stabiliser a balloon is typically very stable in pitch and roll due to the way the payload is slung underneath the center of lift control flight control surfaces enable the pilot to control an aircrafts flight attitude and are usually part of the wing or mounted on or integral with the associated stabilizing surface their development was a critical advance in the history of aircraft which had until that point been uncontrollable in flight aerospace engineers develop control systems for a vehicles orientation attitude about its center of mass the control systems include actuators which exert forces in various directions and generate rotational forces or moments about the aerodynamic center of the aircraft and thus rotate the aircraft in pitch roll or yaw for example a pitching moment is a vertical force applied at a distance forward or aft from the aerodynamic center of the aircraft causing the aircraft to pitch up or down control systems are also sometimes used to increase or decrease drag for example to slow the aircraft to a safe speed for landing the two main aerodynamic forces acting on any aircraft are lift supporting it in the air and drag opposing its motion control surfaces or other techniques may also be used to affect these forces directly without inducing any rotation environmental impact aircraft permit long distance high speed travel and may be a more fuel efficient mode of transportation in some circumstances aircraft have environmental and climate impacts beyond fuel efficiency considerations however they are also relatively noisy compared to other forms of travel and high altitude aircraft generate contrails which experimental evidence suggests may alter weather patterns uses for aircraft aircraft are produced in several different types optimized for various uses military aircraft which includes not just combat types but many types of supporting aircraft and civil aircraft which include all nonmilitary types experimental and model military a military aircraft is any aircraft that is operated by a legal or insurrectionary armed service of any type military aircraft can be either combat or noncombat combat aircraft are aircraft designed to destroy enemy equipment using its own armament combat aircraft divide broadly into fighters and bombers with several inbetween types such as fighterbombers and attack aircraft including attack helicopters noncombat aircraft are not designed for combat as their primary function but may carry weapons for selfdefense noncombat roles include search and rescue reconnaissance observation transport training and aerial refueling these aircraft are often variants of civil aircraft most military aircraft are powered heavierthanair types other types such as gliders and balloons have also been used as military aircraft for example balloons were used for observation during the american civil war and world war i and military gliders were used during world war ii to land troops civil civil aircraft divide into commercial and general types however there are some overlaps commercial aircraft include types designed for scheduled and charter airline flights carrying passengers mail and other cargo the larger passengercarrying types are the airliners the largest of which are widebody aircraft some of the smaller types are also used in general aviation and some of the larger types are used as vip aircraft general aviation is a catchall covering other kinds of private where the pilot is not paid for time or expenses and commercial use and involving a wide range of aircraft types such as business jets bizjets trainers homebuilt gliders warbirds and hot air balloons to name a few the vast majority of aircraft today are general aviation types experimental an experimental aircraft is one that has not been fully proven in flight or that carries a special airworthiness certificate called an experimental certificate in united states parlance this often implies that the aircraft is testing new aerospace technologies though the term also refers to amateurbuilt and kitbuilt aircraft many of which are based on proven designs model a model aircraft is a small unmanned type made to fly for fun for static display for aerodynamic research or for other purposes a scale model is a replica of some larger design see also lists early flying machines flight altitude record list of aircraft list of civil aircraft list of fighter aircraft list of individual aircraft list of large aircraft list of aviation aerospace and aeronautical terms topics aircraft hijacking aircraft spotting air traffic control airport flying car personal air vehicle powered parachute spacecraft spaceplane references external links history the evolution of modern aircraft nasa virtual museum smithsonian air and space museum online collection with a particular focus on history of aircraft and spacecraft amazing early flying machines slideshow by life magazine information airlinersnet aviation dictionary free aviation terms phrases and jargons new scientists aviation page	4,671
851	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred%20Nobel	Alfred Nobel	alfred bernhard nobel 21 october 1833 10 december 1896 was a swedish chemist engineer inventor businessman and philanthropist he is known for creating dynamite as well as having bequeathed his fortune to establish the nobel prize he also made several important contributions to science holding 355 patents in his lifetime nobels most famous invention was dynamite an explosive using nitroglycerin it was patented in 1867 nobel displayed an early aptitude for science and learning particularly in chemistry and languages he became fluent in six languages and filed his first patent at the age of 24 he embarked on many business ventures with his family most notably owning the company bofors which was an iron and steel producer that he had developed into a major manufacturer of cannons and other armaments nobel was later inspired to donate his fortune to the nobel prize institution which would annually recognize those who conferred the greatest benefit to humankind the synthetic element nobelium was named after him and his name and legacy also survives in companies such as dynamit nobel and akzonobel which descend from mergers with companies he founded nobel was elected a member of the royal swedish academy of sciences which pursuant to his will would be responsible for choosing the nobel laureates in physics and in chemistry personal life early life and education alfred nobel was born in stockholm united kingdoms of sweden and norway on 21 october 1833 he was the third son of immanuel nobel 18011872 an inventor and engineer and karolina andriette nobel née ahlsell 18051889 the couple married in 1827 and had eight children the family was impoverished and only alfred and his three brothers survived beyond childhood through his father alfred nobel was a descendant of the swedish scientist olaus rudbeck 16301702 and in his turn the boy was interested in engineering particularly explosives learning the basic principles from his father at a young age alfred nobels interest in technology was inherited from his father an alumnus of royal institute of technology in stockholmfollowing various business failures caused by the loss of some barges of building material immanuel nobel was forced into bankruptcy nobels father moved to saint petersburg russia and grew successful there as a manufacturer of machine tools and explosives he invented the veneer lathe which made possible the production of modern plywood and started work on the torpedo in 1842 the family joined him in the city now prosperous his parents were able to send nobel to private tutors and the boy excelled in his studies particularly in chemistry and languages achieving fluency in english french german and russian for 18 months from 1841 to 1842 nobel went to the only school he ever attended as a child in stockholm nobel gained proficiency in swedish french russian english german and italian he also developed sufficient literary skill to write poetry in english his nemesis is a prose tragedy in four acts about the italian noblewoman beatrice cenci it was printed while he was dying but the entire stock was destroyed immediately after his death except for three copies being regarded as scandalous and blasphemous it was published in sweden in 2003 and has been translated into slovenian french italian and spanish religion nobel was lutheran and regularly attended the church of sweden abroad during his paris years led by pastor nathan söderblom who received the nobel peace prize in 1930 he was an agnostic in youth and became an atheist later in life though he still donated generously to the church health and relationships nobel traveled for much of his business life maintaining companies in europe and america while keeping a home in paris from 1873 to 1891 he remained a solitary character given to periods of depression he remained unmarried although his biographers note that he had at least three loves the first in russia with a girl named alexandra who rejected his proposal in 1876 austrobohemian countess bertha kinsky became his secretary but she left him after a brief stay to marry her previous lover baron arthur gundaccar von suttner her contact with nobel was brief yet she corresponded with him until his death in 1896 and probably influenced his decision to include a peace prize in his will she was awarded the 1905 nobel peace prize for her sincere peace activities nobels longestlasting relationship was with sofija hess from celje whom he met in 1876 in baden near vienna where she worked as an employee in a flower shop the liaison lasted for 18 years residences in the years of 1865 to 1873 alfred nobel had his home in krümmel hamburg he afterward moved to a house in the avenue malakoff in paris that same year in 1894 when he acquired boforsgullspång the björkborn manor was included he stayed at his manor house in sweden during the summers the manor house became his very last residence in sweden and has after his death functioned as a museum alfred nobel died on 10 december 1896 in sanremo italy at his very last residence villa nobel overlooking the mediterranean sea scientific career as a young man nobel studied with chemist nikolai zinin then in 1850 went to paris to further the work there he met ascanio sobrero who had invented nitroglycerin three years before sobrero strongly opposed the use of nitroglycerin because it was unpredictable exploding when subjected to variable heat or pressure but nobel became interested in finding a way to control and use nitroglycerin as a commercially usable explosive it had much more power than gunpowder in 1851 at age 18 he went to the united states for one year to study working for a short period under swedishamerican inventor john ericsson who designed the american civil war ironclad uss monitor nobel filed his first patent an english patent for a gas meter in 1857 while his first swedish patent which he received in 1863 was on ways to prepare gunpowderthe family factory produced armaments for the crimean war 18531856 but had difficulty switching back to regular domestic production when the fighting ended and they filed for bankruptcy in 1859 nobels father left his factory in the care of the second son ludvig nobel 18311888 who greatly improved the business nobel and his parents returned to sweden from russia and nobel devoted himself to the study of explosives and especially to the safe manufacture and use of nitroglycerin nobel invented a detonator in 1863 and in 1865 designed the blasting cap on 3 september 1864 a shed used for preparation of nitroglycerin exploded at the factory in heleneborg stockholm sweden killing five people including nobels younger brother emil fazed by the accident nobel founded the company nitroglycerin aktiebolaget ab in vinterviken so that he could continue to work in a more isolated area nobel invented dynamite in 1867 a substance easier and safer to handle than the more unstable nitroglycerin dynamite was patented in the us and the uk and was used extensively in mining and the building of transport networks internationally in 1875 nobel invented gelignite more stable and powerful than dynamite and in 1887 patented ballistite a predecessor of cordite nobel was elected a member of the royal swedish academy of sciences in 1884 the same institution that would later select laureates for two of the nobel prizes and he received an honorary doctorate from uppsala university in 1893 nobels brothers ludvig and robert founded the oil company branobel and became hugely rich in their own right nobel invested in these and amassed great wealth through the development of these new oil regions it operated mainly in baku azerbaijan but also in cheleken turkmenistan during his life nobel was issued 355 patents internationally and by his death his business had established more than 90 armaments factories despite his apparently pacifist character inventions nobel found that when nitroglycerin was incorporated in an absorbent inert substance like kieselguhr diatomaceous earth it became safer and more convenient to handle and this mixture he patented in 1867 as dynamite nobel demonstrated his explosive for the first time that year at a quarry in redhill surrey england in order to help reestablish his name and improve the image of his business from the earlier controversies associated with dangerous explosives nobel had also considered naming the highly powerful substance nobels safety powder but settled with dynamite instead referring to the greek word for power nobel later combined nitroglycerin with various nitrocellulose compounds similar to collodion but settled on a more efficient recipe combining another nitrate explosive and obtained a transparent jellylike substance which was a more powerful explosive than dynamite gelignite or blasting gelatin as it was named was patented in 1876 and was followed by a host of similar combinations modified by the addition of potassium nitrate and various other substances gelignite was more stable transportable and conveniently formed to fit into bored holes like those used in drilling and mining than the previously used compounds it was adopted as the standard technology for mining in the age of engineering bringing nobel a great amount of financial success though at a cost to his health an offshoot of this research resulted in nobels invention of ballistite the precursor of many modern smokeless powder explosives and still used as a rocket propellant nobel prize there is a well known story about the origin of the nobel prize although historians have been unable to verify it and some dismiss the story as a myth in 1888 the death of his brother ludvig supposedly caused several newspapers to publish obituaries of alfred in error one french newspaper condemned him for his invention of military explosivesin many versions of the story dynamite is quoted although this was mainly used for civilian applicationsand this is said to have brought about his decision to leave a better legacy after his death the obituary stated the merchant of death is dead and went on to say dr alfred nobel who became rich by finding ways to kill more people faster than ever before died yesterday nobel read the obituary and was appalled at the idea that he would be remembered in this way his decision to posthumously donate the majority of his wealth to found the nobel prize has been credited to him wanting to leave behind a better legacy however it has been questioned whether or not the obituary in question actually existed on 27 november 1895 at the swedishnorwegian club in paris nobel signed his last will and testament and set aside the bulk of his estate to establish the nobel prizes to be awarded annually without distinction of nationality after taxes and bequests to individuals nobels will allocated 94 of his total assets 31225000 swedish kronor to establish the five nobel prizes this converted to 1687837 gbp at the time in 2012 the capital was worth around sek 31 billion us472 million eur 337 million which is almost twice the amount of the initial capital taking inflation into account the first three of these prizes are awarded for eminence in physical science in chemistry and in medical science or physiology the fourth is for literary work in an ideal direction and the fifth prize is to be given to the person or society that renders the greatest service to the cause of international fraternity in the suppression or reduction of standing armies or in the establishment or furtherance of peace congresses the formulation for the literary prize being given for a work in an ideal direction in swedish is cryptic and has caused much confusion for many years the swedish academy interpreted ideal as idealistic and used it as a reason not to give the prize to important but less romantic authors such as henrik ibsen and leo tolstoy this interpretation has since been revised and the prize has been awarded to for example dario fo and josé saramago who do not belong to the camp of literary idealism there was room for interpretation by the bodies he had named for deciding on the physical sciences and chemistry prizes given that he had not consulted them before making the will in his onepage testament he stipulated that the money go to discoveries or inventions in the physical sciences and to discoveries or improvements in chemistry he had opened the door to technological awards but had not left instructions on how to deal with the distinction between science and technology since the deciding bodies he had chosen were more concerned with the former the prizes went to scientists more often than engineers technicians or other inventors swedens central bank sveriges riksbank celebrated its 300th anniversary in 1968 by donating a large sum of money to the nobel foundation to be used to set up a sixth prize in the field of economics in honor of alfred nobel in 2001 alfred nobels greatgreatnephew peter nobel born 1931 asked the bank of sweden to differentiate its award to economists given in alfred nobels memory from the five other awards this request added to the controversy over whether the bank of sweden prize in economic sciences in memory of alfred nobel is actually a legitimate nobel prize death nobel was accused of high treason against france for selling ballistite to italy so he moved from paris to sanremo italy in 1891 on 10 december 1896 he suffered a stroke and was partially paralyzed to where he could speak only his native tongue nobel was surrounded by his paid servants at the time of his death who didnt speak his native tongue so he wrote how sad it is to be without a friend who could whisper a consoling word and would one day gently close ones eyes he had left most of his wealth in trust unbeknownst to his family in order to fund the nobel prize awards he is buried in norra begravningsplatsen in stockholm monuments and legacy the monument to alfred nobel in saint petersburg is located along the bolshaya nevka river on petrogradskaya embankment it was dedicated in 1991 to mark the 90th anniversary of the first nobel prize presentation diplomat thomas bertelman and professor arkady melua were initiators of the creation of the monument 1989 professor a melua has provided funds for the establishment of the monument jsco humanistica 19901991 the abstract metal sculpture was designed by local artists sergey alipov and pavel shevchenko and appears to be an explosion or branches of a tree petrogradskaya embankment is the street where nobels family lived until 1859 criticism of nobel focuses on his leading role in weapons manufacturing and sales and some question his motives in creating his prizes suggesting they are intended to improve his reputation references further reading schück h and sohlman r 1929 the life of alfred nobel transl brian lunn london william heineman ltd alfred nobel us patent no 78317 dated 26 may 1868 evlanoff m and fluor m alfred nobel the loneliest millionaire los angeles ward ritchie press 1969 sohlman r the legacy of alfred nobel transl schubert e london the bodley head 1983 swedish original ett testamente published in 1950 external links alfred nobel man behind the prizes biography at the norwegian nobel institute the man behind the prize alfred nobel nobelprizeorg documents of life and activity of the nobel family under the editorship of professor arkady melua series of books mostly in russian the nobels in baku in azerbaijan international vol 102 summer 2002 5659 alfred nobel and his unknown coworker 1833 births 1896 deaths burials at norra begravningsplatsen members of the royal swedish academy of sciences alfred nobel prize engineers from stockholm 19thcentury swedish businesspeople 19thcentury swedish scientists 19thcentury swedish engineers swedish chemists swedish philanthropists explosives engineers bofors people	2,619
852	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander%20Graham%20Bell	Alexander Graham Bell	alexander graham bell born alexander bell march 3 1847 august 2 1922 was a scottishborn inventor scientist and engineer who is credited with patenting the first practical telephone he also cofounded the american telephone and telegraph company att in 1885 bells father grandfather and brother had all been associated with work on elocution and speech and both his mother and wife were deaf profoundly influencing bells lifes work his research on hearing and speech further led him to experiment with hearing devices which eventually culminated in bell being awarded the first us patent for the telephone on march 7 1876 bell considered his invention an intrusion on his real work as a scientist and refused to have a telephone in his study many other inventions marked bells later life including groundbreaking work in optical telecommunications hydrofoils and aeronautics bell also had a strong influence on the national geographic society and its magazine while serving as the second president from january 7 1898 until 1903 beyond his work in engineering bell had a deep interest in the emerging science of heredity his work in this area has been called the soundest and most useful study of human heredity proposed in nineteenthcentury americabells most notable contribution to basic science as distinct from invention early life bell was born in edinburgh scotland on march 3 1847 the family home was at south charlotte street and has a stone inscription marking it as bells birthplace he had two brothers melville james bell 18451870 and edward charles bell 18481867 both of whom would die of tuberculosis his father was alexander melville bell a phonetician and his mother was eliza grace bell née symonds born as just alexander bell at age 10 he made a plea to his father to have a middle name like his two brothers for his 11th birthday his father acquiesced and allowed him to adopt the name graham chosen out of respect for alexander graham a canadian being treated by his father who had become a family friend to close relatives and friends he remained aleck bell and his siblings attended a presbyterian church in their youth first invention as a child bell displayed a curiosity about his world he gathered botanical specimens and ran experiments at an early age his best friend was ben herdman a neighbour whose family operated a flour mill at the age of 12 bell built a homemade device that combined rotating paddles with sets of nail brushes creating a simple dehusking machine that was put into operation at the mill and used steadily for a number of years in return bens father john herdman gave both boys the run of a small workshop in which to invent from his early years bell showed a sensitive nature and a talent for art poetry and music that was encouraged by his mother with no formal training he mastered the piano and became the familys pianist despite being normally quiet and introspective he revelled in mimicry and voice tricks akin to ventriloquism that continually entertained family guests during their occasional visits bell was also deeply affected by his mothers gradual deafness she began to lose her hearing when he was 12 and learned a manual finger language so he could sit at her side and tap out silently the conversations swirling around the family parlour he also developed a technique of speaking in clear modulated tones directly into his mothers forehead wherein she would hear him with reasonable clarity bells preoccupation with his mothers deafness led him to study acoustics his family was long associated with the teaching of elocution his grandfather alexander bell in london his uncle in dublin and his father in edinburgh were all elocutionists his father published a variety of works on the subject several of which are still well known especially his the standard elocutionist 1860 which appeared in edinburgh in 1868 the standard elocutionist appeared in 168 british editions and sold over a quarter of a million copies in the united states alone in this treatise his father explains his methods of how to instruct deafmutes as they were then known to articulate words and read other peoples lip movements to decipher meaning bells father taught him and his brothers not only to write visible speech but to identify any symbol and its accompanying sound bell became so proficient that he became a part of his fathers public demonstrations and astounded audiences with his abilities he could decipher visible speech representing virtually every language including latin scottish gaelic and even sanskrit accurately reciting written tracts without any prior knowledge of their pronunciation education as a young child bell like his brothers received his early schooling at home from his father at an early age he was enrolled at the royal high school edinburgh which he left at the age of 15 having completed only the first four forms his school record was undistinguished marked by absenteeism and lacklustre grades his main interest remained in the sciences especially biology while he treated other school subjects with indifference to the dismay of his father upon leaving school bell travelled to london to live with his grandfather alexander bell on harrington square during the year he spent with his grandfather a love of learning was born with long hours spent in serious discussion and study the elder bell took great efforts to have his young pupil learn to speak clearly and with conviction the attributes that his pupil would need to become a teacher himself at the age of 16 bell secured a position as a pupilteacher of elocution and music in weston house academy at elgin moray scotland although he was enrolled as a student in latin and greek he instructed classes himself in return for board and 10 per session the following year he attended the university of edinburgh joining his older brother melville who had enrolled there the previous year in 1868 not long before he departed for canada with his family bell completed his matriculation exams and was accepted for admission to university college london first experiments with sound his father encouraged bells interest in speech and in 1863 took his sons to see a unique automaton developed by sir charles wheatstone based on the earlier work of baron wolfgang von kempelen the rudimentary mechanical man simulated a human voice bell was fascinated by the machine and after he obtained a copy of von kempelens book published in german and had laboriously translated it he and his older brother melville built their own automaton head their father highly interested in their project offered to pay for any supplies and spurred the boys on with the enticement of a big prize if they were successful while his brother constructed the throat and larynx bell tackled the more difficult task of recreating a realistic skull his efforts resulted in a remarkably lifelike head that could speak albeit only a few words the boys would carefully adjust the lips and when a bellows forced air through the windpipe a very recognizable mama ensued to the delight of neighbours who came to see the bell invention intrigued by the results of the automaton bell continued to experiment with a live subject the familys skye terrier trouve after he taught it to growl continuously bell would reach into its mouth and manipulate the dogs lips and vocal cords to produce a crudesounding ow ah oo ga ma ma with little convincing visitors believed his dog could articulate how are you grandmama indicative of his playful nature his experiments convinced onlookers that they saw a talking dog these initial forays into experimentation with sound led bell to undertake his first serious work on the transmission of sound using tuning forks to explore resonance at age 19 bell wrote a report on his work and sent it to philologist alexander ellis a colleague of his father ellis immediately wrote back indicating that the experiments were similar to existing work in germany and also lent bell a copy of hermann von helmholtzs work the sensations of tone as a physiological basis for the theory of music dismayed to find that groundbreaking work had already been undertaken by helmholtz who had conveyed vowel sounds by means of a similar tuning fork contraption bell pored over the german scientists book working from his own erroneous mistranslation of a french edition bell fortuitously then made a deduction that would be the underpinning of all his future work on transmitting sound reporting without knowing much about the subject it seemed to me that if vowel sounds could be produced by electrical means so could consonants so could articulate speech he also later remarked i thought that helmholtz had done it and that my failure was due only to my ignorance of electricity it was a valuable blunder if i had been able to read german in those days i might never have commenced my experiments family tragedy in 1865 when the bell family moved to london bell returned to weston house as an assistant master and in his spare hours continued experiments on sound using a minimum of laboratory equipment bell concentrated on experimenting with electricity to convey sound and later installed a telegraph wire from his room in somerset college to that of a friend throughout late 1867 his health faltered mainly through exhaustion his younger brother edward ted was similarly affected by tuberculosis while bell recovered by then referring to himself in correspondence as a g bell and served the next year as an instructor at somerset college bath england his brothers condition deteriorated edward would never recover upon his brothers death bell returned home in 1867 his older brother melville had married and moved out with aspirations to obtain a degree at university college london bell considered his next years as preparation for the degree examinations devoting his spare time at his familys residence to studying helping his father in visible speech demonstrations and lectures brought bell to susanna e hulls private school for the deaf in south kensington london his first two pupils were deafmute girls who made remarkable progress under his tutelage while his older brother seemed to achieve success on many fronts including opening his own elocution school applying for a patent on an invention and starting a family bell continued as a teacher however in may 1870 melville died from complications due to tuberculosis causing a family crisis his father had also experienced a debilitating illness earlier in life and had been restored to health by a convalescence in newfoundland bells parents embarked upon a longplanned move when they realized that their remaining son was also sickly acting decisively alexander melville bell asked bell to arrange for the sale of all the family property conclude all of his brothers affairs bell took over his last student curing a pronounced lisp and join his father and mother in setting out for the new world reluctantly bell also had to conclude a relationship with marie eccleston who as he had surmised was not prepared to leave england with him canada in 1870 23yearold bell travelled with his parents and his brothers widow caroline margaret ottaway to paris ontario to stay with thomas henderson a baptist minister and family friend the bell family soon purchased a farm of at tutelo heights now called tutela heights near brantford ontario the property consisted of an orchard large farmhouse stable pigsty henhouse and a carriage house which bordered the grand river at the homestead bell set up his own workshop in the converted carriage house near to what he called his dreaming place a large hollow nestled in trees at the back of the property above the river despite his frail condition upon arriving in canada bell found the climate and environs to his liking and rapidly improved he continued his interest in the study of the human voice and when he discovered the six nations reserve across the river at onondaga he learned the mohawk language and translated its unwritten vocabulary into visible speech symbols for his work bell was awarded the title of honorary chief and participated in a ceremony where he donned a mohawk headdress and danced traditional dances after setting up his workshop bell continued experiments based on helmholtzs work with electricity and sound he also modified a melodeon a type of pump organ so that it could transmit its music electrically over a distance once the family was settled in both bell and his father made plans to establish a teaching practice and in 1871 he accompanied his father to montreal where melville was offered a position to teach his system of visible speech work with the deaf bells father was invited by sarah fuller principal of the boston school for deaf mutes later to become the public horace mann school for the deaf to introduce the visible speech system by providing training for fullers instructors but he declined the post in favour of his son travelling to boston in april 1871 bell proved successful in training the schools instructors he was subsequently asked to repeat the programme at the american asylum for deafmutes in hartford connecticut and the clarke school for the deaf in northampton massachusetts returning home to brantford after six months abroad bell continued his experiments with his harmonic telegraph the basic concept behind his device was that messages could be sent through a single wire if each message was transmitted at a different pitch but work on both the transmitter and receiver was needed unsure of his future he contemplated returning to london to complete his studies but decided to return to boston as a teacher his father helped him set up his private practice by contacting gardiner greene hubbard the president of the clarke school for the deaf for a recommendation teaching his fathers system in october 1872 alexander bell opened his school of vocal physiology and mechanics of speech in boston which attracted a large number of deaf pupils with his first class numbering 30 students while he was working as a private tutor one of his pupils was helen keller who came to him as a young child unable to see hear or speak she was later to say that bell dedicated his life to the penetration of that inhuman silence which separates and estranges in 1893 keller performed the sodbreaking ceremony for the construction of bells new volta bureau dedicated to the increase and diffusion of knowledge relating to the deaf throughout his lifetime bell sought to integrate the deaf and hard of hearing with the hearing world bell encouraged speech therapy and lip reading over sign language he outlined this in a 1898 paper detailing his belief that with resources and effort the deaf could be taught to read lips and speak known as oralism thus enabling their integration within the wider society bell has been criticised by members of the deaf community for supporting ideas that could cause the closure of dozens of deaf schools and what some consider eugenicist ideas bell did not support a ban on deaf people marrying each other an idea articulated by the national association of the deaf united states although in his memoir memoir upon the formation of a deaf variety of the human race bell observed that if deaf people tended to marry other deaf people this could result in the emergence of a deaf race ultimately in 1880 the second international congress on education of the deaf passed a resolution preferring the teaching of oral communication rather than signing in schools continuing experimentation in 1872 bell became professor of vocal physiology and elocution at the boston university school of oratory during this period he alternated between boston and brantford spending summers in his canadian home at boston university bell was swept up by the excitement engendered by the many scientists and inventors residing in the city he continued his research in sound and endeavored to find a way to transmit musical notes and articulate speech but although absorbed by his experiments he found it difficult to devote enough time to experimentation while days and evenings were occupied by his teaching and private classes bell began to stay awake late into the night running experiment after experiment in rented facilities at his boarding house keeping night owl hours he worried that his work would be discovered and took great pains to lock up his notebooks and laboratory equipment bell had a specially made table where he could place his notes and equipment inside a locking cover worse still his health deteriorated as he had severe headaches returning to boston in fall 1873 bell made a farreaching decision to concentrate on his experiments in sound deciding to give up his lucrative private boston practice bell retained only two students sixyearold georgie sanders deaf from birth and 15yearold mabel hubbard each pupil would play an important role in the next developments georges father thomas sanders a wealthy businessman offered bell a place to stay in nearby salem with georgies grandmother complete with a room to experiment although the offer was made by georges mother and followed the yearlong arrangement in 1872 where her son and his nurse had moved to quarters next to bells boarding house it was clear that mr sanders was backing the proposal the arrangement was for teacher and student to continue their work together with free room and board thrown in mabel was a bright attractive girl who was ten years bells junior but became the object of his affection having lost her hearing after a nearfatal bout of scarlet fever close to her fifth birthday she had learned to read lips but her father gardiner greene hubbard bells benefactor and personal friend wanted her to work directly with her teacher the telephone by 1874 bells initial work on the harmonic telegraph had entered a formative stage with progress made both at his new boston laboratory a rented facility and at his family home in canada a big success while working that summer in brantford bell experimented with a phonautograph a penlike machine that could draw shapes of sound waves on smoked glass by tracing their vibrations bell thought it might be possible to generate undulating electrical currents that corresponded to sound waves bell also thought that multiple metal reeds tuned to different frequencies like a harp would be able to convert the undulating currents back into sound but he had no working model to demonstrate the feasibility of these ideas in 1874 telegraph message traffic was rapidly expanding and in the words of western union president william orton had become the nervous system of commerce orton had contracted with inventors thomas edison and elisha gray to find a way to send multiple telegraph messages on each telegraph line to avoid the great cost of constructing new lines when bell mentioned to gardiner hubbard and thomas sanders that he was working on a method of sending multiple tones on a telegraph wire using a multireed device the two wealthy patrons began to financially support bells experiments patent matters would be handled by hubbards patent attorney anthony pollok in march 1875 bell and pollok visited the scientist joseph henry who was then director of the smithsonian institution and asked henrys advice on the electrical multireed apparatus that bell hoped would transmit the human voice by telegraph henry replied that bell had the germ of a great invention when bell said that he did not have the necessary knowledge henry replied get it that declaration greatly encouraged bell to keep trying even though he did not have the equipment needed to continue his experiments nor the ability to create a working model of his ideas however a chance meeting in 1874 between bell and thomas a watson an experienced electrical designer and mechanic at the electrical machine shop of charles williams changed all that with financial support from sanders and hubbard bell hired thomas watson as his assistant and the two of them experimented with acoustic telegraphy on june 2 1875 watson accidentally plucked one of the reeds and bell at the receiving end of the wire heard the reeds overtones that would be necessary for transmitting speech that demonstrated to bell that only one reed or armature was necessary not multiple reeds this led to the gallows soundpowered telephone which could transmit indistinct voicelike sounds but not clear speech the race to the patent office in 1875 bell developed an acoustic telegraph and drew up a patent application for it since he had agreed to share us profits with his investors gardiner hubbard and thomas sanders bell requested that an associate in ontario george brown attempt to patent it in britain instructing his lawyers to apply for a patent in the us only after they received word from britain britain would issue patents only for discoveries not previously patented elsewhere meanwhile elisha gray was also experimenting with acoustic telegraphy and thought of a way to transmit speech using a water transmitter on february 14 1876 gray filed a caveat with the us patent office for a telephone design that used a water transmitter that same morning bells lawyer filed bells application with the patent office there is considerable debate about who arrived first and gray later challenged the primacy of bells patent bell was in boston on february 14 and did not arrive in washington until february 26 bells patent 174465 was issued to bell on march 7 1876 by the us patent office bells patent covered the method of and apparatus for transmitting vocal or other sounds telegraphically by causing electrical undulations similar in form to the vibrations of the air accompanying the said vocal or other sound bell returned to boston the same day and the next day resumed work drawing in his notebook a diagram similar to that in grays patent caveat on march 10 1876 three days after his patent was issued bell succeeded in getting his telephone to work using a liquid transmitter similar to grays design vibration of the diaphragm caused a needle to vibrate in the water varying the electrical resistance in the circuit when bell spoke the sentence mr watsoncome herei want to see you into the liquid transmitter watson listening at the receiving end in an adjoining room heard the words clearly although bell was and still is accused of stealing the telephone from gray bell used grays water transmitter design only after bells patent had been granted and only as a proof of concept scientific experiment to prove to his own satisfaction that intelligible articulate speech bells words could be electrically transmitted after march 1876 bell focused on improving the electromagnetic telephone and never used grays liquid transmitter in public demonstrations or commercial use the question of priority for the variable resistance feature of the telephone was raised by the examiner before he approved bells patent application he told bell that his claim for the variable resistance feature was also described in grays caveat bell pointed to a variable resistance device in his previous application in which he described a cup of mercury not water he had filed the mercury application at the patent office a year earlier on february 25 1875 long before elisha gray described the water device in addition gray abandoned his caveat and because he did not contest bells priority the examiner approved bells patent on march 3 1876 gray had reinvented the variable resistance telephone but bell was the first to write down the idea and the first to test it in a telephone the patent examiner zenas fisk wilber later stated in an affidavit that he was an alcoholic who was much in debt to bells lawyer marcellus bailey with whom he had served in the civil war he claimed he showed grays patent caveat to bailey wilber also claimed after bell arrived in washington dc from boston that he showed grays caveat to bell and that bell paid him 100 bell claimed they discussed the patent only in general terms although in a letter to gray bell admitted that he learned some of the technical details bell denied in an affidavit that he ever gave wilber any money later developments on march 10 1876 bell used the instrument in boston to call thomas watson who was in another room but out of earshot he said mr watson come here i want to see you and watson soon appeared at his side continuing his experiments in brantford bell brought home a working model of his telephone on august 3 1876 from the telegraph office in brantford ontario bell sent a tentative telegram to the village of mount pleasant distant indicating that he was ready he made a telephone call via telegraph wires and faint voices were heard replying the following night he amazed guests as well as his family with a call between the bell homestead and the office of the dominion telegraph company in brantford along an improvised wire strung up along telegraph lines and fences and laid through a tunnel this time guests at the household distinctly heard people in brantford reading and singing the third test on august 10 1876 was made via the telegraph line between brantford and paris ontario distant this test was said by many sources to be the worlds first longdistance call the final test certainly proved that the telephone could work over long distances at least as a oneway call the first twoway reciprocal conversation over a line occurred between cambridge and boston roughly 25 miles on october 9 1876 during that conversation bell was on kilby street in boston and watson was at the offices of the walworth manufacturing company bell and his partners hubbard and sanders offered to sell the patent outright to western union for 100000 equal to today the president of western union balked countering that the telephone was nothing but a toy two years later he told colleagues that if he could get the patent for 25 million equal to today he would consider it a bargain by then the bell company no longer wanted to sell the patent bells investors would become millionaires while he fared well from residuals and at one point had assets of nearly one million dollars bell began a series of public demonstrations and lectures to introduce the new invention to the scientific community as well as the general public a short time later his demonstration of an early telephone prototype at the 1876 centennial exposition in philadelphia brought the telephone to international attention influential visitors to the exhibition included emperor pedro ii of brazil one of the judges at the exhibition sir william thomson later lord kelvin a renowned scottish scientist described the telephone as the greatest by far of all the marvels of the electric telegraph on january 14 1878 at osborne house on the isle of wight bell demonstrated the device to queen victoria placing calls to cowes southampton and london these were the first publicly witnessed longdistance telephone calls in the uk the queen considered the process to be quite extraordinary although the sound was rather faint she later asked to buy the equipment that was used but bell offered to make a set of telephones specifically for her the bell telephone company was created in 1877 and by 1886 more than 150000 people in the us owned telephones bell company engineers made numerous other improvements to the telephone which emerged as one of the most successful products ever in 1879 the bell company acquired edisons patents for the carbon microphone from western union this made the telephone practical for longer distances and it was no longer necessary to shout to be heard at the receiving telephone emperor pedro ii of brazil was the first person to buy stock in bells company the bell telephone company one of the first telephones in a private residence was installed in his palace in petrópolis his summer retreat from rio de janeiro in january 1915 bell made the first ceremonial transcontinental telephone call calling from the att head office at 15 dey street in new york city bell was heard by thomas watson at 333 grant avenue in san francisco the new york times reported competitors as is sometimes common in scientific discoveries simultaneous developments can occur as evidenced by a number of inventors who were at work on the telephone over a period of 18 years the bell telephone company faced 587 court challenges to its patents including five that went to the us supreme court but none was successful in establishing priority over the original bell patent and the bell telephone company never lost a case that had proceeded to a final trial stage bells laboratory notes and family letters were the key to establishing a long lineage to his experiments the bell company lawyers successfully fought off myriad lawsuits generated initially around the challenges by elisha gray and amos dolbear in personal correspondence to bell both gray and dolbear had acknowledged his prior work which considerably weakened their later claims on january 13 1887 the us government moved to annul the patent issued to bell on the grounds of fraud and misrepresentation after a series of decisions and reversals the bell company won a decision in the supreme court though a couple of the original claims from the lower court cases were left undecided by the time that the trial wound its way through nine years of legal battles the us prosecuting attorney had died and the two bell patents no 174465 dated march 7 1876 and no 186787 dated january 30 1877 were no longer in effect although the presiding judges agreed to continue the proceedings due to the cases importance as a precedent with a change in administration and charges of conflict of interest on both sides arising from the original trial the us attorney general dropped the lawsuit on november 30 1897 leaving several issues undecided on the merits during a deposition filed for the 1887 trial italian inventor antonio meucci also claimed to have created the first working model of a telephone in italy in 1834 in 1886 in the first of three cases in which he was involved meucci took the stand as a witness in the hope of establishing his inventions priority meuccis testimony in this case was disputed due to a lack of material evidence for his inventions as his working models were purportedly lost at the laboratory of american district telegraph adt of new york which was later incorporated as a subsidiary of western union in 1901 meuccis work like many other inventors of the period was based on earlier acoustic principles and despite evidence of earlier experiments the final case involving meucci was eventually dropped upon meuccis death however due to the efforts of congressman vito fossella the us house of representatives on june 11 2002 stated that meuccis work in the invention of the telephone should be acknowledged this did not put an end to the stillcontentious issue some modern scholars do not agree with the claims that bells work on the telephone was influenced by meuccis inventions the value of the bell patent was acknowledged throughout the world and patent applications were made in most major countries but when bell delayed the german patent application the electrical firm of siemens halske set up a rival manufacturer of bell telephones under their own patent the siemens company produced nearidentical copies of the bell telephone without having to pay royalties the establishment of the international bell telephone company in brussels belgium in 1880 as well as a series of agreements in other countries eventually consolidated a global telephone operation the strain put on bell by his constant appearances in court necessitated by the legal battles eventually resulted in his resignation from the company family life on july 11 1877 a few days after the bell telephone company was established bell married mabel hubbard 18571923 at the hubbard estate in cambridge massachusetts his wedding present to his bride was to turn over 1487 of his 1497 shares in the newly formed bell telephone company shortly thereafter the newlyweds embarked on a yearlong honeymoon in europe during that excursion bell took a handmade model of his telephone with him making it a working holiday the courtship had begun years earlier however bell waited until he was more financially secure before marrying although the telephone appeared to be an instant success it was not initially a profitable venture and bells main sources of income were from lectures until after 1897 one unusual request exacted by his fiancée was that he use alec rather than the familys earlier familiar name of aleck from 1876 he would sign his name alec bell they had four children elsie may bell 18781964 who married gilbert hovey grosvenor of national geographic fame marian hubbard bell 18801962 who was referred to as daisy married david fairchild two sons who died in infancy edward in 1881 and robert in 1883 the bell family home was in cambridge massachusetts until 1880 when bells fatherinlaw bought a house in washington dc in 1882 he bought a home in the same city for bells family so they could be with him while he attended to the numerous court cases involving patent disputes bell was a british subject throughout his early life in scotland and later in canada until 1882 when he became a naturalized citizen of the united states in 1915 he characterized his status as i am not one of those hyphenated americans who claim allegiance to two countries despite this declaration bell has been proudly claimed as a native son by all three countries he resided in the united states canada and the united kingdom by 1885 a new summer retreat was contemplated that summer the bells had a vacation on cape breton island in nova scotia spending time at the small village of baddeck returning in 1886 bell started building an estate on a point across from baddeck overlooking bras dor lake by 1889 a large house christened the lodge was completed and two years later a larger complex of buildings including a new laboratory were begun that the bells would name beinn bhreagh gaelic beautiful mountain after bells ancestral scottish highlands bell also built the bell boatyard on the estate employing up to 40 people building experimental craft as well as wartime lifeboats and workboats for the royal canadian navy and pleasure craft for the bell family he was an enthusiastic boater and bell and his family sailed or rowed a long series of vessels on bras dor lake ordering additional vessels from the hw embree and sons boatyard in port hawkesbury nova scotia in his final and some of his most productive years bell split his residency between washington dc where he and his family initially resided for most of the year and beinn bhreagh where they spent increasing amounts of time until the end of his life bell and his family would alternate between the two homes but beinn bhreagh would over the next 30 years become more than a summer home as bell became so absorbed in his experiments that his annual stays lengthened both mabel and bell became immersed in the baddeck community and were accepted by the villagers as their own the bells were still in residence at beinn bhreagh when the halifax explosion occurred on december 6 1917 mabel and bell mobilized the community to help victims in halifax later inventions although alexander graham bell is most often associated with the invention of the telephone his interests were extremely varied according to one of his biographers charlotte gray bells work ranged unfettered across the scientific landscape and he often went to bed voraciously reading the encyclopædia britannica scouring it for new areas of interest the range of bells inventive genius is represented only in part by the 18 patents granted in his name alone and the 12 he shared with his collaborators these included 14 for the telephone and telegraph four for the photophone one for the phonograph five for aerial vehicles four for hydroairplanes and two for selenium cells bells inventions spanned a wide range of interests and included a metal jacket to assist in breathing the audiometer to detect minor hearing problems a device to locate icebergs investigations on how to separate salt from seawater and work on finding alternative fuels bell worked extensively in medical research and invented techniques for teaching speech to the deaf during his volta laboratory period bell and his associates considered impressing a magnetic field on a record as a means of reproducing sound although the trio briefly experimented with the concept they could not develop a workable prototype they abandoned the idea never realizing they had glimpsed a basic principle which would one day find its application in the tape recorder the hard disc and floppy disc drive and other magnetic media bells own home used a primitive form of air conditioning in which fans blew currents of air across great blocks of ice he also anticipated modern concerns with fuel shortages and industrial pollution methane gas he reasoned could be produced from the waste of farms and factories at his canadian estate in nova scotia he experimented with composting toilets and devices to capture water from the atmosphere in a magazine interview published shortly before his death he reflected on the possibility of using solar panels to heat houses photophone bell and his assistant charles sumner tainter jointly invented a wireless telephone named a photophone which allowed for the transmission of both sounds and normal human conversations on a beam of light both men later became full associates in the volta laboratory association on june 21 1880 bells assistant transmitted a wireless voice telephone message a considerable distance from the roof of the franklin school in washington dc to bell at the window of his laboratory some away 19 years before the first voice radio transmissions bell believed the photophones principles were his lifes greatest achievement telling a reporter shortly before his death that the photophone was the greatest invention i have ever made greater than the telephone the photophone was a precursor to the fiberoptic communication systems which achieved popular worldwide usage in the 1980s its master patent was issued in december 1880 many decades before the photophones principles came into popular use metal detector bell is also credited with developing one of the early versions of a metal detector through the use of an induction balance after the shooting of us president james a garfield in 1881 according to some accounts the metal detector worked flawlessly in tests but did not find guiteaus bullet partly because the metal bed frame on which the president was lying disturbed the instrument resulting in static garfields surgeons led by selfappointed chief physician doctor willard bliss were skeptical of the device and ignored bells requests to move the president to a bed not fitted with metal springs alternatively although bell had detected a slight sound on his first test the bullet may have been lodged too deeply to be detected by the crude apparatus bells own detailed account presented to the american association for the advancement of science in 1882 differs in several particulars from most of the many and varied versions now in circulation by concluding that extraneous metal was not to blame for failure to locate the bullet perplexed by the peculiar results he had obtained during an examination of garfield bell proceeded to the executive mansion the next morning to ascertain from the surgeons whether they were perfectly sure that all metal had been removed from the neighborhood of the bed it was then recollected that underneath the horsehair mattress on which the president lay was another mattress composed of steel wires upon obtaining a duplicate the mattress was found to consist of a sort of net of woven steel wires with large meshes the extent of the area that produced a response from the detector having been so small as compared with the area of the bed it seemed reasonable to conclude that the steel mattress had produced no detrimental effect in a footnote bell adds the death of president garfield and the subsequent postmortem examination however proved that the bullet was at too great a distance from the surface to have affected our apparatus hydrofoils the march 1906 scientific american article by american pioneer william e meacham explained the basic principle of hydrofoils and hydroplanes bell considered the invention of the hydroplane as a very significant achievement based on information gained from that article he began to sketch concepts of what is now called a hydrofoil boat bell and assistant frederick w casey baldwin began hydrofoil experimentation in the summer of 1908 as a possible aid to airplane takeoff from water baldwin studied the work of the italian inventor enrico forlanini and began testing models this led him and bell to the development of practical hydrofoil watercraft during his world tour of 191011 bell and baldwin met with forlanini in france they had rides in the forlanini hydrofoil boat over lake maggiore baldwin described it as being as smooth as flying on returning to baddeck a number of initial concepts were built as experimental models including the dhonnas beag scottish gaelic for little devil the first selfpropelled bellbaldwin hydrofoil the experimental boats were essentially proofofconcept prototypes that culminated in the more substantial hd4 powered by renault engines a top speed of was achieved with the hydrofoil exhibiting rapid acceleration good stability and steering along with the ability to take waves without difficulty in 1913 dr bell hired walter pinaud a sydney yacht designer and builder as well as the proprietor of pinauds yacht yard in westmount nova scotia to work on the pontoons of the hd4 pinaud soon took over the boatyard at bell laboratories on beinn bhreagh bells estate near baddeck nova scotia pinauds experience in boatbuilding enabled him to make useful design changes to the hd4 after the first world war work began again on the hd4 bells report to the us navy permitted him to obtain two engines in july 1919 on september 9 1919 the hd4 set a world marine speed record of a record which stood for ten years aeronautics in 1891 bell had begun experiments to develop motorpowered heavierthanair aircraft the aea was first formed as bell shared the vision to fly with his wife who advised him to seek young help as bell was at the age of 60 in 1898 bell experimented with tetrahedral box kites and wings constructed of multiple compound tetrahedral kites covered in maroon silk the tetrahedral wings were named cygnet i ii and iii and were flown both unmanned and manned cygnet i crashed during a flight carrying selfridge in the period from 1907 to 1912 some of bells kites are on display at the alexander graham bell national historic site bell was a supporter of aerospace engineering research through the aerial experiment association aea officially formed at baddeck nova scotia in october 1907 at the suggestion of his wife mabel and with her financial support after the sale of some of her real estate the aea was headed by bell and the founding members were four young men american glenn h curtiss a motorcycle manufacturer at the time and who held the title worlds fastest man having ridden his selfconstructed motor bicycle around in the shortest time and who was later awarded the scientific american trophy for the first official onekilometre flight in the western hemisphere and who later became a worldrenowned airplane manufacturer lieutenant thomas selfridge an official observer from the us federal government and one of the few people in the army who believed that aviation was the future frederick w baldwin the first canadian and first british subject to pilot a public flight in hammondsport new york and j a d mccurdybaldwin and mccurdy being new engineering graduates from the university of toronto the aeas work progressed to heavierthanair machines applying their knowledge of kites to gliders moving to hammondsport the group then designed and built the red wing framed in bamboo and covered in red silk and powered by a small aircooled engine on march 12 1908 over keuka lake the biplane lifted off on the first public flight in north america the innovations that were incorporated into this design included a cockpit enclosure and tail rudder later variations on the original design would add ailerons as a means of control one of the aeas inventions a practical wingtip form of the aileron was to become a standard component on all aircraft the white wing and june bug were to follow and by the end of 1908 over 150 flights without mishap had been accomplished however the aea had depleted its initial reserves and only a 15000 grant from mrs bell allowed it to continue with experiments lt selfridge had also become the first person killed in a powered heavierthanair flight in a crash of the wright flyer at fort myer virginia on september 17 1908 their final aircraft design the silver dart embodied all of the advancements found in the earlier machines on february 23 1909 bell was present as the silver dart flown by j a d mccurdy from the frozen ice of bras dor made the first aircraft flight in canada bell had worried that the flight was too dangerous and had arranged for a doctor to be on hand with the successful flight the aea disbanded and the silver dart would revert to baldwin and mccurdy who began the canadian aerodrome company and would later demonstrate the aircraft to the canadian army heredity and genetics bell along with many members of the scientific community at the time took an interest in the popular science of heredity which grew out of the publication of charles darwins book on the origin of species in 1859 on his estate in nova scotia bell conducted meticulously recorded breeding experiments with rams and ewes over the course of more than 30 years bell sought to produce a breed of sheep with multiple nipples that would bear twins he specifically wanted to see if selective breeding could produce sheep with four functional nipples with enough milk for twin lambs this interest in animal breeding caught the attention of scientists focused on the study of heredity and genetics in humans in november 1883 bell presented a paper at a meeting of the national academy of sciences titled upon the formation of a deaf variety of the human race the paper is a compilation of data on the hereditary aspects of deafness bells research indicated that a hereditary tendency toward deafness as indicated by the possession of deaf relatives was an important element in determining the production of deaf offspring he noted that the proportion of deaf children born to deaf parents was many times greater than the proportion of deaf children born to the general population in the paper bell delved into social commentary and discussed hypothetical public policies to bring an end to deafness he also criticized educational practices that segregated deaf children rather than integrated them fulling into mainstream classrooms the paper did not propose sterilization of deaf people or prohibition on intermarriage noting that we cannot dictate to men and women whom they should marry and natural selection no longer influences mankind to any great extent a review of bells memoir upon the formation of a deaf variety of the human race appearing in an 1885 issue of the american annals of the deaf and dumb states that dr bell does not advocate legislative interference with the marriages of the deaf for several reasons one of which is that the results of such marriages have not yet been sufficiently investigated the article goes on to say that the editorial remarks based thereon did injustice to the author the papers author concludes by saying a wiser way to prevent the extension of hereditary deafness it seems to us would be to continue the investigations which dr bell has so admirable begun until the laws of the transmission of the tendency to deafness are fully understood and then by explaining those laws to the pupils of our schools to lead them to choose their partners in marriage in such a way that deafmute offspring will not be the result historians have noted that bell explicitly opposed laws regulating marriage and never mentioned sterilization in any of his writings even after bell agreed to engage with scientists conducting eugenic research he consistently refused to support public policy that limited the rights or privileges of the deaf bells interest and research on heredity attracted the interest of charles davenport a harvard professor and head of the cold spring harbor laboratory in 1906 davenport who was also the founder of the american breeders association approached bell about joining a new committee on eugenics chaired by david starr jordan in 1910 davenport opened the eugenics records office at cold spring harbor to give the organization scientific credibility davenport set up a board of scientific directors naming bell as chairman other members of the board included luther burbank roswell h johnson vernon l kellogg and william e castle in 1921 a second international congress of eugenics was held in new york at the museum of natural history and chaired by davenport although bell did not present any research or speak as part of the proceedings he was named as honorary president as a means to attract other scientists to attend the event a summary of the event notes that bell was a pioneering investigator in the field of human heredity death bell died of complications arising from diabetes on august 2 1922 at his private estate in cape breton nova scotia at age 75 bell had also been affected by pernicious anemia his last view of the land he had inhabited was by moonlight on his mountain estate at 200 am while tending to him after his long illness mabel his wife whispered dont leave me by way of reply bell signed no lost consciousness and died shortly after on learning of bells death the canadian prime minister mackenzie king cabled mrs bell saying bells coffin was constructed of beinn bhreagh pine by his laboratory staff lined with the same red silk fabric used in his tetrahedral kite experiments to help celebrate his life his wife asked guests not to wear black the traditional funeral color while attending his service during which soloist jean macdonald sang a verse of robert louis stevensons requiem upon the conclusion of bells funeral for one minute at 625 pm eastern time every phone on the continent of north america was silenced in honor of the man who had given to mankind the means for direct communication at a distance alexander graham bell was buried atop beinn bhreagh mountain on his estate where he had resided increasingly for the last 35 years of his life overlooking bras dor lake he was survived by his wife mabel his two daughters elsie may and marian and nine of his grandchildren legacy and honors honors and tributes flowed to bell in increasing numbers as his invention became ubiquitous and his personal fame grew bell received numerous honorary degrees from colleges and universities to the point that the requests almost became burdensome during his life he also received dozens of major awards medals and other tributes these included statuary monuments to both him and the new form of communication his telephone created including the bell telephone memorial erected in his honor in alexander graham bell gardens in brantford ontario in 1917 a large number of bells writings personal correspondence notebooks papers and other documents reside in both the united states library of congress manuscript division as the alexander graham bell family papers and at the alexander graham bell institute cape breton university nova scotia major portions of which are available for online viewing a number of historic sites and other marks commemorate bell in north america and europe including the first telephone companies in the united states and canada among the major sites are the alexander graham bell national historic site maintained by parks canada which incorporates the alexander graham bell museum in baddeck nova scotia close to the bell estate beinn bhreagh the bell homestead national historic site includes the bell family home melville house and farm overlooking brantford ontario and the grand river it was their first home in north america canadas first telephone company building the henderson home of the late 1870s a predecessor of the bell telephone company of canada officially chartered in 1880 in 1969 the building was carefully moved to the historic bell homestead national historic site in brantford ontario and was refurbished to become a telephone museum the bell homestead the henderson home telephone museum and the national historic sites reception centre are all maintained by the bell homestead society the alexander graham bell memorial park which features a broad neoclassical monument built in 1917 by public subscription the monument depicts mankinds ability to span the globe through telecommunications the alexander graham bell museum opened in 1956 part of the alexander graham bell national historic site which was completed in 1978 in baddeck nova scotia many of the museums artifacts were donated by bells daughters in 1880 bell received the volta prize with a purse of 50000 french francs approximately us in todays dollars for the invention of the telephone from the french government among the luminaries who judged were victor hugo and alexandre dumas fils the volta prize was conceived by napoleon iii in 1852 and named in honor of alessandro volta with bell becoming the second recipient of the grand prize in its history since bell was becoming increasingly affluent he used his prize money to create endowment funds the volta fund and institutions in and around the united states capital of washington dc these included the prestigious volta laboratory association 1880 also known as the volta laboratory and as the alexander graham bell laboratory and which eventually led to the volta bureau 1887 as a center for studies on deafness which is still in operation in georgetown washington dc the volta laboratory became an experimental facility devoted to scientific discovery and the very next year it improved edisons phonograph by substituting wax for tinfoil as the recording medium and incising the recording rather than indenting it key upgrades that edison himself later adopted the laboratory was also the site where he and his associate invented his proudest achievement the photophone the optical telephone which presaged fibre optical telecommunications while the volta bureau would later evolve into the alexander graham bell association for the deaf and hard of hearing the ag bell a leading center for the research and pedagogy of deafness in partnership with gardiner greene hubbard bell helped establish the publication science during the early 1880s in 1898 bell was elected as the second president of the national geographic society serving until 1903 and was primarily responsible for the extensive use of illustrations including photography in the magazine he also served for many years as a regent of the smithsonian institution 18981922 the french government conferred on him the decoration of the légion dhonneur legion of honor the royal society of arts in london awarded him the albert medal in 1902 the university of würzburg bavaria granted him a phd and he was awarded the franklin institutes elliott cresson medal in 1912 he was one of the founders of the american institute of electrical engineers in 1884 and served as its president from 1891 to 1892 bell was later awarded the aiees edison medal in 1914 for meritorious achievement in the invention of the telephone the bel b and the smaller decibel db are units of measurement of sound pressure level spl invented by bell labs and named after him since 1976 the ieees alexander graham bell medal has been awarded to honor outstanding contributions in the field of telecommunications in 1936 the us patent office declared bell first on its list of the countrys greatest inventors leading to the us post office issuing a commemorative stamp honoring bell in 1940 as part of its famous americans series the first day of issue ceremony was held on october 28 in boston massachusetts the city where bell spent considerable time on research and working with the deaf the bell stamp became very popular and sold out in little time the stamp became and remains to this day the most valuable one of the series the 150th anniversary of bells birth in 1997 was marked by a special issue of commemorative 1 banknotes from the royal bank of scotland the illustrations on the reverse of the note include bells face in profile his signature and objects from bells life and career users of the telephone over the ages an audio wave signal a diagram of a telephone receiver geometric shapes from engineering structures representations of sign language and the phonetic alphabet the geese which helped him to understand flight and the sheep which he studied to understand genetics additionally the government of canada honored bell in 1997 with a c100 gold coin in tribute also to the 150th anniversary of his birth and with a silver dollar coin in 2009 in honor of the 100th anniversary of flight in canada that first flight was made by an airplane designed under dr bells tutelage named the silver dart bells image and also those of his many inventions have graced paper money coinage and postal stamps in numerous countries worldwide for many dozens of years alexander graham bell was ranked 57th among the 100 greatest britons 2002 in an official bbc nationwide poll and among the top ten greatest canadians 2004 and the 100 greatest americans 2005 in 2006 bell was also named as one of the 10 greatest scottish scientists in history after having been listed in the national library of scotlands scottish science hall of fame bells name is still widely known and used as part of the names of dozens of educational institutes corporate namesakes street and place names around the world honorary degrees alexander graham bell who could not complete the university program of his youth received at least a dozen honorary degrees from academic institutions including eight honorary llds doctorate of laws two phds a dsc and an md gallaudet college then named national deafmute college in washington dc phd in 1880 university of würzburg in würzburg bavaria phd in 1882 heidelberg university in heidelberg germany md in 1886 harvard university in cambridge massachusetts lld in 1896 illinois college in jacksonville illinois lld in 1896 possibly 1881 amherst college in amherst massachusetts lld in 1901 st andrews university in st andrews scotland lld in 1902 university of oxford in oxford england dsc in 1906 university of edinburgh in edinburgh scotland lld in 1906 george washington university in washington dc lld in 1913 queens university at kingston in kingston ontario canada lld in 1908 dartmouth college in hanover new hampshire lld in 1913 possibly 1914 portrayal in film and television the 1939 film the story of alexander graham bell was based on his life and works the 1965 bbc miniseries alexander graham bell starring alec mccowen and francesca annis the 1992 film the sound and the silence was a tv film biography aired an episode alexander graham bell voice of invention on august 6 1996 eyewitness no 90 a great inventor is remembered a 1957 nfb short about bell bibliography also published as see also alexander graham bell association for the deaf and hard of hearing alexander graham bell national historic site bell boatyard bell homestead national historic site bell telephone memorial berliner emile bourseul charles ieee alexander graham bell medal manzetti innocenzo meucci antonio oriental telephone company people on scottish banknotes pioneers a volunteer network reis philipp the story of alexander graham bell a 1939 movie of his life the telephone cases volta laboratory and bureau william francis channing submitted telephone ideas to bell references notes citations further reading mullett mary b the story of a famous inventor new york rogers and fowle 1921 walters eric the hydrofoil mystery toronto ontario canada puffin books 1999 winzer margret a the history of special education from isolation to integration washington dc gallaudet university press 1993 external links alexander and mabel bell legacy foundation alexander graham bell institute at cape breton university archived 8 december 2015 bell telephone memorial brantford ontario bell homestead national historic site brantford ontario alexander graham bell national historic site of canada baddeck nova scotia alexander graham bell family papers at the library of congress biography at the dictionary of canadian biography online scienceca profile alexander graham bell alexander graham bells notebooks at the internet archive téléphone et photophone les contributions indirectes de graham bell à lidée de la vision à distance par lélectricité at the histoire de la télévision alexander graham bell and the aerial experiment association photograph collection at the museum of flight seattle washington multimedia alexander graham bell at the biography channel shaping the future from the heritage minutes and radio minutes collection at historicacanadaca 131 audio drama adobe flash required 1847 births 1922 deaths 19thcentury scottish inventors 19thcentury canadian inventors 19thcentury canadian scientists 19thcentury scottish businesspeople 19thcentury scottish scientists 20thcentury american inventors 20thcentury american scientists 20thcentury canadian scientists alumni of the university of edinburgh alumni of university college london american agnostics american educational theorists american eugenicists american physicists american unitarians articles containing video clips aviation pioneers businesspeople from boston canadian activists canadian agnostics canadian aviation hall of fame inductees canadian educational theorists canadian emigrants to the united states canadian eugenicists canadian physicists canadian unitarians deaths from diabetes fellows of the american academy of arts and sciences gardiner family george washington university trustees hall of fame for great americans inductees history of telecommunications ieee edison medal recipients john fritz medal recipients language teachers members of the american antiquarian society members of the american philosophical society members of the united states national academy of sciences national aviation hall of fame inductees national geographic society officers of the legion of honour people educated at the royal high school edinburgh people from baddeck nova scotia people from brantford scientists from edinburgh scientists from washington dc scottish agnostics scottish emigrants to canada scottish emigrants to the united states scottish engineering hall of fame inductees scottish eugenicists scottish inventors scottish physicists scottish unitarians smithsonian institution people	10,445
854	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatolia	Anatolia	anatolia also known as asia minor is a large peninsula in west asia and is the westernmost extension of continental asia the land mass of anatolia constitutes most of the territory of contemporary turkey geographically the anatolian region is bounded by the turkish straits to the northwest the black sea to the north the armenian highlands to the east the mediterranean sea to the south and the aegean sea to the west topographically the sea of marmara connects the black sea with the aegean sea through the bosporus strait and the dardanelles strait and separates anatolia from thrace in the balkan peninsula of southeastern europe the eastern border of anatolia is a line between the gulf of alexandretta and the black sea bounded by the armenian highlands to the east and mesopotamia to the southeast thus anatolia comprises approximately the western twothirds of the asian territory of turkey anatolia sometimes is synonymous with asian turkey thereby including the western part of the armenian highlands and northern mesopotamia and making its eastern and southern borders coterminous with turkeys borders the ancient anatolian peoples spoke the nowextinct anatolian languages of the indoeuropean language family which were largely replaced by the greek language during classical antiquity as well as during the hellenistic roman and byzantine periods the major anatolian languages included hittite luwian and lydian while other poorly attested local languages included phrygian and mysian hurrourartian languages were spoken in the southeastern kingdom of mitanni while galatian a celtic language was spoken in galatia central anatolia ancient peoples in the region included galatians hurrians assyrians hattians cimmerians as well as ionian dorian and aeolic greeks the turkification of anatolia began under the rule of the seljuk empire in the late 11th century continued under the ottoman empire between the late 13th and early 20th centuries and continues today under the republic of turkey however various nonturkic languages continue to be spoken by minorities in anatolia including kurdish neoaramaic armenian north caucasian languages laz georgian and greek geography traditionally anatolia is considered to extend in the east to an indefinite line running from the gulf of alexandretta to the black sea coterminous with the anatolian plateau this traditional geographical definition is used for example in the latest edition of merriamwebsters geographical dictionary under this definition anatolia is bounded to the east by the armenian highlands and the euphrates before that river bends to the southeast to enter mesopotamia to the southeast it is bounded by the ranges that separate it from the orontes valley in syria and the mesopotamian plain following the armenian genocide western armenia was renamed the eastern anatolia region by the newly established turkish government in 1941 with the first geography congress which divided turkey into seven geographical regions based on differences in climate and landscape the eastern provinces of turkey were placed into the eastern anatolia region which largely corresponds to the historical region of western armenia named as such after the division of greater armenia between the romanbyzantine empire western armenia and sassanid persia eastern armenia in 387 ad vazken davidian terms the expanded use of anatolia to apply to territory in eastern turkey that was formerly referred to as armenia which had a sizeable armenian population before the armenian genocide an ahistorical imposition and notes that a growing body of literature is uncomfortable with referring to the ottoman east as eastern anatolia the highest mountain in the eastern anatolia region also the highest peak in the armenian highlands is mount ararat 5123 m the euphrates aras karasu and murat rivers connect the armenian highlands to the south caucasus and the upper euphrates valley along with the çoruh these rivers are the longest in the eastern anatolia region etymology the englishlanguage name anatolia derives from the greek meaning the east and designating from a greek point of view eastern regions in general the greek word refers to the direction where the sun rises coming from anatello ι rise up comparable to terms in other languages such as levant from latin to rise orient from latin to arise to originate hebrew mizraḥ east from zaraḥ to rise to shine aramaic midnaḥ from denaḥ to rise to shine the use of anatolian designations has varied over time perhaps originally referring to the aeolian ionian and dorian colonies situated along the eastern coasts of the aegean sea but also encompassing eastern regions in general such use of anatolian designations was employed during the reign of roman emperor diocletian who created the diocese of the east known in greek as the eastern diocese but completely unrelated to the regions of asia minor in their widest territorial scope anatolian designations were employed during the reign of roman emperor constantine i 306337 who created the praetorian prefecture of the east known in greek as the eastern prefecture encompassing all eastern regions of the late roman empire and spanning from thrace to egypt only after the loss of other eastern regions during the 7th century and the reduction of byzantine eastern domains to asia minor that region became the only remaining part of the byzantine east and thus commonly referred to in greek as the eastern part of the empire at the same time the anatolic theme the eastern theme was created as a province theme covering the western and central parts of turkeys presentday central anatolia region centered around iconium but ruled from the city of amorium the latinized form with its ia ending is probably a medieval latin innovation the modern turkish form derives directly from the greek name anatolḗ the russian male name anatoly the french anatole and plain anatol all stemming from saints anatolius of laodicea d 283 and anatolius of constantinople d 458 the first patriarch of constantinople share the same linguistic origin names the oldest known name for any region within anatolia is related to its central area known as the land of hatti a designation that was initially used for the land of ancient hattians but later became the most common name for the entire territory under the rule of ancient hittites the first recorded name the greeks used for the anatolian peninsula though not particularly popular at the time was ἀσία asía perhaps from an akkadian expression for the sunrise or possibly echoing the name of the assuwa league in western anatolia the romans used it as the name of their province comprising the west of the peninsula plus the nearby aegean islands as the name asia broadened its scope to apply to the vaster region east of the mediterranean some greeks in late antiquity came to use the name asia minor μικρὰ ἀσία mikrà asía meaning lesser asia to refer to presentday anatolia whereas the administration of the empire preferred the description ἀνατολή anatolḗ the endonym ῥωμανία rōmanía the land of the romans ie the eastern roman empire was understood as another name for the province by the invading seljuq turks who founded a sultanate of rûm in 1077 thus land of the rûm became another name for anatolia by the 12th century europeans had started referring to anatolia as turchia during the era of the ottoman empire mapmakers outside the empire referred to the mountainous plateau in eastern anatolia as armenia other contemporary sources called the same area kurdistan geographers have variously used the terms east anatolian plateau and armenian plateau to refer to the region although the territory encompassed by each term largely overlaps with the other according to archaeologist lori khatchadourian this difference in terminology primarily results from the shifting political fortunes and cultural trajectories of the region since the nineteenth century turkeys first geography congress in 1941 created two geographical regions of turkey to the east of the gulf of iskenderunblack sea line the eastern anatolia region and the southeastern anatolia region the former largely corresponding to the western part of the armenian highlands the latter to the northern part of the mesopotamian plain according to richard hovannisian this changing of toponyms was necessary to obscure all evidence of the armenian presence as part of the policy of armenian genocide denial embarked upon by the newly established turkish government and what hovannisian calls its foreign collaborators history prehistoric anatolia human habitation in anatolia dates back to the paleolithic neolithic settlements include çatalhöyük çayönü nevali cori aşıklı höyük boncuklu höyük hacilar göbekli tepe norşuntepe köşk höyük and yumuktepe çatalhöyük 7000 bce is considered the most advanced of these neolithic anatolia has been proposed as the homeland of the indoeuropean language family although linguists tend to favour a later origin in the steppes north of the black sea however it is clear that the anatolian languages the earliest attested branch of indoeuropean have been spoken in anatolia since at least the 19th century bce recent advances in archaeogenetics have confirmed that the spread of agriculture from the middle east to europe was strongly correlated with the migration of early farmers from anatolia about 9000 years ago and was not just a cultural exchange anatolian neolithic farmers derived a significant portion of their ancestry from the anatolian huntergatherers suggesting that agriculture was adopted in site by these huntergatherers and not spread by demic diffusion into the region ancient anatolia the earliest historical data related to anatolia appear during the bronze age and continue throughout the iron age the most ancient period in the history of anatolia spans from the emergence of ancient hattians up to the conquest of anatolia by the achaemenid empire in the 6th century bce hattians and hurrians the earliest historically attested populations of anatolia were the hattians in central anatolia and hurrians further to the east the hattians were an indigenous people whose main center was the city of hattush affiliation of hattian language remains unclear while hurrian language belongs to a distinctive family of hurrourartian languages all of those languages are extinct relationships with indigenous languages of the caucasus have been proposed but are not generally accepted the region became famous for exporting raw materials organized trade between anatolia and mesopotamia started to emerge during the period of the akkadian empire and was continued and intensified during the period of the old assyrian empire between the 21st and the 18th centuries bce assyrian traders were bringing tin and textiles in exchange for copper silver or gold cuneiform records dated found in anatolia at the assyrian colony of kanesh use an advanced system of trading computations and credit lines hittite anatolia 18th12th century bce unlike the akkadians and assyrians whose anatolian trading posts were peripheral to their core lands in mesopotamia the hittites were centered at hattusa modern boğazkale in northcentral anatolia by the 17th century bce they were speakers of an indoeuropean language the hittite language or nesili the language of nesa in hittite the hittites originated from local ancient cultures that grew in anatolia in addition to the arrival of indoeuropean languages attested for the first time in the assyrian tablets of nesa around 2000 bce they conquered hattusa in the 18th century bce imposing themselves over hattian and hurrianspeaking populations according to the widely accepted kurgan theory on the protoindoeuropean homeland however the hittites along with the other indoeuropean ancient anatolians were themselves relatively recent immigrants to anatolia from the north however they did not necessarily displace the population genetically they assimilated into the former peoples culture preserving the hittite language the hittites adopted the mesopotamian cuneiform script in the late bronze age hittite new kingdom was founded becoming an empire in the 14th century bce after the conquest of kizzuwatna in the southeast and the defeat of the assuwa league in western anatolia the empire reached its height in the 13th century bce controlling much of asia minor northwestern syria and northwest upper mesopotamia however the hittite advance toward the black sea coast was halted by the seminomadic pastoralist and tribal kaskians a nonindoeuropean people who had earlier displaced the palaicspeaking indoeuropeans much of the history of the hittite empire concerned war with the rival empires of egypt assyria and the mitanni the ancient egyptians eventually withdrew from the region after failing to gain the upper hand over the hittites and becoming wary of the power of assyria which had destroyed the mitanni empire the assyrians and hittites were then left to battle over control of eastern and southern anatolia and colonial territories in syria the assyrians had better success than the egyptians annexing much hittite and hurrian territory in these regions posthittite anatolia 12th6th century bce after 1180 bce during the late bronze age collapse the hittite empire disintegrated into several independent syrohittite states subsequent to losing much territory to the middle assyrian empire and being finally overrun by the phrygians another indoeuropean people who are believed to have migrated from the balkans the phrygian expansion into southeast anatolia was eventually halted by the assyrians who controlled that region luwians another indoeuropean people the luwians rose to prominence in central and western anatolia bce their language belonged to the same linguistic branch as hittite the general consensus amongst scholars is that luwian was spoken across a large area of western anatolia including possibly wilusa troy the seha river land to be identified with the hermos andor kaikos valley and the kingdom of mirakuwaliya with its core territory of the maeander valley from the 9th century bce luwian regions coalesced into a number of states such as lydia caria and lycia all of which had hellenic influence arameans arameans encroached over the borders of southcentral anatolia in the century or so after the fall of the hittite empire and some of the syrohittite states in this region became an amalgam of hittites and arameans these became known as syrohittite states neoassyrian empire from the 10th to late 7th centuries bce much of anatolia particularly the southeastern regions fell to the neoassyrian empire including all of the syrohittite states tabal commagene the cimmerians and scythians and swathes of cappadocia the neoassyrian empire collapsed due to a bitter series of civil wars followed by a combined attack by medes persians scythians and their own babylonian relations the last assyrian city to fall was harran in southeast anatolia this city was the birthplace of the last king of babylon the assyrian nabonidus and his son and regent belshazzar much of the region then fell to the shortlived iranbased median empire with the babylonians and scythians briefly appropriating some territory cimmerian and scythian invasions from the late 8th century bce a new wave of indoeuropeanspeaking raiders entered northern and northeast anatolia the cimmerians and scythians the cimmerians overran phrygia and the scythians threatened to do the same to urartu and lydia before both were finally checked by the assyrians early greek presence the northwestern coast of anatolia was inhabited by greeks of the achaeanmycenaean culture from the 20th century bce related to the greeks of southeastern europe and the aegean beginning with the bronze age collapse at the end of the 2nd millennium bce the west coast of anatolia was settled by ionian greeks usurping the area of the related but earlier mycenaean greeks over several centuries numerous ancient greek citystates were established on the coasts of anatolia greeks started western philosophy on the western coast of anatolia presocratic philosophy classical anatolia in classical antiquity anatolia was described by the ancient greek historian herodotus and later historians as divided into regions that were diverse in culture language and religious practices the northern regions included bithynia paphlagonia and pontus to the west were mysia lydia and caria and lycia pamphylia and cilicia belonged to the southern shore there were also several inland regions phrygia cappadocia pisidia and galatia languages spoken included the late surviving anatolic languages isaurian and pisidian greek in western and coastal regions phrygian spoken until the 7th century ce local variants of thracian in the northwest the galatian variant of gaulish in galatia until the 6th century ce cappadocian in the homonymous region armenian in the east and kartvelian languages in the northeast anatolia is known as the birthplace of minted coinage as opposed to unminted coinage which first appears in mesopotamia at a much earlier date as a medium of exchange some time in the 7th century bce in lydia the use of minted coins continued to flourish during the greek and roman eras during the 6th century bce all of anatolia was conquered by the persian achaemenid empire the persians having usurped the medes as the dominant dynasty of persia in 499 bce the ionian citystates on the west coast of anatolia rebelled against persian rule the ionian revolt as it became known though quelled initiated the grecopersian wars which ended in a greek victory in 449 bce and the ionian cities regained their independence by the peace of antalcidas 387 bce which ended the corinthian war persia regained control over ionia in 334 bce the macedonian greek king alexander the great conquered the anatolian peninsula from the achaemenid persian empire alexanders conquest opened up the interior of asia minor to greek settlement and influence following the death of alexander the great and the subsequent breakup of the macedonian empire anatolia was ruled by a series of hellenistic kingdoms such as the attalids of pergamum and the seleucids the latter controlling most of anatolia a period of peaceful hellenization followed such that the local anatolian languages had been supplanted by greek by the 1st century bce in 133 bce the last attalid king bequeathed his kingdom to the roman republic western and central anatolia came under roman control but hellenistic culture remained predominant mithridates vi eupator ruler of the kingdom of pontus in northern anatolia waged war against the roman republic in the year 88 bce in order to halt the advance of roman hegemony in the aegean sea region mithridates vi sought to dominate asia minor and the black sea region waging several hardfought but ultimately unsuccessful wars the mithridatic wars to break roman dominion over asia and the hellenic world he has been called the greatest ruler of the kingdom of pontus further annexations by rome in particular of the kingdom of pontus by pompey brought all of anatolia under roman control except for the southeastern frontier with the parthian empire which remained unstable for centuries causing a series of military conflicts that culminated in the romanparthian wars 54 bce 217 ce early christian period after the first division of the roman empire anatolia became part of the eastern roman empire otherwise known as the byzantine empire or byzantium in the 1st century ce anatolia became one of the first places where christianity spread so that by the 4th century ce western and central anatolia were overwhelmingly christian and greekspeaking byzantine anatolia was one of the wealthiest and most densely populated places in the later roman empire anatolias wealth grew during the 4th and 5th centuries thanks in part to the pilgrims road that ran through the peninsula literary evidence about the rural landscape stems from the christian hagiographies of the 6thcentury nicholas of sion and 7thcentury theodore of sykeon large and prosperous urban centers of byzantine anatolia included assos ephesus miletus nicaea pergamum priene sardis and aphrodisias from the mid5th century onwards urbanism was affected negatively and began to decline while the rural areas reached unprecedented levels of prosperity in the region historians and scholars continue to debate the cause of the urban decline in byzantine anatolia between the 6th and 7th centuries variously attributing it to the plague of justinian 541 the byzantinesasanian war 602628 and the arab invasion of the levant 634638 medieval period in the 10 years following the battle of manzikert in 1071 the seljuk turks from central asia migrated over large areas of anatolia with particular concentrations around the northwestern rim the turkish language and the islamic religion were gradually introduced as a result of the seljuk conquest and this period marks the start of anatolias slow transition from predominantly christian and greekspeaking to predominantly muslim and turkishspeaking although ethnic groups such as armenians greeks and assyrians remained numerous and retained christianity and their native languages in the following century the byzantines managed to reassert their control in western and northern anatolia control of anatolia was then split between the byzantine empire and the seljuk sultanate of rûm with the byzantine holdings gradually being reduced in 1255 the mongols swept through eastern and central anatolia and would remain until 1335 the ilkhanate garrison was stationed near ankara after the decline of the ilkhanate from 1335 to 1353 the mongol empires legacy in the region was the uyghur eretna dynasty that was overthrown by kadi burhan aldin in 1381 by the end of the 14th century most of anatolia was controlled by various anatolian beyliks smyrna fell in 1330 and the last byzantine stronghold in anatolia philadelphia fell in 1390 the turkmen beyliks were under the control of the mongols at least nominally through declining seljuk sultans the beyliks did not mint coins in the names of their own leaders while they remained under the suzerainty of the mongol ilkhanids the osmanli ruler osman i was the first turkish ruler who minted coins in his own name in 1320s they bear the legend minted by osman son of ertugrul since the minting of coins was a prerogative accorded in islamic practice only to a sovereign it can be considered that the osmanli or ottoman turks had become formally independent from the mongol khans ottoman empire among the turkish leaders the ottomans emerged as great power under osman i and his son orhan the anatolian beyliks were successively absorbed into the rising ottoman empire during the 15th century it is not well understood how the osmanlı or ottoman turks came to dominate their neighbours as the history of medieval anatolia is still little known the ottomans completed the conquest of the peninsula in 1517 with the taking of halicarnassus modern bodrum from the knights of saint john modern times with the acceleration of the decline of the ottoman empire in the early 19th century and as a result of the expansionist policies of the russian empire in the caucasus many muslim nations and groups in that region mainly circassians tatars azeris lezgis chechens and several turkic groups left their homelands and settled in anatolia as the ottoman empire further shrank in the balkan regions and then fragmented during the balkan wars much of the nonchristian populations of its former possessions mainly balkan muslims bosniaks albanians turks muslim bulgarians and greek muslims such as the vallahades from greek macedonia were resettled in various parts of anatolia mostly in formerly christian villages throughout anatolia a continuous reverse migration occurred since the early 19th century when greeks from anatolia constantinople and pontus area migrated toward the newly independent kingdom of greece and also towards the united states the southern part of the russian empire latin america and the rest of europe following the russopersian treaty of turkmenchay 1828 and the incorporation of eastern armenia into the russian empire another migration involved the large armenian population of anatolia which recorded significant migration rates from western armenia eastern anatolia toward the russian empire especially toward its newly established armenian provinces anatolia remained multiethnic until the early 20th century see the rise of nationalism under the ottoman empire during world war i the armenian genocide the greek genocide especially in pontus and the assyrian genocide almost entirely removed the ancient indigenous communities of armenian greek and assyrian populations in anatolia and surrounding regions following the grecoturkish war of 19191922 most remaining ethnic anatolian greeks were forced out during the 1923 population exchange between greece and turkey of the remainder most have left turkey since then leaving fewer than 5000 greeks in anatolia today geology anatolias terrain is structurally complex a central massif composed of uplifted blocks and downfolded troughs covered by recent deposits and giving the appearance of a plateau with rough terrain is wedged between two folded mountain ranges that converge in the east true lowland is confined to a few narrow coastal strips along the aegean mediterranean and the black sea coasts flat or gently sloping land is rare and largely confined to the deltas of the kızıl river the coastal plains of çukurova and the valley floors of the gediz river and the büyük menderes river as well as some interior high plains in anatolia mainly around lake tuz salt lake and the konya basin konya ovasi there are two mountain ranges in southern anatolia the taurus and the zagros mountains climate anatolia has a varied range of climates the central plateau is characterized by a continental climate with hot summers and cold snowy winters the south and west coasts enjoy a typical mediterranean climate with mild rainy winters and warm dry summers the black sea and marmara coasts have a temperate oceanic climate with cool foggy summers and much rainfall throughout the year ecoregions there is a diverse number of plant and animal communities the mountains and coastal plain of northern anatolia experience a humid and mild climate there are temperate broadleaf mixed and coniferous forests the central and eastern plateau with its drier continental climate has deciduous forests and forest steppes western and southern anatolia which have a mediterranean climate contain mediterranean forests woodlands and scrub ecoregions euxinecolchic deciduous forests these temperate broadleaf and mixed forests extend across northern anatolia lying between the mountains of northern anatolia and the black sea they include the enclaves of temperate rainforest lying along the southeastern coast of the black sea in eastern turkey and georgia northern anatolian conifer and deciduous forests these forests occupy the mountains of northern anatolia running east and west between the coastal euxinecolchic forests and the drier continental climate forests of central and eastern anatolia central anatolian deciduous forests these forests of deciduous oaks and evergreen pines cover the plateau of central anatolia central anatolian steppe these dry grasslands cover the drier valleys and surround the saline lakes of central anatolia and include halophytic salt tolerant plant communities eastern anatolian deciduous forests this ecoregion occupies the plateau of eastern anatolia the drier and more continental climate is beneficial for steppeforests dominated by deciduous oaks with areas of shrubland montane forest and valley forest anatolian conifer and deciduous mixed forests these forests occupy the western mediterraneanclimate portion of the anatolian plateau pine forests and mixed pine and oak woodlands and shrublands are predominant aegean and western turkey sclerophyllous and mixed forests these mediterraneanclimate forests occupy the coastal lowlands and valleys of western anatolia bordering the aegean sea the ecoregion has forests of turkish pine pinus brutia oak forests and woodlands and maquis shrubland of turkish pine and evergreen sclerophyllous trees and shrubs including olive olea europaea strawberry tree arbutus unedo arbutus andrachne kermes oak quercus coccifera and bay laurel laurus nobilis southern anatolian montane conifer and deciduous forests these mountain forests occupy the mediterraneanclimate taurus mountains of southern anatolia conifer forests are predominant chiefly anatolian black pine pinus nigra cedar of lebanon cedrus libani taurus fir abies cilicica and juniper juniperus foetidissima and j excelsa broadleaf trees include oaks hornbeam and maples eastern mediterranean conifersclerophyllousbroadleaf forests this ecoregion occupies the coastal strip of southern anatolia between the taurus mountains and the mediterranean sea plant communities include broadleaf sclerophyllous maquis shrublands forests of aleppo pine pinus halepensis and turkish pine pinus brutia and dry oak quercus spp woodlands and steppes demographics the largest cities in anatolia aside from the asian side of istanbul are ankara i̇zmir bursa antalya konya adana i̇zmit mersin manisa kayseri samsun balıkesir kahramanmaraş aydın adapazarı denizli muğla eskişehir trabzon ordu afyonkarahisar sivas tokat zonguldak kütahya çanakkale osmaniye şırnak and çorum all have populations of more than 500000 see also aeolis anatolian hypothesis anatolianism anatolian leopard anatolian plate anatolian shepherd ancient kingdoms of anatolia antigonid dynasty doris asia minor empire of nicaea empire of trebizond gordium lycaonia midas miletus myra pentarchy pontic greeks rumi saint anatolia saint john saint nicholas saint paul seleucid empire seven churches of asia seven sleepers tarsus troad turkic migration explanatory notes references citations general and cited sources further reading akat yücel neşe özgünel and aynur durukan 1991 anatolia a world heritage ankara kültür bakanliǧi brewster harry 1993 classical anatolia the glory of hellenism london i b tauris donbaz veysel and şemsi güner 1995 the royal roads of anatolia istanbul dünya dusinberre elspeth r m 2013 empire authority and autonomy in achaemenid anatolia cambridge cambridge university press gates charles jacques morin and thomas zimmermann 2009 sacred landscapes in anatolia and neighboring regions oxford archaeopress mikasa takahito ed 1999 essays on ancient anatolia wiesbaden harrassowitz takaoğlu turan 2004 ethnoarchaeological investigations in rural anatolia i̇stanbul ege yayınları taracha piotr 2009 religions of second millennium anatolia wiesbaden harrassowitz taymaz tuncay y yilmaz and yildirim dilek 2007 the geodynamics of the aegean and anatolia london geological society external links ancient greek geography geography of the middle east historical regions in turkey peninsulas of asia peninsulas of turkey physiographic provinces regions of asia regions of turkey	4,834
856	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20Inc.	Apple Inc.	apple inc is an american multinational technology company headquartered in cupertino california apple is the worlds biggest company by market capitalization and with the largest technology company by 2022 revenue apple is the fourthlargest personal computer vendor by unit sales the largest manufacturing company by revenue and the secondlargest mobile phone manufacturer in the world it is considered one of the big five american information technology companies alongside alphabet parent company of google amazon meta platforms and microsoft apple was founded as apple computer company on april 1 1976 by steve wozniak steve jobs and ronald wayne to develop and sell wozniaks apple i personal computer it was incorporated by jobs and wozniak as apple computer inc in 1977 the companys second computer the apple ii became a best seller and one of the first massproduced microcomputers apple went public in 1980 to instant financial success the company developed computers featuring innovative graphical user interfaces including the 1984 original macintosh announced that year in a critically acclaimed advertisement called 1984 by 1985 the high cost of its products and power struggles between executives caused problems wozniak stepped back from apple and pursued other ventures while jobs resigned and founded next taking some apple employees with him as the market for personal computers expanded and evolved throughout the 1990s apple lost considerable market share to the lowerpriced duopoly of the microsoft windows operating system on intelpowered pc clones also known as wintel in 1997 weeks away from bankruptcy the company bought next to resolve apples unsuccessful operating system strategy and entice jobs back to the company over the next decade jobs guided apple back to profitability through a number of tactics including introducing the imac ipod iphone and ipad to critical acclaim launching the think different campaign and other memorable advertising campaigns opening the apple store retail chain and acquiring numerous companies to broaden the companys product portfolio when jobs resigned in 2011 for health reasons and died two months later he was succeeded as ceo by tim cook apple became the first publicly traded us company to be valued at over 1 trillion in august 2018 then at 2 trillion in august 2020 and at 3 trillion in january 2022 in june 2023 it was valued at just over 3 trillion the company receives criticism regarding the labor practices of its contractors its environmental practices and its business ethics including anticompetitive practices and materials sourcing nevertheless the company has a large following and enjoys a high level of brand loyalty it has also been consistently ranked as one of the worlds most valuable brands history 19761980 founding and incorporation apple computer company was founded on april 1 1976 by steve jobs steve wozniak and ronald wayne as a partnership the companys first product was the apple i a computer designed and handbuilt entirely by wozniak to finance its creation jobs sold his volkswagen bus and wozniak sold his hp65 calculator wozniak debuted the first prototype apple i at the homebrew computer club in july 1976 the apple i was sold as a motherboard with cpu ram and basic textualvideo chipsa base kit concept which would not yet be marketed as a complete personal computer it went on sale soon after debut for wozniak later said he was unaware of the coincidental mark of the beast in the number 666 and that he came up with the price because he liked repeating digits apple computer inc was incorporated on january 3 1977 without wayne who had left and sold his share of the company back to jobs and wozniak for 800 only twelve days after having cofounded apple multimillionaire mike markkula provided essential business expertise and funding of to jobs and wozniak during the incorporation of apple during the first five years of operations revenues grew exponentially doubling about every four months between september 1977 and september 1980 yearly sales grew from 775000 to 118 million an average annual growth rate of 533 the apple ii also invented by wozniak was introduced on april 16 1977 at the first west coast computer faire it differed from its major rivals the trs80 and commodore pet because of its character cellbased color graphics and open architecture while the apple i and early apple ii models used ordinary audio cassette tapes as storage devices they were superseded by the introduction of a inch floppy disk drive and interface called the disk ii in 1978 the apple ii was chosen to be the desktop platform for the first killer application of the business world visicalc a spreadsheet program released in 1979 visicalc created a business market for the apple ii and gave home users an additional reason to buy an apple ii compatibility with the office but apple ii market share remained behind home computers made by competitors such as atari commodore and tandy on december 12 1980 apple ticker symbol aapl went public selling 46 million shares at 22 per share 10 per share when adjusting for stock splits generating over 100 million which was more capital than any ipo since ford motor company in 1956 by the end of the day 300 millionaires were created from a stock price of 29 per share and a market cap of 1778 billion 19801990 success with macintosh a critical moment in the companys history came in december 1979 when jobs and several apple employees including humancomputer interface expert jef raskin visited xerox parc in to see a demonstration of the xerox alto a computer using a graphical user interface xerox granted apple engineers three days of access to the parc facilities in return for the option to buy 100000 shares 224 million splitadjusted shares of apple at the preipo price of 10 a share after the demonstration jobs was immediately convinced that all future computers would use a graphical user interface and development of a gui began for the apple lisa named after jobss daughter the lisa division would be plagued by infighting and in 1982 jobs was pushed off the project the lisa launched in 1983 and became the first personal computer sold to the public with a gui but was a commercial failure due to its high price and limited software titles jobs angered by being pushed off the lisa team took over the companys macintosh division wozniak and raskin had envisioned the macintosh as a lowcost computer with a textbased interface like the apple ii but a plane crash in 1981 forced wozniak to step back from the project jobs quickly redefined the macintosh as a graphical system that would be cheaper than the lisa undercutting his former division jobs was also hostile to the apple ii division which at the time generated most of the companys revenue in 1984 apple launched the macintosh the first personal computer to be sold without a programming language its debut was signified by 1984 a 15 million television advertisement directed by ridley scott that aired during the third quarter of super bowl xviii on january 22 1984 this is now hailed as a watershed event for apples success and was called a masterpiece by cnn and one of the greatest tv advertisements of all time by tv guide the advertisement created great interest in the original macintosh and sales were initially good but began to taper off dramatically after the first three months as reviews started to come in jobs had made the decision to equip the original macintosh with 128 kilobytes of ram attempting to reach a price point which limited its speed and the software that could be used the macintosh would eventually ship for a price panned by critics in light of its slow performance in early 1985 this sales slump triggered a power struggle between steve jobs and ceo john sculley who had been hired away from pepsi two years earlier by jobs saying do you want to sell sugar water for the rest of your life or come with me and change the world sculley decided to remove jobs as the head of the macintosh division with unanimous support from the apple board of directors the board of directors instructed sculley to contain jobs and his ability to launch expensive forays into untested products rather than submit to sculleys direction jobs attempted to oust him from his leadership role at apple informed by jeanlouis gassée sculley found out that jobs had been attempting to organize a boardroom coup and called an emergency meeting at which apples executive staff sided with sculley and stripped jobs of all operational duties jobs resigned from apple in september 1985 and took a number of apple employees with him to found next wozniak had also quit his active employment at apple earlier in 1985 to pursue other ventures expressing his frustration with apples treatment of the apple ii division and stating that the company had been going in the wrong direction for the last five years despite wozniaks grievances he officially remained employed by apple and to this day continues to work for the company as a representative receiving a stipend estimated to be 120000 per year for this role both jobs and wozniak remained apple shareholders after their departures after the departures of jobs and wozniak sculley worked to improve the macintosh in 1985 by quadrupling the ram and introducing the laserwriter the first reasonably priced postscript laser printer pagemaker an early desktop publishing application taking advantage of the postscript language was also released by aldus corporation in july 1985 it has been suggested that the combination of macintosh laserwriter and pagemaker was responsible for the creation of the desktop publishing market this dominant position in the desktop publishing market allowed the company to focus on higher price points the socalled highright policy named for the position on a chart of price vs profits newer models selling at higher price points offered higher profit margin and appeared to have no effect on total sales as power users snapped up every increase in speed although some worried about pricing themselves out of the market the highright policy was in full force by the mid1980s notably due to jeanlouis gassées mantra of fiftyfive or die referring to the 55 profit margins of the macintosh ii this policy began to backfire in the last years of the decade as desktop publishing programs appeared on pc clones that offered some or much of the same functionality of the macintosh but at far lower price points the company lost its dominant position in the desktop publishing market and estranged many of its original consumer customer base who could no longer afford their highpriced products the christmas season of 1989 was the first in the companys history to have declining sales which led to a 20 drop in apples stock price during this period the relationship between sculley and gassée deteriorated leading sculley to effectively demote gassée in january 1990 by appointing michael spindler as the chief operating officer gassée left the company later that year 19901997 decline and restructuring the company pivoted strategy and in october 1990 introduced three lowercost models the macintosh classic the macintosh lc and the macintosh iisi all of which saw significant sales due to pentup demand in 1991 apple introduced the hugely successful powerbook with a design that set the current shape for almost all modern laptops the same year apple introduced system 7 a major upgrade to the macintosh operating system adding color to the interface and introducing new networking capabilities the success of the lowercost macs and powerbook brought increasing revenue for some time apple was doing incredibly well introducing fresh new products and generating increasing profits in the process the magazine macaddict named the period between 1989 and 1991 as the first golden age of the macintosh the success of apples lowercost consumer models especially the lc also led to the cannibalization of their higherpriced machines to address this management introduced several new brands selling largely identical machines at different price points aimed at different markets the highend quadra models the midrange centris line and the consumermarketed performa series this led to significant market confusion as customers did not understand the difference between models the early 1990s also saw the discontinuation of the apple ii series which was expensive to produce and the company felt was still taking sales away from lowercost macintosh models after the launch of the lc apple began encouraging developers to create applications for macintosh rather than apple ii and authorized salespersons to direct consumers towards macintosh and away from apple ii the apple iie was discontinued in 1993 throughout this period microsoft continued to gain market share with its windows graphical user interface that it sold to manufacturers of generally less expensive pc clones while the macintosh was more expensive it offered a more tightly integrated user experience but the company struggled to make the case to consumers apple also experimented with a number of other unsuccessful consumer targeted products during the 1990s including digital cameras portable cd audio players speakers video game consoles the eworld online service and tv appliances most notably enormous resources were invested in the problemplagued newton tablet division based on john sculleys unrealistic market forecasts throughout this period microsoft continued to gain market share with windows by focusing on delivering software to inexpensive personal computers while apple was delivering a richly engineered but expensive experience apple relied on high profit margins and never developed a clear response instead they sued microsoft for using a gui similar to the apple lisa in apple computer inc v microsoft corp the lawsuit dragged on for years before it was finally dismissed the major product flops and the rapid loss of market share to windows sullied apples reputation and in 1993 sculley was replaced as ceo by michael spindler with spindler at the helm apple ibm and motorola formed the aim alliance in 1994 with the goal of creating a new computing platform the powerpc reference platform prep which would use ibm and motorola hardware coupled with apple software the aim alliance hoped that preps performance and apples software would leave the pc far behind and thus counter the dominance of windows the same year apple introduced the power macintosh the first of many apple computers to use motorolas powerpc processor in the wake of the alliance apple opened up to the idea of allowing motorola and other companies to build macintosh clones over the next two years 75 distinct macintosh clone models were introduced however by 1996 apple executives were worried that the clones were cannibalizing sales of their own highend computers where profit margins were highest in 1996 spindler was replaced by gil amelio as ceo hired for his reputation as a corporate rehabilitator amelio made deep changes including extensive layoffs and costcutting this period was also marked by numerous failed attempts to modernize the macintosh operating system macos the original macintosh operating system system 1 was not built for multitasking running several applications at once the company attempted to correct this with by introducing cooperative multitasking in system 5 but the company still felt it needed a more modern approach this led to the pink project in 1988 aux that same year copland in 1994 and the attempted purchase of beos in 1996 talks with be stalled when the ceo former apple executive jeanlouis gassée demanded 300 million instead of the 125 million apple wanted to pay only weeks away from bankruptcy apples board decided nextstep was a better choice for its next operating system and purchased next in late 1996 for 400 million bringing back apple cofounder steve jobs 19972007 return to profitability the next acquisition was finalized on february 9 1997 and the board brought jobs back to apple as an advisor on july 9 1997 jobs staged a boardroom coup that resulted in amelios resignation after overseeing a threeyear recordlow stock price and crippling financial losses the board named jobs as interim ceo and he immediately began a review of the companys products jobs would order 70 of the companys products to be cancelled resulting in the loss of 3000 jobs and taking apple back to the core of its computer offerings the next month in august 1997 steve jobs convinced microsoft to make a 150 million investment in apple and a commitment to continue developing software for the mac the investment was seen as an antitrust insurance policy for microsoft who had recently settled with the department of justice over anticompetitive practices jobs also ended the mac clone deals and in september 1997 purchased the largest clone maker power computing on november 10 1997 apple introduced the apple store website which was tied to a new buildtoorder manufacturing that had been successfully used by pc manufacturer dell the moves paid off for jobs at the end of his first year as ceo the company turned a 309 million profit on may 6 1998 apple introduced a new allinone computer reminiscent of the original macintosh the imac the imac was a huge success for apple selling 800000 units in its first five months and ushered in major shifts in the industry by abandoning legacy technologies like the inch diskette being an early adopter of the usb connector and coming preinstalled with internet connectivity the i in imac via ethernet and a dialup modem the device also had a striking teardrop shape and translucent materials designed by jonathan ive who although hired by amelio would go on to work collaboratively with jobs for the next decade to chart a new course the design of apples products a little more than a year later on july 21 1999 apple introduced the ibook a laptop for consumers it was the culmination of a strategy established by jobs to produce only four products refined versions of the power macintosh g3 desktop and powerbook g3 laptop for professionals along with the imac desktop and ibook laptop for consumers jobs felt the small product line allowed for a greater focus on quality and innovation at around the same time apple also completed numerous acquisitions to create a portfolio of digital media production software for both professionals and consumers apple acquired of macromedias key grip digital video editing software project which was renamed final cut pro when it was launched on the retail market in april 1999 the development of key grip also led to apples release of the consumer videoediting product imovie in october 1999 next apple successfully acquired the german company astarte in april 2000 which had developed the dvd authoring software dvdirector which apple would sell as the professionaloriented dvd studio pro software product and used the same technology to create idvd for the consumer market in 2000 apple purchased the soundjam mp audio player software from casady greene apple renamed the program itunes while simplifying the user interface and adding the ability to burn cds 2001 would be a pivotal year for the apple with the company making three announcements that would change the course of the company the first announcement came on march 24 2001 that apple was nearly ready to release a new modern operating system mac os x the announcement came after numerous failed attempts in the early 1990s and several years of development mac os x was based on nextstep openstep and bsd unix with apple aiming to combine the stability reliability and security of unix with the ease of use afforded by an overhauled user interface heavily influenced by nextstep to aid users in migrating from mac os 9 the new operating system allowed the use of os 9 applications within mac os x via the classic environment in may 2001 the company opened its first two apple store retail locations in virginia and california offering an improved presentation of the companys products at the time many speculated that the stores would fail but they went on to become highly successful and the first of more than 500 stores around the world on october 23 2001 apple debuted the ipod portable digital audio player the product which was first sold on november 10 2001 was phenomenally successful with over 100 million units sold within six years in 2003 apples itunes store was introduced the service offered music downloads for 99 a song and integration with the ipod the itunes store quickly became the market leader in online music services with over five billion downloads by june 19 2008 two years later the itunes store was the worlds largest music retailer in 2002 apple purchased nothing real for their advanced digital compositing application shake as well as emagic for the music productivity application logic the purchase of emagic made apple the first computer manufacturer to own a music software company the acquisition was followed by the development of apples consumerlevel garageband application the release of iphoto in the same year completed the ilife suite at the worldwide developers conference keynote address on june 6 2005 jobs announced that apple would move away from powerpc processors and the mac would transition to intel processors in 2006 on january 10 2006 the new macbook pro and imac became the first apple computers to use intels core duo cpu by august 7 2006 apple made the transition to intel chips for the entire mac product lineover one year sooner than announced the power mac ibook and powerbook brands were retired during the transition the mac pro macbook and macbook pro became their respective successors on april 29 2009 the wall street journal reported that apple was building its own team of engineers to design microchips apple also introduced boot camp in 2006 to help users install windows xp or windows vista on their intel macs alongside mac os x apples success during this period was evident in its stock price between early 2003 and 2006 the price of apples stock increased more than tenfold from around 6 per share splitadjusted to over 80 when apple surpassed dells market cap in january 2006 jobs sent an email to apple employees saying dells ceo michael dell should eat his words nine years prior dell had said that if he ran apple he would shut it down and give the money back to the shareholders 20072011 success with mobile devices during his keynote speech at the macworld expo on january 9 2007 jobs announced that apple computer inc would thereafter be known as apple inc because the company had shifted its emphasis from computers to consumer electronics this event also saw the announcement of the iphone and the apple tv the company sold 270000 iphone units during the first 30 hours of sales and the device was called a game changer for the industry in an article posted on apples website on february 6 2007 jobs wrote that apple would be willing to sell music on the itunes store without digital rights management drm thereby allowing tracks to be played on thirdparty players if record labels would agree to drop the technology on april 2 2007 apple and emi jointly announced the removal of drm technology from emis catalog in the itunes store effective in may 2007 other record labels eventually followed suit and apple published a press release in january 2009 to announce that all songs on the itunes store are available without their fairplay drm in july 2008 apple launched the app store to sell thirdparty applications for the iphone and ipod touch within a month the store sold 60 million applications and registered an average daily revenue of 1 million with jobs speculating in august 2008 that the app store could become a billiondollar business for apple by october 2008 apple was the thirdlargest mobile handset supplier in the world due to the popularity of the iphone on january 14 2009 jobs announced in an internal memo that he would be taking a sixmonth medical leave of absence from apple until the end of june 2009 and would spend the time focusing on his health in the email jobs stated that the curiosity over my personal health continues to be a distraction not only for me and my family but everyone else at apple as well and explained that the break would allow the company to focus on delivering extraordinary products though jobs was absent apple recorded its best nonholiday quarter q1 fy 2009 during the recession with revenue of 816 billion and profit of 121 billion after years of speculation and multiple rumored leaks apple unveiled a large screen tabletlike media device known as the ipad on january 27 2010 the ipad ran the same touchbased operating system as the iphone and all iphone apps were compatible with the ipad this gave the ipad a large app catalog on launch though having very little development time before the release later that year on april 3 2010 the ipad was launched in the us it sold more than 300000 units on its first day and 500000 by the end of the first week in may of the same year apples market cap exceeded that of competitor microsoft for the first time since 1989 in june 2010 apple released the iphone 4 which introduced video calling using facetime multitasking and a new uninsulated stainless steel design that acted as the phones antenna later that year apple again refreshed its ipod line of mp3 players by introducing a multitouch ipod nano an ipod touch with facetime and an ipod shuffle that brought back the clickwheel buttons of earlier generations it also introduced the smaller cheaper second generation apple tv which allowed renting of movies and shows on january 17 2011 jobs announced in an internal apple memo that he would take another medical leave of absence for an indefinite period to allow him to focus on his health chief operating officer tim cook assumed jobss daytoday operations at apple although jobs would still remain involved in major strategic decisions apple became the most valuable consumerfacing brand in the world in june 2011 jobs surprisingly took the stage and unveiled icloud an online storage and syncing service for music photos files and software which replaced mobileme apples previous attempt at content syncing this would be the last product launch jobs would attend before his death on august 24 2011 jobs resigned his position as ceo of apple he was replaced by cook and jobs became apples chairman apple did not have a chairman at the time and instead had two colead directors andrea jung and arthur d levinson who continued with those titles until levinson replaced jobs as chairman of the board in november after jobs death 2011present postjobs era cooks leadership on october 5 2011 steve jobs died marking the end of an era for apple the first major product announcement by apple following jobss passing occurred on january 19 2012 when apples phil schiller introduced ibooks textbooks for ios and ibook author for mac os x in new york city jobs stated in the biography steve jobs that he wanted to reinvent the textbook industry and education from 2011 to 2012 apple released the iphone 4s and iphone 5 which featured improved cameras an intelligent software assistant named siri and cloudsynced data with icloud the third and fourthgeneration ipads which featured retina displays and the ipad mini which featured a 79inch screen in contrast to the ipads 97inch screen these launches were successful with the iphone 5 released september 21 2012 becoming apples biggest iphone launch with over two million preorders and sales of three million ipads in three days following the launch of the ipad mini and fourthgeneration ipad released november 3 2012 apple also released a thirdgeneration 13inch macbook pro with a retina display and new imac and mac mini computers on august 20 2012 apples rising stock price increased the companys market capitalization to a thenrecord 624 billion this beat the noninflationadjusted record for market capitalization previously set by microsoft in 1999 on august 24 2012 a us jury ruled that samsung should pay apple 105 billion 665m in damages in an intellectual property lawsuit samsung appealed the damages award which was reduced by 450 million and further granted samsungs request for a new trial on november 10 2012 apple confirmed a global settlement that dismissed all existing lawsuits between apple and htc up to that date in favor of a tenyear license agreement for current and future patents between the two companies it is predicted that apple will make 280 million a year from this deal with htc in may 2014 the company confirmed its intent to acquire dr dre and jimmy iovines audio company beats electronicsproducer of the beats by dr dre line of headphones and speaker products and operator of the music streaming service beats musicfor 3 billion and to sell their products through apples retail outlets and resellers iovine believed that beats had always belonged with apple as the company modeled itself after apples unmatched ability to marry culture and technology the acquisition was the largest purchase in apples history during a press event on september 9 2014 apple introduced a smartwatch the apple watch initially apple marketed the device as a fashion accessory and a complement to the iphone that would allow people to look at their smartphones less over time the company has focused on developing health and fitnessoriented features on the watch in an effort to compete with dedicated activity trackers in january 2016 it was announced that one billion apple devices were in active use worldwide on june 6 2016 fortune released fortune 500 their list of companies ranked on revenue generation in the trailing fiscal year 2015 apple appeared on the list as the top tech company it ranked third overall with 233 billion in revenue this represents a movement upward of two spots from the previous years list in june 2017 apple announced the homepod its smart speaker aimed to compete against sonos google home and amazon echo towards the end of the year techcrunch reported that apple was acquiring shazam a company that introduced its products at wwdc and specializing in music tv film and advertising recognition the acquisition was confirmed a few days later reportedly costing apple 400 million with media reports noting that the purchase looked like a move to acquire data and tools bolstering the apple music streaming service the purchase was approved by the european union in september 2018 also in june 2017 apple appointed jamie erlicht and zack van amburg to head the newly formed worldwide video unit in november 2017 apple announced it was branching out into original scripted programming a drama series starring jennifer aniston and reese witherspoon and a reboot of the anthology series amazing stories with steven spielberg in june 2018 apple signed the writers guild of americas minimum basic agreement and oprah winfrey to a multiyear content partnership additional partnerships for original series include sesame workshop and dhx media and its subsidiary peanuts worldwide as well as a partnership with a24 to create original films during the apple special event in september 2017 the airpower wireless charger was announced alongside the iphone x 8 and watch series 3 the airpower was intended to wirelessly charge multiple devices simultaneously though initially set to release in early 2018 the airpower would be canceled in march 2019 marking the first cancellation of a device under cooks leadership on august 19 2020 apples share price briefly topped 46777 making apple the first us company with a market capitalization of 2 trillion during its annual wwdc keynote speech on june 22 2020 apple announced it would move away from intel processors and the mac would transition to processors developed inhouse the announcement was expected by industry analysts and it has been noted that macs featuring apples processors would allow for big increases in performance over current intelbased models on november 10 2020 the macbook air macbook pro and the mac mini became the first mac devices powered by an appledesigned processor the apple m1 in april 2022 it was reported that samsung electromechanics would be collaborating with apple on its m2 chip instead of lg innotek developer logs showed that at least nine mac models with four different m2 chips were being tested the wall street journal reported that an effort to develop its own chips left apple better prepared to deal with the semiconductor shortage that emerged during the pandemic era and led to increased profitability with sales of mac computers that included m1 chips rising sharply in 2020 and 2021 it also inspired other companies like tesla amazon and meta platforms to pursue a similar path in april 2022 apple opened an online store that allowed anyone in the us to view repair manuals and order replacement parts for specific recent iphones although the difference in cost between this method and official repair is anticipated to be minimal in may 2022 a trademark was filed for realityos an operating system reportedly intended for virtual and augmented reality headsets first mentioned in 2017 according to bloomberg the headset may come out in 2023 further insider reports state that the device uses iris scanning for payment confirmation and signing into accounts on june 18 2022 the apple store in towson maryland became the first to unionize in the us with the employees voting to join the international association of machinists and aerospace workers on july 7 2022 apple added lockdown mode to macos 13 and ios 16 as a response to the earlier pegasus revelations the mode increases security protections for highrisk users against targeted zeroday malware apple launched a buy now pay later service called apple pay later for its apple wallet users in march 2023 the program allows its users to apply for loans between 50 and 1000 to make online or inapp purchases and then repaying them through four installments spread over six weeks without any interest or fees products mac the mac is apples family of personal computers macs are known for their ease of use and distinctive aluminium minimalist designs macs have been popular among students creative professionals and software engineers the current lineup consists of the macbook air and macbook pro laptops and the imac mac mini mac studio and mac pro desktop computers often described as a walled garden macs use apple silicon chips run the macos operating system and include apple software like the safari web browser imovie for home movie editing garageband for music creation and the iwork productivity suite apple also sells pro apps final cut pro for video production logic pro for musicians and producers and xcode for software developers apple also sells a variety of accessories for macs including the pro display xdr apple studio display magic mouse magic trackpad and magic keyboard iphone the iphone is apples line of smartphones which run the ios operating system the first iphone was unveiled by steve jobs on january 9 2007 since then new models have been released annually when it was introduced its multitouch screen was described as revolutionary and a gamechanger for the mobile phone industry the device has been credited with creating the app economy the iphone has 15 market share yet represents 50 of global smartphone revenues with android phones accounting for the rest the iphone has generated large profits for the company and is credited with helping to make apple one of the worlds most valuable publicly traded companies the most recent iphones are the iphone 15 iphone 15 plus iphone 15 pro and iphone 15 pro max ipad the ipad is apples line of tablets which run ipados the firstgeneration ipad was announced on january 27 2010 the ipad is mainly marketed for consuming multimedia creating art working on documents videoconferencing and playing games the ipad lineup consists of several base ipad models and the smaller ipad mini upgraded ipad air and highend ipad pro apple has consistently improved the ipads performance with the ipad pro adopting the same m1 and m2 chips as the mac but the ipad still receives criticism for its limited os apple has sold more than 500 million ipads though sales peaked in 2013 the ipad still remains the most popular tablet computer by sales and accounted for nine percent of the companys revenue apple sells several ipad accessories including the apple pencil smart keyboard smart keyboard folio magic keyboard and several adapters other products apple also makes several other products that it categorizes as wearables home and accessories these products include the airpods line of wireless headphones apple tv digital media players apple watch smartwatches beats headphones and homepod mini smart speakers this broad line of products comprises about 11 of the companys revenues at wwdc 2023 apple introduced its new vr headset vision pro along with visionos apple announced that it will be partnering with unity to bring existing 3d apps to vision pro using unitys polyspatial technology services apple also offers a broad line of services that it earns revenue on including advertising in the app store and apple news app the applecare extended warranty plan the icloud cloudbased data storage service payment services through the apple card credit card and the apple pay processing platform a digital content services including apple books apple fitness apple music apple news apple tv and the itunes store services comprise about 19 of the companys revenue many of the services have been launched when apple announced it would be making a concerted effort to expand its service revenues marketing branding according to steve jobs the companys name was inspired by his visit to an apple farm while he was on a fruitarian diet jobs thought the name apple was fun spirited and not intimidating steve jobs and steve wozniak were fans of the beatles but apple inc had name and logo trademark issues with apple corps ltd a multimedia company started by the beatles in 1968 this resulted in a series of lawsuits and tension between the two companies these issues ended with the settling of their lawsuit in 2007 apples first logo designed by ron wayne depicts sir isaac newton sitting under an apple tree it was almost immediately replaced by rob janoffs rainbow apple the nowfamiliar rainbowcolored silhouette of an apple with a bite taken out of it on august 27 1999 apple officially dropped the rainbow scheme and began to use monochromatic logos nearly identical in shape to the previous rainbow incarnation apple evangelists were actively engaged by the company at one time but this was after the phenomenon had already been firmly established apple evangelist guy kawasaki has called the brand fanaticism something that was stumbled upon while ive claimed in 2014 that people have an incredibly personal relationship with apples products fortune magazine named apple the most admired company in the united states in 2008 and in the world from 2008 to 2012 on september 30 2013 apple surpassed cocacola to become the worlds most valuable brand in the omnicom groups best global brands report boston consulting group has ranked apple as the worlds most innovative brand every year there were 165 billion apple products in active use in february 2023 that number exceeded 2 billion devices advertising apples first slogan byte into an apple was coined in the late 1970s from 1997 to 2002 the slogan think different was used in advertising campaigns and is still closely associated with apple apple also has slogans for specific product linesfor example ithink therefore imac was used in 1998 to promote the imac and say hello to iphone has been used in iphone advertisements hello was also used to introduce the original macintosh newton imac hello again and ipod from the introduction of the macintosh in 1984 with the 1984 super bowl advertisement to the more modern get a mac adverts apple has been recognized for its efforts towards effective advertising and marketing for its products however claims made by later campaigns were criticized particularly the 2005 power mac ads apples product advertisements gained significant attention as a result of their eyepopping graphics and catchy tunes musicians who benefited from an improved profile as a result of their songs being included on apple advertisements include canadian singer feist with the song 1234 and yael naïm with the song new soul stores the first apple stores were originally opened as two locations in may 2001 by thenceo steve jobs after years of attempting but failing storewithinastore concepts seeing a need for improved retail presentation of the companys products he began an effort in 1997 to revamp the retail program to get an improved relationship to consumers and hired ron johnson in 2000 jobs relaunched apples online store in 1997 and opened the first two physical stores in 2001 the media initially speculated that apple would fail but its stores were highly successful bypassing the sales numbers of competing nearby stores and within three years reached us1 billion in annual sales becoming the fastest retailer in history to do so over the years apple has expanded the number of retail locations and its geographical coverage with 499 stores across 22 countries worldwide strong product sales have placed apple among the toptier retail stores with sales over 16 billion globally in 2011 apple stores underwent a period of significant redesign beginning in may 2016 this redesign included physical changes to the apple stores such as open spaces and rebranded rooms as well as changes in function to facilitate interaction between consumers and professionals many apple stores are located inside shopping malls but apple has built several standalone flagship stores in highprofile locations it has been granted design patents and received architectural awards for its stores designs and construction specifically for its use of glass staircases and cubes the success of apple stores have had significant influence over other consumer electronics retailers who have lost traffic control and profits due to a perceived higher quality of service and products at apple stores due to the popularity of the brand apple receives a large number of job applications many of which come from young workers although apple store employees receive aboveaverage pay are offered money toward education and health care and receive product discounts there are limited or no paths of career advancement market power on march 16 2020 france fined apple 11 billion for colluding with two wholesalers to stifle competition and keep prices high by handicapping independent resellers the arrangement created aligned prices for apple products such as ipads and personal computers for about half the french retail market according to the french regulators the abuses occurred between 2005 and 2017 but were first discovered after a complaint by an independent reseller ebizcuss in 2012 on august 13 2020 epic games the maker of the popular game fortnite sued apple and google after its hugely popular video game was removed from apple and googles app store the suits come after both apple and google blocked the game after it introduced a direct payment system effectively shutting out the tech titans from collecting fees in september 2020 epic games founded the coalition for app fairness together with other thirteen companies which aims for better conditions for the inclusion of apps in the app stores later in december 2020 facebook agreed to assist epic in their legal game against apple planning to support the company by providing materials and documents to epic facebook had however stated that the company will not participate directly with the lawsuit although did commit to helping with the discovery of evidence relating to the trial of 2021 in the months prior to their agreement facebook had been dealing with feuds against apple relating to the prices of paid apps as well as privacy rule changes head of ad products for facebook dan levy commented saying that this is not really about privacy for them this is about an attack on personalized ads and the consequences its going to have on smallbusiness owners commenting on the fullpage ads placed by facebook in various newspapers in december 2020 customer privacy apple has a notable proprivacy stance actively making privacyconscious features and settings part of its conferences promotional campaigns and public image with its ios 8 mobile operating system in 2014 the company started encrypting all contents of ios devices through users passcodes making it impossible at the time for the company to provide customer data to law enforcement requests seeking such information with the popularity rise of cloud storage solutions apple began a technique in 2016 to do deep learning scans for facial data in photos on the users local device and encrypting the content before uploading it to apples icloud storage system it also introduced differential privacy a way to collect crowdsourced data from many users while keeping individual users anonymous in a system that wired described as trying to learn as much as possible about a group while learning as little as possible about any individual in it users are explicitly asked if they want to participate and can actively optin or optout with apples release of an update to ios 14 apple required all developers of iphone ipad and ipod touch applications to directly ask iphone users permission to track them the feature titled app tracking transparency received heavy criticism from facebook whose primary business model revolves around the tracking of users data and sharing such data with advertisers so users can see more relevant ads a technique commonly known as targeted advertising despite facebooks measures including purchasing fullpage newspaper advertisements protesting app tracking transparency apple released the update in midspring 2021 a study by verizon subsidiary flurry analytics reported only 4 of ios users in the united states and 12 worldwide have opted into tracking however apple aids law enforcement in criminal investigations by providing icloud backups of users devices and the companys commitment to privacy has been questioned by its efforts to promote biometric authentication technology in its newer iphone models which do not have the same level of constitutional privacy as a passcode in the united states prior to the release of ios 15 apple announced new efforts at combating child sexual abuse material on ios and mac platforms parents of minor imessage users can now be alerted if their child sends or receives nude photographs additionally ondevice hashing would take place on media destined for upload to icloud and hashes would be compared to a list of known abusive images provided by law enforcement if enough matches were found apple would be alerted and authorities informed the new features received praise from law enforcement and victims rights advocates however privacy advocates including the electronic frontier foundation condemned the new features as invasive and highly prone to abuse by authoritarian governments irelands data protection commission launched a privacy investigation to examine whether apple complied with the eus gdpr law following an investigation into how the company processes personal data with targeted ads on its platform in december 2019 a report found that the iphone 11 pro continues tracking location and collecting user data even after users have disabled location services in response an apple engineer said the location services icon appears for system services that do not have a switch in settings according to published reports by bloomberg news on march 30 2022 apple turned over data such as phone numbers physical addresses and ip addresses to hackers posing as law enforcement officials using forged documents the law enforcement requests sometimes included forged signatures of real or fictional officials when asked about the allegations an apple representative referred the reporter to a section of the company policy for law enforcement guidelines which stated we review every data request for legal sufficiency and use advanced systems and processes to validate law enforcement requests and detect abuse corporate affairs leadership senior management as of march 16 2021 the management of apple inc includes tim cook chief executive officer jeff williams chief operating officer luca maestri senior vice president and chief financial officer katherine l adams senior vice president and general counsel eddy cue senior vice president internet software and services craig federighi senior vice president software engineering john giannandrea senior vice president machine learning and ai strategy deirdre obrien senior vice president retail people john ternus senior vice president hardware engineering greg josiwak senior vice president worldwide marketing johny srouji senior vice president hardware technologies sabih khan senior vice president operations board of directors as of january 20 2023 the board of directors of apple inc includes arthur d levinson chairman tim cook executive director and ceo james a bell al gore alex gorsky andrea jung monica lozano ronald sugar susan wagner previous ceos michael scott 19771981 mike markkula 19811983 john sculley 19831993 michael spindler 19931996 gil amelio 19961997 steve jobs 19972011 corporate culture apple is one of several highly successful companies founded in the 1970s that bucked the traditional notions of corporate culture jobs often walked around the office barefoot even after apple became a fortune 500 company by the time of the 1984 television advertisement apples informal culture had become a key trait that differentiated it from its competitors according to a 2011 report in fortune this has resulted in a corporate culture more akin to a startup rather than a multinational corporation in a 2017 interview wozniak credited watching star trek and attending star trek conventions while in his youth as a source of inspiration for his cofounding apple as the company has grown and been led by a series of differently opinionated chief executives it has arguably lost some of its original character nonetheless it has maintained a reputation for fostering individuality and excellence that reliably attracts talented workers particularly after jobs returned to the company numerous apple employees have stated that projects without jobss involvement often took longer than projects with it to recognize the best of its employees apple created the apple fellows program which awards individuals who make extraordinary technical or leadership contributions to personal computing while at the company the apple fellowship has so far been awarded to individuals including bill atkinson steve capps rod holt alan kay guy kawasaki al alcorn don norman rich page steve wozniak and phil schiller at apple employees are intended to be specialists who are not exposed to functions outside their area of expertise jobs saw this as a means of having bestinclass employees in every role for instance ron johnsonsenior vice president of retail operations until november 1 2011was responsible for site selection instore service and store layout yet had no control of the inventory in his stores this was done by tim cook who had a background in supplychain management apple is known for strictly enforcing accountability each project has a directly responsible individual or dri in apple jargon as an example when ios senior vice president scott forstall refused to sign apples official apology for numerous errors in the redesigned maps app he was forced to resign unlike other major us companies apple provides a relatively simple compensation policy for executives that does not include perks enjoyed by other ceos like country club fees or private use of company aircraft the company typically grants stock options to executives every other year in 2015 apple had 110000 fulltime employees this increased to 116000 fulltime employees the next year a notable hiring decrease largely due to its first revenue decline apple does not specify how many of its employees work in retail though its 2014 sec filing put the number at approximately half of its employee base in september 2017 apple announced that it had over 123000 fulltime employees apple has a strong culture of corporate secrecy and has an antileak global security team that recruits from the national security agency the federal bureau of investigation and the united states secret service in december 2017 glassdoor said apple was the 48th best place to work having originally entered at rank 19 in 2009 peaking at rank 10 in 2012 and falling down the ranks in subsequent years in 2023 bloomberg mark gurman revealed the existence of apples exploratory design group xdg which was working to add glucose monitoring to the apple watch gurman compared xdg to alphabets x moonshot factory offices apple incs world corporate headquarters are located in cupertino in the middle of californias silicon valley at apple park a massive circular groundscraper building with a circumference of the building opened in april 2017 and houses more than 12000 employees apple cofounder steve jobs wanted apple park to look less like a business park and more like a nature refuge and personally appeared before the cupertino city council in june 2011 to make the proposal in his final public appearance before his death apple also operates from the apple campus also known by its address 1 infinite loop a grouping of six buildings in cupertino that total located about to the west of apple park the apple campus was the companys headquarters from its opening in 1993 until the opening of apple park in 2017 the buildings located at 16 infinite loop are arranged in a circular pattern around a central green space in a design that has been compared to that of a university in addition to apple park and the apple campus apple occupies an additional thirty office buildings scattered throughout the city of cupertino including three buildings that also served as prior headquarters stephens creek three 19771978 bandley one 19781982 and mariani one 19821993 in total apple occupies almost 40 of the available office space in the city apples headquarters for europe the middle east and africa emea are located in cork in the south of ireland called the hollyhill campus the facility which opened in 1980 houses 5500 people and was apples first location outside of the united states apples international sales and distribution arms operate out of the campus in cork apple has two campuses near austin texas a campus opened in 2014 houses 500 engineers who work on apple silicon and a campus opened in 2021 where 6000 people work in technical support supply chain management online store curation and apple maps data management the company also has several other locations in boulder colorado culver city california herzliya israel london new york pittsburgh san diego and seattle that each employ hundreds of people litigation apple has been a participant in various legal proceedings and claims since it began operation in particular apple is known for and promotes itself as actively and aggressively enforcing its intellectual property interests some litigation examples include apple v samsung apple v microsoft motorola mobility v apple inc and apple corps v apple computer apple has also had to defend itself against charges on numerous occasions of violating intellectual property rights most have been dismissed in the courts as shell companies known as patent trolls with no evidence of actual use of patents in question on december 21 2016 nokia announced that in the us and germany it has filed a suit against apple claiming that the latters products infringe on nokias patents most recently in november 2017 the united states international trade commission announced an investigation into allegations of patent infringement in regards to apples remote desktop technology aqua connect a company that builds remote desktop software has claimed that apple infringed on two of its patents in january 2022 ericsson sued apple over payment of royalty of 5g technology finances apple is the worlds largest technology company by revenue the worlds largest technology company by total assets and the worlds secondlargest mobile phone manufacturer after samsung in its fiscal year ending in september 2011 apple inc reported a total of 108 billion in annual revenuesa significant increase from its 2010 revenues of 65 billionand nearly 82 billion in cash reserves on march 19 2012 apple announced plans for a 265pershare dividend beginning in fourth quarter of 2012 per approval by their board of directors the companys worldwide annual revenue in 2013 totaled 170 billion in may 2013 apple entered the top ten of the fortune 500 list of companies for the first time rising 11 places above its 2012 ranking to take the sixth position apple has around us234 billion of cash and marketable securities of which 90 is located outside the united states for tax purposes apple amassed 65 of all profits made by the eight largest worldwide smartphone manufacturers in quarter one of 2014 according to a report by canaccord genuity in the first quarter of 2015 the company garnered 92 of all earnings on april 30 2017 the wall street journal reported that apple had cash reserves of 250 billion officially confirmed by apple as specifically 2568 billion a few days later apple was the largest publicly traded corporation in the world by market capitalization on august 2 2018 apple became the first publicly traded us company to reach a 1 trillion market value apple was ranked no 4 on the 2018 fortune 500 rankings of the largest united states corporations by total revenue in july 2022 apple reported an 11 decline in q3 profits compared to 2021 its revenue in the same period rose 2 yearonyear to 83 billion though this figure was also lower than in 2021 where the increase was at 36 the general downturn is reportedly caused by the slowing global economy and supply chain disruptions in china in may 2023 apple reported a decline in its sales for the first quarter of 2023 compared to that of 2022 revenue for 2023 fell by 3 this is apples second consecutive quarter of sales decline this fall is attributed to the slowing economy and consumers putting off purchases of ipads and computers due to increased pricing however iphone sales held up with a yearonyear increase of 15 according to apple demands for such devices were strong particularly in latin america and south asia taxes apple has created subsidiaries in lowtax places such as ireland the netherlands luxembourg and the british virgin islands to cut the taxes it pays around the world according to the new york times in the 1980s apple was among the first tech companies to designate overseas salespeople in hightax countries in a manner that allowed the company to sell on behalf of lowtax subsidiaries on other continents sidestepping income taxes in the late 1980s apple was a pioneer of an accounting technique known as the double irish with a dutch sandwich which reduces taxes by routing profits through irish subsidiaries and the netherlands and then to the caribbean british conservative party member of parliament charlie elphicke published research on october 30 2012 which showed that some multinational companies including apple inc were making billions of pounds of profit in the uk but were paying an effective tax rate to the uk treasury of only 3 percent well below standard corporate tax rates he followed this research by calling on the chancellor of the exchequer george osborne to force these multinationals which also included google and the cocacola company to state the effective rate of tax they pay on their uk revenues elphicke also said that government contracts should be withheld from multinationals who do not pay their fair share of uk tax according to a us senate report on the companys offshore tax structure concluded in may 2013 apple has held billions of dollars in profits in irish subsidiaries to pay little or no taxes to any government by using an unusual global tax structure the main subsidiary a holding company that includes apples retail stores throughout europe has not paid any corporate income tax in the last five years apple has exploited a difference between irish and us tax residency rules the report said on may 21 2013 apple ceo tim cook defended his companys tax tactics at a senate hearing apple says that it is the single largest taxpayer in the us with an effective tax rate of approximately of 26 as of q2 fy2016 in an interview with the german newspaper faz in october 2017 tim cook stated that apple was the biggest taxpayer worldwide in 2016 after a twoyear investigation the european commission claimed that apples use of a hybrid double irish tax arrangement constituted illegal state aid from ireland and ordered apple to pay 13 billion euros 145 billion in unpaid taxes the largest corporate tax fine in history this was later annulled after the european general court ruled that the commission had provided insufficient evidence in 2018 apple repatriated 285 billion to america resulting in a 38 billion tax payment spread over the following 8 years charity apple is a partner of productred a fundraising campaign for aids charity in november 2014 apple arranged for all app store revenue in a twoweek period to go to the fundraiser generating more than us20 million and in march 2017 it released an iphone 7 with a red color finish apple contributes financially to fundraisers in times of natural disasters in november 2012 it donated 25 million to the american red cross to aid relief efforts after hurricane sandy and in 2017 it donated 5 million to relief efforts for both hurricane irma and hurricane harvey as well as for the 2017 central mexico earthquake the company has also used its itunes platform to encourage donations in the wake of environmental disasters and humanitarian crises such as the 2010 haiti earthquake the 2011 japan earthquake typhoon haiyan in the philippines in november 2013 and the 2015 european migrant crisis apple emphasizes that it does not incur any processing or other fees for itunes donations sending 100 of the payments directly to relief efforts though it also acknowledges that the red cross does not receive any personal information on the users donating and that the payments may not be tax deductible on april 14 2016 apple and the world wide fund for nature wwf announced that they have engaged in a partnership to help protect life on our planet apple released a special page in the itunes app store apps for earth in the arrangement apple has committed that through april 24 wwf will receive 100 of the proceeds from the applications participating in the app store via both the purchases of any paid apps and the inapp purchases apple and wwfs apps for earth campaign raised more than 8 million in total proceeds to support wwfs conservation work wwf announced the results at wwdc 2016 in san francisco during the covid19 pandemic apples ceo cook announced that the company will be donating millions of masks to health workers in the united states and europe on january 13 2021 apple announced a 100 million racial equity and justice initiative to help combat institutional racism worldwide environment apple energy apple energy llc is a whollyowned subsidiary of apple inc that sells solar energy apples solar farms in california and nevada have been declared to provide 2179 megawatts of solar generation capacity in addition to the companys solar energy production apple has received regulatory approval to construct a landfill gas energy plant in north carolina apple will use the methane emissions to generate electricity apples north carolina data center is already powered entirely with energy from renewable sources energy and resources in 2010 climate counts a nonprofit organization dedicated to directing consumers toward the greenest companies gave apple a score of 52 points out of a possible 100 which puts apple in their top category striding this was an increase from may 2008 when climate counts only gave apple 11 points out of 100 which placed the company last among electronics companies at which time climate counts also labeled apple with a stuck icon adding that apple at the time was a choice to avoid for the climateconscious consumer following a greenpeace protest apple released a statement on april 17 2012 committing to ending its use of coal and shifting to 100 renewable clean energy by 2013 apple was using 100 renewable energy to power their data centers overall 75 of the companys power came from clean renewable sources in may 2015 greenpeace evaluated the state of the green internet and commended apple on their environmental practices saying apples commitment to renewable energy has helped set a new bar for the industry illustrating in very concrete terms that a 100 renewable internet is within its reach and providing several models of intervention for other companies that want to build a sustainable internet apple states that 100 of its us operations run on renewable energy 100 of apples data centers run on renewable energy and 93 of apples global operations run on renewable energy however the facilities are connected to the local grid which usually contains a mix of fossil and renewable sources so apple carbon offsets its electricity use the electronic product environmental assessment tool epeat allows consumers to see the effect a product has on the environment each product receives a gold silver or bronze rank depending on its efficiency and sustainability every apple tablet notebook desktop computer and display that epeat ranks achieves a gold rating the highest possible although apples data centers recycle water 35 times the increased activity in retail corporate and data centers also increase the amount of water use to in 2015 during an event on march 21 2016 apple provided a status update on its environmental initiative to be 100 renewable in all of its worldwide operations lisa p jackson apples vice president of environment policy and social initiatives who reports directly to ceo tim cook announced that 93 of apples worldwide operations are powered with renewable energy also featured was the companys efforts to use sustainable paper in their product packaging 99 of all paper used by apple in the product packaging comes from postconsumer recycled paper or sustainably managed forests as the company continues its move to all paper packaging for all of its products apple working in partnership with conservation fund have preserved 36000 acres of working forests in maine and north carolina another partnership announced is with the world wildlife fund to preserve up to of forests in china featured was the companys installation of a 40 mw solar power plant in the sichuan province of china that was tailormade to coexist with the indigenous yaks that eat hay produced on the land by raising the panels to be several feet off of the ground so the yaks and their feed would be unharmed grazing beneath the array this installation alone compensates for more than all of the energy used in apples stores and offices in the whole of china negating the companys energy carbon footprint in the country in singapore apple has worked with the singaporean government to cover the rooftops of 800 buildings in the citystate with solar panels allowing apples singapore operations to be run on 100 renewable energy liam was introduced to the world an advanced robotic disassembler and sorter designed by apple engineers in california specifically for recycling outdated or broken iphones reuses and recycles parts from traded in products apple announced on august 16 2016 that lens technology one of its major suppliers in china has committed to power all its glass production for apple with 100 percent renewable energy by 2018 the commitment is a large step in apples efforts to help manufacturers lower their carbon footprint in china apple also announced that all 14 of its final assembly sites in china are now compliant with uls zero waste to landfill validation the standard which started in january 2015 certifies that all manufacturing waste is reused recycled composted or converted into energy when necessary since the program began nearly 140000 metric tons of waste have been diverted from landfills on july 21 2020 apple announced its plan to become carbon neutral across its entire business manufacturing supply chain and product life cycle by 2030 in the next 10 years apple will try to lower emissions with a series of innovative actions including low carbon product design expanding energy efficiency renewable energy process and material innovations and carbon removal in april 2021 apple said that it had started a 200 million fund in order to combat climate change by removing 1 million metric tons of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere each year in february 2022 the newclimate institute a german environmental policy think tank published a survey evaluating the transparency and progress of the climate strategies and carbon neutrality pledges announced by 25 major companies in the united states that found that apples carbon neutrality pledge and climate strategy was unsubstantiated and misleading toxins following further campaigns by greenpeace in 2008 apple became the first electronics manufacturer to eliminate all polyvinyl chloride pvc and brominated flame retardants bfrs in its complete product line in june 2007 apple began replacing the cold cathode fluorescent lamp ccfl backlit lcd displays in its computers with mercuryfree ledbacklit lcd displays and arsenicfree glass starting with the upgraded macbook pro apple offers comprehensive and transparent information about the co2e emissions materials and electrical usage concerning every product they currently produce or have sold in the past and which they have enough data needed to produce the report in their portfolio on their homepage allowing consumers to make informed purchasing decisions on the products they offer for sale in june 2009 apples iphone 3gs was free of pvc arsenic and bfrs all apple products now have mercuryfree ledbacklit lcd displays arsenicfree glass and nonpvc cables all apple products have epeat gold status and beat the latest energy star guidelines in each products respective regulatory category in november 2011 apple was featured in greenpeaces guide to greener electronics which ranks electronics manufacturers on sustainability climate and energy policy and how green their products are the company ranked fourth of fifteen electronics companies moving up five places from the previous year with a score of 4610 greenpeace praised apples sustainability noting that the company exceeded its 70 global recycling goal in 2010 apple continues to score well on product ratings with all of their products now being free of pvc plastic and bfrs however the guide criticized apple on the energy criteria for not seeking external verification of its greenhouse gas emissions data and for not setting any targets to reduce emissions in january 2012 apple requested that its cable maker volex begin producing halogenfree usb and power cables green bonds in february 2016 apple issued a us15 billion green bond climate bond the first ever of its kind by a us tech company the green bond proceeds are dedicated to the financing of environmental projects supply chain apple products were made in america in appleowned factories until the late 1990s however as a result of outsourcing initiatives in the 2000s almost all of its manufacturing is now handled abroad according to a report by the new york times apple insiders believe the vast scale of overseas factories as well as the flexibility diligence and industrial skills of foreign workers have so outpaced their american counterparts that made in the usa is no longer a viable option for most apple products the companys manufacturing procurement and logistics enable it to execute massive product launches without having to maintain large profitsapping inventories in 2011 apples profit margins were 40 percent compared with between 10 and 20 percent for most other hardware companies cooks catchphrase to describe his focus on the companys operational arm is nobody wants to buy sour milk in may 2017 the company announced a 1 billion funding project for advanced manufacturing in the united states and subsequently invested 200 million in corning inc a manufacturer of toughened gorilla glass technology used in its iphone devices the following december apples chief operating officer jeff williams told cnbc that the 1 billion amount was absolutely not the final limit on its spending elaborating that were not thinking in terms of a fund limit were thinking about where are the opportunities across the us to help nurture companies that are making the advanced technology and the advanced manufacturing that goes with that that quite frankly is essential to our innovation apple uses components from 43 countries the majority of assembling is done by taiwanese original design manufacturer firms foxconn pegatron wistron and compal electronics with factories mostly located inside china but also brazil and india taiwan semiconductor manufacturing co tsmc is a pureplay semiconductor manufacturing company they make the majority of apples smartphone socs with samsung semiconductor playing a minority role apple alone accounted for over 25 of tsmcs total income in 2021 apples bionic lineup of smartphone socs are currently made exclusively by tsmc from the a7 bionic onwards previously manufacturing was shared with samsung the m series of apple soc for consumer computers and tablets is made by tsmc as well during the macs early history apple generally refused to adopt prevailing industry standards for hardware instead creating their own this trend was largely reversed in the late 1990s beginning with apples adoption of the pci bus in the 750085009500 power macs apple has since joined the industry standards groups to influence the future direction of technology standards such as usb agp hypertransport wifi nvme pcie and others in its products firewire is an appleoriginated standard that was widely adopted across the industry after it was standardized as ieee 1394 and is a legally mandated port in all cable tv boxes in the united states apple has gradually expanded its efforts in getting its products into the indian market in july 2012 during a conference call with investors ceo tim cook said that he loves india but that apple saw larger opportunities outside the region indias requirement that 30 of products sold be manufactured in the country was described as really adds cost to getting product to market in may 2016 apple opened an ios app development center in bangalore and a maps development office for 4000 staff in hyderabad in march the wall street journal reported that apple would begin manufacturing iphone models in india over the next two months and in may the journal wrote that an apple manufacturer had begun production of iphone se in the country while apple told cnbc that the manufacturing was for a small number of units in april 2019 apple initiated manufacturing of iphone 7 at its bengaluru facility keeping in mind demand from local customers even as they seek more incentives from the government of india at the beginning of 2020 tim cook announced that apple schedules the opening of its first physical outlet in india for 2021 while an online store is to be launched by the end of the year during the 2022 covid19 protests in china chinese stateowned company wingtech was reported by the wall street journal to gain an additional foothold in apples supply chain following protests at a foxconn factory in the zhengzhou airport economy zone worker organizations in 2006 one complex of factories in shenzhen china that assembled the ipod and other items had over 200000 workers living and working within it employees regularly worked more than 60 hours per week and made around 100 per month a little over half of the workers earnings was required to pay for rent and food from the company apple immediately launched an investigation after the 2006 media report and worked with their manufacturers to ensure acceptable working conditions in 2007 apple started yearly audits of all its suppliers regarding workers rights slowly raising standards and pruning suppliers that did not comply yearly progress reports have been published in 2011 apple admitted that its suppliers child labor practices in china had worsened the foxconn suicides occurred between january and november 2010 when 18 foxconn employees attempted suicide resulting in 14 deathsthe company was the worlds largest contract electronics manufacturer for clients including apple at the time the suicides drew media attention and employment practices at foxconn were investigated by apple apple issued a public statement about the suicides and company spokesperson steven dowling said the statement was released after the results from the companys probe into its suppliers labor practices were published in early 2010 foxconn was not specifically named in the report but apple identified a series of serious labor violations of labor laws including apples own rules and some child labor existed in a number of factories apple committed to the implementation of changes following the suicides also in 2010 workers in china planned to sue iphone contractors over poisoning by a cleaner used to clean lcd screens one worker claimed that he and his coworkers had not been informed of possible occupational illnesses after a high suicide rate in a foxconn facility in china making ipads and iphones albeit a lower rate than that of china as a whole workers were forced to sign a legally binding document guaranteeing that they would not kill themselves workers in factories producing apple products have also been exposed to hexane a neurotoxin that is a cheaper alternative than alcohol for cleaning the products a 2014 bbc investigation found excessive hours and other problems persisted despite apples promise to reform factory practice after the 2010 foxconn suicides the pegatron factory was once again the subject of review as reporters gained access to the working conditions inside through recruitment as employees while the bbc maintained that the experiences of its reporters showed that labor violations were continuing apple publicly disagreed with the bbc and stated we are aware of no other company doing as much as apple to ensure fair and safe working conditions in december 2014 the institute for global labour and human rights published a report which documented inhumane conditions for the 15000 workers at a zhen ding technology factory in shenzhen china which serves as a major supplier of circuit boards for apples iphone and ipad according to the report workers are pressured into 65hour work weeks which leaves them so exhausted that they often sleep during lunch breaks they are also made to reside in primitive dark and filthy dorms where they sleep on plywood with six to ten workers in each crowded room omnipresent security personnel also routinely harass and beat the workers in 2019 there were reports stating that some of foxconns managers had used rejected parts to build iphones and that apple was investigating the issue see also list of apple inc media events pixar notes references bibliography further reading external links 1976 establishments in california 1980s initial public offerings american brands companies based in cupertino california companies in the dow jones industrial average companies in the prism network companies listed on the nasdaq computer companies established in 1976 computer companies of the united states display technology companies electronics companies of the united states home computer hardware companies mobile phone manufacturers multinational companies headquartered in the united states networking hardware companies portable audio player manufacturers retail companies of the united states software companies based in the san francisco bay area software companies established in 1976 steve jobs technology companies based in the san francisco bay area technology companies established in 1976 technology companies of the united states	13,184
857	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeenshire	Aberdeenshire	aberdeenshire is one of the 32 council areas of scotland it takes its name from the county of aberdeen which has substantially different boundaries the aberdeenshire council area includes all of the area of the historic counties of aberdeenshire and kincardineshire except the area making up aberdeen city council area as well as part of banffshire the county boundaries are officially used for a few purposes namely land registration and lieutenancy aberdeenshire council is headquartered at woodhill house in aberdeen making it the only scottish council whose headquarters are located outside its jurisdiction aberdeen itself forms a different council area aberdeen city aberdeenshire borders onto angus and perth and kinross to the south highland and moray to the west and aberdeen city to the east traditionally it has depended economically on the primary sector agriculture fishing and forestry and related processing industries over the last 40 years the development of the oil and gas industry and associated service sector has broadened aberdeenshires economic base and contributed to a rapid population growth of some 50 since 1975 its land represents 8 of scotlands overall territory it covers an area of history aberdeenshire has a rich prehistoric and historical heritage it is the locus of a large number of neolithic and bronze age archaeological sites including longman hill kempstone hill catto long barrow and cairn lee the area was settled in the bronze age by the beaker culture who arrived from the south around 20001800 bc stone circles and cairns were constructed predominantly in this era in the iron age hill forts were built around the 1st century ad the taexali people who have left little history were believed to have resided along the coast the picts were the next documented inhabitants of the area and were no later than 800900 ad the romans also were in the area during this period as they left signs at kintore christianity influenced the inhabitants early on and there were celtic monasteries at old deer and monymusk since medieval times there have been many traditional paths that crossed the mounth a spur of mountainous land that extends from the higher inland range to the north sea slightly north of stonehaven through presentday aberdeenshire from the scottish lowlands to the highlands some of the most wellknown and historically important trackways are the causey mounth and elsick mounth aberdeenshire played an important role in the fighting between the scottish clans clan macbeth and the clan canmore were two of the larger clans macbeth fell at lumphanan in 1057 during the anglonorman penetration other families arrive such as house of balliol clan bruce and clan cumming comyn when the fighting amongst these newcomers resulted in the scottish wars of independence the english king edward i travelled across the area twice in 1296 and 1303 in 1307 robert the bruce was victorious near inverurie along with his victory came new families namely the forbeses and the gordons these new families set the stage for the upcoming rivalries during the 14th and 15th centuries this rivalry grew worse during and after the protestant reformation when religion was another reason for conflict between the clans the gordon family adhered to catholicism and the forbeses to protestantism aberdeenshire was the historic seat of the clan dempster three universities were founded in the area prior to the 17th century kings college in old aberdeen 1494 marischal college in aberdeen 1593 and the university of fraserburgh 1597 after the end of the revolution of 1688 an extended peaceful period was interrupted only by fleeting events such as the rising of 1715 and the rising of 1745 the latter resulted in the end of the ascendancy of episcopalianism and the feudal power of landowners an era began of increased agricultural and industrial progress during the 17th century aberdeenshire was the location of more fighting centred on the marquess of montrose and the english civil wars this period also saw increased wealth due to the increase in trade with germany poland and the low countries the present council area is named after the historic county of aberdeenshire which has different boundaries and was abandoned as an administrative area in 1975 under the local government scotland act 1973 it was replaced by grampian regional council and five district councils banff and buchan gordon kincardine and deeside moray and the city of aberdeen local government functions were shared between the two levels in 1996 under the local government etc scotland act 1994 the banff and buchan district gordon district and kincardine and deeside district were merged to form the present aberdeenshire council area moray and the city of aberdeen were made their own council areas the present aberdeenshire council area consists of all of the historic counties of aberdeenshire and kincardineshire except the area of those two counties making up the city of aberdeen as well as the northeast portions of banffshire demographics the population of the council area has risen over 50 since 1971 to approximately representing 47 of scotlands total aberdeenshires population has increased by 91 since 2001 while scotlands total population grew by 38 the census lists a relatively high proportion of under 16s and slightly fewer workingage people compared with the scottish average aberdeenshire is one of the most homogeneousindigenous regions of the uk in 2011 822 of residents identified as white scottish followed by 123 who are white british whilst ethnic minorities constitute only 09 of the population the largest ethnic minority group are asian scottishbritish at 08 in addition to the english language 488 of residents reported being able to speak and understand the scots language settlements the largest settlements in aberdeenshire are economy aberdeenshires gross domestic product gdp is estimated at 3496m 2011 representing 52 of the scottish total aberdeenshires economy is closely linked to aberdeen citys gdp 7906m and in 2011 the region as a whole was calculated to contribute 168 of scotlands gdp between 2012 and 2014 the combined aberdeenshire and aberdeen city economic forecast gdp growth rate is 86 the highest growth rate of any local council area in the uk and above the scottish rate of 48 a significant proportion of aberdeenshires working residents commute to aberdeen city for work varying from 115 from fraserburgh to 65 from westhill average gross weekly earnings for fulltime employees employed in workplaces in aberdeenshire in 2011 are 57260 this is lower than the scottish average by 210 and a fall of 26 on the 2010 figure the average gross weekly pay of people resident in aberdeenshire is much higher at 74190 as many people commute out of aberdeenshire principally into aberdeen city total employment excluding farm data in aberdeenshire is estimated at 93700 employees business register and employment survey 2009 the majority of employees work within the service sector predominantly in public administration education and health almost 19 of employment is within the public sector aberdeenshires economy remains closely linked to aberdeen citys and the north sea oil industry with many employees in oilrelated jobs the average monthly unemployment claimant count rate for aberdeenshire in 2011 was 15 this is lower than the average rate of aberdeen city 23 scotland 42 and the uk 38 major industries energy there are significant energyrelated infrastructure presence and expertise in aberdeenshire peterhead is an important centre for the energy industry peterhead port includes an extensive new quay with an adjacent laydown area at smith quay is a major support location for north sea oil and gas exploration and production and the fastgrowing global subsea sector the gas terminal at st fergus handles around 15 of the uks natural gas requirements and the peterhead power station is looking to host britains first carbon capture and storage power generation project there are numerous offshore wind turbines near the coast fishing aberdeenshire is scotlands foremost fishing area in 2010 catches landed at aberdeenshires ports accounted for over half the total fish landings in scotland and almost 45 in the uk along with aberdeen city peterhead and fraserburgh ports provide much employment in these sectors the river deeis also rich in salmon agriculture aberdeenshire is rich in arable land with an estimated 9000 people employed in the sector and is best known for rearing livestock mainly cattle sheep are important in the higher ground tourism this sector continues to grow with a range of sights to be seen in the area from the lively cairngorm mountain range to the bustling fishing ports on the northeast coast aberdeenshire samples a bit of everything aberdeenshire also has a rugged coastline many sandy beaches and is a hot spot for tourist activity throughout the year almost 13 million tourists visited the region in 2011 up 3 on the previous year whisky distilling is still a practised art in the area governance the first election to aberdeenshire council was held in 1995 initially operating as a shadow authority alongside the outgoing authorities until the new system came into force on 1 april 1996 the council is the fifth largest scottish council having 70 members the council has devolved power to six area committees banff and buchan buchan formartine garioch marr and kincardine and mearns each area committee takes decisions on local issues such as planning applications and the split is meant to reflect the diverse circumstances of each area boundary map in the 2014 scottish independence referendum 6036 of voters in aberdeenshire voted for the union while 3964 opted for independence political control aberdeenshire council has been under no overall control since its creation leadership the leaders of the council since 1996 have been composition following the 2022 election and subsequent changes of allegiance up to june 2023 the composition of the council was of the independent councillors eight form the administration independents group which forms part the councils administration in coalition with the conservatives and liberal democrats two of the independents form the democratic independent group which sits with the snp as the opposition coalition the remaining independent councillor does not belong to any group the next election is due in 2027 premises the council is based at woodhill house in aberdeen outside the councils own territory the building was completed in 1977 for the former grampian regional council wards the council has 70 councillors elected by single transferable vote in 19 multimember wards notable features the following significant structures or places are within aberdeenshire balmoral castle scottish highland residence of the british royal family bennachie burn ovat cairness house cairngorms national park corgarff castle crathes castle causey mounth an ancient road drum castle dunnottar castle fetteresso castle fowlsheugh nature reserve haddo house herscha hill huntly castle kildrummy castle loch of strathbeg lochnagar monboddo house muchalls castle pitfour estate portlethen moss raedykes roman camp river dee river don sands of forvie nature reserve slains castles old and new stonehaven tolbooth ythan estuary nature reserve hydrology and climate there are numerous rivers and burns in aberdeenshire including cowie water carron water burn of muchalls river dee river don river ury river ythan water of feugh burn of myrehouse laeca burn and luther water numerous bays and estuaries are found along the seacoast of aberdeenshire including banff bay ythan estuary stonehaven bay and thornyhive bay aberdeenshire has a marine west coast climate on the köppen climate classification aberdeenshire is in the rain shadow of the grampians therefore it has a generally dry climate for a maritime region with portions of the coast receiving of moisture annually summers are mild and winters are typically cold in aberdeenshire coastal temperatures are moderated by the north sea such that coastal areas are typically cooler in the summer and warmer in winter than inland locations coastal areas are also subject to haar or coastal fog notable residents john skinner 17211807 author poet and ecclesiastic penned the famous verse tullochgorum hugh mercer 17261777 born in the manse of pitsligo kirk near rosehearty brigadier general of the continental army during the american revolution alexander garden 17301791 born in birse was a noted naturalist and physician he moved to north america in 1754 and discovered two species of lizards he was a loyalist during the american revolutionary war which led to the confiscation of his property and his banishment in 1782 the gardenia flower is named in his honour john kemp 17631812 born in auchlossan was a noted educator at columbia university who is said to have influenced dewitt clintons opinions and policies george macdonald 18241905 author poet and theologian born and raised in huntly dame evelyn glennie dbe born and raised in ellon on 19 july 1965 is a virtuoso percussionist and the first fulltime solo percussionist in 20thcentury western society she is very highly regarded in the scottish musical community and has proven that her profound deafness does not inhibit her musical talent or daytoday life evan duthie born 2000 an awardwinning dj and producer peter nicol mbe born in inverurie on 5 april 1973 is a former professional squash player who represented first scotland and then england in international squash peter shepherd 18411879 surgeon major royal army medical corps johanna basford born 1983 illustrator and textile designer iona fyfe born 1998 awardwinning scots singer and musician references external links aberdeenshire council aberdeenshire tourist guide aberdeenshire libraries service aberdeenshire museums service peterhead and buchan tourism web site aberdeenshire arts aberdeenshire sports council council areas of scotland	2,219
859	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aztlan%20Underground	Aztlan Underground	aztlan underground is a band from los angeles california that combines hiphop punk rock jazz and electronic music with chicano and native american themes and indigenous instrumentation they are often cited as progenitors of chicano rap background the band traces its roots to the late1980s hardcore scene in the eastside of los angeles they have played rapcore with elements of punk hip hop rock funk jazz indigenous music and spoken word indigenous drums flutes and rattles are also commonly used in their music their lyrics often address the family and economic issues faced by the chicano community and they have been noted as activists for that community as an example of the politically active and culturally important artists in los angeles in the 1990s aztlan underground appeared on culture clash on fox in 1993 and was part of breaking out a concert on pay per view in 1998 the band was featured in the independent films algun dia and frontierland in the 1990s and on the upcoming studio 49 the band has been mentioned or featured in various newspapers and magazines the vancouver sun new times blu magazine an underground hip hop magazine bam magazine la banda elastica magazine and the los angeles times calendar section the band is also the subject of a chapter in the book its not about a salary by brian cross aztlan underground remains active in the community lending their voice to annual events such as the farce of july and the recent movement to recognize indigenous peoples day in los angeles and beyond in addition to forming their own label xicano records and film aztlan underground were signed to the basque record label esan ozenki in 1999 which enabled them to tour spain extensively and perform in france and portugal aztlan underground have also performed in canada australia and venezuela the band has been recognized for their music with nominations in the new times 1998 best latin influenced category the bam magazine 1999 best rock en español category and the la weekly 1999 best hip hop category the release of their eponymous third album on august 29 2009 was met with positive reviews and earned the band four native american music award nammy nominations in 2010 discography decolonize year1995 teteu innan killing season lost souls my blood is red natural enemy sacred circle blood on your hands interlude aug 2 the 9 indigena lyrical drive by subverses year1998 permiso they move in silence no soy animal killing season blood on your hands reality check lemon pledge revolution preachers of the blind state lyrical driveby nahui ollin how to catch a bullet ik otik obsolete man decolonize war flowers aztlan underground year 2009 moztlitta be god light shines prey in the field 9 10 11 12 smell the dead sprung medicine acabando crescent moon see also chicano rap native american hip hop rapcore chicano rock references external links myspace link facebook page native american rappers american rappers of mexican descent musical groups from los angeles west coast hip hop musicians	505
863	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Civil%20War	American Civil War	the american civil war april 12 1861 may 26 1865 also known by other names was a civil war in the united states between the union the north and the confederacy the south formed by states that had seceded from the union the cause of the war was the dispute over whether slavery would be permitted to expand into the western territories leading to more slave states or be prevented from doing so which many believed would place slavery on a course of ultimate extinction decades of political controversy over slavery were brought to a head by the victory in the 1860 us presidential election of abraham lincoln who opposed slaverys expansion into the western territories seven southern slave states responded to lincolns victory by seceding from the united states and forming the confederacy the confederacy seized us forts and other federal assets within their borders four more southern states seceded after the war began and led by confederate president jefferson davis the confederacy asserted control over about a third of the us population in eleven states four years of intense combat mostly in the south ensued during 18611862 in the western theater the union made significant permanent gainsthough in the eastern theater the conflict was inconclusive the abolition of slavery became a union war goal on january 1 1863 when lincoln issued the emancipation proclamation which declared all slaves in states in rebellion to be free applying to more than 35 million of the 4 million enslaved people in the country to the west the union destroyed the confederacys river navy by the summer of 1862 then much of its western armies and seized new orleans the successful 1863 union siege of vicksburg split the confederacy in two at the mississippi river in 1863 confederate general robert e lees incursion north ended at the battle of gettysburg western successes led to general ulysses s grants command of all union armies in 1864 inflicting an evertightening naval blockade of confederate ports the union marshaled resources and manpower to attack the confederacy from all directions this led to the fall of atlanta in 1864 to union general william tecumseh sherman followed by his march to the sea the last significant battles raged around the tenmonth siege of petersburg gateway to the confederate capital of richmond the confederates abandoned richmond and on april 9 1865 lee surrendered to grant following the battle of appomattox court house setting in motion the end of the war a wave of confederate surrenders followed on april 14 just five days after lees surrender lincoln was assassinated on may 26 the last military department of the confederacy the department of the transmississippi effectively surrendered but the conclusion of the american civil war lacks a clear end date and appomattox is often symbolically referred to small confederate ground forces continued surrendering past the may 26 surrender date until june 23 by the end of the war much of the souths infrastructure was destroyed especially its railroads the confederacy collapsed slavery was abolished and four million enslaved black people were freed the wartorn nation then entered the reconstruction era in an attempt to rebuild the country bring the former confederate states back into the united states and grant civil rights to freed slaves the civil war is one of the most extensively studied and written about episodes in us history it remains the subject of cultural and historiographical debate of particular interest is the persisting myth of the lost cause of the confederacy the american civil war was among the first wars to use industrial warfare railroads the telegraph steamships the ironclad warship and massproduced weapons were all widely used during the war in total the war left between 620000 and 750000 soldiers dead along with an undetermined number of civilian casualties making the civil war the deadliest military conflict in american history the technology and brutality of the civil war foreshadowed the coming world wars causes of secession the reasons for the southern states decisions to secede have been historically controversial but most scholars today identify preserving slavery as the central reason in large part because the seceding states secession documents say that it was although some historical revisionists have offered additional reasons for the war slavery was the central source of escalating political tensions in the 1850s the republican party was determined to prevent any spread of slavery to the territories which after they were admitted as free states would give the free states greater representation in congress and the electoral college many southern leaders had threatened secession if the republican candidate lincoln won the 1860 election after lincoln won many southern leaders felt that disunion was their only option fearing that the loss of representation would hamper their ability to enact proslavery laws and policies in his second inaugural address lincoln said that slavery disagreements among states about the future of slavery were the main cause of disunion and the war that followed slavery had been controversial during the framing of the constitution which because of compromises ended up with proslavery and antislavery features the issue of slavery had confounded the nation since its inception and increasingly separated the united states into a slaveholding south and a free north the issue was exacerbated by the rapid territorial expansion of the country which repeatedly brought to the fore the question of whether new territory should be slaveholding or free the issue had dominated politics for decades leading up to the war key attempts to resolve the matter included the missouri compromise and the compromise of 1850 but these only postponed the showdown over slavery that would lead to the civil war the motivations of the average person were not necessarily those of their faction some northern soldiers were indifferent on the subject of slavery but a general pattern can be established as the war dragged on more and more unionists came to support the abolition of slavery whether on moral grounds or as a means to cripple the confederacy confederate soldiers fought the war primarily to protect a southern society of which slavery was an integral part opponents of slavery considered slavery an anachronistic evil incompatible with republicanism the strategy of the antislavery forces was containmentto stop the expansion of slavery and thereby put it on a path to ultimate extinction the slaveholding interests in the south denounced this strategy as infringing upon their constitutional rights southern whites believed that the emancipation of slaves would destroy the souths economy because of the large amount of capital invested in slaves and fears of integrating the exslave black population in particular many southerners feared a repeat of the 1804 haiti massacre referred to at the time as the horrors of santo domingo in which former slaves systematically murdered most of what was left of the countrys white populationincluding men women children and even many sympathetic to abolitionafter the successful slave revolt in haiti historian thomas fleming points to the historical phrase a disease in the public mind used by critics of this idea and proposes it contributed to the segregation in the jim crow era following emancipation these fears were exacerbated by the 1859 attempt of john brown to instigate an armed slave rebellion in the south abolitionists the abolitioniststhose advocating the end of slaverywere active in the decades leading up to the civil war they traced their philosophical roots back to puritans who believed that slavery was morally wrong one of the early puritan writings on this subject was the selling of joseph by samuel sewall in 1700 in it sewall condemned slavery and the slave trade and refuted many of the eras typical justifications for slavery the american revolution and the cause of liberty added tremendous impetus to the abolitionist cause even in southern states laws were changed to limit slavery and facilitate manumission the amount of indentured servitude dropped dramatically throughout the country an act prohibiting importation of slaves sailed through congress with little opposition president thomas jefferson supported it and it went into effect on january 1 1808 which was the first day that the constitution article i section 9 clause 1 permitted congress to prohibit the importation of slaves benjamin franklin and james madison each helped found manumission societies influenced by the revolution many slave owners freed their slaves but some such as george washington did so only in their wills the number of free black people as a proportion of the black population in the upper south increased from less than 1 percent to nearly 10 percent between 1790 and 1810 as a result of these actions the establishment of the northwest territory as free soilno slaveryby manasseh cutler and rufus putnam who both came from puritan new england would also prove crucial this territory which became the states of ohio michigan indiana illinois wisconsin and part of minnesota doubled the size of the united states in the decades leading up to the civil war abolitionists such as theodore parker ralph waldo emerson henry david thoreau and frederick douglass repeatedly used the puritan heritage of the country to bolster their cause the most radical antislavery newspaper the liberator invoked the puritans and puritan values over a thousand times parker in urging new england congressmen to support the abolition of slavery wrote the son of the puritan is sent to congress to stand up for truth and right literature served as a means to spread the message to common folks key works included twelve years a slave the narrative of the life of frederick douglass american slavery as it is and the most important uncle toms cabin the bestselling book of the 19th century aside from the bible a more unusual abolitionist than those named above was hinton rowan helper whose 1857 book the impending crisis of the south how to meet it even more perhaps than uncle toms cabin fed the fires of sectional controversy leading up to the civil war a southerner and a virulent racist helper was nevertheless an abolitionist because he believed and showed with statistics that slavery impeded the progress and prosperity of the south dwindled our commerce and other similar pursuits into the most contemptible insignificance sunk a large majority of our people in galling poverty and ignorance and entailed upon us a humiliating dependence on the free states by 1840 more than 15000 people were members of abolitionist societies in the united states abolitionism in the united states became a popular expression of moralism and led directly to the civil war in churches conventions and newspapers reformers promoted an absolute and immediate rejection of slavery support for abolition among the religious was not universal though as the war approached even the main denominations split along political lines forming rival southern and northern churches for example in 1845 the baptists split into the northern baptists and southern baptists over the issue of slavery abolitionist sentiment was not strictly religious or moral in origin the whig party became increasingly opposed to slavery because it saw it as inherently against the ideals of capitalism and the free market whig leader william h seward who would serve as lincolns secretary of state proclaimed that there was an irrepressible conflict between slavery and free labor and that slavery had left the south backward and undeveloped as the whig party dissolved in the 1850s the mantle of abolition fell to its newly formed successor the republican party territorial crisis manifest destiny heightened the conflict over slavery each new territory acquired had to face the thorny question of whether to allow or disallow the peculiar institution between 1803 and 1854 the united states achieved a vast expansion of territory through purchase negotiation and conquest at first the new states carved out of these territories entering the union were apportioned equally between slave and free states pro and antislavery forces collided over the territories west of the mississippi river the mexicanamerican war and its aftermath was a key territorial event in the leadup to the war as the treaty of guadalupe hidalgo finalized the conquest of northern mexico west to california in 1848 slaveholding interests looked forward to expanding into these lands and perhaps cuba and central america as well prophetically ralph waldo emerson wrote that mexico will poison us referring to the ensuing divisions around whether the newly conquered lands would end up slave or free northern freesoil interests vigorously sought to curtail any further expansion of slave territory the compromise of 1850 over california balanced a freesoil state with a stronger federal fugitive slave law for a political settlement after four years of strife in the 1840s but the states admitted following california were all free minnesota 1858 oregon 1859 and kansas 1861 in the southern states the question of the territorial expansion of slavery westward again became explosive both the south and the north drew the same conclusion the power to decide the question of slavery for the territories was the power to determine the future of slavery itself soon after the utah territory legalized slavery in 1852 the utah war of 1857 saw mormon settlers in the utah territory fighting the us government by 1860 four doctrines had emerged to answer the question of federal control in the territories and they all claimed they were sanctioned by the constitution implicitly or explicitly the first of these theories represented by the constitutional union party argued that the missouri compromise apportionment of territory north for free soil and south for slavery should become a constitutional mandate the failed crittenden compromise of 1860 was an expression of this view the second doctrine of congressional preeminence was championed by abraham lincoln and the republican party it insisted that the constitution did not bind legislators to a policy of balancethat slavery could be excluded in a territory as it was in the northwest ordinance of 1787 at the discretion of congress thus congress could restrict human bondage but never establish it the illfated wilmot proviso announced this position in 1846 the proviso was a pivotal moment in national politics as it was the first time slavery had become a major congressional issue based on sectionalism instead of party lines its support by northern democrats and whigs and opposition by southerners was a dark omen of coming divisions senator stephen a douglas proclaimed the third doctrine territorial or popular sovereignty which asserted that the settlers in a territory had the same rights as states in the union to allow or disallow slavery as a purely local matter the kansasnebraska act of 1854 legislated this doctrine in the kansas territory political conflict spawned bleeding kansas a fiveyear paramilitary conflict between pro and antislavery supporters the us house of representatives voted to admit kansas as a free state in early 1860 but its admission did not pass the senate until january 1861 after the departure of southern senators the fourth doctrine was advocated by mississippi senator and soon to be confederate president jefferson davis it was one of state sovereignty states rights also known as the calhoun doctrine named after the south carolinian political theorist and statesman john c calhoun rejecting the arguments for federal authority or selfgovernment state sovereignty would empower states to promote the expansion of slavery as part of the federal union under the us constitution these four doctrines comprised the dominant ideologies presented to the american public on the matters of slavery the territories and the us constitution before the 1860 presidential election states rights a longrunning dispute over the origin of the civil war is to what extent states rights triggered the conflict the consensus among historians is that the civil war was fought about states rights but the issue is frequently referenced in popular accounts of the war and has much traction among southerners southerners advocating secession argued that just as each state had decided to join the union a state had the right to secedeleave the unionat any time northerners including proslavery president buchanan rejected that notion as opposed to the will of the founding fathers who said they were setting up a perpetual union historian james mcpherson points out that even if confederates genuinely fought over states rights it boiled down to states right to slavery mcpherson writes concerning states rights and other nonslavery explanations states rights was an ideology formulated and applied as a means of advancing slave state interests through federal authority as historian thomas l krannawitter points out the southern demand for federal slave protection represented a demand for an unprecedented expansion of federal power before the civil war the southern states supported the use of federal powers to enforce and extend slavery as with the fugitive slave act of 1850 and the dred scott v sandford decision the faction that pushed for secession often infringed on states rights because of the overrepresentation of proslavery factions in the federal government many northerners even nonabolitionists feared the slave power conspiracy some northern states resisted the enforcement of the fugitive slave act historian eric foner states that the act could hardly have been designed to arouse greater opposition in the north it overrode numerous state and local laws and legal procedures and commanded individual citizens to assist when called upon in capturing runaways he continues it certainly did not reveal on the part of slaveholders sensitivity to states rights according to historian paul finkelman the southern states mostly complained that the northern states were asserting their states rights and that the national government was not powerful enough to counter these northern claims the confederate constitution also federally required slavery to be legal in all confederate states and claimed territories sectionalism sectionalism resulted from the different economies social structure customs and political values of the north and south regional tensions came to a head during the war of 1812 resulting in the hartford convention which manifested northern dissatisfaction with a foreign trade embargo that affected the industrial north disproportionately the threefifths compromise dilution of northern power by new states and a succession of southern presidents sectionalism increased steadily between 1800 and 1860 as the north which phased slavery out of existence industrialized urbanized and built prosperous farms while the deep south concentrated on plantation agriculture based on slave labor together with subsistence agriculture for poor whites in the 1840s and 1850s the issue of accepting slavery in the guise of rejecting slaveowning bishops and missionaries split the nations largest religious denominations the methodist baptist and presbyterian churches into separate northern and southern denominations historians have debated whether economic differences between the mainly industrial north and the mainly agricultural south helped cause the war most historians now disagree with the economic determinism of historian charles a beard in the 1920s and emphasize that northern and southern economies were largely complementary while socially different the sections economically benefited each other protectionism owners of slaves preferred lowcost manual labor with no mechanization northern manufacturing interests supported tariffs and protectionism while southern planters demanded free trade the democrats in congress controlled by southerners wrote the tariff laws in the 1830s 1840s and 1850s and kept reducing rates so that the 1857 rates were the lowest since 1816 the republicans called for an increase in tariffs in the 1860 election the increases were only enacted in 1861 after southerners resigned their seats in congress the tariff issue was a northern grievance however neoconfederate writers have claimed it as a southern grievance in 186061 none of the groups that proposed compromises to head off secession raised the tariff issue pamphleteers from the north and the south rarely mentioned the tariff nationalism and honor nationalism was a powerful force in the early 19th century with famous spokesmen such as andrew jackson and daniel webster while practically all northerners supported the union southerners were split between those loyal to the entirety of the united states called southern unionists and those loyal primarily to the southern region and then the confederacy perceived insults to southern collective honor included the enormous popularity of uncle toms cabin and abolitionist john browns attempt to incite a slave rebellion in 1859 while the south moved towards a southern nationalism leaders in the north were also becoming more nationally minded and they rejected any notion of splitting the union the republican national electoral platform of 1860 warned that republicans regarded disunion as treason and would not tolerate it the south ignored the warnings southerners did not realize how ardently the north would fight to hold the union together lincolns election the election of abraham lincoln in november 1860 was the final trigger for secession southern leaders feared that lincoln would stop the expansion of slavery and put it on a course toward extinction however lincoln would not be inaugurated until five months after the election which gave the south time to secede and prepare for war in the winter and spring of 1861 according to lincoln the american people had shown that they had been successful in establishing and administering a republic but a third challenge faced the nation maintaining a republic based on the peoples vote in the face of an attempt to destroy it outbreak of the war secession crisis the election of lincoln provoked the legislature of south carolina to call a state convention to consider secession before the war south carolina did more than any other southern state to advance the notion that a state had the right to nullify federal laws and even to secede from the united states the convention unanimously voted to secede on december 20 1860 and adopted a secession declaration it argued for states rights for slave owners in the south but contained a complaint about states rights in the north in the form of opposition to the fugitive slave act claiming that northern states were not fulfilling their federal obligations under the constitution the cotton states of mississippi florida alabama georgia louisiana and texas followed suit seceding in january and february 1861 among the ordinances of secession passed by the individual states those of threetexas alabama and virginiaspecifically mentioned the plight of the slaveholding states at the hands of northern abolitionists the rest make no mention of the slavery issue and are often brief announcements of the dissolution of ties by the legislatures however at least four statessouth carolina mississippi georgia and texasalso passed lengthy and detailed explanations of their reasons for secession all of which laid the blame squarely on the movement to abolish slavery and that movements influence over the politics of the northern states the southern states believed slaveholding was a constitutional right because of the fugitive slave clause of the constitution these states agreed to form a new federal government the confederate states of america on february 4 1861 they took control of federal forts and other properties within their boundaries with little resistance from outgoing president james buchanan whose term ended on march 4 1861 buchanan said that the dred scott decision was proof that the south had no reason for secession and that the union was intended to be perpetual but that the power by force of arms to compel a state to remain in the union was not among the enumerated powers granted to congress onequarter of the us armythe entire garrison in texaswas surrendered in february 1861 to state forces by its commanding general david e twiggs who then joined the confederacy as southerners resigned their seats in the senate and the house republicans were able to pass projects that had been blocked by southern senators before the war these included the morrill tariff land grant colleges the morrill act a homestead act a transcontinental railroad the pacific railroad acts the national bank act the authorization of united states notes by the legal tender act of 1862 and the ending of slavery in the district of columbia the revenue act of 1861 introduced the income tax to help finance the war in december 1860 the crittenden compromise was proposed to reestablish the missouri compromise line by constitutionally banning slavery in territories to the north of the line while guaranteeing it to the south the adoption of this compromise likely would have prevented the secession of the southern states but lincoln and the republicans rejected it lincoln stated that any compromise that would extend slavery would in time bring down the union a prewar february peace conference of 1861 met in washington proposing a solution similar to that of the crittenden compromise it was rejected by congress the republicans proposed an alternative compromise to not interfere with slavery where it existed but the south regarded it as insufficient nonetheless the remaining eight slave states rejected pleas to join the confederacy following a twotoone novote in virginias first secessionist convention on april 4 1861 on march 4 1861 abraham lincoln was sworn in as president in his inaugural address he argued that the constitution was a more perfect union than the earlier articles of confederation and perpetual union that it was a binding contract and called any secession legally void he had no intent to invade southern states nor did he intend to end slavery where it existed but said that he would use force to maintain possession of federal property including forts arsenals mints and customhouses that had been seized by the southern states the government would make no move to recover post offices and if resisted mail delivery would end at state lines where popular conditions did not allow peaceful enforcement of federal law us marshals and judges would be withdrawn no mention was made of bullion lost from us mints in louisiana georgia and north carolina he stated that it would be us policy to only collect import duties at its ports there could be no serious injury to the south to justify the armed revolution during his administration his speech closed with a plea for restoration of the bonds of union famously calling on the mystic chords of memory binding the two regions the davis government of the new confederacy sent three delegates to washington to negotiate a peace treaty with the united states of america lincoln rejected any negotiations with confederate agents because he claimed the confederacy was not a legitimate government and that making any treaty with it would be tantamount to recognition of it as a sovereign government lincoln instead attempted to negotiate directly with the governors of individual seceded states whose administrations he continued to recognize complicating lincolns attempts to defuse the crisis were the actions of the new secretary of state william seward seward had been lincolns main rival for the republican presidential nomination shocked and embittered by this defeat seward agreed to support lincolns candidacy only after he was guaranteed the executive office that was considered at that time to be the most powerful and important after the presidency itself even in the early stages of lincolns presidency seward still held little regard for the new chief executive due to his perceived inexperience and therefore seward viewed himself as the de facto head of government or prime minister behind the throne of lincoln in this role seward attempted to engage in unauthorized and indirect negotiations that failed however president lincoln was determined to hold all remaining unionoccupied forts in the confederacy fort monroe in virginia fort pickens fort jefferson and fort taylor in florida and fort sumter in south carolina battle of fort sumter the american civil war began on april 12 1861 when confederate forces opened fire on the unionheld fort sumter fort sumter is located in the middle of the harbor of charleston south carolina its status had been contentious for months outgoing president buchanan had dithered in reinforcing the union garrison in the harbor which was under command of major robert anderson anderson took matters into his own hands and on december 26 1860 under the cover of darkness sailed the garrison from the poorly placed fort moultrie to the stalwart island fort sumter andersons actions catapulted him to hero status in the north an attempt to resupply the fort on january 9 1861 failed and nearly started the war then and there but an informal truce held on march 5 the newly sworn in lincoln was informed that the fort was running low on supplies fort sumter proved to be one of the main challenges of the new lincoln administration backchannel dealing by secretary of state seward with the confederates undermined lincolns decisionmaking seward wanted to pull out of the fort but a firm hand by lincoln tamed seward and seward became one of lincolns staunchest allies lincoln ultimately decided that holding the fort which would require reinforcing it was the only workable option thus on april 6 lincoln informed the governor of south carolina that a ship with food but no ammunition would attempt to supply the fort historian mcpherson describes this winwin approach as the first sign of the mastery that would mark lincolns presidency the union would win if it could resupply and hold onto the fort and the south would be the aggressor if it opened fire on an unarmed ship supplying starving men an april 9 confederate cabinet meeting resulted in president daviss ordering general p g t beauregard to take the fort before supplies could reach it at 430 am on april 12 confederate forces fired the first of 4000 shells at the fort it fell the next day the loss of fort sumter lit a patriotic fire under the north on april 15 lincoln called on the states to field 75000 volunteer troops for 90 days impassioned union states met the quotas quickly on may 3 1861 lincoln called for an additional 42000 volunteers for a period of three years shortly after this virginia tennessee arkansas and north carolina seceded and joined the confederacy to reward virginia the confederate capital was moved to richmond attitude of the border states maryland delaware missouri and kentucky were slave states whose people had divided loyalties to northern and southern businesses and family members some men enlisted in the union army and others in the confederate army west virginia separated from virginia and was admitted to the union on june 20 1863 marylands territory surrounded the united states capital of washington dc and could cut it off from the north it had numerous antilincoln officials who tolerated antiarmy rioting in baltimore and the burning of bridges both aimed at hindering the passage of troops to the south marylands legislature voted overwhelmingly 5313 to stay in the union but also rejected hostilities with its southern neighbors voting to close marylands rail lines to prevent them from being used for war lincoln responded by establishing martial law and unilaterally suspending habeas corpus in maryland along with sending in militia units from the north lincoln rapidly took control of maryland and the district of columbia by seizing many prominent figures including arresting 13 of the members of the maryland general assembly on the day it reconvened all were held without trial with lincoln ignoring a ruling on june 1 1861 by us supreme court chief justice roger taney not speaking for the court that only congress and not the president could suspend habeas corpus ex parte merryman federal troops imprisoned a prominent baltimore newspaper editor frank key howard francis scott keys grandson after he criticized lincoln in an editorial for ignoring taneys ruling in missouri an elected convention on secession voted decisively to remain within the union when proconfederate governor claiborne f jackson called out the state militia it was attacked by federal forces under general nathaniel lyon who chased the governor and the rest of the state guard to the southwestern corner of the state see also missouri secession early in the war the confederacy controlled the southern portion of missouri through the confederate government of missouri but was largely driven out of the state after 1862 in the resulting vacuum the convention on secession reconvened and took power as the unionist provisional government of missouri kentucky did not secede for a time it declared itself neutral when confederate forces entered the state in september 1861 neutrality ended and the state reaffirmed its union status while maintaining slavery during a brief invasion by confederate forces in 1861 confederate sympathizers and delegates from 68 kentucky counties organized a secession convention at the russellville convention formed the shadow confederate government of kentucky inaugurated a governor and gained recognition from the confederacy and kentucky was formally admitted into the confederacy on december 10 1861 its jurisdiction extended only as far as confederate battle lines in the commonwealth which at its greatest extent was over half the state and it went into exile after october 1862 after virginias secession a unionist government in wheeling asked 48 counties to vote on an ordinance to create a new state on october 24 1861 a voter turnout of 34 percent approved the statehood bill 96 percent approving twentyfour secessionist counties were included in the new state and the ensuing guerrilla war engaged about 40000 federal troops for much of the war congress admitted west virginia to the union on june 20 1863 west virginia provided about 2000022000 soldiers to both the confederacy and the union a unionist secession attempt occurred in east tennessee but was suppressed by the confederacy which arrested over 3000 men suspected of being loyal to the union they were held without trial war the civil war was a contest marked by the ferocity and frequency of battle over four years 237 named battles were fought as were many more minor actions and skirmishes which were often characterized by their bitter intensity and high casualties in his book the american civil war british historian john keegan writes that the american civil war was to prove one of the most ferocious wars ever fought in many cases without geographic objectives the only target for each side was the enemys soldier mobilization as the first seven states began organizing a confederacy in montgomery the entire us army numbered 16000 however northern governors had begun to mobilize their militias the confederate congress authorized the new nation up to 100000 troops sent by governors as early as february by may jefferson davis was pushing for 100000 soldiers for one year or the duration and that was answered in kind by the us congress in the first year of the war both sides had far more volunteers than they could effectively train and equip after the initial enthusiasm faded reliance on the cohort of young men who came of age every year and wanted to join was not enough both sides used a draft lawconscriptionas a device to encourage or force volunteering relatively few were drafted and served the confederacy passed a draft law in april 1862 for young men aged 18 to 35 overseers of slaves government officials and clergymen were exempt the us congress followed in july authorizing a militia draft within a state when it could not meet its quota with volunteers european immigrants joined the union army in large numbers including 177000 born in germany and 144000 born in ireland when the emancipation proclamation went into effect in january 1863 exslaves were energetically recruited by the states and used to meet the state quotas states and local communities offered higher and higher cash bonuses for white volunteers congress tightened the law in march 1863 men selected in the draft could provide substitutes or until mid1864 pay commutation money many eligibles pooled their money to cover the cost of anyone drafted families used the substitute provision to select which man should go into the army and which should stay home there was much evasion and overt resistance to the draft especially in catholic areas the draft riot in new york city in july 1863 involved irish immigrants who had been signed up as citizens to swell the vote of the citys democratic political machine not realizing it made them liable for the draft of the 168649 men procured for the union through the draft 117986 were substitutes leaving only 50663 who had their services conscripted in both the north and south the draft laws were highly unpopular in the north some 120000 men evaded conscription many of them fleeing to canada and another 280000 soldiers deserted during the war at least 100000 southerners deserted or about 10 percent southern desertion was high because according to one historian writing in 1991 the highly localized southern identity meant that many southern men had little investment in the outcome of the war with individual soldiers caring more about the fate of their local area than any grand ideal in the north bounty jumpers enlisted to get the generous bonus deserted then went back to a second recruiting station under a different name to sign up again for a second bonus 141 were caught and executed from a tiny frontier force in 1860 the union and confederate armies had grown into the largest and most efficient armies in the world within a few years some european observers at the time dismissed them as amateur and unprofessional but historian john keegan concluded that each outmatched the french prussian and russian armies of the time and without the atlantic would have threatened any of them with defeat prisoners at the start of the civil war a system of paroles operated captives agreed not to fight until they were officially exchanged meanwhile they were held in camps run by their army they were paid but they were not allowed to perform any military duties the system of exchanges collapsed in 1863 when the confederacy refused to exchange black prisoners after that about 56000 of the 409000 pows died in prisons during the war accounting for nearly 10 percent of the conflicts fatalities women historian elizabeth d leonard writes that according to various estimates between five hundred and one thousand women enlisted as soldiers on both sides of the war disguised as men women also served as spies resistance activists nurses and hospital personnel women served on the union hospital ship red rover and nursed union and confederate troops at field hospitals mary edwards walker the only woman ever to receive the medal of honor served in the union army and was given the medal for her efforts to treat the wounded during the war her name was deleted from the army medal of honor roll in 1917 along with over 900 other medal of honor recipients however it was restored in 1977 naval tactics the small us navy of 1861 was rapidly enlarged to 6000 officers and 45000 sailors in 1865 with 671 vessels having a tonnage of 510396 its mission was to blockade confederate ports take control of the river system defend against confederate raiders on the high seas and be ready for a possible war with the british royal navy meanwhile the main riverine war was fought in the west where a series of major rivers gave access to the confederate heartland the us navy eventually gained control of the red tennessee cumberland mississippi and ohio rivers in the east the navy shelled confederate forts and provided support for coastal army operations the civil war occurred during the early stages of the industrial revolution many naval innovations emerged during this time most notably the advent of the ironclad warship it began when the confederacy knowing they had to meet or match the unions naval superiority responded to the union blockade by building or converting more than 130 vessels including twentysix ironclads and floating batteries only half of these saw active service many were equipped with ram bows creating ram fever among union squadrons wherever they threatened but in the face of overwhelming union superiority and the unions ironclad warships they were unsuccessful in addition to oceangoing warships coming up the mississippi the union navy used timberclads tinclads and armored gunboats shipyards at cairo illinois and st louis built new boats or modified steamboats for action the confederacy experimented with the submarine which did not work satisfactorily and with building an ironclad ship which was based on rebuilding a sunken union ship on its first foray on march 8 1862 virginia inflicted significant damage to the unions wooden fleet but the next day the first union ironclad arrived to challenge it in the chesapeake bay the resulting threehour battle of hampton roads was a draw but it proved that ironclads were effective warships not long after the battle the confederacy was forced to scuttle the virginia to prevent its capture while the union built many copies of the monitor lacking the technology and infrastructure to build effective warships the confederacy attempted to obtain warships from great britain however this failed because great britain had no interest in selling warships to a nation that was at war with a stronger enemy and doing so could sour relations with the us union blockade by early 1861 general winfield scott had devised the anaconda plan to win the war with as little bloodshed as possible which called for blockading the confederacy and slowly suffocating the south to surrender lincoln adopted parts of the plan but chose to prosecute a more active vision of war in april 1861 lincoln announced the union blockade of all southern ports commercial ships could not get insurance and regular traffic ended the south blundered in embargoing cotton exports in 1861 before the blockade was effective by the time they realized the mistake it was too late king cotton was dead as the south could export less than 10 percent of its cotton the blockade shut down the ten confederate seaports with railheads that moved almost all the cotton especially new orleans mobile and charleston by june 1861 warships were stationed off the principal southern ports and a year later nearly 300 ships were in service blockade runners the confederates began the war short on military supplies and in desperate need of large quantities of arms which the agrarian south could not provide arms manufactures in the industrial north were restricted by an arms embargo keeping shipments of arms from going to the south and ending all existing and future contracts the confederacy subsequently looked to foreign sources for their enormous military needs and sought out financiers and companies like s isaac campbell company and the london armoury company in britain who acted as purchasing agents for the confederacy connecting them with britains many arms manufactures and ultimately becoming the confederacys main source of arms to get the arms safely to the confederacy british investors built small fast steamdriven blockade runners that traded arms and supplies brought in from britain through bermuda cuba and the bahamas in return for highpriced cotton many of the ships were lightweight and designed for speed and could only carry a relatively small amount of cotton back to england when the union navy seized a blockade runner the ship and cargo were condemned as a prize of war and sold with the proceeds given to the navy sailors the captured crewmen were mostly british and they were released economic impact the southern economy nearly collapsed during the war there were multiple reasons for this the severe deterioration of food supplies especially in cities the failure of southern railroads the loss of control of the main rivers foraging by northern armies and the seizure of animals and crops by confederate armies most historians agree that the blockade was a major factor in ruining the confederate economy however wise argues that the blockade runners provided just enough of a lifeline to allow lee to continue fighting for additional months thanks to fresh supplies of 400000 rifles lead blankets and boots that the homefront economy could no longer supply surdam argues that the blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the southern economy at the cost of few lives in combat practically the entire confederate cotton crop was useless although it was sold to union traders costing the confederacy its main source of income critical imports were scarce and the coastal trade was largely ended as well the measure of the blockades success was not the few ships that slipped through but the thousands that never tried it merchant ships owned in europe could not get insurance and were too slow to evade the blockade so they stopped calling at confederate ports to fight an offensive war the confederacy purchased arms in britain and converted britishbuilt ships into commerce raiders purchasing arms involved the smuggling of 600000 arms mostly british enfield rifles that enabled the confederate army to fight on for two more years and the commerce raiders were used in raiding us merchant marine ships in the atlantic and pacific oceans insurance rates skyrocketed and the american flag virtually disappeared from international waters however the same ships were reflagged with european flags and continued unmolested after the war ended the us government demanded that britain compensate it for the damage done by blockade runners and raiders outfitted in british ports britain partly acquiesced to the demand paying the us 15 million in 1871 only for commerce raiding dinçaslan argues that another outcome of the blockade was oils rise to prominence as a widely used and traded commodity the already declining whale oil industry took a blow as many old whaling ships were used in blockade efforts such as the stone fleet and confederate raiders harassing union whalers aggravated the situation oil products that had been treated mostly as lubricants especially kerosene started to replace whale oil used in lamps and essentially became a fuel commodity this increased the importance of oil as a commodity long before its eventual use as fuel for combustion engines diplomacy although the confederacy hoped that britain and france would join them against the union this was never likely and so they instead tried to bring the british and french governments in as mediators the union under lincoln and secretary of state william h seward worked to block this and threatened war if any country officially recognized the existence of the confederate states of america in 1861 southerners voluntarily embargoed cotton shipments hoping to start an economic depression in europe that would force britain to enter the war to get cotton but this did not work worse europe turned to egypt and india for cotton which they found superior hindering the souths recovery after the war cotton diplomacy proved a failure as europe had a surplus of cotton while the 186062 crop failures in europe made the norths grain exports of critical importance it also helped to turn european opinion further away from the confederacy it was said that king corn was more powerful than king cotton as us grain went from a quarter of the british import trade to almost half meanwhile the war created employment for arms makers ironworkers and ships to transport weapons lincolns administration initially failed to appeal to european public opinion at first diplomats explained that the united states was not committed to the ending of slavery and instead repeated legalistic arguments about the unconstitutionality of secession confederate representatives on the other hand started off much more successful by ignoring slavery and instead focusing on their struggle for liberty their commitment to free trade and the essential role of cotton in the european economy the european aristocracy was absolutely gleeful in pronouncing the american debacle as proof that the entire experiment in popular government had failed european government leaders welcomed the fragmentation of the ascendant american republic however there was still a european public with liberal sensibilities that the us sought to appeal to by building connections with the international press as early as 1861 many union diplomats such as carl schurz realized emphasizing the war against slavery was the unions most effective moral asset in the struggle for public opinion in europe seward was concerned that an overly radical case for reunification would distress the european merchants with cotton interests even so seward supported a widespread campaign of public diplomacy us minister to britain charles francis adams proved particularly adept and convinced britain not to openly challenge the union blockade the confederacy purchased several warships from commercial shipbuilders in britain and some others the most famous the did considerable damage and led to serious postwar disputes however public opinion against slavery in britain created a political liability for british politicians where the antislavery movement was powerful war loomed in late 1861 between the us and britain over the trent affair which began when us navy personnel boarded the british ship and seized two confederate diplomats however london and washington were able to smooth over the problem after lincoln released the two men prince albert had left his deathbed to issue diplomatic instructions to lord lyons during the trent affair his request was honored and as a result the british response to the united states was toned down and helped avert the british becoming involved in the war in 1862 the british government considered mediating between the union and confederacy though even such an offer would have risked war with the united states british prime minister lord palmerston reportedly read uncle toms cabin three times when deciding on what his decision would be the union victory in the battle of antietam caused the british to delay this decision the emancipation proclamation over time would reinforce the political liability of supporting the confederacy realizing that washington could not intervene in mexico as long as the confederacy controlled texas france invaded mexico in 1861 washington repeatedly protested frances violation of the monroe doctrine despite sympathy for the confederacy frances seizure of mexico ultimately deterred it from war with the union confederate offers late in the war to end slavery in return for diplomatic recognition were not seriously considered by london or paris after 1863 the polish revolt against russia further distracted the european powers and ensured that they would remain neutral russia supported the union largely because it believed that the us served as a counterbalance to its geopolitical rival the united kingdom in 1863 the russian navys baltic and pacific fleets wintered in the american ports of new york and san francisco respectively eastern theater the eastern theater refers to the military operations east of the appalachian mountains including the states of virginia west virginia maryland and pennsylvania the district of columbia and the coastal fortifications and seaports of north carolina background army of the potomac maj gen george b mcclellan took command of the union army of the potomac on july 26 1861 he was briefly generalinchief of all the union armies but was subsequently relieved of that post in favor of maj gen henry w halleck and the war began in earnest in 1862 the 1862 union strategy called for simultaneous advances along four axes mcclellan would lead the main thrust in virginia towards richmond ohio forces would advance through kentucky into tennessee the missouri department would drive south along the mississippi river the westernmost attack would originate from kansas army of northern virginia the primary confederate force in the eastern theater was the army of northern virginia the army originated as the confederate army of the potomac which was organized on june 20 1861 from all operational forces in northern virginia on july 20 and 21 the army of the shenandoah and forces from the district of harpers ferry were added units from the army of the northwest were merged into the army of the potomac between march 14 and may 17 1862 the army of the potomac was renamed army of northern virginia on march 14 the army of the peninsula was merged into it on april 12 1862 when virginia declared its secession in april 1861 robert e lee chose to follow his home state despite his desire for the country to remain intact and an offer of a senior union command lees biographer douglas s freeman asserts that the army received its final name from lee when he issued orders assuming command on june 1 1862 however freeman does admit that lee corresponded with brigadier general joseph e johnston his predecessor in army command before that date and referred to johnstons command as the army of northern virginia part of the confusion results from the fact that johnston commanded the department of northern virginia as of october 22 1861 and the name army of northern virginia can be seen as an informal consequence of its parent departments name jefferson davis and johnston did not adopt the name but it is clear that the organization of units as of march 14 was the same organization that lee received on june 1 and thus it is generally referred to today as the army of northern virginia even if that is correct only in retrospect on july 4 at harpers ferry colonel thomas j jackson assigned jeb stuart to command all the cavalry companies of the army of the shenandoah he eventually commanded the army of northern virginias cavalry battles in one of the first highly visible battles in july 1861 a march by union troops under the command of maj gen irvin mcdowell on the confederate forces led by gen p g t beauregard near washington was repulsed at the first battle of bull run also known as first manassas the union had the upper hand at first nearly pushing confederate forces holding a defensive position into a rout but confederate reinforcements under joseph e johnston arrived from the shenandoah valley by railroad and the course of the battle quickly changed a brigade of virginians under the relatively unknown brigadier general from the virginia military institute thomas j jackson stood its ground which resulted in jackson receiving his famous nickname stonewall upon the strong urging of president lincoln to begin offensive operations mcclellan attacked virginia in the spring of 1862 by way of the peninsula between the york river and james river southeast of richmond mcclellans army reached the gates of richmond in the peninsula campaign also in the spring of 1862 in the shenandoah valley stonewall jackson led his valley campaign employing audacity and rapid unpredictable movements on interior lines jacksons 17000 troops marched 646 miles 1040 km in 48 days and won several minor battles as they successfully engaged three union armies 52000 men including those of nathaniel p banks and john c fremont preventing them from reinforcing the union offensive against richmond the swiftness of jacksons men earned them the nickname of foot cavalry johnston halted mcclellans advance at the battle of seven pines but he was wounded in the battle and robert e lee assumed his position of command general lee and top subordinates james longstreet and stonewall jackson defeated mcclellan in the seven days battles and forced his retreat the northern virginia campaign which included the second battle of bull run ended in yet another victory for the south mcclellan resisted generalinchief hallecks orders to send reinforcements to john popes union army of virginia which made it easier for lees confederates to defeat twice the number of combined enemy troops emboldened by second bull run the confederacy made its first invasion of the north with the maryland campaign general lee led 45000 troops of the army of northern virginia across the potomac river into maryland on september 5 lincoln then restored popes troops to mcclellan mcclellan and lee fought at the battle of antietam near sharpsburg maryland on september 17 1862 the bloodiest single day in united states military history lees army checked at last returned to virginia before mcclellan could destroy it antietam is considered a union victory because it halted lees invasion of the north and provided an opportunity for lincoln to announce his emancipation proclamation when the cautious mcclellan failed to follow up on antietam he was replaced by maj gen ambrose burnside burnside was soon defeated at the battle of fredericksburg on december 13 1862 when more than 12000 union soldiers were killed or wounded during repeated futile frontal assaults against maryes heights after the battle burnside was replaced by maj gen joseph hooker hooker too proved unable to defeat lees army despite outnumbering the confederates by more than two to one his chancellorsville campaign proved ineffective and he was humiliated in the battle of chancellorsville in may 1863 chancellorsville is known as lees perfect battle because his risky decision to divide his army in the presence of a much larger enemy force resulted in a significant confederate victory gen stonewall jackson was shot in the left arm and right hand by accidental friendly fire during the battle the arm was amputated but he died shortly thereafter of pneumonia lee famously said he has lost his left arm but i have lost my right arm the fiercest fighting of the battleand the second bloodiest day of the civil waroccurred on may 3 as lee launched multiple attacks against the union position at chancellorsville that same day john sedgwick advanced across the rappahannock river defeated the small confederate force at maryes heights in the second battle of fredericksburg and then moved to the west the confederates fought a successful delaying action at the battle of salem church gen hooker was replaced by maj gen george meade during lees second invasion of the north in june meade defeated lee at the battle of gettysburg july 1 to 3 1863 this was the bloodiest battle of the war and has been called the wars turning point picketts charge on july 3 is often considered the highwater mark of the confederacy because it signaled the collapse of serious confederate threats of victory lees army suffered 28000 casualties versus meades 23000 western theater the western theater refers to military operations between the appalachian mountains and the mississippi river including the states of alabama georgia florida mississippi north carolina kentucky south carolina and tennessee as well as parts of louisiana background army of the tennessee and army of the cumberland the primary union forces in the western theater were the army of the tennessee and the army of the cumberland named for the two rivers the tennessee river and cumberland river after meades inconclusive fall campaign lincoln turned to the western theater for new leadership at the same time the confederate stronghold of vicksburg surrendered giving the union control of the mississippi river permanently isolating the western confederacy and producing the new leader lincoln needed ulysses s grant army of tennessee the primary confederate force in the western theater was the army of tennessee the army was formed on november 20 1862 when general braxton bragg renamed the former army of mississippi while the confederate forces had numerous successes in the eastern theater they were defeated many times in the west battles the unions key strategist and tactician in the west was ulysses s grant who won victories at forts henry february 6 1862 and donelson february 11 to 16 1862 earning him the nickname of unconditional surrender grant by which the union seized control of the tennessee and cumberland rivers nathan bedford forrest rallied nearly 4000 confederate troops and led them to escape across the cumberland nashville and central tennessee thus fell to the union leading to attrition of local food supplies and livestock and a breakdown in social organization leonidas polks invasion of columbus ended kentuckys policy of neutrality and turned it against the confederacy grant used river transport and andrew footes gunboats of the western flotilla to threaten the confederacys gibraltar of the west at columbus kentucky although rebuffed at belmont grant cut off columbus the confederates lacking their gunboats were forced to retreat and the union took control of western kentucky and opened tennessee in march 1862 at the battle of shiloh in shiloh tennessee in april 1862 the confederates made a surprise attack that pushed union forces against the river as night fell overnight the navy landed additional reinforcements and grant counterattacked grant and the union won a decisive victorythe first battle with the high casualty rates that would repeat over and over the confederates lost albert sidney johnston considered their finest general before the emergence of lee one of the early union objectives in the war was the capture of the mississippi river to cut the confederacy in half the mississippi river was opened to union traffic to the southern border of tennessee with the taking of island no 10 and new madrid missouri and then memphis tennessee in april 1862 the union navy captured new orleans the key to the river was new orleans the souths largest port and greatest industrial center us naval forces under farragut ran past confederate defenses south of new orleans confederate forces abandoned the city giving the union a critical anchor in the deep south which allowed union forces to begin moving up the mississippi memphis fell to union forces on june 6 1862 and became a key base for further advances south along the mississippi river only the fortress city of vicksburg mississippi prevented union control of the entire river braggs second invasion of kentucky in the confederate heartland offensive included initial successes such as kirby smiths triumph at the battle of richmond and the capture of the kentucky capital of frankfort on september 3 1862 however the campaign ended with a meaningless victory over maj gen don carlos buell at the battle of perryville bragg was forced to end his attempt at invading kentucky and retreat due to lack of logistical support and lack of infantry recruits for the confederacy in that state bragg was narrowly defeated by maj gen william rosecrans at the battle of stones river in tennessee the culmination of the stones river campaign naval forces assisted grant in the long complex vicksburg campaign that resulted in the confederates surrendering at the battle of vicksburg in july 1863 which cemented union control of the mississippi river and is considered one of the turning points of the war the one clear confederate victory in the west was the battle of chickamauga after rosecrans successful tullahoma campaign bragg reinforced by lt gen james longstreets corps from lees army in the east defeated rosecrans despite the heroic defensive stand of maj gen george henry thomas rosecrans retreated to chattanooga which bragg then besieged in the chattanooga campaign grant marched to the relief of rosecrans and defeated bragg at the third battle of chattanooga eventually causing longstreet to abandon his knoxville campaign and driving confederate forces out of tennessee and opening a route to atlanta and the heart of the confederacy transmississippi theater background the transmississippi theater refers to military operations west of the mississippi river encompassing most of missouri arkansas most of louisiana and indian territory now oklahoma the transmississippi district was formed by the confederate army to better coordinate ben mccullochs command of troops in arkansas and louisiana sterling prices missouri state guard as well as the portion of earl van dorns command that included the indian territory and excluded the army of the west the unions command was the transmississippi division or the military division of west mississippi battles the first battle of the transmississippi theater was the battle of wilsons creek august 1861 the confederates were driven from missouri early in the war as a result of the battle of pea ridge extensive guerrilla warfare characterized the transmississippi region as the confederacy lacked the troops and the logistics to support regular armies that could challenge union control roving confederate bands such as quantrills raiders terrorized the countryside striking both military installations and civilian settlements the sons of liberty and order of the american knights attacked prounion people elected officeholders and unarmed uniformed soldiers these partisans could not be entirely driven out of the state of missouri until an entire regular union infantry division was engaged by 1864 these violent activities harmed the nationwide antiwar movement organizing against the reelection of lincoln missouri not only stayed in the union but lincoln took 70 percent of the vote for reelection numerous smallscale military actions south and west of missouri sought to control indian territory and new mexico territory for the union the battle of glorieta pass was the decisive battle of the new mexico campaign the union repulsed confederate incursions into new mexico in 1862 and the exiled arizona government withdrew into texas in the indian territory civil war broke out within tribes about 12000 indian warriors fought for the confederacy and smaller numbers for the union the most prominent cherokee was brigadier general stand watie the last confederate general to surrender after the fall of vicksburg in july 1863 general kirby smith in texas was informed by jefferson davis that he could expect no further help from east of the mississippi river although he lacked resources to beat union armies he built up a formidable arsenal at tyler along with his own kirby smithdom economy a virtual independent fiefdom in texas including railroad construction and international smuggling the union in turn did not directly engage him its 1864 red river campaign to take shreveport louisiana was a failure and texas remained in confederate hands throughout the war lower seaboard theater background the lower seaboard theater refers to military and naval operations that occurred near the coastal areas of the southeast alabama florida louisiana mississippi south carolina and texas as well as the southern part of the mississippi river port hudson and south union naval activities were dictated by the anaconda plan battles one of the earliest battles of the war was fought at port royal sound november 1861 south of charleston much of the war along the south carolina coast concentrated on capturing charleston in attempting to capture charleston the union military tried two approaches by land over james or morris islands or through the harbor however the confederates were able to drive back each union attack one of the most famous of the land attacks was the second battle of fort wagner in which the 54th massachusetts infantry took part the union suffered a serious defeat in this battle losing 1515 soldiers while the confederates lost only 174 however the 54th was hailed for its valor in that battle which encouraged the general acceptance of the recruitment of african american soldiers into the union army which reinforced the unions numerical advantage fort pulaski on the georgia coast was an early target for the union navy following the capture of port royal an expedition was organized with engineer troops under the command of captain quincy a gillmore forcing a confederate surrender the union army occupied the fort for the rest of the war after repairing it in april 1862 a union naval task force commanded by commander david d porter attacked forts jackson and st philip which guarded the river approach to new orleans from the south while part of the fleet bombarded the forts other vessels forced a break in the obstructions in the river and enabled the rest of the fleet to steam upriver to the city a union army force commanded by major general benjamin butler landed near the forts and forced their surrender butlers controversial command of new orleans earned him the nickname beast the following year the union army of the gulf commanded by major general nathaniel p banks laid siege to port hudson for nearly eight weeks the longest siege in us military history the confederates attempted to defend with the bayou teche campaign but surrendered after vicksburg these two surrenders gave the union control over the entire mississippi several small skirmishes were fought in florida but no major battles the biggest was the battle of olustee in early 1864 pacific coast theater the pacific coast theater refers to military operations on the pacific ocean and in the states and territories west of the continental divide conquest of virginia at the beginning of 1864 lincoln made grant commander of all union armies grant made his headquarters with the army of the potomac and put maj gen william tecumseh sherman in command of most of the western armies grant understood the concept of total war and believed along with lincoln and sherman that only the utter defeat of confederate forces and their economic base would end the war this was total war not in killing civilians but rather in taking provisions and forage and destroying homes farms and railroads that grant said would otherwise have gone to the support of secession and rebellion this policy i believe exercised a material influence in hastening the end grant devised a coordinated strategy that would strike at the entire confederacy from multiple directions generals george meade and benjamin butler were ordered to move against lee near richmond general franz sigel and later philip sheridan were to attack the shenandoah valley general sherman was to capture atlanta and march to the sea the atlantic ocean generals george crook and william w averell were to operate against railroad supply lines in west virginia and maj gen nathaniel p banks was to capture mobile alabama grants overland campaign grants army set out on the overland campaign intending to draw lee into a defense of richmond where they would attempt to pin down and destroy the confederate army the union army first attempted to maneuver past lee and fought several battles notably at the wilderness spotsylvania and cold harbor these battles resulted in heavy losses on both sides and forced lees confederates to fall back repeatedly at the battle of yellow tavern the confederates lost jeb stuart an attempt to outflank lee from the south failed under butler who was trapped inside the bermuda hundred river bend each battle resulted in setbacks for the union that mirrored those they had suffered under prior generals though unlike those prior generals grant chose to fight on rather than retreat grant was tenacious and kept pressing lees army of northern virginia back to richmond while lee was preparing for an attack on richmond grant unexpectedly turned south to cross the james river and began the protracted siege of petersburg where the two armies engaged in trench warfare for over nine months sheridans valley campaign grant finally found a commander general philip sheridan aggressive enough to prevail in the valley campaigns of 1864 sheridan was initially repelled at the battle of new market by former us vice president and confederate gen john c breckinridge the battle of new market was the confederacys last major victory of the war and included a charge by teenage vmi cadets after redoubling his efforts sheridan defeated maj gen jubal a early in a series of battles including a final decisive defeat at the battle of cedar creek sheridan then proceeded to destroy the agricultural base of the shenandoah valley a strategy similar to the tactics sherman later employed in georgia shermans march to the sea meanwhile sherman maneuvered from chattanooga to atlanta defeating confederate generals joseph e johnston and john bell hood along the way the fall of atlanta on september 2 1864 guaranteed the reelection of lincoln as president hood left the atlanta area to swing around and menace shermans supply lines and invade tennessee in the franklinnashville campaign union maj gen john schofield defeated hood at the battle of franklin and george h thomas dealt hood a massive defeat at the battle of nashville effectively destroying hoods army leaving atlanta and his base of supplies shermans army marched with no destination set laying waste to about 20 percent of the farms in georgia in his march to the sea he reached the atlantic ocean at savannah georgia in december 1864 shermans army was followed by thousands of freed slaves there were no major battles along the march sherman turned north through south carolina and north carolina to approach the confederate virginia lines from the south increasing the pressure on lees army the waterloo of the confederacy lees army thinned by desertion and casualties was now much smaller than grants one last confederate attempt to break the union hold on petersburg failed at the decisive battle of five forks sometimes called the waterloo of the confederacy on april 1 this meant that the union now controlled the entire perimeter surrounding richmondpetersburg completely cutting it off from the confederacy realizing that the capital was now lost lees army and the confederate government were forced to evacuate the confederate capital fell on april 23 to the union xxv corps composed of black troops the remaining confederate units fled west after a defeat at saylers creek on april 6 end of the war initially lee did not intend to surrender but planned to regroup at appomattox station where supplies were to be waiting and then continue the war grant chased lee and got in front of him so that when lees army reached the village of appomattox court house they were surrounded after an initial battle lee decided that the fight was now hopeless and surrendered his army of northern virginia to grant on april 9 1865 during a conference at the mclean house in an untraditional gesture and as a sign of grants respect and anticipation of peacefully restoring confederate states to the union lee was permitted to keep his sword and his horse traveller his men were paroled and a chain of confederate surrenders began on april 14 1865 president lincoln was shot by john wilkes booth a confederate sympathizer lincoln died early the next morning lincolns vice president andrew johnson was unharmed because his wouldbe assassin george atzerodt lost his nerve so johnson was immediately sworn in as president meanwhile confederate forces across the south surrendered as news of lees surrender reached them on april 26 1865 the same day sergeant boston corbett killed booth at a tobacco barn general joseph e johnston surrendered nearly 90000 troops of the army of tennessee to major general william tecumseh sherman at bennett place near presentday durham north carolina it proved to be the largest surrender of confederate forces on may 4 all remaining confederate forces in alabama louisiana east of the mississippi river and mississippi under lieutenant general richard taylor surrendered the confederate president jefferson davis was captured at irwinville georgia on may 10 1865 on may 13 1865 the last land battle of the war was fought at the battle of palmito ranch in texas on may 26 1865 confederate lt gen simon b buckner acting for general edmund kirby smith signed a military convention surrendering the confederate transmississippi department forces this date is often cited by contemporaries and historians as the end date of the american civil war on june 2 1865 with most of his troops having already gone home technically deserted a reluctant kirby smith had little choice but to sign the official surrender document on june 23 1865 cherokee leader and confederate brig gen stand watie became the last confederate general to surrender his forces on june 19 1865 union maj gen gordon granger announced general order no 3 bringing the emancipation proclamation into effect in texas and freeing the last slaves of the confederacy the anniversary of this date is now celebrated as juneteenth the naval portion of the war ended more slowly it had begun on april 11 1865 two days after lees surrender when president lincoln proclaimed that foreign nations had no further claim or pretense to deny equality of maritime rights and hospitalities to us warships and in effect that rights extended to confederate ships to use neutral ports as safe havens from us warships should end having no response to lincolns proclamation president andrew johnson issued a similar proclamation dated may 10 1865 more directly stating the premise that the war was almost at an end armed resistancemay be regarded as virtually at an end and that insurgent cruisers still at sea and prepared to attack us ships should not have rights to do so through use of safe foreign ports or waters and warned nations which continued to do so that their government vessels would be denied access to us ports he also enjoined us officers to arrest the cruisers and their crews so that they may be prevented from committing further depredations on commerce and that the persons on board of them may no longer enjoy impunity for their crimes britain finally responded on june 6 1865 by transmitting a june 2 1865 letter from foreign secretary john russell 1st earl russell to the lords of the admiralty withdrawing rights to confederate warships to enter british ports and waters but with exceptions for a limited time to allow a captain to enter a port to divest his vessel of her warlike character and for us ships to be detained in british ports or waters to allow confederate cruisers twentyfour hours to leave first us secretary of state william seward welcomed the withdrawal of concessions to the confederates but objected to the exceptions finally on october 18 1865 russell advised the admiralty that the time specified in his june 2 1865 message had elapsed and all measures of a restrictive nature on vessels of war of the united states in british ports harbors and waters are now to be considered as at an end nonetheless the final confederate surrender was in liverpool england where james iredell waddell the captain of the css shenandoah surrendered the cruiser to british authorities on november 6 1865 legally the war did not end until august 20 1866 when president andrew johnson issued a proclamation that declared that the said insurrection is at an end and that peace order tranquillity and civil authority now exist in and throughout the whole of the united states of america union victory and aftermath the causes of the war the reasons for its outcome and even the name of the war itself are subjects of lingering contention today the north and west grew rich while the oncerich south became poor for a century the national political power of the slaveowners and rich southerners ended historians are less sure about the results of the postwar reconstruction especially regarding the secondclass citizenship of the freedmen and their poverty historians have debated whether the confederacy could have won the war most scholars including james m mcpherson argue that confederate victory was at least possible mcpherson argues that the norths advantage in population and resources made northern victory likely but not guaranteed he also argues that if the confederacy had fought using unconventional tactics it would have more easily been able to hold out long enough to exhaust the union confederates did not need to invade and hold enemy territory to win but only needed to fight a defensive war to convince the north that the cost of winning was too high the north needed to conquer and hold vast stretches of enemy territory and defeat confederate armies to win lincoln was not a military dictator and could continue to fight the war only as long as the american public supported a continuation of the war the confederacy sought to win independence by outlasting lincoln however after atlanta fell and lincoln defeated mcclellan in the election of 1864 all hope for a political victory for the south ended at that point lincoln had secured the support of the republicans war democrats the border states emancipated slaves and the neutrality of britain and france by defeating the democrats and mcclellan he also defeated the copperheads who had wanted a negotiated peace with the confederate states of america some scholars argue that the union held an insurmountable longterm advantage over the confederacy in industrial strength and population confederate actions they argue only delayed defeat civil war historian shelby foote expressed this view succinctly a minority view among historians is that the confederacy lost because as e merton coulter put it people did not will hard enough and long enough to win however most historians reject the argument mcpherson after reading thousands of letters written by confederate soldiers found strong patriotism that continued to the end they truly believed they were fighting for freedom and liberty even as the confederacy was visibly collapsing in 186465 he says most confederate soldiers were fighting hard historian gary gallagher cites general sherman who in early 1864 commented the devils seem to have a determination that cannot but be admired despite their loss of slaves and wealth with starvation looming sherman continued yet i see no sign of letupsome few desertersplenty tired of war but the masses determined to fight it out also important were lincolns eloquence in rationalizing the national purpose and his skill in keeping the border states committed to the union cause the emancipation proclamation was an effective use of the presidents war powers the confederate government failed in its attempt to get europe involved in the war militarily particularly great britain and france southern leaders needed to get european powers to help break up the blockade the union had created around the southern ports and cities lincolns naval blockade was 95 effective at stopping trade goods as a result imports and exports to the south declined significantly the abundance of european cotton and britains hostility to the institution of slavery along with lincolns atlantic and gulf of mexico naval blockades severely decreased any chance that either britain or france would enter the war historian don doyle has argued that the union victory had a major impact on the course of world history the union victory energized popular democratic forces a confederate victory on the other hand would have meant a new birth of slavery not freedom historian fergus bordewich following doyle argues that scholars have debated what the effects of the war were on political and economic power in the south the prevailing view is that the southern planter elite retained its powerful position in the south however a 2017 study challenges this noting that while some southern elites retained their economic status the turmoil of the 1860s created greater opportunities for economic mobility in the south than in the north casualties the war resulted in at least 1030000 casualties 3 percent of the population including about 620000 soldier deathstwothirds by diseaseand 50000 civilians binghamton university historian j david hacker believes the number of soldier deaths was approximately 750000 20 percent higher than traditionally estimated and possibly as high as 850000 a novel way of calculating casualties by looking at the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm through analysis of census data found that at least 627000 and at most 888000 people but most likely 761000 people died in the war as historian mcpherson notes the wars cost in american lives was as great as in all of the nations other wars combined through vietnam based on 1860 census figures 8 percent of all white men aged 13 to 43 died in the war including 6 percent in the north and 18 percent in the south about 56000 soldiers died in prison camps during the war an estimated 60000 soldiers lost limbs in the war of the 359528 union army dead amounting to 15 percent of the over two million who served 110070 were killed in action 67000 or died of wounds 43000 199790 died of disease 75 percent was due to the war the remainder would have occurred in civilian life anyway 24866 died in confederate prison camps 9058 were killed by accidents or drowning 15741 otherunknown deaths in addition there were 4523 deaths in the navy 2112 in battle and 460 in the marines 148 in battle after the emancipation proclamation authorized freed slaves to be received into the armed service of the united states former slaves who escaped from plantations or were liberated by the union army were recruited into the united states colored troops regiments of the union army as were black men who had not been slaves the us colored troops made up 10 percent of the union death toll15 percent of union deaths from disease and less than 3 percent of those killed in battle losses among african americans were high in the last year and a half and from all reported casualties approximately 20 percent of all african americans enrolled in the military died during the civil war notably their mortality rate was significantly higher than that of white soldiers while 152 of united states volunteers and just 86 of white regular army troops died 205 of united states colored troops died the united states national park service uses the following figures in its official tally of war losses union 853838 110100 killed in action 224580 disease deaths 275154 wounded in action 211411 captured including 30192 who died as pows confederate 914660 94000 killed in action 164000 disease deaths 194026 wounded in action 462634 captured including 31000 who died as pows while the figures of 360000 army deaths for the union and 260000 for the confederacy remained commonly cited they are incomplete in addition to many confederate records being missing partly as a result of confederate widows not reporting deaths due to being ineligible for benefits both armies only counted troops who died during their service and not the tens of thousands who died of wounds or diseases after being discharged this often happened only a few days or weeks later francis amasa walker superintendent of the 1870 census used census and surgeon general data to estimate a minimum of 500000 union military deaths and 350000 confederate military deaths for a total death toll of 850000 soldiers while walkers estimates were originally dismissed because of the 1870 censuss undercounting it was later found that the census was only off by 65 and that the data walker used would be roughly accurate analyzing the number of dead by using census data to calculate the deviation of the death rate of men of fighting age from the norm suggests that at least 627000 and at most 888000 but most likely 761000 soldiers died in the war this would break down to approximately 350000 confederate and 411000 union military deaths going by the proportion of union to confederate battle losses deaths among former slaves has proven much harder to estimate due to the lack of reliable census data at the time though they were known to be considerable as former slaves were set free or escaped in massive numbers in an area where the union army did not have sufficient shelter doctors or food for them university of connecticut professor jim downs states that tens to hundreds of thousands of slaves died during the war from disease starvation or exposure and that if these deaths are counted in the wars total the death toll would exceed 1 million losses were far higher than during the recent defeat of mexico which saw roughly thirteen thousand american deaths including fewer than two thousand killed in battle between 1846 and 1848 one reason for the high number of battle deaths during the war was the continued use of tactics similar to those of the napoleonic wars at the turn of the century such as charging with the advent of more accurate rifled barrels minié balls and near the end of the war for the union army repeating firearms such as the spencer repeating rifle and the henry repeating rifle soldiers were mowed down when standing in lines in the open this led to the adoption of trench warfare a style of fighting that defined much of world war i emancipation abolishing slavery was not a union war goal from the outset but it quickly became one lincolns initial claims were that preserving the union was the central goal of the war in contrast the south saw itself as fighting to preserve slavery while not all southerners saw themselves as fighting for slavery most of the officers and over a third of the rank and file in lees army had close family ties to slavery to northerners in contrast the motivation was primarily to preserve the union not to abolish slavery however as the war dragged on and it became clear that slavery was central to the conflict and that emancipation was to quote from the emancipation proclamation a fit and necessary war measure for suppressing the rebellion lincoln and his cabinet made ending slavery a war goal culminating in the emancipation proclamation lincolns decision to issue the emancipation proclamation angered both peace democrats copperheads and war democrats but energized most republicans by warning that free blacks would flood the north democrats made gains in the 1862 elections but they did not gain control of congress the republicans counterargument that slavery was the mainstay of the enemy steadily gained support with the democrats losing decisively in the 1863 elections in the northern state of ohio when they tried to resurrect antiblack sentiment emancipation proclamation slavery for the confederacys 35 million blacks effectively ended in each area when union armies arrived they were nearly all freed by the emancipation proclamation the last confederate slaves were freed on june 19 1865 celebrated as the modern holiday of juneteenth slaves in the border states and those located in some former confederate territory occupied before the emancipation proclamation were freed by state action or on december 6 1865 by the thirteenth amendment the emancipation proclamation enabled african americans both free blacks and escaped slaves to join the union army about 190000 volunteered further enhancing the numerical advantage the union armies enjoyed over the confederates who did not dare emulate the equivalent manpower source for fear of fundamentally undermining the legitimacy of slavery during the civil war sentiment concerning slaves enslavement and emancipation in the united states was divided lincolns fears of making slavery a war issue were based on a harsh reality abolition did not enjoy wide support in the west the territories and the border states in 1861 lincoln worried that premature attempts at emancipation would mean the loss of the border states and that to lose kentucky is nearly the same as to lose the whole game copperheads and some war democrats opposed emancipation although the latter eventually accepted it as part of the total war needed to save the union at first lincoln reversed attempts at emancipation by secretary of war simon cameron and generals john c frémont in missouri and david hunter in south carolina georgia and florida to keep the loyalty of the border states and the war democrats lincoln warned the border states that a more radical type of emancipation would happen if his plan of gradual compensated emancipation and voluntary colonization was rejected but compensated emancipation occurred only in the district of columbia where congress had the power to enact it when lincoln told his cabinet about his proposed emancipation proclamation which would apply to the states still in rebellion on january 1 1863 seward advised lincoln to wait for a union military victory before issuing it as to do otherwise would seem like our last shriek on the retreat walter stahr however writes there are contemporary sources however that suggest others were involved in the decision to delay and stahr quotes them lincoln laid the groundwork for public support in an open letter published in response to horace greeleys the prayer of twenty millions he also laid the groundwork at a meeting at the white house with five african american representatives on august 14 1862 arranging for a reporter to be present he urged his visitors to agree to the voluntary colonization of black people apparently to make his forthcoming preliminary emancipation proclamation more palatable to racist white people a union victory in the battle of antietam on september 17 1862 provided lincoln with an opportunity to issue the preliminary emancipation proclamation and the subsequent war governors conference added support for the proclamation lincoln issued his preliminary emancipation proclamation on september 22 1862 it stated that the slaves in all states in rebellion on january 1 1863 would be free he issued his final emancipation proclamation on january 1 1863 keeping his promise in his letter to albert g hodges lincoln explained his belief that if slavery is not wrong nothing is wrong and yet i have never understood that the presidency conferred upon me an unrestricted right to act officially upon this judgment and feeling i claim not to have controlled events but confess plainly that events have controlled me lincolns moderate approach succeeded in inducing the border states to remain in the union and war democrats to support the union the border states kentucky missouri maryland delaware and unioncontrolled regions around new orleans norfolk and elsewhere were not covered by the emancipation proclamation nor was tennessee which had come under union control missouri and maryland abolished slavery on their own kentucky and delaware did not still the proclamation did not enjoy universal support it caused much unrest in what were then considered western states where racist sentiments led to a great fear of abolition there was some concern that the proclamation would lead to the secession of western states and its issuance prompted the stationing of union troops in illinois in case of rebellion since the emancipation proclamation was based on the presidents war powers it applied only in territory held by confederates at the time it was issued however the proclamation became a symbol of the unions growing commitment to add emancipation to the unions definition of liberty the emancipation proclamation greatly reduced the confederacys hope of being recognized or otherwise aided by britain or france by late 1864 lincoln was playing a leading role in getting the house of representatives to vote for the thirteenth amendment to the united states constitution which mandated the ending of chattel slavery reconstruction the war had utterly devastated the south and posed serious questions of how the south would be reintegrated to the union the war destroyed much of the wealth that had existed in the south all accumulated investment in confederate bonds was forfeited most banks and railroads were bankrupt the income per person in the south dropped to less than 40 percent of that of the north a condition that lasted until well into the 20th century southern influence in the federal government previously considerable was greatly diminished until the latter half of the 20th century reconstruction began during the war with the emancipation proclamation of january 1 1863 and it continued until 1877 it comprised multiple complex methods to resolve the outstanding issues of the wars aftermath the most important of which were the three reconstruction amendments to the constitution the 13th outlawing slavery 1865 the 14th guaranteeing citizenship to slaves 1868 and the 15th ensuring voting rights to slaves 1870 from the union perspective the goals of reconstruction were to consolidate the union victory on the battlefield by reuniting the union to guarantee a republican form of government for the exconfederate states and to permanently end slaveryand prevent semislavery status president johnson took a lenient approach and saw the achievement of the main war goals as realized in 1865 when each exrebel state repudiated secession and ratified the thirteenth amendment radical republicans demanded proof that confederate nationalism was dead and that the slaves were truly free they overrode johnsons vetoes of civil rights legislation and the house impeached him although the senate did not convict him in 1868 and 1872 the republican candidate ulysses s grant won the presidency in 1872 the liberal republicans argued that the war goals had been achieved and that reconstruction should end they chose horace greeley to head a presidential ticket in 1872 but were decisively defeated in 1874 democrats primarily southern took control of congress and opposed further reconstruction the compromise of 1877 closed with a national consensus except perhaps on the part of former slaves that the civil war had finally ended with the withdrawal of federal troops however whites retook control of every southern legislature and the jim crow era of disenfranchisement and legal segregation was ushered in the civil war would have a huge impact on american politics in the years to come many veterans on both sides were subsequently elected to political office including five us presidents general ulysses grant rutherford b hayes james garfield benjamin harrison and william mckinley memory and historiography the civil war is one of the central events in american collective memory there are innumerable statues commemorations books and archival collections the memory includes the home front military affairs the treatment of soldiers both living and dead in the wars aftermath depictions of the war in literature and art evaluations of heroes and villains and considerations of the moral and political lessons of the war the last theme includes moral evaluations of racism and slavery heroism in combat and heroism behind the lines and issues of democracy and minority rights as well as the notion of an empire of liberty influencing the world professional historians have paid much more attention to the causes of the war than to the war itself military history has largely developed outside academia leading to a proliferation of studies by nonscholars who nevertheless are familiar with the primary sources and pay close attention to battles and campaigns and who write for the general public bruce catton and shelby foote are among the best known practically every major figure in the war both north and south has had a serious biographical study even the name used for the conflict has been controversial with many names for the american civil war during and immediately after the war northern historians often used a term like war of the rebellion writers in rebel states often referred to the war for southern independence more recently some southerners have described it as the war of northern aggression lost cause the memory of the war in the white south crystallized in the myth of the lost cause that the confederate cause was just and heroic the myth shaped regional identity and race relations for generations alan t nolan notes that the lost cause was expressly a rationalization a coverup to vindicate the name and fame of those in rebellion some claims revolve around the insignificance of slavery as a cause of the war some appeals highlight cultural differences between north and south the military conflict by confederate actors is idealized in any case secession was said to be lawful nolan argues that the adoption of the lost cause perspective facilitated the reunification of the north and the south while excusing the virulent racism of the 19th century sacrificing black american progress to white mans reunification he also deems the lost cause a caricature of the truth this caricature wholly misrepresents and distorts the facts of the matter in every instance the lost cause myth was formalized by charles a beard and mary r beard whose the rise of american civilization 1927 spawned beardian historiography the beards downplayed slavery abolitionism and issues of morality though this interpretation was abandoned by the beards in the 1940s and by historians generally by the 1950s beardian themes still echo among lost cause writers battlefield preservation the first efforts at civil war battlefield preservation and memorialization came during the war itself with the establishment of national cemeteries at gettysburg mill springs and chattanooga soldiers began erecting markers on battlefields beginning with the first battle of bull run in july 1861 but the oldest surviving monument is the hazen brigade monument near murfreesboro tennessee built in the summer of 1863 by soldiers in union col william b hazens brigade to mark the spot where they buried their dead following the battle of stones river in the 1890s the united states government established five civil war battlefield parks under the jurisdiction of the war department beginning with the creation of the chickamauga and chattanooga national military park in tennessee and the antietam national battlefield in maryland in 1890 the shiloh national military park was established in 1894 followed by the gettysburg national military park in 1895 and vicksburg national military park in 1899 in 1933 these five parks and other national monuments were transferred to the jurisdiction of the national park service chief among modern efforts to preserve civil war sites has been the american battlefield trust with more than 130 battlefields in 24 states the five major civil war battlefield parks operated by the national park service gettysburg antietam shiloh chickamaugachattanooga and vicksburg had a combined 31 million visitors in 2018 down 70 from 102 million in 1970 civil war commemoration the american civil war has been commemorated in many capacities ranging from the reenactment of battles to statues and memorial halls erected to films being produced to stamps and coins with civil war themes being issued all of which helped to shape public memory these commemorations occurred in greater numbers on the 100th and 150th anniversaries of the war hollywoods take on the war has been especially influential in shaping public memory as in such film classics as the birth of a nation 1915 gone with the wind 1939 and lincoln 2012 ken burnss pbs television series the civil war 1990 is especially wellremembered though criticized for its historical inaccuracy technological significance numerous technological innovations during the civil war had a great impact on 19thcentury science the civil war was one of the earliest examples of an industrial war in which technological might is used to achieve military supremacy in a war new inventions such as the train and telegraph delivered soldiers supplies and messages at a time when horses were considered to be the fastest way to travel it was also in this war that aerial warfare in the form of reconnaissance balloons was first used it saw the first action involving steampowered ironclad warships in naval warfare history repeating firearms such as the henry rifle spencer rifle colt revolving rifle triplett scott carbine and others first appeared during the civil war they were a revolutionary invention that would soon replace muzzleloading and singleshot firearms in warfare the war also saw the first appearances of rapidfiring weapons and machine guns such as the agar gun and the gatling gun in works of culture and art the civil war is one of the most studied events in american history and the collection of cultural works around it is enormous this section gives an abbreviated overview of the most notable works literature when lilacs last in the dooryard bloomd and o captain my captain 1865 by walt whitman famous eulogies to lincoln battlepieces and aspects of the war 1866 poetry by herman melville the rise and fall of the confederate government 1881 by jefferson davis the private history of a campaign that failed 1885 by mark twain texars revenge or north against south 1887 by jules verne an occurrence at owl creek bridge 1890 by ambrose bierce the red badge of courage 1895 by stephen crane the challenge to sirius 1917 by sheila kayesmith gone with the wind 1936 by margaret mitchell north and south 1982 by john jakes the march a novel 2005 by e l doctorow fictionalized account of shermans march to the sea film the birth of a nation 1915 us the general 1926 us operator 13 1934 us gone with the wind 1939 us the red badge of courage 1951 us the horse soldiers 1959 us shenandoah 1965 us the good the bad and the ugly 1966 italyspainfrg the beguiled 1971 us the outlaw josey wales 1976 us glory 1989 us the civil war 1990 us gettysburg 1993 us the last outlaw 1993 us cold mountain 2003 us gods and generals 2003 us north and south miniseries lincoln 2012 us free state of jones 2016 us music dixie battle cry of freedom battle hymn of the republic the bonnie blue flag john browns body when johnny comes marching home marching through georgia the night they drove old dixie down video games north south 1989 fr sid meiers gettysburg 1997 us sid meiers antietam 1999 us american conqest divided nation 2006 us forge of freedom the american civil war 2006 us the history channel civil war a nation divided 2006 us ageods american civil war 2007 usfr history civil war secret missions 2008 us call of juarez bound in blood 2009 us darkest of days 2009 us victoria ii a house divided 2011 us ageods american civil war ii 2013 usfr ultimate general gettysburg 2014 ukr ultimate general civil war 2016 ukr war of rights 2018 us see also general reference american civil war corps badges list of american civil war battles list of costliest american civil war land battles list of weapons in the american civil war union presidency of abraham lincoln uniform of the union army confederacy central confederacy uniforms of the confederate states armed forces ethnic articles african americans in the american civil war german americans in the american civil war irish americans in the american civil war italian americans in the american civil war native americans in the american civil war topical articles commemoration of the american civil war commemoration of the american civil war on postage stamps dorothea dix education of freed people during the civil war spies in the american civil war gender issues in the american civil war infantry in the american civil war slavery during the american civil war national articles canada in the american civil war foreign enlistment in the american civil war prussia in the american civil war united kingdom in the american civil war state articles categoryamerican civil war by state categorypopulated places destroyed during the american civil war memorials list of confederate monuments and memorials list of memorials and monuments at arlington national cemetery list of memorials to jefferson davis list of memorials to robert e lee list of memorials to stonewall jackson list of monuments erected by the united daughters of the confederacy list of monuments of the gettysburg battlefield list of union civil war monuments and memorials memorials to abraham lincoln removal of confederate monuments and memorials other civil wars in modern history boxer rebellion chinese civil war finnish civil war mexican revolution russian civil war spanish civil war taiping rebellion references notes citations bibliography beringer richard e archer jones and herman hattaway 1986 why the south lost the civil war influential analysis of factors an abridged version is the elements of confederate defeat nationalism war aims and religion 1988 gallagher gary w 2011 the union war cambridge massachusetts harvard university press gara larry 1964 the fugitive slave law a double paradox in unger irwin essays on the civil war and reconstruction new york holt rinehart and winston 1970 originally published in civil war history vol 10 no 3 september 1964 pp 22940 nevins allan ordeal of the union an 8volume set 19471971 the most detailed political economic and military narrative by pulitzer prizewinner 1 fruits of manifest destiny 18471852 online 2 a house dividing 18521857 3 douglas buchanan and party chaos 18571859 4 prologue to civil war 18591861 vols 58 have the series title war for the union 5 the improvised war 18611862 6 online war becomes revolution 18621863 7 the organized war 18631864 8 the organized war to victory 18641865 sheehandean aaron a companion to the us civil war 2 vol april 2014 wileyblackwell new york 1232 pp 64 topical chapters by scholars and experts emphasis on historiography borrow book at archiveorg further reading external links west point atlas of civil war battles civil war photos at the national archives view images from the civil war photographs collection at the library of congress american battlefield trust a nonprofit land preservation and educational organization with two divisions the civil war trust and the revolutionary war trust dedicated to preserving americas battlefields through land acquisitions civil war era digital collection at gettysburg college this collection contains digital images of political cartoons personal papers pamphlets maps paintings and photographs from the civil war era held in special collections at gettysburg college civil war 150 washington post interactive website on the 150th anniversary of the american civil war civil war in the american south an association of southeastern research libraries aserl portal with links to almost 9000 digitized civil warera itemsbooks pamphlets broadsides letters maps personal papers and manuscriptsheld at aserl member libraries the civil war site with 7000 pages including the complete run of harpers weekly newspapers from the civil war american civil world maps at the persuasive cartography the pj mode collection cornell university library civil war manuscripts at shapell manuscript foundation statements of each state as to why they were seceding battlefieldsorg national park service civil war places civil war battlefield places from the national park service rebellions against the united states conflicts in 1861 conflicts in 1862 conflicts in 1863 conflicts in 1864 conflicts in 1865 19thcentury conflicts civil war 1860s in the united states wars of independence internal wars of the united states 1860s conflicts	18,120
864	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy%20Warhol	Andy Warhol	andy warhol born andrew warhola jr august 6 1928 february 22 1987 was an american visual artist film director producer and leading figure in the pop art movement his works explore the relationship between artistic expression advertising and celebrity culture that flourished by the 1960s and span a variety of media including painting silkscreening photography film and sculpture some of his bestknown works include the silkscreen paintings campbells soup cans 1962 and marilyn diptych 1962 the experimental films empire 1964 and chelsea girls 1966 and the multimedia events known as the exploding plastic inevitable 196667 born and raised in pittsburgh warhol initially pursued a successful career as a commercial illustrator after exhibiting his work in several galleries in the late 1950s he began to receive recognition as an influential and controversial artist his new york studio the factory became a wellknown gathering place that brought together distinguished intellectuals drag queens playwrights bohemian street people hollywood celebrities and wealthy patrons he promoted a collection of personalities known as warhol superstars and is credited with inspiring the widely used expression 15 minutes of fame in the late 1960s he managed and produced the experimental rock band the velvet underground and founded interview magazine he authored numerous books including the philosophy of andy warhol and popism the warhol sixties he lived openly as a gay man before the gay liberation movement in june 1968 he was almost killed by radical feminist valerie solanas who shot him inside his studio after gallbladder surgery warhol died of cardiac arrhythmia in february 1987 at the age of 58 in new york city warhol has been the subject of numerous retrospective exhibitions books and feature and documentary films the andy warhol museum in his native city of pittsburgh which holds an extensive permanent collection of art and archives is the largest museum in the united states dedicated to a single artist warhol has been described as the bellwether of the art market many of his creations are very collectible and highly valuable his works include some of the most expensive paintings ever sold in 2013 a 1963 serigraph titled silver car crash double disaster sold for 105 million in 2022 shot sage blue marilyn 1964 sold for 195 million which is the most expensive work of art sold at auction by an american artist biography early life and beginnings 19281949 warhol was born on august 6 1928 in pittsburgh pennsylvania he was the fourth child of ondrej warhola americanized as andrew warhola sr 18891942 and julia née zavacká 18911972 whose first child was born in their homeland of austriahungary and died before their move to the us his parents were workingclass lemko emigrants from mikó austriahungary now called miková located in todays northeastern slovakia warhols father emigrated to the united states in 1914 and his mother joined him in 1921 after the death of warhols grandparents warhols father worked in a coal mine the family lived at 55 beelen street and later at 3252 dawson street in the oakland neighborhood of pittsburgh the family was ruthenian catholic and attended st john chrysostom byzantine catholic church warhol had two elder brotherspavol paul the eldest was born before the family emigrated john was born in pittsburgh pavols son james warhola became a successful childrens book illustrator in third grade warhol had sydenhams chorea also known as st vitus dance the nervous system disease that causes involuntary movements of the extremities which is believed to be a complication of scarlet fever which causes skin pigmentation blotchiness at times when he was confined to bed he drew listened to the radio and collected pictures of movie stars around his bed warhol later described this period as very important in the development of his personality skillset and preferences when warhol was 13 his father died in an accident as a teenager warhol graduated from schenley high school in 1945 and also won a scholastic art and writing award after graduating from high school his intentions were to study art education at the university of pittsburgh in the hope of becoming an art teacher but his plans changed and he enrolled in the carnegie institute of technology now carnegie mellon university in pittsburgh where he studied commercial art during his time there warhol joined the campus modern dance club and beaux arts society he also served as art director of the student art magazine cano illustrating a cover in 1948 and a fullpage interior illustration in 1949 these are believed to be his first two published artworks warhol earned a bachelor of fine arts in pictorial design in 1949 later that year he moved to new york city and began a career in magazine illustration and advertising 1950s warhols early career was dedicated to commercial and advertising art where his first commission had been to draw shoes for glamour magazine in the late 1940s in the 1950s warhol worked as a designer for shoe manufacturer israel miller while working in the shoe industry warhol developed his blotted line technique applying ink to paper and then blotting the ink while still wet which was akin to a printmaking process on the most rudimentary scale his use of tracing paper and ink allowed him to repeat the basic image and also to create endless variations on the theme american photographer john coplans recalled that nobody drew shoes the way andy did he somehow gave each shoe a temperament of its own a sort of sly toulouselautrec kind of sophistication but the shape and the style came through accurately and the buckle was always in the right place the kids in the apartment which andy shared in new york note by coplans noticed that the vamps on andys shoe drawings kept getting longer and longer but israel miller didnt mind miller loved them in 1952 warhol had his first solo show at the hugo gallery in new york and although that show was not well received by 1956 he was included in his first group exhibition at the museum of modern art new york warhols whimsical ink drawings of shoe advertisements figured in some of his earliest showings at the bodley gallery in new york in 1957 warhol habitually used the expedient of tracing photographs projected with an epidiascope using prints by edward wallowitch his first boyfriend the photographs would undergo a subtle transformation during warhols often cursory tracing of contours and hatching of shadows warhol used wallowitchs photograph young man smoking a cigarette for a 1958 design for a book cover he submitted to simon and schuster for the walter ross pulp novel the immortal and later used others for his series of paintings with the rapid expansion of the record industry rca records hired warhol along with another freelance artist sid maurer to design album covers and promotional materials 1960s warhol was an early adopter of the silk screen printmaking process as a technique for making paintings in 1961 and 1962 warhol resided at a 1342 lexington avenue apartmentart studio in 1962 warhol was taught silk screen printmaking techniques by max arthur cohn at his graphic arts business in manhattan in his book popism the warhol sixties warhol writes when you do something exactly wrong you always turn up something in may 1962 warhol was featured in an article in time magazine with his painting big campbells soup can with can opener vegetable 1962 which initiated his most sustained motif the campbells soup can that painting became warhols first to be shown in a museum when it was exhibited at the wadsworth atheneum in hartford in july 1962 on july 9 1962 warhols exhibition opened at the ferus gallery in los angeles with campbells soup cans marking his west coast debut of pop art in november 1962 warhol had an exhibition at eleanor wards stable gallery in new york the exhibit included the works gold marilyn eight of the classic marilyn series also named flavor marilyns marilyn diptych 100 soup cans 100 coke bottles and 100 dollar bills gold marilyn was bought by the architect philip johnson and donated to the museum of modern art at the exhibit warhol met poet john giorno who would star in warhols first film sleep 1964 in december 1962 new york citys museum of modern art hosted a symposium on pop art during which artists such as warhol were attacked for capitulating to consumerism critics were appalled by warhols open acceptance of market culture which set the tone for his reception in early 1963 warhol rented his first studio an old firehouse at 159 east 87th street at this studio he created his elvis series which included eight elvises 1963 and triple elvis 1963 these portraits along with a series of elizabeth taylor portraits were shown at his second exhibition at the ferus gallery in los angeles later that year warhol relocated his studio to east 47th street which would turn into the factory the factory became a popular gathering spot for a wide range of artists writers musicians and underground celebrities warhol had his second exhibition at the stable gallery in the spring of 1964 which featured sculptures of commercial boxes stacked and scattered throughout the space to resemble a warehouse for the exhibition warhol custom ordered wooden boxes and silkscreened graphics onto them the sculpturesbrillo box del monte peach box heinz tomato ketchup box kelloggs cornflakes box campbells tomato juice box and motts apple juice boxsold for 200 to 400 depending on the size of the box a pivotal event was the american supermarket exhibition at paul bianchinis upper east side gallery in the fall of 1964 the show was presented as a typical small supermarket environment except that everything in itfrom the produce canned goods meat posters on the wall etcwas created by prominent pop artists of the time among them sculptor claes oldenburg mary inman and bob watts warhol designed a 12 paper shopping bagplain white with a red campbells soup can his painting of a can of a campbells soup cost 1500 while each autographed can sold for 3 for 18 650 each the exhibit was one of the first mass events that directly confronted the general public with both pop art and the perennial question of what art is in 1967 warhol established factory additions for his printmaking and publishing enterprise as an advertisement illustrator in the 1950s warhol used assistants to increase his productivity collaboration would remain a defining and controversial aspect of his working methods throughout his career this was particularly true in the 1960s one of the most important collaborators during this period was gerard malanga malanga assisted the artist with the production of silkscreens films sculpture and other works at the factory warhols aluminum foilandsilverpaintlined studio on 47th street later moved to broadway other members of warhols factory crowd included freddie herko ondine ronald tavel mary woronov billy name and brigid berlin from whom he apparently got the idea to taperecord his phone conversations during the 1960s warhol also groomed a retinue of bohemian and counterculture eccentrics upon whom he bestowed the designation superstars including nico joe dallesandro edie sedgwick viva ultra violet holly woodlawn jackie curtis and candy darling these people all participated in the factory films and somelike berlinremained friends with warhol until his death important figures in the new york underground artcinema world such as writer john giorno and filmmaker jack smith also appear in warhol films many premiering at the new andy warhol garrick theatre and 55th street playhouse of the 1960s revealing warhols connections to a diverse range of artistic scenes during this time less well known was his support and collaboration with several teenagers during this era who would achieve prominence later in life including writer david dalton photographer stephen shore and artist bibbe hansen mother of pop musician beck 1968 assassination attempt on june 3 1968 radical feminist writer valerie solanas shot warhol and mario amaya art critic and curator at warhols studio the factory before the shooting solanas had been a marginal figure in the factory scene she authored the scum manifesto a separatist feminist tract that advocated the elimination of men and appeared in the 1968 warhol film i a man earlier on the day of the attack solanas had been turned away from the factory after asking for the return of a script she had given to warhol the script had apparently been misplaced amaya received only minor injuries and was released from the hospital later the same day warhol was seriously wounded by the attack and barely survived he had physical effects for the rest of his life including being required to wear a surgical corset the shooting had a profound effect on warhols life and art solanas was arrested the day after the assault after turning herself in to police by way of explanation she said that warhol had too much control over my life she was subsequently diagnosed with paranoid schizophrenia and eventually sentenced to three years under the control of the department of corrections after the shooting the factory scene heavily increased its security and for many the factory 60s ended the superstars from the old factory days didnt come around to the new factory much warhol had this to say about the attack in 1969 warhol and british journalist john wilcock founded interview magazine 1970s in 1970 screens and film matrixes that had been used to produce original warhol works in the 1960s were taken to europe for the production of warhol screenprints under the name sunday b morning warhol signed and numbered one edition of 250 before subsequent unauthorized unsigned versions were produced the unauthorized works were the result of a falling out between warhol and some of his new york city studio employees who went to brussels where they produced work stamped with sunday b morning and add your own signature here since the works began as a collaboration warhol facilitated exact duplication by providing the photo negatives and precise color codes some of the unauthorized productions bore the markings this is not by me andy warhol the most famous unauthorized reproductions are 1967 marilyn monroe portfolio screenprints these sunday b morning marilyn monroe prints were among those still under production as of 2013 art galleries and dealers also market sunday b morning reprint versions of several other screenprint works including flowers campbells soup i campbells soup cans iigold marilyn monroe mao and dollare bill prints although the original sunday b morning versions had black stamps on the back by the 1980s they switched to blue warhol had a retrospective exhibition at the whitney museum of american art in 1971 his famous portrait of chinese communist leader mao zedong was created in 1973 in 1975 he published the philosophy of andy warhol 1975 an idea expressed in the book making money is art and working is art and good business is the best art compared to the success and scandal of warhols work in the 1960s the 1970s were a much quieter decade as he became more entrepreneurial he socialized at various nightspots in new york city including maxs kansas city and later in the 1970s studio 54 he was generally regarded as quiet shy and a meticulous observer art critic robert hughes called him the white mole of union square in 1977 warhol was commissioned by art collector richard weisman to create athletes ten portraits consisting of the leading athletes of the day according to bob colacello warhol devoted much of his time to rounding up new rich patrons for portrait commissionsincluding shah of iran mohammad reza pahlavi his wife empress farah pahlavi his sister princess ashraf pahlavi mick jagger liza minnelli john lennon diana ross and brigitte bardot in 1979 reviewers disliked his exhibits of portraits of 1970s personalities and celebrities calling them superficial facile and commercial with no depth or indication of the significance of the subjects in 1979 warhol and his longtime friend stuart pivar founded the new york academy of art 1980s warhol had a reemergence of critical and financial success in the 1980s partially due to his affiliation and friendships with a number of prolific younger artists who were dominating the bull market of 1980s new york art jeanmichel basquiat julian schnabel david salle and other socalled neoexpressionists as well as members of the transavantgarde movement in europe including francesco clemente and enzo cucchi warhol also earned street credibility and graffiti artist fab five freddy paid homage to warhol by painting an entire train with campbell soup cans warhol was also being criticized for becoming merely a business artist critics panned his 1980 exhibition ten portraits of jews of the twentieth century at the jewish museum in manhattan which warholwho was uninterested in judaism and jewshad described in his diary as theyre going to sell in hindsight however some critics have come to view warhols superficiality and commerciality as the most brilliant mirror of our times contending that warhol had captured something irresistible about the zeitgeist of american culture in the 1970s in 1981 warhol worked on a project with peter sellars and lewis allen that would create a traveling stage show called a no man show with a lifesized animatronic robot in the exact image of warhol the andy warhol robot would then be able to read warhols diaries as a theatrical production the play would be based on warhols books the philosophy of andy warhol and exposures warhol was quoted as saying id like to be a machine wouldnt you warhol also had an appreciation for intense hollywood glamour he once said i love los angeles i love hollywood theyre so beautiful everythings plastic but i love plastic i want to be plastic warhol occasionally walked the fashion runways and did product endorsements represented by zoli agency and later ford models before the 1984 sarajevo winter olympics he teamed with 15 other artists including david hockney and cy twombly and contributed a speed skater print to the art and sport collection the speed skater was used for the official sarajevo winter olympics poster in 1984 vanity fair commissioned warhol to produce a portrait of prince in order to accompany an article that celebrated the success of purple rain and its accompanying movie referencing the many celebrity portraits produced by warhol across his career orange prince 1984 was created using a similar composition to the marilyn flavors series from 1962 among some of warhols first celebrity portraits prince is depicted in a pop color palette commonly used by warhol in bright orange with highlights of bright green and blue the facial features and hair are screenprinted in black over the orange background in september 1985 warhols joint exhibition with basquiat paintings opened to negative reviews at the tony shafrazi gallery that month despite apprehension from warhol his silkscreen series reigning queens was shown at the leo castelli gallery in the andy warhol diaries warhol wrote they were supposed to be only for europenobody here cares about royalty and itll be another bad review in january 1987 warhol traveled to milan for the opening of his last exhibition last supper at the palazzo delle stelline the next month warhol and jazz musician miles davis modeled for koshin satohs fashion show at the tunnel in new york city on february 17 1987 death warhol died in manhattan at 632 am on february 22 1987 at age 58 according to news reports he had been making a good recovery from gallbladder surgery at new york hospital before dying in his sleep from a sudden postoperative irregular heartbeat prior to his diagnosis and operation warhol delayed having his recurring gallbladder problems checked as he was afraid to enter hospitals and see doctors his family sued the hospital for inadequate care saying that the arrhythmia was caused by improper care and water intoxication the malpractice case was quickly settled out of court warhols family received an undisclosed sum of money shortly before warhols death doctors expected warhol to survive the surgery though a reevaluation of the case about thirty years after his death showed many indications that warhols surgery was in fact riskier than originally thought it was widely reported at the time that warhol had died of a routine surgery though when considering factors such as his age a family history of gallbladder problems his previous gunshot wound and his medical state in the weeks leading up to the procedure the potential risk of death following the surgery appeared to have been significant warhols brothers took his body back to pittsburgh where an opencoffin wake was held at the thomas p kunsak funeral home the solid bronze casket had goldplated rails and white upholstery warhol was dressed in a black cashmere suit a paisley tie a platinum wig and sunglasses he was laid out holding a small prayer book and a red rose the funeral liturgy was held at the holy ghost byzantine catholic church on pittsburghs north side on february 27 1987 the eulogy was given by monsignor peter tay yoko ono and john richardson were speakers the coffin was covered with white roses and asparagus ferns after the liturgy the coffin was driven to st john the baptist byzantine catholic cemetery in bethel park a south suburb of pittsburgh where warhol was buried near his parents the priest said a brief prayer at the graveside and sprinkled holy water on the casket before the coffin was lowered warhols close friend and associate publisher of interview paige powell dropped a copy of the magazine and a bottle of beautiful eau de parfum by estée lauder into the grave a memorial service was held in manhattan for warhol at st patricks cathedral on april 1 1987 art works paintings by the beginning of the 1960s pop art was an experimental form that several artists were independently adopting some of these pioneers such as roy lichtenstein would later become synonymous with the movement warhol who would become famous as the pope of pop turned to this new style where popular subjects could be part of the artists palette his early paintings show images taken from cartoons and advertisements handpainted with paint drips those drips emulated the style of successful abstract expressionists such as willem de kooning from these beginnings he developed his later style and subjects instead of working on a signature subject matter as he started out to do he worked more and more on a signature style slowly eliminating the handmade from the artistic process warhol frequently used silkscreening his later drawings were traced from slide projections at the height of his fame as a painter warhol had several assistants including notable artist george condo who produced his silkscreen multiples following his directions to make different versions and variations warhols first pop art paintings were displayed in april 1961 serving as the backdrop for new york department store bonwit tellers window display this was the same stage his pop art contemporaries jasper johns james rosenquist and robert rauschenberg had also once graced it was the gallerist muriel latow who came up with the ideas for both the soup cans and warhols dollar paintings on november 23 1961 warhol wrote latow a check for 50 which according to the 2009 warhol biography pop the genius of warhol was payment for coming up with the idea of the soup cans as subject matter for his first major exhibition warhol painted his famous cans of campbells soup which he claimed to have had for lunch for most of his life it was during the 1960s that warhol began to make paintings of iconic american objects such as dollar bills mushroom clouds electric chairs campbells soup cans cocacola bottles celebrities such as marilyn monroe elvis presley and elizabeth taylor as well as newspaper headlines or photographs of police dogs attacking africanamerican protesters during the birmingham campaign in the civil rights movement his work became popular and controversial warhol had this to say about cocacola in 1962 warhol created his famous marilyn series the flavor marilyns were selected from a group of fourteen canvases in the subseries each measuring 20 x 16 some of the canvases were named after various candy life savers flavors including cherry marilyn lemon marilyn and licorice marilyn the others are identified by their background colors warhol produced both comic and serious works his subject could be a soup can or an electric chair warhol used the same techniquessilkscreens reproduced serially and often painted with bright colorswhether he painted celebrities everyday objects or images of suicide car crashes and disasters as in the 196263 death and disaster series in 1979 warhol was commissioned to paint a bmw m1 group 4 racing version for the fourth installment of the bmw art car project he was initially asked to paint a bmw 320i in 1978 but the car model was changed and it didnt qualify for the race that year warhol was the first artist to paint directly onto the automobile himself instead of letting technicians transfer a scalemodel design to the car reportedly it took him only 23 minutes to paint the entire car racecar drivers hervé poulain manfred winkelhock and marcel mignot drove the car at the 1979 24 hours of le mans some of warhols work as well as his own personality has been described as being keatonesque warhol has been described as playing dumb to the media he sometimes refused to explain his work he has suggested that all one needs to know about his work is already there on the surface his rorschach inkblots are intended as pop comments on art and what art could be his cow wallpaper literally wallpaper with a cow motif and his oxidation paintings canvases prepared with copper paint that was then oxidized with urine are also noteworthy in this context equally noteworthy is the way these worksand their means of productionmirrored the atmosphere at andys new york factory biographer bob colacello provides some details on andys piss paintings warhols 1982 portrait of basquiat jeanmichel basquiat is a silkscreen over an oxidized copper piss painting after many years of silkscreen oxidation photography etc warhol returned to painting with a brush in hand in 1983 warhol began collaborating with basquiat and clemente warhol and basquiat created a series of more than 50 large collaborative works between 1984 and 1985 despite criticism when these were first shown warhol called some of them masterpieces and they were influential for his later work in 1984 warhol was commissioned by collector and gallerist alexander iolas to produce work based on leonardo da vincis the last supper for an exhibition at the old refectory of the palazzo delle stelline in milan opposite from the santa maria delle grazie where leonardo da vincis mural can be seen warhol exceeded the demands of the commission and produced nearly 100 variations on the theme mostly silkscreens and paintings and among them a collaborative sculpture with basquiat the ten punching bags last supper the milan exhibition that opened in january 1987 with a set of 22 silkscreens was the last exhibition for both the artist and the gallerist the series of the last supper was seen by some as arguably his greatest but by others as wishywashy religiose and spiritless it is the largest series of religiousthemed works by any american artist artist maurizio cattelan describes that it is difficult to separate daily encounters from the art of andy warhol thats probably the greatest thing about warhol the way he penetrated and summarized our world to the point that distinguishing between him and our everyday life is basically impossible and in any case useless warhol was an inspiration towards cattelans magazine and photography compilations such as permanent food charley and toilet paper in the period just before his death warhol was working on cars a series of paintings for mercedesbenz drawings though he is often associated with printmakingspecifically silkscreenwarhol was also an incredibly talented illustrator and draughtsman and drawing was an integral part of his practice throughout his career his early drawings on paper bare a resemblance to both continuous line and blind contour drawing techniques giving his work a sense of ease and immediacy while working primarily within commercial advertisement he pioneered the blotted line technique which synthesized graphite drawing on paper with elements of printmaking warhol continued his practice of drawing through the last years of his life and career and the work from this later period exemplifies a long and storied careers worth of honed skill and technique art market the value of andy warhols work has been on an endless upward trajectory since his death in 1987 in 2014 his works accumulated 569 million at auction which accounted for more than a sixth of the global art market however there have been some dips according to art dealer dominique lévy the warhol trade moves something like a seesaw being pulled uphill it rises and falls but each new high and low is above the last one she attributes this to the consistent influx of new collectors intrigued by warhol at different moments youve had different groups of collectors entering the warhol market and that resulted in peaks in demand then satisfaction and a slow down before the process repeats another demographic or the next generation in 1998 orange marilyn 1964 a depiction of marilyn monroe sold for 173 million which at the time set a new record as the highest price paid for a warhol artwork in 2007 one of warhols 1963 paintings of elizabeth taylor liz colored liz which was owned by actor hugh grant sold for 237 million at christies in 2007 stefan edlis and gael neeson sold warhols turquoise marilyn 1964 to financier steven a cohen for 80 million in may 2007 green car crash 1963 sold for 711 million and lemon marilyn 1962 sold for 28 million at christies postwar and contemporary art auction in 2007 large campbells soup can 1964 was sold at a sothebys auction to a south american collector for 74 million in november 2009 200 one dollar bills 1962 at sothebys for 438 million in 2008 eight elvises 1963 was sold by annibale berlingieri for 100 million to a private buyer the work depicts elvis presley in a gunslinger pose it was first exhibited in 1963 at the ferus gallery in los angeles warhol made 22 versions of the elvis portraits 11 of which are held in museums in may 2012 double elvis ferus type sold at auction at sothebys for 37 million in november 2014 triple elvis ferus type sold for 819 million at christies in may 2010 a purple selfportrait of warhol from 1986 that was owned by fashion designer tom ford sold for 326 million at sothebys in november 2010 men in her life 1962 based on elizabeth taylor sold for 634 million at phillips de pury and cocacola 4 1962 sold for 353 million at sothebys in may 2011 warhols first selfportrait from 1963 to 1964 sold for 384 million and a red selfportrait from 1986 sold for 275 million at christies in may 2011 liz 5 early colored liz sold for 269 million at phillips in november 2013 warhols rarely seen 1963 diptych silver car crash double disaster sold at sothebys for 1054 million a new record for the artist in november 2013 cocacola 3 1962 sold for 573 million at christies in may 2014 white marilyn 1962 sold for 41 million at christies in november 2014 four marlons 1964 which depicts marlon brando sold for 696 million at christies in may 2015 silver liz diptych painted in 1963 sold for 28 million and colored mona lisa 1963 sold for 562 million at christies in may 2017 warhols 1962 painting big campbells soup can with can opener vegetable sold for 275 million at christies in 2017 billionaire hedgefund manager ken griffin purchased orange marilyn privately for around 200 million in march 2022 silver liz ferus type sold for 23 billion yen 189 million at shinwa auction which set a new record for the highest bid ever at auction in japan in may 2022 shot sage blue marilyn 1964 sold for 195 million at christies becoming the most expensive american artwork sold at auction collectors among warhols early collectors and influential supporters were emily and burton tremaine among the over 15 artworks purchased marilyn diptych now at tate modern london and a boy for meg now at the national gallery of art in washington dc were purchased directly out of warhols studio in 1962 one christmas warhol left a small head of marilyn monroe by the tremaines door at their new york apartment in gratitude for their support and encouragement works filmography warhol attended the 1962 premiere of the static composition by la monte young called trio for strings and subsequently created his famous series of static films filmmaker jonas mekas who accompanied warhol to the trio premiere claims warhols static films were directly inspired by the performance between 1963 and 1968 he made more than 60 films plus some 500 short blackandwhite screen test portraits of factory visitors one of his most famous films sleep monitors poet john giorno sleeping for six hours the 35minute film blow job is one continuous shot of the face of deveren bookwalter supposedly receiving oral sex from filmmaker willard maas although the camera never tilts down to see this another empire 1964 consists of eight hours of footage of the empire state building in new york city at dusk the film eat consists of a man eating a mushroom for 45 minutes batman dracula is a 1964 film that was produced and directed by warhol without the permission of dc comics it was screened only at his art exhibits a fan of the batman series warhols movie was an homage to the series and is considered the first appearance of a blatantly campy batman the film was until recently thought to have been lost until scenes from the picture were shown at some length in the 2006 documentary jack smith and the destruction of atlantis warhols 1965 film vinyl is an adaptation of anthony burgess popular dystopian novel a clockwork orange others record improvised encounters between factory regulars such as brigid berlin viva edie sedgwick candy darling holly woodlawn ondine nico and jackie curtis the underground artist jack smith appears in the film camp his most popular and critically successful film was chelsea girls 1966 the film was highly innovative in that it consisted of two 16 mmfilms being projected simultaneously with two different stories being shown in tandem from the projection booth the sound would be raised for one film to elucidate that story while it was lowered for the other the multiplication of images evoked warhols seminal silkscreen works of the early 1960s warhol was a fan of filmmaker radley metzger film work and commented that metzgers film the lickerish quartet was an outrageously kinky masterpiece blue moviea film in which warhol superstar viva makes love in bed with louis waldon another warhol superstarwas warhols last film as director the film a seminal film in the golden age of porn was at the time controversial for its frank approach to a sexual encounter blue movie was publicly screened in new york city in 2005 for the first time in more than 30 years in the wake of the 1968 shooting a reclusive warhol relinquished his personal involvement in film making his acolyte and assistant director paul morrissey took over the filmmaking chores for the factory collective steering warholbranded cinema towards more mainstream narrativebased bmovie exploitation fare with flesh trash and heat all of these films including the later andy warhols dracula and andy warhols frankenstein were far more mainstream than anything warhol as a director had attempted these latter warhol films starred joe dallesandromore of a morrissey star than a true warhol superstar in the early 1970s most of the films directed by warhol were pulled out of circulation by warhol and the people around him who ran his business after warhols death the films were slowly restored by the whitney museum and are occasionally projected at museums and film festivals few of the warholdirected films are available on video or dvd music in the mid1960s warhol adopted the band the velvet underground making them a crucial element of the exploding plastic inevitable multimedia performance art show warhol with paul morrissey acted as the bands manager introducing them to nico who would perform with the band at warhols request while managing the velvet underground andy would have them dressed in all black to perform in front of movies that he was also presenting in 1966 he produced their first album the velvet underground nico as well as providing its album art his actual participation in the albums production amounted to simply paying for the studio time after the bands first album warhol and band leader lou reed started to disagree more about the direction the band should take and their artistic friendship ended in 1989 after warhols death reed and john cale reunited for the first time since 1972 to write perform record and release the concept album songs for drella a tribute to warhol in october 2019 an audio tape of publicly unknown music by reed based on warhols 1975 book the philosophy of andy warhol from a to b and back again was reported to have been discovered in an archive at the andy warhol museum in pittsburgh warhol designed many album covers for various artists starting with the photographic cover of john wallowitchs debut album this is john wallowitch 1964 he designed the cover art for the rolling stones albums sticky fingers 1971 and love you live 1977 and the john cale albums the academy in peril 1972 and honi soit in 1981 one of warhols last works was a portrait of aretha franklin for the cover of her 1986 gold album aretha in 1984 warhol codirected the music video hello again by the cars and he appeared in the video as a bartender in 1986 warhol codirected the music video misfit by curiosity killed the cat and he made a cameo in video books and print beginning in the early 1950s warhol produced several unbound portfolios of his work the first of several bound selfpublished books by warhol was 25 cats name sam and one blue pussy printed in 1954 by seymour berlin on arches brand watermarked paper using his blotted line technique for the lithographs the original edition was limited to 190 numbered handcolored copies using dr martins ink washes most of these were given by warhol as gifts to clients and friends copy no 4 inscribed jerry on the front cover and given to geraldine stutz was used for a facsimile printing in 1987 and the original was auctioned in may 2006 for us35000 by doyle new york other selfpublished books by warhol include a gold book wild raspberries holy cats warhols book a la recherche du shoe perdu 1955 marked his transition from commercial to gallery artist the title is a play on words by warhol on the title of french author marcel prousts à la recherche du temps perdu after gaining fame warhol wrote several books that were commercially published a a novel 1968 is a literal transcriptioncontaining spelling errors and phonetically written background noise and mumblingof audio recordings of ondine and several of andy warhols friends hanging out at the factory talking going out the philosophy of andy warhol from a to b back again 1975 according to pat hacketts introduction to the andy warhol diaries pat hackett did the transcriptions and text for the book based on daily phone conversations sometimes when warhol was traveling using audio cassettes that andy warhol gave her said cassettes contained conversations with brigid berlin also known as brigid polk and former interview magazine editor bob colacello popism the warhol sixties 1980 authored by warhol and pat hackett is a retrospective view of the 1960s and the role of pop art the andy warhol diaries 1989 edited by pat hackett is a diary dictated by warhol to hackett in daily phone conversations warhol started the diary to keep track of his expenses after being audited although it soon evolved to include his personal and cultural observations warhol created the fashion magazine interview that is still published the loopy title script on the cover is thought to be either his own handwriting or that of his mother julia warhola who would often do text work for his early commercial pieces other media although andy warhol is most known for his paintings and films he authored works in many different media drawing warhol started his career as a commercial illustrator producing drawings in blottedink style for advertisements and magazine articles best known of these early works are his drawings of shoes some of his personal drawings were selfpublished in small booklets such as yum yum yum about food ho ho ho about christmas and shoes shoes shoes his most artistically acclaimed book of drawings is probably a gold book compiled of sensitive drawings of young men a gold book is so named because of the gold leaf that decorates its pages in april 2012 a sketch of 1930s singer rudy vallee claimed to have been drawn by andy warhol was found at a las vegas garage sale the image was said to have been drawn when andy was nine or 10 various authorities have challenged the images authenticity sculpture warhols most famous sculpture is probably his brillo boxes silkscreened ink on wood replicas of the large branded cardboard boxes used to hold 24 packages of brillo soap pads the original brillo design was by commercial artist james harvey warhols sculpture was part of a series of grocery carton works that also included heinz ketchup and campbells tomato juice cases other famous works include the silver cloudshelium filled silver mylar pillowshaped balloons a silver cloud was included in the traveling exhibition air art 19681969 curated by willoughby sharp clouds was also adapted by warhol for avantgarde choreographer merce cunninghams dance piece rainforest 1968 audio at one point warhol carried a portable recorder with him wherever he went taping everything everybody said and did he referred to this device as his wife some of these tapes were the basis for his literary work another audiowork of warhols was his invisible sculpture a presentation in which burglar alarms would go off when entering the room warhols cooperation with the musicians of the velvet underground was driven by an expressed desire to become a music producer time capsules in 1973 warhol began saving ephemera from his daily lifecorrespondence newspapers souvenirs childhood objects even used plane tickets and foodwhich was sealed in plain cardboard boxes dubbed time capsules by the time of his death the collection grew to include 600 individually dated capsules the boxes are now housed at the andy warhol museum television andy warhol dreamed of a television special about a favorite subject of hisnothingthat he would call the nothing special later in his career he did create two cable television shows andy warhols tv in 1982 and andy warhols fifteen minutes based on his famous fifteen minutes of fame quotation for mtv in 1986 besides his own shows he regularly made guest appearances on other programs including the love boat wherein a midwestern wife marion ross fears andy warhol will reveal to her husband tom bosley who starred alongside ross in sitcom happy days her secret past as a warhol superstar named marina del rey warhol also produced a tv commercial for schraffts restaurants in new york city for an ice cream dessert appropriately titled the underground sundae fashion warhol is quoted for having said id rather buy a dress and put it up on the wall than put a painting wouldnt you one of his bestknown superstars edie sedgwick aspired to be a fashion designer and his good friend halston was a famous one warhols work in fashion includes silkscreened dresses a short subcareer as a catwalkmodel and books on fashion as well as paintings with fashion shoes as a subject warhol himself has been described as a modern dandy whose authority rested more on presence than on words performance art warhol and his friends staged theatrical multimedia happenings at parties and public venues combining music film slide projections and even gerard malanga in an sm outfit cracking a whip the exploding plastic inevitable in 1966 was the culmination of this area of his work theater warhols play andy warhols pork opened on may 5 1971 at lamama theater in new york for a twoweek run and was brought to the roundhouse in london for a longer run in august 1971 pork was based on taperecorded conversations between brigid berlin and andy during which brigid would play for andy tapes she had made of phone conversations between herself and her mother socialite honey berlin the play featured jayne county as vulva and cherry vanilla as amanda pork in 1974 andy warhol also produced the stage musical man on the moon which was written by john phillips of the mamas and the papas photography to produce his silkscreens warhol made photographs or had them made by his friends and assistants these pictures were mostly taken with a specific model of polaroid camera the big shot that polaroid kept in production especially for warhol this photographic approach to painting and his snapshot method of taking pictures has had a great effect on artistic photography warhol was an accomplished photographer and took an enormous number of photographs of factory visitors friends acquired by stanford university music in 1963 warhol founded the druds a shortlived avantgarde noise music band that featured prominent members of the new york protoconceptual art and minimal art community computer warhol used amiga computers to generate digital art including you are the one which he helped design and build with amiga inc he also displayed the difference between slow fill and fast fill on live tv with debbie harry as a model personal life sexuality warhol was homosexual in 1980 he told an interviewer that he was still a virgin biographer bob colacello who was present at the interview felt it was probably true and that what little sex he had was probably a mixture of voyeurism and masturbationto use andys word abstract warhols assertion of virginity would seem to be contradicted by his hospital treatment in 1960 for condylomata a sexually transmitted disease it has also been contradicted by his lovers including warhol muse billyboy who has said they had sex to orgasm when he wasnt being andy warhol and when you were just alone with him he was an incredibly generous and very kind person what seduced me was the andy warhol who i saw alone in fact when i was with him in public he kind of got on my nervesid say youre just obnoxious i cant bear you billy name also denied that warhol was only a voyeur saying he was the essence of sexuality it permeated everything andy exuded it along with his great artistic creativityit brought a joy to the whole art world in new york but his personality was so vulnerable that it became a defense to put up the blank front warhols lovers included john giorno billy name charles lisanby and jon gould gould was the most photographed subject of warhols later career and worked as an american film executive at paramount pictures where he was responsible for films including john travoltas urban cowboy his boyfriend of 12 years was jed johnson whom he met in 1968 and who later achieved fame as an interior designer the fact that warhols homosexuality influenced his work and shaped his relationship to the art world is a major subject of scholarship on the artist and is an issue that warhol himself addressed in interviews in conversation with his contemporaries and in his publications eg popism the warhol 1960s throughout his career warhol produced erotic photography and drawings of male nudes many of his most famous works portraits of liza minnelli judy garland and elizabeth taylor and films such as blow job my hustler and lonesome cowboys draw from gay underground culture or openly explore the complexity of sexuality and desire as has been addressed by a range of scholars many of his films premiered in gay porn theaters including the new andy warhol garrick theatre and 55th street playhouse in the late 1960s the first works that warhol submitted to a fine art gallery homoerotic drawings of male nudes were rejected for being too openly gay in popism furthermore the artist recalls a conversation with the filmmaker emile de antonio about the difficulty warhol had being accepted socially by the thenmorefamous but closeted gay artists jasper johns and robert rauschenberg de antonio explained that warhol was too swish and that upsets them in response to this warhol writes there was nothing i could say to that it was all too true so i decided i just wasnt going to care because those were all the things that i didnt want to change anyway that i didnt think i should want to change other people could change their attitudes but not me in exploring warhols biography many turn to this periodthe late 1950s and early 1960sas a key moment in the development of his persona some have suggested that his frequent refusal to comment on his work to speak about himself confining himself in interviews to responses like um no and um yes and often allowing others to speak for himand even the evolution of his pop stylecan be traced to the years when warhol was first dismissed by the inner circles of the new york art world religion warhol was a practicing ruthenian catholic he regularly volunteered at homeless shelters in new york city particularly during the busier times of the year and described himself as a religious person many of warhols later works depicted religious subjects including two series details of renaissance paintings 1984 and the last supper 1986 in addition a body of religiousthemed works was found posthumously in his estate warhol regularly attended mass and the priest at warhols church saint vincent ferrer said that the artist went there almost daily although he was not observed taking communion or going to confession and sat or knelt in the pews at the back the priest thought he was afraid of being recognized warhol said he was selfconscious about being seen in a latin catholic church crossing himself in the orthodox way right to left instead of the reverse warhols art is noticeably influenced by the eastern christian tradition which was so evident in his places of worship warhols brother has described the artist as really religious but he didnt want people to know about that because it was private despite the private nature of his faith in warhols eulogy john richardson depicted it as devout to my certain knowledge he was responsible for at least one conversion he took considerable pride in financing his nephews studies for the priesthood collections warhol was an avid collector his friends referred to his numerous collections which filled not only his fourstory townhouse but also a nearby storage unit as andys stuff the true extent of his collections was not discovered until after his death when the andy warhol museum in pittsburgh took in 641 boxes of his stuff warhols collections included a cocacola memorabilia sign and 19th century paintings along with airplane menus unpaid invoices pizza dough pornographic pulp novels newspapers stamps supermarket flyers and cookie jars among other eccentricities it also included significant works of art such as george bellowss miss bentham one of his main collections was his wigs warhol owned more than 40 and felt very protective of his hairpieces which were sewn by a new york wigmaker from hair imported from italy in 1985 a girl snatched warhols wig off his head it was later discovered in warhols diary entry for that day that he wrote i dont know what held me back from pushing her over the balcony in 1960 he had bought a drawing of a light bulb by jasper johns another item found in warhols boxes at the museum in pittsburgh was a mummified human foot from ancient egypt the curator of anthropology at carnegie museum of natural history felt that warhol most likely found it at a flea market warhol collected many books with more than 1200 titles in his collection of these 139 titles have been publicly identified through a 1988 sothebys auction catalog the andy warhol collection and can be viewed online his book collection reflects his eclectic taste and interests and includes books written by and about some of his acquaintances and friends some of the titles in his collection include the two mrs grenvilles a novel by dominick dunne artists in uniform by max eastman andrews diseases of the skin clinical dermatology by george clinton andrews dv by diana vreeland blood of a poet by jean cocteau watercolours by francesco clemente little world hello by jimmy savo hidden faces by salvador dalí and the dinah shore cookbook legacy in 2002 the us postal service issued an 18cent stamp commemorating warhol designed by richard sheaff of scottsdale arizona the stamp was unveiled at a ceremony at the andy warhol museum and features warhols painting selfportrait 1964 in march 2011 a chrome statue of andy warhol and his polaroid camera was revealed at union square in new york city a crater on mercury was named after warhol in 2012 in 2013 to honor the 85th anniversary of warhols birthday the andy warhol museum and earthcam launched a collaborative project titled figment a live feed of warhols gravesite warhol foundation warhols will dictated that his entire estatewith the exception of a few modest legacies to family memberswould go to create a foundation dedicated to the advancement of the visual arts warhol had so many possessions that it took sothebys nine days to auction his estate after his death the auction grossed more than us20 million in 1987 in accordance with warhols will the andy warhol foundation for the visual arts began the foundation serves as the estate of andy warhol but also has a mission to foster innovative artistic expression and the creative process and is focused primarily on supporting work of a challenging and often experimental nature the artists rights society is the us copyright representative for the andy warhol foundation for the visual arts for all warhol works with the exception of warhol film stills the us copyright representative for warhol film stills is the warhol museum in pittsburgh additionally the andy warhol foundation for the visual arts has agreements in place for its image archive all digital images of warhol are exclusively managed by corbis while all transparency images of warhol are managed by art resource the andy warhol foundation released its 20th anniversary annual report as a threevolume set in 2007 vol i 19872007 vol ii grants exhibitions and vol iii legacy program the foundation is in the process of compiling its catalogue raisonné of paintings and sculptures in volumes covering blocks of years of the artists career volumes iv and v were released in 2019 the subsequent volumes are still in the process of being compiled the foundation remains one of the largest grantgiving organizations for the visual arts in the us many of warhols works and possessions are on display at the andy warhol museum in pittsburgh the foundation donated more than 3000 works of art to the museum revelation in brooklyn from november 19 2021 june 19 2022 the brooklyn museum displayed the andy warhol revelation exhibition revelation examines themes such as life and death power and desire the role and representation of women renaissance imagery family and immigrant traditions and rituals depictions and duplications of christ and the catholic body and queer desire among the more than one hundred objects on view were rare source materials and newly discovered items that provide a fresh and intimate look at warhols creative process as well as major paintings from his epic last supper series 1986 the experimental film the chelsea girls 1966 an unfinished film depicting the setting sun commissioned by the de menil family and funded by the roman catholic church and drawings created by warhols mother julia warhola when she lived with her son in new york city in pop culture warhol founded interview magazine a stage for celebrities he endorsed and a business staffed by his friends he collaborated with others on all of his books some of which were written with pat hackett one might even say that he produced people as in the warholian superstar and the warholian portrait warhol endorsed products appeared in commercials and made frequent celebrity guest appearances on television shows and in films he appeared in everything from love boat to saturday night live and the richard pryor movie dynamite chicken in this respect warhol was a fan of art business and business arthe in fact wrote about his interest in thinking about art as business in the philosophy of andy warhol from a to b and back again films warhol appeared as himself in the film cocaine cowboys 1979 and in the film tootsie 1982 after his death warhol was portrayed by crispin glover in oliver stones film the doors 1991 by jared harris in mary harrons film i shot andy warhol 1996 and by david bowie in julian schnabels film basquiat 1996 bowie recalled how meeting warhol in real life helped him in the role and recounted his early meetings with him warhol appears as a character in michael daughertys opera jackie o 1997 actor mark bringleson makes a brief cameo as warhol in austin powers international man of mystery 1997 many films by avantgarde cineast jonas mekas have caught the moments of warhols life sean gregory sullivan depicted warhol in the film 54 1998 guy pearce portrayed warhol in the film factory girl 2007 about edie sedgwicks life actor greg travis portrays warhol in a brief scene from the film watchmen 2009 comedian conan obrien portrayed warhol in the film weird the al yankovic story 2022 in the movie highway to hell a group of andy warhols are part of the good intentions paving company where goodintentioned souls are ground into pavement in the film men in black 3 2012 andy warhol turns out to really be undercover mib agent w played by bill hader warhol is throwing a party at the factory in 1969 where he is looked up by mib agents k and j j from the future agent w is desperate to end his undercover job im so out of ideas im painting soup cans and bananas for christ sakes you gotta fake my death okay i cant listen to sitar music anymore and i cant tell the women from the men andy warhol portrayed by tom meeten is one of main characters of the 2012 british television show noel fieldings luxury comedy the character is portrayed as having robotlike mannerisms in the 2017 feature the billionaire boys club cary elwes portrays warhol in a film based on the true story about ron levin portrayed by kevin spacey a friend of warhols who was murdered in 1986 in september 2016 it was announced that jared leto would portray the title character in warhol an upcoming american biographical drama film produced by michael de luca and written by terence winter based on the book warhol the biography by victor bockris documentaries absolut warhola 2001 was produced by polish director stanislaw mucha featuring warhols parents family and hometown in slovakia andy warhol a documentary film 2006 is a reverential fourhour movie by ric burns that won a peabody award in 2006 andy warhol double denied 2006 is a 52minute movie by ian yentob about the difficulties authenticating warhols work andy warhols people factory 2008 a threepart television documentary directed by catherine shorr features interviews with several of warhols associates the andy warhol diaries 2022 a sixpart docuseries directed by andrew rossi was released on netflix chronicling warhols life from the vantage point of his diaries television warhol appeared as a recurring character in tv series vinyl played by john cameron mitchell warhol was portrayed by evan peters in the american horror story cult episode valerie solanas died for your sins scumbag the episode depicts the attempted assassination of warhol by valerie solanas lena dunham in early 1969 andy warhol was commissioned by braniff international to appear in two television commercials to promote the luxury airlines when you got it flaunt it campaign the campaign was created by the advertising agency lois holland calloway which was led by george lois creator of a famed series of esquire magazine covers the first commercial series involved pairing unlikely people who shared the fact that they both flew braniff airways warhol was paired with boxing legend sonny liston the odd commercial worked as did the others that featured unlikely fellow travelers such as painter salvador dalí and baseball legend whitey ford two additional commercials for braniff were created that featured famous persons entering a braniff jet and being greeted by a braniff hostess while espousing their like for flying braniff warhol was also featured in the first of these commercials that were also produced by lois and were released in the summer of 1969 lois has incorrectly stated that he was commissioned by braniff in 1967 for representation during that year but at that time madison avenue advertising doyenne mary wells lawrence who was married to braniffs chairman and president harding lawrence was representing the dallasbased carrier at that time lois succeeded wells rich greene agency on december 1 1968 the rights to warhols films for braniff and his signed contracts are owned by a private trust and are administered by braniff airways foundation in dallas texas music warhol strongly influenced the new wavepunk rock band devo as well as david bowie bowie recorded a song called andy warhol for his 1971 album hunky dory lou reed wrote the song andys chest about valerie solanas the woman who shot warhol in 1968 he recorded it with the velvet underground and this version was released on the vu album in 1985 the band triumph also wrote a song about andy warhol stranger in a strange land off their 1984 album thunder seven books a biography of andy warhol written by art critic blake gopnik was published in 2020 under the title warhol comic books warhol is featured as a character in the miracleman series of comics it is first mentioned that he was resurrected by the alien scientist mors and subsequently convinces the latter to massproduce copies of himself later on 18 copies of warhol are seen in the underworld beneath the pyramid structure olympus where they produce pop art relating to the new superhuman regime one warhol clone numbered 6 is assigned to and develop a friendship with a clone of emil gargunza miraclemans creator before the latters betrayal and attempted escape video games warhol played by jeff grace makes a cameo appearance in the 2022 video game immortality see also andy warhol art authentication board andy warhol bridge pittsburgh pa andy warhol foundation v goldsmith copyright case decided by the us supreme court lgbt culture in new york city list of lgbt people from new york city moon museum painting the century 101 portrait masterpieces 19002000 references further reading a symposium on pop art arts magazine april 1963 pp 3645 the symposium was held in 1962 at the museum of modern art and published in this issue the following year celant germano andy warhol a factory kunstmuseum wolfsbug 1999 doyle jennifer jonathan flatley and josé esteban muñoz eds 1996 pop out queer warhol durham duke university press duncan fallowell 20th century characters ch andy lives london vintage 1994 james james andy warhol the producer as author in allegories of cinema american film in the 1960s 1989 pp 5884 princeton princeton university press krauss rosalind e warhols abstract spectacle in abstraction gesture ecriture paintings from the daros collection new york scalo 1999 pp 12333 lippard lucy r pop art thames and hudson 1970 1985 reprint scherman tony david dalton pop the genius of andy warhol new york ny harpercollins 2009 suarez juan antonio 1996 bike boys drag queens superstars avantgarde mass culture and gay identities in the 1960s underground cinema indianapolis indiana university press external links andy warhol at the national gallery of art warhol foundation in new york city andy warhol collection in pittsburgh the work of andy warhol spoken about by david cronenberg warholstars andy warhol films art and superstars warhol the computer andy warhol andy warhol at the jewish museum a piece of work podcast wnyc studiosmoma tavi gevinson and abbi jacobson discuss andy warhols campbells soup cans andy warhols personal book shelf 1928 births 1987 deaths 20thcentury american male musicians 20thcentury american painters american male painters 20thcentury american photographers 20thcentury american male artists albumcover and concertposter artists american cinematographers american contemporary artists american eastern catholics american experimental filmmakers american film producers american portrait painters american people of lemko descent american pop artists american printmakers american male screenwriters american shooting survivors american socialites artists from new york state artists from pittsburgh burials in pennsylvania carnegie mellon university college of fine arts alumni catholics from pennsylvania censorship in the arts fashion illustrators film directors from new york state film directors from pennsylvania american gay artists american gay writers hypochondriacs american lgbt photographers lgbt roman catholics lgbt people from new york state lgbt people from pennsylvania lgbt film producers photographers from new york state american portrait photographers postmodern artists ruthenian greek catholics schenley high school alumni the velvet underground warhola family writers from new york state writers from pittsburgh experiments in art and technology collaborating artists people associated with the factory 20thcentury american male writers 20thcentury american screenwriters american lgbt film directors 20thcentury american lgbt people	11,012
868	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alp%20Arslan	Alp Arslan	alp arslan born muhammad bin dawud chaghri was the second sultan of the seljuk empire and greatgrandson of seljuk the eponymous founder of the dynasty he greatly expanded the seljuk territory and consolidated his power defeating rivals to the south and northwest and his victory over the byzantines at the battle of manzikert in 1071 ushered in the turkmen settlement of anatolia muhammad bin dawud chaghris military prowess and fighting skills earned him the nickname alp arslan which means heroic lion in turkish early life alp arslan was the son of chaghri and nephew of tughril the founding sultans of the seljuk empire his grandfather was mikail who in turn was the son of the warlord seljuk he was the father of numerous children including malikshah i and tutush i it is unclear who the mother or mothers of his children were he was known to have been married at least twice his wives included the widow of his uncle tughril a karakhanid princess known as aka or seferiye khatun and the daughter or niece of bagrat iv of georgia who would later marry his vizier nizam almulk one of seljuks other sons was the turkic chieftain arslan israil whose son kutalmish contested his nephews succession to the sultanate alp arslans younger brothers suleiman ibn chaghri and qavurt were his rivals kilij arslan the son and successor of suleiman ibn kutalmish kutalmishs son who would later become sultan of rûm was a major opponent of the franks during the first crusade and the crusade of 1101 physical appearance and personality contemporary descriptions portray alp arslan as very aweinspiring dominating a greatformed one elegant of stature he had long thin whiskers which he used to knot up when shooting arrows and they say his arrow never went astray from the top button of his hat to the end of his moustaches it was two yards muslim sources show alp arslan as fanatically pious but just alp arslan was so dedicated to the hanafi madhhab that he always kept a qadi by his side including in battles his vizier nizam almulk described the young sultan early career alp arslan accompanied his uncle tughril on campaigns in the south against the fatimids while his father chaghri remained in khorasan upon alp arslans return to khorasan he began his work in administration at his fathers suggestion while there his father introduced him to nizam almulk one of the most eminent statesmen in early muslim history and alp arslans future vizier after the death of his father alp arslan succeeded him as governor of khorasan in 1059 his uncle tughril died in 1063 and designated his successor as suleiman arslans infant brother arslan and his uncle kutalmish both contested this succession which was resolved at the battle of damghan in 1063 arslan defeated kutalmish for the throne and succeeded on 27 april 1064 as sultan of the seljuk empire thus becoming the sole monarch of persia from the river oxus to the tigris in 1064 he led a campaign in georgia during which he captured the regions between tbilisi and the çoruh river akhalkalaki and alaverdi bagrat iv submitted to paying jizya to the seljuks but the georgians broke the agreement in 1065 alp arslan invaded georgia again in 1068 he captured tbilisi after a short battle and obtained the submission of bagrat iv however the georgians freed themselves from seljuk rule around 10731074 in consolidating his empire and subduing contending factions arslan was ably assisted by nizam almulk and the two are credited with helping to stabilize the empire after the death of tughril with peace and security established in his dominions arslan convoked an assembly of the states and in 1066 he declared his son malik shah i his heir and successor with the hope of capturing caesarea mazaca the capital of cappadocia he placed himself at the head of the turkoman cavalry crossed the euphrates and entered and invaded the city along with nizam almulk he then marched into armenia and georgia which he conquered in 1064 after a siege of 25 days the seljuks captured ani the capital city of armenia an account of the sack and massacres in ani is given by the historian sibt ibn aljawzi who quotes an eyewitness saying byzantine struggle en route to fight the fatimids in syria in 1068 alp arslan invaded the byzantine empire the emperor romanos iv diogenes assuming command in person met the invaders in cilicia in three arduous campaigns the turks were defeated in detail and driven across the euphrates in 1070 the first two campaigns were conducted by the emperor himself while the third was directed by manuel comnenos the greatuncle of emperor manuel comnenos during this time arslan gained the allegiance of rashid aldawla mahmud the mirdasid emir of aleppo in 1071 romanos again took the field and advanced into armenia with possibly 30000 men including a contingent of cuman turks as well as contingents of franks and normans under ursel de baieul alp arslan who had moved his troops south to fight the fatimids quickly reversed to meet the byzantines alp arslan handed control of his army to his eunuch slave general taranges and commanded him to win or be beheaded taranges prepared for the battle by setting traps and organizing ambushes the seljuk and byzantine armies met on friday 26 august 1071 at manzikert on the murat river north of lake van beginning the battle of manzikert the cuman mercenaries among the byzantine forces immediately defected to the turkic side seeing this the western mercenaries subsequently abandoned the battlefield as well to be exact romanos was betrayed by general andronikos doukas son of the caesar romanoss stepson who pronounced him dead and rode off with a large part of the byzantine forces at a critical moment the byzantines were wholly routed emperor romanos himself was captured in battle and presented to alp arslan it is reported that upon seeing the roman emperor the sultan leaped from his throne commanded romanos to kiss the ground and stepped on his neck he repeatedly berated the emperor including for spurning his emissaries and offers of peace romanos remained unrepentant asserting that he had merely done what was possible for a man and which kings are bound to do and i have fallen short in nothing but god has fulfilled his will and now do what you wish and abandon recriminations purportedly declaring romanos too trivial to kill arslan then led him about the camp to sell the prisoner to one of his men the seljuk soldiers initially refused to spend any money on buying the emperor until one man traded a dog for him next wishing to test romanos alp arslan asked romanos what he would do if their situation were reversed and arslan was imprisoned by the byzantines romanos bluntly answered the worst his honesty impressed arslan who then decided to spare romanoss life and instead ransom him back to his homeland after agreeing on a ransom alp arslan sent romanos to constantinople with a turkish escort carrying a banner above the disgraced emperor that read there is no god but allah and muhammad is his messenger the reason alp arslan spared romanos was likely to avoid a twofront war the fatimids were launching devastating raids on the seljuk domains during this period arslan may have worried that executing the roman emperor might escalate his conflict with the byzantines romanos himself had told the sultan that killing me will not be of any use to you after hearing of the overthrow of byzantine emperor romanos iv diogenes and realizing the great tribute and concessions promised to him would be denied sultan alp arslan pledged i shall consume with the sword all those people who venerate the cross and all the lands of the christians shall be enslaved alp arslan and his successor malik shah urged turkish tribes to invade and settle anatolia where they would not only cease to be a problem for the seljuk sultanate but also extend its territory further alp arslan commanded the turks as follows alp arslans victories changed the balance in western asia completely in favor of the seljuq turks and sunni muslims while the byzantine empire was to continue for nearly four more centuries the victory at manzikert signalled the beginning of turkic ascendancy in anatolia the victory at manzikert became so popular among the turks that later every noble family in anatolia claimed to have had an ancestor who had fought on that day state organization alp arslans strength lay in the military realm domestic affairs were handled by his able vizier nizam almulk the founder of the administrative organization that characterized and strengthened the sultanate during the reigns of alp arslan and his son malik shah military iqtas governed by seljuq princes were established to provide support for the soldiery and to accommodate the nomadic turks to the established anatolian agricultural scene this type of military fiefdom enabled the nomadic turks to draw on the resources of the sedentary persians turks and other established cultures within the seljuq realm and allowed alp arslan to field a huge standing army without depending on tribute from conquest to pay his soldiers he not only had enough food from his subjects to maintain his military but the taxes collected from traders and merchants added to his coffers sufficiently to fund his continuous wars suleiman ibn qutalmish was the son of the contender for arslans throne he was appointed governor of the northwestern provinces and assigned to complete the invasion of anatolia an explanation for this choice can only be conjectured from ibn alathirs account of the battle between alparslan and kutalmish in which he writes that alparslan wept for the latters death and greatly mourned the loss of his kinsman death after manzikert the dominion of alp arslan extended over much of western asia he soon prepared to march for the conquest of turkestan the original seat of his ancestors with a powerful army he advanced to the banks of the oxus before he could pass the river safely however it was necessary to subdue certain fortresses one of which was for several days vigorously defended by the rebel yusuf alkharezmi or yusuf alharani perhaps overeager to press on against his qarakhanid enemy alp arslan gained the governors submission by promising the rebel perpetual ownership of his lands when yusuf alharani was brought before him the sultan ordered that he be shot but before the archers could raise their bows yusuf seized a knife and threw himself at alp arslan striking three blows before being slain four days later on 24 november 1072 alp arslan died and was buried at merv having designated his 18yearold son malik shah as his successor family one of his wives was safariyya khatun she had a daughter sifri khatun who in 107172 married abbasid caliph almuqtadi safariyya died in isfahan in 10734 another of his wives was akka khatun she had been formerly the wife of sultan tughril alp arslan married her after tughrils death in 1063 another of his wives was shah khatun she was the daughter of qadir khan yusuf and had been formerly married to ghaznavid masud another of his wives was the daughter of the georgian king bagrat they married in 106768 he divorced her soon after and married her to fadlun his sons were malikshah i tutush i tekish and arslan arghun one of his daughters married the son of kurd surkhab son of bard in 1068 another daughter zulaikha khatun was married to a muslim son of quraish in 10867 another daughter aisha khatun married shams almulk nasr son of ibrahim khan tamghach legacy alp arslans conquest of anatolia from the byzantines is also seen as one of the pivotal precursors to the launch of the crusades from 2002 to july 2008 under turkmen calendar reform the month of august was named after alp arslan the 2nd training motorized rifle division of the turkmen ground forces is named in his honor notes references sources çoban r v 2020 the manzikert battle and sultan alp arslan with european perspective in the 15st century in the miniatures of giovanni boccaccios de casibus virorum illustriums 226 and 232 french manuscripts in bibliothèque nationale de france s karakaya ve v baydar ed in 2nd international muş symposium articles book pp 4864 muş muş alparslan university source 11thcentury births year of birth unknown 11thcentury murdered monarchs 1072 deaths seljuk rulers byzantineseljuk wars 11thcentury rulers deaths by stabbing shahanshahs male murder victims	2,094
869	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Film%20Institute	American Film Institute	the american film institute afi is an american nonprofit film organization that educates filmmakers and honors the heritage of the motion picture arts in the united states afi is supported by private funding and public membership fees leadership the institute is composed of leaders from the film entertainment business and academic communities the board of trustees is chaired by kathleen kennedy and the board of directors chaired by robert a daly guide the organization which is led by president and ceo film historian bob gazzale prior leaders were founding director george stevens jr from the organizations inception in 1967 until 1980 and jean picker firstenberg from 1980 to 2007 history the american film institute was founded by a 1965 presidential mandate announced in the rose garden of the white house by lyndon b johnsonto establish a national arts organization to preserve the legacy of american film heritage educate the next generation of filmmakers and honor the artists and their work two years later in 1967 afi was established supported by the national endowment for the arts the motion picture association of america and the ford foundation the original 22member board of trustees included actor gregory peck as chairman and actor sidney poitier as vicechairman as well as director francis ford coppola film historian arthur schlesinger jr lobbyist jack valenti and other representatives from the arts and academia the institute established a training program for filmmakers known then as the center for advanced film studies also created in the early years were a repertory film exhibition program at the kennedy center for the performing arts and the afi catalog of feature films a scholarly source for american film history the institute moved to its current eightacre hollywood campus in 1981 the film training program grew into the afi conservatory an accredited graduate school afi moved its presentation of firstrun and auteur films from the kennedy center to the historic afi silver theatre and cultural center which hosts the afi docs film festival making afi the largest nonprofit film exhibitor in the world afi educates audiences and recognizes artistic excellence through its awards programs and 10 top 10 lists in 2017 thenaspiring filmmaker ilana bardin giannini claimed that the afi expelled her after she accused dezso magyar of sexually harassing her in the early 1980s list of programs in brief afi educational and cultural programs include american film institute awards an honor celebrating the creative ensembles of the most outstanding motion picture and television programs of the year afi catalog of feature films and afi archive the written history of all feature films during the first 100 years of the art form accessible free online afi conservatory a film school led by master filmmakers in a graduatelevel program afi directing workshop for women a productionbased training program committed to increasing the number of women working professionally in screen directing afi life achievement award a tradition since 1973 a high honor for a career in film afi 100 years series television events and movie reference lists afis two film festivals afi fest in los angeles and afi docs in washington dc and silver spring maryland afi silver theatre and cultural center a historic theater with yearround art house firstrun and classic film programming in silver spring maryland american film a magazine launched in october 1975 that explores the art of new and historic film classics now a blog on aficom afi conservatory in 1969 the institute established the afi conservatory for advanced film studies at greystone the doheny mansion in beverly hills california the first class included filmmakers terrence malick caleb deschanel and paul schrader that program grew into the afi conservatory an accredited graduate film school located in the hills above hollywood california providing training in six filmmaking disciplines cinematography directing editing producing production design and screenwriting mirroring a professional production environment fellows collaborate to make more films than any other graduate level program admission to afi conservatory is highly selective with a maximum of 140 graduates per year in 2013 emmy and oscarwinning director producer and screenwriter james l brooks as good as it gets broadcast news terms of endearment joined as the artistic director of the afi conservatory where he provides leadership for the film program brooks artistic role at the afi conservatory has a rich legacy that includes daniel petrie jr robert wise and frank pierson awardwinning director bob mandel served as dean of the afi conservatory for nine years jan schuette took over as dean in 2014 and served until 2017 film producer richard gladstein was dean from 2017 until 2019 when susan ruskin was appointed notable alumni afi conservatorys alumni have careers in film television and on the web they have been recognized with all of the major industry awardsacademy award emmy award guild awards and the tony award afi programs afi catalog of feature films the afi catalog started in 1968 is a webbased filmographic database a research tool for film historians the catalog consists of entries on more than 60000 feature films and 17000 short films produced from 1893 to 2011 as well as afi awards outstanding movies of the year from 2000 through 2010 early print copies of this catalog may also be found at local libraries afi life achievement award afi awards created in 2000 the afi awards honor the ten outstanding films movies of the year and ten outstanding television programs tv programs of the year the awards are a noncompetitive acknowledgment of excellence the awards are announced in december and a private luncheon for award honorees takes place the following january afi maya deren award afi 100 years series the afi 100 years series which ran from 1998 to 2008 and created juryselected lists of americas best movies in categories such as musicals laughs and thrills prompted new generations to experience classic american films the juries consisted of over 1500 artists scholars critics and historians citizen kane was voted the greatest american film twice afi film festivals afi operates two film festivals afi fest in los angeles and afi docs formally known as silverdocs in silver spring maryland and washington dc afi fest afi fest is the american film institutes annual celebration of artistic excellence it is a showcase for the best festival films of the year and an opportunity for master filmmakers and emerging artists to come together with audiences in the movie capital of the world it is the only festival of its stature that is free to the public the academy of motion picture arts and sciences recognizes afi fest as a qualifying festival for the short films category for the annual academy awards the festival has paid tribute to numerous influential filmmakers and artists over the years including agnès varda pedro almodóvar and david lynch as guest artistic directors and has screened scores of films that have produced oscar nominations and wins afi docs held annually in june afi docs formerly silverdocs is a documentary festival in washington dc the festival attracts over 27000 documentary enthusiasts afi silver theatre and cultural center the afi silver theatre and cultural center is a moving image exhibition education and cultural center located in silver spring maryland anchored by the restoration of noted architect john ebersons historic 1938 silver theatre it features 32000 square feet of new construction housing two stadium theatres office and meeting space and reception and exhibit areas the afi silver theatre and cultural center presents film and video programming augmented by filmmaker interviews panels discussions and musical performances the afi directing workshop for women the directing workshop for women is a training program committed to educating and mentoring participants in an effort to increase the number of women working professionally in screen directing in this tuitionfree program each participant is required to complete a short film by the end of the yearlong program alumnae of the program include maya angelou anne bancroft dyan cannon ellen burstyn jennifer getzinger lesli linka glatter lily tomlin susan oliver and nancy malone afi directors series afi released a set of hourlong programs reviewing the career of acclaimed directors the directors series content was copyrighted in 1997 by media entertainment inc and the american film institute and the vhs and dvds were released between 1999 and 2001 on winstar tv and video directors featured included john mctiernan whe73067 ron howard whe73068 sydney pollack whe73071 norman jewison whe73076 lawrence kasdan whe73088 terry gilliam whe73089 spike lee whe73090 barry levinson whe73093 miloš forman whe73094 martin scorsese whe73098 barbra streisand whe73099 david cronenberg whe73101 robert zemeckis whe73131 robert altman john frankenheimer adrian lyne garry marshall william friedkin clint eastwood david zucker jim abrahams and jerry zucker roger corman michael mann james cameron rob reiner joel schumacher steven spielberg wes craven see also british film institute the british equivalent to afi references external links american film institute on internet archive afi los angeles film festival history and information archived 17 july 2009 arts organizations based in california cinema of southern california culture of hollywood los angeles los feliz los angeles organizations based in los angeles 1967 establishments in california educational organizations established in 1967 fiafaffiliated institutions arts organizations established in 1967	1,525
872	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akira%20Kurosawa	Akira Kurosawa	was a japanese filmmaker and painter who directed 30 films in a career spanning over five decades he is widely regarded as one of the greatest and most influential filmmakers in the history of cinema kurosawa displayed a bold dynamic style strongly influenced by western cinema yet distinct from it he was involved with all aspects of film production kurosawa entered the japanese film industry in 1936 following a brief stint as a painter after years of working on numerous films as an assistant director and scriptwriter he made his debut as a director during world war ii with the popular action film sanshiro sugata 1943 after the war the critically acclaimed drunken angel 1948 in which kurosawa cast the then littleknown actor toshiro mifune in a starring role cemented the directors reputation as one of the most important young filmmakers in japan the two men would go on to collaborate on another fifteen films rashomon 1950 which premiered in tokyo became the surprise winner of the golden lion at the 1951 venice film festival the commercial and critical success of that film opened up western film markets for the first time to the products of the japanese film industry which in turn led to international recognition for other japanese filmmakers kurosawa directed approximately one film per year throughout the 1950s and early 1960s including a number of highly regarded and often adapted films such as 1952 seven samurai 1954 throne of blood 1957 yojimbo 1961 and high and low 1963 after the 1960s he became much less prolific even so his later workincluding two of his final films 1980 and 1985continued to receive great acclaim in 1990 he accepted the academy award for lifetime achievement posthumously he was named asian of the century in the arts literature and culture category by asianweek magazine and cnn cited there as being among the five people who most prominently contributed to the improvement of asia in the 20th century his career has been honored by many retrospectives critical studies and biographies in both print and video and by releases in many consumer media biography childhood to war years 19101945 childhood and youth 19101935 kurosawa was born on march 23 1910 in ōimachi in the ōmori district of tokyo his father isamu 18641948 a member of a samurai family from akita prefecture worked as the director of the armys physical education institutes lower secondary school while his mother shima 18701952 came from a merchants family living in osaka akira was the eighth and youngest child of the moderately wealthy family with two of his siblings already grown up at the time of his birth and one deceased leaving kurosawa to grow up with three sisters and a brother in addition to promoting physical exercise isamu kurosawa was open to western traditions and considered theatre and motion pictures to have educational merit he encouraged his children to watch films young akira viewed his first movies at the age of six an important formative influence was his elementary school teacher mr tachikawa whose progressive educational practices ignited in his young pupil first a love of drawing and then an interest in education in general during this time the boy also studied calligraphy and kendo swordsmanship another major childhood influence was heigo kurosawa 19061933 akiras older brother by four years in the aftermath of the great kantō earthquake and the subsequent kantō massacre of 1923 heigo took the thirteenyearold akira to view the devastation when the younger brother wanted to look away from the corpses of humans and animals scattered everywhere heigo forbade him to do so encouraging akira instead to face his fears by confronting them directly some commentators have suggested that this incident would influence kurosawas later artistic career as the director was seldom hesitant to confront unpleasant truths in his work heigo was academically gifted but soon after failing to secure a place in tokyos foremost high school he began to detach himself from the rest of the family preferring to concentrate on his interest in foreign literature in the late 1920s heigo became a benshi silent film narrator for tokyo theaters showing foreign films and quickly made a name for himself akira who at this point planned to become a painter moved in with him and the two brothers became inseparable with heigos guidance akira devoured not only films but also theater and circus performances while exhibiting his paintings and working for the leftwing proletarian artists league however he was never able to make a living with his art and as he began to perceive most of the proletarian movement as putting unfulfilled political ideals directly onto the canvas he lost his enthusiasm for painting with the increasing production of talking pictures in the early 1930s film narrators like heigo began to lose work and akira moved back in with his parents in july 1933 heigo died by suicide kurosawa has commented on the lasting sense of loss he felt at his brothers death and the chapter of his autobiography something like an autobiography that describes itwritten nearly half a century after the eventis titled a story i dont want to tell only four months later kurosawas eldest brother also died leaving akira at age 23 the only one of the kurosawa brothers still living together with his three surviving sisters director in training 19351941 in 1935 the new film studio photo chemical laboratories known as pcl which later became the major studio toho advertised for assistant directors although he had demonstrated no previous interest in film as a profession kurosawa submitted the required essay which asked applicants to discuss the fundamental deficiencies of japanese films and find ways to overcome them his halfmocking view was that if the deficiencies were fundamental there was no way to correct them kurosawas essay earned him a call to take the followup exams and director kajirō yamamoto who was among the examiners took a liking to kurosawa and insisted that the studio hire him the 25yearold kurosawa joined pcl in february 1936 during his five years as an assistant director kurosawa worked under numerous directors but by far the most important figure in his development was yamamoto of his 24 films as ad he worked on 17 under yamamoto many of them comedies featuring the popular actor kenichi enomoto known as enoken yamamoto nurtured kurosawas talent promoting him directly from third assistant director to chief assistant director after a year kurosawas responsibilities increased and he worked at tasks ranging from stage construction and film development to location scouting script polishing rehearsals lighting dubbing editing and secondunit directing in the last of kurosawas films as an assistant director for yamamoto horse 1941 kurosawa took over most of the production as his mentor was occupied with the shooting of another film yamamoto advised kurosawa that a good director needed to master screenwriting kurosawa soon realized that the potential earnings from his scripts were much higher than what he was paid as an assistant director he later wrote or cowrote all his films and frequently penned screenplays for other directors such as satsuo yamamotos film a triumph of wings tsubasa no gaika 1942 this outside scriptwriting would serve kurosawa as a lucrative sideline lasting well into the 1960s long after he became famous wartime films and marriage 19421945 in the two years following the release of horse in 1941 kurosawa searched for a story he could use to launch his directing career towards the end of 1942 about a year after the japanese attack on pearl harbor novelist tsuneo tomita published his musashi miyamotoinspired judo novel sanshiro sugata the advertisements for which intrigued kurosawa he bought the book on its publication day devoured it in one sitting and immediately asked toho to secure the film rights kurosawas initial instinct proved correct as within a few days three other major japanese studios also offered to buy the rights toho prevailed and kurosawa began preproduction on his debut work as director shooting of sanshiro sugata began on location in yokohama in december 1942 production proceeded smoothly but getting the completed film past the censors was an entirely different matter the censorship office considered the work to be objectionably britishamerican by the standards of wartime japan and it was only through the intervention of director yasujirō ozu who championed the film that sanshiro sugata was finally accepted for release on march 25 1943 kurosawa had just turned 33 the movie became both a critical and commercial success nevertheless the censorship office would later decide to cut out some 18 minutes of footage much of which is now considered lost he next turned to the subject of wartime female factory workers in the most beautiful a propaganda film which he shot in a semidocumentary style in early 1944 to elicit realistic performances from his actresses the director had them live in a real factory during the shoot eat the factory food and call each other by their character names he would use similar methods with his performers throughout his career during production the actress playing the leader of the factory workers yōko yaguchi was chosen by her colleagues to present their demands to the director she and kurosawa were constantly at odds and it was through these arguments that the two paradoxically became close they married on may 21 1945 with yaguchi two months pregnant she never resumed her acting career and the couple would remain together until her death in 1985 they had two children both surviving kurosawa a son hisao born december 20 1945 who served as producer on some of his fathers last projects and kazuko a daughter born april 29 1954 who became a costume designer shortly before his marriage kurosawa was pressured by the studio against his will to direct a sequel to his debut film the often blatantly propagandistic sanshiro sugata part ii which premiered in may 1945 is generally considered one of his weakest pictures kurosawa decided to write the script for a film that would be both censorfriendly and less expensive to produce the men who tread on the tigers tail based on the kabuki play kanjinchō and starring the comedian enoken with whom kurosawa had often worked during his assistant director days was completed in september 1945 by this time japan had surrendered and the occupation of japan had begun the new american censors interpreted the values allegedly promoted in the picture as overly feudal and banned the work it was not released until 1952 the year another kurosawa film was also released ironically while in production the film had already been savaged by japanese wartime censors as too western and democratic they particularly disliked the comic porter played by enoken so the movie most probably would not have seen the light of day even if the war had continued beyond its completion early postwar years to red beard 19461965 first postwar works 19461950 after the war kurosawa influenced by the democratic ideals of the occupation sought to make films that would establish a new respect towards the individual and the self the first such film no regrets for our youth 1946 inspired by both the 1933 takigawa incident and the hotsumi ozaki wartime spy case criticized japans prewar regime for its political oppression atypically for the director the heroic central character is a woman yukie setsuko hara who born into uppermiddleclass privilege comes to question her values in a time of political crisis the original script had to be extensively rewritten and because of its controversial theme and gender of its protagonist the completed work divided critics nevertheless it managed to win the approval of audiences who turned variations on the films title into a postwar catchphrase his next film one wonderful sunday premiered in july 1947 to mixed reviews it is a relatively uncomplicated and sentimental love story dealing with an impoverished postwar couple trying to enjoy within the devastation of postwar tokyo their one weekly day off the movie bears the influence of frank capra d w griffith and f w murnau each of whom was among kurosawas favorite directors another film released in 1947 with kurosawas involvement was the actionadventure thriller snow trail directed by senkichi taniguchi from kurosawas screenplay it marked the debut of the intense young actor toshiro mifune it was kurosawa who with his mentor yamamoto had intervened to persuade toho to sign mifune during an audition in which the young man greatly impressed kurosawa but managed to alienate most of the other judges drunken angel is often considered the directors first major work although the script like all of kurosawas occupationera works had to go through rewrites due to american censorship kurosawa felt that this was the first film in which he was able to express himself freely a gritty story of a doctor who tries to save a gangster yakuza with tuberculosis it was also the first time that kurosawa directed mifune who went on to play major roles in all but one of the directors next 16 films the exception being while mifune was not cast as the protagonist in drunken angel his explosive performance as the gangster so dominates the drama that he shifted the focus from the title character the alcoholic doctor played by takashi shimura who had already appeared in several kurosawa movies however kurosawa did not want to smother the young actors immense vitality and mifunes rebellious character electrified audiences in much the way that marlon brandos defiant stance would startle american film audiences a few years later the film premiered in tokyo in april 1948 to rave reviews and was chosen by the prestigious kinema junpo critics poll as the best film of its year the first of three kurosawa movies to be so honored kurosawa with producer sōjirō motoki and fellow directors and friends kajiro yamamoto mikio naruse and senkichi taniguchi formed a new independent production unit called film art association eiga geijutsu kyōkai for this organizations debut work and first film for daiei studios kurosawa turned to a contemporary play by kazuo kikuta and together with taniguchi adapted it for the screen the quiet duel starred toshiro mifune as an idealistic young doctor struggling with syphilis a deliberate attempt by kurosawa to break the actor away from being typecast as gangsters released in march 1949 it was a box office success but is generally considered one of the directors lesser achievements his second film of 1949 also produced by film art association and released by shintoho was stray dog it is a detective movie perhaps the first important japanese film in that genre that explores the mood of japan during its painful postwar recovery through the story of a young detective played by mifune and his fixation on the recovery of his handgun which was stolen by a penniless war veteran who proceeds to use it to rob and murder adapted from an unpublished novel by kurosawa in the style of a favorite writer of his georges simenon it was the directors first collaboration with screenwriter ryuzo kikushima who would later help to script eight other kurosawa films a famous virtually wordless sequence lasting over eight minutes shows the detective disguised as an impoverished veteran wandering the streets in search of the gun thief it employed actual documentary footage of warravaged tokyo neighborhoods shot by kurosawas friend ishirō honda the future director of godzilla the film is considered a precursor to the contemporary police procedural and buddy cop film genres scandal released by shochiku in april 1950 was inspired by the directors personal experiences with and anger towards japanese yellow journalism the work is an ambitious mixture of courtroom drama and social problem film about free speech and personal responsibility but even kurosawa regarded the finished product as dramatically unfocused and unsatisfactory and almost all critics agree however it would be kurosawas second film of 1950 rashomon that would ultimately win him and japanese cinema a whole new international audience international recognition 19501958 after finishing scandal kurosawa was approached by daiei studios to make another film for them kurosawa picked a script by an aspiring young screenwriter shinobu hashimoto who would eventually work on nine of his films their first joint effort was based on ryūnosuke akutagawas experimental short story in a grove which recounts the murder of a samurai and the rape of his wife from various different and conflicting pointsofview kurosawa saw potential in the script and with hashimotos help polished and expanded it and then pitched it to daiei who were happy to accept the project due to its low budget the shooting of rashomon began on july 7 1950 and after extensive location work in the primeval forest of nara wrapped on august 17 just one week was spent in hurried postproduction hampered by a studio fire and the finished film premiered at tokyos imperial theatre on august 25 expanding nationwide the following day the movie was met by lukewarm reviews with many critics puzzled by its unique theme and treatment but it was nevertheless a moderate financial success for daiei kurosawas next film for shochiku was the idiot an adaptation of the novel by the directors favorite writer fyodor dostoevsky the story is relocated from russia to hokkaido but otherwise adheres closely to the original a fact seen by many critics as detrimental to the work a studiomandated edit shortened it from kurosawas original cut of 265 minutes to just 166 minutes making the resulting narrative exceedingly difficult to follow the severely edited film version is widely considered to be one of the directors least successful works and the original fulllength version no longer exists contemporary reviews of the much shortened edited version were very negative but the film was a moderate success at the box office largely because of the popularity of one of its stars setsuko hara meanwhile unbeknownst to kurosawa rashomon had been entered in the venice film festival due to the efforts of giuliana stramigioli a japanbased representative of an italian film company who had seen and admired the movie and convinced daiei to submit it on september 10 1951 rashomon was awarded the festivals highest prize the golden lion shocking not only daiei but the international film world which at the time was largely unaware of japans decadesold cinematic tradition after daiei briefly exhibited a subtitled print of the film in los angeles rko purchased distribution rights to rashomon in the united states the company was taking a considerable gamble it had put out only one prior subtitled film in the american market and the only previous japanese talkie commercially released in new york had been mikio naruses comedy wife be like a rose in 1937 a critical and boxoffice flop however rashomons commercial run greatly helped by strong reviews from critics and even the columnist ed sullivan earned 35000 in its first three weeks at a single new york theatre an almost unheardof sum at the time this success in turn led to a vogue in america and the west for japanese movies throughout the 1950s replacing the enthusiasm for italian neorealist cinema by the end of 1952 rashomon was released in japan the united states and most of europe among the japanese filmmakers whose work as a result began to win festival prizes and commercial release in the west were kenji mizoguchi the life of oharu ugetsu sansho the bailiff and somewhat later yasujirō ozu tokyo story an autumn afternoonartists highly respected in japan but before this period almost totally unknown in the west kurosawas growing reputation among western audiences in the 1950s would make western audiences more sympathetic to the reception of later generations of japanese filmmakers ranging from kon ichikawa masaki kobayashi nagisa oshima and shohei imamura to juzo itami takeshi kitano and takashi miike his career boosted by his sudden international fame kurosawa now reunited with his original film studio toho which would go on to produce his next 11 films set to work on his next project the movie stars takashi shimura as a cancerridden tokyo bureaucrat watanabe on a final quest for meaning before his death for the screenplay kurosawa brought in hashimoto as well as writer hideo oguni who would go on to cowrite twelve kurosawa films despite the works grim subject matter the screenwriters took a satirical approach which some have compared to the work of brecht to both the bureaucratic world of its hero and the us cultural colonization of japan american pop songs figure prominently in the film because of this strategy the filmmakers are usually credited with saving the picture from the kind of sentimentality common to dramas about characters with terminal illnesses opened in october 1952 to rave reviewsit won kurosawa his second kinema junpo best film awardand enormous box office success it remains the most acclaimed of all the artists films set in the modern era in december 1952 kurosawa took his screenwriters shinobu hashimoto and hideo oguni for a fortyfiveday secluded residence at an inn to create the screenplay for his next movie seven samurai the ensemble work was kurosawas first proper samurai film the genre for which he would become most famous the simple story about a poor farming village in sengoku period japan that hires a group of samurai to defend it against an impending attack by bandits was given a full epic treatment with a huge cast largely consisting of veterans of previous kurosawa productions and meticulously detailed action stretching out to almost threeandahalf hours of screen time three months were spent in preproduction and a month in rehearsals shooting took up 148 days spread over almost a year interrupted by production and financing troubles and kurosawas health problems the film finally opened in april 1954 half a year behind its original release date and about three times over budget making it at the time the most expensive japanese film ever made however by hollywood standards it was a quite modestly budgeted production even for that time the film received positive critical reaction and became a big hit quickly making back the money invested in it and providing the studio with a product that they could and did market internationallythough with extensive edits over timeand with the theatrical and home video releases of the uncut versionits reputation has steadily grown it is now regarded by some commentators as the greatest japanese film ever made and in 1999 a poll of japanese film critics also voted it the best japanese film ever made in the most recent 2012 version of the widely respected british film institute bfi sight sound greatest films of all time poll seven samurai placed 17th among all films from all countries in both the critics and the directors polls receiving a place in the top ten lists of 48 critics and 22 directors in 1954 nuclear tests in the pacific were causing radioactive rainstorms in japan and one particular incident in march had exposed a japanese fishing boat to nuclear fallout with disastrous results it is in this anxious atmosphere that kurosawas next film i live in fear was conceived the story concerned an elderly factory owner toshiro mifune so terrified of the prospect of a nuclear attack that he becomes determined to move his entire extended family both legal and extramarital to what he imagines is the safety of a farm in brazil production went much more smoothly than the directors previous film but a few days before shooting ended kurosawas composer collaborator and close friend fumio hayasaka died of tuberculosis at the age of 41 the films score was finished by hayasakas student masaru sato who would go on to score all of kurosawas next eight films i live in fear opened in november 1955 to mixed reviews and muted audience reaction becoming the first kurosawa film to lose money during its original theatrical run today it is considered by many to be among the finest films dealing with the psychological effects of the global nuclear stalemate kurosawas next project throne of blood an adaptation of william shakespeares macbethset like seven samurai in the sengoku erarepresented an ambitious transposition of the english work into a japanese context kurosawa instructed his leading actress isuzu yamada to regard the work as if it were a cinematic version of a japanese rather than a european literary classic given kurosawas appreciation of traditional japanese stage acting the acting of the players particularly yamada draws heavily on the stylized techniques of the noh theater it was filmed in 1956 and released in january 1957 to a slightly less negative domestic response than had been the case with the directors previous film abroad throne of blood regardless of the liberties it takes with its source material quickly earned a place among the most celebrated shakespeare adaptations another adaptation of a classic european theatrical work followed almost immediately with production of the lower depths based on a play by maxim gorky taking place in may and june 1957 in contrast to the shakespearean sweep of throne of blood the lower depths was shot on only two confined sets in order to emphasize the restricted nature of the characters lives though faithful to the play this adaptation of russian material to a completely japanese settingin this case the late edo periodunlike his earlier the idiot was regarded as artistically successful the film premiered in september 1957 receiving a mixed response similar to that of throne of blood however some critics rank it among the directors most underrated works kurosawas three next movies after seven samurai had not managed to capture japanese audiences in the way that that film had the mood of the directors work had been growing increasingly pessimistic and dark even as japan entered a boom period of highspeed growth and rising standards of living out of step with the prevailing mood of the era kurosawas films questioned the possibility of redemption through personal responsibility particularly in throne of blood and the lower depths he recognized this and deliberately aimed for a more lighthearted and entertaining film for his next production while switching to the new widescreen format that had been gaining popularity in japan the resulting film the hidden fortress is an actionadventure comedydrama about a medieval princess her loyal general and two peasants who all need to travel through enemy lines in order to reach their home region released in december 1958 the hidden fortress became an enormous boxoffice success in japan and was warmly received by critics both in japan and abroad today the film is considered one of kurosawas most lightweight efforts though it remains popular not least because it is one of several major influences on george lucass 1977 space opera star wars birth of a company and red beard 19591965 starting with rashomon kurosawas productions had become increasingly large in scope and so had the directors budgets toho concerned about this development suggested that he might help finance his own works therefore making the studios potential losses smaller while in turn allowing himself more artistic freedom as coproducer kurosawa agreed and the kurosawa production company was established in april 1959 with toho as the majority shareholder despite risking his own money kurosawa chose a story that was more directly critical of the japanese business and political elites than any previous work the bad sleep well based on a script by kurosawas nephew mike inoue is a revenge drama about a young man who is able to infiltrate the hierarchy of a corrupt japanese company with the intention of exposing the men responsible for his fathers death its theme proved topical while the film was in production the massive anpo protests were held against the new usjapan security treaty which was seen by many japanese particularly the young as threatening the countrys democracy by giving too much power to corporations and politicians the film opened in september 1960 to positive critical reaction and modest box office success the 25minute opening sequence depicting a corporate wedding reception is widely regarded as one of kurosawas most skillfully executed set pieces but the remainder of the film is often perceived as disappointing by comparison the movie has also been criticized for employing the conventional kurosawan hero to combat a social evil that cannot be resolved through the actions of individuals however courageous or cunning yojimbo the bodyguard kurosawa productions second film centers on a masterless samurai sanjuro who strolls into a 19thcentury town ruled by two opposing violent factions and provokes them into destroying each other the director used this work to play with many genre conventions particularly the western while at the same time offering an unprecedentedly for the japanese screen graphic portrayal of violence some commentators have seen the sanjuro character in this film as a fantasy figure who magically reverses the historical triumph of the corrupt merchant class over the samurai class featuring tatsuya nakadai in his first major role in a kurosawa movie and with innovative photography by kazuo miyagawa who shot rashomon and takao saito the film premiered in april 1961 and was a critically and commercially successful venture earning more than any previous kurosawa film the movie and its blackly comic tone were also widely imitated abroad sergio leones a fistful of dollars was a virtual unauthorized scenebyscene remake with toho filing a lawsuit on kurosawas behalf and prevailing following the success of yojimbo kurosawa found himself under pressure from toho to create a sequel kurosawa turned to a script he had written before yojimbo reworking it to include the hero of his previous film sanjuro was the first of three kurosawa films to be adapted from the work of the writer shūgorō yamamoto the others would be red beard and dodeskaden it is lighter in tone and closer to a conventional period film than yojimbo though its story of a power struggle within a samurai clan is portrayed with strongly comic undertones the film opened on january 1 1962 quickly surpassing yojimbos box office success and garnering positive reviews kurosawa had meanwhile instructed toho to purchase the film rights to kings ransom a novel about a kidnapping written by american author and screenwriter evan hunter under his pseudonym of ed mcbain as one of his 87th precinct series of crime books the director intended to create a work condemning kidnapping which he considered one of the very worst crimes the suspense film titled high and low was shot during the latter half of 1962 and released in march 1963 it broke kurosawas box office record the third film in a row to do so became the highest grossing japanese film of the year and won glowing reviews however his triumph was somewhat tarnished when ironically the film was blamed for a wave of kidnappings which occurred in japan about this time he himself received kidnapping threats directed at his young daughter kazuko high and low is considered by many commentators to be among the directors strongest works kurosawa quickly moved on to his next project red beard based on a short story collection by shūgorō yamamoto and incorporating elements from dostoevskys novel the insulted and injured it is a period film set in a midnineteenth century clinic for the poor in which kurosawas humanist themes receive perhaps their fullest statement a conceited and materialistic foreigntrained young doctor yasumoto is forced to become an intern at the clinic under the stern tutelage of doctor niide known as akahige red beard played by mifune although he resists red beard initially yasumoto comes to admire his wisdom and courage and to perceive the patients at the clinic whom he at first despised as worthy of compassion and dignity yūzō kayama who plays yasumoto was an extremely popular film and music star at the time particularly for his young guy wakadaishō series of musical comedies so signing him to appear in the film virtually guaranteed kurosawa strong boxoffice the shoot the filmmakers longest ever lasted well over a year after five months of preproduction and wrapped in spring 1965 leaving the director his crew and his actors exhausted red beard premiered in april 1965 becoming the years highestgrossing japanese production and the third and last kurosawa film to top the prestigious kinema jumpo yearly critics poll it remains one of kurosawas bestknown and mostloved works in his native country outside japan critics have been much more divided most commentators concede its technical merits and some praise it as among kurosawas best while others insist that it lacks complexity and genuine narrative power with still others claiming that it represents a retreat from the artists previous commitment to social and political change the film marked something of an end of an era for its creator the director himself recognized this at the time of its release telling critic donald richie that a cycle of some kind had just come to an end and that his future films and production methods would be different his prediction proved quite accurate beginning in the late 1950s television began increasingly to dominate the leisure time of the formerly large and loyal japanese cinema audience and as film company revenues dropped so did their appetite for riskparticularly the risk represented by kurosawas costly production methods red beard also marked the midway point chronologically in the artists career during his previous twentynine years in the film industry which includes his five years as assistant director he had directed twentythree films while during the remaining twentyeight years for many complex reasons he would complete only seven more also for reasons never adequately explained red beard would be his final film starring toshiro mifune yū fujiki an actor who worked on the lower depths observed regarding the closeness of the two men on the set mr kurosawas heart was in mr mifunes body donald richie has described the rapport between them as a unique symbiosis hollywood ambitions to last films 19661998 hollywood detour 19661968 when kurosawas exclusive contract with toho came to an end in 1966 the 56yearold director was seriously contemplating change observing the troubled state of the domestic film industry and having already received dozens of offers from abroad the idea of working outside japan appealed to him as never before for his first foreign project kurosawa chose a story based on a life magazine article the embassy pictures action thriller to be filmed in english and called simply runaway train would have been his first in color but the language barrier proved a major problem and the english version of the screenplay was not even finished by the time filming was to begin in autumn 1966 the shoot which required snow was moved to autumn 1967 then canceled in 1968 almost two decades later another foreign director working in hollywood andrei konchalovsky finally made runaway train 1985 though from a new script loosely based on kurosawas the director meanwhile had become involved in a much more ambitious hollywood project tora tora tora produced by 20th century fox and kurosawa production would be a portrayal of the japanese attack on pearl harbor from both the american and the japanese points of view with kurosawa helming the japanese half and an anglophonic filmmaker directing the american half he spent several months working on the script with ryuzo kikushima and hideo oguni but very soon the project began to unravel the director of the american sequences turned out not to be david lean as originally planned but american richard fleischer the budget was also cut and the screen time allocated for the japanese segment would now be no longer than 90 minutesa major problem considering that kurosawas script ran over four hours after numerous revisions with the direct involvement of darryl zanuck a more or less finalized cut screenplay was agreed upon in may 1968 shooting began in early december but kurosawa would last only a little over three weeks as director he struggled to work with an unfamiliar crew and the requirements of a hollywood production while his working methods puzzled his american producers who ultimately concluded that the director must be mentally ill kurosawa was examined at kyoto university hospital by a neuropsychologist dr murakami whose diagnosis was forwarded to darryl zanuck and richard zanuck at fox studios indicating a diagnosis of neurasthenia stating that he is suffering from disturbance of sleep agitated with feelings of anxiety and in manic excitement caused by the above mentioned illness it is necessary for him to have rest and medical treatment for more than two months on christmas eve 1968 the americans announced that kurosawa had left the production due to fatigue effectively firing him he was ultimately replaced for the films japanese sequences with two directors kinji fukasaku and toshio masuda tora tora tora finally released to unenthusiastic reviews in september 1970 was as donald richie put it an almost unmitigated tragedy in kurosawas career he had spent years of his life on a logistically nightmarish project to which he ultimately did not contribute a foot of film shot by himself he had his name removed from the credits though the script used for the japanese half was still his and his cowriters he became estranged from his longtime collaborator writer ryuzo kikushima and never worked with him again the project had inadvertently exposed corruption in his own production company a situation reminiscent of his own movie the bad sleep well his very sanity had been called into question worst of all the japanese film industryand perhaps the man himselfbegan to suspect that he would never make another film a difficult decade 19691977 knowing that his reputation was at stake following the much publicised tora tora tora debacle kurosawa moved quickly to a new project to prove he was still viable to his aid came friends and famed directors keisuke kinoshita masaki kobayashi and kon ichikawa who together with kurosawa established in july 1969 a production company called the club of the four knights yonki no kai although the plan was for the four directors to create a film each it has been suggested that the real motivation for the other three directors was to make it easier for kurosawa to successfully complete a film and therefore find his way back into the business the first project proposed and worked on was a period film to be called doraheita but when this was deemed too expensive attention shifted to dodesukaden an adaptation of yet another shūgorō yamamoto work again about the poor and destitute the film was shot quickly by kurosawas standards in about nine weeks with kurosawa determined to show he was still capable of working quickly and efficiently within a limited budget for his first work in color the dynamic editing and complex compositions of his earlier pictures were set aside with the artist focusing on the creation of a bold almost surreal palette of primary colors in order to reveal the toxic environment in which the characters live it was released in japan in october 1970 but though a minor critical success it was greeted with audience indifference the picture lost money and caused the club of the four knights to dissolve initial reception abroad was somewhat more favorable but dodesukaden has since been typically considered an interesting experiment not comparable to the directors best work after struggling through the production of dodesukaden kurosawa turned to television work the following year for the only time in his career with song of the horse a documentary about thoroughbred race horses it featured a voiceover narrated by a fictional man and a child voiced by the same actors as the beggar and his son in dodesukaden it is the only documentary in kurosawas filmography the small crew included his frequent collaborator masaru sato who composed the music song of the horse is also unique in kurosawas oeuvre in that it includes an editors credit suggesting that it is the only kurosawa film that he did not cut himself unable to secure funding for further work and allegedly having health problems kurosawa apparently reached the breaking point on december 22 1971 he slit his wrists and throat multiple times the suicide attempt proved unsuccessful and the directors health recovered fairly quickly with kurosawa now taking refuge in domestic life uncertain if he would ever direct another film in early 1973 the soviet studio mosfilm approached the filmmaker to ask if he would be interested in working with them kurosawa proposed an adaptation of russian explorer vladimir arsenyevs autobiographical work dersu uzala the book about a goldi hunter who lives in harmony with nature until destroyed by encroaching civilization was one that he had wanted to make since the 1930s in december 1973 the 63yearold kurosawa set off for the soviet union with four of his closest aides beginning a yearandahalf stay in the country shooting began in may 1974 in siberia with filming in exceedingly harsh natural conditions proving very difficult and demanding the picture wrapped in april 1975 with a thoroughly exhausted and homesick kurosawa returning to japan and his family in june dersu uzala had its world premiere in japan on august 2 1975 and did well at the box office while critical reception in japan was muted the film was better reviewed abroad winning the golden prize at the 9th moscow international film festival as well as an academy award for best foreign language film today critics remain divided over the film some see it as an example of kurosawas alleged artistic decline while others count it among his finest works although proposals for television projects were submitted to him he had no interest in working outside the film world nevertheless the harddrinking director did agree to appear in a series of television ads for suntory whiskey which aired in 1976 while fearing that he might never be able to make another film the director nevertheless continued working on various projects writing scripts and creating detailed illustrations intending to leave behind a visual record of his plans in case he would never be able to film his stories two epics 19781986 in 1977 american director george lucas released star wars a wildly successful science fiction film influenced by kurosawas the hidden fortress among other works lucas like many other new hollywood directors revered kurosawa and considered him a role model and was shocked to discover that the japanese filmmaker was unable to secure financing for any new work the two met in san francisco in july 1978 to discuss the project kurosawa considered most financially viable the epic story of a thief hired as the double of a medieval japanese lord of a great clan lucas enthralled by the screenplay and kurosawas illustrations leveraged his influence over 20th century fox to coerce the studio that had fired kurosawa just ten years earlier to produce then recruited fellow fan francis ford coppola as coproducer production began the following april with kurosawa in high spirits shooting lasted from june 1979 through march 1980 and was plagued with problems not the least of which was the firing of the original lead actor shintaro katsuknown for portraying the popular character zatoichidue to an incident in which the actor insisted against the directors wishes on videotaping his own performance he was replaced by tatsuya nakadai in his first of two consecutive leading roles in a kurosawa movie the film was completed only a few weeks behind schedule and opened in tokyo in april 1980 it quickly became a massive hit in japan the film was also a critical and box office success abroad winning the coveted at the 1980 cannes film festival in may though some critics then and now have faulted the film for its alleged coldness kurosawa spent much of the rest of the year in europe and america promoting collecting awards and accolades and exhibiting as art the drawings he had made to serve as storyboards for the film the international success of allowed kurosawa to proceed with his next project another epic in a similar vein the script partly based on william shakespeares king lear depicted a ruthless bloodthirsty daimyō warlord played by tatsuya nakadai who after foolishly banishing his one loyal son surrenders his kingdom to his other two sons who then betray him thus plunging the entire kingdom into war as japanese studios still felt wary about producing another film that would rank among the most expensive ever made in the country international help was again needed this time it came from french producer serge silberman who had produced luis buñuels final movies filming did not begin until december 1983 and lasted more than a year in january 1985 production of was halted as kurosawas 64yearold wife yōko fell ill she died on february 1 kurosawa returned to finish his film and premiered at the tokyo film festival on may 31 with a wide release the next day the film was a moderate financial success in japan but a larger one abroad and as he had done with kurosawa embarked on a trip to europe and america where he attended the films premieres in september and october won several awards in japan but was not quite as honored there as many of the directors best films of the 1950s and 1960s had been the film world was surprised however when japan passed over the selection of in favor of another film as its official entry to compete for an oscar nomination in the best foreign film category which was ultimately rejected for competition at the 58th academy awards both the producer and kurosawa himself attributed the failure to even submit for competition to a misunderstanding because of the academys arcane rules no one was sure whether qualified as a japanese film a french film due to its financing or both so it was not submitted at all in response to what at least appeared to be a blatant snub by his own countrymen the director sidney lumet led a successful campaign to have kurosawa receive an oscar nomination for best director that year sydney pollack ultimately won the award for directing out of africa s costume designer emi wada won the movies only oscar and particularly the latter are often considered to be among kurosawas finest works after s release kurosawa would point to it as his best film a major change of attitude for the director who when asked which of his works was his best had always previously answered my next one final works and last years 19871998 for his next movie kurosawa chose a subject very different from any that he had ever filmed before while some of his previous pictures for example drunken angel and had included brief dream sequences dreams was to be entirely based upon the directors own dreams significantly for the first time in over forty years kurosawa for this deeply personal project wrote the screenplay alone although its estimated budget was lower than the films immediately preceding it japanese studios were still unwilling to back one of his productions so kurosawa turned to another famous american fan steven spielberg who convinced warner bros to buy the international rights to the completed film this made it easier for kurosawas son hisao as coproducer and soontobe head of kurosawa production to negotiate a loan in japan that would cover the films production costs shooting took more than eight months to complete and dreams premiered at cannes in may 1990 to a polite but muted reception similar to the reaction the picture would generate elsewhere in the world in 1990 he accepted the academy award for lifetime achievement in his acceptance speech he famously said im a little worried because i dont feel that i understand cinema yet at the time bob thomas of the daily spectrum noted that kurosawa was considered by many critics as the greatest living filmmaker kurosawa now turned to a more conventional story with rhapsody in augustthe directors first film fully produced in japan since dodeskaden over twenty years beforewhich explored the scars of the nuclear bombing which destroyed nagasaki at the very end of world war ii it was adapted from a kiyoko murata novel but the films references to the nagasaki bombing came from the director rather than from the book this was his only movie to include a role for an american movie star richard gere who plays a small role as the nephew of the elderly heroine shooting took place in early 1991 with the film opening on may 25 that year to a largely negative critical reaction especially in the united states where the director was accused of promulgating naïvely antiamerican sentiments though kurosawa rejected these accusations kurosawa wasted no time moving onto his next project madadayo or not yet based on autobiographical essays by hyakken uchida the film follows the life of a japanese professor of german through the second world war and beyond the narrative centers on yearly birthday celebrations with his former students during which the protagonist declares his unwillingness to die just yeta theme that was becoming increasingly relevant for the films 81yearold creator filming began in february 1992 and wrapped by the end of september its release on april 17 1993 was greeted by an even more disappointed reaction than had been the case with his two preceding works kurosawa nevertheless continued to work he wrote the original screenplays the sea is watching in 1993 and after the rain in 1995 while putting finishing touches on the latter work in 1995 kurosawa slipped and broke the base of his spine following the accident he would use a wheelchair for the rest of his life putting an end to any hopes of him directing another film his longtime wishto die on the set while shooting a moviewas never to be fulfilled after his accident kurosawas health began to deteriorate while his mind remained sharp and lively his body was giving up and for the last halfyear of his life the director was largely confined to bed listening to music and watching television at home on september 6 1998 kurosawa died of a stroke in setagaya tokyo at the age of 88 at the time of his death kurosawa had two children his son hisao kurosawa who married hiroko hayashi and his daughter kazuko kurosawa who married harayuki kato along with several grandchildren one of his grandchildren the actor takayuki kato and grandson by kazuko became a supporting actor in two films posthumously developed from screenplays written by kurosawa which remained unproduced during his own lifetime takashi koizumis after the rain 1999 and kei kumais the sea is watching 2002 filmography although kurosawa is primarily known as a filmmaker he also worked in theater and television and wrote books a detailed list including his complete filmography can be found in the list of works by akira kurosawa style themes and techniques kurosawa displayed a bold dynamic style strongly influenced by western cinema yet distinct from it he was involved with all aspects of film production he was a gifted screenwriter and worked closely with his cowriters from the films development onward to ensure a highquality script which he considered the firm foundation of a good film he frequently served as editor of his own films his team known as the which included the cinematographer asakazu nakai the production assistant teruyo nogami and the actor takashi shimura was notable for its loyalty and dependability kurosawas style is marked by a number of devices and techniques in his films of the 1940s and 1950s he frequently employs the axial cut in which the camera moves toward or away from the subject through a series of matched jump cuts rather than tracking shots or dissolves another stylistic trait is cut on motion which displays the motion on the screen in two or more shots instead of one uninterrupted one a form of cinematic punctuation strongly identified with kurosawa is the wipe an effect created through an optical printer a line or bar appears to move across the screen wiping away the end of a scene and revealing the first image of the next as a transitional device it is used as a substitute for the straight cut or the dissolve in his mature work the wipe became kurosawas signature in the films soundtrack kurosawa favored the soundimage counterpoint in which the music or sound effects appeared to comment ironically on the image rather than emphasizing it teruyo nogamis memoir gives several such examples from drunken angel and stray dog kurosawa was also involved with several of japans outstanding contemporary composers including fumio hayasaka and tōru takemitsu kurosawa employed a number of recurring themes in his films the masterdisciple relationship between a usually older mentor and one or more novices which often involves spiritual as well as technical mastery and selfmastery the heroic champion the exceptional individual who emerges from the mass of people to produce something or right some wrong the depiction of extremes of weather as both dramatic devices and symbols of human passion and the recurrence of cycles of savage violence within history according to stephen prince the last theme which he calls the countertradition to the committed heroic mode of kurosawas cinema began with throne of blood 1957 and recurred in the films of the 1980s legacy and cultural impact kurosawa is often cited as one of the greatest filmmakers of all time in 1999 he was named asian of the century in the arts literature and culture category by asianweek magazine and cnn cited as one of the five people who contributed most to the betterment of asia in the past 100 years kurosawa was ranked third in the directors poll and fifth in the critics poll in sight sounds 2002 list of the greatest directors of all time in commemoration of the 100th anniversary of kurosawas birth in 2010 a project called ak100 was launched in 2008 the ak100 project aims to expose young people who are the representatives of the next generation and all people everywhere to the light and spirit of akira kurosawa and the wonderful world he created reputation among filmmakers many filmmakers have been influenced by kurosawas work ingmar bergman called his own film the virgin spring a touristic lousy imitation of kurosawa and added at that time my admiration for the japanese cinema was at its height i was almost a samurai myself federico fellini considered kurosawa to be the greatest living example of all that an author of the cinema should be steven spielberg cited kurosawas cinematic vision as being important to shaping his own cinematic vision satyajit ray who was posthumously awarded the akira kurosawa award for lifetime achievement in directing at the san francisco international film festival in 1992 had said earlier of rashomon roman polanski considered kurosawa to be among the three filmmakers he favored most along with fellini and orson welles and picked seven samurai throne of blood and the hidden fortress for praise bernardo bertolucci considered kurosawas influence to be seminal kurosawas movies and la dolce vita of fellini are the things that pushed me sucked me into being a film director andrei tarkovsky cited kurosawa as one of his favorites and named seven samurai as one of his ten favorite films sidney lumet called kurosawa the beethoven of movie directors werner herzog reflected on filmmakers with whom he feels kinship and the movies that he admires according to an assistant stanley kubrick considered kurosawa to be one of the great film directors and spoke of him consistently and admiringly to the point that a letter from him meant more than any oscar and caused him to agonize for months over drafting a reply robert altman upon first seeing rashomon was so impressed by the sequence of frames of the sun that he began to shoot the same sequences in his work the very next day he claimed george lucas cited the movie the hidden fortress as the main inspiration for his film star wars he also cited other films of kurosawa as his favorites including seven samurai yojimbo and he also said i had never seen anything that powerful or cinematographic the emotions were so strong that it didnt matter that i did not understand the culture or the traditions from that moment on kurosawas films have served as one of my strongest sources of creative inspiration wes andersons animated film isle of dogs is partially inspired by kurosawas filming techniques at the 64th sydney film festival there was a retrospective of akira kurosawa where films of his were screened to remember the great legacy he has created from his work zack snyder cited him as one of his influences for his underdeveloped netflix film rebel moon criticism kenji mizoguchi the acclaimed director of ugetsu 1953 and sansho the bailiff 1954 was eleven years kurosawas senior after the mid1950s some critics of the french new wave began to favor mizoguchi over kurosawa new wave critic and filmmaker jacques rivette in particular thought mizoguchi to be the only japanese director whose work was at once entirely japanese and truly universal kurosawa by contrast was thought to be more influenced by western cinema and culture a view that has been disputed in japan some critics and filmmakers considered kurosawa to be elitist they viewed him to center his effort and attention on exceptional or heroic characters in her dvd commentary on seven samurai joan mellen argued that certain shots of the samurai characters kambei and kyuzo which show kurosawa to have accorded higher status or validity to them constitutes evidence for this point of view these japanese critics argued that kurosawa was not sufficiently progressive because the peasants were unable to find leaders from within their ranks in an interview with mellen kurosawa defended himself saying from the early 1950s kurosawa was also charged with catering to western tastes due to his popularity in europe and america in the 1970s the politically engaged leftwing director nagisa ōshima who was noted for his critical reaction to kurosawas work accused kurosawa of pandering to western beliefs and ideologies author audie block however assessed kurosawa to have never played up to a nonjapanese viewing public and to have denounced those directors who did posthumous screenplays following kurosawas death several posthumous works based on his unfilmed screenplays have been produced after the rain directed by takashi koizumi was released in 1999 and the sea is watching directed by kei kumai premiered in 2002 a script created by the yonki no kai club of the four knights kurosawa keisuke kinoshita masaki kobayashi and kon ichikawa around the time that dodeskaden was made finally was filmed and released in 2000 as doraheita by the only surviving founding member of the club kon ichikawa huayi brothers media and ckf pictures in china announced in 2017 plans to produce a film of kurosawas posthumous screenplay of the masque of the red death by edgar allan poe for 2020 to be entitled the mask of the black death patrick frater writing for variety magazine in may 2017 stated that another two unfinished films by kurosawa were planned with silvering spear to start filming in 2018 kurosawa production company in september 2011 it was reported that remake rights to most of kurosawas movies and unproduced screenplays were assigned by the akira kurosawa 100 project to the labased company splendent splendents chief sakiko yamada stated that he aimed to help contemporary filmmakers introduce a new generation of moviegoers to these unforgettable stories kurosawa production co established in 1959 continues to oversee many of the aspects of kurosawas legacy the directors son hisao kurosawa is the current head of the company its american subsidiary kurosawa enterprises is located in los angeles rights to kurosawas works were then held by kurosawa production and the film studios under which he worked most notably toho these rights were then assigned to the akira kurosawa 100 project before being reassigned in 2011 to the la based company splendent kurosawa production works closely with the akira kurosawa foundation established in december 2003 and also run by hisao kurosawa the foundation organizes an annual short film competition and spearheads kurosawarelated projects including a recently shelved one to build a memorial museum for the director film studios in 1981 the kurosawa film studio was opened in yokohama two additional locations have since been launched in japan a large collection of archive material including scanned screenplays photos and news articles has been made available through the akira kurosawa digital archive a japanese proprietary website maintained by ryukoku university digital archives research center in collaboration with kurosawa production anaheim university akira kurosawa school of film anaheim university in collaboration with kurosawa production and the kurosawa family established the anaheim university akira kurosawa school of film in spring 2009 the anaheim university akira kurosawa school of film offers an online master of fine arts mfa in digital filmmaking supported by many of the worlds greatest filmmakers kurosawa restaurant group kurosawa was known to be a connoisseur of japanese cuisine and as such the kurosawa family foundation established the kurosawa restaurant group after his passing in 1999 opening four restaurants in the tokyo area bearing the family name nagatacho kurosawa specializing in shabushabu teppanyaki kurosawa in tsukiji specializing in teppanyaki keyaki kurosawa in nishiazabu specializing in soba and udon kurosawa specializing in udon in roppongi all four locations were designed to evoke the meiji era machiya of kurosawas youth and feature memorabilia of kurosawas career as of 2023 only the tsukiji location is currently still operating a number of entrepreneurs around the world have also opened restaurants and businesses in honor of kurosawa without any connection to akira or the estate awards and honors two film awards have also been named in kurosawas honor the akira kurosawa award for lifetime achievement in film directing is awarded during the san francisco international film festival while the akira kurosawa award is given during the tokyo international film festival kurosawa has also been given a number of state honors including being named as an officer of the french légion dhonneur in 1984 a knight grand cross of the order of merit of the italian republic in 1986 and was the first filmmaker to receive the order of culture from his native japan in 1985 posthumously he was recognized with the junior third court rank which would be the modern equivalent of a noble title under the kazoku aristocracy documentaries a significant number of short and fulllength documentaries concerning the life and work of kurosawa were made both during his artistic heyday and after his death ak by french video essay director chris marker was filmed while kurosawa was working on however the documentary is more concerned about kurosawas distant yet polite personality than on the making of the film other documentaries concerning kurosawas life and works produced posthumously include kurosawa the last emperor alex cox 1999 a message from akira kurosawa for beautiful movies hisao kurosawa 2000 kurosawa adam low 2001 akira kurosawa it is wonderful to create toho masterworks 2002 akira kurosawa the epic and the intimate 2010 kurosawas way catherine cadou 2011 notes references sources further reading buchanan judith 2005 shakespeare on film pearson longman burch nöel 1979 to the distant observer form and meaning in the japanese cinema university of california press cowie peter 2010 akira kurosawa master of cinema rizzoli publications davies anthony 1990 filming shakespeares plays the adaptions of laurence olivier orson welles peter brook and akira kurosawa cambridge university press desser david 1983 the samurai films of akira kurosawa studies in cinema no 23 umi research press leonard kendra preston 2009 shakespeare madness and music scoring insanity in cinematic adaptations plymouth the scarecrow press sorensen larsmartin 2009 censorship of japanese films during the us occupation of japan the cases of yasujiro ozu and akira kurosawa edwin mellen press wild peter 2014 akira kurosawa reaktion books external links akira kurosawa at the criterion collection akira kurosawa news information and discussion senses of cinema great directors critical database akira kurosawa at japanese celebritys grave guide several trailers anaheim university akira kurosawa school of film 1910 births 1998 deaths 20thcentury japanese writers 20thcentury male writers academy honorary award recipients akira kurosawa award winners best director bafta award winners césar award winners david di donatello winners directors guild of america award winners directors of best foreign language film academy award winners directors of palme dor winners directors of golden lion winners filmmakers who won the best foreign language film bafta award fellows of the american academy of arts and sciences recipients of the fukuoka prize japanese film directors japanese film editors japanese film producers japanese male writers japanese male screenwriters japanese screenwriters kyoto laureates in arts and philosophy recipients of the legion of honour people from shinagawa people from the empire of japan peoples honour award winners persons of cultural merit propaganda film directors ramon magsaysay award winners recipients of the order of culture recipients of the order of friendship of peoples recipients of the praemium imperiale samurai film directors silver bear for best director recipients writers from tokyo yakuza film directors golden lion for lifetime achievement recipients	10,875
874	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient%20Egypt	Ancient Egypt	ancient egypt was a civilization in northeast africa situated in the nile valley ancient egyptian civilization followed prehistoric egypt and coalesced around 3100bc according to conventional egyptian chronology with the political unification of upper and lower egypt under menes often identified with narmer the history of ancient egypt occurred as a series of stable kingdoms separated by periods of relative instability known as intermediate periods the old kingdom of the early bronze age the middle kingdom of the middle bronze age and the new kingdom of the late bronze age egypt reached the pinnacle of its power in the new kingdom ruling much of nubia and a sizable portion of the levant after which it entered a period of slow decline during the course of its history egypt was invaded or conquered by a number of foreign powers including the hyksos the nubians the assyrians the achaemenid persians and the macedonians under alexander the great the greek ptolemaic kingdom formed in the aftermath of alexanders death ruled egypt until 30bc when under cleopatra it fell to the roman empire and became a roman province the success of ancient egyptian civilization came partly from its ability to adapt to the conditions of the nile river valley for agriculture the predictable flooding and controlled irrigation of the fertile valley produced surplus crops which supported a more dense population and social development and culture with resources to spare the administration sponsored mineral exploitation of the valley and surrounding desert regions the early development of an independent writing system the organization of collective construction and agricultural projects trade with surrounding regions and a military intended to assert egyptian dominance motivating and organizing these activities was a bureaucracy of elite scribes religious leaders and administrators under the control of a pharaoh who ensured the cooperation and unity of the egyptian people in the context of an elaborate system of religious beliefs the many achievements of the ancient egyptians include the quarrying surveying and construction techniques that supported the building of monumental pyramids temples and obelisks a system of mathematics a practical and effective system of medicine irrigation systems and agricultural production techniques the first known planked boats egyptian faience and glass technology new forms of literature and the earliest known peace treaty made with the hittites ancient egypt has left a lasting legacy its art and architecture were widely copied and its antiquities were carried off to far corners of the world its monumental ruins have inspired the imaginations of travelers and writers for millennia a newfound respect for antiquities and excavations in the early modern period by europeans and egyptians has led to the scientific investigation of egyptian civilization and a greater appreciation of its cultural legacy history the nile has been the lifeline of its region for much of human history the fertile floodplain of the nile gave humans the opportunity to develop a settled agricultural economy and a more sophisticated centralized society that became a cornerstone in the history of human civilization nomadic modern human huntergatherers began living in the nile valley through the end of the middle pleistocene some 120000 years ago by the late paleolithic period the arid climate of northern africa had become increasingly hot and dry forcing the populations of the area to concentrate along the river region predynastic period in predynastic and early dynastic times the egyptian climate was much less arid than it is today large regions of egypt were covered in treed savanna and traversed by herds of grazing ungulates foliage and fauna were far more prolific in all environs and the nile region supported large populations of waterfowl hunting would have been common for egyptians and this is also the period when many animals were first domesticated by about 5500 bc small tribes living in the nile valley had developed into a series of cultures demonstrating firm control of agriculture and animal husbandry and identifiable by their pottery and personal items such as combs bracelets and beads the largest of these early cultures in upper southern egypt was the badarian culture which probably originated in the western desert it was known for its highquality ceramics stone tools and its use of copper the badari was followed by the naqada culture the amratian naqada i the gerzeh naqada ii and semainean naqada iii these brought a number of technological improvements as early as the naqada i period predynastic egyptians imported obsidian from ethiopia used to shape blades and other objects from flakes in naqada ii times early evidence exists of contact with the near east particularly canaan and the byblos coast over a period of about 1000 years the naqada culture developed from a few small farming communities into a powerful civilization whose leaders were in complete control of the people and resources of the nile valley establishing a power center at nekhen in greek hierakonpolis and later at abydos naqada iii leaders expanded their control of egypt northwards along the nile they also traded with nubia to the south the oases of the western desert to the west and the cultures of the eastern mediterranean and near east to the east initiating a period of egyptmesopotamia relations the naqada culture manufactured a diverse selection of material goods reflective of the increasing power and wealth of the elite as well as societal personaluse items which included combs small statuary painted pottery high quality decorative stone vases cosmetic palettes and jewelry made of gold lapis and ivory they also developed a ceramic glaze known as faience which was used well into the roman period to decorate cups amulets and figurines during the last predynastic phase the naqada culture began using written symbols that eventually were developed into a full system of hieroglyphs for writing the ancient egyptian language early dynastic period c 31502686 bc the early dynastic period was approximately contemporary to the early sumerianakkadian civilization of mesopotamia and of ancient elam the thirdcenturybc egyptian priest manetho grouped the long line of kings from menes to his own time into 30 dynasties a system still used today he began his official history with the king named meni or menes in greek who was believed to have united the two kingdoms of upper and lower egypt the transition to a unified state happened more gradually than ancient egyptian writers represented and there is no contemporary record of menes some scholars now believe however that the mythical menes may have been the king narmer who is depicted wearing royal regalia on the ceremonial narmer palette in a symbolic act of unification in the early dynastic period which began about 3000bc the first of the dynastic kings solidified control over lower egypt by establishing a capital at memphis from which he could control the labor force and agriculture of the fertile delta region as well as the lucrative and critical trade routes to the levant the increasing power and wealth of the kings during the early dynastic period was reflected in their elaborate mastaba tombs and mortuary cult structures at abydos which were used to celebrate the deified king after his death the strong institution of kingship developed by the kings served to legitimize state control over the land labor and resources that were essential to the survival and growth of ancient egyptian civilization old kingdom 26862181 bc major advances in architecture art and technology were made during the old kingdom fueled by the increased agricultural productivity and resulting population made possible by a welldeveloped central administration some of ancient egypts crowning achievements the giza pyramids and great sphinx were constructed during the old kingdom under the direction of the vizier state officials collected taxes coordinated irrigation projects to improve crop yield drafted peasants to work on construction projects and established a justice system to maintain peace and order with the rising importance of central administration in egypt a new class of educated scribes and officials arose who were granted estates by the king in payment for their services kings also made land grants to their mortuary cults and local temples to ensure that these institutions had the resources to worship the king after his death scholars believe that five centuries of these practices slowly eroded the economic vitality of egypt and that the economy could no longer afford to support a large centralized administration as the power of the kings diminished regional governors called nomarchs began to challenge the supremacy of the office of king this coupled with severe droughts between 2200 and 2150bc is believed to have caused the country to enter the 140year period of famine and strife known as the first intermediate period first intermediate period 21812055 bc after egypts central government collapsed at the end of the old kingdom the administration could no longer support or stabilize the countrys economy regional governors could not rely on the king for help in times of crisis and the ensuing food shortages and political disputes escalated into famines and smallscale civil wars yet despite difficult problems local leaders owing no tribute to the king used their newfound independence to establish a thriving culture in the provinces once in control of their own resources the provinces became economically richerwhich was demonstrated by larger and better burials among all social classes in bursts of creativity provincial artisans adopted and adapted cultural motifs formerly restricted to the royalty of the old kingdom and scribes developed literary styles that expressed the optimism and originality of the period free from their loyalties to the king local rulers began competing with each other for territorial control and political power by 2160bc rulers in herakleopolis controlled lower egypt in the north while a rival clan based in thebes the intef family took control of upper egypt in the south as the intefs grew in power and expanded their control northward a clash between the two rival dynasties became inevitable around 2055bc the northern theban forces under nebhepetre mentuhotep ii finally defeated the herakleopolitan rulers reuniting the two lands they inaugurated a period of economic and cultural renaissance known as the middle kingdom middle kingdom 21341690 bc the kings of the middle kingdom restored the countrys stability and prosperity thereby stimulating a resurgence of art literature and monumental building projects mentuhotep ii and his eleventh dynasty successors ruled from thebes but the vizier amenemhat i upon assuming the kingship at the beginning of the twelfth dynasty around 1985bc shifted the kingdoms capital to the city of itjtawy located in faiyum from itjtawy the kings of the twelfth dynasty undertook a farsighted land reclamation and irrigation scheme to increase agricultural output in the region moreover the military reconquered territory in nubia that was rich in quarries and gold mines while laborers built a defensive structure in the eastern delta called the walls of the ruler to defend against foreign attack with the kings having secured the country militarily and politically and with vast agricultural and mineral wealth at their disposal the nations population arts and religion flourished in contrast to elitist old kingdom attitudes towards the gods the middle kingdom displayed an increase in expressions of personal piety middle kingdom literature featured sophisticated themes and characters written in a confident eloquent style the relief and portrait sculpture of the period captured subtle individual details that reached new heights of technical sophistication the last great ruler of the middle kingdom amenemhat iii allowed semiticspeaking canaanite settlers from the near east into the delta region to provide a sufficient labor force for his especially active mining and building campaigns these ambitious building and mining activities however combined with severe nile floods later in his reign strained the economy and precipitated the slow decline into the second intermediate period during the later thirteenth and fourteenth dynasties during this decline the canaanite settlers began to assume greater control of the delta region eventually coming to power in egypt as the hyksos second intermediate period 16741549 bc and the hyksos around 1785bc as the power of the middle kingdom kings weakened a western asian people called the hyksos who had already settled in the delta seized control of egypt and established their capital at avaris forcing the former central government to retreat to thebes the king was treated as a vassal and expected to pay tribute the hyksos foreign rulers retained egyptian models of government and identified as kings thereby integrating egyptian elements into their culture they and other invaders introduced new tools of warfare into egypt most notably the composite bow and the horsedrawn chariot after retreating south the native theban kings found themselves trapped between the canaanite hyksos ruling the north and the hyksos nubian allies the kushites to the south after years of vassalage thebes gathered enough strength to challenge the hyksos in a conflict that lasted more than 30 years until 1555bc the kings seqenenre tao ii and kamose were ultimately able to defeat the nubians to the south of egypt but failed to defeat the hyksos that task fell to kamoses successor ahmose i who successfully waged a series of campaigns that permanently eradicated the hyksos presence in egypt he established a new dynasty and in the new kingdom that followed the military became a central priority for the kings who sought to expand egypts borders and attempted to gain mastery of the near east new kingdom 15491069 bc the new kingdom pharaohs established a period of unprecedented prosperity by securing their borders and strengthening diplomatic ties with their neighbours including the mitanni empire assyria and canaan military campaigns waged under tuthmosis i and his grandson tuthmosis iii extended the influence of the pharaohs to the largest empire egypt had ever seen beginning with merneptah the rulers of egypt adopted the title of pharaoh between their reigns hatshepsut a queen who established herself as pharaoh launched many building projects including the restoration of temples damaged by the hyksos and sent trading expeditions to punt and the sinai when tuthmosis iii died in 1425bc egypt had an empire extending from niya in north west syria to the fourth cataract of the nile in nubia cementing loyalties and opening access to critical imports such as bronze and wood the new kingdom pharaohs began a largescale building campaign to promote the god amun whose growing cult was based in karnak they also constructed monuments to glorify their own achievements both real and imagined the karnak temple is the largest egyptian temple ever built around 1350bc the stability of the new kingdom was threatened when amenhotep iv ascended the throne and instituted a series of radical and chaotic reforms changing his name to akhenaten he touted the previously obscure sun deity aten as the supreme deity suppressed the worship of most other deities and moved the capital to the new city of akhetaten modernday amarna he was devoted to his new religion and artistic style after his death the cult of the aten was quickly abandoned and the traditional religious order restored the subsequent pharaohs tutankhamun ay and horemheb worked to erase all mention of akhenatens heresy now known as the amarna period around 1279bc ramesses ii also known as ramesses the great ascended the throne and went on to build more temples erect more statues and obelisks and sire more children than any other pharaoh in history a bold military leader ramesses ii led his army against the hittites in the battle of kadesh in modern syria and after fighting to a stalemate finally agreed to the first recorded peace treaty around 1258bc egypts wealth however made it a tempting target for invasion particularly by the libyan berbers to the west and the sea peoples a conjectured confederation of seafarers from the aegean sea initially the military was able to repel these invasions but egypt eventually lost control of its remaining territories in southern canaan much of it falling to the assyrians the effects of external threats were exacerbated by internal problems such as corruption tomb robbery and civil unrest after regaining their power the high priests at the temple of amun in thebes accumulated vast tracts of land and wealth and their expanded power splintered the country during the third intermediate period third intermediate period 1069653 bc following the death of ramesses xi in 1078bc smendes assumed authority over the northern part of egypt ruling from the city of tanis the south was effectively controlled by the high priests of amun at thebes who recognized smendes in name only during this time libyans had been settling in the western delta and chieftains of these settlers began increasing their autonomy libyan princes took control of the delta under shoshenq i in 945bc founding the socalled libyan or bubastite dynasty that would rule for some 200 years shoshenq also gained control of southern egypt by placing his family members in important priestly positions libyan control began to erode as a rival dynasty in the delta arose in leontopolis and kushites threatened from the south around 727bc the kushite king piye invaded northward seizing control of thebes and eventually the delta which established the 25th dynasty during the 25th dynasty pharaoh taharqa created an empire nearly as large as the new kingdoms twentyfifth dynasty pharaohs built or restored temples and monuments throughout the nile valley including at memphis karnak kawa and jebel barkal during this period the nile valley saw the first widespread construction of pyramids many in modern sudan since the middle kingdom egypts farreaching prestige declined considerably toward the end of the third intermediate period its foreign allies had fallen under the assyrian sphere of influence and by 700bc war between the two states became inevitable between 671 and 667bc the assyrians began the assyrian conquest of egypt the reigns of both taharqa and his successor tanutamun were filled with constant conflict with the assyrians against whom egypt enjoyed several victories ultimately the assyrians pushed the kushites back into nubia occupied memphis and sacked the temples of thebes late period 653332 bc the assyrians left control of egypt to a series of vassals who became known as the saite kings of the twentysixth dynasty by 653bc the saite king psamtik i was able to oust the assyrians with the help of greek mercenaries who were recruited to form egypts first navy greek influence expanded greatly as the citystate of naucratis became the home of greeks in the nile delta the saite kings based in the new capital of sais witnessed a brief but spirited resurgence in the economy and culture but in 525bc the powerful persians led by cambyses ii began their conquest of egypt eventually capturing the pharaoh psamtik iii at the battle of pelusium cambyses ii then assumed the formal title of pharaoh but ruled egypt from iran leaving egypt under the control of a satrap a few successful revolts against the persians marked the 5th centurybc but egypt was never able to permanently overthrow the persians following its annexation by persia egypt was joined with cyprus and phoenicia in the sixth satrapy of the achaemenid persian empire this first period of persian rule over egypt also known as the twentyseventh dynasty ended in 402bc when egypt regained independence under a series of native dynasties the last of these dynasties the thirtieth proved to be the last native royal house of ancient egypt ending with the kingship of nectanebo ii a brief restoration of persian rule sometimes known as the thirtyfirst dynasty began in 343bc but shortly after in 332bc the persian ruler mazaces handed egypt over to alexander the great without a fight ptolemaic period 33230 bc in 332bc alexander the great conquered egypt with little resistance from the persians and was welcomed by the egyptians as a deliverer the administration established by alexanders successors the macedonian ptolemaic kingdom was based on an egyptian model and based in the new capital city of alexandria the city showcased the power and prestige of hellenistic rule and became a centre of learning and culture that included the famous library of alexandria as part of the mouseion the lighthouse of alexandria lit the way for the many ships that kept trade flowing through the cityas the ptolemies made commerce and revenuegenerating enterprises such as papyrus manufacturing their top priority hellenistic culture did not supplant native egyptian culture as the ptolemies supported timehonored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace they built new temples in egyptian style supported traditional cults and portrayed themselves as pharaohs some traditions merged as greek and egyptian gods were syncretized into composite deities such as serapis and classical greek forms of sculpture influenced traditional egyptian motifs despite their efforts to appease the egyptians the ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion bitter family rivalries and the powerful mob of alexandria that formed after the death of ptolemy iv in addition as rome relied more heavily on imports of grain from egypt the romans took great interest in the political situation in the country continued egyptian revolts ambitious politicians and powerful opponents from the near east made this situation unstable leading rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire roman period 30 bc ad 641 egypt became a province of the roman empire in 30bc following the defeat of mark antony and ptolemaic queen cleopatra vii by octavian later emperor augustus in the battle of actium the romans relied heavily on grain shipments from egypt and the roman army under the control of a prefect appointed by the emperor quelled rebellions strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes and prevented attacks by bandits which had become a notorious problem during the period alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient as exotic luxuries were in high demand in rome although the romans had a more hostile attitude than the greeks towards the egyptians some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued the art of mummy portraiture flourished and some roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs though not to the extent that the ptolemies had the former lived outside egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of egyptian kingship local administration became roman in style and closed to native egyptians from the midfirst century ad christianity took root in egypt and it was originally seen as another cult that could be accepted however it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from the pagan egyptian and grecoroman religions and threatened popular religious traditions this led to the persecution of converts to christianity culminating in the great purges of diocletian starting in 303 but eventually christianity won out in 391 the christian emperor theodosius introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples alexandria became the scene of great antipagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed as a consequence egypts native religious culture was continually in decline while the native population continued to speak their language the ability to read hieroglyphic writing slowly disappeared as the role of the egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished the temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches or abandoned to the desert in the fourth century as the roman empire divided egypt found itself in the eastern empire with its capital at constantinople in the waning years of the empire egypt fell to the sasanian persian army in the sasanian conquest of egypt 618628 it was then recaptured by the byzantine emperor heraclius 629639 and was finally captured by muslim rashidun army in 639641 ending byzantine rule government and economy administration and commerce the pharaoh was the absolute monarch of the country and at least in theory wielded complete control of the land and its resources the king was the supreme military commander and head of the government who relied on a bureaucracy of officials to manage his affairs in charge of the administration was his second in command the vizier who acted as the kings representative and coordinated land surveys the treasury building projects the legal system and the archives at a regional level the country was divided into as many as 42 administrative regions called nomes each governed by a nomarch who was accountable to the vizier for his jurisdiction the temples formed the backbone of the economy not only were they places of worship but were also responsible for collecting and storing the kingdoms wealth in a system of granaries and treasuries administered by overseers who redistributed grain and goods much of the economy was centrally organized and strictly controlled although the ancient egyptians did not use coinage until the late period they did use a type of moneybarter system with standard sacks of grain and the deben a weight of roughly of copper or silver forming a common denominator workers were paid in grain a simple laborer might earn sacks 200 kg or 400 lb of grain per month while a foreman might earn sacks 250 kg or 550 lb prices were fixed across the country and recorded in lists to facilitate trading for example a shirt cost five copper deben while a cow cost 140deben grain could be traded for other goods according to the fixed price list during the fifth centurybc coined money was introduced into egypt from abroad at first the coins were used as standardized pieces of precious metal rather than true money but in the following centuries international traders came to rely on coinage social status egyptian society was highly stratified and social status was expressly displayed farmers made up the bulk of the population but agricultural produce was owned directly by the state temple or noble family that owned the land farmers were also subject to a labor tax and were required to work on irrigation or construction projects in a corvée system artists and craftsmen were of higher status than farmers but they were also under state control working in the shops attached to the temples and paid directly from the state treasury scribes and officials formed the upper class in ancient egypt known as the white kilt class in reference to the bleached linen garments that served as a mark of their rank the upper class prominently displayed their social status in art and literature below the nobility were the priests physicians and engineers with specialized training in their field it is unclear whether slavery as understood today existed in ancient egypt there is difference of opinions among authors the ancient egyptians viewed men and women including people from all social classes as essentially equal under the law and even the lowliest peasant was entitled to petition the vizier and his court for redress although slaves were mostly used as indentured servants they were able to buy and sell their servitude work their way to freedom or nobility and were usually treated by doctors in the workplace both men and women had the right to own and sell property make contracts marry and divorce receive inheritance and pursue legal disputes in court married couples could own property jointly and protect themselves from divorce by agreeing to marriage contracts which stipulated the financial obligations of the husband to his wife and children should the marriage end compared with their counterparts in ancient greece rome and even more modern places around the world ancient egyptian women had a greater range of personal choices legal rights and opportunities for achievement women such as hatshepsut and cleopatra vii even became pharaohs while others wielded power as divine wives of amun despite these freedoms ancient egyptian women did not often take part in official roles in the administration aside from the royal high priestesses apparently served only secondary roles in the temples not much data for many dynasties and were not so likely to be as educated as men legal system the head of the legal system was officially the pharaoh who was responsible for enacting laws delivering justice and maintaining law and order a concept the ancient egyptians referred to as maat although no legal codes from ancient egypt survive court documents show that egyptian law was based on a commonsense view of right and wrong that emphasized reaching agreements and resolving conflicts rather than strictly adhering to a complicated set of statutes local councils of elders known as kenbet in the new kingdom were responsible for ruling in court cases involving small claims and minor disputes more serious cases involving murder major land transactions and tomb robbery were referred to the great kenbet over which the vizier or pharaoh presided plaintiffs and defendants were expected to represent themselves and were required to swear an oath that they had told the truth in some cases the state took on both the role of prosecutor and judge and it could torture the accused with beatings to obtain a confession and the names of any coconspirators whether the charges were trivial or serious court scribes documented the complaint testimony and verdict of the case for future reference punishment for minor crimes involved either imposition of fines beatings facial mutilation or exile depending on the severity of the offense serious crimes such as murder and tomb robbery were punished by execution carried out by decapitation drowning or impaling the criminal on a stake punishment could also be extended to the criminals family beginning in the new kingdom oracles played a major role in the legal system dispensing justice in both civil and criminal cases the procedure was to ask the god a yes or no question concerning the right or wrong of an issue the god carried by a number of priests rendered judgement by choosing one or the other moving forward or backward or pointing to one of the answers written on a piece of papyrus or an ostracon agriculture a combination of favorable geographical features contributed to the success of ancient egyptian culture the most important of which was the rich fertile soil resulting from annual inundations of the nile river the ancient egyptians were thus able to produce an abundance of food allowing the population to devote more time and resources to cultural technological and artistic pursuits land management was crucial in ancient egypt because taxes were assessed based on the amount of land a person owned farming in egypt was dependent on the cycle of the nile river the egyptians recognized three seasons akhet flooding peret planting and shemu harvesting the flooding season lasted from june to september depositing on the rivers banks a layer of mineralrich silt ideal for growing crops after the floodwaters had receded the growing season lasted from october to february farmers plowed and planted seeds in the fields which were irrigated with ditches and canals egypt received little rainfall so farmers relied on the nile to water their crops from march to may farmers used sickles to harvest their crops which were then threshed with a flail to separate the straw from the grain winnowing removed the chaff from the grain and the grain was then ground into flour brewed to make beer or stored for later use the ancient egyptians cultivated emmer and barley and several other cereal grains all of which were used to make the two main food staples of bread and beer flax plants uprooted before they started flowering were grown for the fibers of their stems these fibers were split along their length and spun into thread which was used to weave sheets of linen and to make clothing papyrus growing on the banks of the nile river was used to make paper vegetables and fruits were grown in garden plots close to habitations and on higher ground and had to be watered by hand vegetables included leeks garlic melons squashes pulses lettuce and other crops in addition to grapes that were made into wine animals the egyptians believed that a balanced relationship between people and animals was an essential element of the cosmic order thus humans animals and plants were believed to be members of a single whole animals both domesticated and wild were therefore a critical source of spirituality companionship and sustenance to the ancient egyptians cattle were the most important livestock the administration collected taxes on livestock in regular censuses and the size of a herd reflected the prestige and importance of the estate or temple that owned them in addition to cattle the ancient egyptians kept sheep goats and pigs poultry such as ducks geese and pigeons were captured in nets and bred on farms where they were forcefed with dough to fatten them the nile provided a plentiful source of fish bees were also domesticated from at least the old kingdom and provided both honey and wax the ancient egyptians used donkeys and oxen as beasts of burden and they were responsible for plowing the fields and trampling seed into the soil the slaughter of a fattened ox was also a central part of an offering ritual horses were introduced by the hyksos in the second intermediate period camels although known from the new kingdom were not used as beasts of burden until the late period there is also evidence to suggest that elephants were briefly used in the late period but largely abandoned due to lack of grazing land cats dogs and monkeys were common family pets while more exotic pets imported from the heart of africa such as subsaharan african lions were reserved for royalty herodotus observed that the egyptians were the only people to keep their animals with them in their houses during the late period the worship of the gods in their animal form was extremely popular such as the cat goddess bastet and the ibis god thoth and these animals were kept in large numbers for the purpose of ritual sacrifice natural resources egypt is rich in building and decorative stone copper and lead ores gold and semiprecious stones these natural resources allowed the ancient egyptians to build monuments sculpt statues make tools and fashion jewelry embalmers used salts from the wadi natrun for mummification which also provided the gypsum needed to make plaster orebearing rock formations were found in distant inhospitable wadis in the eastern desert and the sinai requiring large statecontrolled expeditions to obtain natural resources found there there were extensive gold mines in nubia and one of the first maps known is of a gold mine in this region the wadi hammamat was a notable source of granite greywacke and gold flint was the first mineral collected and used to make tools and flint handaxes are the earliest pieces of evidence of habitation in the nile valley nodules of the mineral were carefully flaked to make blades and arrowheads of moderate hardness and durability even after copper was adopted for this purpose ancient egyptians were among the first to use minerals such as sulfur as cosmetic substances the egyptians worked deposits of the lead ore galena at gebel rosas to make net sinkers plumb bobs and small figurines copper was the most important metal for toolmaking in ancient egypt and was smelted in furnaces from malachite ore mined in the sinai workers collected gold by washing the nuggets out of sediment in alluvial deposits or by the more laborintensive process of grinding and washing goldbearing quartzite iron deposits found in upper egypt were used in the late period highquality building stones were abundant in egypt the ancient egyptians quarried limestone all along the nile valley granite from aswan and basalt and sandstone from the wadis of the eastern desert deposits of decorative stones such as porphyry greywacke alabaster and carnelian dotted the eastern desert and were collected even before the first dynasty in the ptolemaic and roman periods miners worked deposits of emeralds in wadi sikait and amethyst in wadi elhudi trade the ancient egyptians engaged in trade with their foreign neighbors to obtain rare exotic goods not found in egypt in the predynastic period they established trade with nubia to obtain gold and incense they also established trade with palestine as evidenced by palestinianstyle oil jugs found in the burials of the first dynasty pharaohs an egyptian colony stationed in southern canaan dates to slightly before the first dynasty narmer had egyptian pottery produced in canaan and exported back to egypt by the second dynasty at latest ancient egyptian trade with byblos yielded a critical source of quality timber not found in egypt by the fifth dynasty trade with punt provided gold aromatic resins ebony ivory and wild animals such as monkeys and baboons egypt relied on trade with anatolia for essential quantities of tin as well as supplementary supplies of copper both metals being necessary for the manufacture of bronze the ancient egyptians prized the blue stone lapis lazuli which had to be imported from faraway afghanistan egypts mediterranean trade partners also included greece and crete which provided among other goods supplies of olive oil language historical development the egyptian language is a northern afroasiatic language closely related to the berber and semitic languages it has the longest known history of any language having been written from c 3200bc to the middle ages and remaining as a spoken language for longer the phases of ancient egyptian are old egyptian middle egyptian classical egyptian late egyptian demotic and coptic egyptian writings do not show dialect differences before coptic but it was probably spoken in regional dialects around memphis and later thebes ancient egyptian was a synthetic language but it became more analytic later on late egyptian developed prefixal definite and indefinite articles which replaced the older inflectional suffixes there was a change from the older verbsubjectobject word order to subjectverbobject the egyptian hieroglyphic hieratic and demotic scripts were eventually replaced by the more phonetic coptic alphabet coptic is still used in the liturgy of the egyptian orthodox church and traces of it are found in modern egyptian arabic sounds and grammar ancient egyptian has 25 consonants similar to those of other afroasiatic languages these include pharyngeal and emphatic consonants voiced and voiceless stops voiceless fricatives and voiced and voiceless affricates it has three long and three short vowels which expanded in late egyptian to about nine the basic word in egyptian similar to semitic and berber is a triliteral or biliteral root of consonants and semiconsonants suffixes are added to form words the verb conjugation corresponds to the person for example the triconsonantal skeleton is the semantic core of the word hear its basic conjugation is he hears if the subject is a noun suffixes are not added to the verb the woman hears adjectives are derived from nouns through a process that egyptologists call nisbation because of its similarity with arabic the word order is in verbal and adjectival sentences and in nominal and adverbial sentences the subject can be moved to the beginning of sentences if it is long and is followed by a resumptive pronoun verbs and nouns are negated by the particle n but nn is used for adverbial and adjectival sentences stress falls on the ultimate or penultimate syllable which can be open cv or closed cvc writing hieroglyphic writing dates from c 3000bc and is composed of hundreds of symbols a hieroglyph can represent a word a sound or a silent determinative and the same symbol can serve different purposes in different contexts hieroglyphs were a formal script used on stone monuments and in tombs that could be as detailed as individual works of art in daytoday writing scribes used a cursive form of writing called hieratic which was quicker and easier while formal hieroglyphs may be read in rows or columns in either direction though typically written from right to left hieratic was always written from right to left usually in horizontal rows a new form of writing demotic became the prevalent writing style and it is this form of writingalong with formal hieroglyphsthat accompany the greek text on the rosetta stone around the first century ad the coptic alphabet started to be used alongside the demotic script coptic is a modified greek alphabet with the addition of some demotic signs although formal hieroglyphs were used in a ceremonial role until the fourth century towards the end only a small handful of priests could still read them as the traditional religious establishments were disbanded knowledge of hieroglyphic writing was mostly lost attempts to decipher them date to the byzantine and islamic periods in egypt but only in the 1820s after the discovery of the rosetta stone and years of research by thomas young and jeanfrançois champollion were hieroglyphs substantially deciphered literature writing first appeared in association with kingship on labels and tags for items found in royal tombs it was primarily an occupation of the scribes who worked out of the per ankh institution or the house of life the latter comprised offices libraries called house of books laboratories and observatories some of the bestknown pieces of ancient egyptian literature such as the pyramid and coffin texts were written in classical egyptian which continued to be the language of writing until about 1300bc late egyptian was spoken from the new kingdom onward and is represented in ramesside administrative documents love poetry and tales as well as in demotic and coptic texts during this period the tradition of writing had evolved into the tomb autobiography such as those of harkhuf and weni the genre known as sebayt instructions was developed to communicate teachings and guidance from famous nobles the ipuwer papyrus a poem of lamentations describing natural disasters and social upheaval is a famous example the story of sinuhe written in middle egyptian might be the classic of egyptian literature also written at this time was the westcar papyrus a set of stories told to khufu by his sons relating the marvels performed by priests the instruction of amenemope is considered a masterpiece of near eastern literature towards the end of the new kingdom the vernacular language was more often employed to write popular pieces like the story of wenamun and the instruction of any the former tells the story of a noble who is robbed on his way to buy cedar from lebanon and of his struggle to return to egypt from about 700bc narrative stories and instructions such as the popular instructions of onchsheshonqy as well as personal and business documents were written in the demotic script and phase of egyptian many stories written in demotic during the grecoroman period were set in previous historical eras when egypt was an independent nation ruled by great pharaohs such as ramesses ii culture daily life most ancient egyptians were farmers tied to the land their dwellings were restricted to immediate family members and were constructed of mudbrick designed to remain cool in the heat of the day each home had a kitchen with an open roof which contained a grindstone for milling grain and a small oven for baking the bread ceramics served as household wares for the storage preparation transport and consumption of food drink and raw materials walls were painted white and could be covered with dyed linen wall hangings floors were covered with reed mats while wooden stools beds raised from the floor and individual tables comprised the furniture the ancient egyptians placed a great value on hygiene and appearance most bathed in the nile and used a pasty soap made from animal fat and chalk men shaved their entire bodies for cleanliness perfumes and aromatic ointments covered bad odors and soothed skin clothing was made from simple linen sheets that were bleached white and both men and women of the upper classes wore wigs jewelry and cosmetics children went without clothing until maturity at about age 12 and at this age males were circumcised and had their heads shaved mothers were responsible for taking care of the children while the father provided the familys income music and dance were popular entertainments for those who could afford them early instruments included flutes and harps while instruments similar to trumpets oboes and pipes developed later and became popular in the new kingdom the egyptians played on bells cymbals tambourines drums and imported lutes and lyres from asia the sistrum was a rattlelike musical instrument that was especially important in religious ceremonies the ancient egyptians enjoyed a variety of leisure activities including games and music senet a board game where pieces moved according to random chance was particularly popular from the earliest times another similar game was mehen which had a circular gaming board hounds and jackals also known as 58 holes is another example of board games played in ancient egypt the first complete set of this game was discovered from a theban tomb of the egyptian pharaoh amenemhat iv that dates to the 13th dynasty juggling and ball games were popular with children and wrestling is also documented in a tomb at beni hasan the wealthy members of ancient egyptian society enjoyed hunting fishing and boating as well the excavation of the workers village of deir elmedina has resulted in one of the most thoroughly documented accounts of community life in the ancient world which spans almost four hundred years there is no comparable site in which the organization social interactions and working and living conditions of a community have been studied in such detail cuisine egyptian cuisine remained remarkably stable over time indeed the cuisine of modern egypt retains some striking similarities to the cuisine of the ancients the staple diet consisted of bread and beer supplemented with vegetables such as onions and garlic and fruit such as dates and figs wine and meat were enjoyed by all on feast days while the upper classes indulged on a more regular basis fish meat and fowl could be salted or dried and could be cooked in stews or roasted on a grill architecture the architecture of ancient egypt includes some of the most famous structures in the world the great pyramids of giza and the temples at thebes building projects were organized and funded by the state for religious and commemorative purposes but also to reinforce the wideranging power of the pharaoh the ancient egyptians were skilled builders using only simple but effective tools and sighting instruments architects could build large stone structures with great accuracy and precision that is still envied today the domestic dwellings of elite and ordinary egyptians alike were constructed from perishable materials such as mudbricks and wood and have not survived peasants lived in simple homes while the palaces of the elite and the pharaoh were more elaborate structures a few surviving new kingdom palaces such as those in malkata and amarna show richly decorated walls and floors with scenes of people birds water pools deities and geometric designs important structures such as temples and tombs that were intended to last forever were constructed of stone instead of mudbricks the architectural elements used in the worlds first largescale stone building djosers mortuary complex include post and lintel supports in the papyrus and lotus motif the earliest preserved ancient egyptian temples such as those at giza consist of single enclosed halls with roof slabs supported by columns in the new kingdom architects added the pylon the open courtyard and the enclosed hypostyle hall to the front of the temples sanctuary a style that was standard until the grecoroman period the earliest and most popular tomb architecture in the old kingdom was the mastaba a flatroofed rectangular structure of mudbrick or stone built over an underground burial chamber the step pyramid of djoser is a series of stone mastabas stacked on top of each other pyramids were built during the old and middle kingdoms but most later rulers abandoned them in favor of less conspicuous rockcut tombs the use of the pyramid form continued in private tomb chapels of the new kingdom and in the royal pyramids of nubia art the ancient egyptians produced art to serve functional purposes for over 3500 years artists adhered to artistic forms and iconography that were developed during the old kingdom following a strict set of principles that resisted foreign influence and internal change these artistic standardssimple lines shapes and flat areas of color combined with the characteristic flat projection of figures with no indication of spatial depthcreated a sense of order and balance within a composition images and text were intimately interwoven on tomb and temple walls coffins stelae and even statues the narmer palette for example displays figures that can also be read as hieroglyphs because of the rigid rules that governed its highly stylized and symbolic appearance ancient egyptian art served its political and religious purposes with precision and clarity ancient egyptian artisans used stone as a medium for carving statues and fine reliefs but used wood as a cheap and easily carved substitute paints were obtained from minerals such as iron ores red and yellow ochres copper ores blue and green soot or charcoal black and limestone white paints could be mixed with gum arabic as a binder and pressed into cakes which could be moistened with water when needed pharaohs used reliefs to record victories in battle royal decrees and religious scenes common citizens had access to pieces of funerary art such as shabti statues and books of the dead which they believed would protect them in the afterlife during the middle kingdom wooden or clay models depicting scenes from everyday life became popular additions to the tomb in an attempt to duplicate the activities of the living in the afterlife these models show laborers houses boats and even military formations that are scale representations of the ideal ancient egyptian afterlife despite the homogeneity of ancient egyptian art the styles of particular times and places sometimes reflected changing cultural or political attitudes after the invasion of the hyksos in the second intermediate period minoanstyle frescoes were found in avaris the most striking example of a politically driven change in artistic forms comes from the amarna period where figures were radically altered to conform to akhenatens revolutionary religious ideas this style known as amarna art was quickly abandoned after akhenatens death and replaced by the traditional forms religious beliefs beliefs in the divine and in the afterlife were ingrained in ancient egyptian civilization from its inception pharaonic rule was based on the divine right of kings the egyptian pantheon was populated by gods who had supernatural powers and were called on for help or protection however the gods were not always viewed as benevolent and egyptians believed they had to be appeased with offerings and prayers the structure of this pantheon changed continually as new deities were promoted in the hierarchy but priests made no effort to organize the diverse and sometimes conflicting myths and stories into a coherent system these various conceptions of divinity were not considered contradictory but rather layers in the multiple facets of reality gods were worshiped in cult temples administered by priests acting on the kings behalf at the center of the temple was the cult statue in a shrine temples were not places of public worship or congregation and only on select feast days and celebrations was a shrine carrying the statue of the god brought out for public worship normally the gods domain was sealed off from the outside world and was only accessible to temple officials common citizens could worship private statues in their homes and amulets offered protection against the forces of chaos after the new kingdom the pharaohs role as a spiritual intermediary was deemphasized as religious customs shifted to direct worship of the gods as a result priests developed a system of oracles to communicate the will of the gods directly to the people the egyptians believed that every human being was composed of physical and spiritual parts or aspects in addition to the body each person had a šwt shadow a ba personality or soul a ka lifeforce and a name the heart rather than the brain was considered the seat of thoughts and emotions after death the spiritual aspects were released from the body and could move at will but they required the physical remains or a substitute such as a statue as a permanent home the ultimate goal of the deceased was to rejoin his ka and ba and become one of the blessed dead living on as an akh or effective one for this to happen the deceased had to be judged worthy in a trial in which the heart was weighed against a feather of truth if deemed worthy the deceased could continue their existence on earth in spiritual form if they were not deemed worthy their heart was eaten by ammit the devourer and they were erased from the universe burial customs the ancient egyptians maintained an elaborate set of burial customs that they believed were necessary to ensure immortality after death these customs involved preserving the body by mummification performing burial ceremonies and interring with the body goods the deceased would use in the afterlife before the old kingdom bodies buried in desert pits were naturally preserved by desiccation the arid desert conditions were a boon throughout the history of ancient egypt for burials of the poor who could not afford the elaborate burial preparations available to the elite wealthier egyptians began to bury their dead in stone tombs and use artificial mummification which involved removing the internal organs wrapping the body in linen and burying it in a rectangular stone sarcophagus or wooden coffin beginning in the fourth dynasty some parts were preserved separately in canopic jars by the new kingdom the ancient egyptians had perfected the art of mummification the best technique took 70 days and involved removing the internal organs removing the brain through the nose and desiccating the body in a mixture of salts called natron the body was then wrapped in linen with protective amulets inserted between layers and placed in a decorated anthropoid coffin mummies of the late period were also placed in painted cartonnage mummy cases actual preservation practices declined during the ptolemaic and roman eras while greater emphasis was placed on the outer appearance of the mummy which was decorated wealthy egyptians were buried with larger quantities of luxury items but all burials regardless of social status included goods for the deceased funerary texts were often included in the grave and beginning in the new kingdom so were shabti statues that were believed to perform manual labor for them in the afterlife rituals in which the deceased was magically reanimated accompanied burials after burial living relatives were expected to occasionally bring food to the tomb and recite prayers on behalf of the deceased military the ancient egyptian military was responsible for defending egypt against foreign invasion and for maintaining egypts domination in the ancient near east the military protected mining expeditions to the sinai during the old kingdom and fought civil wars during the first and second intermediate periods the military was responsible for maintaining fortifications along important trade routes such as those found at the city of buhen on the way to nubia forts also were constructed to serve as military bases such as the fortress at sile which was a base of operations for expeditions to the levant in the new kingdom a series of pharaohs used the standing egyptian army to attack and conquer kush and parts of the levant typical military equipment included bows and arrows spears and roundtopped shields made by stretching animal skin over a wooden frame in the new kingdom the military began using chariots that had earlier been introduced by the hyksos invaders weapons and armor continued to improve after the adoption of bronze shields were now made from solid wood with a bronze buckle spears were tipped with a bronze point and the khopesh was adopted from asiatic soldiers the pharaoh was usually depicted in art and literature riding at the head of the army it has been suggested that at least a few pharaohs such as seqenenre tao ii and his sons did do so however it has also been argued that kings of this period did not personally act as frontline war leaders fighting alongside their troops soldiers were recruited from the general population but during and especially after the new kingdom mercenaries from nubia kush and libya were hired to fight for egypt technology medicine and mathematics technology in technology medicine and mathematics ancient egypt achieved a relatively high standard of productivity and sophistication traditional empiricism as evidenced by the edwin smith and ebers papyri is first credited to egypt the egyptians created their own alphabet and decimal system faience and glass even before the old kingdom the ancient egyptians had developed a glassy material known as faience which they treated as a type of artificial semiprecious stone faience is a nonclay ceramic made of silica small amounts of lime and soda and a colorant typically copper the material was used to make beads tiles figurines and small wares several methods can be used to create faience but typically production involved application of the powdered materials in the form of a paste over a clay core which was then fired by a related technique the ancient egyptians produced a pigment known as egyptian blue also called blue frit which is produced by fusing or sintering silica copper lime and an alkali such as natron the product can be ground up and used as a pigment the ancient egyptians could fabricate a wide variety of objects from glass with great skill but it is not clear whether they developed the process independently it is also unclear whether they made their own raw glass or merely imported premade ingots which they melted and finished however they did have technical expertise in making objects as well as adding trace elements to control the color of the finished glass a range of colors could be produced including yellow red green blue purple and white and the glass could be made either transparent or opaque medicine the medical problems of the ancient egyptians stemmed directly from their environment living and working close to the nile brought hazards from malaria and debilitating schistosomiasis parasites which caused liver and intestinal damage dangerous wildlife such as crocodiles and hippos were also a common threat the lifelong labors of farming and building put stress on the spine and joints and traumatic injuries from construction and warfare all took a significant toll on the body the grit and sand from stoneground flour abraded teeth leaving them susceptible to abscesses though caries were rare the diets of the wealthy were rich in sugars which promoted periodontal disease despite the flattering physiques portrayed on tomb walls the overweight mummies of many of the upper class show the effects of a life of overindulgence adult life expectancy was about 35 for men and 30 for women but reaching adulthood was difficult as about onethird of the population died in infancy ancient egyptian physicians were renowned in the ancient near east for their healing skills and some such as imhotep remained famous long after their deaths herodotus remarked that there was a high degree of specialization among egyptian physicians with some treating only the head or the stomach while others were eyedoctors and dentists training of physicians took place at the per ankh or house of life institution most notably those headquartered in perbastet during the new kingdom and at abydos and saïs in the late period medical papyri show empirical knowledge of anatomy injuries and practical treatments wounds were treated by bandaging with raw meat white linen sutures nets pads and swabs soaked with honey to prevent infection while opium thyme and belladona were used to relieve pain the earliest records of burn treatment describe burn dressings that use the milk from mothers of male babies prayers were made to the goddess isis moldy bread honey and copper salts were also used to prevent infection from dirt in burns garlic and onions were used regularly to promote good health and were thought to relieve asthma symptoms ancient egyptian surgeons stitched wounds set broken bones and amputated diseased limbs but they recognized that some injuries were so serious that they could only make the patient comfortable until death occurred maritime technology early egyptians knew how to assemble planks of wood into a ship hull and had mastered advanced forms of shipbuilding as early as 3000bc the archaeological institute of america reports that the oldest planked ships known are the abydos boats a group of 14 discovered ships in abydos were constructed of wooden planks sewn together discovered by egyptologist david oconnor of new york university woven straps were found to have been used to lash the planks together and reeds or grass stuffed between the planks helped to seal the seams because the ships are all buried together and near a mortuary belonging to pharaoh khasekhemwy originally they were all thought to have belonged to him but one of the 14 ships dates to 3000bc and the associated pottery jars buried with the vessels also suggest earlier dating the ship dating to 3000bc was long and is now thought to perhaps have belonged to an earlier pharaoh perhaps one as early as horaha early egyptians also knew how to assemble planks of wood with treenails to fasten them together using pitch for caulking the seams the khufu ship a vessel sealed into a pit in the giza pyramid complex at the foot of the great pyramid of giza in the fourth dynasty around 2500bc is a fullsize surviving example that may have filled the symbolic function of a solar barque early egyptians also knew how to fasten the planks of this ship together with mortise and tenon joints large seagoing ships are known to have been heavily used by the egyptians in their trade with the city states of the eastern mediterranean especially byblos on the coast of modernday lebanon and in several expeditions down the red sea to the land of punt in fact one of the earliest egyptian words for a seagoing ship is a byblos ship which originally defined a class of egyptian seagoing ships used on the byblos run however by the end of the old kingdom the term had come to include large seagoing ships whatever their destination in 1977 an ancient northsouth canal was discovered extending from lake timsah to the ballah lakes it was dated to the middle kingdom of egypt by extrapolating dates of ancient sites constructed along its course in 2011 archaeologists from italy the united states and egypt excavating a driedup lagoon known as mersa gawasis have unearthed traces of an ancient harbor that once launched early voyages like hatshepsuts punt expedition onto the open ocean some of the sites most evocative evidence for the ancient egyptians seafaring prowess include large ship timbers and hundreds of feet of ropes made from papyrus coiled in huge bundles in 2013 a team of francoegyptian archaeologists discovered what is believed to be the worlds oldest port dating back about 4500 years from the time of king cheops on the red sea coast near wadi eljarf about 110 miles south of suez mathematics the earliest attested examples of mathematical calculations date to the predynastic naqada period and show a fully developed numeral system the importance of mathematics to an educated egyptian is suggested by a new kingdom fictional letter in which the writer proposes a scholarly competition between himself and another scribe regarding everyday calculation tasks such as accounting of land labor and grain texts such as the rhind mathematical papyrus and the moscow mathematical papyrus show that the ancient egyptians could perform the four basic mathematical operationsaddition subtraction multiplication and divisionuse fractions calculate the areas of rectangles triangles and circles and compute the volumes of boxes columns and pyramids they understood basic concepts of algebra and geometry and could solve simple sets of simultaneous equations mathematical notation was decimal and based on hieroglyphic signs for each power of ten up to one million each of these could be written as many times as necessary to add up to the desired number so to write the number eighty or eight hundred the symbol for ten or one hundred was written eight times respectively because their methods of calculation could not handle most fractions with a numerator greater than one they had to write fractions as the sum of several fractions for example they resolved the fraction twofifths into the sum of onethird onefifteenth standard tables of values facilitated this some common fractions however were written with a special glyphthe equivalent of the modern twothirds is shown on the right ancient egyptian mathematicians knew the pythagorean theorem as an empirical formula they were aware for example that a triangle had a right angle opposite the hypotenuse when its sides were in a 345 ratio they were able to estimate the area of a circle by subtracting oneninth from its diameter and squaring the result area d2 r2 316r2 a reasonable approximation of the formula the golden ratio seems to be reflected in many egyptian constructions including the pyramids but its use may have been an unintended consequence of the ancient egyptian practice of combining the use of knotted ropes with an intuitive sense of proportion and harmony population estimates of the size of the population range from 115 million in the 3rd millennium bc to possibly 23 million by the 1st millennium bc before growing significantly towards the end of that millennium dna according to historian william stiebling and archaeologist susan n helft conflicting dna analysis on recent genetic samples such as the amarna royal mummies has led to a lack of consensus on the genetic makeup of the ancient egyptians and their geographic origins in 2012 two mummies of two 20th dynasty individuals ramesses iii and unknown man e believed to be ramesses iiis son pentawer were analyzed by albert zink yehia z gad and a team of researchers under zahi hawass genetic kinship analyses revealed identical haplotypes in both mummies using the whit atheys haplogroup predictor the y chromosomal haplogroup e1b1a was predicted a 2017 study by schuenemann et al analysed the maternal dna mtdna of 90 mummies from abusir elmeleq additionally three of the mummies were also analyzed for ydna two were assigned to west asian j and one to haplogroup e1b1b1 both are carried by modern egyptians and are common in north africa and the middle east the samples are from the time periods late new kingdom ptolemaic and roman and the study used 135 modern egyptian samples 100 from modern egyptians and 35 from elhayez western desert oasis the researchers cautioned that the affinities of the examined ancient egyptian specimens may not be representative of those of all ancient egyptians since they were from a single archaeological site the authors of this study state that the abusir elmeleq mummies closely resembled near eastern populations the genetics of the mummies remained remarkably consistent within this range even as different powersincluding nubians greeks and romansconquered the empire a wide range of mtdna haplogroups were found including clades of j u h hv m r0 r2 k t l i n x w modern egyptians shared this mtdna haplogroup profile the authors of the study noted that the mummies at abusir elmeleq had 615 maternal subsaharan component while the 135 modern egyptian samples had a little more maternal subsaharan component 1421 suggesting some degree of influx after the end of the empire genetic continuity between ancient and modern egyptians cannot be ruled out despite this more recent subsaharan african influx while continuity with modern ethiopians is not supported gourdine anselin and keita criticised the methodology of the scheunemann et al study and argued that the subsaharan genetic affinities may be attributed to early settlers and the relevant subsaharan genetic markers do not correspond with the geography of known trade routes in 2022 danielle candelora noted several limitations with the 2017 scheunemann et al study such as its untested sampling methods small sample size and problematic comparative data which she argued had been misused to legitimize racist conceptions of ancient egypt with scientific evidence in 2023 christopher ehret criticised the conclusions of the 2017 study which proposed the ancient egyptians had a levantine background based on insufficient sampling and a biased interpretation of the genetic data ehret argued this was reminiscent of earlier scholarship and also conflicted with existing archaeological linguistic and biological anthropological evidence which determined the founding locales of ancient egypt to be the descendants of longtime populations in northeastern africa such as nubia and the northern horn of africa ehret also criticised the study for asserting that there was no subsaharan component in the egyptian population because the 2017 study only sampled from a single site at abusir elmeleq scheunemann et al2022 carried out a followup study by collecting samples from six different excavation sites along the entire length of the nile valley spanning 4000 years of egyptian history 81 samples were collected from 17 mummies and 14 skeletal remains and 18 high quality mitochondrial genomes were reconstructed from 10 individuals the authors argued that the analyzed mitochondrial genomes supported the results from the earlier study at abusir elmeleq in 2018 the 4000yearold mummified head of djehutynakht a governor in the middle kingdom of the 11th or 12th dynasty was analyzed for mitochondrial dna the sequence of the mummy most closely resembles a u5a lineage from sample jk2903 a much more recent 2000yearold skeleton from the abusir elmeleq site in egypt although no direct matches to the djehutynakht sequence have been reported haplogroup u5 is found in modern egyptians and is found in modern egyptian berbers from the siwa oasis in egypt a 2009 study by coudray et al recorded haplogroup u5 at 167 in the siwa oasis in egypt whereas haplogroup u6 is more common in other berber populations to the west of egypt in 2018 the mummified remains of two highstatus egyptian relatives nakhtankh and khnumnakht were analyzed dna by a team of researchers from the university of manchester the ychromosome sequences were not complete but the ychromosome snps indicated that they had different fathers suggesting that they were halfbrothers the snp identities were consistent with mtdna haplogroup m1a1 with 88059127 degree of confidence thus confirming the african origins of the two individuals according to the study authors based on their maternal lineage a 2020 dna study by gad hawass et al analysed mitochondrial and ychromosomal haplogroups from tutankhamuns family members of the 18th dynasty using comprehensive control procedures to ensure quality results they found that the ychromosome haplogroup of the family was r1b which is believed to have originated in the western asianear eastern region and dispersed from there to europe and parts of africa during the neolithic haplogroup r1b is carried by modern egyptians modern egypt is also the only african country that is known to harbor all three r1 subtypes including r1bm269 the mitochondrial haplogroup was k which is most likely also part of a near eastern lineage the profiles for tutankhamun and amenhotep iii were incomplete and the analysis produced differing probability figures despite having concordant allele results because the relationships of these two mummies with the kv55 mummy had previously been confirmed in an earlier study the haplogroup prediction of both mummies could be derived from the full profile of the kv55 data genetic analysis indicated the following haplogroups tutankhamun ydna r1b mtdna k akhenaten ydna r1b mtdna k amenhotep iii ydna r1b mtdna h2b yuya g2a mtdna k tiye mtdna k thuya mtdna k both ydna haplogroups r1b and g2a as well as both mtdna haplogroups h and k are carried by modern egyptians in a comment on hawas et al 20102012 keita pointed out based on inserting the data into the popaffiliator online calculator which only calculates affinity to east asia eurasia and subsaharan africa but not to north africa or the near east for instance that the majority of the samples have an affinity with subsaharan africans in one affinity analysis which does not mean that they lacked other affiliationsan important point that typological thinking obscures also different data and algorithms might give different results which would illustrate the complexity of biological heritage and its interpretation legacy the culture and monuments of ancient egypt have left a lasting legacy on the world egyptian civilization significantly influenced the kingdom of kush and meroë with both adopting egyptian religious and architectural norms hundreds of pyramids 630 meters high were built in egyptsudan as well as using egyptian writing as the basis of the meroitic script meroitic is the oldest written language in africa other than egyptian and was used from the 2nd century bc until the early 5th century ad the cult of the goddess isis for example became popular in the roman empire as obelisks and other relics were transported back to rome the romans also imported building materials from egypt to erect egyptianstyle structures early historians such as herodotus strabo and diodorus siculus studied and wrote about the land which romans came to view as a place of mystery during the middle ages and the renaissance egyptian pagan culture was in decline after the rise of christianity and later islam but interest in egyptian antiquity continued in the writings of medieval scholars such as dhulnun almisri and almaqrizi in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries european travelers and tourists brought back antiquities and wrote stories of their journeys leading to a wave of egyptomania across europe as evident in symbolism like the eye of providence and the great seal of the united states this renewed interest sent collectors to egypt who took purchased or were given many important antiquities napoleon arranged the first studies in egyptology when he brought some 150 scientists and artists to study and document egypts natural history which was published in the description de légypte in the 20th century the egyptian government and archaeologists alike recognized the importance of cultural respect and integrity in excavations since the 2010s the ministry of tourism and antiquities has overseen excavations and the recovery of artifacts see also egyptology glossary of ancient egypt artifacts index of ancient egyptrelated articles outline of ancient egypt list of ancient egyptians list of ancient egyptian inventions and discoveries archaeology of ancient egypt archeological map of egypt british school of diffusionism notes citation references further reading external links bbc history egyptiansprovides a reliable general overview and further links ancient egyptian science a source book door marshall clagett 1989 ancient egyptian metallurgy a site that shows the history of egyptian metalworking napoleon on the nile soldiers artists and the rediscovery of egypt art history digital egypt for universities scholarly treatment with broad coverage and cross references internal and external artifacts used extensively to illustrate topics priests of ancient egypt indepthinformation about ancient egypts priests religious services and temples much picture material and bibliography in english and german ucla encyclopedia of egyptology ancient egypt and the role of women by dr joann fletcher fulllength account of ancient egypt as part of history of the world ancient egypt bronze age civilizations cradle of civilization egypt former empires in asia ancient peoples history of egypt by period history of the mediterranean	12,531
875	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog%20Brothers	Analog Brothers	analog brothers were an experimental hip hop band featuring tracy icet marrow ice oscillator on keyboards drums and vocals keith kool keith thornton keith korg on bass strings and vocals marc live marc moog on drums violins and vocals christopher black silver rodgers silver synth on synthesizer lazar bell and vocals and rex colonel pimpin rex doby jr rex roland jx3p on keyboards vocals and production its album pimp to eat featured guest appearances by various members of rhyme syndicate odd oberheim jacky jasper who appears as jacky jasper on the song we sleep days and hbomb on war dj cisco from sm synthasize sisters and teflon while the group only recorded one album together as the analog brothers a few bootlegs of its live concert performances including freestyles with original lyrics have occasionally surfaced online after pimp to eat the analog brothers continued performing together in various line ups kool keith and marc live joined with jacky jasper to release two albums as khm marc live rapped with icets group smg marc also formed a group with black silver called live black but while five of their tracks were released on a demo cd sold at concerts live blacks first album has yet to be released in 2008 icet and black silver toured together as black ice and released an album together called urban legends in 2013 black silver and newest member to analog brothers kiew kurzweil kiew nikon of kinetic collaborated on the joint album called slang banging return to analog with production by junkadelic music in addition to all this the analog brothers continue to make frequent appearances on each others solo albums discography 2000 2005 ad single ground control recordsnu gruv 2000 pimp to eat lp ground control recordsmello music group 2014 slang banging return to analog junkadelic music references external links kool keiths site ultrakeith analog brothers at discogs icet american hip hop groups	319
876	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor%20neuron%20diseases	Motor neuron diseases	motor neuron diseases or motor neurone diseases mnds are a group of rare neurodegenerative disorders that selectively affect motor neurons the cells which control voluntary muscles of the body they include amyotrophic lateral sclerosis als progressive bulbar palsy pbp pseudobulbar palsy progressive muscular atrophy pma primary lateral sclerosis pls spinal muscular atrophy sma and monomelic amyotrophy mma as well as some rarer variants resembling als motor neuron diseases affect both children and adults while each motor neuron disease affects patients differently they all cause movementrelated symptoms mainly muscle weakness most of these diseases seem to occur randomly without known causes but some forms are inherited studies into these inherited forms have led to discoveries of various genes eg sod1 that are thought to be important in understanding how the disease occurs symptoms of motor neuron diseases can be first seen at birth or can come on slowly later in life most of these diseases worsen over time while some such as als shorten ones life expectancy others do not currently there are no approved treatments for the majority of motor neuron disorders and care is mostly symptomatic signs and symptoms signs and symptoms depend on the specific disease but motor neuron diseases typically manifest as a group of movementrelated symptoms they come on slowly and worsen over the course of more than three months various patterns of muscle weakness are seen and muscle cramps and spasms may occur one can have difficulty breathing with climbing stairs exertion difficulty breathing when lying down orthopnea or even respiratory failure if breathing muscles become involved bulbar symptoms including difficulty speaking dysarthria difficulty swallowing dysphagia and excessive saliva production sialorrhea can also occur sensation or the ability to feel is typically not affected emotional disturbance eg pseudobulbar affect and cognitive and behavioural changes eg problems in word fluency decisionmaking and memory are also seen there can be lower motor neuron findings eg muscle wasting muscle twitching upper motor neuron findings eg brisk reflexes babinski reflex hoffmans reflex increased muscle tone or both motor neuron diseases are seen both in children and adults those that affect children tend to be inherited or familial and their symptoms are either present at birth or appear before learning to walk those that affect adults tend to appear after age 40 the clinical course depends on the specific disease but most progress or worsen over the course of months some are fatal eg als while others are not eg pls patterns of weakness various patterns of muscle weakness occur in different motor neuron diseases weakness can be symmetric or asymmetric and it can occur in body parts that are distal proximal or both according to statland et al there are three main weakness patterns that are seen in motor neuron diseases which are asymmetric distal weakness without sensory loss eg als pls pma mma symmetric weakness without sensory loss eg pma pls symmetric focal midline proximal weakness neck trunk bulbar involvement eg als pbp pls lower and upper motor neuron findings motor neuron diseases are on a spectrum in terms of upper and lower motor neuron involvement some have just lower or upper motor neuron findings while others have a mix of both lower motor neuron lmn findings include muscle atrophy and fasciculations and upper motor neuron umn findings include hyperreflexia spasticity muscle spasm and abnormal reflexes pure upper motor neuron diseases or those with just umn findings include pls pure lower motor neuron diseases or those with just lmn findings include pma motor neuron diseases with both umn and lmn findings include both familial and sporadic als causes most cases are sporadic and their causes are usually not known it is thought that environmental toxic viral or genetic factors may be involved dna damage tar dnabinding protein 43 tdp43 is a critical component of the nonhomologous end joining nhej enzymatic pathway that repairs dna doublestrand breaks in pluripotent stem cellderived motor neurons tdp43 is rapidly recruited to doublestrand breaks where it acts as a scaffold for the recruitment of the xrcc4dna ligase protein complex that then acts to repair doublestrand breaks about 95 of als patients have abnormalities in the nucleuscytoplasmic localization in spinal motor neurons of tdp43 in tdp43 depleted human neural stem cellderived motor neurons as well as in sporadic als patients spinal cord specimens there is significant doublestrand break accumulation and reduced levels of nhej associated risk factors in adults men are more commonly affected than women diagnosis differential diagnosis can be challenging due to the number of overlapping symptoms shared between several motor neuron diseases frequently the diagnosis is based on clinical findings ie lmn vs umn signs and symptoms patterns of weakness family history of mnd and a variation of tests many of which are used to rule out disease mimics which can manifest with identical symptoms classification motor neuron disease describes a collection of clinical disorders characterized by progressive muscle weakness and the degeneration of the motor neuron on electrophysiological testing the term motor neuron disease has varying meanings in different countries similarly the literature inconsistently classifies which degenerative motor neuron disorders can be included under the umbrella term motor neuron disease the four main types of mnd are marked in the table below all types of mnd can be differentiated by two defining characteristics is the disease sporadic or inherited is there involvement of the upper motor neurons umn the lower motor neurons lmn or both sporadic or acquired mnds occur in patients with no family history of degenerative motor neuron disease inherited or genetic mnds adhere to one of the following inheritance patterns autosomal dominant autosomal recessive or xlinked some disorders like als can occur sporadically 85 or can have a genetic cause 15 with the same clinical symptoms and progression of disease umns are motor neurons that project from the cortex down to the brainstem or spinal cord lmns originate in the anterior horns of the spinal cord and synapse on peripheral muscles both motor neurons are necessary for the strong contraction of a muscle but damage to an umn can be distinguished from damage to a lmn by physical exam tests cerebrospinal fluid csf tests analysis of the fluid from around the brain and spinal cord could reveal signs of an infection or inflammation magnetic resonance imaging mri an mri of the brain and spinal cord is recommended in patients with umn signs and symptoms to explore other causes such as a tumor inflammation or lack of blood supply stroke electromyogram emg nerve conduction study ncs the emg which evaluates muscle function and ncs which evaluates nerve function are performed together in patients with lmn signs for patients with mnd affecting the lmns the emg will show evidence of 1 acute denervation which is ongoing as motor neurons degenerate and 2 chronic denervation and reinnervation of the muscle as the remaining motor neurons attempt to fill in for lost motor neurons by contrast the ncs in these patients is usually normal it can show a low compound muscle action potential cmap which results from the loss of motor neurons but the sensory neurons should remain unaffected tissue biopsy taking a small sample of a muscle or nerve may be necessary if the emgncs is not specific enough to rule out other causes of progressive muscle weakness but it is rarely used treatment there are no known curative treatments for the majority of motor neuron disorders please refer to the articles on individual disorders for more details prognosis the table below lists life expectancy for patients who are diagnosed with mnd terminology in the united states and canada the term motor neuron disease usually refers to the group of disorders while amyotrophic lateral sclerosis is frequently called lou gehrigs disease in the united kingdom and australia the term motor neurone disease is used for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis although is not uncommon to refer to the entire group while mnd refers to a specific subset of similar diseases there are numerous other diseases of motor neurons that are referred to collectively as motor neuron disorders for instance the diseases belonging to the spinal muscular atrophies group however they are not classified as motor neuron diseases by the 11th edition of the international statistical classification of diseases and related health problems icd11 which is the definition followed in this article see also spinal muscular atrophies hereditary motor and sensory neuropathies references external links motor neuron diseases rare diseases systemic atrophies primarily affecting the central nervous system	1,415
877	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abjad	Abjad	an abjad also abgad is a writing system in which only consonants are represented leaving vowel sounds to be inferred by the reader this contrasts with alphabets which provide graphemes for both consonants and vowels the term was introduced in 1990 by peter t daniels other terms for the same concept include partial phonemic script segmentally linear defective phonographic script consonantary consonant writing and consonantal alphabet impure abjads represent vowels with either optional diacritics a limited number of distinct vowel glyphs or both etymology the name abjad is based on the arabic alphabets first in its original order four letterscorresponding to a b j and dto replace the more common terms consonantary and consonantal alphabet in describing the family of scripts classified as west semitic similar to other semitic languages such as phoenician hebrew and semitic protoalphabets specifically aleph bet gimel dalet terminology according to the formulations of peter t daniels abjads differ from alphabets in that only consonants not vowels are represented among the basic graphemes abjads differ from abugidas another category defined by daniels in that in abjads the vowel sound is implied by phonology and where vowel marks exist for the system such as nikkud for hebrew and ḥarakāt for arabic their use is optional and not the dominant or literate form abugidas mark all vowels other than the inherent vowel with a diacritic a minor attachment to the letter a standalone glyph or in canadian aboriginal syllabics by rotation of the letter some abugidas use a special symbol to suppress the inherent vowel so that the consonant alone can be properly represented in a syllabary a grapheme denotes a complete syllable that is either a lone vowel sound or a combination of a vowel sound with one or more consonant sounds the contrast of abjad versus alphabet has been rejected by other scholars because abjad is also used as a term for the arabic numeral system also it may be taken as suggesting that consonantal alphabets in contrast to eg the greek alphabet were not yet true alphabets florian coulmas a critic of daniels and of the abjad terminology argues that this terminology can confuse alphabets with transcription systems and that there is no reason to relegate the hebrew aramaic or phoenician alphabets to secondclass status as an incomplete alphabet however danielss terminology has found acceptance in the linguistic community origins the first abjad to gain widespread usage was the phoenician abjad unlike other contemporary scripts such as cuneiform and egyptian hieroglyphs the phoenician script consisted of only a few dozen symbols this made the script easy to learn and seafaring phoenician merchants took the script throughout the thenknown world the phoenician abjad was a radical simplification of phonetic writing since hieroglyphics required the writer to pick a hieroglyph starting with the same sound that the writer wanted to write in order to write phonetically much as manyōgana kanji used solely for phonetic use was used to represent japanese phonetically before the invention of kana phoenician gave rise to a number of new writing systems including the widely used aramaic abjad and the greek alphabet the greek alphabet evolved into the modern western alphabets such as latin and cyrillic while aramaic became the ancestor of many modern abjads and abugidas of asia impure abjads impure abjads have characters for some vowels optional vowel diacritics or both the term pure abjad refers to scripts entirely lacking in vowel indicators however most modern abjads such as arabic hebrew aramaic and pahlavi are impure abjadsthat is they also contain symbols for some of the vowel phonemes although the said nondiacritic vowel letters are also used to write certain consonants particularly approximants that sound similar to long vowels a pure abjad is exemplified perhaps by very early forms of ancient phoenician though at some point at least by the 9th century bc it and most of the contemporary semitic abjads had begun to overload a few of the consonant symbols with a secondary function as vowel markers called matres lectionis this practice was at first rare and limited in scope but became increasingly common and more developed in later times addition of vowels in the 9th century bc the greeks adapted the phoenician script for use in their own language the phonetic structure of the greek language created too many ambiguities when vowels went unrepresented so the script was modified they did not need letters for the guttural sounds represented by aleph he heth or ayin so these symbols were assigned vocalic values the letters waw and yod were also adapted into vowel signs along with he these were already used as matres lectionis in phoenician the major innovation of greek was to dedicate these symbols exclusively and unambiguously to vowel sounds that could be combined arbitrarily with consonants as opposed to syllabaries such as linear b which usually have vowel symbols but cannot combine them with consonants to form arbitrary syllables abugidas developed along a slightly different route the basic consonantal symbol was considered to have an inherent a vowel sound hooks or short lines attached to various parts of the basic letter modify the vowel in this way the south arabian abjad evolved into the geez abugida of ethiopia between the 5th century bc and the 5th century ad similarly the brāhmī abugida of the indian subcontinent developed around the 3rd century bc from the aramaic abjad it has been hypothesized the other major family of abugidas canadian aboriginal syllabics was initially developed in the 1840s by missionary and linguist james evans for the cree and ojibwe languages evans used features of devanagari script and pitman shorthand to create his initial abugida later in the 19th century other missionaries adapted evanss system to other canadian aboriginal languages canadian syllabics differ from other abugidas in that the vowel is indicated by rotation of the consonantal symbol with each vowel having a consistent orientation abjads and the structure of semitic languages the abjad form of writing is welladapted to the morphological structure of the semitic languages it was developed to write this is because words in semitic languages are formed from a root consisting of usually three consonants the vowels being used to indicate inflectional or derived forms for instance according to classical arabic and modern standard arabic from the arabic root dhbḥ to slaughter can be derived the forms he slaughtered you masculine singular slaughtered he slaughters and slaughterhouse in most cases the absence of full glyphs for vowels makes the common root clearer allowing readers to guess the meaning of unfamiliar words from familiar roots especially in conjunction with context clues and improving word recognition while reading for practiced readers by contrast the arabic and hebrew scripts sometimes perform the role of true alphabets rather than abjads when used to write certain indoeuropean languages including kurdish bosnian yiddish and some romance languages such as mozarabic aragonese portuguese spanish and ladino comparative chart of abjads extinct and extant see also abjad numerals arabic alphanumeric code abugida gematria hebrew english system of alphanumeric code numerology shorthand constructed writing systems that are structurally abjads references sources external links the science of arabic letters abjad and geometry by jorge lupin is dead arabic orthography	1,202
878	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abugida	Abugida	an abugida from geez sometimes known as alphasyllabary neosyllabary or pseudoalphabet is a segmental writing system in which consonantvowel sequences are written as units each unit is based on a consonant letter and vowel notation is secondary like a diacritical mark this contrasts with a full alphabet in which vowels have status equal to consonants and with an abjad in which vowel marking is absent partial or optional in less formal contexts all three types of script may be termed alphabets the terms also contrast them with a syllabary in which a single symbol denotes the combination of one consonant and one vowel related concepts were introduced independently in 1948 by james germain février using the term and david diringer using the term semisyllabary then in 1959 by fred householder introducing the term pseudoalphabet the ethiopic term abugida was chosen as a designation for the concept in 1990 by peter t daniels in 1992 faber suggested segmentally coded syllabically linear phonographic script and in 1992 bright used the term alphasyllabary and gnanadesikan and rimzhim katz fowler have suggested aksara or āksharik abugidas include the extensive brahmic family of scripts of tibet south and southeast asia semitic ethiopic scripts and canadian aboriginal syllabics as is the case for syllabaries the units of the writing system may consist of the representations both of syllables and of consonants for scripts of the brahmic family the term akshara is used for the units etymology in several languages of ethiopia and eritrea abugida traditionally meant letters of the ethiopic or geez script in which many of these languages are written geez is one of several segmental writing systems in the world others include indicbrahmic scripts and canadian aboriginal syllabics the word abugida is derived from the four letters ä bu gi and da in much the same way that abecedary is derived from latin letters a be ce de abjad is derived from the arabic a b j d and alphabet is derived from the names of the two first letters in the greek alphabet alpha and beta abugida as a term in linguistics was proposed by peter t daniels in his 1990 typology of writing systems terminology as daniels used the word an abugida is in contrast with a syllabary where letters with shared consonant or vowel sounds show no particular resemblance to one another furthermore an abugida is also in contrast with an alphabet proper where independent letters are used to denote both consonants and vowels the term alphasyllabary was suggested for the indic scripts in 1997 by william bright following south asian linguistic usage to convey the idea that they share features of both alphabet and syllabary the formal definitions given by daniels and bright for abugida and alphasyllabary differ some writing systems are abugidas but not alphasyllabaries and some are alphasyllabaries but not abugidas an abugida is defined as a type of writing system whose basic characters denote consonants followed by a particular vowel and in which diacritics denote other vowels this particular vowel is referred to as the inherent or implicit vowel as opposed to the explicit vowels marked by the diacritics an alphasyllabary is defined as a type of writing system in which the vowels are denoted by subsidiary symbols not all of which occur in a linear order with relation to the consonant symbols that is congruent with their temporal order in speech bright did not require that an alphabet explicitly represent all vowels ʼphagspa is an example of an abugida because it has an inherent vowel but it is not an alphasyllabary because its vowels are written in linear order modern lao is an example of an alphasyllabary that is not an abugida for there is no inherent vowel and its vowels are always written explicitly and not in accordance to their temporal order in speech meaning that a vowel can be written before below or above a consonant letter while the syllable is still pronounced in the order of a consonantvowel combination cv general description the fundamental principles of an abugida apply to words made up of consonantvowel cv syllables the syllables are written as letters in a straight line where each syllable is either a letter that represents the sound of a consonant and its inherent vowel or a letter modified to indicate the vowel letters can be modified either by means of diacritics or by changes in the form of the letter itself if all modifications are by diacritics and all diacritics follow the direction of the writing of the letters then the abugida is not an alphasyllabary however most languages have words that are more complicated than a sequence of cv syllables even ignoring tone the first complication is syllables that consist of just a vowel v for some languages a zero consonant letter is used as though every syllable began with a consonant for other languages each vowel has a separate letter that is used for each syllable consisting of just the vowel these letters are known as independent vowels and are found in most indic scripts these letters may be quite different from the corresponding diacritics which by contrast are known as dependent vowels as a result of the spread of writing systems independent vowels may be used to represent syllables beginning with a glottal stop even for noninitial syllables the next two complications are consonant clusters before a vowel ccv and syllables ending in a consonant cvc the simplest solution which is not always available is to break with the principle of writing words as a sequence of syllables and use a letter representing just a consonant c this final consonant may be represented with a modification of the final letter that explicitly indicates the lack of a vowel virama a lack of vowel marking on the letter often with ambiguity between no vowel and a default inherent vowel vowel marking on the letter for a short or neutral vowel such as schwa with ambiguity between no vowel and that short or neutral vowel or a visually unrelated letter in a true abugida the lack of distinctive vowel marking of the letter may result from the diachronic loss of the inherent vowel eg by syncope and apocope in hindi when not separating syllables containing consonant clusters ccv into c cv these syllables are often written by combining the two consonants in the indic scripts the earliest method was simply to arrange them vertically writing the second consonant of the cluster below the first one the two consonants may also merge as conjunct consonant letters where two or more letters are graphically joined in a ligature or otherwise change their shapes rarely one of the consonants may be replaced by a gemination mark eg the gurmukhi addak when they are arranged vertically as in burmese or khmer they are said to be stacked often there has been a change to writing the two consonants side by side in the latter case this combination may be indicated by a diacritic on one of the consonants or a change in the form of one of the consonants eg the half forms of devanagari generally the reading order of stacked consonants is top to bottom or the general reading order of the script but sometimes the reading order can be reversed the division of a word into syllables for the purposes of writing does not always accord with the natural phonetics of the language for example brahmic scripts commonly handle a phonetic sequence cvccv as cvccv or cvccv however sometimes phonetic cvc syllables are handled as single units and the final consonant may be represented in much the same way as the second consonant in ccv eg in the tibetan khmer and tai tham scripts the positioning of the components may be slightly different as in khmer and tai tham by a special dependent consonant sign which may be a smaller or differently placed version of the full consonant letter or may be a distinct sign altogether not at all for example repeated consonants need not be represented homorganic nasals may be ignored and in baybayin and makasar script the syllablefinal consonant was traditionally never represented more complicated unit structures eg cc or ccvc are handled by combining the various techniques above examples using the devanagari script k ka ki ki k k with a halant under the character km kma i̇k ika i̇k ik i̇ki iki etc familyspecific features there are three principal families of abugidas depending on whether vowels are indicated by modifying consonants by diacritics distortion or orientation the oldest and largest is the brahmic family of india and southeast asia in which vowels are marked with diacritics and syllablefinal consonants when they occur are indicated with ligatures diacritics or with a special vowelcanceling mark in the ethiopic family vowels are marked by modifying the shapes of the consonants and one of the vowelforms serves additionally to indicate final consonants in canadian aboriginal syllabics vowels are marked by rotating or flipping the consonants and final consonants are indicated with either special diacritics or superscript forms of the main initial consonants lao and tāna have dependent vowels and a zero vowel sign but no inherent vowel indic brahmic indic scripts originated in india and spread to southeast asia bangladesh sri lanka nepal bhutan tibet mongolia and russia all surviving indic scripts are descendants of the brahmi alphabet today they are used in most languages of south asia although replaced by persoarabic in urdu kashmiri and some other languages of pakistan and india mainland southeast asia myanmar thailand laos cambodia and vietnam tibet tibetan indonesian archipelago javanese balinese sundanese batak lontara rejang rencong makasar etc philippines baybayin buhid hanunuo kulitan and aborlan tagbanwa malaysia rencong the primary division is with north indic scripts used in northern india nepal tibet bhutan mongolia and russia and southern indic scripts used in south india sri lanka and southeast asia south indic letter forms are more rounded than north indic forms though odia golmol and litumol of nepal script are rounded most north indic scripts full letters incorporate a horizontal line at the top with gujarati and odia as exceptions south indic scripts do not indic scripts indicate vowels through dependent vowel signs diacritics around the consonants often including a sign that explicitly indicates the lack of a vowel if a consonant has no vowel sign this indicates a default vowel vowel diacritics may appear above below to the left to the right or around the consonant the most widely used indic script is devanagari shared by hindi bihari marathi konkani nepali and often sanskrit a basic letter such as क in hindi represents a syllable with the default vowel in this case ka in some languages including hindi it becomes a final closing consonant at the end of a word in this case k the inherent vowel may be changed by adding vowel mark diacritics producing syllables such as क ki क ku क ke क ko in many of the brahmic scripts a syllable beginning with a cluster is treated as a single character for purposes of vowel marking so a vowel marker like i falling before the character it modifies may appear several positions before the place where it is pronounced for example the game cricket in hindi is करकट the diacritic for appears before the consonant cluster not before the a more unusual example is seen in the batak alphabet here the syllable bim is written bamaivirama that is the vowel diacritic and virama are both written after the consonants for the whole syllable in many abugidas there is also a diacritic to suppress the inherent vowel yielding the bare consonant in devanagari क is k and ल is l this is called the virāma or halantam in sanskrit it may be used to form consonant clusters or to indicate that a consonant occurs at the end of a word thus in sanskrit a default vowel consonant such as क does not take on a final consonant sound instead it keeps its vowel for writing two consonants without a vowel in between instead of using diacritics on the first consonant to remove its vowel another popular method of special conjunct forms is used in which two or more consonant characters are merged to express a cluster such as devanagari कल kla some fonts display this as क followed by ल rather than forming a conjunct this expedient is used by iscii and south asian scripts of unicode thus a closed syllable such as kal requires two aksharas to write the róng script used for the lepcha language goes further than other indic abugidas in that a single akshara can represent a closed syllable not only the vowel but any final consonant is indicated by a diacritic for example the syllable sok would be written as something like s here with an underring representing and an overcross representing the diacritic for final most other indic abugidas can only indicate a very limited set of final consonants with diacritics such as or if they can indicate any at all ethiopic in ethiopic or geez script fidels individual letters of the script have diacritics that are fused with the consonants to the point that they must be considered modifications of the form of the letters children learn each modification separately as in a syllabary nonetheless the graphic similarities between syllables with the same consonant are readily apparent unlike the case in a true syllabary though now an abugida the geez script until the advent of christianity ca ad 350 had originally been what would now be termed an abjad in the geez abugida or fidel the base form of the letter also known as fidel may be altered for example ሀ hä base form ሁ hu with a rightside diacritic that does not alter the letter ሂ hi with a subdiacritic that compresses the consonant so it is the same height ህ hə or where the letter is modified with a kink in the left arm canadian aboriginal syllabics in the family known as canadian aboriginal syllabics which was inspired by the devanagari script of india vowels are indicated by changing the orientation of the syllabogram each vowel has a consistent orientation for example inuktitut ᐱ pi ᐳ pu ᐸ pa ᑎ ti ᑐ tu ᑕ ta although there is a vowel inherent in each all rotations have equal status and none can be identified as basic bare consonants are indicated either by separate diacritics or by superscript versions of the aksharas there is no vowelkiller mark borderline cases vowelled abjads consonantal scripts abjads are normally written without indication of many vowels however in some contexts like teaching materials or scriptures arabic and hebrew are written with full indication of vowels via diacritic marks harakat niqqud making them effectively alphasyllabaries the arabic scripts used for kurdish in iraq and for uyghur in xinjiang china as well as the hebrew script of yiddish are fully vowelled but because the vowels are written with full letters rather than diacritics with the exception of distinguishing between a and o in the latter and there are no inherent vowels these are considered alphabets not abugidas the arabic script used for south azerbaijani generally writes the vowel æ written as ə in north azerbaijani as a diacritic but writes all other vowels as full letters similarly to kurdish and uyghur this means that when no vowel diacritics are present most of the time it technically has an inherent vowel however like the phagspa and meroitic scripts whose status as abugidas is controversial see below all other vowels are written inline additionally the practice of explicitly writing allbutone vowel does not apply to loanwords from arabic and persian so the script does not have an inherent vowel for arabic and persian words the inconsistency of its vowel notation makes it difficult to categorize phagspa the imperial mongol script called phagspa was derived from the tibetan abugida but all vowels are written inline rather than as diacritics however it retains the features of having an inherent vowel a and having distinct initial vowel letters pahawh pahawh hmong is a nonsegmental script that indicates syllable onsets and rimes such as consonant clusters and vowels with final consonants thus it is not segmental and cannot be considered an abugida however it superficially resembles an abugida with the roles of consonant and vowel reversed most syllables are written with two letters in the order rimeonset typically vowelconsonant even though they are pronounced as onsetrime consonantvowel rather like the position of the vowel in devanagari which is written before the consonant pahawh is also unusual in that while an inherent rime with mid tone is unwritten it also has an inherent onset for the syllable which requires one or the other of the inherent sounds to be overt it is that is written thus it is the rime vowel that is basic to the system meroitic it is difficult to draw a dividing line between abugidas and other segmental scripts for example the meroitic script of ancient sudan did not indicate an inherent a one symbol stood for both m and ma for example and is thus similar to brahmic family of abugidas however the other vowels were indicated with full letters not diacritics or modification so the system was essentially an alphabet that did not bother to write the most common vowel shorthand several systems of shorthand use diacritics for vowels but they do not have an inherent vowel and are thus more similar to thaana and kurdish script than to the brahmic scripts the gabelsberger shorthand system and its derivatives modify the following consonant to represent vowels the pollard script which was based on shorthand also uses diacritics for vowels the placements of the vowel relative to the consonant indicates tone pitman shorthand uses straight strokes and quartercircle marks in different orientations as the principal alphabet of consonants vowels are shown as light and heavy dots dashes and other marks in one of 3 possible positions to indicate the various vowelsounds however to increase writing speed pitman has rules for vowel indication using the positioning or choice of consonant signs so that writing vowelmarks can be dispensed with development as the term alphasyllabary suggests abugidas have been considered an intermediate step between alphabets and syllabaries historically abugidas appear to have evolved from abjads vowelless alphabets they contrast with syllabaries where there is a distinct symbol for each syllable or consonantvowel combination and where these have no systematic similarity to each other and typically develop directly from logographic scripts compare the examples above to sets of syllables in the japanese hiragana syllabary か ka き ki く ku け ke こ ko have nothing in common to indicate k while ら ra り ri る ru れ re ろ ro have neither anything in common for r nor anything to indicate that they have the same vowels as the k set most indian and indochinese abugidas appear to have first been developed from abjads with the kharoṣṭhī and brāhmī scripts the abjad in question is usually considered to be the aramaic one but while the link between aramaic and kharosthi is more or less undisputed this is not the case with brahmi the kharosthi family does not survive today but brahmis descendants include most of the modern scripts of south and southeast asia geez derived from a different abjad the sabean script of yemen the advent of vowels coincided with the introduction or adoption of christianity about ad 350 the ethiopic script is the elaboration of an abjad the cree syllabary was invented with full knowledge of the devanagari system the meroitic script was developed from egyptian hieroglyphs within which various schemes of group writing had been used for showing vowels list of abugidas brahmic family descended from brāhmī ahom assamese balinese bataktoba and other batak languages baybayinilocano pangasinan tagalog bikol languages visayan languages and possibly other philippine languages bengalibengali bhaiksuki brahmisanskrit prakrit buhid burmeseburmese karen languages mon and shan chakma cham devanagarihindi sanskrit marathi nepali konkani and other languages of northern india dhives akuru granthasanskrit gujaratigujarāti kachchi gurmukhi scriptpunjabi hanunóo javanese kagangalampung rencong rejang kaithibhojpuri and other languages of northern and eastern india kannadakannada tulu konkani kodava kawi khmer khojki khotanese khudawadi kolezhuthutamil malayalam kulitan lao leke lepcha limbu lontarabuginese makassar and mandar mahajani malayalammalayalam malayanmamalayalam marchenzhangzhung meetei mayek modimarathi multanisaraiki nandinagarisanskrit newarnepal bhasa sanskrit new tai lue odia pallava scripttamil sanskrit various prakrits phagspamongolian chinese and other languages of the yuan dynasty mongol empire ranjananepal bhasa sanskrit sharadasanskrit siddhamsanskrit sinhala sourashtra soyombo sundanese sylheti nagrisylheti language tagbanwapalawan languages tai dam tai le tai thamkhün and northern thai takri tamil telugu thai tibetan tigalarisanskrit tulu tirhutamaithili tocharian vatteluttutamil malayalam zanabazar square zhang zhung scripts kharoṣṭhī from the 3rd century bc meroitic geez from the 4th century ad canadian aboriginal syllabics creeojibwe syllabics blackfoot syllabics carrier syllabics inuktitut syllabics pollard script pitman shorthand fictional tengwar ihathvé sabethired abugidalike scripts meroitic an alphabet with an inherent vowel meroitic old nubian possibly thaana abugida with no inherent vowel references external links syllabic alphabets omniglots list of abugidas including examples of various writing systems alphabets list of abugidas and other scripts in spanish	3,544
880	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABBA	ABBA	abba formerly named björn benny agnetha annifrid or björn benny agnetha frida are a swedish pop supergroup formed in stockholm in 1972 by agnetha fältskog björn ulvaeus benny andersson and annifrid lyngstad the groups name is an acronym of the first letters of their first names arranged as a palindrome they are one of the most popular and successful musical groups of all time and are one of the bestselling music acts in the history of popular music topping the charts worldwide from 1974 to 1982 and in 2022 in abba were s first winner of the eurovision song contest with the song waterloo which in 2005 was chosen as the best song in the competitions history as part of the 50th anniversary celebration of the contest during the bands main active years it consisted of two married couples fältskog and ulvaeus and lyngstad and andersson with the increase of their popularity their personal lives suffered which eventually resulted in the collapse of both marriages the relationship changes were reflected in the groups music with later compositions featuring darker and more introspective lyrics after abba disbanded in december 1982 andersson and ulvaeus continued their success writing music for multiple audiences including stage musicals and movies while fältskog and lyngstad pursued solo careers ten years after the group broke up a compilation abba gold was released becoming a worldwide bestseller in 1999 abbas music was adapted into mamma mia a stage musical that toured worldwide and as of april 2022 is still in the topten longest running productions on both broadway closed in 2015 and the west end still running a film of the same name released in 2008 became the highestgrossing film in the united kingdom that year a sequel mamma mia here we go again was released in 2018 in 2016 the group reunited and started working on a digital avatar concert tour newly recorded songs were announced in 2018 voyage their first new album in 40 years was released on 5 november 2021 to positive critical reviews and strong sales in numerous countries abba voyage a concert residency featuring abba as virtual avatars opened in may 2022 in london abba are among the bestselling music artists in history with record sales estimated to be between 150 million to 385 million sold worldwide and the group were ranked 3rd bestselling singles artists in the united kingdom with a total of 113 million singles sold by 3 november 2012 in may 2023 abba were awarded the brit billion award which celebrates those who have surpassed the milestone of one billion uk streams in their career abba were the first group from a nonenglishspeaking country to achieve consistent success in the charts of englishspeaking countries including the united kingdom australia united states republic of ireland canada new zealand and south africa they are the bestselling swedish band of all time and the bestselling band originating in continental europe abba had eight consecutive numberone albums in the uk the group also enjoyed significant success in latin america and recorded a collection of their hit songs in spanish abba were inducted into the vocal group hall of fame in 2002 the group were inducted into the rock and roll hall of fame in 2010 the first recording artists to receive this honour from outside an anglophonic country in 2015 their song dancing queen was inducted into the recording academys grammy hall of fame history 19581970 before abba member origins and collaboration benny andersson born 16 december 1946 in stockholm sweden became at age 18 a member of a popular swedish poprock group the hep stars that performed among other things covers of international hits the hep stars were known as the swedish beatles they also set up hep house their equivalent of apple corps andersson played the keyboard and eventually started writing original songs for his band many of which became major hits including no response which hit number three in 1965 and sunny girl wedding and consolation all of which hit number one in 1966 andersson also had a fruitful songwriting collaboration with lasse berghagen with whom he wrote his first svensktoppen entry sagan om lilla sofie the tale of little sophie in 1968 björn ulvaeus born 25 april 1945 in gothenburg sweden also began his musical career at the age of 18 as a singer and guitarist when he fronted the hootenanny singers a popular swedish folkskiffle group ulvaeus started writing englishlanguage songs for his group and even had a brief solo career alongside the hootenanny singers and the hep stars sometimes crossed paths while touring in june 1966 ulvaeus and andersson decided to write a song together their first attempt was isnt it easy to say a song that was later recorded by the hep stars stig anderson was the manager of the hootenanny singers and founder of the polar music label he saw potential in the collaboration and encouraged them to write more the two also began playing occasionally with the others bands on stage and on record although it was not until 1969 that the pair wrote and produced some of their first real hits together ljuva sextital sweet sixties recorded by brita borg and the hep stars 1969 hit speleman fiddler andersson wrote and submitted the song hej clown for melodifestivalen 1969 the national festival to select the swedish entry to the eurovision song contest the song tied for first place but revoting relegated anderssons song to second place on that occasion andersson briefly met his future spouse singer annifrid lyngstad who also participated in the contest a month later the two had become a couple as their respective bands began to break up during 1969 andersson and ulvaeus teamed up and recorded their first album together in 1970 called lycka happiness which included original songs sung by both men their partners were often present in the recording studio and sometimes added backing vocals fältskog even cowrote a song with the two ulvaeus still occasionally recorded and performed with the hootenanny singers until the middle of 1974 and andersson took part in producing their records annifrid frida lyngstad born 15 november 1945 in bjørkåsen in ballangen norway sang from the age of 13 with various dance bands and worked mainly in a jazzoriented cabaret style she also formed her own band the annifrid four in the middle of 1967 she won a national talent competition with en ledig dag a day off a swedish version of the bossa nova song a day in portofino which is included in the emi compilation frida 19671972 the first prize was a recording contract with emi sweden and to perform live on the most popular tv shows in the country this tv performance among many others is included in the hour documentary frida the dvd lyngstad released several schlager style singles on emi with mixed success when benny andersson started to produce her recordings in 1971 she had her first numberone single min egen stad my own town written by benny and featuring all the future abba members on backing vocals lyngstad toured and performed regularly in the folkpark circuit and made appearances on radio and tv she had a second numberone single with man vill ju leva lite dessemellan in late 1972 she had met ulvaeus briefly in 1963 during a talent contest and fältskog during a tv show in early 1968 lyngstad linked up with her future bandmates in 1969 on 1 march 1969 she participated in the melodifestival where she met andersson for the first time a few weeks later they met again during a concert tour in southern sweden and they soon became a couple andersson produced her single peter pan in september 1969her first collaboration with benny björn as they had written the song andersson would then produce lyngstads debut studio album frida which was released in march 1971 lyngstad also played in several revues and cabaret shows in stockholm between 1969 and 1973 after abba formed she recorded another successful album in 1975 frida ensam which included the original swedish rendition of fernando a hit on the swedish radio charts before the english version was released by abba agnetha fältskog born 5 april 1950 in jönköping sweden sang with a local dance band headed by bernt enghardt who sent a demo recording of the band to karlgerhard lundkvist the demo tape featured a song written and sung by agnetha jag var så kär i was so in love lundkvist was so impressed with her voice that he was convinced she would be a star after going through considerable effort to locate the singer he arranged for agnetha to come to stockholm and to record two of her own songs this led to agnetha at the age of 18 having a numberone record in sweden with a selfcomposed song which later went on to sell over 80000 copies she was soon noticed by the critics and songwriters as a talented singersongwriter of schlager style songs fältskogs main inspiration in her early years was singers such as connie francis along with her own compositions she recorded covers of foreign hits and performed them on tours in swedish folkparks most of her biggest hits were selfcomposed which was quite unusual for a female singer in the 1960s agnetha released four solo lps between 1968 and 1971 she had many successful singles in the swedish charts during filming of a swedish tv special in may 1969 fältskog met ulvaeus and they married on 6 july 1971 fältskog and ulvaeus eventually were involved in each others recording sessions and soon even andersson and lyngstad added backing vocals to fältskogs third studio album som jag är as i am 1970 in 1972 fältskog starred as mary magdalene in the original swedish production of jesus christ superstar and attracted favourable reviews between 1967 and 1975 fältskog released five studio albums first live performance and the start of festfolket an attempt at combining their talents occurred in april 1970 when the two couples went on holiday together to the island of cyprus what started as singing for fun on the beach ended up as an improvised live performance in front of the united nations soldiers stationed on the island andersson and ulvaeus were at this time recording their first album together lycka which was to be released in september 1970 fältskog and lyngstad added backing vocals on several tracks during june and the idea of their working together saw them launch a stage act festfolket which translates from swedish to party people and in pronunciation also engaged couples on 1 november 1970 in gothenburg the cabaret show attracted generally negative reviews except for the performance of the andersson and ulvaeus hit hej gamle man hello old manthe first björn and benny recording to feature all four they also performed solo numbers from respective albums but the lukewarm reception convinced the foursome to shelve plans for working together for the time being and each soon concentrated on individual projects again first record together hej gamle man hej gamle man a song about an old salvation army soldier became the quartets first hit the record was credited to björn benny and reached number five on the sales charts and number one on svensktoppen staying on the latter chart which was not a chart linked to sales or airplay for 15 weeks it was during 1971 that the four artists began working together more adding vocals to the others recordings fältskog andersson and ulvaeus toured together in may while lyngstad toured on her own frequent recording sessions brought the foursome closer together during the summer 19701973 forming the group after the 1970 release of lycka two more singles credited to björn benny were released in sweden det kan ingen doktor hjälpa no doctor can help with that and tänk om jorden vore ung imagine if earth was young with more prominent vocals by fältskog and lyngstadand moderate chart success fältskog and ulvaeus now married started performing together with andersson on a regular basis at the swedish folkparks in the middle of 1971 stig anderson founder and owner of polar music was determined to break into the mainstream international market with music by andersson and ulvaeus one day the pair of you will write a song that becomes a worldwide hit he predicted stig anderson encouraged ulvaeus and andersson to write a song for melodifestivalen and after two rejected entries in 1971 andersson and ulvaeus submitted their new song säg det med en sång say it with a song for the 1972 contest choosing newcomer lena anderson to perform the song came in third place encouraging stig anderson and became a hit in sweden the first signs of foreign success came as a surprise as the andersson and ulvaeus single shes my kind of girl was released through epic records in japan in march 1972 giving the duo a top 10 hit two more singles were released in japan en carousel en karusell in scandinavia an earlier version of merrygoround and love has its ways a song they wrote with kōichi morita first hit as björn benny agnetha and annifrid ulvaeus and andersson persevered with their songwriting and experimented with new sounds and vocal arrangements people need love was released in june 1972 featuring guest vocals by the women who were now given much greater prominence stig anderson released it as a single credited to björn benny agnetha annifrid the song peaked at number 17 in the swedish combined single and album charts enough to convince them they were on to something people need love also became the first record to chart for the quartet in the united states where it peaked at number 114 on the cashbox singles chart and number 117 on the record world singles chart labelled as björn benny with svenska flicka meaning swedish girl it was released there through playboy records according to stig anderson people need love could have been a much bigger american hit but a small label like playboy records did not have the distribution resources to meet the demand for the single from retailers and radio programmers ring ring in 1973 the band and their manager stig anderson decided to have another try at melodifestivalen this time with the song ring ring the studio sessions were handled by michael b tretow who experimented with a wall of sound production technique that became a distinctive new sound thereafter associated with abba stig anderson arranged an english translation of the lyrics by neil sedaka and phil cody and they thought this would be a success however on 10 february 1973 the song came third in melodifestivalen thus it never reached the eurovision song contest itself nevertheless the group released their debut studio album also called ring ring the album did well and the ring ring single was a hit in many parts of europe and also in south africa however stig anderson felt that the true breakthrough could only come with a uk or us hit when agnetha fältskog gave birth to her daughter linda in 1973 she was replaced for a short period by inger brundin on a trip to west germany official naming in 1973 stig anderson tired of unwieldy names started to refer to the group privately and publicly as abba a palindrome at first this was a play on words as abba is also the name of a wellknown fishcanning company in sweden and itself an abbreviation however since the fishcanners were unknown outside sweden anderson came to believe the name would work in international markets a competition to find a suitable name for the group was held in a gothenburg newspaper and it was officially announced in the summer that the group were to be known as abba the group negotiated with the canners for the rights to the name fred bronson reported for billboard that fältskog told him in a 1988 interview that abba had to ask permission and the factory said ok as long as you dont make us feel ashamed for what youre doing abba is an acronym formed from the first letters of each group members first name agnetha björn benny annifrid although there has never been any official confirmation of who each letter in the sequence refers to the earliest known example of abba written on paper is on a recording session sheet from the metronome studio in stockholm dated 16 october 1973 this was first written as björn benny agnetha frida but was subsequently crossed out with abba written in large letters on top official logo their official logo distinct with the backward b was designed by rune söderqvist who designed most of abbas record sleeves the ambigram first appeared on the french compilation album golden double album released in may 1976 by disques vogue and would henceforth be used for all official releases the idea for the official logo was made by the german photographer on a velvet jumpsuit photo shoot for the teenage magazine bravo in the photo the abba members held giant initial letters of their names after the pictures were made heilemann found out that benny andersson reversed his letter b this prompted discussions about the mirrored b and the members of abba agreed on the mirrored letter from 1976 onward the first b in the logo version of the name was mirrorimage reversed on the bands promotional material thus becoming the groups registered trademark following their acquisition of the groups catalogue polygram began using variations of the abba logo employing a different font in 1992 polygram added a crown emblem to it for the first release of the abba gold greatest hits compilation after universal music purchased polygram and thus abbas label polar music international control of the groups catalogue returned to stockholm since then the original logo has been reinstated on all official products 19731976 breakthrough eurovision song contest 1974 as the group entered the melodifestivalen with ring ring but failed to qualify as the 1973 swedish entry stig anderson immediately started planning for the 1974 contest ulvaeus andersson and stig anderson believed in the possibilities of using the eurovision song contest as a way to make the music business aware of them as songwriters as well as the band itself in late 1973 they were invited by swedish television to contribute a song for the melodifestivalen 1974 and from a number of new songs the upbeat song waterloo was chosen the group were now inspired by the growing glam rock scene in england abba won their nations hearts on swedish television on 9 february 1974 and with this third attempt were far more experienced and better prepared for the eurovision song contest winning the 1974 eurovision song contest on 6 april 1974 and singing waterloo in english instead of their native tongue gave abba the chance to tour europe and perform on major television shows thus the band saw the waterloo single chart in many european countries following their success at the eurovision song contest abba spent an evening of glory partying in the appropriately named firstfloor napoleon suite of the grand brighton hotel waterloo was abbas first major hit in numerous countries becoming their first numberone single in nine western and northern european countries including the big markets of the uk and west germany and in south africa it also made the top ten in several other countries including rising to number three in spain number four in australia and france and number seven in canada in the united states the song peaked at number six on the billboard hot 100 chart paving the way for their first album and their first trip as a group there albeit a short promotional visit it included their first performance on american television the mike douglas show the album waterloo only peaked at number 145 on the billboard 200 chart but received unanimous high praise from the us critics los angeles times called it a compelling and fascinating debut album that captures the spirit of mainstream pop quite effectively an immensely enjoyable and pleasant project while creem characterised it as a perfect blend of exceptional lovable compositions abbas followup single honey honey peaked at number 27 on the us billboard hot 100 reached the top twenty in several other countries and was a numbertwo hit in west germany although it only reached the top 30 in australia and the us in the united kingdom abbas british record label epic decided to rerelease a remixed version of ring ring instead of honey honey and a cover version of the latter by sweet dreams peaked at number 10 both records debuted on the uk chart within one week of each other ring ring failed to reach the top 30 in the uk increasing growing speculation that the group were simply a eurovision onehit wonder posteurovision in november 1974 abba embarked on their first european tour playing dates in denmark west germany and austria it was not as successful as the band had hoped since most of the venues did not sell out due to a lack of demand they were even forced to cancel a few shows including a sole concert scheduled in switzerland the second leg of the tour which took them through scandinavia in january 1975 was very different they played to full houses everywhere and finally got the reception they had aimed for live performances continued in the middle of 1975 when abba embarked on a fourteen openair date tour of sweden and finland their stockholm show at the gröna lund amusement park had an estimated audience of 19200 björn ulvaeus later said if you look at the singles we released straight after waterloo we were trying to be more like the sweet a semiglam rock group which was stupid because we were always a pop group in late 1974 so long was released as a single in the united kingdom but it received no airplay from radio 1 and failed to chart in the uk the only countries in which it was successful were austria sweden and germany reaching the top ten in the first two and number 21 in the latter in the middle of 1975 abba released i do i do i do i do i do which again received little airplay on radio 1 but did manage to climb to number 38 on the uk chart while making top five in several northern and western european countries and number one in south africa later that year the release of their selftitled third studio album abba and single sos brought back their chart presence in the uk where the single hit number six and the album peaked at number 13 sos also became abbas second numberone single in germany their third in australia and their first in france plus reached number two in several other european countries including italy success was further solidified with mamma mia reaching numberone in the united kingdom germany and australia and the top two in a few other western and northern european countries in the united states both i do i do i do i do i do and sos peaked at number 15 on the billboard hot 100 chart with the latter picking up the bmi award along the way as one of the most played songs on american radio in 1975 mamma mia however stalled at number 32 in canada the three songs rose to number 12 nine and 18 respectively the success of the group in the united states had until that time been limited to single releases by early 1976 the group already had four top 30 singles on the us charts but the album market proved to be tough to crack the eponymous abba album generated three american hits but it only peaked at number 165 on the cashbox album chart and number 174 on the billboard 200 chart opinions were voiced by creem in particular that in the us abba had endured a very sloppy promotional campaign nevertheless the group enjoyed warm reviews from the american press cashbox went as far as saying that there is a recurrent thread of taste and artistry inherent in abbas marketing creativity and presentation that makes it almost embarrassing to critique their efforts while creem wrote sos is surrounded on this lp by so many good tunes that the mind boggles in australia the airing of the music videos for i do i do i do i do i do and mamma mia on the nationally broadcast tv pop show countdown which premiered in november 1974 saw the band rapidly gain enormous popularity and countdown become a key promoter of the group via their distinctive music videos this started an immense interest for abba in australia resulting in i do i do i do i do i do staying at number one for three weeks then sos spending a week there followed by mamma mia staying there for ten weeks and the album holding down the number one position for months the three songs were also successful in nearby new zealand with the first two topping that chart and the third reaching number two 19761981 superstardom greatest hits and arrival in march 1976 the band released the compilation album greatest hits it became their first uk numberone album and also took abba into the top 50 on the us album charts for the first time eventually selling more than a million copies there also included on greatest hits was a new single fernando which went to numberone in at least thirteen countries all over the world including the uk germany france australia south africa and mexico and the top five in most other significant markets including at number four becoming their biggest hit to date in canada the single went on to sell over 10 million copies worldwide in australia fernando occupied the top position for a then record breaking 14 weeks and stayed in the chart for 40 weeks and was the longestrunning charttopper there for over 40 years until it was overtaken by ed sheerans shape of you in may 2017 it still remains as one of the bestselling singles of all time in australia also in 1976 the group received its first international prize with fernando being chosen as the best studio recording of 1975 in the united states fernando reached the top 10 of the cashbox top 100 singles chart and number 13 on the billboard hot 100 it topped the billboard adult contemporary chart abbas first american numberone single on any chart at the same time a compilation named the very best of abba was released in germany becoming a numberone album there whereas the greatest hits compilation which followed a few months later ascended to number two in germany despite all similarities with the very best album the groups fourth studio album arrival a numberone bestseller in parts of europe the uk and australia and a numberthree hit in canada and japan represented a new level of accomplishment in both songwriting and studio work prompting rave reviews from more rockoriented uk music weeklies such as melody maker and new musical express and mostly appreciative notices from us critics hit after hit flowed from arrival money money money another numberone in germany france australia and other countries of western and northern europe plus number two in the uk and knowing me knowing you abbas sixth consecutive german numberone as well as another uk numberone plus a top five hit in many other countries although it was only a number nine hit in australia and france the real sensation was the first single dancing queen not only topping the charts in loyal markets like the uk germany sweden several other western and northern european countries and australia but also reaching numberone in the united states canada the soviet union and japan and the top ten in france spain and italy all three songs were numberone hits in mexico in south africa abba had astounding success with each of fernando dancing queen and knowing me knowing you being among the top 20 bestselling singles for 197677 in 1977 arrival was nominated for the inaugural brit award in the category best international album of the year by this time abba were popular in the uk most of europe australia new zealand and canada in frida the dvd lyngstad explains how she and fältskog developed as singers as abbas recordings grew more complex over the years the bands mainstream popularity in the united states would remain on a comparatively smaller scale and dancing queen became the only billboard hot 100 numberone single for abba though it immediately became and remains to this day a major gay anthem with knowing me knowing you later peaking at number seven money money money however had barely charted there or in canada where knowing me knowing you had reached number five they did however get three more singles to the numberone position on other billboard us charts including billboard adult contemporary and hot dance club play nevertheless arrival finally became a true breakthrough release for abba on the us album market where it peaked at number 20 on the billboard 200 chart and was certified gold by riaa european and australian tour in january 1977 abba embarked on their first major tour the groups status had changed dramatically and they were clearly regarded as superstars they opened their much anticipated tour in oslo norway on 28 january and mounted a lavishly produced spectacle that included a few scenes from their selfwritten minioperetta the girl with the golden hair the concert attracted huge media attention from across europe and australia they continued the tour through western europe visiting gothenburg copenhagen berlin cologne amsterdam antwerp essen hanover and hamburg and ending with shows in the united kingdom in manchester birmingham glasgow and two soldout concerts at londons royal albert hall tickets for these two shows were available only by mail application and it was later revealed that the boxoffice received 35 million requests for tickets enough to fill the venue 580 times along with praise abba turn out to be amazingly successful at reproducing their records wrote creem there were complaints that abba performed slicklybut with a zero personality coming across from a total of 16 people on stage melody maker one of the royal albert hall concerts was filmed as a reference for the filming of the australian tour for what became abba the movie though it is not exactly known how much of the concert was filmed after the european leg of the tour in march 1977 abba played 11 dates in australia before a total of 160000 people the opening concert in sydney at the sydney showground on 3 march to an audience of 20000 was marred by torrential rain with lyngstad slipping on the wet stage during the concert however all four members would later recall this concert as the most memorable of their career upon their arrival in melbourne a civic reception was held at the melbourne town hall and abba appeared on the balcony to greet an enthusiastic crowd of 6000 in melbourne the group gave three concerts at the sidney myer music bowl with 14500 at each including the australian prime minister malcolm fraser and his family at the first melbourne concert an additional 16000 people gathered outside the fencedoff area to listen to the concert in adelaide the group performed one concert at football park in front of 20000 people with another 10000 listening outside during the first of five concerts in perth there was a bomb scare with everyone having to evacuate the entertainment centre the trip was accompanied by mass hysteria and unprecedented media attention swedish abba stirs boxoffice in down under tourand the media coverage of the quartet rivals that set to cover the upcoming royal tour of australia wrote variety and is captured on film in abba the movie directed by lasse hallström the australian tour and its subsequent abba the movie produced some abba lore as well fältskogs blonde good looks had long made her the bands pinup girl a role she disdained during the australian tour she performed in a skintight white jumpsuit causing one australian newspaper to use the headline agnethas bottom tops dull show when asked about this at a news conference she replied dont they have bottoms in australia abba the album in december 1977 abba followed up arrival with the more ambitious fifth album abba the album released to coincide with the debut of abba the movie although the album was less well received by uk reviewers it did spawn more worldwide hits the name of the game and take a chance on me which both topped the uk charts and racked up impressive sales in most countries although the name of the game was generally the more successful in the nordic countries and down under while take a chance on me was more successful in north america and the germanspeaking countries the name of the game was a number two hit in the netherlands belgium and sweden while also making the top 5 in finland norway new zealand and australia while only peaking at numbers 10 12 and 15 in mexico the us and canada take a chance on me was a number one hit in austria belgium and mexico made the top 3 in the us canada the netherlands germany and switzerland while only reaching numbers 12 and 14 in australia and new zealand respectively both songs were top 10 hits in countries as far afield as rhodesia and south africa as well as in france although take a chance on me did not top the american charts it proved to be abbas biggest hit single there selling more copies than dancing queen the drop in sales in australia was felt to be inevitable by industry observers as an abbafever that had existed there for almost three years could only last so long as adolescents would naturally begin to move away from a group so deified by both their parents and grandparents a third single eagle was released in continental europe and down under becoming a number one hit in belgium and a top 10 hit in the netherlands germany switzerland and south africa but barely charting down under the bside of eagle was thank you for the music and it was belatedly released as an aside single in both the united kingdom and ireland in 1983 thank you for the music has become one of the best loved and best known abba songs without being released as a single during the groups lifetime abba the album topped the album charts in the uk the netherlands new zealand sweden norway switzerland while ascending to the top 5 in australia germany austria finland and rhodesia and making the top 10 in canada and japan sources also indicate that sales in poland exceeded 1 million copies and that sales demand in russia could not be met by the supply available the album peaked at number 14 in the us polar music studio formation by 1978 abba were one of the biggest bands in the world they converted a vacant cinema into the polar music studio a stateoftheart studio in stockholm the studio was used by several other bands notably genesis duke led zeppelins in through the out door and scorpionss lovedrive were recorded there during may 1978 the group went to the united states for a promotional campaign performing alongside andy gibb on olivia newtonjohns tv show recording sessions for the single summer night city were an uphill struggle but upon release the song became another hit for the group the track would set the stage for abbas foray into disco with their next album on 9 january 1979 the group performed chiquitita at the music for unicef concert held at the united nations general assembly to celebrate unicefs year of the child abba donated the copyright of this worldwide hit to the unicef see music for unicef concert the single was released the following week and reached numberone in ten countries north american and european tours in midjanuary 1979 ulvaeus and fältskog announced they were getting divorced the news caused interest from the media and led to speculation about the bands future abba assured the press and their fan base they were continuing their work as a group and that the divorce would not affect them nonetheless the media continued to confront them with this in interviews to escape the media swirl and concentrate on their writing andersson and ulvaeus secretly travelled to compass point studios in nassau bahamas where for two weeks they prepared their next albums songs the groups sixth studio album voulezvous was released in april 1979 with its title track recorded at the famous criteria studios in miami florida with the assistance of recording engineer tom dowd among others the album topped the charts across europe and in japan and mexico hit the top 10 in canada and australia and the top 20 in the us while none of the singles from the album reached number one on the uk chart the lead single chiquitita and the fourth single i have a dream both ascended to number two and the other two does your mother know and angeleyes with voulezvous released as a double aside both made the top 5 all four singles reached number one in belgium although the last three did not chart in sweden or norway chiquitita which was featured in the music for unicef concert after which abba decided to donate half of the royalties from the song to unicef topped the singles charts in the netherlands switzerland finland spain mexico south africa rhodesia and new zealand rose to number two in sweden and made the top 5 in germany austria norway and australia although it only reached number 29 in the us i have a dream was a sizeable hit reaching number one in the netherlands switzerland and austria number three in south africa and number four in germany although it only reached number 64 in australia in canada i have a dream became abbas second number one on the rpm adult contemporary chart after fernando hit the top previously although it did not chart in the us does your mother know a rare song in which ulvaeus sings lead vocals was a top 5 hit in the netherlands and finland and a top 10 hit in germany switzerland australia although it only reached number 27 in new zealand it did better in north america than chiquitita reaching number 12 in canada and number 19 in the us and made the top 20 in japan voulezvous was a top 10 hit in the netherlands and switzerland a top 20 hit in germany and finland but only peaked in the 80s in australia canada and the us also in 1979 the group released their second compilation album greatest hits vol 2 which featured a brand new track gimme gimme gimme a man after midnight which was a top 3 hit in the uk belgium the netherlands germany austria switzerland finland and norway and returned abba to the top 10 in australia greatest hits vol 2 went to number one in the uk belgium canada and japan while making the top 5 in several other countries but only reaching number 20 in australia and number 46 in the us in the soviet union during the late 1970s the group were paid in oil commodities because of an embargo on the rouble on 13 september 1979 abba began abba the tour at northlands coliseum in edmonton canada with a full house of 14000 the voices of the band agnethas high sauciness combined with round rich lower tones of annifrid were excellenttechnically perfect melodically correct and always in perfect pitchthe soft lower voice of annifrid and the high edgy vocals of agnetha were stunning raved edmonton journal during the next four weeks they played a total of 17 soldout dates 13 in the united states and four in canada the last scheduled abba concert in the united states in washington dc was cancelled due to emotional distress fältskog experienced during the flight from new york to boston the groups private plane was subjected to extreme weather conditions and was unable to land for an extended period they appeared at the boston music hall for the performance 90 minutes late the tour ended with a show in toronto canada at maple leaf gardens before a capacity crowd of 18000 abba plays with surprising power and volume but although they are loud theyre also clear which does justice to the signature vocal sound anyone whos been waiting five years to see abba will be well satisfied wrote record world on 19 october 1979 the tour resumed in western europe where the band played 23 soldout gigs including six soldout nights at londons wembley arena progression in march 1980 abba travelled to japan where upon their arrival at narita international airport they were besieged by thousands of fans the group performed eleven concerts to full houses including six shows at tokyos budokan this tour was the last on the road adventure of their career in july 1980 abba released the single the winner takes it all the groups eighth uk chart topper and their first since 1978 the song is widely misunderstood as being written about ulvaeus and fältskogs marital tribulations ulvaeus wrote the lyrics but has stated they were not about his own divorce fältskog has repeatedly stated she was not the loser in their divorce in the united states the single peaked at numbereight on the billboard hot 100 chart and became abbas second billboard adult contemporary numberone it was also rerecorded by andersson and ulvaeus with a slightly different backing track by french chanteuse mireille mathieu at the end of 1980 as bravo tu as gagné with french lyrics by alain boublil in november 1980 abbas seventh album super trouper was released which reflected a certain change in abbas style with more prominent use of synthesizers and increasingly personal lyrics it set a record for the most preorders ever received for a uk album after one million copies were ordered before release the second single from the album super trouper also hit numberone in the uk becoming the groups ninth and final uk charttopper another track from the album lay all your love on me released in 1981 as a twelveinch single only in selected territories managed to top the billboard hot dance club play chart and peaked at numberseven on the uk singles chart becoming at the time the highest ever charting 12inch release in uk chart history also in 1980 abba recorded a compilation of spanishlanguage versions of their hits called gracias por la música this was released in spanishspeaking countries as well as in japan and australia the album became a major success and along with the spanish version of chiquitita this signalled the groups breakthrough in latin america abba oro grandes éxitos the spanish equivalent of abba gold greatest hits was released in 1999 19811982 the visitors and later performances in january 1981 ulvaeus married lena källersjö and manager stig anderson celebrated his 50th birthday with a party for this occasion abba recorded the track hovas vittne a pun on the swedish name for jehovahs witness and andersons birthplace hova as a tribute to him and released it only on 200 red vinyl copies to be distributed to the guests attending the party this single has become a soughtafter collectable in midfebruary 1981 andersson and lyngstad announced they were filing for divorce information surfaced that their marriage had been an uphill struggle for years and benny had already met another woman mona nörklit whom he married in november 1981 andersson and ulvaeus had songwriting sessions in early 1981 and recording sessions began in midmarch at the end of april the group recorded a tv special dick cavett meets abba with the us talk show host dick cavett the visitors abbas eighth studio album showed a songwriting maturity and depth of feeling distinctly lacking from their earlier recordings but still placing the band squarely in the pop genre with catchy tunes and harmonies although not revealed at the time of its release the albums title track according to ulvaeus refers to the secret meetings held against the approval of totalitarian governments in sovietdominated states while other tracks address topics like failed relationships the threat of war ageing and loss of innocence the albums only major single release one of us proved to be the last of abbas nine numberone singles in germany this being in december 1981 and the swansong of their sixteen top 5 singles on the south african chart one of us was also abbas final top 3 hit in the uk reaching numberthree on the uk singles chart although it topped the album charts across most of europe including ireland the uk and germany the visitors was not as commercially successful as its predecessors showing a commercial decline in previously loyal markets such as france australia and japan a track from the album when all is said and done was released as a single in north america australia and new zealand and fittingly became abbas final top 40 hit in the us debuting on the us charts on 31 december 1981 while also reaching the us adult contemporary top 10 and numberfour on the rpm adult contemporary chart in canada the songs lyrics as with the winner takes it all and one of us dealt with the painful experience of separating from a longterm partner though it looked at the trauma more optimistically with the now publicised story of andersson and lyngstads divorce speculation increased of tension within the band also released in the united states was the title track of the visitors which hit the top ten on the billboard hot dance club play chart later recording sessions in the spring of 1982 songwriting sessions had started and the group came together for more recordings plans were not completely clear but a new album was discussed and the prospect of a small tour suggested the recording sessions in may and june 1982 were a struggle and only three songs were eventually recorded you owe me one i am the city and just like that andersson and ulvaeus were not satisfied with the outcome so the tapes were shelved and the group took a break for the summer back in the studio again in early august the group had changed plans for the rest of the year they settled for a christmas release of a double album compilation of all their past single releases to be named the singles the first ten years new songwriting and recording sessions took place and during october and december they released the singles the day before you camecassandra and under attackyou owe me one the asides of which were included on the compilation album neither single made the top 20 in the united kingdom though the day before you came became a top 5 hit in many european countries such as germany the netherlands and belgium the album went to number one in the uk and belgium top 5 in the netherlands and germany and top 20 in many other countries under attack the groups final release before disbanding was a top 5 hit in the netherlands and belgium i am the city and just like that were left unreleased on the singles the first ten years for possible inclusion on the next projected studio album though this never came to fruition i am the city was eventually released on the compilation album more abba gold in 1993 while just like that has been recycled in new songs with other artists produced by andersson and ulvaeus a reworked version of the verses ended up in the musical chess the chorus section of just like that was eventually released on a retrospective box set in 1994 as well as in the abba undeleted medley featured on disc 9 of the complete studio recordings despite a number of requests from fans ulvaeus and andersson are still refusing to release abbas version of just like that in its entirety even though the complete version has surfaced on bootlegs the group travelled to london to promote the singles the first ten years in the first week of november 1982 appearing on saturday superstore and the late late breakfast show and also to west germany in the second week to perform on show express on 19 november 1982 abba appeared for the last time in sweden on the tv programme nöjesmaskinen and on 11 december 1982 they made their last performance ever transmitted to the uk on noel edmonds the late late breakfast show through a live link from a tv studio in stockholm later performances andersson and ulvaeus began collaborating with tim rice in early 1983 on writing songs for the musical project chess while fältskog and lyngstad both concentrated on international solo careers while andersson and ulvaeus were working on the musical a further cooperation among the three of them came with the musical abbacadabra that was produced in france for television it was a childrens musical using 14 abba songs alain and daniel boublil who wrote les misérables had been in touch with stig anderson about the project and the tv musical was aired over christmas on french tv and later a dutch version was also broadcast boublil previously also wrote the french lyric for mireille mathieus version of the winner takes it all lyngstad who had recently moved to paris participated in the french version and recorded a single belle a duet with french singer daniel balavoine the song was a cover of abbas 1976 instrumental track arrival as the single belle sold well in france cameron mackintosh wanted to stage an englishlanguage version of the show in london with the french lyrics translated by david wood and don black andersson and ulvaeus got involved in the project and contributed with one new song i am the seeker abbacadabra premiered on 8 december 1983 at the lyric hammersmith theatre in london to mixed reviews and full houses for eight weeks closing on 21 january 1984 lyngstad was also involved in this production recording belle in english as time a duet with actor and singer b a robertson the single sold well and was produced and recorded by mike batt in may 1984 lyngstad performed i have a dream with a childrens choir at the united nations organisation gala in geneva switzerland all four members made their at the time final public appearance as four friends more than as abba in january 1986 when they recorded a video of themselves performing an acoustic version of tivedshambo which was the first song written by their manager stig anderson for a swedish tv show honouring anderson on his 55th birthday the four had not seen each other for more than two years that same year they also performed privately at another friends 40th birthday their old tour manager claes af geijerstam they sang a selfwritten song titled der kleine franz that was later to resurface in chess also in 1986 abba live was released featuring selections of live performances from the groups 1977 and 1979 tours the four members were guests at the 50th birthday of görel hanser in 1999 hanser was a longtime friend of all four and also former secretary of stig anderson honouring görel abba performed a swedish birthday song med en enkel tulipan a cappella andersson has on several occasions performed abba songs in june 1992 he and ulvaeus appeared with u2 at a stockholm concert singing the chorus of dancing queen and a few years later during the final performance of the b b in concert in stockholm andersson joined the cast for an encore at the piano andersson frequently adds an abba song to the playlist when he performs with his bao band he also played the piano during new recordings of the abba songs like an angel passing through my room with opera singer anne sofie von otter and when all is said and done with swede viktoria tolstoy in 2002 andersson and ulvaeus both performed an a cappella rendition of the first verse of fernando as they accepted their ivor novello award in london lyngstad performed and recorded an a cappella version of dancing queen with the swedish group the real group in 1993 and also rerecorded i have a dream with swiss singer dan daniell in 2003 break and reunion abba never officially announced the end of the group or an indefinite break but it was long considered dissolved after their final public performance together in 1982 their final public performance together as abba before their 2016 reunion was on the british tv programme the late late breakfast show live from stockholm on 11 december 1982 while reminiscing on the day before you came ulvaeus said we might have continued for a while longer if that had been a number one in january 1983 fältskog started recording sessions for a solo album as lyngstad had successfully released her album somethings going on some months earlier ulvaeus and andersson meanwhile started songwriting sessions for the musical chess in interviews at the time björn and benny denied the split of abba who are we without our ladies initials of brigitte bardot and lyngstad and fältskog kept claiming in interviews that abba would come together for a new album repeatedly during 1983 and 1984 internal strife between the group and their manager escalated and the band members sold their shares in polar music during 1983 except for a tv appearance in 1986 the foursome did not come together publicly again until they were reunited at the swedish premiere of the mamma mia movie on 4 july 2008 the individual members endeavours shortly before and after their final public performance coupled with the collapse of both marriages and the lack of significant activity in the following few years after that widely suggested that the group had broken up in an interview with the sunday telegraph following the premiere ulvaeus and andersson said that there was nothing that could entice them back on stage again ulvaeus said we will never appear on stage again there is simply no motivation to regroup money is not a factor and we would like people to remember us as we were young exuberant full of energy and ambition i remember robert plant saying led zeppelin were a cover band now because they cover all their own stuff i think that hit the nail on the head however on 3 january 2011 fältskog long considered to be the most reclusive member of the group and a major obstacle to any reunion raised the possibility of reuniting for a oneoff engagement she admitted that she has not yet brought the idea up to the other three members in april 2013 she reiterated her hopes for reunion during an interview with die zeit stating if they ask me ill say yes in a may 2013 interview fältskog aged 63 at the time stated that an abba reunion would never occur i think we have to accept that it will not happen because we are too old and each one of us has their own life too many years have gone by since we stopped and theres really no meaning in putting us together again fältskog further explained that the band members remained on amicable terms its always nice to see each other now and then and to talk a little and to be a little nostalgic in an april 2014 interview fältskog when asked about whether the band might reunite for a new recording said its difficult to talk about this because then all the news stories will be abba is going to record another song but as long as we can sing and play then why not i would love to but its up to björn and benny resurgence of public interest the same year the members of abba went their separate ways the french production of a tribute show a childrens tv musical named abbacadabra using 14 abba songs spawned new interest in the groups music after receiving little attention during the midtolate1980s abbas music experienced a resurgence in the early 1990s due to the uk synthpop duo erasure who released abbaesque a four track extended play release featuring cover versions of abba songs which topped several european charts in 1992 as u2 arrived in stockholm for a concert in june of that year the band paid homage to abba by inviting björn ulvaeus and benny andersson to join them on stage for a rendition of dancing queen playing guitar and keyboards september 1992 saw the release of abba gold greatest hits a new compilation album the single dancing queen received radio airplay in the uk in the middle of 1992 to promote the album the song returned to the top 20 of the uk singles chart in august that year this time peaking at number 16 with sales of 30 million gold is the bestselling abba album as well as one of the bestselling albums worldwide with sales of 55 million copies it is the secondhighest selling album of all time in the uk after queens greatest hits more abba gold more abba hits a followup to gold was released in 1993 in 1994 two australian cult films caught the attention of the worlds media both focusing on admiration for abba the adventures of priscilla queen of the desert and muriels wedding the same year thank you for the music a fourdisc box set comprising all the groups hits and standout album tracks was released with the involvement of all four members by the end of the twentieth century american critic chuck klosterman wrote a decade later it was far more contrarian to hate abba than to love them abba were soon recognised and embraced by other acts evan dando of the lemonheads recorded a cover version of knowing me knowing you sinéad oconnor and boyzones stephen gately have recorded chiquitita tanita tikaram blancmange and steven wilson paid tribute to the day before you came cliff richard covered lay all your love on me while dionne warwick peter cetera frank sidebottom and celebrity skin recorded their versions of sos us alternativerock musician marshall crenshaw has also been known to play a version of knowing me knowing you in concert appearances while legendary english latin pop songwriter richard daniel roman has recognised abba as a major influence swedish metal guitarist yngwie malmsteen covered gimme gimme gimme a man after midnight with slightly altered lyrics two different compilation albums of abba songs have been released abba a tribute coincided with the 25th anniversary celebration and featured 17 songs some of which were recorded especially for this release notable tracks include go wests one of us army of lovers hasta mañana information societys lay all your love on me erasures take a chance on me with mc kinky and lyngstads a cappella duet with the real group of dancing queen a second 12track album was released in 1999 titled abbamania with proceeds going to the youth music charity in england it featured all new cover versions notable tracks were by madness money money money culture club voulezvous the corrs the winner takes it all steps lay all your love on me i know him so well and a medley titled thank abba for the music performed by several artists and as featured on the brits awards that same year in 1998 an abba tribute group was formed the abba teens which was subsequently renamed the ateens to allow the group some independence the groups first album the abba generation consisting solely of abba covers reimagined as 1990s pop songs was a worldwide success and so were subsequent albums the group disbanded in 2004 due to a gruelling schedule and intentions to go solo in sweden the growing recognition of the legacy of andersson and ulvaeus resulted in the 1998 b b concerts a tribute concert with swedish singers who had worked with the songwriters through the years showcasing not only their abba years but hits both before and after abba the concert was a success and was ultimately released on cd it later toured scandinavia and even went to beijing in the peoples republic of china for two concerts in 2000 abba were reported to have turned down an offer of approximately one billion us dollars to do a reunion tour consisting of 100 concerts for the semifinal of the eurovision song contest 2004 staged in istanbul 30 years after abba had won the contest in brighton all four members made cameo appearances in a special comedy video made for the interval act titled our last video ever other wellknown stars such as rik mayall cher and iron maidens eddie also made appearances in the video it was not included in the official dvd release of the 2004 eurovision contest but was issued as a separate dvd release retitled the last video at the request of the former abba members the video was made using puppet models of the members of the band the video has surpassed 13 million views on youtube as of november 2020 in 2005 all four members of abba appeared at the stockholm premiere of the musical mamma mia on 22 october 2005 at the 50th anniversary celebration of the eurovision song contest waterloo was chosen as the best song in the competitions history in the same month american singer madonna released the single hung up which contains a sample of the keyboard melody from abbas 1979 song gimme gimme gimme a man after midnight the song was a smash hit peaking at number one in at least 50 countries on 4 july 2008 all four abba members were reunited at the swedish premiere of the film mamma mia it was only the second time all of them had appeared together in public since 1986 during the appearance they reemphasised that they intended never to officially reunite citing the opinion of robert plant that the reformed led zeppelin was more like a cover band of itself than the original band ulvaeus stated that he wanted the band to be remembered as they were during the peak years of their success gold returned to numberone in the uk album charts for the fifth time on 3 august 2008 on 14 august 2008 the mamma mia the movie film soundtrack went to numberone on the us billboard charts abbas first us charttopping album during the bands heyday the highest album chart position they had ever achieved in america was number 14 in november 2008 all eight studio albums together with a ninth of rare tracks were released as the albums it hit several charts peaking at numberfour in sweden and reaching the top 10 in several other european territories in 2008 sony computer entertainment europe in collaboration with universal music group sweden ab released singstar abba on both the playstation 2 and playstation 3 games consoles as part of the singstar music video games the ps2 version features 20 abba songs while 25 songs feature on the ps3 version on 22 january 2009 fältskog and lyngstad appeared together on stage to receive the swedish music award rockbjörnen for lifetime achievement in an interview the two women expressed their gratitude for the honorary award and thanked their fans on 25 november 2009 prs for music announced that the british public voted abba as the band they would most like to see reform on 27 january 2010 abbaworld a 25room touring exhibition featuring interactive and audiovisual activities debuted at earls court exhibition centre in london according to the exhibitions website abbaworld is approved and fully supported by the band members mamma mia was released as one of the first few nonpremium song selections for the online rpg game bandmaster on 17 may 2011 gimme gimme gimme was added as a nonpremium song selection for the bandmaster philippines server on 15 november 2011 ubisoft released a dancing game called abba you can dance for the wii in january 2012 universal music announced the rerelease of abbas final album the visitors featuring a previously unheard track from a twinkling star to a passing angel a book titled abba the official photo book was published in early 2014 to mark the 40th anniversary of the bands eurovision victory the book reveals that part of the reason for the bands outrageous costumes was that swedish tax laws at the time allowed the cost of garish outfits that were not suitable for daily wear to be tax deductible 20162022 reunion voyage and abbatars on 20 january 2016 all four members of abba made a public appearance at mamma mia the party in stockholm on 6 june 2016 the quartet appeared together at a private party at berns salonger in stockholm which was held to celebrate the 50th anniversary of andersson and ulvaeuss first meeting fältskog and lyngstad performed live singing the way old friends do before they were joined on stage by andersson and ulvaeus british manager simon fuller announced in a statement in october 2016 that the group would be reuniting to work on a new digital entertainment experience the project would feature the members in their lifelike avatar form called abbatars based on their late 1970s tour and would be set to launch by the spring of 2019 in may 2017 a sequel to the 2008 movie mamma mia titled mamma mia here we go again was announced the film was released on 20 july 2018 cher who appeared in the movie also released dancing queen an abba cover album in september 2018 in june 2017 a blue plaque outside brighton dome was set to commemorate their 1974 eurovision win on 27 april 2018 all four original members of abba made a joint announcement that they had recorded two new songs titled i still have faith in you and dont shut me down to feature in a tv special set to air later that year in september 2018 ulvaeus stated that the two new songs as well as the tv special now called abba thank you for the music an allstar tribute would not be released until 2019 the tv special was later revealed to be scrapped by 2018 as andersson and ulvaeus rejected fullers project and instead partnered with visual effects company industrial light and magic to prepare the abbatars for a music video and a concert in january 2019 it was revealed that neither song would be released before the summer andersson hinted at the possibility of a third song in june 2019 ulvaeus announced that the first new song and video containing the abbatars would be released in november 2019 in september he stated in an interview that there were now five new abba songs to be released in 2020 in early 2020 andersson confirmed that he was aiming for the songs to be released in september 2020 in april 2020 ulvaeus gave an interview saying that in the wake of the covid19 pandemic the avatar project had been delayed five out of the eight original songs written by benny for the new album had been recorded by the two female members and the release of a new 15 million music video with new unseen technology was under consideration in may 2020 it was announced that abbas entire studio discography would be released on coloured vinyl for the first time in a box set titled abba the studio albums in july 2020 ulvaeus revealed that the release of the new abba recordings had been delayed until 2021 on 22 september 2020 all four abba members reunited at ealing studios in london to continue working on the avatar project and filming for the tour ulvaeus confirmed that the avatar tour would be scheduled for 2022 when questioned if the new recordings were definitely coming out in 2021 björn said there will be new music this year that is definite its not a case anymore of it might happen it will happen on 26 august 2021 a new website was launched with the title abba voyage on the page visitors were prompted to subscribe to be the first in line to hear more about abba voyage simultaneously with the launch of the webpage new abba voyage social media accounts were launched and billboards around london started to appear all showing the date 020921 leading to expectation of what was to be revealed on that date on 29 august the band officially joined tiktok with a video of benny andersson playing dancing queen on the piano and media reported on a new album to be announced on 2 september on that date voyage their first new album in 40 years was announced to be released on 5 november 2021 along with abba voyage a concert residency in a custombuilt venue at queen elizabeth olympic park in london featuring the motion capture digital avatars of the four band members alongside a 10piece live band starting 27 may 2022 fältskog stated that the voyage album and tour are likely to be their last the announcement of the new album was accompanied by the release of the singles i still have faith in you and dont shut me down the music video for i still have faith in you featuring footage of the band during their performing years and a first look at the abbatars earned over a million views in its first three hours dont shut me down became the first abba release since october 1978 to top the singles chart in sweden in october 2021 the third single just a notion was released and it was announced that abba would split for good after the release of voyage however in an interview with bbc radio 2 on 11 november lyngstad stated dont be too sure that voyage is the final abba album also in an interview with bbc news on 5 november andersson stated if they the ladies twist my arm i might change my mind the fourth single from the album little things was released on 3 december in may 2022 after the premiere of abba voyage andersson stated in an interview with variety that nothing is going to happen after this confirming the residency as abbas final group collaboration in april 2023 longtime abba guitarist lasse wellander died at the age of 70 wellander played on seven of the groups nine studio albums including voyage artistry recording process abba were perfectionists in the studio working on tracks until they got them right rather than leaving them to come back to later on they spent the bulk of their time within the studio in separate 2021 interviews ulvaeus stated they may have toured for only 6 months while andersson said they played fewer than 100 shows during the bands career the band created a basic rhythm track with a drummer guitarist and bass player and overlaid other arrangements and instruments vocals were then added and orchestra overdubs were usually left until last fältskog and lyngstad contributed ideas at the studio stage andersson and ulvaeus played them the backing tracks and they made comments and suggestions according to fältskog she and lyngstad had the final say in how the lyrics were shaped after vocals and overdubs were done the band took up to five days to mix a song fashion style videos advertising campaigns abba was widely noted for the colourful and trendsetting costumes its members wore the reason for the wild costumes was swedish tax law the cost of the clothes was deductible only if they could not be worn other than for performances in their early years group member annifrid lyngstad designed and even hand sewed the outfits later as their success grew they used professional theatrical clothes designer owe sandström together with tailor lars wigenius with lyngstad continuing to suggest ideas while coordinating the outfits with concert set designs choreography by graham tainton also contributed to their performance style the videos that accompanied some of the bands biggest hits are often cited as being among the earliest examples of the genre most of abbas videos and abba the movie were directed by lasse hallström who would later direct the films my life as a dog the cider house rules and chocolat abba made videos because their songs were hits in many different countries and personal appearances were not always possible this was also done in an effort to minimise travelling particularly to countries that would have required extremely long flights fältskog and ulvaeus had two young children and fältskog who was also afraid of flying was very reluctant to leave her children for such a long time abbas manager stig anderson realised the potential of showing a simple video clip on television to publicise a single or album thereby allowing easier and quicker exposure than a concert tour some of these videos have become classics because of the 1970sera costumes and early video effects such as the grouping of the band members in different combinations of pairs overlapping one singers profile with the others full face and the contrasting of one member against another in 1976 abba participated in an advertising campaign to promote the matsushita electric industrial cos brand national in australia the campaign was also broadcast in japan five commercial spots each of approximately one minute were produced each presenting the national song performed by abba using the melody and instrumental arrangements of fernando and revised lyrics political use of abbas music in september 2010 band members andersson and ulvaeus criticised the rightwing danish peoples party df for using the abba song mamma mia with modified lyrics referencing pia kjærsgaard at rallies the band threatened to file a lawsuit against the df saying they never allowed their music to be used politically and that they had absolutely no interest in supporting the party their record label universal music later said that no legal action would be taken because an agreement had been reached success in the united states during their active career from 1972 to 1982 20 of abbas singles entered the billboard hot 100 14 of these made the top 40 13 on the cashbox top 100 with 10 making the top 20 on both charts a total of four of those singles reached the top 10 including dancing queen which reached number one in april 1977 while fernando and sos did not break the top 10 on the billboard hot 100 reaching number 13 and 15 respectively they did reach the top 10 on cashbox fernando and record world sos charts both dancing queen and take a chance on me were certified gold by the recording industry association of america for sales of over one million copies each the group also had 12 top 20 singles on the billboard adult contemporary chart with two of them fernando and the winner takes it all reaching number one lay all your love on me was abbas fourth numberone single on a billboard chart topping the hot dance club play chart ten abba albums have made their way into the top half of the billboard 200 album chart with eight reaching the top 50 five reaching the top 20 and one reaching the top 10 in november 2021 voyage became abbas highestcharting album on the billboard 200 peaking at no 2 five albums received riaa gold certification more than 500000 copies sold while three acquired platinum status selling more than one million copies the compilation album abba gold greatest hits topped the billboard top pop catalog albums chart in august 2008 15 years after it was first released in the us in 1993 becoming the groups first numberone album ever on any of the billboard album charts it has sold 6 million copies there on 15 march 2010 abba were inducted into the rock and roll hall of fame by bee gees members barry gibb and robin gibb the ceremony was held at the waldorf astoria hotel in new york city the group were represented by annifrid lyngstad and benny andersson in november 2021 abba received a grammy nomination for record of the year the single i still have faith in you from the album voyage was their first ever nomination neither abba nor any of the band members are included in rolling stones 100 greatest artists of all time list members agnetha fältskog lead and backing vocals annifrid frida lyngstad lead and backing vocals björn ulvaeus guitars lead and backing vocals benny andersson keyboards synthesizers piano accordion backing and lead vocals the members of abba were married as follows agnetha fältskog and björn ulvaeus from 1971 to 1979 benny andersson and annifrid lyngstad from 1978 to 1981 for their subsequent marriages see their articles in addition to the four members of abba other musicians regularly played on their studio recordings live appearances and concert performances these include rutger gunnarsson 19721982 bass guitar and string arrangements ola brunkert 19721981 drums 19721980 bass guitar janne schaffer 19721982 lead electric guitar 19721979 drums malando gassama 19731979 percussion lasse wellander 19742021 lead electric guitar anders eljas 1977 keyboards on tour and all the bands orchestration 19781982 percussion 19802021 drums discography studio albums ring ring 1973 waterloo 1974 abba 1975 arrival 1976 the album 1977 voulezvous 1979 super trouper 1980 the visitors 1981 voyage 2021 tours concert tours swedish folkpark tour 1973 european tour 19741975 european australian tour 1977 abba the tour 19791980 concert residencies abba voyage 20222024 awards and nominations see also abba the museum abba city walks stockholm city museum abbamail list of abba tribute albums list of bestselling music artists list of swedes in music music of sweden popular music in sweden citations references bibliography further reading benny andersson björn ulvaeus judy craymer mamma mia how can i resist you the inside story of mamma mia and the songs of abba weidenfeld nicolson 2006 carl magnus palm abba the complete recording sessions 1994 carl magnus palm 2000 from abba to mamma mia elisabeth vincentelli abba treasures a celebration of the ultimate pop group omnibus press 2010 oldham andrew calder tony irvin colin 1995 abba the name of the game potiez jeanmarie 2000 abba the book simon sheridan the complete abba titan books 2012 anna henker ed astrid heyde ed abba das lexikon northern europe institut humboldtuniversity berlin 2015 german steve harnell ed classic pop presents abba a celebration classic pop magazine special edition november 2016 documentaries a for abba bbc 20 july 1993 thierry lecuyer jeanmarie potiez thank you abba willow wil studiosa2c video 1993 barry barnes abba the history polar music international ab 1999 chris hunt the winner takes it all the abba story littlestar serviceslambic productions 1999 steve cole chris hunt super troupers thirty years of abba bbc 2004 the joy of abba bbc 4 27 december 2013 bbc page carl magnus palm roger backlund abba when four became one svt 2 january 2012 carl magnus palm roger backlund abba absolute image svt 2 january 2012 abba bang a boomerang abc 1 30 january 2013 abc page abba when all is said and done 2017 sunday night 7 news 1 october 2019 external links the secret majesty of abba variety 22 july 2018 abbas essential influential melancholy npr 23 may 2015 whats behind abbas staying power smithsonian 20 july 2018 abba the articles abba news from throughout the world 1972 establishments in sweden atlantic records artists englishlanguage singers from sweden epic records artists eurodisco groups eurovision song contest entrants for sweden eurovision song contest entrants of 1974 eurovision song contest winners melodifestivalen contestants melodifestivalen winners musical groups disestablished in 1982 musical groups established in 1972 musical groups from stockholm musical groups reestablished in 2016 swedish musical quartets palindromes rca records artists schlager groups swedish dance music groups swedish pop music groups swedish pop rock music groups swedishlanguage singers swedish coed groups germanlanguage singers frenchlanguage singers	13,377
881	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allegiance	Allegiance	an allegiance is a duty of fidelity said to be owed or freely committed by the people subjects or citizens to their state or sovereign etymology the word allegiance comes from middle english see medieval latin a liegance the al prefix was probably added through confusion with another legal term allegeance an allegation the french comes from the english allegiance is formed from liege from old french liege free of germanic origin the connection with latin to bind is erroneous usage traditionally english legal commentators used the term allegiance in two ways in one sense it referred to the deference which anyone even foreigners was expected to pay to the institutions of the country where one lived in the other sense it meant national character and the subjection due to that character types local allegiance natural allegiance united kingdom the english doctrine which was at one time adopted in the united states asserted that allegiance was indelible nemo potest exuere patriam as the law stood prior to 1870 every person who by birth or naturalisation satisfied the conditions set forth even if removed in infancy to another country where their family resided owed an allegiance to the british crown which they could never resign or lose except by act of parliament or by the recognition of the independence or the cession of the portion of british territory in which they resided this refusal to accept any renunciation of allegiance to the crown led to conflict with the united states over impressment which led to further conflicts during the war of 1812 when thirteen irish american prisoners of war were executed as traitors after the battle of queenston heights winfield scott urged american reprisal but none was carried out allegiance was the tie which bound the subject to the sovereign in return for that protection which the sovereign afforded the subject it was the mutual bond and obligation between monarch and subjects whereby subjects were called their liege subjects because they are bound to obey and serve them and the monarch was called their liege lord because they should maintain and defend them ex parte anderson 1861 3 el el 487 121 er 525 china navigation co v attorneygeneral 1932 48 tlr 375 attorneygeneral v nissan 1969 1 all er 629 oppenheimer v cattermole 1972 3 all er 1106 the duty of the crown towards its subjects was to govern and protect them the reciprocal duty of the subject towards the crown was that of allegiance at common law allegiance was a true and faithful obedience of the subject due to their sovereign as the subject owed to their sovereign their true and faithful allegiance and obedience so the sovereign calvins case 1608 7 co rep 1a jenk 306 2 state tr 559 77 er 377 natural allegiance and obedience is an incident inseparable to every subject for parte anderson 1861 3 el el 487 121 er 525 naturalborn subjects owe allegiance wherever they may be where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemys force even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country r v vermaak 1900 21 nlr 204 south africa allegiance is owed both to the sovereign as a natural person and to the sovereign in the political capacity re stepney election petition isaacson v durant 1886 17 qbd 54 per lord coleridge cj attachment to the person of the reigning sovereign is not sufficient loyalty requires affection also to the office of the sovereign attachment to royalty attachment to the law and to the constitution of the realm and he who would by force or by fraud endeavour to prostrate that law and constitution though he may retain his affection for its head can boast but an imperfect and spurious species of loyalty r v oconnell 1844 7 ilr 261 there were four kinds of allegiances rittson v stordy 1855 3 sm g 230 de geer v stone 1882 22 ch d 243 isaacson v durant 1886 54 lt 684 gibson gavin v gibson 1913 3 kb 379 joyce v dpp 1946 ac 347 collingwood v pace 1661 o bridg 410 lane v bennett 1836 1 m w 70 lyons corp v east india co 1836 1 moo pcc 175 birtwhistle v vardill 1840 7 cl fin 895 r v lopez r v sattler 1858 dears b 525 ex p brown 1864 5 b s 280 a ligeantia naturalis absoluta pura et indefinita and this originally is due by nature and birthright and is called alta ligeantia and those that owe this are called subditus natus b ligeantia acquisita not by nature but by acquisition or denization being called a denizen or rather denizon because they are subditus datus c ligeantia localis by operation of law when a friendly alien enters the country because so long as they are in the country they are within the sovereigns protection therefore they owe the sovereign a local obedience or allegiance r v cowle 1759 2 burr 834 low v routledge 1865 1 ch app 42 re johnson roberts v attorneygeneral 1903 1 ch 821 tingley v muller 1917 2 ch 144 rodriguez v speyer 1919 ac 59 johnstone v pedlar 1921 2 ac 262 r v tucker 1694 show parl cas 186 r v keyn 1876 2 ex d 63 re stepney election petn isaacson v durant 1886 17 qbd 54 d a legal obedience where a particular law requires the taking of an oath of allegiance by subject or alien alike natural allegiance was acquired by birth within the sovereigns dominions except for the issue of diplomats or of invading forces or of an alien in an enemy occupied territory the natural allegiance and obedience are an incident inseparable from every subject for as soon as they are born they owe by birthright allegiance and obedience to the sovereign ex p anderson 1861 3 e e 487 a naturalborn subject owes allegiance wherever they may be so that where territory is occupied in the course of hostilities by an enemys force even if the annexation of the occupied country is proclaimed by the enemy there can be no change of allegiance during the progress of hostilities on the part of a citizen of the occupied country r v vermaak 1900 21 nlr 204 south africa acquired allegiance was acquired by naturalisation or denization denization or ligeantia acquisita appears to be threefold thomas v sorrel 1673 3 keb 143 a absolute as the common denization without any limitation or restraint b limited as when the sovereign grants letters of denization to an alien and the aliens male heirs or to an alien for the term of their life c it may be granted upon condition cujus est dare ejus est disponere and this denization of an alien may come about three ways by parliament by letters patent which was the usual manner and by conquest local allegiance was due by an alien while in the protection of the crown all friendly resident aliens incurred all the obligations of subjects the angelique 1801 3 ch rob app 7 an alien coming into a colony also became temporarily a subject of the crown and acquired rights both within and beyond the colony and these latter rights could not be affected by the laws of that colony routledge v low 1868 lr 3 hl 100 37 lj ch 454 18 lt 874 16 wr 1081 hl reid v maxwell 1886 2 tlr 790 falcon v famous players film co 1926 2 kb 474 a resident alien owed allegiance even when the protection of the crown was withdrawn owing to the occupation of an enemy because the absence of the crowns protection was temporary and involuntary de jager v attorneygeneral of natal 1907 ac 326 legal allegiance was due when an alien took an oath of allegiance required for a particular office under the crown by the naturalisation act 1870 it was made possible for british subjects to renounce their nationality and allegiance and the ways in which that nationality is lost were defined so british subjects voluntarily naturalized in a foreign state are deemed aliens from the time of such naturalization unless in the case of persons naturalized before the passing of the act they had declared their desire to remain british subjects within two years from the passing of the act persons who from having been born within british territory are british subjects but who at birth came under the law of any foreign state or of subjects of such state and also persons who though born abroad are british subjects by reason of parentage may by declarations of alienage get rid of british nationality emigration to an uncivilized country left british nationality unaffected indeed the right claimed by all states to follow with their authority their subjects so emigrating was one of the usual and recognized means of colonial expansion united states the doctrine that no man can cast off his native allegiance without the consent of his sovereign was early abandoned in the united states and chief justice john rutledge also declared in talbot v janson a man may at the same time enjoy the rights of citizenship under two governments on july 27 1868 the day before the fourteenth amendment was adopted us congress declared in the preamble of the expatriation act that the right of expatriation is a natural and inherent right of all people indispensable to the enjoyment of the rights of life liberty and the pursuit of happiness and section i one of the fundamental principles of this government united states revised statutes sec 1999 every naturalborn citizen of a foreign state who is also an american citizen and every naturalborn american citizen who is also a citizen of a foreign land owes a double allegiance one to the united states and one to their homeland in the event of an immigrant becoming a citizen of the us or to their adopted land in the event of an emigrant naturalborn citizen of the us becoming a citizen of another nation if these allegiances come into conflict the person may be guilty of treason against one or both if the demands of these two sovereigns upon their duty of allegiance come into conflict those of the united states have the paramount authority in american law likewise those of the foreign land have paramount authority in their legal system in such a situation it may be incumbent on the individual to renounce one of their citizenships to avoid possibly being forced into situations where countervailing duties are required of them such as might occur in the event of war oath of allegiance the oath of allegiance is an oath of fidelity to the sovereign taken by all persons holding important public office and as a condition of naturalization by ancient common law it was required of all persons above the age of 12 and it was repeatedly used as a test for the disaffected in england it was first imposed by statute in the reign of elizabeth i 1558 and its form has more than once been altered since up to the time of the revolution the promise was to be true and faithful to the king and his heirs and truth and faith to bear of life and limb and terrene honour and not to know or hear of any ill or damage intended him without defending him therefrom this was thought to favour the doctrine of absolute nonresistance and accordingly the convention parliament enacted the form that has been in use since that time i do sincerely promise and swear that i will be faithful and bear true allegiance to his majesty in the united states and some other republics the oath is known as the pledge of allegiance instead of declaring fidelity to a monarch the pledge is made to the flag the republic and to the core values of the country specifically liberty and justice the reciting of the pledge in the united states is voluntary because of the rights guaranteed to the people under the first amendment to the united states constitution specifically the guarantee of freedom of speech which inherently includes the freedom not to speak in islam the word used in the arabic language for allegiance is bayat arabic بيعة which means taking hand the practice is sanctioned in the quran by surah 4810 verily those who give thee their allegiance they give it but to allah himself the word is used for the oath of allegiance to an emir it is also used for the initiation ceremony specific to many sufi orders see also impressment legitimacy political mandate of heaven renunciation of citizenship treason usurpation war of 1812 winfield scott references further reading salmond on citizenship and allegiance in the law quarterly review july 1901 january 1902 nationalism deloyalität eslealtad ko충 nolojalitet svlojalitet	2,174
885	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Altenberg	Altenberg	altenberg german for old mountain or mountain of the old may refer to places austria altenberg a town in sankt andräwördern tulln district altenberg bei linz in upper austria altenberg an der rax in styria germany altenberg bergisches land an area in odenthal north rhinewestphalia altenberg abbey cistercian monastery in altenberg bergisches land altenberger dom sometimes called altenberg cathedral the former church of this cistercian monastery altenberg hohenahr hill in hesse altenberg limpurg hills highest summit in the limpurg hills altenberg saxony a town altenberga a municipality in the saaleholzfeld district thuringia altenberg abbey solms a former premonstratensian nunnery near wetzlar in hesse zinkfabrik altenberg a former zinc factory now a branch of the lvr industrial museum oberhausen north rhinewestphalia grube altenberg a show mine near kreuztal north rhinewestphalia other places altenberg the german name for vieille montagne old mountain in french a former zinc mine in kelmis moresnet belgium altenberg a district in the city of bern switzerland other uses altenberg lieder five orchestral songs composed by alban berg in 191112 altenberg publishing 18801934 a former polish publishing house altenberg trio a viennese piano trio people with the surname alfred altenberg 18781924 polish bookseller and publisher jakob altenberg 18751944 austrian businessman lee altenberg theoretical biologist peter altenberg 18591919 nom de plume of austrian writer and poet richard engländer see also altenburg disambiguation	223
887	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MessagePad	MessagePad	the messagepad is a discontinued series of personal digital assistant devices developed by apple computer for the newton platform in 1993 some electronic engineering and the manufacture of apples messagepad devices was undertaken in japan by sharp the devices are based on the arm 610 risc processor and all featured handwriting recognition software and were developed and marketed by apple the devices run newton os history the development of the newton messagepad first began with apples former senior vice president of research and development jeanlouis gassée his team included steve capps cowriter of macos finder and an employed engineer named steve sakoman the development of the newton messagepad operated in secret until it was eventually revealed to the apple board of directors in late 1990 when gassée resigned from his position due to a significant disagreement with the board seeing how his employer was treated sakoman also stopped developing the messagepad on march 2 1990 bill atkinson an apple executive responsible for the companys lisa graphical interface invited steve capps john sculley andy hertzfeld susan kare and marc porat to a meeting on march 11 1990 there they brainstormed a way of saving the messagepad sculley suggested adding new features including libraries museums databases or institutional archives features allowing customers to navigate through various window tabs or opened galleriesstacks the board later approved his suggestion he then gave newton it is official and full backing the first messagepad was unveiled by sculley on the 29th of may 1992 at the summer consumer electronics show ces in chicago sculley caved in to pressure to unveil the product early because the newton did not officially ship for another 14 months on august 2 1993 starting at a price of over 50000 units were sold by late november 1993 details screen and input with the messagepad 120 with newton os 20 the newton keyboard by apple became available which can also be used via the dongle on newton devices with a newton interconnect port most notably the apple messagepad 20002100 series as well as the apple emate 300 newton devices featuring newton os 21 or higher can be used with the screen turned horizontally landscape as well as vertically portrait a change of a setting rotates the contents of the display by 90 180 or 270 degrees handwriting recognition still works properly with the display rotated although display calibration is needed when rotation in any direction is used for the first time or when the newton device is reset handwriting recognition in initial versions newton os 1x the handwriting recognition gave extremely mixed results for users and was sometimes inaccurate the original handwriting recognition engine was called calligrapher and was licensed from a russian company called paragraph international calligraphers design was quite sophisticated it attempted to learn the users natural handwriting using a database of known words to make guesses as to what the user was writing and could interpret writing anywhere on the screen whether handprinted in cursive or a mix of the two by contrast palm pilots graffiti had a less sophisticated design than calligrapher but was sometimes found to be more accurate and precise due to its reliance on a fixed predefined stroke alphabet the stroke alphabet used letter shapes which resembled standard handwriting but which were modified to be both simple and very easy to differentiate palm computing also released two versions of graffiti for newton devices the newton version sometimes performed better and could also show strokes as they were being written as input was done on the display itself rather than on a silkscreen area for editing text newton had a very intuitive system for handwritten editing such as scratching out words to be deleted circling text to be selected or using written carets to mark inserts later releases of the newton operating system retained the original recognizer for compatibility but added a handprintedtextonly not cursive recognizer called rosetta which was developed by apple included in version 20 of the newton operating system and refined in newton 21 rosetta is generally considered a significant improvement and many reviewers testers and most users consider the newton 21 handwriting recognition software better than any of the alternatives even 10 years after it was introduced recognition and computation of handwritten horizontal and vertical formulas such as 1 2 was also under development but never released however users wrote similar programs which could evaluate mathematical formulas using the newton os intelligent assistant a unique part of every newton device the handwriting recognition and parts of the user interface for the newton are best understood in the context of the broad history of pen computing which is quite extensive a vital feature of the newton handwriting recognition system is the modeless error correction that is correction done in situ without using a separate window or widget using a minimum of gestures if a word is recognized improperly the user could doubletap the word and a list of alternatives would pop up in a menu under the stylus most of the time the correct word will be in the list if not a button at the bottom of the list allows the user to edit individual characters in that word other pen gestures could do such things as transpose letters also in situ the correction popup also allowed the user to revert to the original unrecognized letter shapes this would be useful in notetaking scenarios if there was insufficient time to make corrections immediately to conserve memory and storage space alternative recognition hypotheses would not be saved indefinitely if the user returned to a note a week later for example they would only see the best match error correction in many current handwriting systems provides such functionality but adds more steps to the process greatly increasing the interruption to a users workflow that a given correction requires user interface text could also be entered by tapping with the stylus on a small onscreen popup qwerty virtual keyboard although more layouts were developed by users newton devices could also accept freehand sketches shapes and ink text much like a desktop computer graphics tablet with shapes newton could recognize that the user was attempting to draw a circle a line a polygon etc and it would clean them up into perfect vector representations with modifiable control points and defined vertices of what the user was attempting to draw shapes and sketches could be scaled or deformed once drawn ink text captured the users freehand writing but allowed it to be treated somewhat like recognized text when manipulating for later editing purposes ink text supported word wrap could be formatted to be bold italic etc at any time a user could also direct their newton device to recognize selected ink text and turn it into recognized text deferred recognition a newton note or the notes attached to each contact in names and each dates calendar or todo event could contain any mix of interleaved text ink text shapes and sketches while the newton offered handwriting recognition training and would clean up sketches into vector shapes both were unreliable and required much rewriting and redrawing the most reliable application of the newton was collecting and organizing address and phone numbers while handwritten messages could be stored they could not be easily filed sorted or searched while the technology was a probable cause for the failure of the device which otherwise met or exceeded expectations the technology has been instrumental in producing the future generation of handwriting software that realizes the potential and promise that began in the development of newtonapples ink handwriting recognition connectivity the messagepad 100 series of devices used macintoshs proprietary serial portsround minidin 8 connectors the messagepad 20002100 models as well as the emate 300 have a small proprietary newton interconnect port however the development of the newton hardwaresoftware platform was canceled by steve jobs on february 27 1998 so the interconnect port while itself very advanced can only be used to connect a serial dongle a prototype multipurpose interconnect device containing serial audio in audio out and other ports was also discovered in addition all newton devices have infrared connectivity initially only the sharp ask protocol but later also irda though the sharp ask protocol was kept in for compatibility reasons unlike the palm pilot all newton devices are equipped with a standard pc card expansion slot two on the 20002100 this allows native modem and even ethernet connectivity newton users have also written drivers for 80211b wireless networking cards and atatype flash memory cards including the popular compactflash format as well as for bluetooth cards newton can also dial a phone number through the builtin speaker of the newton device by simply holding a telephone handset up to the speaker and transmitting the appropriate tones fax and printing support is also built in at the operating system level although it requires peripherals such as parallel adapters pcmcia cards or serial modems the most notable of which is the lightweight newton fax modem released by apple in 1993 it is powered by 2 aa batteries and can also be used with a power adapter it provides data transfer at 2400 bits and can also send and receive fax messages at 9600 and 4800 bits respectively power options the original apple messagepad and messagepad 100 used four aaa batteries they were eventually replaced by aa batteries with the release of the apple messagepad 110 the use of 4 aa nicd messagepad 110 120 and 130 and 4x aa nimh cells mp2x00 series emate 300 give a runtime of up to 30 hours mp2100 with two 20 mb linear flash memory pc cards no backlight usage and up to 24 hours with backlight on while adding more weight to the handheld newton devices than aaa batteries or custom battery packs the choice of an easily replaceablerechargeable cell format gives the user a still unsurpassed runtime and flexibility of power supply this together with the flash memory used as internal storage starting with the apple messagepad 120 if all cells lost their power no data was lost due to the nonvolatility of this storage gave birth to the slogan newton never dies it only gets new batteries later efforts and improvements the apple messagepad 20002100 with a vastly improved handwriting recognition system 162 mhz strongarm sa110 risc processor newton os 21 and a better clearer backlit screen attracted critical plaudits emate 300 the emate 300 was a newton device in a laptop form factor offered to schools in 1997 as an inexpensive 799 us originally sold to education markets only and durable computer for classroom use however in order to achieve its low price the emate 300 did not have all the speed and features of the contemporary messagepad equivalent the messagepad 2000 the emate was cancelled along with the rest of the newton products in 1998 it is the only newton device to use the arm710 microprocessor running at 25 mhz have an integrated keyboard use newton os 22 officially numbered 21 and its batteries are officially irreplaceable although several users replaced them with longerlasting ones without any damage to the emate hardware whatsoever prototypes many prototypes of additional newton devices were spotted most notable was a newton tablet or slate a large flat screen that could be written on others included a kids newton with side handgrips and buttons videopads which would have incorporated a video camera and screen on their fliptop covers for twoway communications the mini 2000 which would have been very similar to a palm pilot and the newtonphone developed by siemens which incorporated a handset and a keyboard market reception fourteen months after sculley demoed it at the may 1992 chicago ces the messagepad was first offered for sale on august 2 1993 at the boston macworld expo the hottest item at the show it cost 900 50000 messagepads were sold in the devices first three months on the market the original apple messagepad and messagepad 100 were limited by the very short lifetime of their inadequate aaa batteries later versions of newton os offered improved handwriting recognition quite possibly a leading reason for the continued popularity of the devices among newton users even given the age of the hardware and software newtons still demand a sale price on the used market far greater than that of comparatively aged pdas produced by other companies in 2006 cnet compared an apple messagepad 2000 to a samsung q1 and the newton was declared better in 2009 cnet compared an apple messagepad 2000 to an iphone 3gs and the newton was declared more innovative at its time of release a chain of dedicated newtononly stores called newton source independently run by stephen elms existed from 1994 until 1998 locations included new york los angeles san francisco chicago and boston the westwood village california near ucla featured the trademark red and yellow light bulb newton logo in neon the stores provided an informative educational venue to learn about the newton platform in a hands on relaxed fashion the stores had no traditional computer retail counters and featured oval desktops where interested users could become intimately involved with the newton product range the stores were a model for the later apple stores newton device models classwikitable brand colspan2 apple computer sharp siemens colspan2 apple sharp apple computer digital ocean motorola harris digital ocean colspan4 apple colspan3 harris siemens schlumberger device omp original newton messagepad newton dummy expertpad pi7000 notephonebetter source needed messagepad 100 messagepad 110 sharp expertpad pi7100 messagepad 120 tarpon marco supertech 2000 seahorse messagepad 130 emate 300 messagepad 2000 messagepad 2100 access device 2000 access device gps access device wireline online terminal also known as online access deviceoad watson introduced august 3 1993 us december 1993 germany august 3 1993 us and japan 1993 colspan2 march 1994 april 1994 october 1994 germany january 1995 us colspan2 january 1995 us august 1995 us january 1996 us march 1996 colspan2 march 1997 november 1997 colspan3 1998 announced 1997 discontinued colspan3 march 1994 colspan2 april 1995 late 1994 june 1996 april 1997 colspan3 february 1998 code name junior junior lindy gelato dante q model no h1000 h1000 h0059 h0131 h0196 h0208 h0136 h0149 processor colspan13 arm 610 20 mhz arm 710a 25 mhz colspan7 strongarm sa110 162 mhz rom colspan7 4 mb colspan2 4 mb os 13 or 8 mb os 20 5 mb 4 mb colspan5 8 mb system memory ram colspan5 490 kb sram 544 kb sram 490 kb sram colspan2 639687 kb dram 544 kb sram 639 kb dram colspan2 1199 kb dram 1 mb dram upgradable 1 mb dram 4 mb dram colspan3 1 mb dram 1 mb dram user storage colspan5 150 kb sram 480 kb sram 150 kb sram colspan2 3851361 kb flash ram 480 kb sram 385 kb flash ram colspan2 1361 kb flash ram 2 mb flash ramupgradable colspan5 4 mb flash ram 4 mb flash ram total ram colspan5 640 kb 1 mb 640 kb colspan2 1020 mb colspan2 1 mb colspan2 25 mb 3 mb upgradable via internal expansion 5 mb 8 mb colspan3 5 mb 5 mb display colspan5 336 240 bw 320 240 bw 336 240 bw 320 240 bw 320 240 bw w backlight 320 240 bw colspan3 320 240 bw w backlight colspan6 480 320 grayscale 16 shades w backlight 480 320 greyscale 16 shades w backlight newton os version colspan3 10 to 105 or 110 to 111 111 colspan2 12 or 13 13 colspan2 13 or 20 colspan2 13 colspan2 20 21 22 colspan2 21 colspan5 21 newton os languages english or german english or japanese german english german or french english or french english or japanese english german or french colspan4 english english or german colspan2 english english or german colspan3 english german french connectivity colspan3 rs422 localtalk sharp ask infrared modem and telephone dock attachment colspan4 rs422 localtalk sharp ask infrared rs422 localtalk sharp ask infrared rs422 localtalk infrared ardis network rs232 localtalk wlan v22bis modem analogdigital cellular cdpd ram ardis trunk radio rs232 localtalk cdpd wlan optional dgps gsm or ir via modular attachments rs422 localtalk sharp ask infrared irda headphone port interconnect port localtalk audio io autodock dualmode irirda sharp ask localtalk audio io autodock phone io dualmode ir irda sharp ask localtalk audio io autodock colspan3 dualmode irirda sharp ask localtalk audio io autodock phone io dualmode irirda sharp ask localtalk audio io autodock phone io pcmcia colspan13 1 pcmciaslot ii 5v or 12v 1 pcmciaslot iiiiii 5v colspan2 2 pcmciaslot ii 5v or 12v colspan2 1 pcmciaslot ii 5v or 12v 1 pcmciaslot ii 5v or 12v 2nd slot propriety rado card colspan2 1 pcmciaslot ii 5v or 12v 1 smart card reader power colspan5 4 aaa or nicd rechargeable or external power supply 4 aa or nicd rechargeable or external power supply 4 aaa or nicd rechargeable or external power supply 4 aa or nicd rechargeable or external power supply colspan2 nicd battery pack or external power supply 4 aa or nicd rechargeable or external power supply nicd battery pack or external power supply 4 aa or nicd rechargeable or external power supply nimh battery pack builtin or external power supply colspan2 4 aa or nimh rechargeable or external power supply colspan3 custom nimh rechargeable or external power supply unknown but likely external power supply 4 aa or nimh rechargeable or external power supply dimensions hxwxd lid open colspan2 lid open colspan2 9 x 145 x 51 inches 23 x 37 x 13 cm weight with batteries installed with batteries installed with batteries installed with batteries installed with batteries installed colspan2 varies with installed os notes the emate 300 actually has rom chips silk screened with 22 on them stephanie mak on her website discusses this if one removes all patches to the emate 300 by replacing the rom chip and then putting in the original one again as the emate and the messagepad 20002100 devices erase their memory completely after replacing the chip the result will be the newton os saying that this is version 2200 also the original messagepad and the messagepad 100 share the same model number as they only differ in the rom chip version the omp has os versions 10 to 105 or 110 to 111 while the mp100 has 13 that can be upgraded with various patches timeline third party licenses the newton os was also licensed to a number of third party developers including sharp and motorola who developed additional pda devices based on the newton platform motorola added wireless connectivity as well as made a unique twopart design and shipped additional software with its newton device called the marco sharp developed a line of newton devices called the expertpad pi70007100 those were the same as apples messagepad and messagepad 100 the only difference is the physical design the expertpads feature a screen lid which apple added in 1994 with the release of the messagepad 110 and the naming other uses there were a number of projects that used the newton as a portable information device in cultural settings such as museums for example visible interactive created a walking tour in san franciscos chinatown but the most significant effort took place in malaysia at the petronas discovery center known as petrosains in 1995 an exhibit design firm dmcd inc was awarded the contract to design a new science museum in the petronas towers in kuala lumpur a major factor in the award was the concept that visitors would use a newton device to access additional information find out where they were in the museum listen to audio see animations control robots and other media and to bookmark information for printout at the end of the exhibit the device became known as the arif a malay word for wise man or seer and it was also an acronym for a resourceful informative friend some 400 arifs were installed and over 300 are still in use today the development of the arif system was extremely complex and required a team of hardware and software engineers designers and writers arif is an ancestor of the pda systems used in museums today and it boasted features that have not been attempted since anyway company firm was involved with the petronas discovery center project back in 1998 and ndas were signed which prevents getting to know more information about this project it was confirmed that they purchased of mp2000u or mp2100s by this firm on the behalf of the project under the name of petrosains project account by 1998 they had invested heavily into the rd of this project with the newton at the center after apple officially cancelled the newton in 1998 they had to acquire as many newtons as possible for this project it was estimated initially 1000 newtons but later readjusted the figure to possibly 750 newtons they placed an internet call for newtons they purchased them in large and small quantities the newton was also used in healthcare applications for example in collecting data directly from patients newtons were used as electronic diaries with patients entering their symptoms and other information concerning their health status on a daily basis the compact size of the device and its ease of use made it possible for the electronic diaries to be carried around and used in the patients everyday life setting this was an early example of electronic patientreported outcomes epro see also newton platform newton os emate 300 newtonscript orphaned technology pen computing references bibliography apples press release on the debut of the messagepad 2100 apples overview of features limitations of newton connection utilities newton overview at newton source archived from apple newton faq newton gallery birth of the newton the newton hall of fame people behind the newton pen computings why did apple kill the newton pen computings newton notes column archive ai magazine article by yaeger on newton hwr design algorithms quality associated slides info on newton hwr from apples hwr technical lead notes on the history of penbased computing this links to external links additional resources and information defying gravity the making of newton by kounalakis menuez hardcover hardcover 192 pages publisher beyond words publishing october 1993 complete developers manual for the strongarm sa110 beginners overview of the strongarm sa110 microprocessor reviews messagepad 2000 review at the history and macintosh society prof wittmanns collection of newton messagepad reviews apple newton products introduced in 1993 apple inc personal digital assistants	3,743
888	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.%20E.%20van%20Vogt	A. E. van Vogt	alfred elton van vogt april 26 1912 january 26 2000 was a canadianborn american science fiction author his fragmented bizarre narrative style influenced later science fiction writers notably philip k dick he was one of the most popular and influential practitioners of science fiction in the midtwentieth century the genres socalled golden age and one of the most complex the science fiction writers of america named him their 14th grand master in 1995 presented 1996 early life alfred vogt both elton and van were added much later was born on april 26 1912 on his grandparents farm in edenburg manitoba a tiny and now defunct russian mennonite community east of gretna manitoba canada in the mennonite west reserve he was the third of six children born to heinrich henry vogt and aganetha agnes vogt née buhr both of whom were born in manitoba and grew up in heavily immigrant communities until he was four van vogt spoke only plautdietsch at home for the first dozen or so years of his life van vogts father henry vogt a lawyer moved his family several times within western canada moving to neville saskatchewan morden manitoba and finally winnipeg manitoba alfred vogt found these moves difficult later remarking by the 1920s living in winnipeg father henry worked as an agent for a steamship company but the stock market crash of 1929 proved financially disastrous and the family could not afford to send alfred to college during his teen years alfred worked as a farmhand and a truck driver and by the age of 19 he was working in ottawa for the canadian census bureau in the dark days of 31 and 32 van vogt took a correspondence course in writing from the palmer institute of authorship he sold his first story in fall 1932 his early published works were stories in the true confession style of magazines such as true story most of these stories were published anonymously with the firstperson narratives allegedly being written by people often women in extraordinary emotional and lifechanging circumstances after a year in ottawa he moved back to winnipeg where he sold newspaper advertising space and continued to write while continuing to pen melodramatic true confessions stories through 1937 he also began writing short radio dramas for local radio station cky as well as conducting interviews published in trade magazines he added the middle name elton at some point in the mid1930s and at least one confessional story 1937s to be his keeper was sold to the toronto star who misspelled his name alfred alton bogt in the byline shortly thereafter he added the van to his surname and from that point forward he used the name a e van vogt both personally and professionally career by 1938 van vogt decided to switch to writing science fiction a genre he enjoyed reading he was inspired by the august 1938 issue of astounding science fiction which he picked up at a newsstand john w campbells novelette who goes there later adapted into the thing from another world and the thing inspired van vogt to write vault of the beast which he submitted to that same magazine campbell who edited astounding and had written the story under a pseudonym sent van vogt a rejection letter in which campbell encouraged van vogt to try again van vogt sent another story entitled black destroyer which was accepted it featured a fierce carnivorous alien stalking the crew of a spaceship and served as the inspiration for multiple science fiction movies including alien 1979 a revised version of vault of the beast was published in 1940 while still living in winnipeg in 1939 van vogt married edna mayne hull a fellow manitoban hull who had previously worked as a private secretary went on to act as van vogts typist and was credited with writing several sf stories of her own throughout the early 1940s the outbreak of world war ii in september 1939 caused a change in van vogts circumstances ineligible for military service due to his poor eyesight he accepted a clerking job with the canadian department of national defence this necessitated a move back to ottawa where he and his wife stayed for the next year and a half meanwhile his writing career continued discord in scarlet was van vogts second story to be published also appearing as the cover story it was accompanied by interior illustrations created by frank kramer and paul orban van vogt and kramer thus debuted in the issue of astounding that is sometimes identified as the start of the golden age of science fiction among his most famous works of this era far centaurus appeared in the january 1944 edition of astounding van vogts first completed novel and one of his most famous is slan arkham house 1946 which campbell serialized in astounding september to december 1940 using what became one of van vogts recurring themes it told the story of a nineyearold superman living in a world in which his kind are slain by homo sapiens others saw van vogts talent from his first story and in may 1941 van vogt decided to become a fulltime writer quitting his job at the canadian department of national defence freed from the necessity of living in ottawa he and his wife lived for a time in the gatineau region of quebec before moving to toronto in the fall of 1941 prolific throughout this period van vogt wrote many of his more famous short stories and novels in the years from 1941 through 1944 the novels the book of ptath and the weapon makers both appeared in magazines in serial form during this period they were later published in book form after world war ii as well several though not all of the stories that were compiled to make up the novels the weapon shops of isher the mixed men and the war against the rull were published during this time california and postwar writing 19441950 in november 1944 van vogt and hull moved to hollywood van vogt would spend the rest of his life in california he had been using the name a e van vogt in his public life for several years and as part of the process of obtaining american citizenship in 1945 he finally and formally changed his legal name from alfred vogt to alfred elton van vogt to his friends in the california science fiction community he was known as van method and themes van vogt systematized his writing method using scenes of 800 words or so where a new complication was added or something resolved several of his stories hinge on temporal conundra a favorite theme he stated that he acquired many of his writing techniques from three books narrative technique by thomas uzzell the only two ways to write a story by john gallishaw and twenty problems of the fiction writer by gallishaw he also claimed many of his ideas came from dreams throughout his writing life he arranged to be awakened every 90 minutes during his sleep period so he could write down his dreams van vogt was also always interested in the idea of allencompassing systems of knowledge akin to modern metasystems the characters in his very first story used a system called nexialism to analyze the aliens behavior around this time he became particularly interested in the general semantics of alfred korzybski he subsequently wrote a novel merging these overarching themes the world of ā originally serialized in astounding in 1945 ā often rendered as nulla or nonaristotelian logic refers to the capacity for and practice of using intuitive inductive reasoning compare fuzzy logic rather than reflexive or conditioned deductive reasoning the novel recounts the adventures of an individual living in an apparent utopia where those with superior brainpower make up the ruling class though all is not as it seems a sequel the players of ā later retitled the pawns of nulla was serialized in 194849 at the same time in his fiction van vogt was consistently sympathetic to absolute monarchy as a form of government this was the case for instance in the weapon shop series the mixed men series and in single stories such as heir apparent 1945 whose protagonist was described as a benevolent dictator these sympathies were the subject of much critical discussion during van vogts career and afterwards van vogt published enchanted village in the july 1950 issue of other worlds science stories it was reprinted in over 20 collections or anthologies and appeared many times in translation dianetics and fixups 19501961 in 1950 van vogt was briefly appointed as head of l ron hubbards dianetics operation in california van vogt had first met hubbard in 1945 and became interested in his theories which were published shortly thereafter dianetics was the secular precursor to hubbards church of scientology van vogt would have no association with scientology as he did not approve of its mysticism the california dianetics operation went broke nine months later but never went bankrupt due to van vogts arrangements with creditors shortly afterward van vogt and his wife opened their own dianetics center partly financed by his writings until he signed off around 1961 from 1951 until 1961 van vogts focus was on dianetics and no new story ideas flowed from his typewriter fixups however during the 1950s van vogt retrospectively patched together many of his previously published stories into novels sometimes creating new interstitial material to help bridge gaps in the narrative van vogt referred to the resulting books as fixups a term that entered the vocabulary of sciencefiction criticism when the original stories were closely related this was often successful although some van vogt fixups featured disparate stories thrown together that bore little relation to each other generally making for a less coherent plot one of his bestknown and wellregarded novels the voyage of the space beagle 1950 was a fixup of four short stories including discord in scarlet it was published in at least five european languages by 1955 although van vogt averaged a new book title every ten months from 1951 to 1961 none of them were entirely new content they were all fixups collections of previously published stories expansions of previously published short stories to novel length or republications of previous books under new titles and all based on story material written and originally published between 1939 and 1950 examples include the weapon shops of isher 1951 the mixed men 1952 the war against the rull 1959 and the two clane novels empire of the atom 1957 and the wizard of linn 1962 which were inspired like asimovs foundation series by roman imperial history specifically as damon knight wrote the plot of empire of the atom was lifted almost bodily from that of robert graves i claudius also one nonfiction work the hypnotism handbook appeared in 1956 though it had apparently been written much earlier after more than a decade of running their dianetics center hull and van vogt closed it in 1961 nevertheless van vogt maintained his association with the organization and was still president of the californian association of dianetic auditors into the 1980s return to writing and later career 19621986 though the constant repackaging of his older work meant that he had never really been away from the book publishing world van vogt had not published any wholly new fiction for almost 12 years when he decided to return to writing in 1962 he did not return immediately to science fiction but instead wrote the only mainstream nonsf novel of his career van vogt was profoundly affected by revelations of totalitarian police states that emerged after world war ii accordingly he wrote a mainstream novel that he set in communist china the violent man 1962 van vogt explained that to research this book he had read 100 books about china into this book he incorporated his view of the violent male type which he described as a man who had to be right a man who instantly attracts women and who he said were the men who run the world contemporary reviews were lukewarm at best and van vogt thereafter returned to science fiction from 1963 through the mid1980s van vogt once again published new material on a regular basis though fixups and reworked material also appeared relatively often his later novels included fixups such as the beast also known as moonbeast 1963 rogue ship 1965 quest for the future 1970 and supermind 1977 he also wrote novels by expanding previously published short stories works of this type include the darkness on diamondia 1972 and future glitter also known as tyranopolis 1973 novels that were written simply as novels and not serialized magazine pieces or fixups had been very rare in van vogts oeuvre but began to appear regularly beginning in the 1970s van vogts original novels included children of tomorrow 1970 the battle of forever 1971 and the anarchistic colossus 1977 over the years many sequels to his classic works were promised but only one appeared nulla three 1984 originally published in french several later books were initially published in europe and at least one novel only ever appeared in foreign language editions and was never published in its original english final years when the 1979 film alien appeared it was noted that the plot closely matched the plots of both black destroyer and discord in scarlet both published in astounding magazine in 1939 and then later published in the 1950 book voyage of the space beagle van vogt sued the production company for plagiarism and eventually collected an outofcourt settlement of 50000 from 20th century fox in increasingly frail health van vogt published his final short story in 1986 personal life van vogts first wife edna mayne hull died in 1975 van vogt married lydia bereginsky in 1979 they remained together until his death death on january 26 2000 a e van vogt died in los angeles from alzheimers disease he was survived by his second wife critical reception critical opinion about the quality of van vogts work is sharply divided an early and articulate critic was damon knight in a 1945 chapterlong essay reprinted in in search of wonder entitled cosmic jerrybuilder a e van vogt knight described van vogt as no giant he is a pygmy who has learned to operate an overgrown typewriter knight described the world of nulla as one of the worst allegedly adult science fiction stories ever published concerning van vogts writing knight said about empire of the atom knight wrote knight also expressed misgivings about van vogts politics he noted that van vogts stories almost invariably present absolute monarchy in a favorable light in 1974 knight retracted some of his criticism after finding out about vogts writing down his dreams as a part of his working methods knights criticism greatly damaged van vogts reputation on the other hand when science fiction author philip k dick was asked which science fiction writers had influenced his work the most he replied dick also defended van vogt against damon knights criticisms in a review of transfinite the essential a e van vogt science fiction writer paul di filippo said in the john w campbell letters campbell says the sonofagun gets hold of you in the first paragraph ties a knot around you and keeps it tied in every paragraph thereafterincluding the ultimate last one harlan ellison who had begun reading van vogt as a teenager wrote van was the first writer to shine light on the restricted ways in which i had been taught to view the universe and the human condition writing in 1984 david hartwell said the literary critic leslie a fiedler said something similar american literary critic fredric jameson says of van vogt van vogt still has his critics for example darrell schweitzer writing to the new york review of science fiction in 1999 quoted a passage from the original van vogt novelette the mixed men which he was then reading and remarked recognition in 1946 van vogt and his first wife edna mayne hull were guests of honor at the fourth world science fiction convention in 1980 van vogt received a casper award precursor to the canadian prix aurora awards for lifetime achievement the science fiction writers of america sfwa named him its 14th grand master in 1995 presented 1996 great controversy within sfwa accompanied its long wait in bestowing its highest honor limited to living writers no more than one annually writing an obituary of van vogt robert j sawyer a fellow canadian writer of science fiction remarked it is generally held that a key factor in the delay was damnable sfwa politics reflecting the concerns of damon knight the founder of the sfwa who abhorred van vogts style and politics and thoroughly demolished his literary reputation in the 1950s harlan ellison was more explicit in 1999 introduction to futures past the best short fiction of a e van vogt in 1996 van vogt received a special award from the world science fiction convention for six decades of golden age science fiction that same year the science fiction and fantasy hall of fame inducted him in its inaugural class of two deceased and two living persons along with writer jack williamson also living and editors hugo gernsback and john w campbell the works of van vogt were translated into french by the surrealist boris vian the world of nulla as le monde des å in 1958 and van vogts works were viewed as great literature of the surrealist school in addition slan was published in french translated by jean rosenthal under the title à la poursuite des slans as part of the paperback series editions jai lu romanstexte integral in 1973 this edition also listing the following works by van vogt as having been published in french as part of this series le monde des å la faune de lespace les joueurs du å lempire de latome le sorcier de linn les armureries disher les fabricants darmes and le livre de ptath works novels and novellas special works published as books planets for sale by e mayne hull 1954 a fixup of five stories by hull originally published 1942 to 1946 certain later editions from 1965 credit both authors the enchanted village 1979 a 25page chapbook of a short story originally published in 1950 slan hunter by kevin j anderson 2007 a sequel to slan based an unfinished draft by van vogt nulla continuum by john c wright 2008 an authorized continuation of the nulla series which ignored the events of nulla three collections out of the unknown 1948 with edna mayne hull masters of time 1950 aka recruiting station also includes the changeling both works were later published separately triad 1951 omnibus of the world of null a the voyage of the space beagle slan away and beyond 1952 abridged in paperback in 1959 abridged differently in paperback in 1963 destination universe 1952 the twisted men 1964 monsters 1965 later as sf monsters 1967 abridged as the blal 1976 a van vogt omnibus 1967 omnibus of planets for sale with edna mayne hull the beast the book of ptath the far out worlds of van vogt 1968 the sea thing and other stories 1970 expanded from out of the unknown by adding an original story by hull later abridged in paperback as out of the unknown by removing 2 of the stories m33 in andromeda 1971 more than superhuman 1971 the proxy intelligence and other mind benders with edna mayne hull 1971 revised as the gryb 1976 van vogt omnibus 2 1971 omnibus of the mind cage the winged man with edna mayne hull slan the book of van vogt 1972 also published as lost fifty suns 1979 the three eyes of evil including earths last fortress 1973 the best of a e van vogt 1974 later split into 2 volumes the worlds of a e van vogt 1974 expanded from the far out worlds of van vogt by adding 3 stories the best of a e van vogt 1976 differs to 1974 edition away and beyond 1977 pendulum 1978 almost all original stories and articles tales from the vulgar unicorn1980 one short story by van vogt in a fantasy anthology by various authors futures past the best short fiction of ae van vogt 1999 transfinite the essential ae van vogt 2002 transgalactic 2006 nonfiction the hypnotism handbook 1956 griffin publishing company with charles edward cooke the money personality 1972 parker publishing company inc west nyack ny reflections of a e van vogt the autobiography of a science fiction giant 1979 fictioneer books ltd lakemont ga a report on the violent male 1992 paupers press uk see also explanatory notes citations general and cited references external links sevagram the ae van vogt information site obituary at locus writers a e van vogt 19122000 canada bibliography at scifan a e van vogt papers ms 322 at the kenneth spencer research library university of kansas a e van vogts fiction at free speculative fiction online 1912 births 2000 deaths 20thcentury american male writers 20thcentury american novelists 20thcentury american short story writers 20thcentury canadian male writers 20thcentury canadian short story writers american male novelists american male short story writers american science fiction writers analog science fiction and fact people canadian mennonites canadian emigrants to the united states canadian male novelists canadian male short story writers canadian science fiction writers deaths from alzheimers disease deaths from dementia in california mennonite writers pulp fiction writers sfwa grand masters science fiction hall of fame inductees weird fiction writers writers from winnipeg	3,605
890	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anna%20Kournikova	Anna Kournikova	anna sergeyevna kournikova born 7 june 1981 is a russian former professional tennis player and american television personality her appearance and celebrity status made her one of the best known tennis stars worldwide at the peak of her fame fans looking for images of kournikova made her name one of the most common search strings on google search despite never winning a singles title she reached no 8 in the world in 2000 she achieved greater success playing doubles where she was at times the world no 1 player with martina hingis as her partner she won grand slam titles in australia in 1999 and 2002 and the wta championships in 1999 and 2000 they referred to themselves as the spice girls of tennis kournikova retired from professional tennis in 2003 due to serious back and spinal problems including a herniated disk she lives in miami beach florida and played in occasional exhibitions and in doubles for the st louis aces of world team tennis before the team folded in 2011 she was a new trainer for season 12 of the television show the biggest loser replacing jillian michaels but did not return for season 13 in addition to her tennis and television work kournikova serves as a global ambassador for population services internationals five alive program which addresses health crises facing children under the age of five and their families early life kournikova was born in moscow russia on 7 june 1981 her father sergei kournikov born 1961 a former grecoroman wrestling champion eventually earned a phd and was a professor at the university of physical culture and sport in moscow as of 2001 he was still a parttime martial arts instructor there her mother alla born 1963 had been a 400metre runner her younger halfbrother allan is a youth golf world champion who was featured in the 2013 documentary film the short game sergei kournikov has said we were young and we liked the clean physical life so anna was in a good environment for sport from the beginning kournikova received her first tennis racquet as a new year gift in 1986 at the age of five describing her early regimen she said i played two times a week from age six it was a childrens program and it was just for fun my parents didnt know i was going to play professionally they just wanted me to do something because i had lots of energy it was only when i started playing well at seven that i went to a professional academy i would go to school and then my parents would take me to the club and id spend the rest of the day there just having fun with the kids in 1986 kournikova became a member of the spartak tennis club coached by larissa preobrazhenskaya in 1989 at the age of eight kournikova began appearing in junior tournaments and by the following year was attracting attention from tennis scouts across the world she signed a management deal at age ten and went to bradenton florida to train at nick bollettieris celebrated tennis academy tennis career 19891997 early years and breakthrough following her arrival in the united states she became prominent on the tennis scene at the age of 14 she won the european championships and the italian open junior tournament in december 1995 she became the youngest player to win the 18andunder division of the junior orange bowl tennis tournament by the end of the year kournikova was crowned the itf junior world champion u18 and junior european champion u18 earlier in september 1995 kournikova still only 14 years of age debuted in the wta tour when she received a wildcard into the qualifications at the wta tournament in moscow the moscow ladies open and qualified before losing in the second round of the main draw to thirdseeded sabine appelmans she also reached her first wta tour doubles final in that debut appearance partnering with 1995 wimbledon girls champion in both singles and doubles aleksandra olsza she lost the title match to meredith mcgrath and larisa savchenkoneiland in februarymarch 1996 kournikova won two itf titles in midland michigan and rockford illinois still only 14 years of age in april 1996 she debuted at the fed cup for russia the youngest player ever to participate and win a match in 1996 she started playing under a new coach ed nagel her sixyear association with nagel was successful at 15 she made her grand slam debut reaching the fourth round of the 1996 us open losing to steffi graf the eventual champion after this tournament kournikovas ranking jumped from no 144 to debut in the top 100 at no 69 kournikova was a member of the russian delegation to the 1996 olympic games in atlanta georgia in 1996 she was named wta newcomer of the year and she was ranked no 57 in the end of the season kournikova entered the 1997 australian open as world no 67 where she lost in the first round to world no 12 amanda coetzer at the italian open kournikova lost to amanda coetzer in the second round she reached the semifinals in the doubles partnering with elena likhovtseva before losing to the sixth seeds mary joe fernández and patricia tarabini at the french open kournikova made it to the third round before losing to world no 1 martina hingis she also reached the third round in doubles with likhovtseva at the wimbledon championships kournikova became only the second woman in the open era to reach the semifinals in her wimbledon debut the first being chris evert in 1972 there she lost to eventual champion martina hingis at the us open she lost in the second round to the eleventh seed irina spîrlea partnering with likhovtseva she reached the third round of the womens doubles event kournikova played her last wta tour event of 1997 at porsche tennis grand prix in filderstadt losing to amanda coetzer in the second round of singles and in the first round of doubles to lindsay davenport and jana novotná partnering with likhovtseva she broke into the top 50 on 19 may and was ranked no 32 in singles and no 41 in doubles at the end of the season 19982000 success and stardom in 1998 kournikova broke into the wtas top 20 rankings for the first time when she was ranked no 16 at the australian open kournikova lost in the third round to world no 1 player martina hingis she also partnered with larisa savchenkoneiland in womens doubles and they lost to eventual champions hingis and mirjana lučić in the second round although she lost in the second round of the paris open to anke huber in singles kournikova reached her second doubles wta tour final partnering with larisa savchenkoneiland they lost to sabine appelmans and miriam oremans kournikova and savchenkoneiland reached their second consecutive final at the linz open losing to alexandra fusai and nathalie tauziat at the miami open kournikova reached her first wta tour singles final before losing to venus williams in the final kournikova then reached two consecutive quarterfinals at amelia island and the italian open losing respectively to lindsay davenport and martina hingis at the german open she reached the semifinals in both singles and doubles partnering with larisa savchenkoneiland at the french open kournikova had her best result at this tournament making it to the fourth round before losing to jana novotná she also reached her first grand slam doubles semifinals losing with savchenkoneiland to lindsay davenport and natasha zvereva during her quarterfinals match at the grasscourt eastbourne open versus steffi graf kournikova injured her thumb which would eventually force her to withdraw from the 1998 wimbledon championships however she won that match but then withdrew from her semifinals match against arantxa sánchez vicario kournikova returned for the du maurier open and made it to the third round before losing to conchita martínez at the us open kournikova reached the fourth round before losing to arantxa sánchez vicario her strong year qualified her for the yearend 1998 wta tour championships but she lost to monica seles in the first round however with seles she won her first wta doubles title in tokyo beating mary joe fernández and arantxa sánchez vicario in the final at the end of the season she was ranked no 10 in doubles at the start of the 1999 season kournikova advanced to the fourth round in singles at the australian open before losing to mary pierce in the doubles kournikova won her first grand slam title partnering with martina hingis to defeat lindsay davenport and natasha zvereva in the final at the tier i family circle cup kournikova reached her second wta tour final but lost to martina hingis she then defeated jennifer capriati lindsay davenport and patty schnyder on her route to the bausch lomb championships semifinals losing to ruxandra dragomir at the french open kournikova reached the fourth round before losing to eventual champion steffi graf once the grasscourt season commenced in england kournikova lost to nathalie tauziat in the semifinals in eastbourne at wimbledon kournikova lost to venus williams in the fourth round she also reached the final in mixed doubles partnering with jonas björkman but they lost to leander paes and lisa raymond kournikova again qualified for yearend wta tour championships but lost to mary pierce in the first round and ended the season as world no 12 while kournikova had a successful singles season she was even more successful in doubles after their victory at the australian open she and martina hingis won tournaments in indian wells rome eastbourne and the wta tour championships and reached the final of the french open where they lost to serena and venus williams partnering with elena likhovtseva kournikova also reached the final in stanford on 22 november 1999 she reached the world no 1 ranking in doubles and ended the season at this ranking kournikova and hingis were presented with the wta award for doubles team of the year kournikova opened her 2000 season winning the gold coast open doubles tournament partnering with julie halard she then reached the singles semifinals at the medibank international sydney losing to lindsay davenport at the australian open she reached the fourth round in singles and the semifinals in doubles that season kournikova reached eight semifinals sydney scottsdale stanford san diego luxembourg leipzig and tour championships seven quarterfinals gold coast tokyo amelia island hamburg eastbourne zürich and philadelphia and one final on 20 november 2000 she broke into top 10 for the first time reaching no 8 she was also ranked no 4 in doubles at the end of the season kournikova was once again more successful in doubles she reached the final of the us open in mixed doubles partnering with max mirnyi but they lost to jared palmer and arantxa sánchez vicario she also won six doubles titles gold coast with julie halard hamburg with natasha zvereva filderstadt zürich philadelphia and the tour championships with martina hingis 20012003 injuries and final years her 2001 season was plagued by injuries including a left foot stress fracture which made her withdraw from 12 tournaments including the french open and wimbledon she underwent surgery in april she reached her second career grand slam quarterfinals at the australian open kournikova then withdrew from several events due to continuing problems with her left foot and did not return until leipzig with barbara schett she won the doubles title in sydney she then lost in the finals in tokyo partnering with iroda tulyaganova and at san diego partnering with martina hingis hingis and kournikova also won the kremlin cup at the end of the 2001 season she was ranked no 74 in singles and no 26 in doubles kournikova regained some success in 2002 she reached the semifinals of auckland tokyo acapulco and san diego and the final of the china open losing to anna smashnova this was kournikovas last singles final with martina hingis she lost in the final at sydney but they won their second grand slam title together the australian open they also lost in the quarterfinals of the us open with chanda rubin kournikova played the semifinals of wimbledon but they lost to serena and venus williams partnering with janet lee she won the shanghai title at the end of 2002 season she was ranked no 35 in singles and no 11 in doubles in 2003 anna kournikova achieved her first grand slam match victory in two years at the australian open she defeated henrieta nagyová in the first round and then lost to justine heninhardenne in the 2nd round she withdrew from tokyo due to a sprained back suffered at the australian open and did not return to tour until miami on 9 april in what would be the final wta match of her career kournikova dropped out in the first round of the family circle cup in charleston due to a left adductor strain her singles world ranking was 67 she reached the semifinals at the itf tournament in sea island before withdrawing from a match versus maria sharapova due to the adductor injury she lost in the first round of the itf tournament in charlottesville she did not compete for the rest of the season due to a continuing back injury at the end of the 2003 season and her professional career she was ranked no 305 in singles and no 176 in doubles kournikovas two grand slam doubles titles came in 1999 and 2002 both at the australian open in the womens doubles event with partner martina hingis kournikova proved a successful doubles player on the professional circuit winning 16 tournament doubles titles including two australian opens and being a finalist in mixed doubles at the us open and at wimbledon and reaching the no 1 ranking in doubles in the wta tour rankings her pro career doubles record was 20071 however her singles career plateaued after 1999 for the most part she managed to retain her ranking between 10 and 15 her career high singles ranking was no8 but her expected finals breakthrough failed to occur she only reached four finals out of 130 singles tournaments never in a grand slam event and never won one her singles record is 209129 her final playing years were marred by a string of injuries especially back injuries which caused her ranking to erode gradually as a personality kournikova was among the most common search strings for both articles and images in her prime 2004present exhibitions and world team tennis kournikova has not played on the wta tour since 2003 but still plays exhibition matches for charitable causes in late 2004 she participated in three events organized by elton john and by fellow tennis players serena williams and andy roddick in january 2005 she played in a doubles charity event for the indian ocean tsunami with john mcenroe andy roddick and chris evert in november 2005 she teamed up with martina hingis playing against lisa raymond and samantha stosur in the wtt finals for charity kournikova is also a member of the st louis aces in the world team tennis wtt playing doubles only in september 2008 kournikova showed up for the 2008 nautica malibu triathlon held at zuma beach in malibu california the race raised funds for childrens hospital los angeles she won that race for womens kswiss team on 27 september 2008 kournikova played exhibition mixed doubles matches in charlotte north carolina partnering with tim wilkison and karel nováček kournikova and wilkison defeated jimmy arias and chanda rubin and then kournikova and novacek defeated rubin and wilkison on 12 october 2008 anna kournikova played one exhibition match for the annual charity event hosted by billie jean king and elton john and raised more than 400000 for the elton john aids foundation and atlanta aids partnership fund she played doubles with andy roddick they were coached by david chang versus martina navratilova and jesse levine coached by billie jean king kournikova and roddick won kournikova was one of four former world no 1 players who participated in legendary night held on 2 may 2009 at the turning stone event center in verona new york the others being john mcenroe who had been no 1 in both singles and doubles tracy austin and jim courier both of whom who had been no 1 in singles but not doubles the exhibition included a mixed doubles match in which mcenroe and kournikova defeated courier and austin in 2008 she was named a spokesperson for kswiss in 2005 kournikova stated that if she were 100 fit she would like to come back and compete again in june 2010 kournikova reunited with her doubles partner martina hingis to participate in competitive tennis for the first time in seven years in the invitational ladies doubles event at wimbledon on 29 june 2010 they defeated the british pair samantha smith and anne hobbs playing style kournikova plays righthanded with a twohanded backhand she is a great player at the net she can hit forceful groundstrokes and also drop shots her playing style fits the profile for a doubles player and is complemented by her height she has been compared to such doubles specialists as pam shriver and peter fleming personal life kournikova was in a relationship with fellow russian pavel bure an nhl ice hockey player the two met in 1999 when kournikova was still linked to bures former russian teammate sergei fedorov bure and kournikova were reported to have been engaged in 2000 after a reporter took a photo of them together in a florida restaurant where bure supposedly asked kournikova to marry him as the story made headlines in russia where they were both heavily followed in the media as celebrities bure and kournikova both denied any engagement kournikova 10 years younger than bure was 18 years old at the time fedorov claimed that he and kournikova were married in 2001 and divorced in 2003 kournikovas representatives deny any marriage to fedorov however fedorovs agent pat brisson claims that although he does not know when they got married he knew fedorov was married kournikova started dating singer enrique iglesias in late 2001 after she had appeared in his music video for escape the couple have three children together fraternal twins a son and daughter born on 16 december 2017 and another daughter born on 30 january 2020 it was reported in 2010 that kournikova had become an american citizen media publicity in 2000 kournikova became the new face for berleis shock absorber sports bras and appeared in the only the ball should bounce billboard campaign following that she was cast by the farrelly brothers for a minor role in the 2000 film me myself irene starring jim carrey and renée zellweger photographs of her have appeared on covers of various publications including mens magazines such as one in the muchpublicized 2004 sports illustrated swimsuit issue where she posed in bikinis and swimsuits as well as in fhm and maxim kournikova was named one of peoples 50 most beautiful people in 1998 and was voted hottest female athlete on espncom in 2002 she also placed first in fhms 100 sexiest women in the world in us and uk editions by contrast espn citing the degree of hype as compared to actual accomplishments as a singles player ranked kournikova 18th in its 25 biggest sports flops of the past 25 years kournikova was also ranked no 1 in the espn classic series whos number 1 when the series featured sports most overrated athletes she continued to be the most searched athlete on the internet through 2008 even though she had retired from the professional tennis circuit years earlier after slipping from first to sixth among athletes in 2009 she moved back up to third place among athletes in terms of search popularity in 2010 in october 2010 kournikova headed to nbcs the biggest loser where she led the contestants in a tennisworkout challenge in may 2011 it was announced that kournikova would join the biggest loser as a regular celebrity trainer in season 12 she did not return for season 13 legacy and influence on popular culture a variation of a white russian made with skim milk is known as an anna kournikova a video game featuring kournikovas licensed appearance titled anna kournikovas smash court tennis was developed by namco and released for the playstation in japan and europe in november 1998 a computer virus named after her spread worldwide beginning on 12 february 2001 infecting computers through email in a matter of hours career statistics and awards doubles performance timeline grand slam tournament finals doubles 3 21 mixed doubles 2 02 awards 1996 wta newcomer of the year 1999 wta doubles team of the year with martina hingis books anna kournikova by susan holden 2001 anna kournikova by connie berman 2001 women who win references external links 1981 births australian open tennis champions grand slam tennis champions in womens doubles iglesias family itf world champions living people olympic tennis players for russia participants in american reality television series people with acquired american citizenship russian emigrants to the united states russian female models russian models russian female tennis players russian socialites sportspeople from miamidade county florida tennis players at the 1996 summer olympics tennis players from moscow wta number 1 ranked doubles tennis players	3,574
892	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfons%20Maria%20Jakob	Alfons Maria Jakob	alfons maria jakob 2 july 1884 17 october 1931 was a german neurologist who worked in the field of neuropathology he was born in aschaffenburg bavaria and educated in medicine at the universities of munich berlin and strasbourg where he received his doctorate in 1908 during the following year he began clinical work under the psychiatrist emil kraepelin and did laboratory work with franz nissl and alois alzheimer in munich in 1911 by way of an invitation from wilhelm weygandt he relocated to hamburg where he worked with theodor kaes and eventually became head of the laboratory of anatomical pathology at the psychiatric state hospital hamburgfriedrichsberg following the death of kaes in 1913 jakob succeeded him as prosector during world war i he served as an army physician in belgium and afterwards returned to hamburg in 1919 he obtained his habilitation for neurology and in 1924 became a professor of neurology under jakobs guidance the department grew rapidly he made significant contributions to knowledge on concussion and secondary nerve degeneration and became a doyen of neuropathology jakob was the author of five monographs and nearly 80 scientific papers his neuropathological research contributed greatly to the delineation of several diseases including multiple sclerosis and friedreichs ataxia he first recognised and described alpers disease and creutzfeldtjakob disease named along with munich neuropathologist hans gerhard creutzfeldt he gained experience in neurosyphilis having a 200bed ward devoted entirely to that disorder jakob made a lecture tour of the united states 1924 and south america 1928 of which he wrote a paper on the neuropathology of yellow fever he suffered from chronic osteomyelitis for the last seven years of his life this eventually caused a retroperitoneal abscess and paralytic ileus from which he died following operation associated eponym creutzfeldtjakob disease a very rare and incurable degenerative neurological disease it is the most common form of transmissible spongiform encephalopathies caused by prions eponym introduced by walther spielmeyer in 1922 bibliography die extrapyramidalen erkrankungen in monographien aus dem gesamtgebiete der neurologie und psychiatry berlin 1923 normale und pathologische anatomie und histologie des grosshirns separate printing of handbuch der psychiatry leipzig 19271928 das kleinhirn in handbuch der mikroskopischen anatomie berlin 1928 die syphilis des gehirns und seiner häute in oswald bumke edit handbuch der geisteskrankheiten berlin 1930 references people from aschaffenburg academic staff of the university of hamburg german neurologists german neuroscientists 1884 births 1931 deaths	398
894	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnosticism	Agnosticism	agnosticism is the view or belief that the existence of god of the divine or the supernatural is unknown or unknowable another definition provided is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that god exists or the belief that god does not exist the english biologist thomas henry huxley coined the word agnostic in 1869 his general definition was that it is wrong for a man to say that he is certain of the objective truth of any proposition unless he can produce evidence which logically justifies that certainty this is what agnosticism asserts and in my opinion it is all that is essential to agnosticism in response to the question is agnosticism in accord with modern science huxley said that agnosticism is of the essence of science whether ancient or modern it simply means that a man shall not say he knows or believes that which he has no scientific grounds for professing to know or believe earlier thinkers however had written works that promoted agnostic points of view such as sanjaya belatthaputta a 5thcentury bce indian philosopher who expressed agnosticism about any afterlife and protagoras a 5thcentury bce greek philosopher who expressed agnosticism about the existence of the gods defining agnosticism being a scientist above all else huxley presented agnosticism as a form of demarcation a hypothesis with no supporting objective testable evidence is not an objective scientific claim as such there would be no way to test said hypotheses leaving the results inconclusive his agnosticism was not compatible with forming a belief as to the truth or falsehood of the claim at hand karl popper would also describe himself as an agnostic according to philosopher william l rowe in this strict sense agnosticism is the view that human reason is incapable of providing sufficient rational grounds to justify either the belief that god exists or the belief that god does not exist george h smith while admitting that the narrow definition of atheist was the common usage definition of that word and admitting that the broad definition of agnostic was the common usage definition of that word promoted broadening the definition of atheist and narrowing the definition of agnostic smith rejects agnosticism as a third alternative to theism and atheism and promotes terms such as agnostic atheism the view of those who do not hold a belief in the existence of any deity but claim that the existence of a deity is unknown or inherently unknowable and agnostic theism the view of those who believe in the existence of a deitys but claim that the existence of a deity is unknown or inherently unknowable etymology agnostic was used by thomas henry huxley in a speech at a meeting of the metaphysical society in 1869 to describe his philosophy which rejects all claims of spiritual or mystical knowledge early christian church leaders used the greek word gnosis knowledge to describe spiritual knowledge agnosticism is not to be confused with religious views opposing the ancient religious movement of gnosticism in particular huxley used the term in a broader more abstract sense huxley identified agnosticism not as a creed but rather as a method of skeptical evidencebased inquiry the term agnostic is also cognate with the sanskrit word ajñasi which translates literally to not knowable and relates to the ancient indian philosophical school of ajñana which proposes that it is impossible to obtain knowledge of metaphysical nature or ascertain the truth value of philosophical propositions and even if knowledge was possible it is useless and disadvantageous for final salvation in recent years scientific literature dealing with neuroscience and psychology has used the word to mean not knowable in technical and marketing literature agnostic can also mean independence from some parametersfor example platform agnostic referring to crossplatform software or hardwareagnostic qualifying agnosticism scottish enlightenment philosopher david hume contended that meaningful statements about the universe are always qualified by some degree of doubt he asserted that the fallibility of human beings means that they cannot obtain absolute certainty except in trivial cases where a statement is true by definition eg tautologies such as all bachelors are unmarried or all triangles have three corners types strong agnosticism also called hard closed strict or permanent agnosticism the view that the question of the existence or nonexistence of a deity or deities and the nature of ultimate reality is unknowable by reason of our natural inability to verify any experience with anything but another subjective experience a strong agnostic would say i cannot know whether a deity exists or not and neither can you weak agnosticism also called soft open empirical hopeful or temporal agnosticism the view that the existence or nonexistence of any deities is currently unknown but is not necessarily unknowable therefore one will withhold judgment until evidence if any becomes available a weak agnostic would say i dont know whether any deities exist or not but maybe one day if there is evidence we can find something out apathetic agnosticism the view that no amount of debate can prove or disprove the existence of one or more deities and if one or more deities exist they do not appear to be concerned about the fate of humans therefore their existence has little to no impact on personal human affairs and should be of little interest an apathetic agnostic would say i dont know whether any deity exists or not and i dont care if any deity exists or not history hindu philosophy throughout the history of hinduism there has been a strong tradition of philosophic speculation and skepticism the rig veda takes an agnostic view on the fundamental question of how the universe and the gods were created nasadiya sukta creation hymn in the tenth chapter of the rig veda says hume kant and kierkegaard aristotle anselm aquinas descartes and gödel presented arguments attempting to rationally prove the existence of god the skeptical empiricism of david hume the antinomies of immanuel kant and the existential philosophy of søren kierkegaard convinced many later philosophers to abandon these attempts regarding it impossible to construct any unassailable proof for the existence or nonexistence of god in his 1844 book philosophical fragments kierkegaard writes hume was huxleys favourite philosopher calling him the prince of agnostics diderot wrote to his mistress telling of a visit by hume to the baron dholbach and describing how a word for the position that huxley would later describe as agnosticism did not seem to exist or at least was not common knowledge at the time united kingdom charles darwin raised in a religious environment charles darwin 18091882 studied to be an anglican clergyman while eventually doubting parts of his faith darwin continued to help in church affairs even while avoiding church attendance darwin stated that it would be absurd to doubt that a man might be an ardent theist and an evolutionist although reticent about his religious views in 1879 he wrote that i have never been an atheist in the sense of denying the existence of a god i think that generally an agnostic would be the most correct description of my state of mind thomas henry huxley agnostic views are as old as philosophical skepticism but the terms agnostic and agnosticism were created by huxley 18251895 to sum up his thoughts on contemporary developments of metaphysics about the unconditioned william hamilton and the unknowable herbert spencer though huxley began to use the term agnostic in 1869 his opinions had taken shape some time before that date in a letter of september 23 1860 to charles kingsley huxley discussed his views extensively and again to the same correspondent may 6 1863 of the origin of the name agnostic to describe this attitude huxley gave the following account in 1889 huxley wrote william stewart ross william stewart ross 18441906 wrote under the name of saladin he was associated with victorian freethinkers and the organization the british secular union he edited the secular review from 1882 it was renamed agnostic journal and eclectic review and closed in 1907 ross championed agnosticism in opposition to the atheism of charles bradlaugh as an openended spiritual exploration in why i am an agnostic he claims that agnosticism is the very reverse of atheism bertrand russell bertrand russell 18721970 declared why i am not a christian in 1927 a classic statement of agnosticism he calls upon his readers to stand on their own two feet and look fair and square at the world with a fearless attitude and a free intelligence in 1939 russell gave a lecture on the existence and nature of god in which he characterized himself as an atheist he said however later in the same lecture discussing modern nonanthropomorphic concepts of god russell states in russells 1947 pamphlet am i an atheist or an agnostic subtitled a plea for tolerance in the face of new dogmas he ruminates on the problem of what to call himself in his 1953 essay what is an agnostic russell states later in the essay russell adds leslie weatherhead in 1965 christian theologian leslie weatherhead 18931976 published the christian agnostic in which he argues although radical and unpalatable to conventional theologians weatherheads agnosticism falls far short of huxleys and short even of weak agnosticism united states robert g ingersoll robert g ingersoll 18331899 an illinois lawyer and politician who evolved into a wellknown and soughtafter orator in 19thcentury america has been referred to as the great agnostic in an 1896 lecture titled why i am an agnostic ingersoll related why he was an agnostic in the conclusion of the speech he simply sums up the agnostic position as in 1885 ingersoll explained his comparative view of agnosticism and atheism as follows bernard iddings bell canon bernard iddings bell 18861958 a popular cultural commentator episcopal priest and author lauded the necessity of agnosticism in beyond agnosticism a book for tired mechanists calling it the foundation of all intelligent christianity agnosticism was a temporary mindset in which one rigorously questioned the truths of the age including the way in which one believed god his view of robert ingersoll and thomas paine was that they were not denouncing true christianity but rather a gross perversion of it part of the misunderstanding stemmed from ignorance of the concepts of god and religion historically a god was any real perceivable force that ruled the lives of humans and inspired admiration love fear and homage religion was the practice of it ancient peoples worshiped gods with real counterparts such as mammon money and material things nabu rationality or baal violent weather bell argued that modern peoples were still paying homagewith their lives and their childrens livesto these old gods of wealth physical appetites and selfdeification thus if one attempted to be agnostic passively he or she would incidentally join the worship of the worlds gods in unfashionable convictions 1931 he criticized the enlightenments complete faith in human sensory perception augmented by scientific instruments as a means of accurately grasping reality firstly it was fairly new an innovation of the western world which aristotle invented and thomas aquinas revived among the scientific community secondly the divorce of pure science from human experience as manifested in american industrialization had completely altered the environment often disfiguring it so as to suggest its insufficiency to human needs thirdly because scientists were constantly producing more datato the point where no single human could grasp it all at onceit followed that human intelligence was incapable of attaining a complete understanding of universe therefore to admit the mysteries of the unobserved universe was to be actually scientific bell believed that there were two other ways that humans could perceive and interact with the world artistic experience was how one expressed meaning through speaking writing painting gesturingany sort of communication which shared insight into a humans inner reality mystical experience was how one could read people and harmonize with them being what we commonly call love in summary man was a scientist artist and lover without exercising all three a person became lopsided bell considered a humanist to be a person who cannot rightly ignore the other ways of knowing however humanism like agnosticism was also temporal and would eventually lead to either scientific materialism or theism he lays out the following thesis truth cannot be discovered by reasoning on the evidence of scientific data alone modern peoples dissatisfaction with life is the result of depending on such incomplete data our ability to reason is not a way to discover truth but rather a way to organize our knowledge and experiences somewhat sensibly without a full human perception of the world ones reason tends to lead them in the wrong direction beyond what can be measured with scientific tools there are other types of perception such as ones ability know another human through loving ones loves cannot be dissected and logged in a scientific journal but we know them far better than we know the surface of the sun they show us an undefinable reality that is nevertheless intimate and personal and they reveal qualities lovelier and truer than detached facts can provide to be religious in the christian sense is to live for the whole of reality god rather than for a small part gods only by treating this whole of reality as a persongood and true and perfectrather than an impersonal force can we come closer to the truth an ultimate person can be loved but a cosmic force cannot a scientist can only discover peripheral truths but a lover is able to get at the truth there are many reasons to believe in god but they are not sufficient for an agnostic to become a theist it is not enough to believe in an ancient holy book even though when it is accurately analyzed without bias it proves to be more trustworthy and admirable than what we are taught in school neither is it enough to realize how probable it is that a personal god would have to show human beings how to live considering they have so much trouble on their own nor is it enough to believe for the reason that throughout history millions of people have arrived at this wholeness of reality only through religious experience the aforementioned reasons may warm one toward religion but they fall short of convincing however if one presupposes that god is in fact a knowable loving person as an experiment and then lives according that religion he or she will suddenly come face to face with experiences previously unknown ones life becomes full meaningful and fearless in the face of death it does not defy reason but exceeds it because god has been experienced through love the orders of prayer fellowship and devotion now matter they create order within ones life continually renewing the missing piece that had previously felt lost they empower one to be compassionate and humble not smallminded or arrogant no truth should be denied outright but all should be questioned science reveals an evergrowing vision of our universe that should not be discounted due to bias toward older understandings reason is to be trusted and cultivated to believe in god is not to forego reason or to deny scientific facts but to step into the unknown and discover the fullness of life demographics demographic research services normally do not differentiate between various types of nonreligious respondents so agnostics are often classified in the same category as atheists or other nonreligious people a 2010 survey published in encyclopædia britannica found that the nonreligious people or the agnostics made up about 96 of the worlds population a novemberdecember 2006 poll published in the financial times gives rates for the united states and five european countries the rates of agnosticism in the united states were at 14 while the rates of agnosticism in the european countries surveyed were considerably higher italy 20 spain 30 great britain 35 germany 25 and france 32 a study conducted by the pew research center found that about 16 of the worlds people the third largest group after christianity and islam have no religious affiliation according to a 2012 report by the pew research center agnostics made up 33 of the us adult population in the us religious landscape survey conducted by the pew research center 55 of agnostic respondents expressed a belief in god or a universal spirit whereas 41 stated that they thought that they felt a tension being nonreligious in a society where most people are religious according to the 2021 australian bureau of statistics 389 of australians have no religion a category that includes agnostics between 64 and 65 of japanese and up to 81 of vietnamese are atheists agnostics or do not believe in a god an official european union survey reported that 3 of the eu population is unsure about their belief in a god or spirit criticism agnosticism is criticized from a variety of standpoints some atheists criticize the use of the term agnosticism as functionally indistinguishable from atheism this results in frequent criticisms of those who adopt the term as avoiding the atheist label theistic theistic critics claim that agnosticism is impossible in practice since a person can live only either as if god did not exist etsi deus nondaretur or as if god did exist etsi deus daretur christian according to pope benedict xvi strong agnosticism in particular contradicts itself in affirming the power of reason to know scientific truth he blames the exclusion of reasoning from religion and ethics for dangerous pathologies such as crimes against humanity and ecological disasters agnosticism said benedict is always the fruit of a refusal of that knowledge which is in fact offered to man the knowledge of god has always existed he asserted that agnosticism is a choice of comfort pride dominion and utility over truth and is opposed by the following attitudes the keenest selfcriticism humble listening to the whole of existence the persistent patience and selfcorrection of the scientific method a readiness to be purified by the truth the catholic church sees merit in examining what it calls partial agnosticism specifically those systems that do not aim at constructing a complete philosophy of the unknowable but at excluding special kinds of truth notably religious from the domain of knowledge however the church is historically opposed to a full denial of the capacity of human reason to know god the council of the vatican declares god the beginning and end of all can by the natural light of human reason be known with certainty from the works of creation blaise pascal argued that even if there were truly no evidence for god agnostics should consider what is now known as pascals wager the infinite expected value of acknowledging god is always greater than the finite expected value of not acknowledging his existence and thus it is a safer bet to choose god atheistic according to richard dawkins a distinction between agnosticism and atheism is unwieldy and depends on how close to zero a person is willing to rate the probability of existence for any given godlike entity about himself dawkins continues i am agnostic only to the extent that i am agnostic about fairies at the bottom of the garden dawkins also identifies two categories of agnostics temporary agnostics in practice taps and permanent agnostics in principle paps he states that agnosticism about the existence of god belongs firmly in the temporary or tap category either he exists or he doesnt it is a scientific question one day we may know the answer and meanwhile we can say something pretty strong about the probability and considers pap a deeply inescapable kind of fencesitting ignosticism a related concept is ignosticism the view that a coherent definition of a deity must be put forward before the question of the existence of a deity can be meaningfully discussed if the chosen definition is not coherent the ignostic holds the noncognitivist view that the existence of a deity is meaningless or empirically untestable a j ayer theodore drange and other philosophers see both atheism and agnosticism as incompatible with ignosticism on the grounds that atheism and agnosticism accept the statement a deity exists as a meaningful proposition that can be argued for or against see also references further reading alexander nathan g an atheist with a tall hat on the forgotten history of agnosticism the humanist february 19 2019 annan noel leslie stephen the godless victorian u of chicago press 1984 cockshut aoj the unbelievers english thought 18401890 1966 dawkins richard the poverty of agnosticism in the god delusion black swan 2007 lightman bernard the origins of agnosticism 1987 royle edward radicals secularists and republicans popular freethought in britain 18661915 manchester up 1980 external links albert einstein on religion shapell manuscript foundation why i am an agnostic by robert g ingersoll 1896 dictionary of the history of ideas agnosticism agnosticism from inters interdisciplinary encyclopedia of religion and science agnosticism from religioustoleranceorg what do agnostics believe a jewish perspective fides et ratio the relationship between faith and reason karol wojtyla 1998 the natural religion by brendan connolly 2008 epistemological theories philosophy of religion skepticism irreligion doubt freedom of religion philosophical schools and traditions	3,542
896	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argon	Argon	argon is a chemical element with the symbol ar and atomic number 18 it is in group 18 of the periodic table and is a noble gas argon is the thirdmost abundant gas in earths atmosphere at 0934 9340 ppmv it is more than twice as abundant as water vapor which averages about 4000 ppmv but varies greatly 23 times as abundant as carbon dioxide 400 ppmv and more than 500 times as abundant as neon 18 ppmv argon is the most abundant noble gas in earths crust comprising 000015 of the crust nearly all of the argon in earths atmosphere is radiogenic argon40 derived from the decay of potassium40 in earths crust in the universe argon36 is by far the most common argon isotope as it is the most easily produced by stellar nucleosynthesis in supernovas the name argon is derived from the greek word neuter singular form of meaning lazy or inactive as a reference to the fact that the element undergoes almost no chemical reactions the complete octet eight electrons in the outer atomic shell makes argon stable and resistant to bonding with other elements its triple point temperature of 838058 k is a defining fixed point in the international temperature scale of 1990 argon is extracted industrially by the fractional distillation of liquid air argon is mostly used as an inert shielding gas in welding and other hightemperature industrial processes where ordinarily unreactive substances become reactive for example an argon atmosphere is used in graphite electric furnaces to prevent the graphite from burning argon is also used in incandescent fluorescent lighting and other gasdischarge tubes argon makes a distinctive bluegreen gas laser argon is also used in fluorescent glow starters characteristics argon has approximately the same solubility in water as oxygen and is 25 times more soluble in water than nitrogen argon is colorless odorless nonflammable and nontoxic as a solid liquid or gas argon is chemically inert under most conditions and forms no confirmed stable compounds at room temperature although argon is a noble gas it can form some compounds under various extreme conditions argon fluorohydride harf a compound of argon with fluorine and hydrogen that is stable below has been demonstrated although the neutral groundstate chemical compounds of argon are presently limited to harf argon can form clathrates with water when atoms of argon are trapped in a lattice of water molecules ions such as and excitedstate complexes such as arf have been demonstrated theoretical calculation predicts several more argon compounds that should be stable but have not yet been synthesized history argon greek neuter singular form of meaning lazy or inactive is named in reference to its chemical inactivity this chemical property of this first noble gas to be discovered impressed the namers an unreactive gas was suspected to be a component of air by henry cavendish in 1785 argon was first isolated from air in 1894 by lord rayleigh and sir william ramsay at university college london by removing oxygen carbon dioxide water and nitrogen from a sample of clean air they first accomplished this by replicating an experiment of henry cavendishs they trapped a mixture of atmospheric air with additional oxygen in a testtube a upsidedown over a large quantity of dilute alkali solution b which in cavendishs original experiment was potassium hydroxide and conveyed a current through wires insulated by ushaped glass tubes cc which sealed around the platinum wire electrodes leaving the ends of the wires dd exposed to the gas and insulated from the alkali solution the arc was powered by a battery of five grove cells and a ruhmkorff coil of medium size the alkali absorbed the oxides of nitrogen produced by the arc and also carbon dioxide they operated the arc until no more reduction of volume of the gas could be seen for at least an hour or two and the spectral lines of nitrogen disappeared when the gas was examined the remaining oxygen was reacted with alkaline pyrogallate to leave behind an apparently nonreactive gas which they called argon before isolating the gas they had determined that nitrogen produced from chemical compounds was 05 lighter than nitrogen from the atmosphere the difference was slight but it was important enough to attract their attention for many months they concluded that there was another gas in the air mixed in with the nitrogen argon was also encountered in 1882 through independent research of h f newall and w n hartley each observed new lines in the emission spectrum of air that did not match known elements until 1957 the symbol for argon was a but now it is ar occurrence argon constitutes 0934 by volume and 1288 by mass of earths atmosphere air is the primary industrial source of purified argon products argon is isolated from air by fractionation most commonly by cryogenic fractional distillation a process that also produces purified nitrogen oxygen neon krypton and xenon earths crust and seawater contain 12 ppm and 045 ppm of argon respectively isotopes the main isotopes of argon found on earth are 996 034 and 006 naturally occurring with a halflife of 125 years decays to stable 112 by electron capture or positron emission and also to stable 888 by beta decay these properties and ratios are used to determine the age of rocks by kar dating in earths atmosphere is made by cosmic ray activity primarily by neutron capture of followed by twoneutron emission in the subsurface environment it is also produced through neutron capture by followed by proton emission is created from the neutron capture by followed by an alpha particle emission as a result of subsurface nuclear explosions it has a halflife of 35 days between locations in the solar system the isotopic composition of argon varies greatly where the major source of argon is the decay of in rocks will be the dominant isotope as it is on earth argon produced directly by stellar nucleosynthesis is dominated by the alphaprocess nuclide correspondingly solar argon contains 846 according to solar wind measurements and the ratio of the three isotopes 36ar 38ar 40ar in the atmospheres of the outer planets is 8400 1600 1 this contrasts with the low abundance of primordial in earths atmosphere which is only 315 ppmv 9340 ppmv 0337 comparable with that of neon 1818 ppmv on earth and with interplanetary gasses measured by probes the atmospheres of mars mercury and titan the largest moon of saturn contain argon predominantly as and its content may be as high as 193 mars the predominance of radiogenic is the reason the standard atomic weight of terrestrial argon is greater than that of the next element potassium a fact that was puzzling when argon was discovered mendeleev positioned the elements on his periodic table in order of atomic weight but the inertness of argon suggested a placement before the reactive alkali metal henry moseley later solved this problem by showing that the periodic table is actually arranged in order of atomic number see history of the periodic table compounds argons complete octet of electrons indicates full s and p subshells this full valence shell makes argon very stable and extremely resistant to bonding with other elements before 1962 argon and the other noble gases were considered to be chemically inert and unable to form compounds however compounds of the heavier noble gases have since been synthesized the first argon compound with tungsten pentacarbonyl wco5ar was isolated in 1975 however it was not widely recognised at that time in august 2000 another argon compound argon fluorohydride harf was formed by researchers at the university of helsinki by shining ultraviolet light onto frozen argon containing a small amount of hydrogen fluoride with caesium iodide this discovery caused the recognition that argon could form weakly bound compounds even though it was not the first it is stable up to 17 kelvins 256 c the metastable dication which is valenceisoelectronic with carbonyl fluoride and phosgene was observed in 2010 argon36 in the form of argon hydride argonium ions has been detected in interstellar medium associated with the crab nebula supernova this was the first noblegas molecule detected in outer space solid argon hydride arh22 has the same crystal structure as the mgzn2 laves phase it forms at pressures between 43 and 220 gpa though raman measurements suggest that the h2 molecules in arh22 dissociate above 175 gpa production argon is extracted industrially by the fractional distillation of liquid air in a cryogenic air separation unit a process that separates liquid nitrogen which boils at 773 k from argon which boils at 873 k and liquid oxygen which boils at 902 k about 700000 tonnes of argon are produced worldwide every year applications argon has several desirable properties argon is a chemically inert gas argon is the cheapest alternative when nitrogen is not sufficiently inert argon has low thermal conductivity argon has electronic properties ionization andor the emission spectrum desirable for some applications other noble gases would be equally suitable for most of these applications but argon is by far the cheapest argon is inexpensive since it occurs naturally in air and is readily obtained as a byproduct of cryogenic air separation in the production of liquid oxygen and liquid nitrogen the primary constituents of air are used on a large industrial scale the other noble gases except helium are produced this way as well but argon is the most plentiful by far the bulk of argon applications arise simply because it is inert and relatively cheap industrial processes argon is used in some hightemperature industrial processes where ordinarily nonreactive substances become reactive for example an argon atmosphere is used in graphite electric furnaces to prevent the graphite from burning for some of these processes the presence of nitrogen or oxygen gases might cause defects within the material argon is used in some types of arc welding such as gas metal arc welding and gas tungsten arc welding as well as in the processing of titanium and other reactive elements an argon atmosphere is also used for growing crystals of silicon and germanium argon is used in the poultry industry to asphyxiate birds either for mass culling following disease outbreaks or as a means of slaughter more humane than electric stunning argon is denser than air and displaces oxygen close to the ground during inert gas asphyxiation its nonreactive nature makes it suitable in a food product and since it replaces oxygen within the dead bird argon also enhances shelf life argon is sometimes used for extinguishing fires where valuable equipment may be damaged by water or foam scientific research liquid argon is used as the target for neutrino experiments and direct dark matter searches the interaction between the hypothetical wimps and an argon nucleus produces scintillation light that is detected by photomultiplier tubes twophase detectors containing argon gas are used to detect the ionized electrons produced during the wimpnucleus scattering as with most other liquefied noble gases argon has a high scintillation light yield about 51 photonskev is transparent to its own scintillation light and is relatively easy to purify compared to xenon argon is cheaper and has a distinct scintillation time profile which allows the separation of electronic recoils from nuclear recoils on the other hand its intrinsic betaray background is larger due to contamination unless one uses argon from underground sources which has much less contamination most of the argon in earths atmosphere was produced by electron capture of longlived e ν present in natural potassium within earth the activity in the atmosphere is maintained by cosmogenic production through the knockout reaction n2n and similar reactions the halflife of is only 269 years as a result the underground ar shielded by rock and water has much less contamination darkmatter detectors currently operating with liquid argon include darkside warp ardm microclean and deap neutrino experiments include icarus and microboone both of which use highpurity liquid argon in a time projection chamber for fine grained threedimensional imaging of neutrino interactions at linköping university sweden the inert gas is being utilized in a vacuum chamber in which plasma is introduced to ionize metallic films this process results in a film usable for manufacturing computer processors the new process would eliminate the need for chemical baths and use of expensive dangerous and rare materials preservative argon is used to displace oxygen and moisturecontaining air in packaging material to extend the shelflives of the contents argon has the european food additive code e938 aerial oxidation hydrolysis and other chemical reactions that degrade the products are retarded or prevented entirely highpurity chemicals and pharmaceuticals are sometimes packed and sealed in argon in winemaking argon is used in a variety of activities to provide a barrier against oxygen at the liquid surface which can spoil wine by fueling both microbial metabolism as with acetic acid bacteria and standard redox chemistry argon is sometimes used as the propellant in aerosol cans argon is also used as a preservative for such products as varnish polyurethane and paint by displacing air to prepare a container for storage since 2002 the american national archives stores important national documents such as the declaration of independence and the constitution within argonfilled cases to inhibit their degradation argon is preferable to the helium that had been used in the preceding five decades because helium gas escapes through the intermolecular pores in most containers and must be regularly replaced laboratory equipment argon may be used as the inert gas within schlenk lines and gloveboxes argon is preferred to less expensive nitrogen in cases where nitrogen may react with the reagents or apparatus argon may be used as the carrier gas in gas chromatography and in electrospray ionization mass spectrometry it is the gas of choice for the plasma used in icp spectroscopy argon is preferred for the sputter coating of specimens for scanning electron microscopy argon gas is also commonly used for sputter deposition of thin films as in microelectronics and for wafer cleaning in microfabrication medical use cryosurgery procedures such as cryoablation use liquid argon to destroy tissue such as cancer cells it is used in a procedure called argonenhanced coagulation a form of argon plasma beam electrosurgery the procedure carries a risk of producing gas embolism and has resulted in the death of at least one patient blue argon lasers are used in surgery to weld arteries destroy tumors and correct eye defects argon has also been used experimentally to replace nitrogen in the breathing or decompression mix known as argox to speed the elimination of dissolved nitrogen from the blood lighting incandescent lights are filled with argon to preserve the filaments at high temperature from oxidation it is used for the specific way it ionizes and emits light such as in plasma globes and calorimetry in experimental particle physics gasdischarge lamps filled with pure argon provide lilacviolet light with argon and some mercury blue light argon is also used for blue and green argonion lasers miscellaneous uses argon is used for thermal insulation in energyefficient windows argon is also used in technical scuba diving to inflate a dry suit because it is inert and has low thermal conductivity argon is used as a propellant in the development of the variable specific impulse magnetoplasma rocket vasimr compressed argon gas is allowed to expand to cool the seeker heads of some versions of the aim9 sidewinder missile and other missiles that use cooled thermal seeker heads the gas is stored at high pressure argon39 with a halflife of 269 years has been used for a number of applications primarily ice core and ground water dating also potassiumargon dating and related argonargon dating are used to date sedimentary metamorphic and igneous rocks argon has been used by athletes as a doping agent to simulate hypoxic conditions in 2014 the world antidoping agency wada added argon and xenon to the list of prohibited substances and methods although at this time there is no reliable test for abuse safety although argon is nontoxic it is 38 more dense than air and therefore considered a dangerous asphyxiant in closed areas it is difficult to detect because it is colorless odorless and tasteless a 1994 incident in which a man was asphyxiated after entering an argonfilled section of oil pipe under construction in alaska highlights the dangers of argon tank leakage in confined spaces and emphasizes the need for proper use storage and handling see also industrial gas oxygenargon ratio a ratio of two physically similar gases which has importance in various sectors references further reading on triple point pressure at 69 kpa on triple point pressure at 838058 k external links argon at the periodic table of videos university of nottingham usgs periodic table argon diving applications why argon chemical elements enumber additives noble gases industrial gases	2,802
897	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arsenic	Arsenic	arsenic is a chemical element with the symbol as and atomic number 33 arsenic occurs in many minerals usually in combination with sulfur and metals but also as a pure elemental crystal arsenic is a metalloid it has various allotropes but only the grey form which has a metallic appearance is important to industry the primary use of arsenic is in alloys of lead for example in car batteries and ammunition arsenic is a common ntype dopant in semiconductor electronic devices it is also a component of the iiiv compound semiconductor gallium arsenide arsenic and its compounds especially the trioxide are used in the production of pesticides treated wood products herbicides and insecticides these applications are declining with the increasing recognition of the toxicity of arsenic and its compounds a few species of bacteria are able to use arsenic compounds as respiratory metabolites trace quantities of arsenic are an essential dietary element in rats hamsters goats chickens and presumably other species a role in human metabolism is not known however arsenic poisoning occurs in multicellular life if quantities are larger than needed arsenic contamination of groundwater is a problem that affects millions of people across the world the united states environmental protection agency states that all forms of arsenic are a serious risk to human health the united states agency for toxic substances and disease registry ranked arsenic as number 1 in its 2001 priority list of hazardous substances at superfund sites arsenic is classified as a groupa carcinogen characteristics physical characteristics the three most common arsenic allotropes are grey yellow and black arsenic with grey being the most common grey arsenic αas space group rm no 166 adopts a doublelayered structure consisting of many interlocked ruffled sixmembered rings because of weak bonding between the layers grey arsenic is brittle and has a relatively low mohs hardness of 35 nearest and nextnearest neighbors form a distorted octahedral complex with the three atoms in the same doublelayer being slightly closer than the three atoms in the next this relatively close packing leads to a high density of 573 gcm3 grey arsenic is a semimetal but becomes a semiconductor with a bandgap of 1214 ev if amorphized grey arsenic is also the most stable form yellow arsenic is soft and waxy and somewhat similar to tetraphosphorus both have four atoms arranged in a tetrahedral structure in which each atom is bound to each of the other three atoms by a single bond this unstable allotrope being molecular is the most volatile least dense and most toxic solid yellow arsenic is produced by rapid cooling of arsenic vapor it is rapidly transformed into grey arsenic by light the yellow form has a density of 197 gcm3 black arsenic is similar in structure to black phosphorus black arsenic can also be formed by cooling vapor at around 100220 c and by crystallization of amorphous arsenic in the presence of mercury vapors it is glassy and brittle black arsenic is also a poor electrical conductor as arsenics triple point is at 3628 mpa 3581 atm it does not have a melting point at standard pressure but instead sublimes from solid to vapor at 887 k 615 c or 1137 f isotopes arsenic occurs in nature as one stable isotope 75as a monoisotopic element as of 2003 at least 33 radioisotopes have also been synthesized ranging in atomic mass from 60 to 92 the most stable of these is 73as with a halflife of 8030 days all other isotopes have halflives of under one day with the exception of 71as t126530 hours 72as t12260 hours 74as t121777 days 76as t122626 hours and 77as t123883 hours isotopes that are lighter than the stable 75as tend to decay by β decay and those that are heavier tend to decay by β decay with some exceptions at least 10 nuclear isomers have been described ranging in atomic mass from 66 to 84 the most stable of arsenics isomers is 68mas with a halflife of 111 seconds chemistry arsenic has a similar electronegativity and ionization energies to its lighter congener phosphorus and accordingly readily forms covalent molecules with most of the nonmetals though stable in dry air arsenic forms a goldenbronze tarnish upon exposure to humidity which eventually becomes a black surface layer when heated in air arsenic oxidizes to arsenic trioxide the fumes from this reaction have an odor resembling garlic this odor can be detected on striking arsenide minerals such as arsenopyrite with a hammer it burns in oxygen to form arsenic trioxide and arsenic pentoxide which have the same structure as the more wellknown phosphorus compounds and in fluorine to give arsenic pentafluoride arsenic and some arsenic compounds sublimes upon heating at atmospheric pressure converting directly to a gaseous form without an intervening liquid state at the triple point is 363 mpa and arsenic makes arsenic acid with concentrated nitric acid arsenous acid with dilute nitric acid and arsenic trioxide with concentrated sulfuric acid however it does not react with water alkalis or nonoxidising acids arsenic reacts with metals to form arsenides though these are not ionic compounds containing the as3 ion as the formation of such an anion would be highly endothermic and even the group 1 arsenides have properties of intermetallic compounds like germanium selenium and bromine which like arsenic succeed the 3d transition series arsenic is much less stable in the group oxidation state of 5 than its vertical neighbors phosphorus and antimony and hence arsenic pentoxide and arsenic acid are potent oxidizers compounds compounds of arsenic resemble in some respects those of phosphorus which occupies the same group column of the periodic table the most common oxidation states for arsenic are 3 in the arsenides which are alloylike intermetallic compounds 3 in the arsenites and 5 in the arsenates and most organoarsenic compounds arsenic also bonds readily to itself as seen in the square ions in the mineral skutterudite in the 3 oxidation state arsenic is typically pyramidal owing to the influence of the lone pair of electrons inorganic compounds one of the simplest arsenic compounds is the trihydride the highly toxic flammable pyrophoric arsine ash3 this compound is generally regarded as stable since at room temperature it decomposes only slowly at temperatures of 250300 c decomposition to arsenic and hydrogen is rapid several factors such as humidity presence of light and certain catalysts namely aluminium facilitate the rate of decomposition it oxidises readily in air to form arsenic trioxide and water and analogous reactions take place with sulfur and selenium instead of oxygen arsenic forms colorless odorless crystalline oxides as2o3 white arsenic and as2o5 which are hygroscopic and readily soluble in water to form acidic solutions arsenicv acid is a weak acid and the salts are called arsenates the most common arsenic contamination of groundwater and a problem that affects many people synthetic arsenates include scheeles green cupric hydrogen arsenate acidic copper arsenate calcium arsenate and lead hydrogen arsenate these three have been used as agricultural insecticides and poisons the protonation steps between the arsenate and arsenic acid are similar to those between phosphate and phosphoric acid unlike phosphorous acid arsenous acid is genuinely tribasic with the formula asoh3 a broad variety of sulfur compounds of arsenic are known orpiment as2s3 and realgar as4s4 are somewhat abundant and were formerly used as painting pigments in as4s10 arsenic has a formal oxidation state of 2 in as4s4 which features asas bonds so that the total covalency of as is still 3 both orpiment and realgar as well as as4s3 have selenium analogs the analogous as2te3 is known as the mineral kalgoorlieite and the anion as2te is known as a ligand in cobalt complexes all trihalides of arseniciii are well known except the astatide which is unknown arsenic pentafluoride asf5 is the only important pentahalide reflecting the lower stability of the 5 oxidation state even so it is a very strong fluorinating and oxidizing agent the pentachloride is stable only below 50 c at which temperature it decomposes to the trichloride releasing chlorine gas alloys arsenic is used as the group 5 element in the iiiv semiconductors gallium arsenide indium arsenide and aluminium arsenide the valence electron count of gaas is the same as a pair of si atoms but the band structure is completely different which results in distinct bulk properties other arsenic alloys include the iiv semiconductor cadmium arsenide organoarsenic compounds a large variety of organoarsenic compounds are known several were developed as chemical warfare agents during world war i including vesicants such as lewisite and vomiting agents such as adamsite cacodylic acid which is of historic and practical interest arises from the methylation of arsenic trioxide a reaction that has no analogy in phosphorus chemistry cacodyl was the first organometallic compound known even though arsenic is not a true metal and was named from the greek κακωδία stink for its offensive odor it is very poisonous occurrence and production arsenic comprises about 15 ppm 000015 of the earths crust and is the 53rd most abundant element typical background concentrations of arsenic do not exceed 3 ngm3 in the atmosphere 100 mgkg in soil 400 μgkg in vegetation 10 μgl in freshwater and 15 μgl in seawater minerals with the formula mass and mas2 m fe ni co are the dominant commercial sources of arsenic together with realgar an arsenic sulfide mineral and native elemental arsenic an illustrative mineral is arsenopyrite feass which is structurally related to iron pyrite many minor ascontaining minerals are known arsenic also occurs in various organic forms in the environment in 2014 china was the top producer of white arsenic with almost 70 world share followed by morocco russia and belgium according to the british geological survey and the united states geological survey most arsenic refinement operations in the us and europe have closed over environmental concerns arsenic is found in the smelter dust from copper gold and lead smelters and is recovered primarily from copper refinement dust on roasting arsenopyrite in air arsenic sublimes as arseniciii oxide leaving iron oxides while roasting without air results in the production of gray arsenic further purification from sulfur and other chalcogens is achieved by sublimation in vacuum in a hydrogen atmosphere or by distillation from molten leadarsenic mixture history the word arsenic has its origin in the syriac word zarnika from arabic alzarnīḵ the orpiment based on persian zar gold from the word zarnikh meaning yellow literally goldcolored and hence yellow orpiment it was adopted into greek using folk etymology as arsenikon a neuter form of the greek adjective arsenikos meaning male virile latinspeakers adopted the greek term as which in french ultimately became whence the english word arsenic arsenic sulfides orpiment realgar and oxides have been known and used since ancient times zosimos describes roasting sandarach realgar to obtain cloud of arsenic arsenic trioxide which he then reduces to gray arsenic as the symptoms of arsenic poisoning are not very specific the substance was frequently used for murder until the advent in the 1830s of the marsh test a sensitive chemical test for its presence another less sensitive but more general test is the reinsch test owing to its use by the ruling class to murder one another and its potency and discreetness arsenic has been called the poison of kings and the king of poisons arsenic became known as the inheritance powder due to its use in killing family members in the renaissance era during the bronze age arsenic was often included in the manufacture of bronze making the alloy harder socalled arsenical bronze jabir ibn hayyan described the isolation of arsenic before 815 ad albertus magnus albert the great 11931280 later isolated the element from a compound in 1250 by heating soap together with arsenic trisulfide in 1649 johann schröder published two ways of preparing arsenic crystals of elemental native arsenic are found in nature although rarely cadets fuming liquid impure cacodyl often claimed as the first synthetic organometallic compound was synthesized in 1760 by louis claude cadet de gassicourt through the reaction of potassium acetate with arsenic trioxide in the victorian era women would eat arsenic white arsenic or arsenic trioxide mixed with vinegar and chalk to improve the complexion of their faces making their skin paler to show they did not work in the fields the accidental use of arsenic in the adulteration of foodstuffs led to the bradford sweet poisoning in 1858 which resulted in 21 deaths from the late18th century wallpaper production began to use dyes made from arsenic which was thought to increase the pigments brightness one account of the illness and 1821 death of napoleon i implicates arsenic poisoning involving wallpaper two arsenic pigments have been widely used since their discovery paris green in 1814 and scheeles green in 1775 after the toxicity of arsenic became widely known these chemicals were used less often as pigments and more often as insecticides in the 1860s an arsenic byproduct of dye production london purple was widely used this was a solid mixture of arsenic trioxide aniline lime and ferrous oxide insoluble in water and very toxic by inhalation or ingestion but it was later replaced with paris green another arsenicbased dye with better understanding of the toxicology mechanism two other compounds were used starting in the 1890s arsenite of lime and arsenate of lead were used widely as insecticides until the discovery of ddt in 1942 applications agricultural the toxicity of arsenic to insects bacteria and fungi led to its use as a wood preservative in the 1930s a process of treating wood with chromated copper arsenate also known as cca or tanalith was invented and for decades this treatment was the most extensive industrial use of arsenic an increased appreciation of the toxicity of arsenic led to a ban of cca in consumer products in 2004 initiated by the european union and united states however cca remains in heavy use in other countries such as on malaysian rubber plantations arsenic was also used in various agricultural insecticides and poisons for example lead hydrogen arsenate was a common insecticide on fruit trees but contact with the compound sometimes resulted in brain damage among those working the sprayers in the second half of the 20th century monosodium methyl arsenate msma and disodium methyl arsenate dsma less toxic organic forms of arsenic replaced lead arsenate in agriculture these organic arsenicals were in turn phased out in the united states by 2013 in all agricultural activities except cotton farming the biogeochemistry of arsenic is complex and includes various adsorption and desorption processes the toxicity of arsenic is connected to its solubility and is affected by ph arsenite is more soluble than arsenate and is more toxic however at a lower ph arsenate becomes more mobile and toxic it was found that addition of sulfur phosphorus and iron oxides to higharsenite soils greatly reduces arsenic phytotoxicity arsenic is used as a feed additive in poultry and swine production in particular it was used in the us until 2015 to increase weight gain improve feed efficiency and prevent disease an example is roxarsone which had been used as a broiler starter by about 70 of us broiler growersin 2011 alpharma a subsidiary of pfizer inc which produces roxarsone voluntarily suspended sales of the drug in response to studies showing elevated levels of inorganic arsenic a carcinogen in treated chickens a successor to alpharma zoetis continued to sell nitarsone until 2015 primarily for use in turkeys a 2006 study of the remains of the australian racehorse phar lap determined that the 1932 death of the famous champion was caused by a massive overdose of arsenic sydney veterinarian percy sykes stated in those days arsenic was quite a common tonic usually given in the form of a solution fowlers solution it was so common that id reckon 90 per cent of the horses had arsenic in their system medical use during the 17th 18th and 19th centuries a number of arsenic compounds were used as medicines including arsphenamine by paul ehrlich and arsenic trioxide by thomas fowler arsphenamine as well as neosalvarsan was indicated for syphilis but has been superseded by modern antibiotics however arsenicals such as melarsoprol are still used for the treatment of trypanosomiasis since although these drugs have the disadvantage of severe toxicity the disease is almost uniformly fatal if untreated arsenic trioxide has been used in a variety of ways since the 15th century most commonly in the treatment of cancer but also in medications as diverse as fowlers solution in psoriasis the us food and drug administration in the year 2000 approved this compound for the treatment of patients with acute promyelocytic leukemia that is resistant to alltrans retinoic acid a 2008 paper reports success in locating tumors using arsenic74 a positron emitter this isotope produces clearer pet scan images than the previous radioactive agent iodine124 because the body tends to transport iodine to the thyroid gland producing signal noise nanoparticles of arsenic have shown ability to kill cancer cells with lesser cytotoxicity than other arsenic formulations in subtoxic doses soluble arsenic compounds act as stimulants and were once popular in small doses as medicine by people in the mid18th to 19th centuries its use as a stimulant was especially prevalent as sport animals such as race horses or with work dogs alloys the main use of arsenic is in alloying with lead lead components in car batteries are strengthened by the presence of a very small percentage of arsenic dezincification of brass a copperzinc alloy is greatly reduced by the addition of arsenic phosphorus deoxidized arsenical copper with an arsenic content of 03 has an increased corrosion stability in certain environments gallium arsenide is an important semiconductor material used in integrated circuits circuits made from gaas are much faster but also much more expensive than those made from silicon unlike silicon gaas has a direct bandgap and can be used in laser diodes and leds to convert electrical energy directly into light military after world war i the united states built a stockpile of 20000 tons of weaponized lewisite clchchascl2 an organoarsenic vesicant blister agent and lung irritant the stockpile was neutralized with bleach and dumped into the gulf of mexico in the 1950s during the vietnam war the united states used agent blue a mixture of sodium cacodylate and its acid form as one of the rainbow herbicides to deprive north vietnamese soldiers of foliage cover and rice other uses copper acetoarsenite was used as a green pigment known under many names including paris green and emerald green it caused numerous arsenic poisonings scheeles green a copper arsenate was used in the 19th century as a coloring agent in sweets arsenic is used in bronzing and pyrotechnics as much as 2 of produced arsenic is used in lead alloys for lead shot and bullets arsenic is added in small quantities to alphabrass to make it dezincificationresistant this grade of brass is used in plumbing fittings and other wet environments arsenic is also used for taxonomic sample preservation it was also used in embalming fluids historically arsenic was used as an opacifier in ceramics creating white glazes until recently arsenic was used in optical glass modern glass manufacturers under pressure from environmentalists have ceased using both arsenic and lead in computers arsenic is used in the chips as the ntype doping biological role bacteria some species of bacteria obtain their energy in the absence of oxygen by oxidizing various fuels while reducing arsenate to arsenite under oxidative environmental conditions some bacteria use arsenite as fuel which they oxidize to arsenate the enzymes involved are known as arsenate reductases arr in 2008 bacteria were discovered that employ a version of photosynthesis in the absence of oxygen with arsenites as electron donors producing arsenates just as ordinary photosynthesis uses water as electron donor producing molecular oxygen researchers conjecture that over the course of history these photosynthesizing organisms produced the arsenates that allowed the arsenatereducing bacteria to thrive one strain phs1 has been isolated and is related to the gammaproteobacterium ectothiorhodospira shaposhnikovii the mechanism is unknown but an encoded arr enzyme may function in reverse to its known homologues in 2011 it was postulated that a strain of halomonadaceae could be grown in the absence of phosphorus if that element were substituted with arsenic exploiting the fact that the arsenate and phosphate anions are similar structurally the study was widely criticised and subsequently refuted by independent researcher groups essential trace element in higher animals arsenic is understood to be an essential trace mineral in birds as it is involved in the synthesis of methionine metabolites with feeding recommendations being between 0012 and 0050 mgkg some evidence indicates that arsenic is an essential trace mineral in mammals however the biological function is not known heredity arsenic has been linked to epigenetic changes heritable changes in gene expression that occur without changes in dna sequence these include dna methylation histone modification and rna interference toxic levels of arsenic cause significant dna hypermethylation of tumor suppressor genes p16 and p53 thus increasing risk of carcinogenesis these epigenetic events have been studied in vitro using human kidney cells and in vivo using rat liver cells and peripheral blood leukocytes in humans inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry icpms is used to detect precise levels of intracellular arsenic and other arsenic bases involved in epigenetic modification of dna studies investigating arsenic as an epigenetic factor can be used to develop precise biomarkers of exposure and susceptibility the chinese brake fern pteris vittata hyperaccumulates arsenic from the soil into its leaves and has a proposed use in phytoremediation biomethylation inorganic arsenic and its compounds upon entering the food chain are progressively metabolized through a process of methylation for example the mold scopulariopsis brevicaulis produces trimethylarsine if inorganic arsenic is present the organic compound arsenobetaine is found in some marine foods such as fish and algae and also in mushrooms in larger concentrations the average persons intake is about 1050 µgday values about 1000 µg are not unusual following consumption of fish or mushrooms but there is little danger in eating fish because this arsenic compound is nearly nontoxic environmental issues exposure naturally occurring sources of human exposure include volcanic ash weathering of minerals and ores and mineralized groundwater arsenic is also found in food water soil and air arsenic is absorbed by all plants but is more concentrated in leafy vegetables rice apple and grape juice and seafood an additional route of exposure is inhalation of atmospheric gases and dusts during the victorian era arsenic was widely used in home decor especially wallpapers occurrence in drinking water extensive arsenic contamination of groundwater has led to widespread arsenic poisoning in bangladesh and neighboring countries it is estimated that approximately 57 million people in the bengal basin are drinking groundwater with arsenic concentrations elevated above the world health organizations standard of 10 parts per billion ppb however a study of cancer rates in taiwan suggested that significant increases in cancer mortality appear only at levels above 150 ppb the arsenic in the groundwater is of natural origin and is released from the sediment into the groundwater caused by the anoxic conditions of the subsurface this groundwater was used after local and western ngos and the bangladeshi government undertook a massive shallow tube well drinkingwater program in the late twentieth century this program was designed to prevent drinking of bacteriacontaminated surface waters but failed to test for arsenic in the groundwater many other countries and districts in southeast asia such as vietnam and cambodia have geological environments that produce groundwater with a high arsenic content arsenicosis was reported in nakhon si thammarat thailand in 1987 and the chao phraya river probably contains high levels of naturally occurring dissolved arsenic without being a public health problem because much of the public uses bottled water in pakistan more than 60 million people are exposed to arsenic polluted drinking water indicated by a 2017 report in science podgorskis team investigated more than 1200 samples and more than 66 exceeded the who minimum contamination level since the 1980s residents of the ba men region of inner mongolia china have been chronically exposed to arsenic through drinking water from contaminated wells a 2009 research study observed an elevated presence of skin lesions among residents with well water arsenic concentrations between 5 and 10 µgl suggesting that arsenic induced toxicity may occur at relatively low concentrations with chronic exposure overall 20 of chinas 34 provinces have high arsenic concentrations in the groundwater supply potentially exposing 19 million people to hazardous drinking water a study by iit kharagpur found high levels of arsenic in groundwater of 20 of indias land exposing more than 250 million people states such as punjab bihar west bengal assam haryana uttar pradesh and gujarat have highest land area exposed to arsenic in the united states arsenic is most commonly found in the ground waters of the southwest parts of new england michigan wisconsin minnesota and the dakotas are also known to have significant concentrations of arsenic in ground water increased levels of skin cancer have been associated with arsenic exposure in wisconsin even at levels below the 10 ppb drinking water standard according to a recent film funded by the us superfund millions of private wells have unknown arsenic levels and in some areas of the us more than 20 of the wells may contain levels that exceed established limits lowlevel exposure to arsenic at concentrations of 100 ppb ie above the 10 ppb drinking water standard compromises the initial immune response to h1n1 or swine flu infection according to niehssupported scientists the study conducted in laboratory mice suggests that people exposed to arsenic in their drinking water may be at increased risk for more serious illness or death from the virus some canadians are drinking water that contains inorganic arsenic privatedugwell waters are most at risk for containing inorganic arsenic preliminary well water analysis typically does not test for arsenic researchers at the geological survey of canada have modeled relative variation in natural arsenic hazard potential for the province of new brunswick this study has important implications for potable water and health concerns relating to inorganic arsenic epidemiological evidence from chile shows a dosedependent connection between chronic arsenic exposure and various forms of cancer in particular when other risk factors such as cigarette smoking are present these effects have been demonstrated at contaminations less than 50 ppb arsenic is itself a constituent of tobacco smoke analyzing multiple epidemiological studies on inorganic arsenic exposure suggests a small but measurable increase in risk for bladder cancer at 10 ppb according to peter ravenscroft of the department of geography at the university of cambridge roughly 80 million people worldwide consume between 10 and 50 ppb arsenic in their drinking water if they all consumed exactly 10 ppb arsenic in their drinking water the previously cited multiple epidemiological study analysis would predict an additional 2000 cases of bladder cancer alone this represents a clear underestimate of the overall impact since it does not include lung or skin cancer and explicitly underestimates the exposure those exposed to levels of arsenic above the current who standard should weigh the costs and benefits of arsenic remediation early 1973 evaluations of the processes for removing dissolved arsenic from drinking water demonstrated the efficacy of coprecipitation with either iron or aluminium oxides in particular iron as a coagulant was found to remove arsenic with an efficacy exceeding 90 several adsorptive media systems have been approved for use at pointofservice in a study funded by the united states environmental protection agency us epa and the national science foundation nsf a team of european and indian scientists and engineers have set up six arsenic treatment plants in west bengal based on insitu remediation method sar technology this technology does not use any chemicals and arsenic is left in an insoluble form 5 state in the subterranean zone by recharging aerated water into the aquifer and developing an oxidation zone that supports arsenic oxidizing microorganisms this process does not produce any waste stream or sludge and is relatively cheap another effective and inexpensive method to avoid arsenic contamination is to sink wells 500 feet or deeper to reach purer waters a recent 2011 study funded by the us national institute of environmental health sciences superfund research program shows that deep sediments can remove arsenic and take it out of circulation in this process called adsorption arsenic sticks to the surfaces of deep sediment particles and is naturally removed from the ground water magnetic separations of arsenic at very low magnetic field gradients with highsurfacearea and monodisperse magnetite fe3o4 nanocrystals have been demonstrated in pointofuse water purification using the high specific surface area of fe3o4 nanocrystals the mass of waste associated with arsenic removal from water has been dramatically reduced epidemiological studies have suggested a correlation between chronic consumption of drinking water contaminated with arsenic and the incidence of all leading causes of mortality the literature indicates that arsenic exposure is causative in the pathogenesis of diabetes chaffbased filters have recently been shown to reduce the arsenic content of water to 3 µgl this may find applications in areas where the potable water is extracted from underground aquifers san pedro de atacama for several centuries the people of san pedro de atacama in chile have been drinking water that is contaminated with arsenic and some evidence suggests they have developed some immunity hazard maps for contaminated groundwater around onethird of the worlds population drinks water from groundwater resources of this about 10 percent approximately 300 million people obtains water from groundwater resources that are contaminated with unhealthy levels of arsenic or fluoride these trace elements derive mainly from minerals and ions in the ground redox transformation of arsenic in natural waters arsenic is unique among the trace metalloids and oxyanionforming trace metals eg as se sb mo v cr u re it is sensitive to mobilization at ph values typical of natural waters ph 6585 under both oxidizing and reducing conditions arsenic can occur in the environment in several oxidation states 3 0 3 and 5 but in natural waters it is mostly found in inorganic forms as oxyanions of trivalent arsenite asiii or pentavalent arsenate asv organic forms of arsenic are produced by biological activity mostly in surface waters but are rarely quantitatively important organic arsenic compounds may however occur where waters are significantly impacted by industrial pollution arsenic may be solubilized by various processes when ph is high arsenic may be released from surface binding sites that lose their positive charge when water level drops and sulfide minerals are exposed to air arsenic trapped in sulfide minerals can be released into water when organic carbon is present in water bacteria are fed by directly reducing asv to asiii or by reducing the element at the binding site releasing inorganic arsenic the aquatic transformations of arsenic are affected by ph reductionoxidation potential organic matter concentration and the concentrations and forms of other elements especially iron and manganese the main factors are ph and the redox potential generally the main forms of arsenic under oxic conditions are h3aso4 h2aso4 haso42 and aso43 at ph 2 27 711 and 11 respectively under reducing conditions h3aso4 is predominant at ph 29 oxidation and reduction affects the migration of arsenic in subsurface environments arsenite is the most stable soluble form of arsenic in reducing environments and arsenate which is less mobile than arsenite is dominant in oxidizing environments at neutral ph therefore arsenic may be more mobile under reducing conditions the reducing environment is also rich in organic matter which may enhance the solubility of arsenic compounds as a result the adsorption of arsenic is reduced and dissolved arsenic accumulates in groundwater that is why the arsenic content is higher in reducing environments than in oxidizing environments the presence of sulfur is another factor that affects the transformation of arsenic in natural water arsenic can precipitate when metal sulfides form in this way arsenic is removed from the water and its mobility decreases when oxygen is present bacteria oxidize reduced sulfur to generate energy potentially releasing bound arsenic redox reactions involving fe also appear to be essential factors in the fate of arsenic in aquatic systems the reduction of iron oxyhydroxides plays a key role in the release of arsenic to water so arsenic can be enriched in water with elevated fe concentrations under oxidizing conditions arsenic can be mobilized from pyrite or iron oxides especially at elevated ph under reducing conditions arsenic can be mobilized by reductive desorption or dissolution when associated with iron oxides the reductive desorption occurs under two circumstances one is when arsenate is reduced to arsenite which adsorbs to iron oxides less strongly the other results from a change in the charge on the mineral surface which leads to the desorption of bound arsenic some species of bacteria catalyze redox transformations of arsenic dissimilatory arsenaterespiring prokaryotes darp speed up the reduction of asv to asiii darp use asv as the electron acceptor of anaerobic respiration and obtain energy to survive other organic and inorganic substances can be oxidized in this process chemoautotrophic arsenite oxidizers cao and heterotrophic arsenite oxidizers hao convert asiii into asv cao combine the oxidation of asiii with the reduction of oxygen or nitrate they use obtained energy to fix produce organic carbon from co2 hao cannot obtain energy from asiii oxidation this process may be an arsenic detoxification mechanism for the bacteria equilibrium thermodynamic calculations predict that asv concentrations should be greater than asiii concentrations in all but strongly reducing conditions ie where so42 reduction is occurring however abiotic redox reactions of arsenic are slow oxidation of asiii by dissolved o2 is a particularly slow reaction for example johnson and pilson 1975 gave halflives for the oxygenation of asiii in seawater ranging from several months to a year in other studies asvasiii ratios were stable over periods of days or weeks during water sampling when no particular care was taken to prevent oxidation again suggesting relatively slow oxidation rates cherry found from experimental studies that the asvasiii ratios were stable in anoxic solutions for up to 3 weeks but that gradual changes occurred over longer timescales sterile water samples have been observed to be less susceptible to speciation changes than nonsterile samples oremland found that the reduction of asv to asiii in mono lake was rapidly catalyzed by bacteria with rate constants ranging from 002 to 03day1 wood preservation in the us as of 2002 usbased industries consumed 19600 metric tons of arsenic ninety percent of this was used for treatment of wood with chromated copper arsenate cca in 2007 50 of the 5280 metric tons of consumption was still used for this purpose in the united states the voluntary phasingout of arsenic in production of consumer products and residential and general consumer construction products began on 31 december 2003 and alternative chemicals are now used such as alkaline copper quaternary borates copper azole cyproconazole and propiconazole although discontinued this application is also one of the most concerning to the general public the vast majority of older pressuretreated wood was treated with cca cca lumber is still in widespread use in many countries and was heavily used during the latter half of the 20th century as a structural and outdoor building material although the use of cca lumber was banned in many areas after studies showed that arsenic could leach out of the wood into the surrounding soil from playground equipment for instance a risk is also presented by the burning of older cca timber the direct or indirect ingestion of wood ash from burnt cca lumber has caused fatalities in animals and serious poisonings in humans the lethal human dose is approximately 20 grams of ash scrap cca lumber from construction and demolition sites may be inadvertently used in commercial and domestic fires protocols for safe disposal of cca lumber are not consistent throughout the world widespread landfill disposal of such timber raises some concern but other studies have shown no arsenic contamination in the groundwater mapping of industrial releases in the us one tool that maps the location and other information of arsenic releases in the united states is toxmap toxmap is a geographic information system gis from the division of specialized information services of the united states national library of medicine nlm funded by the us federal government with markedup maps of the united states toxmap enables users to visually explore data from the united states environmental protection agencys epa toxics release inventory and superfund basic research programs toxmaps chemical and environmental health information is taken from nlms toxicology data network toxnet pubmed and from other authoritative sources bioremediation physical chemical and biological methods have been used to remediate arsenic contaminated water bioremediation is said to be costeffective and environmentally friendly bioremediation of ground water contaminated with arsenic aims to convert arsenite the toxic form of arsenic to humans to arsenate arsenate 5 oxidation state is the dominant form of arsenic in surface water while arsenite 3 oxidation state is the dominant form in hypoxic to anoxic environments arsenite is more soluble and mobile than arsenate many species of bacteria can transform arsenite to arsenate in anoxic conditions by using arsenite as an electron donor this is a useful method in ground water remediation another bioremediation strategy is to use plants that accumulate arsenic in their tissues via phytoremediation but the disposal of contaminated plant material needs to be considered bioremediation requires careful evaluation and design in accordance with existing conditions some sites may require the addition of an electron acceptor while others require microbe supplementation bioaugmentation regardless of the method used only constant monitoring can prevent future contamination arsenic removal coagulation and flocculation coagulation and flocculation are closely related processes common in arsenate removal from water due to the net negative charge carried by arsenate ions they settle slowly or do not settle at all due to charge repulsion in coagulation a positively charged coagulent such as fe and alum common used salts fecl3 fe2so43 al2so43 neutralise the negatively charged arsenate enable it to settle flocculation follows where an flocculant bridge smaller particles and allows the aggregate to precipitate out from water however such methods may not be efficient on arsenite as asiii exist in uncharged arsenious acid h3aso3 at near neutral ph the major drawbacks of coagulation and flocculation is the costly disposal of arsenateconcentrated sludge and possible secondary contamination of environment moreover coagulents such as fe may produce ion contamination that exceeds safety level toxicity and precautions arsenic and many of its compounds are especially potent poisons small amount of arsenic can be detected by pharmacopoial methods which includes reduction of arsenic to arsenious with help of zinc and can be confirmed with mercuric chloride paper classification elemental arsenic and arsenic sulfate and trioxide compounds are classified as toxic and dangerous for the environment in the european union under directive 67548eec the international agency for research on cancer iarc recognizes arsenic and inorganic arsenic compounds as group 1 carcinogens and the eu lists arsenic trioxide arsenic pentoxide and arsenate salts as category 1 carcinogens arsenic is known to cause arsenicosis when present in drinking water the most common species being arsenate asv and arsenite asiii legal limits food and drink in the united states since 2006 the maximum concentration in drinking water allowed by the environmental protection agency epa is 10 ppb and the fda set the same standard in 2005 for bottled water the department of environmental protection for new jersey set a drinking water limit of 5 ppb in 2006 the idlh immediately dangerous to life and health value for arsenic metal and inorganic arsenic compounds is 5 mgm3 5 ppb the occupational safety and health administration has set the permissible exposure limit pel to a timeweighted average twa of 001 mgm3 001 ppb and the national institute for occupational safety and health niosh has set the recommended exposure limit rel to a 15minute constant exposure of 0002 mgm3 0002 ppb the pel for organic arsenic compounds is a twa of 05 mgm3 05 ppb in 2008 based on its ongoing testing of a wide variety of american foods for toxic chemicals the us food and drug administration set the level of concern for inorganic arsenic in apple and pear juices at 23 ppb based on noncarcinogenic effects and began blocking importation of products in excess of this level it also required recalls for nonconforming domestic products in 2011 the national dr oz television show broadcast a program highlighting tests performed by an independent lab hired by the producers though the methodology was disputed it did not distinguish between organic and inorganic arsenic the tests showed levels of arsenic up to 36 ppb in response the fda tested the worst brand from the dr oz show and found much lower levels ongoing testing found 95 of the apple juice samples were below the level of concern later testing by consumer reports showed inorganic arsenic at levels slightly above 10 ppb and the organization urged parents to reduce consumption in july 2013 on consideration of consumption by children chronic exposure and carcinogenic effect the fda established an action level of 10 ppb for apple juice the same as the drinking water standard concern about arsenic in rice in bangladesh was raised in 2002 but at the time only australia had a legal limit for food one milligram per kilogram concern was raised about people who were eating us rice exceeding who standards for personal arsenic intake in 2005 in 2011 the peoples republic of china set a food standard of 150 ppb for arsenic in the united states in 2012 testing by separate groups of researchers at the childrens environmental health and disease prevention research center at dartmouth college early in the year focusing on urinary levels in children and consumer reports in november found levels of arsenic in rice that resulted in calls for the fda to set limits the fda released some testing results in september 2012 and as of july 2013 is still collecting data in support of a new potential regulation it has not recommended any changes in consumer behavior consumer reports recommended that the epa and fda eliminate arseniccontaining fertilizer drugs and pesticides in food production that the fda establish a legal limit for food that industry change production practices to lower arsenic levels especially in food for children and that consumers test home water supplies eat a varied diet and cook rice with excess water then draining it off reducing inorganic arsenic by about one third along with a slight reduction in vitamin content evidencebased public health advocates also recommend that given the lack of regulation or labeling for arsenic in the us children should eat no more than 15 servings per week of rice and should not drink rice milk as part of their daily diet before age 5 they also offer recommendations for adults and infants on how to limit arsenic exposure from rice drinking water and fruit juice a 2014 world health organization advisory conference was scheduled to consider limits of 200300 ppb for rice reducing arsenic content in rice in 2020 scientists assessed multiple preparation procedures of rice for their capacity to reduce arsenic content and preserve nutrients recommending a procedure involving parboiling and waterabsorption occupational exposure limits ecotoxicity arsenic is bioaccumulative in many organisms marine species in particular but it does not appear to biomagnify significantly in food webs in polluted areas plant growth may be affected by root uptake of arsenate which is a phosphate analog and therefore readily transported in plant tissues and cells in polluted areas uptake of the more toxic arsenite ion found more particularly in reducing conditions is likely in poorlydrained soils toxicity in animals biological mechanism arsenics toxicity comes from the affinity of arseniciii oxides for thiols thiols in the form of cysteine residues and cofactors such as lipoic acid and coenzyme a are situated at the active sites of many important enzymes arsenic disrupts atp production through several mechanisms at the level of the citric acid cycle arsenic inhibits lipoic acid which is a cofactor for pyruvate dehydrogenase by competing with phosphate arsenate uncouples oxidative phosphorylation thus inhibiting energylinked reduction of nad mitochondrial respiration and atp synthesis hydrogen peroxide production is also increased which it is speculated has potential to form reactive oxygen species and oxidative stress these metabolic interferences lead to death from multisystem organ failure the organ failure is presumed to be from necrotic cell death not apoptosis since energy reserves have been too depleted for apoptosis to occur exposure risks and remediation occupational exposure and arsenic poisoning may occur in persons working in industries involving the use of inorganic arsenic and its compounds such as wood preservation glass production nonferrous metal alloys and electronic semiconductor manufacturing inorganic arsenic is also found in coke oven emissions associated with the smelter industry the conversion between asiii and asv is a large factor in arsenic environmental contamination according to croal gralnick malasarn and newman the understanding of what stimulates asiii oxidation andor limits asv reduction is relevant for bioremediation of contaminated sites croal the study of chemolithoautotrophic asiii oxidizers and the heterotrophic asv reducers can help the understanding of the oxidation andor reduction of arsenic treatment treatment of chronic arsenic poisoning is possible british antilewisite dimercaprol is prescribed in doses of 5 mgkg up to 300 mg every 4 hours for the first day then every 6 hours for the second day and finally every 8 hours for 8 additional days however the usas agency for toxic substances and disease registry atsdr states that the longterm effects of arsenic exposure cannot be predicted blood urine hair and nails may be tested for arsenic however these tests cannot foresee possible health outcomes from the exposure longterm exposure and consequent excretion through urine has been linked to bladder and kidney cancer in addition to cancer of the liver prostate skin lungs and nasal cavity see also aqua tofana arsenic and old lace arsenic biochemistry arsenic compounds arsenic poisoning arsenic toxicity arsenic trioxide fowlers solution gfaj1 grainger challenge hypothetical types of biochemistry organoarsenic chemistry toxic heavy metal white arsenic references bibliography further reading external links arsenic cancer causing substances us national cancer institute ctds arsenic page and ctds arsenicals page from the comparative toxicogenomics database arsenic intoxication general aspects and chelating agents by geir bjørklund massimiliano peana et al archives of toxicology 2020 9418791897 a small dose of toxicology arsenic in groundwater book on arsenic in groundwater by iahs netherlands chapter and the netherlands hydrological society contaminant focus arsenic by the epa environmental health criteria for arsenic and arsenic compounds 2001 by the who national institute for occupational safety and health arsenic page arsenic at the periodic table of videos university of nottingham chemical elements metalloids hepatotoxins pnictogens endocrine disruptors iarc group 1 carcinogens trigonal minerals minerals in space group 166 teratogens fetotoxicants suspected testicular toxicants native element minerals chemical elements with rhombohedral structure	7,852
898	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antimony	Antimony	antimony is a chemical element with the symbol sb and atomic number 51 a lustrous gray metalloid it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite sb2s3 antimony compounds have been known since ancient times and were powdered for use as medicine and cosmetics often known by the arabic name kohl the earliest known description of the metalloid in the west was written in 1540 by vannoccio biringuccio china is the largest producer of antimony and its compounds with most production coming from the xikuangshan mine in hunan the industrial methods for refining antimony from stibnite are roasting followed by reduction with carbon or direct reduction of stibnite with iron the largest applications for metallic antimony are in alloys with lead and tin which have improved properties for solders bullets and plain bearings it improves the rigidity of leadalloy plates in leadacid batteries antimony trioxide is a prominent additive for halogencontaining flame retardants antimony is used as a dopant in semiconductor devices characteristics properties antimony is a member of group 15 of the periodic table one of the elements called pnictogens and has an electronegativity of 205 in accordance with periodic trends it is more electronegative than tin or bismuth and less electronegative than tellurium or arsenic antimony is stable in air at room temperature but reacts with oxygen if heated to produce antimony trioxide sb2o3 antimony is a silvery lustrous gray metalloid with a mohs scale hardness of 3 which is too soft to mark hard objects coins of antimony were issued in chinas guizhou province in 1931 durability was poor and minting was soon discontinued antimony is resistant to attack by acids four allotropes of antimony are known a stable metallic form and three metastable forms explosive black and yellow elemental antimony is a brittle silverwhite shiny metalloid when slowly cooled molten antimony crystallizes into a trigonal cell isomorphic with the gray allotrope of arsenic a rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony trichloride when scratched with a sharp implement an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes are given off as metallic antimony forms when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar a strong detonation occurs black antimony is formed upon rapid cooling of antimony vapor it has the same crystal structure as red phosphorus and black arsenic it oxidizes in air and may ignite spontaneously at 100 c it gradually transforms into the stable form the yellow allotrope of antimony is the most unstable it has been generated only by oxidation of stibine sbh3 at 90 c above this temperature and in ambient light this metastable allotrope transforms into the more stable black allotrope elemental antimony adopts a layered structure space group rm no 166 whose layers consist of fused ruffled sixmembered rings the nearest and nextnearest neighbors form an irregular octahedral complex with the three atoms in each double layer slightly closer than the three atoms in the next this relatively close packing leads to a high density of 6697 gcm3 but the weak bonding between the layers leads to the low hardness and brittleness of antimony isotopes antimony has two stable isotopes 121sb with a natural abundance of 5736 and 123sb with a natural abundance of 4264 it also has 35 radioisotopes of which the longestlived is 125sb with a halflife of 275 years in addition 29 metastable states have been characterized the most stable of these is 120m1sb with a halflife of 576 days isotopes that are lighter than the stable 123sb tend to decay by β decay and those that are heavier tend to decay by β decay with some exceptions antimony is the lightest element to have an isotope with an alpha decay branch excluding 8be and other light nuclides with betadelayed alpha emission occurrence the abundance of antimony in the earths crust is estimated at 02 parts per million comparable to thallium at 05 parts per million and silver at 007 ppm even though this element is not abundant it is found in more than 100 mineral species antimony is sometimes found natively eg on antimony peak but more frequently it is found in the sulfide stibnite sb2s3 which is the predominant ore mineral compounds antimony compounds are often classified according to their oxidation state sbiii and sbv the 5 oxidation state is more common oxides and hydroxides antimony trioxide is formed when antimony is burnt in air in the gas phase the molecule of the compound is but it polymerizes upon condensing antimony pentoxide can be formed only by oxidation with concentrated nitric acid antimony also forms a mixedvalence oxide antimony tetroxide which features both sbiii and sbv unlike oxides of phosphorus and arsenic these oxides are amphoteric do not form welldefined oxoacids and react with acids to form antimony salts antimonous acid is unknown but the conjugate base sodium antimonite forms upon fusing sodium oxide and transition metal antimonites are also known antimonic acid exists only as the hydrate forming salts as the antimonate anion when a solution containing this anion is dehydrated the precipitate contains mixed oxides the most important antimony ore is stibnite other sulfide minerals include pyrargyrite zinkenite jamesonite and boulangerite antimony pentasulfide is nonstoichiometric which features antimony in the 3 oxidation state and ss bonds several thioantimonides are known such as and halides antimony forms two series of halides and the trihalides and are all molecular compounds having trigonal pyramidal molecular geometry the trifluoride is prepared by the reaction of with hf 6 hf 2 3 it is lewis acidic and readily accepts fluoride ions to form the complex anions and molten is a weak electrical conductor the trichloride is prepared by dissolving in hydrochloric acid 6 hcl 2 3 arsenic sulfides are not readily attacked by the hydrochloric acid so this method offers a route to asfree sb the pentahalides and have trigonal bipyramidal molecular geometry in the gas phase but in the liquid phase is polymeric whereas is monomeric is a powerful lewis acid used to make the superacid fluoroantimonic acid h2sbf7 oxyhalides are more common for antimony than for arsenic and phosphorus antimony trioxide dissolves in concentrated acid to form oxoantimonyl compounds such as sbocl and antimonides hydrides and organoantimony compounds compounds in this class generally are described as derivatives of sb3 antimony forms antimonides with metals such as indium antimonide insb and silver antimonide the alkali metal and zinc antimonides such as na3sb and zn3sb2 are more reactive treating these antimonides with acid produces the highly unstable gas stibine 3 stibine can also be produced by treating salts with hydride reagents such as sodium borohydride stibine decomposes spontaneously at room temperature because stibine has a positive heat of formation it is thermodynamically unstable and thus antimony does not react with hydrogen directly organoantimony compounds are typically prepared by alkylation of antimony halides with grignard reagents a large variety of compounds are known with both sbiii and sbv centers including mixed chloroorganic derivatives anions and cations examples include triphenylstibine sbc6h53 and pentaphenylantimony sbc6h55 history antimonyiii sulfide sb2s3 was recognized in predynastic egypt as an eye cosmetic kohl as early as about 3100 bc when the cosmetic palette was invented an artifact said to be part of a vase made of antimony dating to about 3000 bc was found at telloh chaldea part of presentday iraq and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 bc and 2200 bc has been found in egypt austen at a lecture by herbert gladstone in 1892 commented that we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase and therefore this remarkable find artifact mentioned above must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable the british archaeologist roger moorey was unconvinced the artifact was indeed a vase mentioning that selimkhanov after his analysis of the tello object published in 1975 attempted to relate the metal to transcaucasian natural antimony ie native metal and that the antimony objects from transcaucasia are all small personal ornaments this weakens the evidence for a lost art of rendering antimony malleable the roman scholar pliny the elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise natural history around 77 ad pliny the elder also made a distinction between male and female forms of antimony the male form is probably the sulfide while the female form which is superior heavier and less friable has been suspected to be native metallic antimony the greek naturalist pedanius dioscorides mentioned that antimony sulfide could be roasted by heating by a current of air it is thought that this produced metallic antimony antimony was frequently described in alchemical manuscripts including the summa perfectionis of pseudogeber written around the 14th century a description of a procedure for isolating antimony is later given in the 1540 book de la pirotechnia by vannoccio biringuccio predating the more famous 1556 book by agricola de re metallica in this context agricola has been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony the book currus triumphalis antimonii the triumphal chariot of antimony describing the preparation of metallic antimony was published in germany in 1604 it was purported to be written by a benedictine monk writing under the name basilius valentinus in the 15th century if it were authentic which it is not it would predate biringuccio the metal antimony was known to german chemist andreas libavius in 1615 who obtained it by adding iron to a molten mixture of antimony sulfide salt and potassium tartrate this procedure produced antimony with a crystalline or starred surface with the advent of challenges to phlogiston theory it was recognized that antimony is an element forming sulfides oxides and other compounds as do other metals the first discovery of naturally occurring pure antimony in the earths crust was described by the swedish scientist and local mine district engineer anton von swab in 1783 the typesample was collected from the sala silver mine in the bergslagen mining district of sala västmanland sweden etymology the medieval latin form from which the modern languages and late byzantine greek take their names for antimony is antimonium the origin of this is uncertain all suggestions have some difficulty either of form or interpretation the popular etymology from ἀντίμοναχός antimonachos or french antimoine still has adherents this would mean monkkiller and is explained by many early alchemists being monks and antimony being poisonous however the low toxicity of antimony see below makes this unlikely another popular etymology is the hypothetical greek word ἀντίμόνος antimonos against aloneness explained as not found as metal or not found unalloyed edmund oscar von lippmann conjectured a hypothetical greek word ανθήμόνιον anthemonion which would mean floret and cites several examples of related greek words but not that one which describe chemical or biological efflorescence the early uses of antimonium include the translations in 10501100 by constantine the african of arabic medical treatises several authorities believe antimonium is a scribal corruption of some arabic form meyerhof derives it from ithmid other possibilities include athimar the arabic name of the metalloid and a hypothetical asstimmi derived from or parallel to the greek the standard chemical symbol for antimony sb is credited to jöns jakob berzelius who derived the abbreviation from stibium the ancient words for antimony mostly have as their chief meaning kohl the sulfide of antimony the egyptians called antimony mśdmt or stm the arabic word for the substance as opposed to the cosmetic can appear as إثمد ithmid athmoud othmod or uthmod littré suggests the first form which is the earliest derives from stimmida an accusative for stimmi the greek word στίμμι stimmi is used by attic tragic poets of the 5th century bc and is possibly a loan word from arabic or from egyptian stm production process the extraction of antimony from ores depends on the quality and composition of the ore most antimony is mined as the sulfide lowergrade ores are concentrated by froth flotation while highergrade ores are heated to 500600 c the temperature at which stibnite melts and separates from the gangue minerals antimony can be isolated from the crude antimony sulfide by reduction with scrap iron 3 fe 2 sb 3 fes the sulfide is converted to an oxide by roasting the product is further purified by vaporizing the volatile antimonyiii oxide which is recovered this sublimate is often used directly for the main applications impurities being arsenic and sulfide antimony is isolated from the oxide by a carbothermal reduction 2 3 c 4 sb 3 the lowergrade ores are reduced in blast furnaces while the highergrade ores are reduced in reverberatory furnaces top producers and production volumes in 2022 according to the us geological survey china accounted for 545 of total antimony production followed in second place by russia with 182 and tajikistan with 155 chinese production of antimony is expected to decline in the future as mines and smelters are closed down by the government as part of pollution control especially due to an environmental protection law having gone into effect in january 2015 and revised emission standards of pollutants for stanum antimony and mercury having gone into effect hurdles for economic production are higher reported production of antimony in china has fallen and is unlikely to increase in the coming years according to the roskill report no significant antimony deposits in china have been developed for about ten years and the remaining economic reserves are being rapidly depleted reserves supply risk for antimonyimporting regions such as europe and the us antimony is considered to be a critical mineral for industrial manufacturing that is at risk of supply chain disruption with global production coming mainly from china 74 tajikistan 8 and russia 4 these sources are critical to supply european union antimony is considered a critical raw material for defense automotive construction and textiles the eu sources are 100 imported coming mainly from turkey 62 bolivia 20 and guatemala 7 united kingdom the british geological surveys 2015 risk list ranks antimony second highest after rare earth elements on the relative supply risk index united states antimony is a mineral commodity considered critical to the economic and national security in 2022 no antimony was mined in the us applications approximately 48 of antimony is consumed in flame retardants 33 in leadacid batteries and 8 in plastics flame retardants antimony is mainly used as the trioxide for flameproofing compounds always in combination with halogenated flame retardants except in halogencontaining polymers the flame retarding effect of antimony trioxide is produced by the formation of halogenated antimony compounds which react with hydrogen atoms and probably also with oxygen atoms and oh radicals thus inhibiting fire markets for these flameretardants include childrens clothing toys aircraft and automobile seat covers they are also added to polyester resins in fiberglass composites for such items as light aircraft engine covers the resin will burn in the presence of an externally generated flame but will extinguish when the external flame is removed alloys antimony forms a highly useful alloy with lead increasing its hardness and mechanical strength for most applications involving lead varying amounts of antimony are used as alloying metal in leadacid batteries this addition improves plate strength and charging characteristics for sailboats lead keels are used to provide righting moment ranging from 600 lbs to over 200 tons for the largest sailing superyachts to improve hardness and tensile strength of the lead keel antimony is mixed with lead between 2 and 5 by volume antimony is used in antifriction alloys such as babbitt metal in bullets and lead shot electrical cable sheathing type metal for example for linotype printing machines solder some leadfree solders contain 5 sb in pewter and in hardening alloys with low tin content in the manufacturing of organ pipes other applications three other applications consume nearly all the rest of the worlds supply one application is as a stabilizer and catalyst for the production of polyethylene terephthalate another is as a fining agent to remove microscopic bubbles in glass mostly for tv screens antimony ions interact with oxygen suppressing the tendency of the latter to form bubbles the third application is pigments in the 1990s antimony was increasingly being used in semiconductors as a dopant in ntype silicon wafers for diodes infrared detectors and halleffect devices in the 1950s the emitters and collectors of npn alloy junction transistors were doped with tiny beads of a leadantimony alloy indium antimonide insb is used as a material for midinfrared detectors biology and medicine have few uses for antimony treatments containing antimony known as antimonials are used as emetics antimony compounds are used as antiprotozoan drugs potassium antimonyl tartrate or tartar emetic was once used as an antischistosomal drug from 1919 on it was subsequently replaced by praziquantel antimony and its compounds are used in several veterinary preparations such as anthiomaline and lithium antimony thiomalate as a skin conditioner in ruminants antimony has a nourishing or conditioning effect on keratinized tissues in animals antimonybased drugs such as meglumine antimoniate are also considered the drugs of choice for treatment of leishmaniasis in domestic animals besides having low therapeutic indices the drugs have minimal penetration of the bone marrow where some of the leishmania amastigotes reside and curing the disease especially the visceral form is very difficult elemental antimony as an antimony pill was once used as a medicine it could be reused by others after ingestion and elimination antimonyiii sulfide is used in the heads of some safety matches antimony sulfides help to stabilize the friction coefficient in automotive brake pad materials antimony is used in bullets bullet tracers paint glass art and as an opacifier in enamel antimony124 is used together with beryllium in neutron sources the gamma rays emitted by antimony124 initiate the photodisintegration of beryllium the emitted neutrons have an average energy of 24 kev natural antimony is used in startup neutron sources historically the powder derived from crushed antimony kohl has been applied to the eyes with a metal rod and with ones spittle thought by the ancients to aid in curing eye infections the practice is still seen in yemen and in other muslim countries precautions antimony and many of its compounds are toxic and the effects of antimony poisoning are similar to arsenic poisoning the toxicity of antimony is far lower than that of arsenic this might be caused by the significant differences of uptake metabolism and excretion between arsenic and antimony the uptake of antimonyiii or antimonyv in the gastrointestinal tract is at most 20 antimonyv is not quantitatively reduced to antimonyiii in the cell in fact antimonyiii is oxidised to antimonyv instead since methylation of antimony does not occur the excretion of antimonyv in urine is the main way of elimination like arsenic the most serious effect of acute antimony poisoning is cardiotoxicity and the resulted myocarditis however it can also manifest as adamsstokes syndrome which arsenic does not reported cases of intoxication by antimony equivalent to 90 mg antimony potassium tartrate dissolved from enamel has been reported to show only short term effects an intoxication with 6 g of antimony potassium tartrate was reported to result in death after 3 days inhalation of antimony dust is harmful and in certain cases may be fatal in small doses antimony causes headaches dizziness and depression larger doses such as prolonged skin contact may cause dermatitis or damage the kidneys and the liver causing violent and frequent vomiting leading to death in a few days antimony is incompatible with strong oxidizing agents strong acids halogen acids chlorine or fluorine it should be kept away from heat antimony leaches from polyethylene terephthalate pet bottles into liquids while levels observed for bottled water are below drinking water guidelines fruit juice concentrates for which no guidelines are established produced in the uk were found to contain up to 447 µgl of antimony well above the eu limits for tap water of 5 µgl the guidelines are world health organization 20 µgl japan 15 µgl united states environmental protection agency health canada and the ontario ministry of environment 6 µgl eu and german federal ministry of environment 5 µgl the tolerable daily intake tdi proposed by who is 6 µg antimony per kilogram of body weight the immediately dangerous to life or health idlh value for antimony is 50 mgm3 toxicity certain compounds of antimony appear to be toxic particularly antimony trioxide and antimony potassium tartrate effects may be similar to arsenic poisoning occupational exposure may cause respiratory irritation pneumoconiosis antimony spots on the skin gastrointestinal symptoms and cardiac arrhythmias in addition antimony trioxide is potentially carcinogenic to humans adverse health effects have been observed in humans and animals following inhalation oral or dermal exposure to antimony and antimony compounds antimony toxicity typically occurs either due to occupational exposure during therapy or from accidental ingestion it is unclear if antimony can enter the body through the skin the presence of low levels of antimony in saliva may also be associated with dental decay see also phase change memory notes references cited sources external links public health statement for antimony international antimony association vzw i2a chemistry in its element podcast mp3 from the royal society of chemistrys chemistry world antimony antimony at the periodic table of videos university of nottingham cdc niosh pocket guide to chemical hazards antimony antimony mineral data and specimen images chemical elements metalloids native element minerals nuclear materials pnictogens trigonal minerals minerals in space group 166 materials that expand upon freezing chemical elements with rhombohedral structure	3,595
899	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actinium	Actinium	actinium is a chemical element with the symbol ac and atomic number 89 it was first isolated by friedrich oskar giesel in 1902 who gave it the name emanium the element got its name by being wrongly identified with a substance andrélouis debierne found in 1899 and called actinium actinium gave the name to the actinide series a set of 15 elements between actinium and lawrencium in the periodic table together with polonium radium and radon actinium was one of the first nonprimordial radioactive elements to be isolated a soft silverywhite radioactive metal actinium reacts rapidly with oxygen and moisture in air forming a white coating of actinium oxide that prevents further oxidation as with most lanthanides and many actinides actinium assumes oxidation state 3 in nearly all its chemical compounds actinium is found only in traces in uranium and thorium ores as the isotope 227ac which decays with a halflife of 21772 years predominantly emitting beta and sometimes alpha particles and 228ac which is beta active with a halflife of 615 hours one tonne of natural uranium in ore contains about 02 milligrams of actinium227 and one tonne of thorium contains about 5 nanograms of actinium228 the close similarity of physical and chemical properties of actinium and lanthanum makes separation of actinium from the ore impractical instead the element is prepared in milligram amounts by the neutron irradiation of in a nuclear reactor owing to its scarcity high price and radioactivity actinium has no significant industrial use its current applications include a neutron source and an agent for radiation therapy history andrélouis debierne a french chemist announced the discovery of a new element in 1899 he separated it from pitchblende residues left by marie and pierre curie after they had extracted radium in 1899 debierne described the substance as similar to titanium and in 1900 as similar to thorium friedrich oskar giesel found in 1902 a substance similar to lanthanum and called it emanium in 1904 after a comparison of the substances halflives determined by debierne harriet brooks in 1904 and otto hahn and otto sackur in 1905 debiernes chosen name for the new element was retained because it had seniority despite the contradicting chemical properties he claimed for the element at different times articles published in the 1970s and later suggest that debiernes results published in 1904 conflict with those reported in 1899 and 1900 furthermore the nowknown chemistry of actinium precludes its presence as anything other than a minor constituent of debiernes 1899 and 1900 results in fact the chemical properties he reported make it likely that he had instead accidentally identified protactinium which would not be discovered for another fourteen years only to have it disappear due to its hydrolysis and adsorption onto his laboratory equipment this has led some authors to advocate that giesel alone should be credited with the discovery a less confrontational vision of scientific discovery is proposed by adloff he suggests that hindsight criticism of the early publications should be mitigated by the then nascent state of radiochemistry highlighting the prudence of debiernes claims in the original papers he notes that nobody can contend that debiernes substance did not contain actinium debierne who is now considered by the vast majority of historians as the discoverer lost interest in the element and left the topic giesel on the other hand can rightfully be credited with the first preparation of radiochemically pure actinium and with the identification of its atomic number 89 the name actinium originates from the ancient greek aktis aktinos ακτίς ακτίνος meaning beam or ray its symbol ac is also used in abbreviations of other compounds that have nothing to do with actinium such as acetyl acetate and sometimes acetaldehyde properties actinium is a soft silverywhite radioactive metallic element its estimated shear modulus is similar to that of lead owing to its strong radioactivity actinium glows in the dark with a pale blue light which originates from the surrounding air ionized by the emitted energetic particles actinium has similar chemical properties to lanthanum and other lanthanides and therefore these elements are difficult to separate when extracting from uranium ores solvent extraction and ion chromatography are commonly used for the separation the first element of the actinides actinium gave the set its name much as lanthanum had done for the lanthanides the actinides are much more diverse than the lanthanides and therefore it was not until 1945 that the most significant change to dmitri mendeleevs periodic table since the recognition of the lanthanides the introduction of the actinides was generally accepted after glenn t seaborgs research on the transuranium elements although it had been proposed as early as 1892 by british chemist henry bassett actinium reacts rapidly with oxygen and moisture in air forming a white coating of actinium oxide that impedes further oxidation as with most lanthanides and actinides actinium exists in the oxidation state 3 and the ac3 ions are colorless in solutions the oxidation state 3 originates from the rn 6d17s2 electronic configuration of actinium with three valence electrons that are easily donated to give the stable closedshell structure of the noble gas radon although the 5f orbitals are unoccupied in an actinium atom it can be used as a valence orbital in actinium complexes and hence it is generally considered the first 5f element by authors working on it ac3 is the largest of all known tripositive ions and its first coordination sphere contains approximately 109 05 water molecules chemical compounds due to actiniums intense radioactivity only a limited number of actinium compounds are known these include acf3 accl3 acbr3 acof acocl acobr ac2s3 ac2o3 acpo4 and acno33 they all contain actinium in the oxidation state 3 in particular the lattice constants of the analogous lanthanum and actinium compounds differ by only a few percent here a b and c are lattice constants no is space group number and z is the number of formula units per unit cell density was not measured directly but calculated from the lattice parameters oxides actinium oxide ac2o3 can be obtained by heating the hydroxide at 500 c or the oxalate at 1100 c in vacuum its crystal lattice is isotypic with the oxides of most trivalent rareearth metals halides actinium trifluoride can be produced either in solution or in solid reaction the former reaction is carried out at room temperature by adding hydrofluoric acid to a solution containing actinium ions in the latter method actinium metal is treated with hydrogen fluoride vapors at 700 c in an allplatinum setup treating actinium trifluoride with ammonium hydroxide at 9001000 c yields oxyfluoride acof whereas lanthanum oxyfluoride can be easily obtained by burning lanthanum trifluoride in air at 800 c for an hour similar treatment of actinium trifluoride yields no acof and only results in melting of the initial product acf3 2 nh3 h2o acof 2 nh4f actinium trichloride is obtained by reacting actinium hydroxide or oxalate with carbon tetrachloride vapors at temperatures above 960 c similar to oxyfluoride actinium oxychloride can be prepared by hydrolyzing actinium trichloride with ammonium hydroxide at 1000 c however in contrast to the oxyfluoride the oxychloride could well be synthesized by igniting a solution of actinium trichloride in hydrochloric acid with ammonia reaction of aluminium bromide and actinium oxide yields actinium tribromide ac2o3 2 albr3 2 acbr3 al2o3 and treating it with ammonium hydroxide at 500 c results in the oxybromide acobr other compounds actinium hydride was obtained by reduction of actinium trichloride with potassium at 300 c and its structure was deduced by analogy with the corresponding lah2 hydride the source of hydrogen in the reaction was uncertain mixing monosodium phosphate nah2po4 with a solution of actinium in hydrochloric acid yields whitecolored actinium phosphate hemihydrate acpo405h2o and heating actinium oxalate with hydrogen sulfide vapors at 1400 c for a few minutes results in a black actinium sulfide ac2s3 it may possibly be produced by acting with a mixture of hydrogen sulfide and carbon disulfide on actinium oxide at 1000 c isotopes naturally occurring actinium is composed of two radioactive isotopes from the radioactive family of and a granddaughter of decays mainly as a beta emitter with a very small energy but in 138 of cases it emits an alpha particle so it can readily be identified through alpha spectrometry thirtythree radioisotopes have been identified the most stable being with a halflife of 21772 years with a halflife of 100 days and with a halflife of 2937 hours all remaining radioactive isotopes have halflives that are less than 10 hours and the majority of them have halflives shorter than one minute the shortestlived known isotope of actinium is halflife of 69 nanoseconds which decays through alpha decay actinium also has two known meta states the most significant isotopes for chemistry are 225ac 227ac and 228ac purified comes into equilibrium with its decay products after about a half of year it decays according to its 21772year halflife emitting mostly beta 9862 and some alpha particles 138 the successive decay products are part of the actinium series owing to the low available amounts low energy of its beta particles maximum 448 kev and low intensity of alpha radiation is difficult to detect directly by its emission and it is therefore traced via its decay products the isotopes of actinium range in atomic weight from 204 u to 236 u occurrence and synthesis actinium is found only in traces in uranium ores one tonne of uranium in ore contains about 02 milligrams of 227ac and in thorium ores which contain about 5 nanograms of 228ac per one tonne of thorium the actinium isotope 227ac is a transient member of the uraniumactinium series decay chain which begins with the parent isotope 235u or 239pu and ends with the stable lead isotope 207pb the isotope 228ac is a transient member of the thorium series decay chain which begins with the parent isotope 232th and ends with the stable lead isotope 208pb another actinium isotope 225ac is transiently present in the neptunium series decay chain beginning with 237np or 233u and ending with thallium 205tl and nearstable bismuth 209bi even though all primordial 237np has decayed away it is continuously produced by neutron knockout reactions on natural 238u the low natural concentration and the close similarity of physical and chemical properties to those of lanthanum and other lanthanides which are always abundant in actiniumbearing ores render separation of actinium from the ore impractical and complete separation was never achieved instead actinium is prepared in milligram amounts by the neutron irradiation of in a nuclear reactor 226_88ra 1_0n 227_88ra beta422 cemin 227_89ac the reaction yield is about 2 of the radium weight 227ac can further capture neutrons resulting in small amounts of 228ac after the synthesis actinium is separated from radium and from the products of decay and nuclear fusion such as thorium polonium lead and bismuth the extraction can be performed with thenoyltrifluoroacetonebenzene solution from an aqueous solution of the radiation products and the selectivity to a certain element is achieved by adjusting the ph to about 60 for actinium an alternative procedure is anion exchange with an appropriate resin in nitric acid which can result in a separation factor of 1000000 for radium and actinium vs thorium in a twostage process actinium can then be separated from radium with a ratio of about 100 using a low crosslinking cation exchange resin and nitric acid as eluant 225ac was first produced artificially at the institute for transuranium elements itu in germany using a cyclotron and at st george hospital in sydney using a linac in 2000 this rare isotope has potential applications in radiation therapy and is most efficiently produced by bombarding a radium226 target with 2030 mev deuterium ions this reaction also yields 226ac which however decays with a halflife of 29 hours and thus does not contaminate 225ac actinium metal has been prepared by the reduction of actinium fluoride with lithium vapor in vacuum at a temperature between 1100 and 1300 c higher temperatures resulted in evaporation of the product and lower ones lead to an incomplete transformation lithium was chosen among other alkali metals because its fluoride is most volatile applications owing to its scarcity high price and radioactivity 227ac currently has no significant industrial use but 225ac is currently being studied for use in cancer treatments such as targeted alpha therapies 227ac is highly radioactive and was therefore studied for use as an active element of radioisotope thermoelectric generators for example in spacecraft the oxide of 227ac pressed with beryllium is also an efficient neutron source with the activity exceeding that of the standard americiumberyllium and radiumberyllium pairs in all those applications 227ac a beta source is merely a progenitor which generates alphaemitting isotopes upon its decay beryllium captures alpha particles and emits neutrons owing to its large crosssection for the αn nuclear reaction 9_4be 4_2he 12_6c 1_0n gamma the 227acbe neutron sources can be applied in a neutron probe a standard device for measuring the quantity of water present in soil as well as moisturedensity for quality control in highway construction such probes are also used in well logging applications in neutron radiography tomography and other radiochemical investigations 225ac is applied in medicine to produce in a reusable generator or can be used alone as an agent for radiation therapy in particular targeted alpha therapy tat this isotope has a halflife of 10 days making it much more suitable for radiation therapy than 213bi halflife 46 minutes additionally 225ac decays to nontoxic 209bi rather than stable but toxic lead which is the final product in the decay chains of several other candidate isotopes namely 227th 228th and 230u not only 225ac itself but also its daughters emit alpha particles which kill cancer cells in the body the major difficulty with application of 225ac was that intravenous injection of simple actinium complexes resulted in their accumulation in the bones and liver for a period of tens of years as a result after the cancer cells were quickly killed by alpha particles from 225ac the radiation from the actinium and its daughters might induce new mutations to solve this problem 225ac was bound to a chelating agent such as citrate ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid edta or diethylene triamine pentaacetic acid dtpa this reduced actinium accumulation in the bones but the excretion from the body remained slow much better results were obtained with such chelating agents as heha or dota coupled to trastuzumab a monoclonal antibody that interferes with the her2neu receptor the latter delivery combination was tested on mice and proved to be effective against leukemia lymphoma breast ovarian neuroblastoma and prostate cancers the medium halflife of 227ac 2177 years makes it very convenient radioactive isotope in modeling the slow vertical mixing of oceanic waters the associated processes cannot be studied with the required accuracy by direct measurements of current velocities of the order 50 meters per year however evaluation of the concentration depthprofiles for different isotopes allows estimating the mixing rates the physics behind this method is as follows oceanic waters contain homogeneously dispersed 235u its decay product 231pa gradually precipitates to the bottom so that its concentration first increases with depth and then stays nearly constant 231pa decays to 227ac however the concentration of the latter isotope does not follow the 231pa depth profile but instead increases toward the sea bottom this occurs because of the mixing processes which raise some additional 227ac from the sea bottom thus analysis of both 231pa and 227ac depth profiles allows researchers to model the mixing behavior there are theoretical predictions that achx hydrides in this case with very high pressure are a candidate for a near roomtemperature superconductor as they have tc significantly higher than h3s possibly near 250 k precautions 227ac is highly radioactive and experiments with it are carried out in a specially designed laboratory equipped with a tight glove box when actinium trichloride is administered intravenously to rats about 33 of actinium is deposited into the bones and 50 into the liver its toxicity is comparable to but slightly lower than that of americium and plutonium for trace quantities fume hoods with good aeration suffice for gram amounts hot cells with shielding from the intense gamma radiation emitted by 227ac are necessary see also actinium series notes references bibliography meyer gerd and morss lester r 1991 synthesis of lanthanide and actinide compounds springer external links actinium at the periodic table of videos university of nottingham nlm hazardous substances databank actinium radioactive actinium in chemical elements chemical elements with facecentered cubic structure actinides	2,761
900	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Americium	Americium	americium is a synthetic radioactive chemical element with the symbol am and atomic number 95 it is a transuranic member of the actinide series in the periodic table located under the lanthanide element europium and was thus named after the united states by analogy americium was first produced in 1944 by the group of glenn t seaborg from berkeley california at the metallurgical laboratory of the university of chicago as part of the manhattan project although it is the third element in the transuranic series it was discovered fourth after the heavier curium the discovery was kept secret and only released to the public in november 1945 most americium is produced by uranium or plutonium being bombarded with neutrons in nuclear reactors one tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100 grams of americium it is widely used in commercial ionization chamber smoke detectors as well as in neutron sources and industrial gauges several unusual applications such as nuclear batteries or fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion have been proposed for the isotope 242mam but they are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this nuclear isomer americium is a relatively soft radioactive metal with silvery appearance its most common isotopes are 241am and 243am in chemical compounds americium usually assumes the oxidation state 3 especially in solutions several other oxidation states are known ranging from 2 to 7 and can be identified by their characteristic optical absorption spectra the crystal lattices of solid americium and its compounds contain small intrinsic radiogenic defects due to metamictization induced by selfirradiation with alpha particles which accumulates with time this can cause a drift of some material properties over time more noticeable in older samples history although americium was likely produced in previous nuclear experiments it was first intentionally synthesized isolated and identified in late autumn 1944 at the university of california berkeley by glenn t seaborg leon o morgan ralph a james and albert ghiorso they used a 60inch cyclotron at the university of california berkeley the element was chemically identified at the metallurgical laboratory now argonne national laboratory of the university of chicago following the lighter neptunium plutonium and heavier curium americium was the fourth transuranium element to be discovered at the time the periodic table had been restructured by seaborg to its present layout containing the actinide row below the lanthanide one this led to americium being located right below its twin lanthanide element europium it was thus by analogy named after the americas the name americium after the americas and the symbol am are suggested for the element on the basis of its position as the sixth member of the actinide rareearth series analogous to europium eu of the lanthanide series the new element was isolated from its oxides in a complex multistep process first plutonium239 nitrate 239puno3 solution was coated on a platinum foil of about 05 cm2 area the solution was evaporated and the residue was converted into plutonium dioxide puo2 by calcining after cyclotron irradiation the coating was dissolved with nitric acid and then precipitated as the hydroxide using concentrated aqueous ammonia solution the residue was dissolved in perchloric acid further separation was carried out by ion exchange yielding a certain isotope of curium the separation of curium and americium was so painstaking that those elements were initially called by the berkeley group as pandemonium from greek for all demons or hell and delirium from latin for madness initial experiments yielded four americium isotopes 241am 242am 239am and 238am americium241 was directly obtained from plutonium upon absorption of two neutrons it decays by emission of a αparticle to 237np the halflife of this decay was first determined as years but then corrected to 4322 years the times are halflives the second isotope 242am was produced upon neutron bombardment of the alreadycreated 241am upon rapid βdecay 242am converts into the isotope of curium 242cm which had been discovered previously the halflife of this decay was initially determined at 17 hours which was close to the presently accepted value of 1602 h the discovery of americium and curium in 1944 was closely related to the manhattan project the results were confidential and declassified only in 1945 seaborg leaked the synthesis of the elements 95 and 96 on the us radio show for children quiz kids five days before the official presentation at an american chemical society meeting on 11 november 1945 when one of the listeners asked whether any new transuranium element besides plutonium and neptunium had been discovered during the war after the discovery of americium isotopes 241am and 242am their production and compounds were patented listing only seaborg as the inventor the initial americium samples weighed a few micrograms they were barely visible and were identified by their radioactivity the first substantial amounts of metallic americium weighing 40200 micrograms were not prepared until 1951 by reduction of americiumiii fluoride with barium metal in high vacuum at 1100 c occurrence the longestlived and most common isotopes of americium 241am and 243am have halflives of 4322 and 7370 years respectively therefore any primordial americium americium that was present on earth during its formation should have decayed by now trace amounts of americium probably occur naturally in uranium minerals as a result of nuclear reactions though this has not been confirmed existing americium is concentrated in the areas used for the atmospheric nuclear weapons tests conducted between 1945 and 1980 as well as at the sites of nuclear incidents such as the chernobyl disaster for example the analysis of the debris at the testing site of the first us hydrogen bomb ivy mike 1 november 1952 enewetak atoll revealed high concentrations of various actinides including americium but due to military secrecy this result was not published until later in 1956 trinitite the glassy residue left on the desert floor near alamogordo new mexico after the plutoniumbased trinity nuclear bomb test on 16 july 1945 contains traces of americium241 elevated levels of americium were also detected at the crash site of a us boeing b52 bomber aircraft which carried four hydrogen bombs in 1968 in greenland in other regions the average radioactivity of surface soil due to residual americium is only about 001 picocuries per gram 037 mbqg atmospheric americium compounds are poorly soluble in common solvents and mostly adhere to soil particles soil analysis revealed about 1900 times higher concentration of americium inside sandy soil particles than in the water present in the soil pores an even higher ratio was measured in loam soils americium is produced mostly artificially in small quantities for research purposes a tonne of spent nuclear fuel contains about 100 grams of various americium isotopes mostly 241am and 243am their prolonged radioactivity is undesirable for the disposal and therefore americium together with other longlived actinides must be neutralized the associated procedure may involve several steps where americium is first separated and then converted by neutron bombardment in special reactors to shortlived nuclides this procedure is well known as nuclear transmutation but it is still being developed for americium the transuranic elements from americium to fermium occurred naturally in the natural nuclear fission reactor at oklo but no longer do so americium is also one of the elements that have theoretically been detected in przybylskis star synthesis and extraction isotope nucleosynthesis americium has been produced in small quantities in nuclear reactors for decades and kilograms of its 241am and 243am isotopes have been accumulated by now nevertheless since it was first offered for sale in 1962 its price about of 241am remains almost unchanged owing to the very complex separation procedure the heavier isotope 243am is produced in much smaller amounts it is thus more difficult to separate resulting in a higher cost of the order americium is not synthesized directly from uranium the most common reactor material but from the plutonium isotope 239pu the latter needs to be produced first according to the following nuclear process 238_92u cengamma 239_92u beta235 cemin 239_93np beta23565 ced 239_94pu the capture of two neutrons by 239pu a socalled nγ reaction followed by a βdecay results in 241am 239_94pu ce2ngamma 241_94pu beta1435 ceyr 241_95am the plutonium present in spent nuclear fuel contains about 12 of 241pu because it betadecays to 241am 241pu can be extracted and may be used to generate further 241am however this process is rather slow half of the original amount of 241pu decays to 241am after about 15 years and the 241am amount reaches a maximum after 70 years the obtained 241am can be used for generating heavier americium isotopes by further neutron capture inside a nuclear reactor in a light water reactor lwr 79 of 241am converts to 242am and 10 to its nuclear isomer 242mam americium242 has a halflife of only 16 hours which makes its further conversion to 243am extremely inefficient the latter isotope is produced instead in a process where 239pu captures four neutrons under high neutron flux 239_94pu ce4ngamma 243_94pu beta4956 ceh 243_95am metal generation most synthesis routines yield a mixture of different actinide isotopes in oxide forms from which isotopes of americium can be separated in a typical procedure the spent reactor fuel eg mox fuel is dissolved in nitric acid and the bulk of uranium and plutonium is removed using a purextype extraction plutoniumuranium extraction with tributyl phosphate in a hydrocarbon the lanthanides and remaining actinides are then separated from the aqueous residue raffinate by a diamidebased extraction to give after stripping a mixture of trivalent actinides and lanthanides americium compounds are then selectively extracted using multistep chromatographic and centrifugation techniques with an appropriate reagent a large amount of work has been done on the solvent extraction of americium for example a 2003 eufunded project codenamed europart studied triazines and other compounds as potential extraction agents a bistriazinyl bipyridine complex was proposed in 2009 as such a reagent is highly selective to americium and curium separation of americium from the highly similar curium can be achieved by treating a slurry of their hydroxides in aqueous sodium bicarbonate with ozone at elevated temperatures both am and cm are mostly present in solutions in the 3 valence state whereas curium remains unchanged americium oxidizes to soluble amiv complexes which can be washed away metallic americium is obtained by reduction from its compounds americiumiii fluoride was first used for this purpose the reaction was conducted using elemental barium as reducing agent in a water and oxygenfree environment inside an apparatus made of tantalum and tungsten an alternative is the reduction of americium dioxide by metallic lanthanum or thorium physical properties in the periodic table americium is located to the right of plutonium to the left of curium and below the lanthanide europium with which it shares many physical and chemical properties americium is a highly radioactive element when freshly prepared it has a silverywhite metallic lustre but then slowly tarnishes in air with a density of 12 gcm3 americium is less dense than both curium 1352 gcm3 and plutonium 198 gcm3 but has a higher density than europium 5264 gcm3mostly because of its higher atomic mass americium is relatively soft and easily deformable and has a significantly lower bulk modulus than the actinides before it th pa u np and pu its melting point of 1173 c is significantly higher than that of plutonium 639 c and europium 826 c but lower than for curium 1340 c at ambient conditions americium is present in its most stable α form which has a hexagonal crystal symmetry and a space group p63mmc with cell parameters a 3468 pm and c 1124 pm and four atoms per unit cell the crystal consists of a doublehexagonal close packing with the layer sequence abac and so is isotypic with αlanthanum and several actinides such as αcurium the crystal structure of americium changes with pressure and temperature when compressed at room temperature to 5 gpa αam transforms to the β modification which has a facecentered cubic fcc symmetry space group fmm and lattice constant a 489 pm this fcc structure is equivalent to the closest packing with the sequence abc upon further compression to 23 gpa americium transforms to an orthorhombic γam structure similar to that of αuranium there are no further transitions observed up to 52 gpa except for an appearance of a monoclinic phase at pressures between 10 and 15 gpa there is no consistency on the status of this phase in the literature which also sometimes lists the α β and γ phases as i ii and iii the βγ transition is accompanied by a 6 decrease in the crystal volume although theory also predicts a significant volume change for the αβ transition it is not observed experimentally the pressure of the αβ transition decreases with increasing temperature and when αamericium is heated at ambient pressure at 770 c it changes into an fcc phase which is different from βam and at 1075 c it converts to a bodycentered cubic structure the pressuretemperature phase diagram of americium is thus rather similar to those of lanthanum praseodymium and neodymium as with many other actinides selfdamage of the crystal structure due to alphaparticle irradiation is intrinsic to americium it is especially noticeable at low temperatures where the mobility of the produced structure defects is relatively low by broadening of xray diffraction peaks this effect makes somewhat uncertain the temperature of americium and some of its properties such as electrical resistivity so for americium241 the resistivity at 42 k increases with time from about 2 µohmcm to 10 µohmcm after 40 hours and saturates at about 16 µohmcm after 140 hours this effect is less pronounced at room temperature due to annihilation of radiation defects also heating to room temperature the sample which was kept for hours at low temperatures restores its resistivity in fresh samples the resistivity gradually increases with temperature from about 2 µohmcm at liquid helium to 69 µohmcm at room temperature this behavior is similar to that of neptunium uranium thorium and protactinium but is different from plutonium and curium which show a rapid rise up to 60 k followed by saturation the room temperature value for americium is lower than that of neptunium plutonium and curium but higher than for uranium thorium and protactinium americium is paramagnetic in a wide temperature range from that of liquid helium to room temperature and above this behavior is markedly different from that of its neighbor curium which exhibits antiferromagnetic transition at 52 k the thermal expansion coefficient of americium is slightly anisotropic and amounts to along the shorter a axis and for the longer c hexagonal axis the enthalpy of dissolution of americium metal in hydrochloric acid at standard conditions is from which the standard enthalpy change of formation δfh of aqueous am3 ion is the standard potential am3am0 is chemical properties americium metal readily reacts with oxygen and dissolves in aqueous acids the most stable oxidation state for americium is 3 the chemistry of americiumiii has many similarities to the chemistry of lanthanideiii compounds for example trivalent americium forms insoluble fluoride oxalate iodate hydroxide phosphate and other salts compounds of americium in oxidation states 2 4 5 6 and 7 have also been studied this is the widest range that has been observed with actinide elements the color of americium compounds in aqueous solution is as follows am3 yellowreddish am4 yellowreddish yellow brown and dark green the absorption spectra have sharp peaks due to ff transitions in the visible and nearinfrared regions typically amiii has absorption maxima at ca 504 and 811 nm amv at ca 514 and 715 nm and amvi at ca 666 and 992 nm americium compounds with oxidation state 4 and higher are strong oxidizing agents comparable in strength to the permanganate ion in acidic solutions whereas the am4 ions are unstable in solutions and readily convert to am3 compounds such as americium dioxide amo2 and americiumiv fluoride amf4 are stable in the solid state the pentavalent oxidation state of americium was first observed in 1951 in acidic aqueous solution the ion is unstable with respect to disproportionation the reaction is typical the chemistry of amv and amvi is comparable to the chemistry of uranium in those oxidation states in particular compounds like and are comparable to uranates and the ion is comparable to the uranyl ion such compounds can be prepared by oxidation of amiii in dilute nitric acid with ammonium persulfate other oxidising agents that have been used include silveri oxide ozone and sodium persulfate chemical compounds oxygen compounds three americium oxides are known with the oxidation states 2 amo 3 am2o3 and 4 amo2 americiumii oxide was prepared in minute amounts and has not been characterized in detail americiumiii oxide is a redbrown solid with a melting point of 2205 c americiumiv oxide is the main form of solid americium which is used in nearly all its applications as most other actinide dioxides it is a black solid with a cubic fluorite crystal structure the oxalate of americiumiii vacuum dried at room temperature has the chemical formula am2c2o437h2o upon heating in vacuum it loses water at 240 c and starts decomposing into amo2 at 300 c the decomposition completes at about 470 c the initial oxalate dissolves in nitric acid with the maximum solubility of 025 gl halides halides of americium are known for the oxidation states 2 3 and 4 where the 3 is most stable especially in solutions reduction of amiii compounds with sodium amalgam yields amii salts the black halides amcl2 ambr2 and ami2 they are very sensitive to oxygen and oxidize in water releasing hydrogen and converting back to the amiii state specific lattice constants are orthorhombic amcl2 a b and c tetragonal ambr2 a and c they can also be prepared by reacting metallic americium with an appropriate mercury halide hgx2 where x cl br or i am undersetmercury halidehgx2 atop 400 500 circ ce c amx2 hg americiumiii fluoride amf3 is poorly soluble and precipitates upon reaction of am3 and fluoride ions in weak acidic solutions am3 3f amf3v the tetravalent americiumiv fluoride amf4 is obtained by reacting solid americiumiii fluoride with molecular fluorine 2amf3 f2 2amf4 another known form of solid tetravalent americium fluoride is kamf5 tetravalent americium has also been observed in the aqueous phase for this purpose black amoh4 was dissolved in 15m nh4f with the americium concentration of 001 m the resulting reddish solution had a characteristic optical absorption spectrum which is similar to that of amf4 but differed from other oxidation states of americium heating the amiv solution to 90 c did not result in its disproportionation or reduction however a slow reduction was observed to amiii and assigned to selfirradiation of americium by alpha particles most americiumiii halides form hexagonal crystals with slight variation of the color and exact structure between the halogens so chloride amcl3 is reddish and has a structure isotypic to uraniumiii chloride space group p63m and the melting point of 715 c the fluoride is isotypic to laf3 space group p63mmc and the iodide to bii3 space group r the bromide is an exception with the orthorhombic pubr3type structure and space group cmcm crystals of americium hexahydrate amcl36h2o can be prepared by dissolving americium dioxide in hydrochloric acid and evaporating the liquid those crystals are hygroscopic and have yellowreddish color and a monoclinic crystal structure oxyhalides of americium in the form amvio2x2 amvo2x amivox2 and amiiiox can be obtained by reacting the corresponding americium halide with oxygen or sb2o3 and amocl can also be produced by vapor phase hydrolysis amcl3 h2o amocl 2hcl chalcogenides and pnictides the known chalcogenides of americium include the sulfide ams2 selenides amse2 and am3se4 and tellurides am2te3 and amte2 the pnictides of americium 243am of the amx type are known for the elements phosphorus arsenic antimony and bismuth they crystallize in the rocksalt lattice silicides and borides americium monosilicide amsi and disilicide nominally amsix with 187 x 20 were obtained by reduction of americiumiii fluoride with elementary silicon in vacuum at 1050 c amsi and 11501200 c amsix amsi is a black solid isomorphic with lasi it has an orthorhombic crystal symmetry amsix has a bright silvery lustre and a tetragonal crystal lattice space group i41amd it is isomorphic with pusi2 and thsi2 borides of americium include amb4 and amb6 the tetraboride can be obtained by heating an oxide or halide of americium with magnesium diboride in vacuum or inert atmosphere organoamericium compounds analogous to uranocene americium forms the organometallic compound amerocene with two cyclooctatetraene ligands with the chemical formula η8c8h82am a cyclopentadienyl complex is also known that is likely to be stoichiometrically amcp3 formation of the complexes of the type amnc3h7btp3 where btp stands for 26di124triazin3ylpyridine in solutions containing nc3h7btp and am3 ions has been confirmed by exafs some of these btptype complexes selectively interact with americium and therefore are useful in its selective separation from lanthanides and another actinides biological aspects americium is an artificial element of recent origin and thus does not have a biological requirement it is harmful to life it has been proposed to use bacteria for removal of americium and other heavy metals from rivers and streams thus enterobacteriaceae of the genus citrobacter precipitate americium ions from aqueous solutions binding them into a metalphosphate complex at their cell walls several studies have been reported on the biosorption and bioaccumulation of americium by bacteria and fungi fission the isotope 242mam halflife 141 years has the largest cross sections for absorption of thermal neutrons 5700 barns that results in a small critical mass for a sustained nuclear chain reaction the critical mass for a bare 242mam sphere is about 914 kg the uncertainty results from insufficient knowledge of its material properties it can be lowered to 35 kg with a metal reflector and should become even smaller with a water reflector such small critical mass is favorable for portable nuclear weapons but those based on 242mam are not known yet probably because of its scarcity and high price the critical masses of the two readily available isotopes 241am and 243am are relatively high 576 to 756 kg for 241am and 209 kg for 243am scarcity and high price yet hinder application of americium as a nuclear fuel in nuclear reactors there are proposals of very compact 10kw highflux reactors using as little as 20 grams of 242mam such lowpower reactors would be relatively safe to use as neutron sources for radiation therapy in hospitals isotopes about 19 isotopes and 8 nuclear isomers are known for americium there are two longlived alphaemitters 243am has a halflife of 7370 years and is the most stable isotope and 241am has a halflife of 4322 years the most stable nuclear isomer is 242m1am it has a long halflife of 141 years the halflives of other isotopes and isomers range from 064 microseconds for 245m1am to 508 hours for 240am as with most other actinides the isotopes of americium with odd number of neutrons have relatively high rate of nuclear fission and low critical mass americium241 decays to 237np emitting alpha particles of 5 different energies mostly at 5486 mev 852 and 5443 mev 128 because many of the resulting states are metastable they also emit gamma rays with the discrete energies between 263 and 1585 kev americium242 is a shortlived isotope with a halflife of 1602 h it mostly 827 converts by βdecay to 242cm but also by electron capture to 242pu 173 both 242cm and 242pu transform via nearly the same decay chain through 238pu down to 234u nearly all 99541 of 242m1am decays by internal conversion to 242am and the remaining 0459 by αdecay to 238np the latter subsequently decays to 238pu and then to 234u americium243 transforms by αemission into 239np which converts by βdecay to 239pu and the 239pu changes into 235u by emitting an αparticle applications ionizationtype smoke detector americium is used in the most common type of household smoke detector which uses 241am in the form of americium dioxide as its source of ionizing radiation this isotope is preferred over 226ra because it emits 5 times more alpha particles and relatively little harmful gamma radiation the amount of americium in a typical new smoke detector is 1 microcurie 37 kbq or 029 microgram this amount declines slowly as the americium decays into neptunium237 a different transuranic element with a much longer halflife about 214 million years with its halflife of 4322 years the americium in a smoke detector includes about 3 neptunium after 19 years and about 5 after 32 years the radiation passes through an ionization chamber an airfilled space between two electrodes and permits a small constant current between the electrodes any smoke that enters the chamber absorbs the alpha particles which reduces the ionization and affects this current triggering the alarm compared to the alternative optical smoke detector the ionization smoke detector is cheaper and can detect particles which are too small to produce significant light scattering however it is more prone to false alarms radionuclide as 241am has a roughly similar halflife to 238pu 4322 years vs 87 years it has been proposed as an active element of radioisotope thermoelectric generators for example in spacecraft although americium produces less heat and electricity the power yield is 1147 mwg for 241am and 631 mwg for 243am cf 390 mwg for 238pu and its radiation poses more threat to humans owing to neutron emission the european space agency is considering using americium for its space probes another proposed spacerelated application of americium is a fuel for space ships with nuclear propulsion it relies on the very high rate of nuclear fission of 242mam which can be maintained even in a micrometerthick foil small thickness avoids the problem of selfabsorption of emitted radiation this problem is pertinent to uranium or plutonium rods in which only surface layers provide alphaparticles the fission products of 242mam can either directly propel the spaceship or they can heat a thrusting gas they can also transfer their energy to a fluid and generate electricity through a magnetohydrodynamic generator one more proposal which utilizes the high nuclear fission rate of 242mam is a nuclear battery its design relies not on the energy of the emitted by americium alpha particles but on their charge that is the americium acts as the selfsustaining cathode a single 32 kg 242mam charge of such battery could provide about 140 kw of power over a period of 80 days even with all the potential benefits the current applications of 242mam are as yet hindered by the scarcity and high price of this particular nuclear isomer in 2019 researchers at the uk national nuclear laboratory and the university of leicester demonstrated the use of heat generated by americium to illuminate a small light bulb this technology could lead to systems to power missions with durations up to 400 years into interstellar space where solar panels do not function neutron source the oxide of 241am pressed with beryllium is an efficient neutron source here americium acts as the alpha source and beryllium produces neutrons owing to its large crosssection for the αn nuclear reaction 241_95am 237_93np 4_2he gamma 9_4be 4_2he 12_6c 1_0n gamma the most widespread use of 241ambe neutron sources is a neutron probe a device used to measure the quantity of water present in soil as well as moisturedensity for quality control in highway construction 241am neutron sources are also used in well logging applications as well as in neutron radiography tomography and other radiochemical investigations production of other elements americium is a starting material for the production of other transuranic elements and transactinides for example 827 of 242am decays to 242cm and 173 to 242pu in the nuclear reactor 242am is also upconverted by neutron capture to 243am and 244am which transforms by βdecay to 244cm 243_95am cengamma 244_95am beta101 ceh 244_96cm irradiation of 241am by 12c or 22ne ions yields the isotopes 247es einsteinium or 260db dubnium respectively furthermore the element berkelium 243bk isotope had been first intentionally produced and identified by bombarding 241am with alpha particles in 1949 by the same berkeley group using the same 60inch cyclotron similarly nobelium was produced at the joint institute for nuclear research dubna russia in 1965 in several reactions one of which included irradiation of 243am with 15n ions besides one of the synthesis reactions for lawrencium discovered by scientists at berkeley and dubna included bombardment of 243am with 18o spectrometer americium241 has been used as a portable source of both gamma rays and alpha particles for a number of medical and industrial uses the 595409 kev gamma ray emissions from 241am in such sources can be used for indirect analysis of materials in radiography and xray fluorescence spectroscopy as well as for quality control in fixed nuclear density gauges and nuclear densometers for example the element has been employed to gauge glass thickness to help create flat glass americium241 is also suitable for calibration of gammaray spectrometers in the lowenergy range since its spectrum consists of nearly a single peak and negligible compton continuum at least three orders of magnitude lower intensity americium241 gamma rays were also used to provide passive diagnosis of thyroid function this medical application is however obsolete health concerns as a highly radioactive element americium and its compounds must be handled only in an appropriate laboratory under special arrangements although most americium isotopes predominantly emit alpha particles which can be blocked by thin layers of common materials many of the daughter products emit gammarays and neutrons which have a long penetration depth if consumed most of the americium is excreted within a few days with only 005 absorbed in the blood of which roughly 45 goes to the liver and 45 to the bones and the remaining 10 is excreted the uptake to the liver depends on the individual and increases with age in the bones americium is first deposited over cortical and trabecular surfaces and slowly redistributes over the bone with time the biological halflife of 241am is 50 years in the bones and 20 years in the liver whereas in the gonads testicles and ovaries it remains permanently in all these organs americium promotes formation of cancer cells as a result of its radioactivity americium often enters landfills from discarded smoke detectors the rules associated with the disposal of smoke detectors are relaxed in most jurisdictions in 1994 17yearold david hahn extracted the americium from about 100 smoke detectors in an attempt to build a breeder nuclear reactor there have been a few cases of exposure to americium the worst case being that of chemical operations technician harold mccluskey who at the age of 64 was exposed to 500 times the occupational standard for americium241 as a result of an explosion in his lab mccluskey died at the age of 75 of unrelated preexisting disease see also actinides in the environment categoryamericium compounds notes references bibliography penneman r a and keenan t k the radiochemistry of americium and curium university of california los alamos california 1960 further reading nuclides and isotopes 14th edition ge nuclear energy 1989 external links americium at the periodic table of videos university of nottingham atsdr public health statement americium world nuclear association smoke detectors and americium chemical elements chemical elements with double hexagonal closepacked structure actinides carcinogens synthetic elements	5,224
901	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astatine	Astatine	astatine is a chemical element with the symbol at and atomic number 85 it is the rarest naturally occurring element in the earths crust occurring only as the decay product of various heavier elements all of astatines isotopes are shortlived the most stable is astatine210 with a halflife of 81 hours consequently a solid sample of the element has never been seen because any macroscopic specimen would be immediately vaporized by the heat of its radioactivity the bulk properties of astatine are not known with certainty many of them have been estimated from its position on the periodic table as a heavier analog of iodine and a member of the halogens the group of elements including fluorine chlorine bromine iodine and tennessine however astatine also falls roughly along the dividing line between metals and nonmetals and some metallic behavior has also been observed and predicted for it astatine is likely to have a dark or lustrous appearance and may be a semiconductor or possibly a metal chemically several anionic species of astatine are known and most of its compounds resemble those of iodine but it also sometimes displays metallic characteristics and shows some similarities to silver the first synthesis of astatine was in 1940 by dale r corson kenneth ross mackenzie and emilio g segrè at the university of california berkeley they named it from the ancient greek unstable four isotopes of astatine were subsequently found to be naturally occurring although much less than one gram is present at any given time in the earths crust neither the most stable isotope astatine210 nor the medically useful astatine211 occur naturally they are usually produced by bombarding bismuth209 with alpha particles characteristics astatine is an extremely radioactive element all its isotopes have halflives of 81 hours or less decaying into other astatine isotopes bismuth polonium or radon most of its isotopes are very unstable with halflives of seconds or less of the first 101 elements in the periodic table only francium is less stable and all the astatine isotopes more stable than the longestlived francium isotopes are in any case synthetic and do not occur in nature the bulk properties of astatine are not known with any certainty research is limited by its short halflife which prevents the creation of weighable quantities a visible piece of astatine would immediately vaporize itself because of the heat generated by its intense radioactivity it remains to be seen if with sufficient cooling a macroscopic quantity of astatine could be deposited as a thin film astatine is usually classified as either a nonmetal or a metalloid metal formation has also been predicted physical most of the physical properties of astatine have been estimated by interpolation or extrapolation using theoretically or empirically derived methods for example halogens get darker with increasing atomic weight fluorine is nearly colorless chlorine is yellowgreen bromine is redbrown and iodine is dark grayviolet astatine is sometimes described as probably being a black solid assuming it follows this trend or as having a metallic appearance if it is a metalloid or a metal astatine sublimes less readily than does iodine having a lower vapor pressure even so half of a given quantity of astatine will vaporize in approximately an hour if put on a clean glass surface at room temperature the absorption spectrum of astatine in the middle ultraviolet region has lines at 224401 and 216225 nm suggestive of 6p to 7s transitions the structure of solid astatine is unknown as an analog of iodine it may have an orthorhombic crystalline structure composed of diatomic astatine molecules and be a semiconductor with a band gap of 07 ev alternatively if condensed astatine forms a metallic phase as has been predicted it may have a monatomic facecentered cubic structure in this structure it may well be a superconductor like the similar highpressure phase of iodine metallic astatine is expected to have a density of 891895 gcm3 evidence for or against the existence of diatomic astatine at2 is sparse and inconclusive some sources state that it does not exist or at least has never been observed while other sources assert or imply its existence despite this controversy many properties of diatomic astatine have been predicted for example its bond length would be dissociation energy and heat of vaporization hvap 5439 kjmol many values have been predicted for the melting and boiling points of astatine but only for at2 chemical the chemistry of astatine is clouded by the extremely low concentrations at which astatine experiments have been conducted and the possibility of reactions with impurities walls and filters or radioactivity byproducts and other unwanted nanoscale interactions many of its apparent chemical properties have been observed using tracer studies on extremely dilute astatine solutions typically less than 1010 moll1 some properties such as anion formation align with other halogens astatine has some metallic characteristics as well such as plating onto a cathode and coprecipitating with metal sulfides in hydrochloric acid it forms complexes with edta a metal chelating agent and is capable of acting as a metal in antibody radiolabeling in some respects astatine in the 1 state is akin to silver in the same state most of the organic chemistry of astatine is however analogous to that of iodine it has been suggested that astatine can form a stable monatomic cation in aqueous solution astatine has an electronegativity of 22 on the revised pauling scale lower than that of iodine 266 and the same as hydrogen in hydrogen astatide hat the negative charge is predicted to be on the hydrogen atom implying that this compound could be referred to as astatine hydride according to certain nomenclatures that would be consistent with the electronegativity of astatine on the allredrochow scale 19 being less than that of hydrogen 22 however official iupac stoichiometric nomenclature is based on an idealized convention of determining the relative electronegativities of the elements by the mere virtue of their position within the periodic table according to this convention astatine is handled as though it is more electronegative than hydrogen irrespective of its true electronegativity the electron affinity of astatine at 233 kj mol1 is 21 less than that of iodine in comparison the value of cl 349 is 64 higher than f 328 br 325 is 69 less than cl and i 295 is 92 less than br the marked reduction for at was predicted as being due to spinorbit interactions the first ionization energy of astatine is about 899 kj mol1 which continues the trend of decreasing first ionization energies down the halogen group fluorine 1681 chlorine 1251 bromine 1140 iodine 1008 compounds less reactive than iodine astatine is the least reactive of the halogens the chemical properties of tennessine the nextheavier group 17 element have not yet been investigated however astatine compounds have been synthesized in nanoscale amounts and studied as intensively as possible before their radioactive disintegration the reactions involved have been typically tested with dilute solutions of astatine mixed with larger amounts of iodine acting as a carrier the iodine ensures there is sufficient material for laboratory techniques such as filtration and precipitation to work like iodine astatine has been shown to adopt oddnumbered oxidation states ranging from 1 to 7 only a few compounds with metals have been reported in the form of states of sodium palladium silver thallium and lead some characteristic properties of silver and sodium astatide and the other hypothetical alkali and alkaline earth astatides have been estimated by extrapolation from other metal halides the formation of an astatine compound with hydrogen usually referred to as hydrogen astatide was noted by the pioneers of astatine chemistry as mentioned there are grounds for instead referring to this compound as astatine hydride it is easily oxidized acidification by dilute nitric acid gives the at0 or at forms and the subsequent addition of silveri may only partially at best precipitate astatine as silveri astatide agat iodine in contrast is not oxidized and precipitates readily as silveri iodide astatine is known to bind to boron carbon and nitrogen various boron cage compounds have been prepared with atb bonds these being more stable than atc bonds astatine can replace a hydrogen atom in benzene to form astatobenzene c6h5at this may be oxidized to c6h5atcl2 by chlorine by treating this compound with an alkaline solution of hypochlorite c6h5ato2 can be produced the dipyridineastatinei cation atc5h5n2 forms ionic compounds with perchlorate a noncoordinating anion and with nitrate atc5h5n2no3 this cation exists as a coordination complex in which two dative covalent bonds separately link the astatinei centre with each of the pyridine rings via their nitrogen atoms with oxygen there is evidence of the species ato and ato in aqueous solution formed by the reaction of astatine with an oxidant such as elemental bromine or in the last case by sodium persulfate in a solution of perchloric acid the species previously thought to be has since been determined to be a hydrolysis product of ato another such hydrolysis product being atooh the well characterized anion can be obtained by for example the oxidation of astatine with potassium hypochlorite in a solution of potassium hydroxide preparation of lanthanum triastatate laato33 following the oxidation of astatine by a hot na2s2o8 solution has been reported further oxidation of such as by xenon difluoride in a hot alkaline solution or periodate in a neutral or alkaline solution yields the perastatate ion this is only stable in neutral or alkaline solutions astatine is also thought to be capable of forming cations in salts with oxyanions such as iodate or dichromate this is based on the observation that in acidic solutions monovalent or intermediate positive states of astatine coprecipitate with the insoluble salts of metal cations such as silveri iodate or thalliumi dichromate astatine may form bonds to the other chalcogens these include s7at and with sulfur a coordination selenourea compound with selenium and an astatinetellurium colloid with tellurium astatine is known to react with its lighter homologs iodine bromine and chlorine in the vapor state these reactions produce diatomic interhalogen compounds with formulas ati atbr and atcl the first two compounds may also be produced in water astatine reacts with iodineiodide solution to form ati whereas atbr requires aside from astatine an iodineiodine monobromidebromide solution the excess of iodides or bromides may lead to and ions or in a chloride solution they may produce species like or via equilibrium reactions with the chlorides oxidation of the element with dichromate in nitric acid solution showed that adding chloride turned the astatine into a molecule likely to be either atcl or atocl similarly or may be produced the polyhalides pdati2 csati2 tlati2 and pbati are known or presumed to have been precipitated in a plasma ion source mass spectrometer the ions ati atbr and atcl have been formed by introducing lighter halogen vapors into a heliumfilled cell containing astatine supporting the existence of stable neutral molecules in the plasma ion state no astatine fluorides have been discovered yet their absence has been speculatively attributed to the extreme reactivity of such compounds including the reaction of an initially formed fluoride with the walls of the glass container to form a nonvolatile product thus although the synthesis of an astatine fluoride is thought to be possible it may require a liquid halogen fluoride solvent as has already been used for the characterization of radon fluoride history in 1869 when dmitri mendeleev published his periodic table the space under iodine was empty after niels bohr established the physical basis of the classification of chemical elements it was suggested that the fifth halogen belonged there before its officially recognized discovery it was called ekaiodine from sanskrit eka one to imply it was one space under iodine in the same manner as ekasilicon ekaboron and others scientists tried to find it in nature given its extreme rarity these attempts resulted in several false discoveries the first claimed discovery of ekaiodine was made by fred allison and his associates at the alabama polytechnic institute now auburn university in 1931 the discoverers named element 85 alabamine and assigned it the symbol ab designations that were used for a few years in 1934 h g macpherson of university of california berkeley disproved allisons method and the validity of his discovery there was another claim in 1937 by the chemist rajendralal de working in dacca in british india now dhaka in bangladesh he chose the name dakin for element 85 which he claimed to have isolated as the thorium series equivalent of radium f polonium210 in the radium series the properties he reported for dakin do not correspond to those of astatine and astatines radioactivity would have prevented him from handling it in the quantities he claimed moreover astatine is not found in the thorium series and the true identity of dakin is not known in 1936 the team of romanian physicist horia hulubei and french physicist yvette cauchois claimed to have discovered element 85 by observing its xray emission lines in 1939 they published another paper which supported and extended previous data in 1944 hulubei published a summary of data he had obtained up to that time claiming it was supported by the work of other researchers he chose the name dor presumably from the romanian for longing for peace as world war ii had started five years earlier as hulubei was writing in french a language which does not accommodate the ine suffix dor would likely have been rendered in english as dorine had it been adopted in 1947 hulubeis claim was effectively rejected by the austrian chemist friedrich paneth who would later chair the iupac committee responsible for recognition of new elements even though hulubeis samples did contain astatine218 his means to detect it were too weak by current standards to enable correct identification moreover he could not perform chemical tests on the element he had also been involved in an earlier false claim as to the discovery of element 87 francium and this is thought to have caused other researchers to downplay his work in 1940 the swiss chemist walter minder announced the discovery of element 85 as the beta decay product of radium a polonium218 choosing the name helvetium from the latin name of switzerland berta karlik and traude bernert were unsuccessful in reproducing his experiments and subsequently attributed minders results to contamination of his radon stream radon222 is the parent isotope of polonium218 in 1942 minder in collaboration with the english scientist alice leighsmith announced the discovery of another isotope of element 85 presumed to be the product of thorium a polonium216 beta decay they named this substance anglohelvetium but karlik and bernert were again unable to reproduce these results later in 1940 dale r corson kenneth ross mackenzie and emilio segrè isolated the element at the university of california berkeley instead of searching for the element in nature the scientists created it by bombarding bismuth209 with alpha particles in a cyclotron particle accelerator to produce after emission of two neutrons astatine211 the discoverers however did not immediately suggest a name for the element the reason for this was that at the time an element created synthetically in invisible quantities that had not yet been discovered in nature was not seen as a completely valid one in addition chemists were reluctant to recognize radioactive isotopes as legitimately as stable ones in 1943 astatine was found as a product of two naturally occurring decay chains by berta karlik and traude bernert first in the socalled uranium series and then in the actinium series since then astatine was also found in a third decay chain the neptunium series friedrich paneth in 1946 called to finally recognize synthetic elements quoting among other reasons recent confirmation of their natural occurrence and proposed that the discoverers of the newly discovered unnamed elements name these elements in early 1947 nature published the discoverers suggestions a letter from corson mackenzie and segrè suggested the name astatine coming from the ancient greek meaning because of its propensity for radioactive decay with the ending ine found in the names of the four previously discovered halogens the name was also chosen to continue the tradition of the four stable halogens where the name referred to a property of the element corson and his colleagues classified astatine as a metal on the basis of its analytical chemistry subsequent investigators reported iodinelike cationic or amphoteric behavior in a 2003 retrospective corson wrote that some of the properties of astatine are similar to iodine it also exhibits metallic properties more like its metallic neighbors po and bi isotopes there are 41 known isotopes of astatine with mass numbers of 188 and 190229 theoretical modeling suggests that about 37 more isotopes could exist no stable or longlived astatine isotope has been observed nor is one expected to exist astatines alpha decay energies follow the same trend as for other heavy elements lighter astatine isotopes have quite high energies of alpha decay which become lower as the nuclei become heavier astatine211 has a significantly higher energy than the previous isotope because it has a nucleus with 126 neutrons and 126 is a magic number corresponding to a filled neutron shell despite having a similar halflife to the previous isotope 81 hours for astatine210 and 72 hours for astatine211 the alpha decay probability is much higher for the latter 4181 against only 018 the two following isotopes release even more energy with astatine213 releasing the most energy for this reason it is the shortestlived astatine isotope even though heavier astatine isotopes release less energy no longlived astatine isotope exists because of the increasing role of beta decay electron emission this decay mode is especially important for astatine as early as 1950 it was postulated that all isotopes of the element undergo beta decay though nuclear mass measurements indicate that 215at is in fact betastable as it has the lowest mass of all isobars with a 215 a beta decay mode has been found for all other astatine isotopes except for astatine213 astatine214 and astatine216m astatine210 and lighter isotopes exhibit beta plus decay positron emission astatine216 and heavier isotopes exhibit beta minus decay and astatine212 decays via both modes while astatine211 undergoes electron capture the most stable isotope is astatine210 which has a halflife of 81 hours the primary decay mode is beta plus to the relatively longlived in comparison to astatine isotopes alpha emitter polonium210 in total only five isotopes have halflives exceeding one hour astatine207 to 211 the least stable ground state isotope is astatine213 with a halflife of 125 nanoseconds it undergoes alpha decay to the extremely longlived bismuth209 astatine has 24 known nuclear isomers which are nuclei with one or more nucleons protons or neutrons in an excited state a nuclear isomer may also be called a metastate meaning the system has more internal energy than the ground state the state with the lowest possible internal energy making the former likely to decay into the latter there may be more than one isomer for each isotope the most stable of these nuclear isomers is astatine202m1 which has a halflife of about 3 minutes longer than those of all the ground states bar those of isotopes 203211 and 220 the least stable is astatine214m1 its halflife of 265 nanoseconds is shorter than those of all ground states except that of astatine213 natural occurrence astatine is the rarest naturally occurring element the total amount of astatine in the earths crust quoted mass 236 1025 grams is estimated by some to be less than one gram at any given time other sources estimate the amount of ephemeral astatine present on earth at any given moment to be up to one ounce about 28 grams any astatine present at the formation of the earth has long since disappeared the four naturally occurring isotopes astatine215 217 218 and 219 are instead continuously produced as a result of the decay of radioactive thorium and uranium ores and trace quantities of neptunium237 the landmass of north and south america combined to a depth of 16 kilometers 10 miles contains only about one trillion astatine215 atoms at any given time around 35 1010 grams astatine217 is produced via the radioactive decay of neptunium237 primordial remnants of the latter isotopedue to its relatively short halflife of 214 million yearsare no longer present on earth however trace amounts occur naturally as a product of transmutation reactions in uranium ores astatine218 was the first astatine isotope discovered in nature astatine219 with a halflife of 56 seconds is the longest lived of the naturally occurring isotopes isotopes of astatine are sometimes not listed as naturally occurring because of misconceptions that there are no such isotopes or discrepancies in the literature astatine216 has been counted as a naturally occurring isotope but reports of its observation which were described as doubtful have not been confirmed synthesis formation astatine was first produced by bombarding bismuth209 with energetic alpha particles and this is still the major route used to create the relatively longlived isotopes astatine209 through astatine211 astatine is only produced in minuscule quantities with modern techniques allowing production runs of up to 66 giga becquerels about 86 nanograms or 247 1014 atoms synthesis of greater quantities of astatine using this method is constrained by the limited availability of suitable cyclotrons and the prospect of melting the target solvent radiolysis due to the cumulative effect of astatine decay is a related problem with cryogenic technology microgram quantities of astatine might be able to be generated via proton irradiation of thorium or uranium to yield radon211 in turn decaying to astatine211 contamination with astatine210 is expected to be a drawback of this method the most important isotope is astatine211 the only one in commercial use to produce the bismuth target the metal is sputtered onto a gold copper or aluminium surface at 50 to 100 milligrams per square centimeter bismuth oxide can be used instead this is forcibly fused with a copper plate the target is kept under a chemically neutral nitrogen atmosphere and is cooled with water to prevent premature astatine vaporization in a particle accelerator such as a cyclotron alpha particles are collided with the bismuth even though only one bismuth isotope is used bismuth209 the reaction may occur in three possible ways producing astatine209 astatine210 or astatine211 in order to eliminate undesired nuclides the maximum energy of the particle accelerator is set to a value optimally 2917 mev above that for the reaction producing astatine211 to produce the desired isotope and below the one producing astatine210 to avoid producing other astatine isotopes separation methods since astatine is the main product of the synthesis after its formation it must only be separated from the target and any significant contaminants several methods are available but they generally follow one of two approachesdry distillation or wet acid treatment of the target followed by solvent extraction the methods summarized below are modern adaptations of older procedures as reviewed by kugler and keller pre1985 techniques more often addressed the elimination of coproduced toxic polonium this requirement is now mitigated by capping the energy of the cyclotron irradiation beam dry the astatinecontaining cyclotron target is heated to a temperature of around 650 c the astatine volatilizes and is condensed in typically a cold trap higher temperatures of up to around 850 c may increase the yield at the risk of bismuth contamination from concurrent volatilization redistilling the condensate may be required to minimize the presence of bismuth as bismuth can interfere with astatine labeling reactions the astatine is recovered from the trap using one or more low concentration solvents such as sodium hydroxide methanol or chloroform astatine yields of up to around 80 may be achieved dry separation is the method most commonly used to produce a chemically useful form of astatine wet the irradiated bismuth or sometimes bismuth trioxide target is first dissolved in for example concentrated nitric or perchloric acid following this first step the acid can be distilled away to leave behind a white residue that contains both bismuth and the desired astatine product this residue is then dissolved in a concentrated acid such as hydrochloric acid astatine is extracted from this acid using an organic solvent such as dibutyl ether diisopropyl ether dipe or thiosemicarbazide using liquidliquid extraction the astatine product can be repeatedly washed with an acid such as hcl and extracted into the organic solvent layer a separation yield of 93 using nitric acid has been reported falling to 72 by the time purification procedures were completed distillation of nitric acid purging residual nitrogen oxides and redissolving bismuth nitrate to enable liquidliquid extraction wet methods involve multiple radioactivity handling steps and have not been considered well suited for isolating larger quantities of astatine however wet extraction methods are being examined for use in production of larger quantities of astatine211 as it is thought that wet extraction methods can provide more consistency they can enable the production of astatine in a specific oxidation state and may have greater applicability in experimental radiochemistry uses and precautions classwikitable several 211atcontaining molecules and their experimental uses agent applications 211atastatinetellurium colloids compartmental tumors 6211atastato2methyl14naphtaquinol diphosphate adenocarcinomas 211atlabeled methylene blue melanomas meta211atastatobenzyl guanidine neuroendocrine tumors 5211atastato2deoxyuridine various 211atlabeled biotin conjugates various pretargeting 211atlabeled octreotide somatostatin receptor 211atlabeled monoclonal antibodies and fragments various 211atlabeled bisphosphonates bone metastases newly formed astatine211 is the subject of ongoing research in nuclear medicine it must be used quickly as it decays with a halflife of 72 hours this is long enough to permit multistep labeling strategies astatine211 has potential for targeted alphaparticle therapy since it decays either via emission of an alpha particle to bismuth207 or via electron capture to an extremely shortlived nuclide polonium211 which undergoes further alpha decay very quickly reaching its stable granddaughter lead207 polonium xrays emitted as a result of the electron capture branch in the range of 7792 kev enable the tracking of astatine in animals and patients although astatine210 has a slightly longer halflife it is wholly unsuitable because it usually undergoes beta plus decay to the extremely toxic polonium210 the principal medicinal difference between astatine211 and iodine131 a radioactive iodine isotope also used in medicine is that iodine131 emits highenergy beta particles and astatine does not beta particles have much greater penetrating power through tissues than do the much heavier alpha particles an average alpha particle released by astatine211 can travel up to 70 µm through surrounding tissues an averageenergy beta particle emitted by iodine131 can travel nearly 30 times as far to about 2 mm the short halflife and limited penetrating power of alpha radiation through tissues offers advantages in situations where the tumor burden is low andor malignant cell populations are located in close proximity to essential normal tissues significant morbidity in cell culture models of human cancers has been achieved with from one to ten astatine211 atoms bound per cell several obstacles have been encountered in the development of astatinebased radiopharmaceuticals for cancer treatment world war ii delayed research for close to a decade results of early experiments indicated that a cancerselective carrier would need to be developed and it was not until the 1970s that monoclonal antibodies became available for this purpose unlike iodine astatine shows a tendency to dehalogenate from molecular carriers such as these particularly at sp3 carbon sites less so from sp2 sites given the toxicity of astatine accumulated and retained in the body this emphasized the need to ensure it remained attached to its host molecule while astatine carriers that are slowly metabolized can be assessed for their efficacy more rapidly metabolized carriers remain a significant obstacle to the evaluation of astatine in nuclear medicine mitigating the effects of astatineinduced radiolysis of labeling chemistry and carrier molecules is another area requiring further development a practical application for astatine as a cancer treatment would potentially be suitable for a staggering number of patients production of astatine in the quantities that would be required remains an issue animal studies show that astatine similarly to iodinealthough to a lesser extent perhaps because of its slightly more metallic natureis preferentially and dangerously concentrated in the thyroid gland unlike iodine astatine also shows a tendency to be taken up by the lungs and spleen possibly because of inbody oxidation of at to at if administered in the form of a radiocolloid it tends to concentrate in the liver experiments in rats and monkeys suggest that astatine211 causes much greater damage to the thyroid gland than does iodine131 with repetitive injection of the nuclide resulting in necrosis and cell dysplasia within the gland early research suggested that injection of astatine into female rodents caused morphological changes in breast tissue this conclusion remained controversial for many years general agreement was later reached that this was likely caused by the effect of breast tissue irradiation combined with hormonal changes due to irradiation of the ovaries trace amounts of astatine can be handled safely in fume hoods if they are wellaerated biological uptake of the element must be avoided see also radiation protection notes references bibliography external links astatine at the periodic table of videos university of nottingham astatine halogen or metal chemical elements chemical elements with facecentered cubic structure halogens synthetic elements	4,868
902	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atom	Atom	an atom is a particle that consists of a nucleus of protons and neutrons surrounded by an electromagneticallybound cloud of electrons the atom is the basic particle of the chemical elements and the chemical elements are distinguished from each other by the number of protons that are in their atoms for example any atom that contains 11 protons is sodium and any atom that contains 29 protons is copper the number of neutrons defines the isotope of the element atoms are extremely small typically around 100 picometers across a human hair is about a million carbon atoms wide this is smaller than the shortest wavelength of visible light which means humans cannot see atoms with conventional microscopes atoms are so small that accurately predicting their behavior using classical physics is not possible due to quantum effects more than 9994 of an atoms mass is in the nucleus each proton has a positive electric charge while each electron has a negative charge and the neutrons if any are present have no electric charge if the numbers of protons and electrons are equal as they normally are then the atom is electrically neutral if an atom has more electrons than protons then it has an overall negative charge and is called a negative ion or anion conversely if it has more protons than electrons it has a positive charge and is called a positive ion or cation the electrons of an atom are attracted to the protons in an atomic nucleus by the electromagnetic force the protons and neutrons in the nucleus are attracted to each other by the nuclear force this force is usually stronger than the electromagnetic force that repels the positively charged protons from one another under certain circumstances the repelling electromagnetic force becomes stronger than the nuclear force in this case the nucleus splits and leaves behind different elements this is a form of nuclear decay atoms can attach to one or more other atoms by chemical bonds to form chemical compounds such as molecules or crystals the ability of atoms to attach and detach from each other is responsible for most of the physical changes observed in nature chemistry is the discipline that studies these changes history of atomic theory in philosophy the basic idea that matter is made up of tiny indivisible particles is an old idea that appeared in many ancient cultures the word atom is derived from the ancient greek word atomos which means uncuttable this ancient idea was based in philosophical reasoning rather than scientific reasoning modern atomic theory is not based on these old concepts in the early 19th century the scientist john dalton noticed that chemical elements seemed to combine with each other by discrete units of weight and he decided to use the word atom to refer to these units as he thought these were the fundamental units of matter about a century later it was discovered that daltons atoms are not actually indivisible but the term stuck daltons law of multiple proportions in the early 1800s the english chemist john dalton compiled experimental data gathered by him and other scientists and discovered a pattern now known as the law of multiple proportions he noticed that in chemical compounds which contain a particular chemical element the content of that element in these compounds will differ in weight by ratios of small whole numbers this pattern suggested that each chemical element combines with other elements by a basic unit of weight and dalton decided to call these units atoms for example there are two types of tin oxide one is a grey powder that is 881 tin and 119 oxygen and the other is a white powder that is 787 tin and 213 oxygen adjusting these figures in the grey powder there is about 135 g of oxygen for every 100 g of tin and in the white powder there is about 27 g of oxygen for every 100 g of tin 135 and 27 form a ratio of 12 dalton concluded that in these oxides for every tin atom there are one or two oxygen atoms respectively sno and sno2 dalton also analyzed iron oxides there is one type of iron oxide that is a black powder which is 781 iron and 219 oxygen and there is another iron oxide that is a red powder which is 704 iron and 296 oxygen adjusting these figures in the black powder there is about 28 g of oxygen for every 100 g of iron and in the red powder there is about 42 g of oxygen for every 100 g of iron 28 and 42 form a ratio of 23 dalton concluded that in these oxides for every two atoms of iron there are two or three atoms of oxygen respectively fe2o2 and fe2o3 as a final example nitrous oxide is 633 nitrogen and 367 oxygen nitric oxide is 4405 nitrogen and 5595 oxygen and nitrogen dioxide is 295 nitrogen and 705 oxygen adjusting these figures in nitrous oxide there is 80 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen in nitric oxide there is about 160 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen and in nitrogen dioxide there is 320 g of oxygen for every 140 g of nitrogen 80 160 and 320 form a ratio of 124 the respective formulas for these oxides are n2o no and no2 isomerism scientists discovered some substances have the exact same chemical content but different properties for instance in 1827 friedrich wöhler discovered that silver fulminate and silver cyanate are both 107 parts silver 12 parts carbon 14 parts nitrogen and 12 parts oxygen we now know their formulas as both agcno in 1830 jöns jacob berzelius introduced the term isomerism to describe the phenomenon in 1860 louis pasteur hypothesized that the molecules of isomers might have the same composition but different arrangements of their atoms in 1874 jacobus henricus van t hoff proposed that the carbon atom bonds to other atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement working from this he explained the structures of organic molecules in such a way that he could predict how many isomers a compound could have consider for example pentane c5h12 in van t hoffs way of modelling molecules there are three possible configurations for pentane and scientists did go on to discover three and only three isomers of pentane brownian motion in 1827 the british botanist robert brown observed that dust particles inside pollen grains floating in water constantly jiggled about for no apparent reason in 1905 albert einstein theorized that this brownian motion was caused by the water molecules continuously knocking the grains about and developed a mathematical model to describe it this model was validated experimentally in 1908 by french physicist jean perrin who used einsteins equation to calculate the number of atoms in a mole and the size of atoms discovery of the electron in 1897 j j thomson discovered that cathode rays are not electromagnetic waves but made of particles because they can be deflected by electrical and magnetic fields he measured these particles to be 1800 times lighter than hydrogen the lightest atom thomson concluded that these particles came from the atoms within the cathodethey were subatomic particles he called these new particles corpuscles but they were later renamed electrons thomson also showed that electrons were identical to particles given off by photoelectric and radioactive materials it was quickly recognized that electrons are the particles that carry electric currents in metal wires thomson concluded that these electrons emerged from the very atoms of the cathode in his instruments which meant that atoms are not indivisible as dalton thought discovery of the nucleus j j thomson thought that the negativelycharged electrons were distributed throughout the atom in a sea of positive charge that was distributed across the whole volume of the atom this model is sometimes known as the plum pudding model ernest rutherford and his colleagues hans geiger and ernest marsden came to doubt the thomson model after they encountered difficulties when they tried to build an instrument to measure the chargetomass ratio of alpha particles these are positivelycharged particles emitted by certain radioactive substances such as radium the alpha particles were being scattered by the air in the detection chamber which made the measurements unreliable thomson had encountered a similar problem in his work on cathode rays which he solved by creating a nearperfect vacuum in his instruments rutherford did not think hed run into this same problem because alpha particles are much heavier than electrons according to thomsons model of the atom the positive charge in the atom is not concentrated enough to produce an electric field strong enough to deflect an alpha particle and the electrons are so lightweight they should be pushed aside effortlessly by the much heavier alpha particles yet there was scattering so rutherford and his colleagues decided to investigate this scattering carefully between 1908 and 1913 rutherford and his colleagues performed a series of experiments in which they bombarded thin foils of metal with alpha particles they spotted alpha particles being deflected by angles greater than 90 to explain this rutherford proposed that the positive charge of the atom is not distributed throughout the atoms volume as thomson believed but is concentrated in a tiny nucleus at the center only such an intense concentration of charge could produce an electric field strong enough to deflect the alpha particles as observed discovery of isotopes while experimenting with the products of radioactive decay in 1913 radiochemist frederick soddy discovered that there appeared to be more than one type of atom at each position on the periodic table these atoms had the same properties but different atomic weights the term isotope was coined by margaret todd as a suitable name for atoms of differing weights that belong to the same element j j thomson created a technique for isotope separation through his work on ionized gases which subsequently led to the discovery of stable isotopes bohr model in 1913 the physicist niels bohr proposed a model in which the electrons of an atom were assumed to orbit the nucleus but could only do so in a finite set of orbits and could jump between these orbits only in discrete changes of energy corresponding to absorption or radiation of a photon this quantization was used to explain why the electrons orbits are stable given that normally charges in acceleration including circular motion lose kinetic energy which is emitted as electromagnetic radiation see synchrotron radiation and why elements absorb and emit electromagnetic radiation in discrete spectra later in the same year henry moseley provided additional experimental evidence in favor of niels bohrs theory these results refined ernest rutherfords and antonius van den broeks model which proposed that the atom contains in its nucleus a number of positive nuclear charges that is equal to its atomic number in the periodic table until these experiments atomic number was not known to be a physical and experimental quantity that it is equal to the atomic nuclear charge remains the accepted atomic model today chemical bonds between atoms were explained by gilbert newton lewis in 1916 as the interactions between their constituent electrons as the chemical properties of the elements were known to largely repeat themselves according to the periodic law in 1919 the american chemist irving langmuir suggested that this could be explained if the electrons in an atom were connected or clustered in some manner groups of electrons were thought to occupy a set of electron shells about the nucleus the bohr model of the atom was the first complete physical model of the atom it described the overall structure of the atom how atoms bond to each other and predicted the spectral lines of hydrogen bohrs model was not perfect and was soon superseded by the more accurate schrödinger model but it was sufficient to evaporate any remaining doubts that matter is composed of atoms for chemists the idea of the atom had been a useful heuristic tool but physicists had doubts as to whether matter really is made up of atoms as nobody had yet developed a complete physical model of the atom the schrödinger model in 1925 werner heisenberg published the first consistent mathematical formulation of quantum mechanics matrix mechanics one year earlier louis de broglie had proposed that all particles behave like waves to some extent and in 1926 erwin schrödinger used this idea to develop the schrödinger equation a mathematical model of the atom that described the electrons as threedimensional waveforms rather than points in space a consequence of using waveforms to describe particles is that it is mathematically impossible to obtain precise values for both the position and momentum of a particle at a given point in time this became known as the uncertainty principle formulated by werner heisenberg in 1927 in this concept for a given accuracy in measuring a position one could only obtain a range of probable values for momentum and vice versa this model was able to explain observations of atomic behavior that previous models could not such as certain structural and spectral patterns of atoms larger than hydrogen thus the planetary model of the atom was discarded in favor of one that described atomic orbital zones around the nucleus where a given electron is most likely to be observed discovery of the neutron the development of the mass spectrometer allowed the mass of atoms to be measured with increased accuracy the device uses a magnet to bend the trajectory of a beam of ions and the amount of deflection is determined by the ratio of an atoms mass to its charge the chemist francis william aston used this instrument to show that isotopes had different masses the atomic mass of these isotopes varied by integer amounts called the whole number rule the explanation for these different isotopes awaited the discovery of the neutron an uncharged particle with a mass similar to the proton by the physicist james chadwick in 1932 isotopes were then explained as elements with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons within the nucleus fission highenergy physics and condensed matter in 1938 the german chemist otto hahn a student of rutherford directed neutrons onto uranium atoms expecting to get transuranium elements instead his chemical experiments showed barium as a product a year later lise meitner and her nephew otto frisch verified that hahns result were the first experimental nuclear fission in 1944 hahn received the nobel prize in chemistry despite hahns efforts the contributions of meitner and frisch were not recognized in the 1950s the development of improved particle accelerators and particle detectors allowed scientists to study the impacts of atoms moving at high energies neutrons and protons were found to be hadrons or composites of smaller particles called quarks the standard model of particle physics was developed that so far has successfully explained the properties of the nucleus in terms of these subatomic particles and the forces that govern their interactions structure subatomic particles though the word atom originally denoted a particle that cannot be cut into smaller particles in modern scientific usage the atom is composed of various subatomic particles the constituent particles of an atom are the electron the proton and the neutron the electron is by far the least massive of these particles at with a negative electrical charge and a size that is too small to be measured using available techniques it was the lightest particle with a positive rest mass measured until the discovery of neutrino mass under ordinary conditions electrons are bound to the positively charged nucleus by the attraction created from opposite electric charges if an atom has more or fewer electrons than its atomic number then it becomes respectively negatively or positively charged as a whole a charged atom is called an ion electrons have been known since the late 19th century mostly thanks to jj thomson see history of subatomic physics for details protons have a positive charge and a mass 1836 times that of the electron at the number of protons in an atom is called its atomic number ernest rutherford 1919 observed that nitrogen under alphaparticle bombardment ejects what appeared to be hydrogen nuclei by 1920 he had accepted that the hydrogen nucleus is a distinct particle within the atom and named it proton neutrons have no electrical charge and have a free mass of 1839 times the mass of the electron or neutrons are the heaviest of the three constituent particles but their mass can be reduced by the nuclear binding energy neutrons and protons collectively known as nucleons have comparable dimensionson the order of although the surface of these particles is not sharply defined the neutron was discovered in 1932 by the english physicist james chadwick in the standard model of physics electrons are truly elementary particles with no internal structure whereas protons and neutrons are composite particles composed of elementary particles called quarks there are two types of quarks in atoms each having a fractional electric charge protons are composed of two up quarks each with charge and one down quark with a charge of neutrons consist of one up quark and two down quarks this distinction accounts for the difference in mass and charge between the two particles the quarks are held together by the strong interaction or strong force which is mediated by gluons the protons and neutrons in turn are held to each other in the nucleus by the nuclear force which is a residuum of the strong force that has somewhat different rangeproperties see the article on the nuclear force for more the gluon is a member of the family of gauge bosons which are elementary particles that mediate physical forces nucleus all the bound protons and neutrons in an atom make up a tiny atomic nucleus and are collectively called nucleons the radius of a nucleus is approximately equal to femtometres where is the total number of nucleons this is much smaller than the radius of the atom which is on the order of 105 fm the nucleons are bound together by a shortranged attractive potential called the residual strong force at distances smaller than 25 fm this force is much more powerful than the electrostatic force that causes positively charged protons to repel each other atoms of the same element have the same number of protons called the atomic number within a single element the number of neutrons may vary determining the isotope of that element the total number of protons and neutrons determine the nuclide the number of neutrons relative to the protons determines the stability of the nucleus with certain isotopes undergoing radioactive decay the proton the electron and the neutron are classified as fermions fermions obey the pauli exclusion principle which prohibits identical fermions such as multiple protons from occupying the same quantum state at the same time thus every proton in the nucleus must occupy a quantum state different from all other protons and the same applies to all neutrons of the nucleus and to all electrons of the electron cloud a nucleus that has a different number of protons than neutrons can potentially drop to a lower energy state through a radioactive decay that causes the number of protons and neutrons to more closely match as a result atoms with matching numbers of protons and neutrons are more stable against decay but with increasing atomic number the mutual repulsion of the protons requires an increasing proportion of neutrons to maintain the stability of the nucleus the number of protons and neutrons in the atomic nucleus can be modified although this can require very high energies because of the strong force nuclear fusion occurs when multiple atomic particles join to form a heavier nucleus such as through the energetic collision of two nuclei for example at the core of the sun protons require energies of 3 to 10 kev to overcome their mutual repulsionthe coulomb barrierand fuse together into a single nucleus nuclear fission is the opposite process causing a nucleus to split into two smaller nucleiusually through radioactive decay the nucleus can also be modified through bombardment by high energy subatomic particles or photons if this modifies the number of protons in a nucleus the atom changes to a different chemical element if the mass of the nucleus following a fusion reaction is less than the sum of the masses of the separate particles then the difference between these two values can be emitted as a type of usable energy such as a gamma ray or the kinetic energy of a beta particle as described by albert einsteins massenergy equivalence formula emc2 where m is the mass loss and c is the speed of light this deficit is part of the binding energy of the new nucleus and it is the nonrecoverable loss of the energy that causes the fused particles to remain together in a state that requires this energy to separate the fusion of two nuclei that create larger nuclei with lower atomic numbers than iron and nickela total nucleon number of about 60is usually an exothermic process that releases more energy than is required to bring them together it is this energyreleasing process that makes nuclear fusion in stars a selfsustaining reaction for heavier nuclei the binding energy per nucleon begins to decrease that means that a fusion process producing a nucleus that has an atomic number higher than about 26 and a mass number higher than about 60 is an endothermic process thus more massive nuclei cannot undergo an energyproducing fusion reaction that can sustain the hydrostatic equilibrium of a star electron cloud the electrons in an atom are attracted to the protons in the nucleus by the electromagnetic force this force binds the electrons inside an electrostatic potential well surrounding the smaller nucleus which means that an external source of energy is needed for the electron to escape the closer an electron is to the nucleus the greater the attractive force hence electrons bound near the center of the potential well require more energy to escape than those at greater separations electrons like other particles have properties of both a particle and a wave the electron cloud is a region inside the potential well where each electron forms a type of threedimensional standing wavea wave form that does not move relative to the nucleus this behavior is defined by an atomic orbital a mathematical function that characterises the probability that an electron appears to be at a particular location when its position is measured only a discrete or quantized set of these orbitals exist around the nucleus as other possible wave patterns rapidly decay into a more stable form orbitals can have one or more ring or node structures and differ from each other in size shape and orientation each atomic orbital corresponds to a particular energy level of the electron the electron can change its state to a higher energy level by absorbing a photon with sufficient energy to boost it into the new quantum state likewise through spontaneous emission an electron in a higher energy state can drop to a lower energy state while radiating the excess energy as a photon these characteristic energy values defined by the differences in the energies of the quantum states are responsible for atomic spectral lines the amount of energy needed to remove or add an electronthe electron binding energyis far less than the binding energy of nucleons for example it requires only 136 ev to strip a groundstate electron from a hydrogen atom compared to 223 million ev for splitting a deuterium nucleus atoms are electrically neutral if they have an equal number of protons and electrons atoms that have either a deficit or a surplus of electrons are called ions electrons that are farthest from the nucleus may be transferred to other nearby atoms or shared between atoms by this mechanism atoms are able to bond into molecules and other types of chemical compounds like ionic and covalent network crystals properties nuclear properties by definition any two atoms with an identical number of protons in their nuclei belong to the same chemical element atoms with equal numbers of protons but a different number of neutrons are different isotopes of the same element for example all hydrogen atoms admit exactly one proton but isotopes exist with no neutrons hydrogen1 by far the most common form also called protium one neutron deuterium two neutrons tritium and more than two neutrons the known elements form a set of atomic numbers from the singleproton element hydrogen up to the 118proton element oganesson all known isotopes of elements with atomic numbers greater than 82 are radioactive although the radioactivity of element 83 bismuth is so slight as to be practically negligible about 339 nuclides occur naturally on earth of which 251 about 74 have not been observed to decay and are referred to as stable isotopes only 90 nuclides are stable theoretically while another 161 bringing the total to 251 have not been observed to decay even though in theory it is energetically possible these are also formally classified as stable an additional 35 radioactive nuclides have halflives longer than 100 million years and are longlived enough to have been present since the birth of the solar system this collection of 286 nuclides are known as primordial nuclides finally an additional 53 shortlived nuclides are known to occur naturally as daughter products of primordial nuclide decay such as radium from uranium or as products of natural energetic processes on earth such as cosmic ray bombardment for example carbon14 for 80 of the chemical elements at least one stable isotope exists as a rule there is only a handful of stable isotopes for each of these elements the average being 31 stable isotopes per element twentysix monoisotopic elements have only a single stable isotope while the largest number of stable isotopes observed for any element is ten for the element tin elements 43 61 and all elements numbered 83 or higher have no stable isotopes stability of isotopes is affected by the ratio of protons to neutrons and also by the presence of certain magic numbers of neutrons or protons that represent closed and filled quantum shells these quantum shells correspond to a set of energy levels within the shell model of the nucleus filled shells such as the filled shell of 50 protons for tin confers unusual stability on the nuclide of the 251 known stable nuclides only four have both an odd number of protons and odd number of neutrons hydrogen2 deuterium lithium6 boron10 and nitrogen14 tantalum180m is oddodd and observationally stable but is predicted to decay with a very long halflife also only four naturally occurring radioactive oddodd nuclides have a halflife over a billion years potassium40 vanadium50 lanthanum138 and lutetium176 most oddodd nuclei are highly unstable with respect to beta decay because the decay products are eveneven and are therefore more strongly bound due to nuclear pairing effects mass the large majority of an atoms mass comes from the protons and neutrons that make it up the total number of these particles called nucleons in a given atom is called the mass number it is a positive integer and dimensionless instead of having dimension of mass because it expresses a count an example of use of a mass number is carbon12 which has 12 nucleons six protons and six neutrons the actual mass of an atom at rest is often expressed in daltons da also called the unified atomic mass unit u this unit is defined as a twelfth of the mass of a free neutral atom of carbon12 which is approximately hydrogen1 the lightest isotope of hydrogen which is also the nuclide with the lowest mass has an atomic weight of 1007825 da the value of this number is called the atomic mass a given atom has an atomic mass approximately equal within 1 to its mass number times the atomic mass unit for example the mass of a nitrogen14 is roughly 14 da but this number will not be exactly an integer except by definition in the case of carbon12 the heaviest stable atom is lead208 with a mass of as even the most massive atoms are far too light to work with directly chemists instead use the unit of moles one mole of atoms of any element always has the same number of atoms about this number was chosen so that if an element has an atomic mass of 1 u a mole of atoms of that element has a mass close to one gram because of the definition of the unified atomic mass unit each carbon12 atom has an atomic mass of exactly 12 da and so a mole of carbon12 atoms weighs exactly 0012 kg shape and size atoms lack a welldefined outer boundary so their dimensions are usually described in terms of an atomic radius this is a measure of the distance out to which the electron cloud extends from the nucleus this assumes the atom to exhibit a spherical shape which is only obeyed for atoms in vacuum or free space atomic radii may be derived from the distances between two nuclei when the two atoms are joined in a chemical bond the radius varies with the location of an atom on the atomic chart the type of chemical bond the number of neighboring atoms coordination number and a quantum mechanical property known as spin on the periodic table of the elements atom size tends to increase when moving down columns but decrease when moving across rows left to right consequently the smallest atom is helium with a radius of 32 pm while one of the largest is caesium at 225 pm when subjected to external forces like electrical fields the shape of an atom may deviate from spherical symmetry the deformation depends on the field magnitude and the orbital type of outer shell electrons as shown by grouptheoretical considerations aspherical deviations might be elicited for instance in crystals where large crystalelectrical fields may occur at lowsymmetry lattice sites significant ellipsoidal deformations have been shown to occur for sulfur ions and chalcogen ions in pyritetype compounds atomic dimensions are thousands of times smaller than the wavelengths of light 400700 nm so they cannot be viewed using an optical microscope although individual atoms can be observed using a scanning tunneling microscope to visualize the minuteness of the atom consider that a typical human hair is about 1 million carbon atoms in width a single drop of water contains about 2 sextillion atoms of oxygen and twice the number of hydrogen atoms a single carat diamond with a mass of contains about 10 sextillion 1022 atoms of carbon if an apple were magnified to the size of the earth then the atoms in the apple would be approximately the size of the original apple radioactive decay every element has one or more isotopes that have unstable nuclei that are subject to radioactive decay causing the nucleus to emit particles or electromagnetic radiation radioactivity can occur when the radius of a nucleus is large compared with the radius of the strong force which only acts over distances on the order of 1 fm the most common forms of radioactive decay are alpha decay this process is caused when the nucleus emits an alpha particle which is a helium nucleus consisting of two protons and two neutrons the result of the emission is a new element with a lower atomic number beta decay and electron capture these processes are regulated by the weak force and result from a transformation of a neutron into a proton or a proton into a neutron the neutron to proton transition is accompanied by the emission of an electron and an antineutrino while proton to neutron transition except in electron capture causes the emission of a positron and a neutrino the electron or positron emissions are called beta particles beta decay either increases or decreases the atomic number of the nucleus by one electron capture is more common than positron emission because it requires less energy in this type of decay an electron is absorbed by the nucleus rather than a positron emitted from the nucleus a neutrino is still emitted in this process and a proton changes to a neutron gamma decay this process results from a change in the energy level of the nucleus to a lower state resulting in the emission of electromagnetic radiation the excited state of a nucleus which results in gamma emission usually occurs following the emission of an alpha or a beta particle thus gamma decay usually follows alpha or beta decay other more rare types of radioactive decay include ejection of neutrons or protons or clusters of nucleons from a nucleus or more than one beta particle an analog of gamma emission which allows excited nuclei to lose energy in a different way is internal conversiona process that produces highspeed electrons that are not beta rays followed by production of highenergy photons that are not gamma rays a few large nuclei explode into two or more charged fragments of varying masses plus several neutrons in a decay called spontaneous nuclear fission each radioactive isotope has a characteristic decay time periodthe halflifethat is determined by the amount of time needed for half of a sample to decay this is an exponential decay process that steadily decreases the proportion of the remaining isotope by 50 every halflife hence after two halflives have passed only 25 of the isotope is present and so forth magnetic moment elementary particles possess an intrinsic quantum mechanical property known as spin this is analogous to the angular momentum of an object that is spinning around its center of mass although strictly speaking these particles are believed to be pointlike and cannot be said to be rotating spin is measured in units of the reduced planck constant ħ with electrons protons and neutrons all having spin ħ or spin in an atom electrons in motion around the nucleus possess orbital angular momentum in addition to their spin while the nucleus itself possesses angular momentum due to its nuclear spin the magnetic field produced by an atomits magnetic momentis determined by these various forms of angular momentum just as a rotating charged object classically produces a magnetic field but the most dominant contribution comes from electron spin due to the nature of electrons to obey the pauli exclusion principle in which no two electrons may be found in the same quantum state bound electrons pair up with each other with one member of each pair in a spin up state and the other in the opposite spin down state thus these spins cancel each other out reducing the total magnetic dipole moment to zero in some atoms with even number of electrons in ferromagnetic elements such as iron cobalt and nickel an odd number of electrons leads to an unpaired electron and a net overall magnetic moment the orbitals of neighboring atoms overlap and a lower energy state is achieved when the spins of unpaired electrons are aligned with each other a spontaneous process known as an exchange interaction when the magnetic moments of ferromagnetic atoms are lined up the material can produce a measurable macroscopic field paramagnetic materials have atoms with magnetic moments that line up in random directions when no magnetic field is present but the magnetic moments of the individual atoms line up in the presence of a field the nucleus of an atom will have no spin when it has even numbers of both neutrons and protons but for other cases of odd numbers the nucleus may have a spin normally nuclei with spin are aligned in random directions because of thermal equilibrium but for certain elements such as xenon129 it is possible to polarize a significant proportion of the nuclear spin states so that they are aligned in the same directiona condition called hyperpolarization this has important applications in magnetic resonance imaging energy levels the potential energy of an electron in an atom is negative relative to when the distance from the nucleus goes to infinity its dependence on the electrons position reaches the minimum inside the nucleus roughly in inverse proportion to the distance in the quantummechanical model a bound electron can occupy only a set of states centered on the nucleus and each state corresponds to a specific energy level see timeindependent schrödinger equation for a theoretical explanation an energy level can be measured by the amount of energy needed to unbind the electron from the atom and is usually given in units of electronvolts ev the lowest energy state of a bound electron is called the ground state ie stationary state while an electron transition to a higher level results in an excited state the electrons energy increases along with n because the average distance to the nucleus increases dependence of the energy on is caused not by the electrostatic potential of the nucleus but by interaction between electrons for an electron to transition between two different states eg ground state to first excited state it must absorb or emit a photon at an energy matching the difference in the potential energy of those levels according to the niels bohr model what can be precisely calculated by the schrödinger equation electrons jump between orbitals in a particlelike fashion for example if a single photon strikes the electrons only a single electron changes states in response to the photon see electron properties the energy of an emitted photon is proportional to its frequency so these specific energy levels appear as distinct bands in the electromagnetic spectrum each element has a characteristic spectrum that can depend on the nuclear charge subshells filled by electrons the electromagnetic interactions between the electrons and other factors when a continuous spectrum of energy is passed through a gas or plasma some of the photons are absorbed by atoms causing electrons to change their energy level those excited electrons that remain bound to their atom spontaneously emit this energy as a photon traveling in a random direction and so drop back to lower energy levels thus the atoms behave like a filter that forms a series of dark absorption bands in the energy output an observer viewing the atoms from a view that does not include the continuous spectrum in the background instead sees a series of emission lines from the photons emitted by the atoms spectroscopic measurements of the strength and width of atomic spectral lines allow the composition and physical properties of a substance to be determined close examination of the spectral lines reveals that some display a fine structure splitting this occurs because of spinorbit coupling which is an interaction between the spin and motion of the outermost electron when an atom is in an external magnetic field spectral lines become split into three or more components a phenomenon called the zeeman effect this is caused by the interaction of the magnetic field with the magnetic moment of the atom and its electrons some atoms can have multiple electron configurations with the same energy level which thus appear as a single spectral line the interaction of the magnetic field with the atom shifts these electron configurations to slightly different energy levels resulting in multiple spectral lines the presence of an external electric field can cause a comparable splitting and shifting of spectral lines by modifying the electron energy levels a phenomenon called the stark effect if a bound electron is in an excited state an interacting photon with the proper energy can cause stimulated emission of a photon with a matching energy level for this to occur the electron must drop to a lower energy state that has an energy difference matching the energy of the interacting photon the emitted photon and the interacting photon then move off in parallel and with matching phases that is the wave patterns of the two photons are synchronized this physical property is used to make lasers which can emit a coherent beam of light energy in a narrow frequency band valence and bonding behavior valency is the combining power of an element it is determined by the number of bonds it can form to other atoms or groups the outermost electron shell of an atom in its uncombined state is known as the valence shell and the electrons in that shell are called valence electrons the number of valence electrons determines the bonding behavior with other atoms atoms tend to chemically react with each other in a manner that fills or empties their outer valence shells for example a transfer of a single electron between atoms is a useful approximation for bonds that form between atoms with oneelectron more than a filled shell and others that are oneelectron short of a full shell such as occurs in the compound sodium chloride and other chemical ionic salts many elements display multiple valences or tendencies to share differing numbers of electrons in different compounds thus chemical bonding between these elements takes many forms of electronsharing that are more than simple electron transfers examples include the element carbon and the organic compounds the chemical elements are often displayed in a periodic table that is laid out to display recurring chemical properties and elements with the same number of valence electrons form a group that is aligned in the same column of the table the horizontal rows correspond to the filling of a quantum shell of electrons the elements at the far right of the table have their outer shell completely filled with electrons which results in chemically inert elements known as the noble gases states quantities of atoms are found in different states of matter that depend on the physical conditions such as temperature and pressure by varying the conditions materials can transition between solids liquids gases and plasmas within a state a material can also exist in different allotropes an example of this is solid carbon which can exist as graphite or diamond gaseous allotropes exist as well such as dioxygen and ozone at temperatures close to absolute zero atoms can form a boseeinstein condensate at which point quantum mechanical effects which are normally only observed at the atomic scale become apparent on a macroscopic scale this supercooled collection of atoms then behaves as a single super atom which may allow fundamental checks of quantum mechanical behavior identification while atoms are too small to be seen devices such as the scanning tunneling microscope stm enable their visualization at the surfaces of solids the microscope uses the quantum tunneling phenomenon which allows particles to pass through a barrier that would be insurmountable in the classical perspective electrons tunnel through the vacuum between two biased electrodes providing a tunneling current that is exponentially dependent on their separation one electrode is a sharp tip ideally ending with a single atom at each point of the scan of the surface the tips height is adjusted so as to keep the tunneling current at a set value how much the tip moves to and away from the surface is interpreted as the height profile for low bias the microscope images the averaged electron orbitals across closely packed energy levelsthe local density of the electronic states near the fermi level because of the distances involved both electrodes need to be extremely stable only then periodicities can be observed that correspond to individual atoms the method alone is not chemically specific and cannot identify the atomic species present at the surface atoms can be easily identified by their mass if an atom is ionized by removing one of its electrons its trajectory when it passes through a magnetic field will bend the radius by which the trajectory of a moving ion is turned by the magnetic field is determined by the mass of the atom the mass spectrometer uses this principle to measure the masstocharge ratio of ions if a sample contains multiple isotopes the mass spectrometer can determine the proportion of each isotope in the sample by measuring the intensity of the different beams of ions techniques to vaporize atoms include inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry both of which use a plasma to vaporize samples for analysis the atomprobe tomograph has subnanometer resolution in 3d and can chemically identify individual atoms using timeofflight mass spectrometry electron emission techniques such as xray photoelectron spectroscopy xps and auger electron spectroscopy aes which measure the binding energies of the core electrons are used to identify the atomic species present in a sample in a nondestructive way with proper focusing both can be made areaspecific another such method is electron energy loss spectroscopy eels which measures the energy loss of an electron beam within a transmission electron microscope when it interacts with a portion of a sample spectra of excited states can be used to analyze the atomic composition of distant stars specific light wavelengths contained in the observed light from stars can be separated out and related to the quantized transitions in free gas atoms these colors can be replicated using a gasdischarge lamp containing the same element helium was discovered in this way in the spectrum of the sun 23 years before it was found on earth origin and current state baryonic matter forms about 4 of the total energy density of the observable universe with an average density of about 025 particlesm3 mostly protons and electrons within a galaxy such as the milky way particles have a much higher concentration with the density of matter in the interstellar medium ism ranging from 105 to 109 atomsm3 the sun is believed to be inside the local bubble so the density in the solar neighborhood is only about 103 atomsm3 stars form from dense clouds in the ism and the evolutionary processes of stars result in the steady enrichment of the ism with elements more massive than hydrogen and helium up to 95 of the milky ways baryonic matter are concentrated inside stars where conditions are unfavorable for atomic matter the total baryonic mass is about 10 of the mass of the galaxy the remainder of the mass is an unknown dark matter high temperature inside stars makes most atoms fully ionized that is separates all electrons from the nuclei in stellar remnantswith exception of their surface layersan immense pressure make electron shells impossible formation electrons are thought to exist in the universe since early stages of the big bang atomic nuclei forms in nucleosynthesis reactions in about three minutes big bang nucleosynthesis produced most of the helium lithium and deuterium in the universe and perhaps some of the beryllium and boron ubiquitousness and stability of atoms relies on their binding energy which means that an atom has a lower energy than an unbound system of the nucleus and electrons where the temperature is much higher than ionization potential the matter exists in the form of plasmaa gas of positively charged ions possibly bare nuclei and electrons when the temperature drops below the ionization potential atoms become statistically favorable atoms complete with bound electrons became to dominate over charged particles 380000 years after the big bangan epoch called recombination when the expanding universe cooled enough to allow electrons to become attached to nuclei since the big bang which produced no carbon or heavier elements atomic nuclei have been combined in stars through the process of nuclear fusion to produce more of the element helium and via the triple alpha process the sequence of elements from carbon up to iron see stellar nucleosynthesis for details isotopes such as lithium6 as well as some beryllium and boron are generated in space through cosmic ray spallation this occurs when a highenergy proton strikes an atomic nucleus causing large numbers of nucleons to be ejected elements heavier than iron were produced in supernovae and colliding neutron stars through the rprocess and in agb stars through the sprocess both of which involve the capture of neutrons by atomic nuclei elements such as lead formed largely through the radioactive decay of heavier elements earth most of the atoms that make up the earth and its inhabitants were present in their current form in the nebula that collapsed out of a molecular cloud to form the solar system the rest are the result of radioactive decay and their relative proportion can be used to determine the age of the earth through radiometric dating most of the helium in the crust of the earth about 99 of the helium from gas wells as shown by its lower abundance of helium3 is a product of alpha decay there are a few trace atoms on earth that were not present at the beginning ie not primordial nor are results of radioactive decay carbon14 is continuously generated by cosmic rays in the atmosphere some atoms on earth have been artificially generated either deliberately or as byproducts of nuclear reactors or explosions of the transuranic elementsthose with atomic numbers greater than 92only plutonium and neptunium occur naturally on earth transuranic elements have radioactive lifetimes shorter than the current age of the earth and thus identifiable quantities of these elements have long since decayed with the exception of traces of plutonium244 possibly deposited by cosmic dust natural deposits of plutonium and neptunium are produced by neutron capture in uranium ore the earth contains approximately atoms although small numbers of independent atoms of noble gases exist such as argon neon and helium 99 of the atmosphere is bound in the form of molecules including carbon dioxide and diatomic oxygen and nitrogen at the surface of the earth an overwhelming majority of atoms combine to form various compounds including water salt silicates and oxides atoms can also combine to create materials that do not consist of discrete molecules including crystals and liquid or solid metals this atomic matter forms networked arrangements that lack the particular type of smallscale interrupted order associated with molecular matter rare and theoretical forms superheavy elements all nuclides with atomic numbers higher than 82 lead are known to be radioactive no nuclide with an atomic number exceeding 92 uranium exists on earth as a primordial nuclide and heavier elements generally have shorter halflives nevertheless an island of stability encompassing relatively longlived isotopes of superheavy elements with atomic numbers 110 to 114 might exist predictions for the halflife of the most stable nuclide on the island range from a few minutes to millions of years in any case superheavy elements with z 104 would not exist due to increasing coulomb repulsion which results in spontaneous fission with increasingly short halflives in the absence of any stabilizing effects exotic matter each particle of matter has a corresponding antimatter particle with the opposite electrical charge thus the positron is a positively charged antielectron and the antiproton is a negatively charged equivalent of a proton when a matter and corresponding antimatter particle meet they annihilate each other because of this along with an imbalance between the number of matter and antimatter particles the latter are rare in the universe the first causes of this imbalance are not yet fully understood although theories of baryogenesis may offer an explanation as a result no antimatter atoms have been discovered in nature in 1996 the antimatter counterpart of the hydrogen atom antihydrogen was synthesized at the cern laboratory in geneva other exotic atoms have been created by replacing one of the protons neutrons or electrons with other particles that have the same charge for example an electron can be replaced by a more massive muon forming a muonic atom these types of atoms can be used to test fundamental predictions of physics see also notes references bibliography further reading external links chemistry articles containing video clips	8,648
903	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arable%20land	Arable land	arable land from the able to be ploughed is any land capable of being ploughed and used to grow crops alternatively for the purposes of agricultural statistics the term often has a more precise definition a more concise definition appearing in the eurostat glossary similarly refers to actual rather than potential uses land worked ploughed or tilled regularly generally under a system of crop rotation in britain arable land has traditionally been contrasted with pasturable land such as heaths which could be used for sheeprearing but not as farmland arable land is vulnerable to land degradation and some types of unarable land can be enriched to create useful land climate change and biodiversity loss are driving pressure on arable land by country according to the food and agriculture organization of the united nations in 2013 the worlds arable land amounted to 1407 billion hectares out of a total of 4924 billion hectares of land used for agriculture arable land hectares per person nonarable land agricultural land that is not arable according to the fao definition above includes meadows and pasturesland used as pasture and grazed range and those natural grasslands and sedge meadows that are used for hay production in some regions permanent cropland that produces crops from woody vegetation eg orchard land vineyards coffee plantations rubber plantations and land producing nut trees other nonarable land includes land that is not suitable for any agricultural use land that is not arable in the sense of lacking capability or suitability for cultivation for crop production has one or more limitationsa lack of sufficient freshwater for irrigation stoniness steepness adverse climate excessive wetness with the impracticality of drainage excessive salts or a combination of these among others although such limitations may preclude cultivation and some will in some cases preclude any agricultural use large areas unsuitable for cultivation may still be agriculturally productive for example united states nrcs statistics indicate that about 59 percent of us nonfederal pasture and unforested rangeland is unsuitable for cultivation yet such land has value for grazing of livestock in british columbia canada 41 percent of the provincial agricultural land reserve area is unsuitable for the production of cultivated crops but is suitable for uncultivated production of forage usable by grazing livestock similar examples can be found in many rangeland areas elsewhere changes in arability land conversion land incapable of being cultivated for the production of crops can sometimes be converted to arable land new arable land makes more food and can reduce starvation this outcome also makes a country more selfsufficient and politically independent because food importation is reduced making nonarable land arable often involves digging new irrigation canals and new wells aqueducts desalination plants planting trees for shade in the desert hydroponics fertilizer nitrogen fertilizer pesticides reverse osmosis water processors pet film insulation or other insulation against heat and cold digging ditches and hills for protection against the wind and installing greenhouses with internal light and heat for protection against the cold outside and to provide light in cloudy areas such modifications are often prohibitively expensive an alternative is the seawater greenhouse which desalinates water through evaporation and condensation using solar energy as the only energy input this technology is optimized to grow crops on desert land close to the sea the use of artifices does not make the land arable rock still remains rock and shallowless than turnable soil is still not considered toilable the use of artifice is an openair none recycled water hydroponics relationship the below described circumstances are not in perspective have limited duration and have a tendency to accumulate trace materials in soil that either there or elsewhere cause deoxygenation the use of vast amounts of fertilizer may have unintended consequences for the environment by devastating rivers waterways and river endings through the accumulation of nondegradable toxins and nitrogenbearing molecules that remove oxygen and cause nonaerobic processes to form examples of infertile nonarable land being turned into fertile arable land include aran islands these islands off the west coast of ireland not to be confused with the isle of arran in scotlands firth of clyde were unsuitable for arable farming because they were too rocky the people covered the islands with a shallow layer of seaweed and sand from the ocean today crops are grown there even though the islands are still considered nonarable israel the construction of desalination plants along israels coast allowed agriculture in some areas that were formerly desert the desalination plants which remove the salt from ocean water have produced a new source of water for farming drinking and washing slash and burn agriculture uses nutrients in wood ash but these expire within a few years terra preta fertile tropical soils produced by adding charcoal land degradation examples examples of fertile arable land being turned into infertile land include droughts such as the dust bowl of the great depression in the us turned farmland into desert each year arable land is lost due to desertification and humaninduced erosion improper irrigation of farmland can wick the sodium calcium and magnesium from the soil and water to the surface this process steadily concentrates salt in the root zone decreasing productivity for crops that are not salttolerant rainforest deforestation the fertile tropical forests are converted into infertile desert land for example madagascars central highland plateau has become virtually totally barren about ten percent of the country as a result of slashandburn deforestation an element of shifting cultivation practiced by many natives see also development easement land use statistics by country list of environment topics soil fertility references external links article from technorati on shrinking arable farmland in the world surface area of the earth agricultural land	947
904	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium	Aluminium	aluminium aluminum in north american english is a chemical element with the symbol al and atomic number 13 aluminium has a density lower than those of other common metals about onethird that of steel it has a great affinity towards oxygen forming a protective layer of oxide on the surface when exposed to air aluminium visually resembles silver both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light it is soft nonmagnetic and ductile it has one stable isotope 27al which is highly abundant making aluminium the twelfthmost common element in the universe the radioactivity of 26al is used in radiometric dating chemically aluminium is a posttransition metal in the boron group as is common for the group aluminium forms compounds primarily in the 3 oxidation state the aluminium cation al3 is small and highly charged as such it has more polarizing power and bonds formed by aluminium have a more covalent character the strong affinity of aluminium for oxygen leads to the common occurrence of its oxides in nature aluminium is found on earth primarily in rocks in the crust where it is the thirdmost abundant element after oxygen and silicon rather than in the mantle and virtually never as the free metal it is obtained industrially by mining bauxite a sedimentary rock rich in aluminium minerals the discovery of aluminium was announced in 1825 by danish physicist hans christian ørsted the first industrial production of aluminium was initiated by french chemist henri étienne sainteclaire deville in 1856 aluminium became much more available to the public with the hallhéroult process developed independently by french engineer paul héroult and american engineer charles martin hall in 1886 and the mass production of aluminium led to its extensive use in industry and everyday life in world wars i and ii aluminium was a crucial strategic resource for aviation in 1954 aluminium became the most produced nonferrous metal surpassing copper in the 21st century most aluminium was consumed in transportation engineering construction and packaging in the united states western europe and japan despite its prevalence in the environment no living organism is known to use aluminium salts for metabolism but aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals because of the abundance of these salts the potential for a biological role for them is of interest and studies continue physical characteristics isotopes of aluminium isotopes only is stable this situation is common for elements with an odd atomic number it is the only primordial aluminium isotope ie the only one that has existed on earth in its current form since the formation of the planet it is therefore a mononuclidic element and its standard atomic weight is virtually the same as that of the isotope this makes aluminium very useful in nuclear magnetic resonance nmr as its single stable isotope has a high nmr sensitivity the standard atomic weight of aluminium is low in comparison with many other metals all other isotopes of aluminium are radioactive the most stable of these is 26al while it was present along with stable 27al in the interstellar medium from which the solar system formed having been produced by stellar nucleosynthesis as well its halflife is only 717000 years and therefore a detectable amount has not survived since the formation of the planet however minute traces of 26al are produced from argon in the atmosphere by spallation caused by cosmic ray protons the ratio of 26al to 10be has been used for radiodating of geological processes over 105 to 106 year time scales in particular transport deposition sediment storage burial times and erosion most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26al was responsible for the melting and differentiation of some asteroids after their formation 455 billion years ago the remaining isotopes of aluminium with mass numbers ranging from 22 to 43 all have halflives well under an hour three metastable states are known all with halflives under a minute electron shell an aluminium atom has 13 electrons arranged in an electron configuration of with three electrons beyond a stable noble gas configuration accordingly the combined first three ionization energies of aluminium are far lower than the fourth ionization energy alone such an electron configuration is shared with the other wellcharacterized members of its group boron gallium indium and thallium it is also expected for nihonium aluminium can surrender its three outermost electrons in many chemical reactions see below the electronegativity of aluminium is 161 pauling scale a free aluminium atom has a radius of 143 pm with the three outermost electrons removed the radius shrinks to 39 pm for a 4coordinated atom or 535 pm for a 6coordinated atom at standard temperature and pressure aluminium atoms when not affected by atoms of other elements form a facecentered cubic crystal system bound by metallic bonding provided by atoms outermost electrons hence aluminium at these conditions is a metal this crystal system is shared by many other metals such as lead and copper the size of a unit cell of aluminium is comparable to that of those other metals the system however is not shared by the other members of its group boron has ionization energies too high to allow metallization thallium has a hexagonal closepacked structure and gallium and indium have unusual structures that are not closepacked like those of aluminium and thallium the few electrons that are available for metallic bonding in aluminium metal are a probable cause for it being soft with a low melting point and low electrical resistivity bulk aluminium metal has an appearance ranging from silvery white to dull gray depending on the surface roughness aluminium mirrors are the most reflective of all metal mirrors for the near ultraviolet and far infrared light and one of the most reflective in the visible spectrum nearly on par with silver and the two therefore look similar aluminium is also good at reflecting solar radiation although prolonged exposure to sunlight in air adds wear to the surface of the metal this may be prevented if aluminium is anodized which adds a protective layer of oxide on the surface the density of aluminium is 270 gcm3 about 13 that of steel much lower than other commonly encountered metals making aluminium parts easily identifiable through their lightness aluminiums low density compared to most other metals arises from the fact that its nuclei are much lighter while difference in the unit cell size does not compensate for this difference the only lighter metals are the metals of groups 1 and 2 which apart from beryllium and magnesium are too reactive for structural use and beryllium is very toxic aluminium is not as strong or stiff as steel but the low density makes up for this in the aerospace industry and for many other applications where light weight and relatively high strength are crucial pure aluminium is quite soft and lacking in strength in most applications various aluminium alloys are used instead because of their higher strength and hardness the yield strength of pure aluminium is 711 mpa while aluminium alloys have yield strengths ranging from 200 mpa to 600 mpa aluminium is ductile with a percent elongation of 5070 and malleable allowing it to be easily drawn and extruded it is also easily machined and cast aluminium is an excellent thermal and electrical conductor having around 60 the conductivity of copper both thermal and electrical while having only 30 of coppers density aluminium is capable of superconductivity with a superconducting critical temperature of 12 kelvin and a critical magnetic field of about 100 gauss 10 milliteslas it is paramagnetic and thus essentially unaffected by static magnetic fields the high electrical conductivity however means that it is strongly affected by alternating magnetic fields through the induction of eddy currents chemistry aluminium combines characteristics of pre and posttransition metals since it has few available electrons for metallic bonding like its heavier group 13 congeners it has the characteristic physical properties of a posttransition metal with longerthanexpected interatomic distances furthermore as al3 is a small and highly charged cation it is strongly polarizing and bonding in aluminium compounds tends towards covalency this behavior is similar to that of beryllium be2 and the two display an example of a diagonal relationship the underlying core under aluminiums valence shell is that of the preceding noble gas whereas those of its heavier congeners gallium indium thallium and nihonium also include a filled dsubshell and in some cases a filled fsubshell hence the inner electrons of aluminium shield the valence electrons almost completely unlike those of aluminiums heavier congeners as such aluminium is the most electropositive metal in its group and its hydroxide is in fact more basic than that of gallium aluminium also bears minor similarities to the metalloid boron in the same group alx3 compounds are valence isoelectronic to bx3 compounds they have the same valence electronic structure and both behave as lewis acids and readily form adducts additionally one of the main motifs of boron chemistry is regular icosahedral structures and aluminium forms an important part of many icosahedral quasicrystal alloys including the alznmg class aluminium has a high chemical affinity to oxygen which renders it suitable for use as a reducing agent in the thermite reaction a fine powder of aluminium metal reacts explosively on contact with liquid oxygen under normal conditions however aluminium forms a thin oxide layer 5 nm at room temperature that protects the metal from further corrosion by oxygen water or dilute acid a process termed passivation because of its general resistance to corrosion aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form making it an important component of silvercolored paints aluminium is not attacked by oxidizing acids because of its passivation this allows aluminium to be used to store reagents such as nitric acid concentrated sulfuric acid and some organic acids in hot concentrated hydrochloric acid aluminium reacts with water with evolution of hydrogen and in aqueous sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide at room temperature to form aluminatesprotective passivation under these conditions is negligible aqua regia also dissolves aluminium aluminium is corroded by dissolved chlorides such as common sodium chloride which is why household plumbing is never made from aluminium the oxide layer on aluminium is also destroyed by contact with mercury due to amalgamation or with salts of some electropositive metals as such the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosionresistant due to galvanic reactions with alloyed copper and aluminiums corrosion resistance is greatly reduced by aqueous salts particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals aluminium reacts with most nonmetals upon heating forming compounds such as aluminium nitride aln aluminium sulfide al2s3 and the aluminium halides alx3 it also forms a wide range of intermetallic compounds involving metals from every group on the periodic table inorganic compounds the vast majority of compounds including all aluminiumcontaining minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3 the coordination number of such compounds varies but generally al3 is either six or fourcoordinate almost all compounds of aluminiumiii are colorless in aqueous solution al3 exists as the hexaaqua cation alh2o63 which has an approximate ka of 105 such solutions are acidic as this cation can act as a proton donor and progressively hydrolyze until a precipitate of aluminium hydroxide aloh3 forms this is useful for clarification of water as the precipitate nucleates on suspended particles in the water hence removing them increasing the ph even further leads to the hydroxide dissolving again as aluminate alh2o2oh4 is formed aluminium hydroxide forms both salts and aluminates and dissolves in acid and alkali as well as on fusion with acidic and basic oxides this behavior of aloh3 is termed amphoterism and is characteristic of weakly basic cations that form insoluble hydroxides and whose hydrated species can also donate their protons one effect of this is that aluminium salts with weak acids are hydrolyzed in water to the aquated hydroxide and the corresponding nonmetal hydride for example aluminium sulfide yields hydrogen sulfide however some salts like aluminium carbonate exist in aqueous solution but are unstable as such and only incomplete hydrolysis takes place for salts with strong acids such as the halides nitrate and sulfate for similar reasons anhydrous aluminium salts cannot be made by heating their hydrates hydrated aluminium chloride is in fact not alcl36h2o but alh2o6cl3 and the alo bonds are so strong that heating is not sufficient to break them and form alcl bonds instead 2alh2o6cl3 al2o3 6 hcl 9 h2o all four trihalides are well known unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides aluminium fluoride alf3 features sixcoordinate aluminium which explains its involatility and insolubility as well as high heat of formation each aluminium atom is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in a distorted octahedral arrangement with each fluorine atom being shared between the corners of two octahedra such alf6 units also exist in complex fluorides such as cryolite na3alf6 alf3 melts at and is made by reaction of aluminium oxide with hydrogen fluoride gas at with heavier halides the coordination numbers are lower the other trihalides are dimeric or polymeric with tetrahedral fourcoordinate aluminium centers aluminium trichloride alcl3 has a layered polymeric structure below its melting point of but transforms on melting to al2cl6 dimers at higher temperatures those increasingly dissociate into trigonal planar alcl3 monomers similar to the structure of bcl3 aluminium tribromide and aluminium triiodide form al2x6 dimers in all three phases and hence do not show such significant changes of properties upon phase change these materials are prepared by treating aluminium metal with the halogen the aluminium trihalides form many addition compounds or complexes their lewis acidic nature makes them useful as catalysts for the friedelcrafts reactions aluminium trichloride has major industrial uses involving this reaction such as in the manufacture of anthraquinones and styrene it is also often used as the precursor for many other aluminium compounds and as a reagent for converting nonmetal fluorides into the corresponding chlorides a transhalogenation reaction aluminium forms one stable oxide with the chemical formula al2o3 commonly called alumina it can be found in nature in the mineral corundum αalumina there is also a γalumina phase its crystalline form corundum is very hard mohs hardness 9 has a high melting point of has very low volatility is chemically inert and a good electrical insulator it is often used in abrasives such as toothpaste as a refractory material and in ceramics as well as being the starting material for the electrolytic production of aluminium metal sapphire and ruby are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals the two main oxidehydroxides alooh are boehmite and diaspore there are three main trihydroxides bayerite gibbsite and nordstrandite which differ in their crystalline structure polymorphs many other intermediate and related structures are also known most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum these materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful some mixed oxide phases are also very useful such as spinel mgal2o4 naβalumina naal11o17 and tricalcium aluminate ca3al2o6 an important mineral phase in portland cement the only stable chalcogenides under normal conditions are aluminium sulfide al2s3 selenide al2se3 and telluride al2te3 all three are prepared by direct reaction of their elements at about and quickly hydrolyze completely in water to yield aluminium hydroxide and the respective hydrogen chalcogenide as aluminium is a small atom relative to these chalcogens these have fourcoordinate tetrahedral aluminium with various polymorphs having structures related to wurtzite with twothirds of the possible metal sites occupied either in an orderly α or random β fashion the sulfide also has a γ form related to γalumina and an unusual hightemperature hexagonal form where half the aluminium atoms have tetrahedral fourcoordination and the other half have trigonal bipyramidal fivecoordination four pnictides aluminium nitride aln aluminium phosphide alp aluminium arsenide alas and aluminium antimonide alsb are known they are all iiiv semiconductors isoelectronic to silicon and germanium all of which but aln have the zinc blende structure all four can be made by hightemperature and possibly highpressure direct reaction of their component elements aluminium alloys well with most other metals with the exception of most alkali metals and group 13 metals and over 150 intermetallics with other metals are known preparation involves heating fixed metals together in certain proportion followed by gradual cooling and annealing bonding in them is predominantly metallic and the crystal structure primarily depends on efficiency of packing there are few compounds with lower oxidation states a few aluminiumi compounds exist alf alcl albr and ali exist in the gaseous phase when the respective trihalide is heated with aluminium and at cryogenic temperatures a stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic adduct formed with triethylamine al4i4net34 al2o and al2s also exist but are very unstable very simple aluminiumii compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of al metal with oxidants for example aluminium monoxide alo has been detected in the gas phase after explosion and in stellar absorption spectra more thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula r4al2 which contain an alal bond and where r is a large organic ligand organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides a variety of compounds of empirical formula alr3 and alr15cl15 exist the aluminium trialkyls and triaryls are reactive volatile and colorless liquids or lowmelting solids they catch fire spontaneously in air and react with water thus necessitating precautions when handling them they often form dimers unlike their boron analogues but this tendency diminishes for branchedchain alkyls eg pri bui me3cch2 for example triisobutylaluminium exists as an equilibrium mixture of the monomer and dimer these dimers such as trimethylaluminium al2me6 usually feature tetrahedral al centers formed by dimerization with some alkyl group bridging between both aluminium atoms they are hard acids and react readily with ligands forming adducts in industry they are mostly used in alkene insertion reactions as discovered by karl ziegler most importantly in growth reactions that form longchain unbranched primary alkenes and alcohols and in the lowpressure polymerization of ethene and propene there are also some heterocyclic and cluster organoaluminium compounds involving aln bonds the industrially most important aluminium hydride is lithium aluminium hydride lialh4 which is used in as a reducing agent in organic chemistry it can be produced from lithium hydride and aluminium trichloride the simplest hydride aluminium hydride or alane is not as important it is a polymer with the formula alh3n in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride that is a dimer with the formula bh32 natural occurrence space aluminiums perparticle abundance in the solar system is 315 ppm parts per million it is the twelfth most abundant of all elements and third most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers after hydrogen and nitrogen the only stable isotope of aluminium 27al is the eighteenth most abundant nucleus in the universe it is created almost entirely after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become type ii supernovas this fusion creates 26mg which upon capturing free protons and neutrons becomes aluminium some smaller quantities of 27al are created in hydrogen burning shells of evolved stars where 26mg can capture free protons essentially all aluminium now in existence is 27al 26al was present in the early solar system with abundance of 0005 relative to 27al but its halflife of 728000 years is too short for any original nuclei to survive 26al is therefore extinct unlike for 27al hydrogen burning is the primary source of 26al with the nuclide emerging after a nucleus of 25mg catches a free proton however the trace quantities of 26al that do exist are the most common gamma ray emitter in the interstellar gas if the original 26al were still present gamma ray maps of the milky way would be brighter earth overall the earth is about 159 aluminium by mass seventh in abundance by mass aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the earths crust than in the universe at large because aluminium easily forms the oxide and becomes bound into rocks and stays in the earths crust while less reactive metals sink to the core in the earths crust aluminium is the most abundant metallic element 823 by mass and the third most abundant of all elements after oxygen and silicon a large number of silicates in the earths crust contain aluminium in contrast the earths mantle is only 238 aluminium by mass aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 μgkg because of its strong affinity for oxygen aluminium is almost never found in the elemental state instead it is found in oxides or silicates feldspars the most common group of minerals in the earths crust are aluminosilicates aluminium also occurs in the minerals beryl cryolite garnet spinel and turquoise impurities in al2o3 such as chromium and iron yield the gemstones ruby and sapphire respectively native aluminium metal is extremely rare and can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen fugacity environments such as the interiors of certain volcanoes native aluminium has been reported in cold seeps in the northeastern continental slope of the south china sea it is possible that these deposits resulted from bacterial reduction of tetrahydroxoaluminate aloh4 although aluminium is a common and widespread element not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of the metal almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the ore bauxite aloxoh32x bauxite occurs as a weathering product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions in 2017 most bauxite was mined in australia china guinea and india history the history of aluminium has been shaped by usage of alum the first written record of alum made by greek historian herodotus dates back to the 5th century bce the ancients are known to have used alum as a dyeing mordant and for city defense after the crusades alum an indispensable good in the european fabric industry was a subject of international commerce it was imported to europe from the eastern mediterranean until the mid15th century the nature of alum remained unknown around 1530 swiss physician paracelsus suggested alum was a salt of an earth of alum in 1595 german doctor and chemist andreas libavius experimentally confirmed this in 1722 german chemist friedrich hoffmann announced his belief that the base of alum was a distinct earth in 1754 german chemist andreas sigismund marggraf synthesized alumina by boiling clay in sulfuric acid and subsequently adding potash attempts to produce aluminium metal date back to 1760 the first successful attempt however was completed in 1824 by danish physicist and chemist hans christian ørsted he reacted anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium amalgam yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin he presented his results and demonstrated a sample of the new metal in 1825 in 1827 german chemist friedrich wöhler repeated ørsteds experiments but did not identify any aluminium the reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921 he conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminium in 1845 he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal for many years thereafter wöhler was credited as the discoverer of aluminium as wöhlers method could not yield great quantities of aluminium the metal remained rare its cost exceeded that of gold the first industrial production of aluminium was established in 1856 by french chemist henri etienne sainteclaire deville and companions deville had discovered that aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium which wöhler had used even then aluminium was still not of great purity and produced aluminium differed in properties by sample because of its electricityconducting capacity aluminium was used as the cap of the washington monument completed in 1885 the tallest building in the world at the time the noncorroding metal cap was intended to serve as a lightning rod peak the first industrial largescale production method was independently developed in 1886 by french engineer paul héroult and american engineer charles martin hall it is now known as the hallhéroult process the hallhéroult process converts alumina into metal austrian chemist carl joseph bayer discovered a way of purifying bauxite to yield alumina now known as the bayer process in 1889 modern production of the aluminium metal is based on the bayer and hallhéroult processes prices of aluminium dropped and aluminium became widely used in jewelry everyday items eyeglass frames optical instruments tableware and foil in the 1890s and early 20th century aluminiums ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided the metal with many uses at the time during world war i major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes during world war ii demand by major governments for aviation was even higher by the mid20th century aluminium had become a part of everyday life and an essential component of housewares in 1954 production of aluminium surpassed that of copper historically second in production only to iron making it the most produced nonferrous metal during the mid20th century aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work and increasingly being used in military engineering for both airplanes and land armor vehicle engines earths first artificial satellite launched in 1957 consisted of two separate aluminium semispheres joined and all subsequent space vehicles have used aluminium to some extent the aluminium can was invented in 1956 and employed as a storage for drinks in 1958 throughout the 20th century the production of aluminium rose rapidly while the world production of aluminium in 1900 was 6800 metric tons the annual production first exceeded 100000 metric tons in 1916 1000000 tons in 1941 10000000 tons in 1971 in the 1970s the increased demand for aluminium made it an exchange commodity it entered the london metal exchange the oldest industrial metal exchange in the world in 1978 the output continued to grow the annual production of aluminium exceeded 50000000 metric tons in 2013 the real price for aluminium declined from 14000 per metric ton in 1900 to 2340 in 1948 in 1998 united states dollars extraction and processing costs were lowered over technological progress and the scale of the economies however the need to exploit lowergrade poorer quality deposits and the use of fast increasing input costs above all energy increased the net cost of aluminium the real price began to grow in the 1970s with the rise of energy cost production moved from the industrialized countries to countries where production was cheaper production costs in the late 20th century changed because of advances in technology lower energy prices exchange rates of the united states dollar and alumina prices the bric countries combined share in primary production and primary consumption grew substantially in the first decade of the 21st century china is accumulating an especially large share of the worlds production thanks to an abundance of resources cheap energy and governmental stimuli it also increased its consumption share from 2 in 1972 to 40 in 2010 in the united states western europe and japan most aluminium was consumed in transportation engineering construction and packaging in 2021 prices for industrial metals such as aluminium have soared to nearrecord levels as energy shortages in china drive up costs for electricity etymology the names aluminium and aluminum are derived from the word alumine an obsolete term for alumina a naturally occurring oxide of aluminium alumine was borrowed from french which in turn derived it from alumen the classical latin name for alum the mineral from which it was collected the latin word alumen stems from the protoindoeuropean root alu meaning bitter or beer origins british chemist humphry davy who performed a number of experiments aimed to isolate the metal is credited as the person who named the element the first name proposed for the metal to be isolated from alum was alumium which davy suggested in an 1808 article on his electrochemical research published in philosophical transactions of the royal society it appeared that the name was created from the english word alum and the latin suffix ium but it was customary then to give elements names originating in latin so this name was not adopted universally this name was criticized by contemporary chemists from france germany and sweden who insisted the metal should be named for the oxide alumina from which it would be isolated the english name alum does not come directly from latin whereas aluminealumina obviously comes from the latin word alumen upon declension alumen changes to alumin one example was essai sur la nomenclature chimique july 1811 written in french by a swedish chemist jöns jacob berzelius in which the name aluminium is given to the element that would be synthesized from alum another article in the same journal issue also gives the name aluminium to the metal whose oxide is the basis of sapphire a january 1811 summary of one of davys lectures at the royal society mentioned the name aluminium as a possibility the next year davy published a chemistry textbook in which he used the spelling aluminum both spellings have coexisted since their usage is regional aluminum dominates in the united states and canada aluminium in the rest of the englishspeaking world spelling in 1812 a british scientist thomas young wrote an anonymous review of davys book in which he proposed the name aluminium instead of aluminum which he thought had a less classical sound this name did catch on although the spelling was occasionally used in britain the american scientific language used from the start most scientists throughout the world used in the 19th century and it was entrenched in several other european languages such as french german and dutch in 1828 an american lexicographer noah webster entered only the aluminum spelling in his american dictionary of the english language in the 1830s the spelling gained usage in the united states by the 1860s it had become the more common spelling there outside science in 1892 hall used the spelling in his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal despite his constant use of the spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903 it is unknown whether this spelling was introduced by mistake or intentionally but hall preferred aluminum since its introduction because it resembled platinum the name of a prestigious metal by 1890 both spellings had been common in the united states the spelling being slightly more common by 1895 the situation had reversed by 1900 aluminum had become twice as common as aluminium in the next decade the spelling dominated american usage in 1925 the american chemical society adopted this spelling the international union of pure and applied chemistry iupac adopted aluminium as the standard international name for the element in 1990 in 1993 they recognized aluminum as an acceptable variant the most recent 2005 edition of the iupac nomenclature of inorganic chemistry also acknowledges this spelling iupac official publications use the spelling as primary and they list both where it is appropriate production and refinement the production of aluminium starts with the extraction of bauxite rock from the ground the bauxite is processed and transformed using the bayer process into alumina which is then processed using the hallhéroult process resulting in the final aluminium metal aluminium production is highly energyconsuming and so the producers tend to locate smelters in places where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive production of one kilogram of aluminium requires 7 kilograms of oil energy equivalent as compared to 15 kilograms for steel and 2 kilograms for plastic as of 2019 the worlds largest smelters of aluminium are located in china india russia canada and the united arab emirates while china is by far the top producer of aluminium with a world share of fiftyfive percent according to the international resource panels metal stocks in society report the global per capita stock of aluminium in use in society ie in cars buildings electronics etc is much of this is in moredeveloped countries per capita rather than lessdeveloped countries per capita bayer process bauxite is converted to alumina by the bayer process bauxite is blended for uniform composition and then is ground the resulting slurry is mixed with a hot solution of sodium hydroxide the mixture is then treated in a digester vessel at a pressure well above atmospheric dissolving the aluminium hydroxide in bauxite while converting impurities into relatively insoluble compounds after this reaction the slurry is at a temperature above its atmospheric boiling point it is cooled by removing steam as pressure is reduced the bauxite residue is separated from the solution and discarded the solution free of solids is seeded with small crystals of aluminium hydroxide this causes decomposition of the aloh4 ions to aluminium hydroxide after about half of aluminium has precipitated the mixture is sent to classifiers small crystals of aluminium hydroxide are collected to serve as seeding agents coarse particles are converted to alumina by heating the excess solution is removed by evaporation if needed purified and recycled hallhéroult process the conversion of alumina to aluminium metal is achieved by the hallhéroult process in this energyintensive process a solution of alumina in a molten mixture of cryolite na3alf6 with calcium fluoride is electrolyzed to produce metallic aluminium the liquid aluminium metal sinks to the bottom of the solution and is tapped off and usually cast into large blocks called aluminium billets for further processing anodes of the electrolysis cell are made of carbonthe most resistant material against fluoride corrosionand either bake at the process or are prebaked the former also called söderberg anodes are less powerefficient and fumes released during baking are costly to collect which is why they are being replaced by prebaked anodes even though they save the power energy and labor to prebake the cathodes carbon for anodes should be preferably pure so that neither aluminium nor the electrolyte is contaminated with ash despite carbons resistivity against corrosion it is still consumed at a rate of 0405 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium cathodes are made of anthracite high purity for them is not required because impurities leach only very slowly the cathode is consumed at a rate of 002004 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium a cell is usually terminated after 26 years following a failure of the cathode the hallheroult process produces aluminium with a purity of above 99 further purification can be done by the hoopes process this process involves the electrolysis of molten aluminium with a sodium barium and aluminium fluoride electrolyte the resulting aluminium has a purity of 9999 electric power represents about 20 to 40 of the cost of producing aluminium depending on the location of the smelter aluminium production consumes roughly 5 of electricity generated in the united states because of this alternatives to the hallhéroult process have been researched but none has turned out to be economically feasible recycling recovery of the metal through recycling has become an important task of the aluminium industry recycling was a lowprofile activity until the late 1960s when the growing use of aluminium beverage cans brought it to public awareness recycling involves melting the scrap a process that requires only 5 of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore though a significant part up to 15 of the input material is lost as dross ashlike oxide an aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross with values reported below 1 white dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium that can be extracted industrially the process produces aluminium billets together with a highly complex waste material this waste is difficult to manage it reacts with water releasing a mixture of gases including among others hydrogen acetylene and ammonia which spontaneously ignites on contact with air contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas despite these difficulties the waste is used as a filler in asphalt and concrete applications metal the global production of aluminium in 2016 was 588 million metric tons it exceeded that of any other metal except iron 1231 million metric tons aluminium is almost always alloyed which markedly improves its mechanical properties especially when tempered for example the common aluminium foils and beverage cans are alloys of 92 to 99 aluminium the main alloying agents are copper zinc magnesium manganese and silicon eg duralumin with the levels of other metals in a few percent by weight aluminium both wrought and cast has been alloyed with manganese silicon magnesium copper and zinc among others for example the kynal family of alloys was developed by the british chemical manufacturer imperial chemical industries the major uses for aluminium metal are in transportation automobiles aircraft trucks railway cars marine vessels bicycles spacecraft etc aluminium is used because of its low density packaging cans foil frame etc aluminium is used because it is nontoxic see below nonadsorptive and splinterproof building and construction windows doors siding building wire sheathing roofing etc since steel is cheaper aluminium is used when lightness corrosion resistance or engineering features are important electricityrelated uses conductor alloys motors and generators transformers capacitors etc aluminium is used because it is relatively cheap highly conductive has adequate mechanical strength and low density and resists corrosion a wide range of household items from cooking utensils to furniture low density good appearance ease of fabrication and durability are the key factors of aluminium usage machinery and equipment processing equipment pipes tools aluminium is used because of its corrosion resistance nonpyrophoricity and mechanical strength compounds the great majority about 90 of aluminium oxide is converted to metallic aluminium being a very hard material mohs hardness 9 alumina is widely used as an abrasive being extraordinarily chemically inert it is useful in highly reactive environments such as high pressure sodium lamps aluminium oxide is commonly used as a catalyst for industrial processes eg the claus process to convert hydrogen sulfide to sulfur in refineries and to alkylate amines many industrial catalysts are supported by alumina meaning that the expensive catalyst material is dispersed over a surface of the inert alumina another principal use is as a drying agent or absorbent several sulfates of aluminium have industrial and commercial application aluminium sulfate in its hydrate form is produced on the annual scale of several millions of metric tons about twothirds is consumed in water treatment the next major application is in the manufacture of paper it is also used as a mordant in dyeing in pickling seeds deodorizing of mineral oils in leather tanning and in production of other aluminium compounds two kinds of alum ammonium alum and potassium alum were formerly used as mordants and in leather tanning but their use has significantly declined following availability of highpurity aluminium sulfate anhydrous aluminium chloride is used as a catalyst in chemical and petrochemical industries the dyeing industry and in synthesis of various inorganic and organic compounds aluminium hydroxychlorides are used in purifying water in the paper industry and as antiperspirants sodium aluminate is used in treating water and as an accelerator of solidification of cement many aluminium compounds have niche applications for example aluminium acetate in solution is used as an astringent aluminium phosphate is used in the manufacture of glass ceramic pulp and paper products cosmetics paints varnishes and in dental cement aluminium hydroxide is used as an antacid and mordant it is used also in water purification the manufacture of glass and ceramics and in the waterproofing of fabrics lithium aluminium hydride is a powerful reducing agent used in organic chemistry organoaluminiums are used as lewis acids and cocatalysts methylaluminoxane is a cocatalyst for zieglernatta olefin polymerization to produce vinyl polymers such as polyethene aqueous aluminium ions such as aqueous aluminium sulfate are used to treat against fish parasites such as gyrodactylus salaris in many vaccines certain aluminium salts serve as an immune adjuvant immune response booster to allow the protein in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant until 2004 most of the adjuvants used in vaccines were aluminiumadjuvanted biology despite its widespread occurrence in the earths crust aluminium has no known function in biology at ph 69 relevant for most natural waters aluminium precipitates out of water as the hydroxide and is hence not available most elements behaving this way have no biological role or are toxic aluminium sulfate has an ld50 of 6207 mgkg oral mouse which corresponds to 435 grams about one pound for a person toxicity aluminium is classified as a noncarcinogen by the united states department of health and human services a review published in 1988 said that there was little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adult and a 2014 multielement toxicology review was unable to find deleterious effects of aluminium consumed in amounts not greater than 40 mgday per kg of body mass most aluminium consumed will leave the body in feces most of the small part of it that enters the bloodstream will be excreted via urine nevertheless some aluminium does pass the bloodbrain barrier and is lodged preferentially in the brains of alzheimers patients evidence published in 1989 indicates that for alzheimers patients aluminium may act by electrostatically crosslinking proteins thus downregulating genes in the superior temporal gyrus effects aluminium although rarely can cause vitamin dresistant osteomalacia erythropoietinresistant microcytic anemia and central nervous system alterations people with kidney insufficiency are especially at a risk chronic ingestion of hydrated aluminium silicates for excess gastric acidity control may result in aluminium binding to intestinal contents and increased elimination of other metals such as iron or zinc sufficiently high doses 50 gday can cause anemia during the 1988 camelford water pollution incident people in camelford had their drinking water contaminated with aluminium sulfate for several weeks a final report into the incident in 2013 concluded it was unlikely that this had caused longterm health problems aluminium has been suspected of being a possible cause of alzheimers disease but research into this for over 40 years has found no good evidence of causal effect aluminium increases estrogenrelated gene expression in human breast cancer cells cultured in the laboratory in very high doses aluminium is associated with altered function of the bloodbrain barrier a small percentage of people have contact allergies to aluminium and experience itchy red rashes headache muscle pain joint pain poor memory insomnia depression asthma irritable bowel syndrome or other symptoms upon contact with products containing aluminium exposure to powdered aluminium or aluminium welding fumes can cause pulmonary fibrosis fine aluminium powder can ignite or explode posing another workplace hazard exposure routes food is the main source of aluminium drinking water contains more aluminium than solid food however aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water major sources of human oral exposure to aluminium include food due to its use in food additives food and beverage packaging and cooking utensils drinking water due to its use in municipal water treatment and aluminiumcontaining medications particularly antacidantiulcer and buffered aspirin formulations dietary exposure in europeans averages to 0215 mgkgweek but can be as high as 23 mgkgweek higher exposure levels of aluminium are mostly limited to miners aluminium production workers and dialysis patients consumption of antacids antiperspirants vaccines and cosmetics provide possible routes of exposure consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium enhances aluminium absorption and maltol has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues treatment in case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount of aluminium the only treatment is deferoxamine mesylate which may be given to help eliminate aluminium from the body by chelation however this should be applied with caution as this reduces not only aluminium body levels but also those of other metals such as copper or iron environmental effects high levels of aluminium occur near mining sites small amounts of aluminium are released to the environment at the coalfired power plants or incinerators aluminium in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down but small particles of aluminium remain in the air for a long time acidic precipitation is the main natural factor to mobilize aluminium from natural sources and the main reason for the environmental effects of aluminium however the main factor of presence of aluminium in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminium into air in water aluminium acts as a toxiс agent on gillbreathing animals such as fish when the water is acidic in which aluminium may precipitate on gills which causes loss of plasma and hemolymph ions leading to osmoregulatory failure organic complexes of aluminium may be easily absorbed and interfere with metabolism in mammals and birds even though this rarely happens in practice aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acidic soils although it is generally harmless to plant growth in phneutral soils in acid soils the concentration of toxic al3 cations increases and disturbs root growth and function wheat has developed a tolerance to aluminium releasing organic compounds that bind to harmful aluminium cations sorghum is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism aluminium production possesses its own challenges to the environment on each step of the production process the major challenge is the greenhouse gas emissions these gases result from electrical consumption of the smelters and the byproducts of processing the most potent of these gases are perfluorocarbons from the smelting process released sulfur dioxide is one of the primary precursors of acid rain biodegradation of metallic aluminium is extremely rare most aluminiumcorroding organisms do not directly attack or consume the aluminium but instead produce corrosive wastes the fungus geotrichum candidum can consume the aluminium in compact discs the bacterium pseudomonas aeruginosa and the fungus cladosporium resinae are commonly detected in aircraft fuel tanks that use kerosenebased fuels not avgas and laboratory cultures can degrade aluminium see also aluminium granules aluminium joining aluminiumair battery aluminized steel for corrosion resistance and other properties aluminized screen for display devices aluminized cloth to reflect heat aluminized mylar to reflect heat panel edge staining quantum clock notes references bibliography further reading mimi sheller aluminum dream the making of light modernity cambridge mass massachusetts institute of technology press 2014 external links aluminium at the periodic table of videos university of nottingham toxic substances portal aluminum from the agency for toxic substances and disease registry united states department of health and human services cdc niosh pocket guide to chemical hazards aluminum world production of primary aluminium by country price history of aluminum according to the imf history of aluminium from the website of the international aluminium institute emedicine aluminium chemical elements posttransition metals aluminium electrical conductors pyrotechnic fuels airship technology reducing agents enumber additives native element minerals chemical elements with facecentered cubic structure	7,839
905	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced%20Chemistry	Advanced Chemistry	advanced chemistry is a german hip hop group from heidelberg a scenic city in badenwürttemberg south germany advanced chemistry was founded in 1987 by toni l linguist geeone dj mike md mike dippon and mc torch each member of the group holds german citizenship and toni l linguist and torch are of italian ghanaian and haitian backgrounds respectively influenced by north american socially conscious rap and the native tongues movement advanced chemistry is regarded as one of the main pioneers in german hip hop they were one of the first groups to rap in german although their name is in english furthermore their songs tackled controversial social and political issues distinguishing them from early german hip hop group die fantastischen vier the fantastic four which had a more lighthearted playful party image career advanced chemistry frequently rapped about their lives and experiences as children of immigrants exposing the marginalization experienced by most ethnic minorities in germany and the feelings of frustration and resentment that being denied a german identity can cause the song fremd im eigenen land foreign in your own nation was released by advanced chemistry in november 1992 the single became a staple in the german hip hop scene it made a strong statement about the status of immigrants throughout germany as the group was composed of multinational and multiracial members the video shows several members brandishing their german passports as a demonstration of their german citizenship to skeptical and unaccepting ethnic germans this idea of national identity is important as many rap artists in germany have been of foreign origin these socalled gastarbeiter guest workers children saw breakdance graffiti rap music and hip hop culture as a means of expressing themselves since the release of fremd im eigenen land many other germanlanguage rappers have also tried to confront antiimmigrant ideas and develop themes of citizenship however though many ethnic minority youth in germany find these german identity themes appealing others view the desire of immigrants to be seen as german negatively and they have actively sought to revive and recreate concepts of identity in connection to traditional ethnic origins advanced chemistry helped to found the german chapter of the zulu nation the rivalry between advanced chemistry and die fantastischen vier has served to highlight a dichotomy in the routes that hip hop has taken in becoming a part of the german soundscape while die fantastischen vier may be said to view hip hop primarily as an aesthetic art form advanced chemistry understand hip hop as being inextricably linked to the social and political circumstances under which it is created for advanced chemistry hip hop is a vehicle of general human emancipation in their undertaking of social and political issues the band introduced the term afrogerman into the context of german hip hop and the theme of race is highlighted in much of their music with the release of the single fremd im eigenen land advanced chemistry separated itself from the rest of the rap being produced in germany this single was the first of its kind to go beyond simply imitating us rap and addressed the current issues of the time fremd im eigenen land which translates to foreign in my own country dealt with the widespread racism that nonwhite german citizens faced this change from simple imitation to political commentary was the start of german identification with rap the sound of fremd im eigenen land was influenced by the wall of noise created by public enemys producers the bomb squad after the reunification of germany an abundance of antiimmigrant sentiment emerged as well as attacks on the homes of refugees in the early 1990s advanced chemistry came to prominence in the wake of these actions because of their promulticultural society stance in their music advanced chemistrys attitudes revolve around their attempts to create a distinct germanness in hip hop as opposed to imitating american hip hop as other groups had done torch has said what the americans do is exotic for us because we dont live like they do what they do seems to be more interesting and newer but not for me for me its more exciting to experience my fellow germans in new contextsfor me its interesting to see what the kids try to do thats different from what i know advanced chemistry were the first to use the term afrogerman in a hip hop context this was part of the proimmigrant political message they sent via their music while advanced chemistrys use of the german language in their rap allows them to make claims to authenticity and true german heritage bolstering proimmigration sentiment their style can also be problematic for immigrant notions of any real ethnic roots indeed part of the turkish ethnic minority of frankfurt views advanced chemistrys appeal to the german image as a symbolic betrayal of the right of ethnic minorities to roots or to any expression of cultural heritage in this sense their rap represents a complex social discourse internal to the german soundscape in which they attempt to negotiate immigrant assimilation into a xenophobic german culture with the maintenance of their own separate cultural traditions it is quite possibly the feelings of alienation from the pureblooded german demographic that drive advanced chemistry to attack nationalistic ideologies by asserting their germanness as a group composed primarily of ethnic others the response to this pseudogerman authenticity can be seen in what andy bennett refers to as alternative forms of local hip hop culture which actively seek to rediscover and in many cases reconstruct notions of identity tied to cultural roots these alternative local hip hop cultures include oriental hip hop the members of which cling to their turkish heritage and are confused by advanced chemistrys elicitation of a german identity politics to which they technically do not belong this cultural binary illustrates that rap has taken different routes in germany and that even among an already isolated immigrant population there is still disunity and especially disagreement on the relative importance of assimilation versus cultural defiance according to german hip hop enthusiast 9home advanced chemistry is part of a hiphop movement which took a clear stance for the minorities and against the marginalization of immigrants whomight be german on paper but not in real life which speaks to the groups hope of actually being recognized as german citizens and not foreigners despite their various other ethnic and cultural ties influences advanced chemistrys work was rooted in german history and the countrys specific political realities however they also drew inspiration from africanamerican hiphop acts like a tribe called quest and public enemy who had helped bring a soulful sound and political consciousness to american hiphop one member torch later explicitly listed his references on his solo song als when i was in school my favorite subject which was quickly discovered poetry in load poets awakens the intellect or policy at chuck d ill never forget the lyrics by public enemy torch goes on to list other american rappers like biz markie big daddy kane and dr dre as influences discography 1992 fremd im eigenen land 12mcd mzee 1993 welcher pfad führt zur geschichte 12mcd mzee 1994 operation 3 12mcd 1994 dir fehlt der funk 12mcd 1995 advanced chemistry 2xlpcd external links official website of mc torch website of toni l official website of linguist official website dj mike md mike dippon website of 360 records bibliography eltayeb fatima if you cannot pronounce my name you can just call me pride afrogerman activism gender and hip hop gender history1532003459485 felbert oliver von die unbestechlichen spex march 1993 5053 weheliye alexander g phonographiesgrooves in sonic afromodernity duke university press 2005 references german hip hop groups	1,281
909	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican%20Communion	Anglican Communion	the anglican communion is the third largest christian communion after the roman catholic and eastern orthodox churches founded in 1867 in london the communion has more than 85 million members within the church of england and other autocephalous national and regional churches in full communion the traditional origins of anglican doctrine are summarised in the thirtynine articles 1571 the archbishop of canterbury justin welby in england acts as a focus of unity recognised as first among equals but does not exercise authority in anglican provinces outside of the church of england most but not all member churches of the communion are the historic national or regional anglican churches the anglican communion was officially and formally organised and recognised as such at the lambeth conference in 1867 in london under the leadership of charles longley archbishop of canterbury the churches of the anglican communion consider themselves to be part of the one holy catholic and apostolic church and to be both catholic and reformed as in the church of england itself the anglican communion includes the broad spectrum of beliefs and liturgical practises found in the evangelical central and anglocatholic traditions of anglicanism each national or regional church is fully independent retaining its own legislative process and episcopal polity under the leadership of local primates for some adherents anglicanism represents a nonpapal catholicism for others a form of protestantism though without a guiding figure such as martin luther john knox john calvin huldrych zwingli john wesley or jan hus or for yet others a combination of the two most of its members live in the anglosphere of former british territories full participation in the sacramental life of each church is available to all communicant members because of their historical link to england ecclesia anglicana means english church some of the member churches are known as anglican such as the anglican church of canada others for example the church of ireland and the scottish and american episcopal churches have official names that do not include anglican conversely some churches that do use the name anglican are not part of the communion these have generally disaffiliated over disagreement with the direction of the communion on february 20 2023 ten communion provinces and anglican realignment churches within global south fellowship of anglican churches released a statement stating that they had declared impaired communion with the church of england and no longer recognised justin welby as first among equals among the bishops of the communion de facto marking a schism within the anglican communion history the anglican communion traces much of its growth to the older mission organisations of the church of england such as the society for promoting christian knowledge founded 1698 the society for the propagation of the gospel in foreign parts founded 1701 and the church missionary society founded 1799 the church of england which until the 20th century included the church in wales initially separated from the roman catholic church in 1534 in the reign of henry viii reunited in 1555 under mary i and then separated again in 1570 under elizabeth i the roman catholic church excommunicated elizabeth i in 1570 in response to the act of supremacy 1559 the church of england has always thought of itself not as a new foundation but rather as a reformed continuation of the ancient english church ecclesia anglicana and a reassertion of that churchs rights as such it was a distinctly national phenomenon the church of scotland was formed as a separate church from the roman catholic church as a result of the scottish reformation in 1560 and the later formation of the scottish episcopal church began in 1582 in the reign of james vi over disagreements about the role of bishops the oldestsurviving anglican church building outside the british isles britain and ireland is st peters church in st georges bermuda established in 1612 though the actual building had to be rebuilt several times over the following century this is also the oldest surviving nonroman catholic church in the new world it remained part of the church of england until 1978 when the anglican church of bermuda separated the church of england was the established church not only in england but in its transoceanic colonies thus the only member churches of the present anglican communion existing by the mid18th century were the church of england its closely linked sister church the church of ireland which also separated from roman catholicism under henry viii and the scottish episcopal church which for parts of the 17th and 18th centuries was partially underground it was suspected of jacobite sympathies global spread of anglicanism the enormous expansion in the 18th and 19th centuries of the british empire brought anglicanism along with it at first all these colonial churches were under the jurisdiction of the bishop of london after the american revolution the parishes in the newly independent country found it necessary to break formally from a church whose supreme governor was and remains the british monarch thus they formed their own dioceses and national church the episcopal church in the united states of america in a mostly amicable separation at about the same time in the colonies which remained linked to the crown the church of england began to appoint colonial bishops in 1787 charles inglis bishop of nova scotia was appointed with a jurisdiction over all of british north america in time several more colleagues were appointed to other cities in presentday canada in 1814 a bishop of calcutta was made in 1824 the first bishop was sent to the west indies and in 1836 to australia by 1840 there were still only ten colonial bishops for the church of england but even this small beginning greatly facilitated the growth of anglicanism around the world in 1841 a colonial bishoprics council was set up and soon many more dioceses were created in time it became natural to group these into provinces and a metropolitan bishop was appointed for each province although it had at first been somewhat established in many colonies in 1861 it was ruled that except where specifically established the church of england had just the same legal position as any other church thus a colonial bishop and colonial diocese was by nature quite a different thing from their counterparts back home in time bishops came to be appointed locally rather than from england and eventually national synods began to pass ecclesiastical legislation independent of england a crucial step in the development of the modern communion was the idea of the lambeth conferences discussed above these conferences demonstrated that the bishops of disparate churches could manifest the unity of the church in their episcopal collegiality despite the absence of universal legal ties some bishops were initially reluctant to attend fearing that the meeting would declare itself a council with power to legislate for the church but it agreed to pass only advisory resolutions these lambeth conferences have been held roughly every ten years since 1878 the second such conference and remain the most visible comingtogether of the whole communion the lambeth conference of 1998 included what has been seen by philip jenkins and others as a watershed in global christianity the 1998 lambeth conference considered the issue of the theology of samesex attraction in relation to human sexuality at this 1998 conference for the first time in centuries the christians of developing regions especially africa asia and latin america prevailed over the bishops of more prosperous countries many from the us canada and the uk who supported a redefinition of anglican doctrine seen in this light 1998 is a date that marked the shift from a westdominated christianity to one wherein the growing churches of the twothirds world are predominant controversies one effect of the anglican communions dispersed authority has been the conflicts arising over divergent practices and doctrines in parts of the communion disputes that had been confined to the church of england could be dealt with legislatively in that realm but as the communion spread out into new nations and disparate cultures such controversies multiplied and intensified these controversies have generally been of two types liturgical and social anglocatholicism the first such controversy of note concerned that of the growing influence of the catholic revival manifested in the tractarian and socalled ritualist controversies of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries this controversy produced the free church of england and in the united states and canada the reformed episcopal church social changes later rapid social change and the dissipation of british cultural hegemony over its former colonies contributed to disputes over the role of women the parameters of marriage and divorce and the practices of contraception and abortion in the late 1970s the continuing anglican movement produced a number of new church bodies in opposition to womens ordination prayer book changes and the new understandings concerning marriage samesex unions and lgbt clergy more recently disagreements over homosexuality have strained the unity of the communion as well as its relationships with other christian denominations leading to another round of withdrawals from the anglican communion some churches were founded outside the anglican communion in the late 20th and early 21st centuries largely in opposition to the ordination of openly homosexual bishops and other clergy and are usually referred to as belonging to the anglican realignment movement or else as orthodox anglicans these disagreements were especially noted when the episcopal church us consecrated an openly gay bishop in a samesex relationship gene robinson in 2003 which led some episcopalians to defect and found the anglican church in north america acna then the debate reignited when the church of england agreed to allow clergy to enter into samesex civil partnerships as long as they remained celibate in 2005 the church of nigeria opposed the episcopal churchs decision as well as the church of englands approval for celibate civil partnerships the more liberal provinces that are open to changing church doctrine on marriage in order to allow for samesex unions include brazil canada new zealand scotland south india south africa the us and wales in 2023 the church of england announced that it will authorise prayers of thanksgiving dedication and for gods blessing for samesex couples the church of england also permits clergy to enter into samesex civil partnerships the church of ireland has no official position on civil unions and one senior cleric has entered into a samesex civil partnership the church of ireland recognised that it will treat civil partners the same as spouses the anglican church of australia does not have an official position on homosexuality the conservative anglican churches encouraging the realignment movement are more concentrated in the global south for example the anglican church of kenya the church of nigeria and the church of uganda have opposed homosexuality gafcon a fellowship of conservative anglican churches has appointed missionary bishops in response to the disagreements with the perceived liberalisation in the anglican churches in north america and europe in 2023 ten archbishops within the anglican communion and two breakaway churches in north america and brazil from the global south fellowship of anglican churches gsfa declared a state of impaired communion with the church of england and announced that they would no longer recognise the archbishop of canterbury as the first among equals among the bishops in the anglican communion however in the same statement the ten archbishops said that they would not leave the anglican communion debates about social theology and ethics have occurred at the same time as debates on prayer book revision and the acceptable grounds for achieving full communion with nonanglican churches ecclesiology polity and ethos the anglican communion has no official legal existence nor any governing structure that might exercise authority over the member churches there is an anglican communion office in london under the aegis of the archbishop of canterbury but it serves only in a supporting and organisational role the communion is held together by a shared history expressed in its ecclesiology polity and ethos and also by participation in international consultative bodies three elements have been important in holding the communion together first the shared ecclesial structure of the component churches manifested in an episcopal polity maintained through the apostolic succession of bishops and synodical government second the principle of belief expressed in worship investing importance in approved prayer books and their rubrics and third the historical documents and the writings of early anglican divines that have influenced the ethos of the communion originally the church of england was selfcontained and relied for its unity and identity on its own history its traditional legal and episcopal structure and its status as an established church of the state as such anglicanism was from the outset a movement with an explicitly episcopal polity a characteristic that has been vital in maintaining the unity of the communion by conveying the episcopates role in manifesting visible catholicity and ecumenism early in its development following the english reformation anglicanism developed a vernacular prayer book called the book of common prayer unlike other traditions anglicanism has never been governed by a magisterium nor by appeal to one founding theologian nor by an extracredal summary of doctrine such as the westminster confession of the presbyterian churches instead anglicans have typically appealed to the book of common prayer 1662 and its offshoots as a guide to anglican theology and practise this has had the effect of inculcating in anglican identity and confession the principle of the law of praying is the law of believing protracted conflict through the 17th century with radical protestants on the one hand and roman catholics who recognised the primacy of the pope on the other resulted in an association of churches that was both deliberately vague about doctrinal principles yet bold in developing parameters of acceptable deviation these parameters were most clearly articulated in the various rubrics of the successive prayer books as well as the thirtynine articles of religion 1563 these articles have historically shaped and continue to direct the ethos of the communion an ethos reinforced by its interpretation and expansion by such influential early theologians such as richard hooker lancelot andrewes and john cosin with the expansion of the british empire and the growth of anglicanism outside great britain and ireland the communion sought to establish new vehicles of unity the first major expressions of this were the lambeth conferences of the communions bishops first convened in 1867 by charles longley the archbishop of canterbury from the beginning these were not intended to displace the autonomy of the emerging provinces of the communion but to discuss matters of practical interest and pronounce what we deem expedient in resolutions which may serve as safe guides to future action chicago lambeth quadrilateral one of the enduringly influential early resolutions of the conference was the socalled chicagolambeth quadrilateral of 1888 its intent was to provide the basis for discussions of reunion with the roman catholic and orthodox churches but it had the ancillary effect of establishing parameters of anglican identity it establishes four principles with these words instruments of communion as mentioned above the anglican communion has no international juridical organisation the archbishop of canterburys role is strictly symbolic and unifying and the communions three international bodies are consultative and collaborative their resolutions having no legal effect on the autonomous provinces of the communion taken together however the four do function as instruments of communion since all churches of the communion participate in them in order of antiquity they are the archbishop of canterbury functions as the spiritual head of the communion the archbishop is the focus of unity since no church claims membership in the communion without being in communion with him the present archbishop is justin welby the lambeth conference first held in 1867 is the oldest international consultation it is a forum for bishops of the communion to reinforce unity and collegiality through manifesting the episcopate to discuss matters of mutual concern and to pass resolutions intended to act as guideposts it is held roughly every ten years and invitation is by the archbishop of canterbury the anglican consultative council first met in 1971 was created by a 1968 lambeth conference resolution and meets usually at threeyearly intervals the council consists of representative bishops other clergy and laity chosen by the 38 provinces the body has a permanent secretariat the anglican communion office of which the archbishop of canterbury is president the primates meeting first met in 1979 is the most recent manifestation of international consultation and deliberation having been first convened by archbishop donald coggan as a forum for leisurely thought prayer and deep consultation since there is no binding authority in the anglican communion these international bodies are a vehicle for consultation and persuasion in recent times persuasion has tipped over into debates over conformity in certain areas of doctrine discipline worship and ethics the most notable example has been the objection of many provinces of the communion particularly in africa and asia to the changing acceptance of lgbtq individuals in the north american churches eg by blessing samesex unions and ordaining and consecrating samesex relationships and to the process by which changes were undertaken see anglican realignment those who objected condemned these actions as unscriptural unilateral and without the agreement of the communion prior to these steps being taken in response the american episcopal church and the anglican church of canada answered that the actions had been undertaken after lengthy scriptural and theological reflection legally in accordance with their own canons and constitutions and after extensive consultation with the provinces of the communion the primates meeting voted to request the two churches to withdraw their delegates from the 2005 meeting of the anglican consultative council canada and the united states decided to attend the meeting but without exercising their right to vote they have not been expelled or suspended since there is no mechanism in this voluntary association to suspend or expel an independent province of the communion since membership is based on a provinces communion with canterbury expulsion would require the archbishop of canterburys refusal to be in communion with the affected jurisdictions in line with the suggestion of the windsor report rowan williams the then archbishop of canterbury established a working group to examine the feasibility of an anglican covenant which would articulate the conditions for communion in some fashion organisation provinces the anglican communion consists of fortytwo autonomous provinces each with its own primate and governing structure these provinces may take the form of national churches such as in canada uganda or japan or a collection of nations such as the west indies central africa or southeast asia extraprovincial churches in addition to the fortytwo provinces there are five extraprovincial churches under the metropolitical authority of the archbishop of canterbury former provinces new provinces in formation at its autumn 2020 meeting the provincial standing committee of the church of southern africa approved a plan to form the dioceses in mozambique and angola into a separate autonomous province of the anglican communion to be named the anglican church of mozambique and angola iama the plans were also outlined to the mozambique and angola anglican association manna at its september 2020 annual general meeting the new province is portuguesespeaking and consists of twelve dioceses four in angola and eight in mozambique the twelve proposed new dioceses have been defined and named and each has a task force committee working towards its establishment as a diocese the plan received the consent of the bishops and diocesan synods of all four existing dioceses in the two nations and was submitted to the anglican consultative council in september 2020 the archbishop of canterbury announced that he had asked the bishops of the church of ceylon to begin planning for the formation of an autonomous province of ceylon so as to end his current position as metropolitan of the two dioceses in that country churches in full communion in addition to other member churches the churches of the anglican communion are in full communion with the old catholic churches of the union of utrecht and the scandinavian lutheran churches of the porvoo communion in europe the indiabased malankara mar thoma syrian and malabar independent syrian churches and the philippine independent church also known as the aglipayan church ecumenical relations historic episcopate the churches of the anglican communion have traditionally held that ordination in the historic episcopate is a core element in the validity of clerical ordinations the roman catholic church however does not recognise anglican orders see apostolicae curae some eastern orthodox churches have issued statements to the effect that anglican orders could be accepted yet have still reordained former anglican clergy other eastern orthodox churches have rejected anglican orders altogether orthodox bishop kallistos ware explains this apparent discrepancy as follows see also acts of supremacy english reformation dissolution of the monasteries ritualism in the church of england apostolicae curae affirming catholicism anglican ministry anglocatholicism british israelism church society churchs ministry among jewish people compass rose evangelical anglicanism flag of the anglican communion liberal anglocatholicism list of the largest protestant bodies reform anglican anglican use notes references citations sources further reading buchanan colin historical dictionary of anglicanism 2nd ed 2015 excerpt hebert a g the form of the church london faber and faber 1944 wild john what is the anglican communion in series the advent papers cincinnati ohio forward movement publications 196 note expresses the anglocatholic viewpoint external links anglicans online project canterbury anglican historical documents from around the world brief description and history of the anglican communion 1997 article from the anglican communion office 1867 establishments in england religious organizations established in 1867 religion in the british empire	3,615
910	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arne%20Kaijser	Arne Kaijser	arne kaijser born 1950 is a professor emeritus of history of technology at the kth royal institute of technology in stockholm and a former president of the society for the history of technology kaijser has published two books in swedish stadens ljus etableringen av de första svenska gasverken and i fädrens spår den svenska infrastrukturens historiska utveckling och framtida utmaningar and has coedited several anthologies kaijser is a member of the royal swedish academy of engineering sciences since 2007 and also a member of the editorial board of two scientific journals journal of urban technology and centaurus lately he has been occupied with the history of large technical systems references external links homepage extended homepage 1950 births living people 20thcentury swedish historians academic staff of the kth royal institute of technology members of the royal swedish academy of engineering sciences historians of science historians of technology linköping university alumni 21stcentury swedish historians	152
911	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archipelago	Archipelago	an archipelago sometimes called an island group or island chain is a chain cluster or collection of islands or sometimes a sea containing a small number of scattered islands examples of archipelagos include the indonesian archipelago the andaman and nicobar islands the lakshadweep islands the galápagos islands the japanese archipelago the philippine archipelago the maldives the balearic islands the åland islands the bahamas the aegean islands the hawaiian islands the canary islands malta the azores the canadian arctic archipelago the british isles the islands of the archipelago sea and shetland archipelagos are sometimes defined by political boundaries for example while they are geopolitically divided the san juan islands and gulf islands geologically form part of a larger gulf archipelago etymology the word archipelago is derived from the ancient greek ἄρχιarkhi chief and πέλαγος pélagos sea through the italian arcipelago in antiquity archipelago from medieval greek ἀρχιπέλαγος and latin was the proper name for the aegean sea later usage shifted to refer to the aegean islands since the sea has a large number of islands geographic types archipelagos may be found isolated in large amounts of water or neighbouring a large land mass for example scotland has more than 700 islands surrounding its mainland which form an archipelago archipelagos are often volcanic forming along island arcs generated by subduction zones or hotspots but may also be the result of erosion deposition and land elevation depending on their geological origin islands forming archipelagos can be referred to as oceanic islands continental fragments or continental islands oceanic islands oceanic islands are mainly of volcanic origin and widely separated from any adjacent continent the hawaiian islands and galapagos islands in the pacific and mascarene islands in the south indian ocean are examples continental fragments continental fragments correspond to land masses that have separated from a continental mass due to tectonic displacement the farallon islands off the coast of california are an example continental archipelagos sets of islands formed close to the coast of a continent are considered continental archipelagos when they form part of the same continental shelf when those islands are abovewater extensions of the shelf the islands of the inside passage off the coast of british columbia and the canadian arctic archipelago are examples artificial archipelagos artificial archipelagos have been created in various countries for different purposes palm islands and the world islands off dubai were or are being created for leisure and tourism purposes marker wadden in the netherlands is being built as a conservation area for birds and other wildlife superlatives the largest archipelago in the world is the archipelago sea which is part of finland there are approximately 40000 mostly uninhabited islands the largest archipelagic state in the world by area and by population is indonesia see also island arc list of landforms list of archipelagos by number of islands list of archipelagos archipelagic state list of islands aquapelago references external links 30 most incredible island archipelagos coastal and oceanic landforms oceanographical terminology	494
914	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Author	Author	in legal discourse an author is the creator of an original work whether that work is in written graphic or recorded medium thus a sculptor painter or composer is an author of their respective sculptures paintings or compositions even though in common parlance an author is often thought of as the writer of a book article play or other written work in the case of a work for hire the employer or commissioning party is considered the author of the work even if they did not write or otherwise create the work but merely instructed another individual to do so typically the first owner of a copyright is the person who created the work ie the author if more than one person created the work then a case of joint authorship takes place copyright laws differ around the world the united states copyright office for example defines copyright as a form of protection provided by the laws of the united states title 17 us code to authors of original works of authorship some works are considered to be authorless for example the monkey selfie copyright dispute in the 2010s involved photographs taken by celebes crested macaques using equipment belonging to a nature photographer the photographer asserted authorship of the photographs which the united states copyright office denied stating to qualify as a work of authorship a work must be created by a human being more recently questions have arisen as to whether images or text created by a generative artificial intelligence have an author legal significance of authorship holding the title of author over any literary dramatic musical artistic or certain other intellectual works gives rights to this person the owner of the copyright especially the exclusive right to engage in or authorize any production or distribution of their work any person or entity wishing to use intellectual property held under copyright must receive permission from the copyright holder to use this work and often will be asked to pay for the use of copyrighted material the copyrights on intellectual work expire after a certain time it enters the public domain where it can be used without limit copyright laws in many jurisdictions mostly following the lead of the united states in which the entertainment and publishing industries have very strong lobbying power have been amended repeatedly since their inception to extend the length of this fixed period where the work is exclusively controlled by the copyright holder technically someone owns their work from the time its created a notable aspect of authorship emerges with copyright in that in many jurisdictions it can be passed down to another upon ones death the person who inherits the copyright is not the author but has access to the same legal benefits intellectual property laws are complex fiction work involves trademark law likeness rights fair use rights held by the public including the right to parody or satirize and many other interacting complications authors may portion out different rights they hold to different parties at different times and for different purposes or uses such as the right to adapt a plot into a film but only with different character names because the characters have already been optioned by another company for a television series or a video game an author may also not have rights when working under contract that they would otherwise have such as when creating a work for hire eg hired to write a city tour guide by a municipal government that totally owns the copyright to the finished work or when writing material using intellectual property owned by others such as when writing a novel or screenplay that is a new installment in an already established media franchise philosophical views of the nature of authorship in literary theory critics find complications in the term author beyond what constitutes authorship in a legal setting in the wake of postmodern literature critics such as roland barthes and michel foucault have examined the role and relevance of authorship to the meaning or interpretation of a literary text barthes challenges the idea that a text can be attributed to any single author he writes in his essay death of the author 1968 that it is language which speaks not the author the words and language of a text itself determine and expose meaning for barthes and not someone possessing legal responsibility for the process of its production every line of written text is a mere reflection of references from any of a multitude of traditions or as barthes puts it the text is a tissue of quotations drawn from the innumerable centers of culture it is never original with this the perspective of the author is removed from the text and the limits formerly imposed by the idea of one authorial voice one ultimate and universal meaning are destroyed the explanation and meaning of a work does not have to be sought in the one who produced it as if it were always in the end through the more or less transparent allegory of the fiction the voice of a single person the author confiding in us the psyche culture fanaticism of an author can be disregarded when interpreting a text because the words are rich enough themselves with all of the traditions of language to expose meanings in a written work without appealing to the celebrity of an author their tastes passions vices is to barthes to allow language to speak rather than author michel foucault argues in his essay what is an author 1969 that all authors are writers but not all writers are authors he states that a private letter may have a signatoryit does not have an author for a reader to assign the title of author upon any written work is to attribute certain standards upon the text which for foucault are working in conjunction with the idea of the author function foucaults author function is the idea that an author exists only as a function of a written work a part of its structure but not necessarily part of the interpretive process the authors name indicates the status of the discourse within a society and culture and at one time was used as an anchor for interpreting a text a practice which barthes would argue is not a particularly relevant or valid endeavour expanding upon foucaults position alexander nehamas writes that foucault suggests an author is whoever can be understood to have produced a particular text as we interpret it not necessarily who penned the text it is this distinction between producing a written work and producing the interpretation or meaning in a written work that both barthes and foucault are interested in foucault warns of the risks of keeping the authors name in mind during interpretation because it could affect the value and meaning with which one handles an interpretation literary critics barthes and foucault suggest that readers should not rely on or look for the notion of one overarching voice when interpreting a written work because of the complications inherent with a writers title of author they warn of the dangers interpretations could suffer from when associating the subject of inherently meaningful words and language with the personality of one authorial voice instead readers should allow a text to be interpreted in terms of the language as author relationship with publisher selfpublishing selfpublishing is a model where the author takes full responsibility and control of arranging financing editing printing and distribution of their own work in other words the author also acts as the publisher of their work traditional publishing with commissioned publishing the publisher makes all the publication arrangements and the author covers all expenses the author of a work may receive a percentage calculated on a wholesale or a specific price or a fixed amount on each book sold publishers at times reduced the risk of this type of arrangement by agreeing only to pay this after a certain number of copies had sold in canada this practice occurred during the 1890s but was not commonplace until the 1920s established and successful authors may receive advance payments set against future royalties but this is no longer common practice most independent publishers pay royalties as a percentage of net receipts how net receipts are calculated varies from publisher to publisher under this arrangement the author does not pay anything towards the expense of publication the costs and financial risk are all carried by the publisher who will then take the greatest percentage of the receipts see compensation for more vanity publishing vanity publishers normally charge a flat fee for arranging publication offer a platform for selling and then take a percentage of the sale of every copy of a book the author receives the rest of the money made most materials published this way are for niche groups and not for large audiences vanity publishing or subsidy publishing is stigmatized in the professional world in 1983 bill henderson defined vanity publishers as people who would publish anything for which an author will pay usually at a loss for the author and a nice profit for the publisher in subsidy publishing the book sales are not the publishers main source of income but instead the fees that the authors are charged to initially produce the book are because of this the vanity publishers need not invest in making books marketable as much as other publishers need to this leads to low quality books being introduced to the market relationship with editor the relationship between the author and the editor often the authors only liaison to the publishing company is typically characterized as the site of tension for the author to reach their audience often through publication the work usually must attract the attention of the editor the idea of the author as the sole meaningmaker of necessity changes to include the influences of the editor and the publisher to engage the audience in writing as a social act there are three principal kinds of editing proofing checking the grammar and spelling looking for typographical errors story potentially an area of deep angst for both author and publisher and layout the typesetting needed to ready a work for publishing often requires minor text changes so a layout editor is employed to ensure that these do not alter the sense of the text pierre bourdieus essay the field of cultural production depicts the publishing industry as a space of literary or artistic positiontakings also called the field of struggles which is defined by the tension and movement inherent among the various positions in the field bourdieu claims that the field of positiontakings is not the product of coherenceseeking intention or objective consensus meaning that an industry characterized by positiontakings is not one of harmony and neutrality in particular for the writer their authorship in their work makes their work part of their identity and there is much at stake personally over the negotiation of authority over that identity however it is the editor who has the power to impose the dominant definition of the writer and therefore to delimit the population of those entitled to take part in the struggle to define the writer as cultural investors publishers rely on the editor position to identify a good investment in cultural capital which may grow to yield economic capital across all positions according to the studies of james curran the system of shared values among editors in britain has generated a pressure among authors to write to fit the editors expectations removing the focus from the readeraudience and putting a strain on the relationship between authors and editors and on writing as a social act even the book review by the editors has more significance than the readerships reception compensation authors rely on advance fees royalty payments adaptation of work to a screenplay and fees collected from giving speeches a standard contract for an author will usually include provision for payment in the form of an advance and royalties advance a lump sum paid before publication an advance must be earned out before royalties are payable it may be paid in two lump sums the first payment on contract signing and the second on delivery of the completed manuscript or on publication royalty payment the sum paid to authors for each copy of a book sold and is traditionally around 1012 but selfpublished authors can earn about 40 60 royalties per each book sale an authors contract may specify for example that they will earn 10 of the retail price of each book sold some contracts specify a scale of royalties payable for example where royalties start at 10 for the first 10000 sales but then increase to a higher percentage rate at higher sale thresholds usually an authors book must earn the advance before any further royalties are paid for example if an author is paid a modest advance of 2000 and their royalty rate is 10 of a book priced at 20 that is 2 per book the book will need to sell 1000 copies before any further payment will be made publishers typically withhold payment of a percentage of royalties earned against returns in some countries authors also earn income from a government scheme such as the elr educational lending right and plr public lending right schemes in australia under these schemes authors are paid a fee for the number of copies of their books in educational andor public libraries these days many authors supplement their income from book sales with public speaking engagements school visits residencies grants and teaching positions ghostwriters technical writers and textbooks writers are typically paid in a different way usually a set fee or a per word rate rather than on a percentage of sales in the year 2016 according to the us bureau of labor statistics nearly 130000 people worked in the country as authors making an average of 61240 per year see also lead author academic authorship authors editor writing distributive writing professional writing composition language auteur writer poet novelist lists of writers lists of poets list of novelists lesserknown authors references writing occupations literary criticism	2,358
915	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrey%20Markov	Andrey Markov	andrey andreyevich markov 14 june 1856 20 july 1922 was a russian mathematician best known for his work on stochastic processes a primary subject of his research later became known as the markov chain he was also a strong close to masterlevel chess player markov and his younger brother vladimir andreevich markov 18711897 proved the markov brothers inequality his son another andrey andreyevich markov 19031979 was also a notable mathematician making contributions to constructive mathematics and recursive function theory biography andrey markov was born on 14 june 1856 in russia he attended the st petersburg grammar school where some teachers saw him as a rebellious student in his academics he performed poorly in most subjects other than mathematics later in life he attended saint petersburg imperial university now saint petersburg state university among his teachers were yulian sokhotski differential calculus higher algebra konstantin posse analytic geometry yegor zolotarev integral calculus pafnuty chebyshev number theory and probability theory aleksandr korkin ordinary and partial differential equations mikhail okatov mechanism theory osip somov mechanics and nikolai budajev descriptive and higher geometry he completed his studies at the university and was later asked if he would like to stay and have a career as a mathematician he later taught at high schools and continued his own mathematical studies in this time he found a practical use for his mathematical skills he figured out that he could use chains to model the alliteration of vowels and consonants in russian literature he also contributed to many other mathematical aspects in his time he died at age 66 on 20 july 1922 timeline in 1877 markov was awarded a gold medal for his outstanding solution of the problem about integration of differential equations by continued fractions with an application to the equation during the following year he passed the candidates examinations and he remained at the university to prepare for a lecturers position in april 1880 markov defended his masters thesis on the binary square forms with positive determinant which was directed by aleksandr korkin and yegor zolotarev four years later in 1884 he defended his doctoral thesis titled on certain applications of the algebraic continuous fractions his pedagogical work began after the defense of his masters thesis in autumn 1880 as a privatdozent he lectured on differential and integral calculus later he lectured alternately on introduction to analysis probability theory succeeding chebyshev who had left the university in 1882 and the calculus of differences from 1895 through 1905 he also lectured in differential calculus one year after the defense of his doctoral thesis markov was appointed extraordinary professor 1886 and in the same year he was elected adjunct to the academy of sciences in 1890 after the death of viktor bunyakovsky markov became an extraordinary member of the academy his promotion to an ordinary professor of st petersburg university followed in the fall of 1894 in 1896 markov was elected an ordinary member of the academy as the successor of chebyshev in 1905 he was appointed merited professor and was granted the right to retire which he did immediately until 1910 however he continued to lecture in the calculus of differences in connection with student riots in 1908 professors and lecturers of st petersburg university were ordered to monitor their students markov refused to accept this decree and he wrote an explanation in which he declined to be an agent of the governance markov was removed from further teaching duties at st petersburg university and hence he decided to retire from the university markov was an atheist in 1912 he responded to leo tolstoys excommunication from the russian orthodox church by requesting his own excommunication the church complied with his request in 1913 the council of st petersburg elected nine scientists honorary members of the university markov was among them but his election was not affirmed by the minister of education the affirmation only occurred four years later after the february revolution in 1917 markov then resumed his teaching activities and lectured on probability theory and the calculus of differences until his death in 1922 see also list of things named after andrey markov chebyshevmarkovstieltjes inequalities gaussmarkov theorem gaussmarkov process hidden markov model markov blanket markov chain markov decision process markovs inequality markov brothers inequality markov information source markov network markov number markov property markov process stochastic matrix also known as markov matrix subjunctive possibility notes references further reading а а марков распространение закона больших чисел на величины зависящие друг от друга известия физикоматематического общества при казанском университете 2я серия том 15 с 135156 1906 a a markov extension of the limit theorems of probability theory to a sum of variables connected in a chain reprinted in appendix b of r howard dynamic probabilistic systems volume 1 markov chains john wiley and sons 1971 external links markov andrei andreyevich markov andrei andreyevich 19thcentury mathematicians from the russian empire 20thcentury russian mathematicians russian atheists former russian orthodox christians probability theorists saint petersburg state university alumni full members of the saint petersburg academy of sciences full members of the russian academy of sciences 19171925 people from ryazan russian statisticians russian scientists	853
921	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angst	Angst	angst is fear or anxiety anguish is its latinate equivalent and the words anxious and anxiety are of similar origin the dictionary definition for angst is a feeling of anxiety apprehension or insecurity etymology the word angst was introduced into english from the danish norwegian and dutch word and the german word it is attested since the 19th century in english translations of the works of søren kierkegaard and sigmund freud it is used in english to describe an intense feeling of apprehension anxiety or inner turmoil in other languages with words from the latin for fear or panic the derived words differ in meaning for example as in the french and the word angst has existed in german since the 8th century from the protoindoeuropean root restraint from which old high german developed it is precognate with the latin tensity tightness and choking clogging compare to the ancient greek strangle it entered english in the 19th century as a technical term used in psychiatry though earlier cognates existed such as ange existentialism in existentialist philosophy the term angst carries a specific conceptual meaning the use of the term was first attributed to danish philosopher søren kierkegaard 18131855 in the concept of anxiety also known as the concept of dread kierkegaard used the word angest in common danish angst meaning dread or anxiety to describe a profound and deepseated condition where nonhuman animals are guided solely by instinct said kierkegaard human beings enjoy a freedom of choice that we find both appealing and terrifying it is the anxiety of understanding of being free when considering undefined possibilities of ones life and the immense responsibility of having the power of choice over them kierkegaards concept of angst reappeared in the works of existentialist philosophers who followed such as friedrich nietzsche jeanpaul sartre and martin heidegger each of whom developed the idea further in individual ways while kierkegaards angst referred mainly to ambiguous feelings about moral freedom within a religious personal belief system later existentialists discussed conflicts of personal principles cultural norms and existential despair music existential angst makes its appearance in classical musical composition in the early twentieth century as a result of both philosophical developments and as a reflection of the wartorn times notable composers whose works are often linked with the concept include gustav mahler richard strauss operas and claude debussy opera ballet jeux jean sibelius especially the fourth symphony arnold schoenberg a survivor from warsaw alban berg francis poulenc opera dialogues of the carmelites dmitri shostakovich opera lady macbeth of mtsensk symphonies and chamber music béla bartók opera bluebeards castle and krzysztof penderecki especially threnody to the victims of hiroshima angst began to be discussed in reference to popular music in the mid to late 1950s amid widespread concerns over international tensions and nuclear proliferation jeff nuttalls book bomb culture 1968 traced angst in popular culture to hiroshima dread was expressed in works of folk rock such as bob dylans masters of war 1963 and a hard rains agonna fall the term often makes an appearance in reference to punk rock grunge nu metal and works of emo where expressions of melancholy existential despair or nihilism predominate see also references external links anxiety emotions existentialist concepts	538
922	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anxiety	Anxiety	anxiety is an emotion which is characterized by an unpleasant state of inner turmoil and includes feelings of dread over anticipated events anxiety is different from fear in that fear is defined as the emotional response to a real threat whereas anxiety is the anticipation of a future threat it is often accompanied by nervous behavior such as pacing back and forth somatic complaints and rumination anxiety is a feeling of uneasiness and worry usually generalized and unfocused as an overreaction to a situation that is only subjectively seen as menacing it is often accompanied by muscular tension restlessness fatigue inability to catch ones breath tightness in the abdominal region nausea and problems in concentration anxiety is closely related to fear which is a response to a real or perceived immediate threat fight or flight response anxiety involves the expectation of future threat including dread people facing anxiety may withdraw from situations which have provoked anxiety in the past the emotion of anxiety can persist beyond the developmentally appropriate timeperiods in response to specific events and thus turning into one of the multiple anxiety disorders eg generalized anxiety disorder panic disorder the difference between anxiety disorder as mental disorder and anxiety as normal emotion is that people with an anxiety disorder experience anxiety most of the days during approximately 6 months or even during shorter timeperiods in children anxiety disorders are among the most persistent mental problems and often last decades besides strong percepts of anxiety exist within other mental disorders eg obsessivecompulsive disorder posttraumatic stress disorder anxiety vs fear anxiety is distinguished from fear which is an appropriate cognitive and emotional response to a perceived threat anxiety is related to the specific behaviors of fightorflight responses defensive behavior or escape there is a false presumption that often circulates that anxiety only occurs in situations perceived as uncontrollable or unavoidable but this is not always so david barlow defines anxiety as a futureoriented mood state in which one is not ready or prepared to attempt to cope with upcoming negative events and that it is a distinction between future and present dangers which divides anxiety and fear another description of anxiety is agony dread terror or even apprehension in positive psychology anxiety is described as the mental state that results from a difficult challenge for which the subject has insufficient coping skills fear and anxiety can be differentiated into four domains 1 duration of emotional experience 2 temporal focus 3 specificity of the threat and 4 motivated direction fear is shortlived presentfocused geared towards a specific threat and facilitating escape from threat on the other hand anxiety is longacting futurefocused broadly focused towards a diffuse threat and promoting excessive caution while approaching a potential threat and interferes with constructive coping joseph e ledoux and lisa feldman barrett have both sought to separate automatic threat responses from additional associated cognitive activity within anxiety symptoms anxiety can be experienced with long drawnout daily symptoms that reduce quality of life known as chronic or generalized anxiety or it can be experienced in short spurts with sporadic stressful panic attacks known as acute anxiety symptoms of anxiety can range in number intensity and frequency depending on the person however most people do not suffer from chronic anxiety anxiety can induce several psychological pains eg depression or mental disorders and may lead to selfharm or suicide for which dedicated hotlines exist the behavioral effects of anxiety may include withdrawal from situations which have provoked anxiety or negative feelings in the past other effects may include changes in sleeping patterns changes in habits increase or decrease in food intake and increased motor tension such as foot tapping the emotional effects of anxiety may include feelings of apprehension or dread trouble concentrating feeling tense or jumpy anticipating the worst irritability restlessness watching and waiting for signs and occurrences of danger and feeling like your minds gone blank as well as nightmaresbad dreams obsessions about sensations déjà vu a trappedinyourmind feeling and feeling like everything is scary it may include a vague experience and feeling of helplessness the cognitive effects of anxiety may include thoughts about suspected dangers such as fear of dying you may fear that the chest pains are a deadly heart attack or that the shooting pains in your head are the result of a tumor or an aneurysm you feel an intense fear when you think of dying or you may think of it more often than normal or cant get it out of your mind the physiological symptoms of anxiety may include neurological as headache paresthesias fasciculations vertigo or presyncope digestive as abdominal pain nausea diarrhea indigestion dry mouth or bolus stress hormones released in an anxious state have an impact on bowel function and can manifest physical symptoms that may contribute to or exacerbate ibs respiratory as shortness of breath or sighing breathing cardiac as palpitations tachycardia or chest pain muscular as fatigue tremors or tetany cutaneous as perspiration or itchy skin urogenital as frequent urination urinary urgency dyspareunia or impotence chronic pelvic pain syndrome types there are various types of anxiety existential anxiety can occur when a person faces angst an existential crisis or nihilistic feelings people can also face mathematical anxiety somatic anxiety stage fright or test anxiety social anxiety refers to a fear of rejection and negative evaluation being judged by other people existential the philosopher søren kierkegaard in the concept of anxiety 1844 described anxiety or dread associated with the dizziness of freedom and suggested the possibility for positive resolution of anxiety through the selfconscious exercise of responsibility and choosing in art and artist 1932 the psychologist otto rank wrote that the psychological trauma of birth was the preeminent human symbol of existential anxiety and encompasses the creative persons simultaneous fear of and desire for separation individuation and differentiation the theologian paul tillich characterized existential anxiety as the state in which a being is aware of its possible nonbeing and he listed three categories for the nonbeing and resulting anxiety ontic fate and death moral guilt and condemnation and spiritual emptiness and meaninglessness according to tillich the last of these three types of existential anxiety ie spiritual anxiety is predominant in modern times while the others were predominant in earlier periods tillich argues that this anxiety can be accepted as part of the human condition or it can be resisted but with negative consequences in its pathological form spiritual anxiety may tend to drive the person toward the creation of certitude in systems of meaning which are supported by tradition and authority even though such undoubted certitude is not built on the rock of reality according to viktor frankl the author of mans search for meaning when a person is faced with extreme mortal dangers the most basic of all human wishes is to find a meaning of life to combat the trauma of nonbeing as death is near depending on the source of the threat psychoanalytic theory distinguishes the following types of anxiety realistic neurotic moral test performance and competitive test according to yerkesdodson law an optimal level of arousal is necessary to best complete a task such as an exam performance or competitive event however when the anxiety or level of arousal exceeds that optimum the result is a decline in performance test anxiety is the uneasiness apprehension or nervousness felt by students who have a fear of failing an exam students who have test anxiety may experience any of the following the association of grades with personal worth fear of embarrassment by a teacher fear of alienation from parents or friends time pressures or feeling a loss of control sweating dizziness headaches racing heartbeats nausea fidgeting uncontrollable crying or laughing and drumming on a desk are all common because test anxiety hinges on fear of negative evaluation debate exists as to whether test anxiety is itself a unique anxiety disorder or whether it is a specific type of social phobia the dsmiv classifies test anxiety as a type of social phobia research indicates that test anxiety among us highschool and college students has been rising since the late 1950s test anxiety remains a challenge for students regardless of age and has considerable physiological and psychological impacts management of test anxiety focuses on achieving relaxation and developing mechanisms to manage anxiety the routine practice of slow deviceguided breathing dgb is a major component of behavioral treatments for anxiety conditions performance and competitive performance anxiety and competitive anxiety competitive trait anxiety competitive state anxiety happen when an individuals performance is measured against others an important distinction between competitive and noncompetitive anxiety is that competitive anxiety makes people view their performance as a threat as a result they experience a drop in their ordinary ability whether physical or mental due to that perceived stress competitive anxiety is caused by a range of internal factors including high expectations outside pressure lack of experience and external factors like the location of a competition it commonly occurs in those participating in high pressure activities like sports and debates some common symptoms of competitive anxiety include muscle tension fatigue weakness sense of panic apprehensiveness and panic attacks there are 4 major theories of how anxiety affects performance drive theory inverted u theory reversal theory and the zone of optimal functioning theory drive theory believes that anxiety is positive and performance improves proportionally to the level of anxiety this theory is not well accepted the inverted u theory is based on the idea that performance peaks at a moderate stress level it is called inverted u theory because the graph that plots performance against anxiety looks like an inverted u reversal theory suggests that performance increases in relation to the individuals interpretation of their arousal levels if they believed their physical arousal level would help them their performance would increase if they didnt their performance would decrease for example athletes were shown to worry more when focusing on results and perfection rather than the effort and growth involved the zone of optimal functioning theory proposes that there is a zone where positive and negative emotions are in a balance which lead to feelings of dissociation and intense concentration optimizing the individuals performance levels stranger social and intergroup anxiety humans generally require social acceptance and thus sometimes dread the disapproval of others apprehension of being judged by others may cause anxiety in social environments anxiety during social interactions particularly between strangers is common among young people it may persist into adulthood and become social anxiety or social phobia stranger anxiety in small children is not considered a phobia in adults an excessive fear of other people is not a developmentally common stage it is called social anxiety according to cutting social phobics do not fear the crowd but the fact that they may be judged negatively social anxiety varies in degree and severity for some people it is characterized by experiencing discomfort or awkwardness during physical social contact eg embracing shaking hands etc while in other cases it can lead to a fear of interacting with unfamiliar people altogether those with this condition may restrict their lifestyles to accommodate the anxiety minimizing social interaction whenever possible social anxiety also forms a core aspect of certain personality disorders including avoidant personality disorder to the extent that a person is fearful of social encounters with unfamiliar others some people may experience anxiety particularly during interactions with outgroup members or people who share different group memberships ie by race ethnicity class gender etc depending on the nature of the antecedent relations cognitions and situational factors intergroup contact may be stressful and lead to feelings of anxiety this apprehension or fear of contact with outgroup members is often called interracial or intergroup anxiety as is the case with the more generalized forms of social anxiety intergroup anxiety has behavioral cognitive and affective effects for instance increases in schematic processing and simplified information processing can occur when anxiety is high indeed such is consistent with related work on attentional bias in implicit memory additionally recent research has found that implicit racial evaluations ie automatic prejudiced attitudes can be amplified during intergroup interaction negative experiences have been illustrated in producing not only negative expectations but also avoidant or antagonistic behavior such as hostility furthermore when compared to anxiety levels and cognitive effort eg impression management and selfpresentation in intragroup contexts levels and depletion of resources may be exacerbated in the intergroup situation trait anxiety can be either a shortterm state or a longterm personality trait trait anxiety reflects a stable tendency across the lifespan of responding with acute state anxiety in the anticipation of threatening situations whether they are actually deemed threatening or not a metaanalysis showed that a high level of neuroticism is a risk factor for development of anxiety symptoms and disorders such anxiety may be conscious or unconscious personality can also be a trait leading to anxiety and depression and their persistence through experience many find it difficult to collect themselves due to their own personal nature choice or decision anxiety induced by the need to choose between similar options is increasingly being recognized as a problem for individuals and for organizations in 2004 capgemini wrote today were all faced with greater choice more competition and less time to consider our options or seek out the right advice in a decision context unpredictability or uncertainty may trigger emotional responses in anxious individuals that systematically alter decisionmaking there are primarily two forms of this anxiety type the first form refers to a choice in which there are multiple potential outcomes with known or calculable probabilities the second form refers to the uncertainty and ambiguity related to a decision context in which there are multiple possible outcomes with unknown probabilities panic disorder panic disorder may share symptoms of stress and anxiety but it is actually very different panic disorder is an anxiety disorder that occurs without any triggers according to the us department of health and human services this disorder can be distinguished by unexpected and repeated episodes of intense fear someone with panic disorder will eventually develop constant fear of another attack and as this progresses it will begin to affect daily functioning and an individuals general quality of life it is reported by the cleveland clinic that panic disorder affects 2 to 3 percent of adult americans and can begin around the time of the teenage and early adult years some symptoms include difficulty breathing chest pain dizziness trembling or shaking feeling faint nausea fear that you are losing control or are about to die even though they have these symptoms during an attack the main symptom is the persistent fear of having future panic attacks anxiety disorders anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by exaggerated feelings of anxiety and fear responses anxiety is a worry about future events and fear is a reaction to current events these feelings may cause physical symptoms such as a fast heart rate and shakiness there are a number of anxiety disorders including generalized anxiety disorder specific phobia social anxiety disorder separation anxiety disorder agoraphobia panic disorder and selective mutism the disorder differs by what results in the symptoms people often have more than one anxiety disorder anxiety disorders are caused by a complex combination of genetic and environmental factors to be diagnosed symptoms typically need to be present for at least six months be more than would be expected for the situation and decrease a persons ability to function in their daily lives other problems that may result in similar symptoms include hyperthyroidism heart disease caffeine alcohol or cannabis use and withdrawal from certain drugs among others without treatment anxiety disorders tend to remain treatment may include lifestyle changes counselling and medications counselling is typically with a type of cognitive behavioral therapy medications such as antidepressants or beta blockers may improve symptoms a 2023 review found that regular physical activity is effective for reducing anxiety about 12 of people are affected by an anxiety disorder in a given year and between 1230 are affected at some point in their life they occur about twice as often in women than they do in men and generally begin before the age of 25 the most common are specific phobia which affects nearly 12 and social anxiety disorder which affects 10 at some point in their life they affect those between the ages of 15 and 35 the most and become less common after the age of 55 rates appear to be higher in the united states and europe short and longterm anxiety anxiety can be either a shortterm state or a longterm trait whereas trait anxiety represents worrying about future events anxiety disorders are a group of mental disorders characterized by feelings of anxiety and fears four ways to be anxious in his book anxious the modern mind in the age of anxiety joseph ledoux examines four experiences of anxiety through a brainbased lens in the presence of an existing or imminent external threat you worry about the event and its implications for your physical andor psychological wellbeing when a threat signal occurs it signifies either that danger is present or near in space and time or that it might be coming in the future nonconscious threats processing by the brain activates defensive survival circuits resulting in changes in information processing in the brain controlled in part by increases in arousal and behavioral and physiological responses in the body that then produce signals that feed back to the brain and complement the physiological changes there intensifying them and extending their duration when you notice body sensations you worry about what they might mean for your physical andor psychological wellbeing the trigger stimulus does not have to be an external stimulus but can be an internal one as some people are particularly sensitive to body signals thoughts and memories may lead to you to worry about your physical andor psychological wellbeing we do not need to be in the presence of an external or internal stimulus to be anxious an episodic memory of a past trauma or of a panic attack in the past is sufficient to activate the defence circuits thoughts and memories may result in existential dread such as worry about leading a meaningful life or the eventuality of death examples are contemplations of whether ones life has been meaningful the inevitability of death or the difficulty of making decisions that have a moral value these do not necessarily activate defensive systems they are more or less pure forms of cognitive anxiety comorbidity anxiety disorders often occur with other mental health disorders particularly major depressive disorder bipolar disorder eating disorders or certain personality disorders it also commonly occurs with personality traits such as neuroticism this observed cooccurrence is partly due to genetic and environmental influences shared between these traits and anxiety it is common for those with obsessivecompulsive disorder to experience anxiety anxiety is also commonly found in those who experience panic disorders phobic anxiety disorders severe stress dissociative disorders somatoform disorders and some neurotic disorders anxiety has also been linked to the experience of intrusive thoughts studies have revealed that individuals who experience high levels of anxiety also known as clinical anxiety are highly vulnerable to the experience of intense intrusive thoughts or psychological disorders that are characterised by intrusive thoughts risk factors anxiety disorders are partly genetic with twin studies suggesting 3040 genetic influence on individual differences in anxiety environmental factors are also important twin studies show that individualspecific environments have a large influence on anxiety whereas shared environmental influences environments that affect twins in the same way operate during childhood but decline through adolescence specific measured environments that have been associated with anxiety include child abuse family history of mental health disorders and poverty anxiety is also associated with drug use including alcohol caffeine and benzodiazepines which are often prescribed to treat anxiety neuroanatomy neural circuitry involving the amygdala which regulates emotions like anxiety and fear stimulating the hpa axis and sympathetic nervous system and hippocampus which is implicated in emotional memory along with the amygdala is thought to underlie anxiety people who have anxiety tend to show high activity in response to emotional stimuli in the amygdala some writers believe that excessive anxiety can lead to an overpotentiation of the limbic system which includes the amygdala and nucleus accumbens giving increased future anxiety but this does not appear to have been proven research upon adolescents who as infants had been highly apprehensive vigilant and fearful finds that their nucleus accumbens is more sensitive than that in other people when deciding to make an action that determined whether they received a reward this suggests a link between circuits responsible for fear and also reward in anxious people as researchers note a sense of responsibility or selfagency in a context of uncertainty probabilistic outcomes drives the neural system underlying appetitive motivation ie nucleus accumbens more strongly in temperamentally inhibited than noninhibited adolescents the gutbrain axis the microbes of the gut can connect with the brain to affect anxiety there are various pathways along which this communication can take place one is through the major neurotransmitters the gut microbes such as bifidobacterium and bacillus produce the neurotransmitters gaba and dopamine respectively the neurotransmitters signal to the nervous system of the gastrointestinal tract and those signals will be carried to the brain through the vagus nerve or the spinal system this is demonstrated by the fact that altering the microbiome has shown anxiety and depressionreducing effects in mice but not in subjects without vagus nerves another key pathway is the hpa axis as mentioned above the microbes can control the levels of cytokines in the body and altering cytokine levels creates direct effects on areas of the brain such as the hypothalamus the area that triggers hpa axis activity the hpa axis regulates production of cortisol a hormone that takes part in the bodys stress response when hpa activity spikes cortisol levels increase processing and reducing anxiety in stressful situations these pathways as well as the specific effects of individual taxa of microbes are not yet completely clear but the communication between the gut microbiome and the brain is undeniable as is the ability of these pathways to alter anxiety levels with this communication comes the potential to treat prebiotics and probiotics have been shown to reduce anxiety for example experiments in which mice were given fructo and galactooligosaccharide prebiotics and lactobacillus probiotics have both demonstrated a capability to reduce anxiety in humans results are not as concrete but promising genetics genetics and family history eg parental anxiety may put an individual at increased risk of an anxiety disorder but generally external stimuli will trigger its onset or exacerbation estimates of genetic influence on anxiety based on studies of twins range from 25 to 40 depending on the specific type and agegroup under study for example genetic differences account for about 43 of variance in panic disorder and 28 in generalized anxiety disorder longitudinal twin studies have shown the moderate stability of anxiety from childhood through to adulthood is mainly influenced by stability in genetic influence when investigating how anxiety is passed on from parents to children it is important to account for sharing of genes as well as environments for example using the intergenerational childrenoftwins design many studies in the past used a candidate gene approach to test whether single genes were associated with anxiety these investigations were based on hypotheses about how certain known genes influence neurotransmitters such as serotonin and norepinephrine and hormones such as cortisol that are implicated in anxiety none of these findings are well replicated with the possible exception of tmem132d comt and maoa the epigenetic signature of bdnf a gene that codes for a protein called brain derived neurotrophic factor that is found in the brain has also been associated with anxiety and specific patterns of neural activity and a receptor gene for bdnf called ntrk2 was associated with anxiety in a large genomewide investigation the reason that most candidate gene findings have not replicated is that anxiety is a complex trait that is influenced by many genomic variants each of which has a small effect on its own increasingly studies of anxiety are using a hypothesisfree approach to look for parts of the genome that are implicated in anxiety using big enough samples to find associations with variants that have small effects the largest explorations of the common genetic architecture of anxiety have been facilitated by the uk biobank the angst consortium and the crc fear anxiety and anxiety disorders epigenetics medical conditions many medical conditions can cause anxiety this includes conditions that affect the ability to breathe like copd and asthma and the difficulty in breathing that often occurs near death conditions that cause abdominal pain or chest pain can cause anxiety and may in some cases be a somatization of anxiety the same is true for some sexual dysfunctions conditions that affect the face or the skin can cause social anxiety especially among adolescents and developmental disabilities often lead to social anxiety for children as well lifethreatening conditions like cancer also cause anxiety furthermore certain organic diseases may present with anxiety or symptoms that mimic anxiety these disorders include certain endocrine diseases hypo and hyperthyroidism hyperprolactinemia metabolic disorders diabetes deficiency states low levels of vitamin d b2 b12 folic acid gastrointestinal diseases celiac disease nonceliac gluten sensitivity inflammatory bowel disease heart diseases blood diseases anemia cerebral vascular accidents transient ischemic attack stroke and brain degenerative diseases parkinsons disease dementia multiple sclerosis huntingtons disease among others substanceinduced several drugs can cause or worsen anxiety whether in intoxication withdrawal or as side effect these include alcohol tobacco sedatives including prescription benzodiazepines opioids including prescription pain killers and illicit drugs like heroin stimulants such as caffeine cocaine and amphetamines hallucinogens and inhalants while many often report selfmedicating anxiety with these substances improvements in anxiety from drugs are usually shortlived with worsening of anxiety in the long term sometimes with acute anxiety as soon as the drug effects wear off and tend to be exaggerated acute exposure to toxic levels of benzene may cause euphoria anxiety and irritability lasting up to 2 weeks after the exposure psychological poor coping skills eg rigidityinflexible problem solving denial avoidance impulsivity extreme selfexpectation negative thoughts affective instability and inability to focus on problems are associated with anxiety anxiety is also linked and perpetuated by the persons own pessimistic outcome expectancy and how they cope with feedback negativity temperament eg neuroticism and attitudes eg pessimism have been found to be risk factors for anxiety cognitive distortions such as overgeneralizing catastrophizing mind reading emotional reasoning binocular trick and mental filter can result in anxiety for example an overgeneralized belief that something bad always happens may lead someone to have excessive fears of even minimally risky situations and to avoid benign social situations due to anticipatory anxiety of embarrassment in addition those who have high anxiety can also create future stressful life events together these findings suggest that anxious thoughts can lead to anticipatory anxiety as well as stressful events which in turn cause more anxiety such unhealthy thoughts can be targets for successful treatment with cognitive therapy psychodynamic theory posits that anxiety is often the result of opposing unconscious wishes or fears that manifest via maladaptive defense mechanisms such as suppression repression anticipation regression somatization passive aggression dissociation that develop to adapt to problems with early objects eg caregivers and empathic failures in childhood for example persistent parental discouragement of anger may result in repressionsuppression of angry feelings which manifests as gastrointestinal distress somatization when provoked by another while the anger remains unconscious and outside the individuals awareness such conflicts can be targets for successful treatment with psychodynamic therapy while psychodynamic therapy tends to explore the underlying roots of anxiety cognitive behavioral therapy has also been shown to be a successful treatment for anxiety by altering irrational thoughts and unwanted behaviors evolutionary psychology an evolutionary psychology explanation is that increased anxiety serves the purpose of increased vigilance regarding potential threats in the environment as well as increased tendency to take proactive actions regarding such possible threats this may cause false positive reactions but an individual with anxiety may also avoid real threats this may explain why anxious people are less likely to die due to accidents there is ample empirical evidence that anxiety can have adaptive value within a school timid fish are more likely than bold fish to survive a predator when people are confronted with unpleasant and potentially harmful stimuli such as foul odors or tastes petscans show increased blood flow in the amygdala in these studies the participants also reported moderate anxiety this might indicate that anxiety is a protective mechanism designed to prevent the organism from engaging in potentially harmful behaviors social social risk factors for anxiety include a history of trauma eg physical sexual or emotional abuse or assault bullying early life experiences and parenting factors eg rejection lack of warmth high hostility harsh discipline high parental negative affect anxious childrearing modelling of dysfunctional and drugabusing behaviour discouragement of emotions poor socialization poor attachment and child abuse and neglect cultural factors eg stoic familiescultures persecuted minorities including those with disabilities and socioeconomics eg uneducated unemployed impoverished although developed countries have higher rates of anxiety disorders than developing countries a 2019 comprehensive systematic review of over 50 studies showed that food insecurity in the united states is strongly associated with depression anxiety and sleep disorders foodinsecure individuals had an almost 3 fold risk increase of testing positive for anxiety when compared to foodsecure individuals gender socialization contextual factors that are thought to contribute to anxiety include gender socialization and learning experiences in particular learning mastery the degree to which people perceive their lives to be under their own control and instrumentality which includes such traits as selfconfidence selfefficacy independence and competitiveness fully mediate the relation between gender and anxiety that is though gender differences in anxiety exist with higher levels of anxiety in women compared to men gender socialization and learning mastery explain these gender differences treatment the first step in the management of a person with anxiety symptoms involves evaluating the possible presence of an underlying medical cause the recognition of which is essential in order to decide the correct treatment anxiety symptoms may mask an organic disease or appear associated with or as a result of a medical disorder cognitive behavioral therapy cbt is effective for anxiety disorders and is a first line treatment cbt appears to be equally effective when carried out via the internet while evidence for mental health apps is promising it is preliminary psychopharmacological treatment can be used in parallel to cbt or can be used alone as a general rule most anxiety disorders respond well to firstline agents such drugs also used as antidepressants are the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors and serotoninnorepinephrine reuptake inhibitors that work by blocking the reuptake of specific neurotransmitters and resulting in the increase in availability of these neurotransmitters additionally benzodiazepines are often prescribed to individuals with anxiety disorder benzodiazepines produce an anxiolytic response by modulating gaba and increasing its receptor binding a third common treatment involves a category of drug known as serotonin agonists this category of drug works by initiating a physiological response at 5ht1a receptor by increasing the action of serotonin at this receptor other treatment options include pregabalin tricyclic antidepressants and moclobemide among others anxiety is considered to be a serious psychiatric illness that has an unknown true pervasiveness due to affected individuals not asking for proper treatment or aid and due to professionals missing the diagnosis prevention the above risk factors give natural avenues for prevention a 2017 review found that psychological or educational interventions have a small yet statistically significant benefit for the prevention of anxiety in varied population types pathophysiology anxiety disorder appears to be a genetically inherited neurochemical dysfunction that may involve autonomic imbalance decreased gabaergic tone allelic polymorphism of the catecholomethyltransferase comt gene increased adenosine receptor function increased cortisol in the central nervous system cns the major mediators of the symptoms of anxiety disorders appear to be norepinephrine serotonin dopamine and gammaaminobutyric acid gaba other neurotransmitters and peptides such as corticotropinreleasing factor may be involved peripherally the autonomic nervous system especially the sympathetic nervous system mediates many of the symptoms increased flow in the right parahippocampal region and reduced serotonin type 1a receptor binding in the anterior and posterior cingulate and raphe of patients are the diagnostic factors for prevalence of anxiety disorder the amygdala is central to the processing of fear and anxiety and its function may be disrupted in anxiety disorders anxiety processing in the basolateral amygdala has been implicated with expansion of dendritic arborization of the amygdaloid neurons sk2 potassium channels mediate inhibitory influence on action potentials and reduce arborization see also list of people with an anxiety disorder references external links emotions	5,492
924	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.%20A.%20Milne	A. A. Milne	alan alexander milne 18 january 1882 31 january 1956 was an english writer best known for his books about the teddy bear winniethepooh as well as for childrens poetry milne was primarily a playwright before the huge success of winniethepooh overshadowed all his previous work milne served in both world wars as a lieutenant in the royal warwickshire regiment in the first world war and as a captain in the home guard in the second world war milne was the father of bookseller christopher robin milne upon whom the character christopher robin is based it was during a visit to london zoo where christopher became enamoured with the tame and amiable bear winnipeg that milne was inspired to write the story of winniethepooh for his son milne bequeathed the original manuscripts of the winniethepooh stories to the wren library at trinity college cambridge his alma mater early life and military career alan alexander milne was born in kilburn london to john vine milne who was born in jamaica and sarah marie milne née heginbotham on 18 january 1882 he grew up at henley house school 67 mortimer road now crescent kilburn a small independent school run by his father one of his teachers was h g wells who taught there in 188990 milne attended westminster school and trinity college cambridge where he studied on a mathematics scholarship graduating with a ba in mathematics in 1903 he edited and wrote for granta a student magazine he collaborated with his brother kenneth and their articles appeared over the initials akm milnes work came to the attention of the leading british humour magazine punch where milne was to become a contributor and later an assistant editor considered a talented cricket fielder milne played for two amateur teams that were largely composed of british writers the allahakbarries and the authors xi his teammates included fellow writers j m barrie arthur conan doyle and p g wodehouse milne joined the british army in world war i and served as an officer in the royal warwickshire regiment he was commissioned into the 4th battalion royal warwickshire regiment on 1 february 1915 as a second lieutenant on probation his commission was confirmed on 20 december 1915 he served on the somme as a signals officer from julynovember 1916 but caught trench fever and was invalided back to england having recuperated he worked as a signals instructor before being recruited into military intelligence to write propaganda articles for mi7 b between 1917 and 1918 he was discharged on 14 february 1919 and settled in mallord street chelsea he relinquished his commission on 19 february 1920 retaining the rank of lieutenant after the war he wrote a denunciation of war titled peace with honour 1934 which he retracted somewhat with 1940s war with honour during world war ii milne was one of the most prominent critics of fellow english writer and authors xi cricket teammate p g wodehouse who was captured at his country home in france by the nazis and imprisoned for a year wodehouse made radio broadcasts about his internment which were broadcast from berlin although the lighthearted broadcasts made fun of the germans milne accused wodehouse of committing an act of near treason by cooperating with his countrys enemy wodehouse got some revenge on his former friend eg in the mating season by creating fatuous parodies of the christopher robin poems in some of his later stories and claiming that milne was probably jealous of all other writers but i loved his stuff milne married dorothy daphne de sélincourt 18901971 in 1913 and their son christopher robin milne was born in 1920 in 1925 milne bought a country home cotchford farm in hartfield east sussex during world war ii milne was a captain in the british home guard in hartfield forest row insisting on being plain mr milne to the members of his platoon he retired to the farm after a stroke and brain surgery in 1952 left him an invalid and by august 1953 he seemed very old and disenchanted milne died in january 1956 aged 74 literary career 1903 to 1925 after graduating from cambridge university in 1903 a a milne contributed humorous verse and whimsical essays to punch joining the staff in 1906 and becoming an assistant editor during this period he published 18 plays and three novels including the murder mystery the red house mystery 1922 his son was born in august 1920 and in 1924 milne produced a collection of childrens poems when we were very young which were illustrated by punch staff cartoonist e h shepard a collection of short stories for children a gallery of children and other stories that became part of the winniethepooh books were first published in 1925 milne was an early screenwriter for the nascent british film industry writing four stories filmed in 1920 for the company minerva films founded in 1920 by the actor leslie howard and his friend and story editor adrian brunel these were the bump starring aubrey smith twice two five pound reward and bookworms some of these films survive in the archives of the british film institute milne had met howard when the actor starred in milnes play mr pim passes by in london looking back on this period in 1926 milne observed that when he told his agent that he was going to write a detective story he was told that what the country wanted from a punch humorist was a humorous story when two years later he said he was writing nursery rhymes his agent and publisher were convinced he should write another detective story and after another two years he was being told that writing a detective story would be in the worst of taste given the demand for childrens books he concluded that the only excuse which i have yet discovered for writing anything is that i want to write it and i should be as proud to be delivered of a telephone directory con amore as i should be ashamed to create a blank verse tragedy at the bidding of others 1926 to 1928 milne is most famous for his two pooh books about a boy named christopher robin after his son christopher robin milne 19201996 and various characters inspired by his sons stuffed animals most notably the bear named winniethepooh christopher robin milnes stuffed bear originally named edward was renamed winnie after a canadian black bear named winnie after winnipeg which was used as a military mascot in world war i and left to london zoo during the war the pooh comes from a swan the young milne named pooh e h shepard illustrated the original pooh books using his own sons teddy growler a magnificent bear as the model the rest of christopher robin milnes toys piglet eeyore kanga roo and tigger were incorporated into a a milnes stories and two more characters rabbit and owl were created by milnes imagination christopher robin milnes own toys are now on display in new york where 750000 people visit them every year the fictional hundred acre wood of the pooh stories derives from five hundred acre wood in ashdown forest in east sussex south east england where the pooh stories were set milne lived on the northern edge of the forest at cotchford farm and took his son walking there e h shepard drew on the landscapes of ashdown forest as inspiration for many of the illustrations he provided for the pooh books the adult christopher robin commented poohs forest and ashdown forest are identical popular tourist locations at ashdown forest include galleons lap the enchanted place the heffalump trap and lone pine eeyores sad and gloomy place and the wooden pooh bridge where pooh and piglet invented poohsticks not yet known as pooh he made his first appearance in a poem teddy bear published in punch magazine in february 1924 and republished that year in when we were very young pooh first appeared in the london evening news on christmas eve 1925 in a story called the wrong sort of bees winniethepooh was published in 1926 followed by the house at pooh corner in 1928 a second collection of nursery rhymes now we are six was published in 1927 all four books were illustrated by e h shepard milne also published four plays in this period he also gallantly stepped forward to contribute a quarter of the costs of dramatising p g wodehouses a damsel in distress the world of pooh won the lewis carroll shelf award in 1958 1929 onward the success of his childrens books was to become a source of considerable annoyance to milne whose selfavowed aim was to write whatever he pleased and who had until then found a ready audience for each change of direction he had freed prewar punch from its ponderous facetiousness he had made a considerable reputation as a playwright like his idol j m barrie on both sides of the atlantic he had produced a witty piece of detective writing in the red house mystery although this was severely criticised by raymond chandler for the implausibility of its plot in his essay the simple art of murder in the eponymous collection that appeared in 1950 but once milne had in his own words said goodbye to all that in 70000 words the approximate length of his four principal childrens books he had no intention of producing any reworkings lacking in originality given that one of the sources of inspiration his son was growing older another reason milne stopped writing childrens books and especially about winniethepooh was that he felt amazement and disgust over the immense fame his son was exposed to and said that i feel that the legal christopher robin has already had more publicity than i want for him i do not want cr milne to ever wish that his name were charles robert in his literary home punch where the when we were very young verses had first appeared methuen continued to publish whatever milne wrote including the long poem the norman church and an assembly of articles entitled year in year out which milne likened to a benefit night for the author in 1930 milne adapted kenneth grahames novel the wind in the willows for the stage as toad of toad hall the title was an implicit admission that such chapters as chapter 7 the piper at the gates of dawn could not survive translation to the theatre a special introduction written by milne is included in some editions of grahames novel milne and his wife became estranged from their son who came to resent what he saw as his fathers exploitation of his childhood and came to hate the books that had thrust him into the public eye christophers marriage to his first cousin lesley de sélincourt distanced him still further from his parents lesleys father and christophers mother had not spoken to each other for 30 years death and legacy commemoration a a milne died at his home in hartfield sussex on 31 january 1956 nearly two weeks after his 74th birthday a memorial service took place on 10 february at all hallowsbythetower church in london the rights to a a milnes pooh books were left to four beneficiaries his family the royal literary fund westminster school and the garrick club after milnes death in 1956 thirteen days after his 74th birthday his widow sold her rights to the pooh characters to stephen slesinger whose widow sold the rights after slesingers death to the walt disney company which has made many pooh cartoon movies a disney channel television show as well as poohrelated merchandise in 2001 the other beneficiaries sold their interest in the estate to the disney corporation for 350m previously disney had been paying twiceyearly royalties to these beneficiaries the estate of e h shepard also received a sum in the deal the uk copyright on the text of the original winnie the pooh books expires on 1 january 2027 at the beginning of the year after the 70th anniversary of the authors death pma70 and has already expired in those countries with a pma50 rule this applies to all of milnes works except those first published posthumously the illustrations in the pooh books will remain under copyright until the same amount of time has passed after the illustrators death in the uk this will be on 1 january 2047 in the us copyright will not expire until 95 years after publication for each of milnes books first published before 1978 but this includes the illustrations in 2008 a collection of original illustrations featuring winniethepooh and his animal friends sold for more than 12 million at auction in sothebys london forbes magazine ranked winnie the pooh the most valuable fictional character in 2002 winnie the pooh merchandising products alone had annual sales of more than 59 billion in 2005 winnie the pooh generated 6 billion a figure surpassed only by mickey mouse a memorial plaque in ashdown forest unveiled by christopher robin in 1979 commemorates the work of a a milne and shepard in creating the world of pooh the inscription states they captured the magic of ashdown forest and gave it to the world milne once wrote of ashdown forest in that enchanted place on the top of the forest a little boy and his bear will always be playing in 2003 winniethepooh was ranked number 7 on the bbcs the big read poll which determined the uks bestloved novels in 2006 winniethepooh received a star on the hollywood walk of fame marking the 80th birthday of milnes creation marking the 90th anniversary of milnes creation of the character and the 90th birthday of queen elizabeth ii winniethepooh meets the queen 2016 sees pooh meet the queen at buckingham palace the illustrated and audio adventure is narrated by the actor jim broadbent also in 2016 a new character a penguin was unveiled in the best bear in all the world which was inspired by a longlost photograph of milne and his son christopher with a toy penguin an exhibition entitled winniethepooh exploring a classic appeared at the victoria and albert museum in london from 9 december 2017 to 8 april 2018 several of milnes childrens poems were set to music by the composer harold frasersimson his poems have been parodied many times including with the books when we were rather older and now we are sixty the 1963 film the kings breakfast was based on milnes poem of the same name milne has been portrayed in television and film domhnall gleeson plays him in goodbye christopher robin a 2017 biographical drama film in the 2018 fantasy film christopher robin an extension of the disney winnie the pooh franchise tristan sturrock plays milne and filming took place at ashdown forest an elementary school in houston texas operated by the houston independent school district hisd is named after milne the school a a milne elementary school in brays oaks opened in 1991 archive the original manuscripts for winniethepooh and the house at pooh corner are archived at trinity college library cambridge the bulk of a a milnes papers are housed at the harry ransom center at the university of texas at austin the collection established at the center in 1964 consists of manuscript drafts and fragments for over 150 of milnes works as well as correspondence legal documents genealogical records and some personal effects the library division holds several books formerly belonging to milne and his wife dorothy the center also has small collections of correspondence from christopher robin milne and milnes frequent illustrator e h shepard religious views milne did not speak out much on the subject of religion although he used religious terms to explain his decision while remaining a pacifist to join the british home guard he wrote in fighting hitler we are truly fighting the devil the antichrist hitler was a crusader against god his best known comment on the subject was recalled on his death he wrote in the poem explained he also wrote in the poem vespers works novels lovers in london 1905 some consider this more of a short story collection milne did not like it and considered the days play as his first book once on a time 1917 mr pim 1921 a novelisation of his 1919 play mr pim passes by the red house mystery 1922 serialised london daily news serialised daily from 3 to 28 august 1921 two people 1931 inside jacket claims this is milnes first attempt at a novel four days wonder 1933 chloe marr 1946 nonfiction peace with honour 1934 its too late now the autobiography of a writer 1939 war with honour 1940 war aims unlimited 1941 year in year out 1952 illustrated by e h shepard punch articles the days play 1910 the holiday round 1912 once a week 1914 the sunny side 1921 those were the days 1929 the four volumes above compiled newspaper articles and book introductions the chronicles of clovis by saki 1911 introduction to not that it matters 1919 if i may 1920 by way of introduction 1929 women and children first john bull 10 november 1934 it depends on the book 1943 in september issue of red cross newspaper the prisoner of war story collections for children a gallery of children 1925 winniethepooh 1926 illustrated by ernest h shepard the house at pooh corner 1928 illustrated by e h shepard short stories poetry collections for children when we were very young 1924 illustrated by e h shepard now we are six 1927 illustrated by e h shepard story collections the secret and other stories 1929 the birthday party 1948 a table near the band 1950 poetry when we were very young 1924 illustrated by e h shepard for the luncheon interval 1925 poems from punch now we are six 1927 illustrated by e h shepard behind the lines 1940 the norman church 1948 screenplays and plays wurzelflummery 1917 belinda 1918 the boy comes home 1918 makebelieve 1918 childrens play the camberley triangle 1919 mr pim passes by 1919 the red feathers 1920 the romantic age 1920 the stepmother 1920 the truth about blayds 1920 the bump 1920 minerva films starring c aubrey smith and faith celli twice two 1920 minerva films five pound reward 1920 minerva films bookworms 1920 minerva films the great broxopp 1921 the dover road 1921 the lucky one 1922 the truth about blayds 1922 the artist a duologue 1923 give me yesterday 1923 aka success in the uk ariadne 1924 the man in the bowler hat a terribly exciting affair 1924 to have the honour 1924 portrait of a gentleman in slippers 1926 success 1926 miss marlow at play 1927 winnie the pooh written specially by milne for a winnie the pooh party in aid of the national mothersaving campaign and performed once at seaford house on 17 march 1928 the fourth wall or the perfect alibi 1928 later adapted for the film birds of prey 1930 directed by basil dean the ivory door 1929 toad of toad hall 1929 adaptation of the wind in the willows michael and mary 1930 other peoples lives 1933 aka they dont mean any harm miss elizabeth bennet 1936 based on pride and prejudice sarah simple 1937 gentleman unknown 1938 the general takes off his helmet 1939 in the queens book of the red cross the ugly duckling 1941 before the flood 1951 references further reading thwaite ann aa milne his life london faber and faber 1990 toby marlene aa milne author of winniethepooh chicago childrens press 1995 external links a a milne collection at the harry ransom center ann thwaite collection of a a milne at the harry ransom center works by a a milne at bibliowiki canada includes the complete text of the four pooh books portraits of a a milne in the national portrait gallery essays by milne at quotidianaorg milne extract in the guardian profile at justpoohcom a a milne at poeticouscom aa milne books the guardian finding aid to the aa milne letters at columbia university rare book manuscript library 1882 births 1956 deaths english people of scottish descent writers from hampstead people from kilburn london 20thcentury british dramatists and playwrights 20thcentury british short story writers 20thcentury english novelists 20thcentury english poets alumni of trinity college cambridge british army personnel of world war i british home guard officers royal warwickshire fusiliers officers english childrens writers members of the detection club people educated at westminster school london punch magazine people english male poets winniethepooh english male novelists childrens poets military personnel from london english autobiographers	3,441
925	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asociaci%C3%B3n%20Alumni	Asociación Alumni	asociación alumni usually just alumni is an argentine rugby union club located in tortuguitas greater buenos aires the senior squad currently competes at top 12 the first division of the unión de rugby de buenos aires league system the club has ties with former football club alumni because both were established by buenos aires english high school students history background the first club with the name alumni played association football having been found in 1898 by students of buenos aires english high school baehs along with director alexander watson hutton originally under the name english high school ac the team would be later obliged by the association to change its name therefore alumni was chosen following a proposal by carlos bowers a former student of the school alumni was the most successful team during the first years of argentine football winning 10 of 14 league championships contested alumni is still considered the first great football team in the country alumni was reorganised in 1908 in order to encourage people to practise all kind of sports specially football this was the last try to develop itself as a sports club rather than just a football team such as lomas belgrano and quilmes had successfully done in the past but the efforts were not enough alumni played its last game in 1911 and was definitely dissolved on april 24 1913 rebirth through rugby in 1951 two guards of the baehs daniel ginhson also a former player of buenos aires fc and guillermo cubelli supported by the schools alumni and fathers of the students they decided to establish a club focused on rugby union exclusively former players still alive of alumni football club and descendants of other players already dead gave their permission to use the name alumni on december 13 in a meeting presided by carlos bowers himself who had proposed the name alumni to the original football team 50 years before the club was officially established under the name asociación juvenil alumni also adopting the same colors as its predecessor the team achieved good results and in 1960 the club presented a team that won the third division of the buenos aires league reaching the second division since then alumni has played at the highest level of argentine rugby and its rivalry with belgrano athletic club is one of the fiercest local derbies in buenos aires alumni would later climb up to first division winning 5 titles 4 consecutive between 1989 and 1992 and the other in 2001 in 2002 alumni won its first nacional de clubes title defeating jockey club de rosario 2321 in the final players current roster as of january 2018 federico lucca gaspar baldunciel guido cambareri iñaki etchegaray bernardo quaranta tobias moyano mariano romanini santiago montagner tomas passerotti lucas frana luca sabato franco batezzatti franco sabato rafael desanto nito provenzano tomas bivort juanp ceraso santiago alduncin juanp anderson lucas magnasco joaquin diaz luzzi felipe martignone tomas corneille honours nacional de clubes 1 2002 torneo de la urba 6 1989 1990 1991 1992 2001 2018 references external links rugby clubs established in 1951 a 1951 establishments in argentina	520
928	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom	Axiom	an axiom postulate or assumption is a statement that is taken to be true to serve as a premise or starting point for further reasoning and arguments the word comes from the ancient greek word meaning that which is thought worthy or fit or that which commends itself as evident the precise definition varies across fields of study in classic philosophy an axiom is a statement that is so evident or wellestablished that it is accepted without controversy or question in modern logic an axiom is a premise or starting point for reasoning in mathematics an axiom may be a logical axiom or a nonlogical axiom logical axioms are taken to be true within the system of logic they define and are often shown in symbolic form eg a and b implies a while nonlogical axioms eg are substantive assertions about the elements of the domain of a specific mathematical theory such as arithmetic nonlogical axioms may also be called postulates or assumptions in most cases a nonlogical axiom is simply a formal logical expression used in deduction to build a mathematical theory and might or might not be selfevident in nature eg the parallel postulate in euclidean geometry to axiomatize a system of knowledge is to show that its claims can be derived from a small wellunderstood set of sentences the axioms and there are typically many ways to axiomatize a given mathematical domain any axiom is a statement that serves as a starting point from which other statements are logically derived whether it is meaningful and if so what it means for an axiom to be true is a subject of debate in the philosophy of mathematics etymology the word axiom comes from the greek word axíōma a verbal noun from the verb axioein meaning to deem worthy but also to require which in turn comes from áxios meaning being in balance and hence having the same value as worthy proper among the ancient greek philosophers an axiom was a claim which could be seen to be selfevidently true without any need for proof the root meaning of the word postulate is to demand for instance euclid demands that one agree that some things can be done eg any two points can be joined by a straight line ancient geometers maintained some distinction between axioms and postulates while commenting on euclids books proclus remarks that geminus held that this 4th postulate should not be classed as a postulate but as an axiom since it does not like the first three postulates assert the possibility of some construction but expresses an essential property boethius translated postulate as petitio and called the axioms notiones communes but in later manuscripts this usage was not always strictly kept historical development early greeks the logicodeductive method whereby conclusions new knowledge follow from premises old knowledge through the application of sound arguments syllogisms rules of inference was developed by the ancient greeks and has become the core principle of modern mathematics tautologies excluded nothing can be deduced if nothing is assumed axioms and postulates are thus the basic assumptions underlying a given body of deductive knowledge they are accepted without demonstration all other assertions theorems in the case of mathematics must be proven with the aid of these basic assumptions however the interpretation of mathematical knowledge has changed from ancient times to the modern and consequently the terms axiom and postulate hold a slightly different meaning for the present day mathematician than they did for aristotle and euclid the ancient greeks considered geometry as just one of several sciences and held the theorems of geometry on par with scientific facts as such they developed and used the logicodeductive method as a means of avoiding error and for structuring and communicating knowledge aristotles posterior analytics is a definitive exposition of the classical view an axiom in classical terminology referred to a selfevident assumption common to many branches of science a good example would be the assertion that when an equal amount is taken from equals an equal amount results at the foundation of the various sciences lay certain additional hypotheses that were accepted without proof such a hypothesis was termed a postulate while the axioms were common to many sciences the postulates of each particular science were different their validity had to be established by means of realworld experience aristotle warns that the content of a science cannot be successfully communicated if the learner is in doubt about the truth of the postulates the classical approach is wellillustrated by euclids elements where a list of postulates is given commonsensical geometric facts drawn from our experience followed by a list of common notions very basic selfevident assertions postulates it is possible to draw a straight line from any point to any other point it is possible to extend a line segment continuously in both directions it is possible to describe a circle with any center and any radius it is true that all right angles are equal to one another parallel postulate it is true that if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles the two straight lines if produced indefinitely intersect on that side on which are the angles less than the two right angles common notions things which are equal to the same thing are also equal to one another if equals are added to equals the wholes are equal if equals are subtracted from equals the remainders are equal things which coincide with one another are equal to one another the whole is greater than the part modern development a lesson learned by mathematics in the last 150 years is that it is useful to strip the meaning away from the mathematical assertions axioms postulates propositions theorems and definitions one must concede the need for primitive notions or undefined terms or concepts in any study such abstraction or formalization makes mathematical knowledge more general capable of multiple different meanings and therefore useful in multiple contexts alessandro padoa mario pieri and giuseppe peano were pioneers in this movement structuralist mathematics goes further and develops theories and axioms eg field theory group theory topology vector spaces without any particular application in mind the distinction between an axiom and a postulate disappears the postulates of euclid are profitably motivated by saying that they lead to a great wealth of geometric facts the truth of these complicated facts rests on the acceptance of the basic hypotheses however by throwing out euclids fifth postulate one can get theories that have meaning in wider contexts eg hyperbolic geometry as such one must simply be prepared to use labels such as line and parallel with greater flexibility the development of hyperbolic geometry taught mathematicians that it is useful to regard postulates as purely formal statements and not as facts based on experience when mathematicians employ the field axioms the intentions are even more abstract the propositions of field theory do not concern any one particular application the mathematician now works in complete abstraction there are many examples of fields field theory gives correct knowledge about them all it is not correct to say that the axioms of field theory are propositions that are regarded as true without proof rather the field axioms are a set of constraints if any given system of addition and multiplication satisfies these constraints then one is in a position to instantly know a great deal of extra information about this system modern mathematics formalizes its foundations to such an extent that mathematical theories can be regarded as mathematical objects and mathematics itself can be regarded as a branch of logic frege russell poincaré hilbert and gödel are some of the key figures in this development another lesson learned in modern mathematics is to examine purported proofs carefully for hidden assumptions in the modern understanding a set of axioms is any collection of formally stated assertions from which other formally stated assertions follow by the application of certain welldefined rules in this view logic becomes just another formal system a set of axioms should be consistent it should be impossible to derive a contradiction from the axioms a set of axioms should also be nonredundant an assertion that can be deduced from other axioms need not be regarded as an axiom it was the early hope of modern logicians that various branches of mathematics perhaps all of mathematics could be derived from a consistent collection of basic axioms an early success of the formalist program was hilberts formalization of euclidean geometry and the related demonstration of the consistency of those axioms in a wider context there was an attempt to base all of mathematics on cantors set theory here the emergence of russells paradox and similar antinomies of naïve set theory raised the possibility that any such system could turn out to be inconsistent the formalist project suffered a decisive setback when in 1931 gödel showed that it is possible for any sufficiently large set of axioms peanos axioms for example to construct a statement whose truth is independent of that set of axioms as a corollary gödel proved that the consistency of a theory like peano arithmetic is an unprovable assertion within the scope of that theory it is reasonable to believe in the consistency of peano arithmetic because it is satisfied by the system of natural numbers an infinite but intuitively accessible formal system however at present there is no known way of demonstrating the consistency of the modern zermelofraenkel axioms for set theory furthermore using techniques of forcing cohen one can show that the continuum hypothesis cantor is independent of the zermelofraenkel axioms thus even this very general set of axioms cannot be regarded as the definitive foundation for mathematics other sciences experimental sciences as opposed to mathematics and logic also have general founding assertions from which a deductive reasoning can be built so as to express propositions that predict properties either still general or much more specialized to a specific experimental context for instance newtons laws in classical mechanics maxwells equations in classical electromagnetism einsteins equation in general relativity mendels laws of genetics darwins natural selection law etc these founding assertions are usually called principles or postulates so as to distinguish from mathematical axioms as a matter of facts the role of axioms in mathematics and postulates in experimental sciences is different in mathematics one neither proves nor disproves an axiom a set of mathematical axioms gives a set of rules that fix a conceptual realm in which the theorems logically follow in contrast in experimental sciences a set of postulates shall allow deducing results that match or do not match experimental results if postulates do not allow deducing experimental predictions they do not set a scientific conceptual framework and have to be completed or made more accurate if the postulates allow deducing predictions of experimental results the comparison with experiments allows falsifying falsified the theory that the postulates install a theory is considered valid as long as it has not been falsified now the transition between the mathematical axioms and scientific postulates is always slightly blurred especially in physics this is due to the heavy use of mathematical tools to support the physical theories for instance the introduction of newtons laws rarely establishes as a prerequisite neither euclidean geometry or differential calculus that they imply it became more apparent when albert einstein first introduced special relativity where the invariant quantity is no more the euclidean length defined as but the minkowski spacetime interval defined as and then general relativity where flat minkowskian geometry is replaced with pseudoriemannian geometry on curved manifolds in quantum physics two sets of postulates have coexisted for some time which provide a very nice example of falsification the copenhagen school niels bohr werner heisenberg max born developed an operational approach with a complete mathematical formalism that involves the description of quantum system by vectors states in a separable hilbert space and physical quantities as linear operators that act in this hilbert space this approach is fully falsifiable and has so far produced the most accurate predictions in physics but it has the unsatisfactory aspect of not allowing answers to questions one would naturally ask for this reason another hidden variables approach was developed for some time by albert einstein erwin schrödinger david bohm it was created so as to try to give deterministic explanation to phenomena such as entanglement this approach assumed that the copenhagen school description was not complete and postulated that some yet unknown variable was to be added to the theory so as to allow answering some of the questions it does not answer the founding elements of which were discussed as the epr paradox in 1935 taking this ideas seriously john bell derived in 1964 a prediction that would lead to different experimental results bells inequalities in the copenhagen and the hidden variable case the experiment was conducted first by alain aspect in the early 1980s and the result excluded the simple hidden variable approach sophisticated hidden variables could still exist but their properties would still be more disturbing than the problems they try to solve this does not mean that the conceptual framework of quantum physics can be considered as complete now since some open questions still exist the limit between the quantum and classical realms what happens during a quantum measurement what happens in a completely closed quantum system such as the universe itself etc mathematical logic in the field of mathematical logic a clear distinction is made between two notions of axioms logical and nonlogical somewhat similar to the ancient distinction between axioms and postulates respectively logical axioms these are certain formulas in a formal language that are universally valid that is formulas that are satisfied by every assignment of values usually one takes as logical axioms at least some minimal set of tautologies that is sufficient for proving all tautologies in the language in the case of predicate logic more logical axioms than that are required in order to prove logical truths that are not tautologies in the strict sense examples propositional logic in propositional logic it is common to take as logical axioms all formulae of the following forms where and can be any formulae of the language and where the included primitive connectives are only for negation of the immediately following proposition and for implication from antecedent to consequent propositions each of these patterns is an axiom schema a rule for generating an infinite number of axioms for example if and are propositional variables then and are both instances of axiom schema 1 and hence are axioms it can be shown that with only these three axiom schemata and modus ponens one can prove all tautologies of the propositional calculus it can also be shown that no pair of these schemata is sufficient for proving all tautologies with modus ponens other axiom schemata involving the same or different sets of primitive connectives can be alternatively constructed these axiom schemata are also used in the predicate calculus but additional logical axioms are needed to include a quantifier in the calculus firstorder logic axiom of equalitylet be a firstorder language for each variable the below formula is universally valid this means that for any variable symbol the formula can be regarded as an axiom also in this example for this not to fall into vagueness and a neverending series of primitive notions either a precise notion of what we mean by or for that matter to be equal has to be well established first or a purely formal and syntactical usage of the symbol has to be enforced only regarding it as a string and only a string of symbols and mathematical logic does indeed do that another more interesting example axiom scheme is that which provides us with what is known as universal instantiation axiom scheme for universal instantiationgiven a formula in a firstorder language a variable and a term that is substitutable for in the below formula is universally valid where the symbol stands for the formula with the term substituted for see substitution of variables in informal terms this example allows us to state that if we know that a certain property holds for every and that stands for a particular object in our structure then we should be able to claim again we are claiming that the formula is valid that is we must be able to give a proof of this fact or more properly speaking a metaproof these examples are metatheorems of our theory of mathematical logic since we are dealing with the very concept of proof itself aside from this we can also have existential generalization axiom scheme for existential generalization given a formula in a firstorder language a variable and a term that is substitutable for in the below formula is universally valid nonlogical axioms nonlogical axioms are formulas that play the role of theoryspecific assumptions reasoning about two different structures for example the natural numbers and the integers may involve the same logical axioms the nonlogical axioms aim to capture what is special about a particular structure or set of structures such as groups thus nonlogical axioms unlike logical axioms are not tautologies another name for a nonlogical axiom is postulate almost every modern mathematical theory starts from a given set of nonlogical axioms and it was thought that in principle every theory could be axiomatized in this way and formalized down to the bare language of logical formulas nonlogical axioms are often simply referred to as axioms in mathematical discourse this does not mean that it is claimed that they are true in some absolute sense for example in some groups the group operation is commutative and this can be asserted with the introduction of an additional axiom but without this axiom we can do quite well developing the more general group theory and we can even take its negation as an axiom for the study of noncommutative groups thus an axiom is an elementary basis for a formal logic system that together with the rules of inference define a deductive system examples this section gives examples of mathematical theories that are developed entirely from a set of nonlogical axioms axioms henceforth a rigorous treatment of any of these topics begins with a specification of these axioms basic theories such as arithmetic real analysis and complex analysis are often introduced nonaxiomatically but implicitly or explicitly there is generally an assumption that the axioms being used are the axioms of zermelofraenkel set theory with choice abbreviated zfc or some very similar system of axiomatic set theory like von neumannbernaysgödel set theory a conservative extension of zfc sometimes slightly stronger theories such as morsekelley set theory or set theory with a strongly inaccessible cardinal allowing the use of a grothendieck universe is used but in fact most mathematicians can actually prove all they need in systems weaker than zfc such as secondorder arithmetic the study of topology in mathematics extends all over through point set topology algebraic topology differential topology and all the related paraphernalia such as homology theory homotopy theory the development of abstract algebra brought with itself group theory rings fields and galois theory this list could be expanded to include most fields of mathematics including measure theory ergodic theory probability representation theory and differential geometry arithmetic the peano axioms are the most widely used axiomatization of firstorder arithmetic they are a set of axioms strong enough to prove many important facts about number theory and they allowed gödel to establish his famous second incompleteness theorem we have a language where is a constant symbol and is a unary function and the following axioms for any formula with one free variable the standard structure is where is the set of natural numbers is the successor function and is naturally interpreted as the number 0 euclidean geometry probably the oldest and most famous list of axioms are the 4 1 euclids postulates of plane geometry the axioms are referred to as 4 1 because for nearly two millennia the fifth parallel postulate through a point outside a line there is exactly one parallel was suspected of being derivable from the first four ultimately the fifth postulate was found to be independent of the first four one can assume that exactly one parallel through a point outside a line exists or that infinitely many exist this choice gives us two alternative forms of geometry in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to exactly 180 degrees or less respectively and are known as euclidean and hyperbolic geometries if one also removes the second postulate a line can be extended indefinitely then elliptic geometry arises where there is no parallel through a point outside a line and in which the interior angles of a triangle add up to more than 180 degrees real analysis the objectives of the study are within the domain of real numbers the real numbers are uniquely picked out up to isomorphism by the properties of a dedekind complete ordered field meaning that any nonempty set of real numbers with an upper bound has a least upper bound however expressing these properties as axioms requires the use of secondorder logic the löwenheimskolem theorems tell us that if we restrict ourselves to firstorder logic any axiom system for the reals admits other models including both models that are smaller than the reals and models that are larger some of the latter are studied in nonstandard analysis role in mathematical logic deductive systems and completeness a deductive system consists of a set of logical axioms a set of nonlogical axioms and a set of rules of inference a desirable property of a deductive system is that it be complete a system is said to be complete if for all formulas that is for any statement that is a logical consequence of there actually exists a deduction of the statement from this is sometimes expressed as everything that is true is provable but it must be understood that true here means made true by the set of axioms and not for example true in the intended interpretation gödels completeness theorem establishes the completeness of a certain commonly used type of deductive system note that completeness has a different meaning here than it does in the context of gödels first incompleteness theorem which states that no recursive consistent set of nonlogical axioms of the theory of arithmetic is complete in the sense that there will always exist an arithmetic statement such that neither nor can be proved from the given set of axioms there is thus on the one hand the notion of completeness of a deductive system and on the other hand that of completeness of a set of nonlogical axioms the completeness theorem and the incompleteness theorem despite their names do not contradict one another further discussion early mathematicians regarded axiomatic geometry as a model of physical space and obviously there could only be one such model the idea that alternative mathematical systems might exist was very troubling to mathematicians of the 19th century and the developers of systems such as boolean algebra made elaborate efforts to derive them from traditional arithmetic galois showed just before his untimely death that these efforts were largely wasted ultimately the abstract parallels between algebraic systems were seen to be more important than the details and modern algebra was born in the modern view axioms may be any set of formulas as long as they are not known to be inconsistent see also axiomatic system dogma first principle axiom in science and philosophy list of axioms model theory regulæ juris theorem presupposition physical law principle notes references further reading mendelson elliot 1987 introduction to mathematical logic belmont california wadsworth brooks external links metamath axioms page axiom concepts in logic	3,981
929	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpha	Alpha	alpha uppercase lowercase or is the first letter of the greek alphabet in the system of greek numerals it has a value of one alpha is derived from the phoenician letter aleph which is the west semitic word for ox letters that arose from alpha include the latin letter a and the cyrillic letter а uses greek in ancient greek alpha was pronounced and could be either phonemically long aː or short a where there is ambiguity long and short alpha are sometimes written with a macron and breve today a time tongue in modern greek vowel length has been lost and all instances of alpha simply represent the open front unrounded vowel in the polytonic orthography of greek alpha like other vowel letters can occur with several diacritic marks any of three accent symbols and either of two breathing marks as well as combinations of these it can also combine with the iota subscript greek grammar in the atticionic dialect of ancient greek long alpha fronted to eta in ionic the shift took place in all positions in attic the shift did not take place after epsilon iota and rho in doric and aeolic long alpha is preserved in all positions doric aeolic attic ionic country doric aeolic attic ionic report privative a is the ancient greek prefix or added to words to negate them it originates from the protoindoeuropean syllabic nasal and is cognate with english un copulative a is the greek prefix or it comes from protoindoeuropean mathematics and science the letter alpha represents various concepts in physics and chemistry including alpha radiation angular acceleration alpha particles alpha carbon and strength of electromagnetic interaction as finestructure constant alpha also stands for thermal expansion coefficient of a compound in physical chemistry it is also commonly used in mathematics in algebraic solutions representing quantities such as angles furthermore in mathematics the letter alpha is used to denote the area underneath a normal curve in statistics to denote significance level when proving null and alternative hypotheses in ethology it is used to name the dominant individual in a group of animals in aerodynamics the letter is used as a symbol for the angle of attack of an aircraft and the word alpha is used as a synonym for this property in mathematical logic α is sometimes used as a placeholder for ordinal numbers the proportionality operator in unicode u221d is sometimes mistaken for alpha the uppercase letter alpha is not generally used as a symbol because it tends to be rendered identically to the uppercase latin a international phonetic alphabet in the international phonetic alphabet the letter ɑ which looks similar to the lowercase alpha represents the open back unrounded vowel history and symbolism origin the phoenician alphabet was adopted for greek in the early 8th century bc perhaps in euboea the majority of the letters of the phoenician alphabet were adopted into greek with much the same sounds as they had had in phoenician but ʼāleph the phoenician letter representing the glottal stop was adopted as representing the vowel similarly hē and ʽayin are phoenician consonants that became greek vowels epsilon and omicron respectively plutarch plutarch in moralia presents a discussion on why the letter alpha stands first in the alphabet ammonius asks plutarch what he being a boeotian has to say for cadmus the phoenician who reputedly settled in thebes and introduced the alphabet to greece placing alpha first because it is the phoenician name for oxwhich unlike hesiod the phoenicians considered not the second or third but the first of all necessities nothing at all plutarch replied he then added that he would rather be assisted by lamprias his own grandfather than by dionysus grandfather ie cadmus for lamprias had said that the first articulate sound made is alpha because it is very plain and simplethe air coming off the mouth does not require any motion of the tongueand therefore this is the first sound that children make according to plutarchs natural order of attribution of the vowels to the planets alpha was connected with the moon alpha and omega as the first letter of the alphabet alpha as a greek numeral came to represent the number 1 therefore alpha both as a symbol and term is used to refer to the first or primary or principal most significant occurrence or status of a thing the new testament has god declaring himself to be the alpha and omega the beginning and the end the first and the last revelation 2213 kjv and see also 18 consequently the term alpha has also come to be used to denote primary position in social hierarchy examples being the concept of dominant alpha members in groups of animals computer encodings greek alpha coptic alfa for accented greek characters see greek diacritics computer encoding latin ipa alpha mathematical technical alpha references greek letters vowel letters	813
930	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alvin%20Toffler	Alvin Toffler	alvin eugene toffler october 4 1928 june 27 2016 was an american writer futurist and businessman known for his works discussing modern technologies including the digital revolution and the communication revolution with emphasis on their effects on cultures worldwide he is regarded as one of the worlds outstanding futurists toffler was an associate editor of fortune magazine in his early works he focused on technology and its impact which he termed information overload in 1970 his first major book about the future future shock became a worldwide bestseller and has sold over 6 million copies he and his wife heidi toffler who collaborated with him for most of his writings moved on to examining the reaction to changes in society with another bestselling book the third wave in 1980 in it he foresaw such technological advances as cloning personal computers the internet cable television and mobile communication his later focus via their other bestseller powershift 1990 was on the increasing power of 21stcentury military hardware and the proliferation of new technologies he founded toffler associates a management consulting company and was a visiting scholar at the russell sage foundation visiting professor at cornell university faculty member of the new school for social research a white house correspondent and a business consultant tofflers ideas and writings were a significant influence on the thinking of business and government leaders worldwide including chinas zhao ziyang and aol founder steve case early life alvin toffler was born on october 4 1928 in new york city and raised in brooklyn he was the son of rose albaum and sam toffler a furrier both polish jews who had migrated to america he had one younger sister he was inspired to become a writer at the age of 7 by his aunt and uncle who lived with the tofflers they were depressionera literary intellectuals toffler said and they always talked about exciting ideas toffler graduated from new york university in 1950 as an english major though by his own account he was more focused on political activism than grades he met his future wife adelaide elizabeth farrell nicknamed heidi when she was starting a graduate course in linguistics being radical students they decided against further graduate work and moved to cleveland ohio where they married on april 29 1950 career seeking experiences to write about alvin and heidi toffler spent the next five years as blue collar workers on assembly lines while studying industrial mass production in their daily work he compared his own desire for experience to other writers such as jack london who in his quest for subjects to write about sailed the seas and john steinbeck who went to pick grapes with migrant workers in their first factory jobs heidi became a union shop steward in the aluminum foundry where she worked alvin became a millwright and welder in the evenings alvin would write poetry and fiction but discovered he was proficient at neither his handson practical labor experience helped alvin toffler land a position at a unionbacked newspaper a transfer to its washington bureau in 1957 then three years as a white house correspondent covering congress and the white house for a pennsylvania daily newspaper they returned to new york city in 1959 when fortune magazine invited alvin to become its labor columnist later having him write about business and management after leaving fortune magazine in 1962 toffler began a freelance career writing long form articles for scholarly journals and magazines his 1964 playboy interviews with russian novelist vladimir nabokov and ayn rand were considered among the magazines best his interview with rand was the first time the magazine had given such a platform to a female intellectual which as one commentator said the real bird of paradise toffler captured for playboy in 1964 was ayn rand toffler was hired by ibm to conduct research and write a paper on the social and organizational impact of computers leading to his contact with the earliest computer gurus and artificial intelligence researchers and proponents xerox invited him to write about its research laboratory and att consulted him for strategic advice this att work led to a study of telecommunications which advised the companys top management to break up the company more than a decade before the government forced att to break up in the mid1960s the tofflers began five years of research on what would become future shock published in 1970 it has sold over 6 million copies worldwide according to the new york times or over 15 million copies according to the tofflers web site toffler coined the term future shock to refer to what happens to a society when change happens too fast which results in social confusion and normal decisionmaking processes breaking down the book has never been out of print and has been translated into dozens of languages he continued the theme in the third wave in 1980 while he describes the first and second waves as the agricultural and industrial revolutions the third wave a phrase he coined represents the current information computerbased revolution he forecast the spread of the internet and email interactive media cable television cloning and other digital advancements he claimed that one of the side effects of the digital age has been information overload another term he coined in 1990 he wrote powershift also with the help of his wife heidi in 1996 with american business consultant tom johnson they cofounded toffler associates an advisory firm designed to implement many of the ideas the tofflers had written on the firm worked with businesses ngos and governments in the united states south korea mexico brazil singapore australia and other countries during this period in his career toffler lectured worldwide taught at several schools and met world leaders such as mikhail gorbachev along with key executives and military officials ideas and opinions toffler stated many of his ideas during an interview with the australian broadcasting corporation in 1998 society needs people who take care of the elderly and who know how to be compassionate and honest he said society needs people who work in hospitals society needs all kinds of skills that are not just cognitive theyre emotional theyre affectional you cant run the society on data and computers alone his opinions about the future of education many of which were in future shock have often been quoted an often misattributed quote however is that of psychologist herbert gerjuoy tomorrows illiterate will not be the man who cant read he will be the man who has not learned how to learn early in his career after traveling to other countries he became aware of the new and myriad inputs that visitors received from these other cultures he explained during an interview that some visitors would become truly disoriented and upset by the strange environment which he described as a reaction to culture shock from that issue he foresaw another problem for the future when a culturally new environment comes to you and comes to you rapidly that kind of sudden cultural change within ones own country which he felt many would not understand would lead to a similar reaction one of future shock which he wrote about in his book by that title toffler writes in the third wave toffler describes three types of societies based on the concept of waveseach wave pushes the older societies and cultures aside he describes the first wave as the society after agrarian revolution and replaced the first huntergatherer cultures the second wave he labels society during the industrial revolution ca late 17th century through the mid20th century that period saw the increase of urban industrial populations which had undermined the traditional nuclear family and initiated a factorylike education system and the growth of the corporation toffler said the third wave was a term he coined to describe the postindustrial society which began in the late 1950s his description of this period dovetails with other futurist writers who also wrote about the information age space age electronic era global village terms which highlighted a scientifictechnological revolution the tofflers claimed to have predicted a number of geopolitical events such as the collapse of the soviet union the fall of the berlin wall and the future economic growth in the asiapacific region influences and popular culture toffler often visited with dignitaries in asia including chinas zhao ziyang singapores lee kuan yew and south koreas kim dae jung all of whom were influenced by his views as asias emerging markets increased in global significance during the 1980s and 1990s although they had originally censored some of his books and ideas chinas government cited him along with franklin roosevelt and bill gates as being among the westerners who had most influenced their country the third wave along with a video documentary based on it became bestsellers in china and were widely distributed to schools the videos success inspired the marketing of videos on related themes in the late 1990s by infowars whose name is derived from the term coined by toffler in the book tofflers influence on asian thinkers was summed up in an article in daedalus published by the american academy of arts sciences us house speaker newt gingrich publicly lauded his ideas about the future and urged members of congress to read tofflers book creating a new civilization 1995 others such as aol founder steve case cited tofflers the third wave as a formative influence on his thinking which inspired him to write the third wave an entrepreneurs vision of the future in 2016 case said that toffler was a real pioneer in helping people companies and even countries lean into the future in 1980 ted turner founded cnn which he said was inspired by tofflers forecasting the end of the dominance of the three main television networks turners company turner broadcasting published tofflers creating a new civilization in 1995 shortly after the book was released the former soviet president mikhail gorbachev hosted the global governance conference in san francisco with the theme toward a new civilization which was attended by dozens of world figures including the tofflers george h w bush margaret thatcher carl sagan abba eban and turner with his thenwife actress jane fonda mexican billionaire carlos slim was influenced by his works and became a friend of the writer global marketer jd power also said he was inspired by tofflers works since the 1960s people had tried to make sense out of the effect of new technologies and social change a problem which made tofflers writings widely influential beyond the confines of scientific economic and public policy his works and ideas have been subject to various criticisms usually with the same argumentation used against futurology that foreseeing the future is nigh impossible techno music pioneer juan atkins cites tofflers phrase techno rebels in the third wave as inspiring him to use the word techno to describe the musical style he helped to create musician curtis mayfield released a disco song called future shock later covered in an electro version by herbie hancock science fiction author john brunner wrote the shockwave rider from the concept of future shock the nightclub toffler in rotterdam is named after him in the song victoria by the exponents the protagonists daily routine and cultural interests are described shes up in time to watch the soap operas reads cosmopolitan and alvin toffler critical assessment accenture the management consultancy firm identified toffler in 2002 as being among the most influential voices in business leaders along with bill gates and peter drucker toffler has also been described in a financial times interview as the worlds most famous futurologist in 2006 the peoples daily classed him among the 50 foreigners who shaped modern china which one us newspaper notes made him a guru of sorts to world statesmen chinese premier and general secretary zhao ziyang was greatly influenced by toffler he convened conferences to discuss the third wave in the early 1980s and in 1985 the book was the no 2 best seller in china author mark satin characterizes toffler as an important early influence on radical centrist political thought newt gingrich became close to the tofflers in the 1970s and said the third wave had immensely influenced his own thinking and was one of the great seminal works of our time selected awards toffler has received several prestigious prizes and awards including the mckinsey foundation book award for contributions to management literature officier de lordre des arts et lettres and appointments including fellow of the american association for the advancement of science and the international institute for strategic studies in 2006 alvin and heidi toffler were recipients of brown universitys independent award personal life toffler was married to heidi toffler born adelaide elizabeth farrell also a writer and futurist they lived in the bel air section of los angeles california and previously lived in redding connecticut the couples only child karen toffler 19542000 died at age 46 after more than a decade suffering from guillainbarré syndrome alvin toffler died in his sleep on june 27 2016 at his home in los angeles no cause of death was given he is buried at westwood memorial park bibliography alvin toffler cowrote his books with his wife heidi the culture consumers 1964 st martins press the schoolhouse in the city 1968 praeger editors future shock 1970 bantam books the futurists 1972 random house editors learning for tomorrow 1974 random house editors the ecospasm report 1975 bantam books the third wave 1980 bantam books previews premises 1983 william morrow co the adaptive corporation 1985 mcgrawhill powershift knowledge wealth and violence at the edge of the 21st century 1990 bantam books war and antiwar 1993 warner books creating a new civilization 1995 turner pub revolutionary wealth 2006 knopf see also daniel bell norman swan human nature john naisbitt references external links official alvin toffler site toffler associates interview with alvin toffler by the world affairs council discuss alvin tofflers future shock with other readers booktalkorg future shock forum 2018 finding aid to the alvin and heidi toffler papers at columbia university rare book manuscript library 1928 births 2016 deaths american people of polishjewish descent american technology writers american futurologists burials at westwood village memorial park cemetery jewish american writers people from ridgefield connecticut writers from connecticut writers from brooklyn 20thcentury american nonfiction writers 21stcentury american nonfiction writers american transhumanists new york university alumni singularitarians people from redding connecticut 20thcentury american male writers american male nonfiction writers jewish american journalists people from bel air los angeles 21stcentury american male writers 21stcentury american jews	2,428
931	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Amazing%20Spider-Man	The Amazing Spider-Man	the amazing spiderman is an ongoing american superhero comic book series featuring the marvel comics superhero spiderman as its title character and main protagonist being in the mainstream continuity of the franchise it was the characters first title launching seven months after his introduction in the final issue of amazing fantasy the series began publication with a march 1963 cover date and has been published nearly continuously to date over six volumes with only one significant interruption issues of the title currently feature an issue number within its sixth volume as well as a legacy number reflecting the issues overall number across all amazing spiderman volumes the title reached 900 issues in 2022 the series began as a bimonthly periodical before being increased to monthly after four issues it was the characters sole monthly headlining title until peter parker the spectacular spiderman launched in 1976 after 441 issues the amazing spiderman was restarted in 1999 as issue no 1 of volume 2 it ran for 58 issues before reverting to the titles overall issue number with 500 in 2003 the series ran essentially continuously over the first two volumes from 1963 until its landmark 700th issue at the end of 2012 when it was replaced by the superior spiderman as part of the marvel now relaunch of marvels comic lines the title was occasionally published biweekly during the first two volumes and was published three times a month from 2008 to 2010 after the relaunch of action comics and detective comics in 2011 the amazing spiderman briefly became the highestnumbered active american comic book the amazing spiderman returned with volume 3 in april 2014 following the conclusion of the superior spiderman story arc after 18 issues in late 2015 the series was relaunched with a fourth volume following the 2015 secret wars event after 32 issues the volume was once again relaunched as part of marvel legacy returning to the overall legacy numbering with issue no 789 in late 2017 less than a year later the series was relaunched again with a fifth volume as part of marvels fresh start for the first time although the issue numbers were again restarted from 1 the issues also bore the overall legacy issue number a sixth volume commenced in april 2022 to celebrate spidermans 60th anniversary since the third volume the title has had various release schedules including monthly and biweekly among others publication history writereditor stan lee and artist and coplotter steve ditko created the character of spiderman and the pair produced 38 issues from march 1963 to july 1966 ditko left after the 38th issue while lee remained as writer until issue 100 since then many writers and artists have taken over the monthly comic through the years chronicling the adventures of marvels most identifiable hero the amazing spiderman has been the characters flagship series for his first fifty years in publication and was the only monthly series to star spiderman until peter parker the spectacular spiderman in 1976 although 1972 saw the debut of marvel teamup with the vast majority of issues featuring spiderman along with a rotating cast of other marvel characters most of the major characters and villains of the spiderman saga have been introduced in amazing and with few exceptions it is where most key events in the characters history have occurred the title was published continuously until no 441 nov 1998 when marvel comics relaunched it as vol 2 no 1 jan 1999 but on spidermans 40th anniversary this new title reverted to using the numbering of the original series beginning again with issue no 500 dec 2003 and lasting until the final issue no 700 feb 2013 1960s due to strong sales on the characters first appearance in amazing fantasy no 15 spiderman was given his own ongoing series in march 1963 the initial years of the series under lee and ditko chronicled spidermans nascent career as a masked superhuman vigilante with his civilian life as hardluck yet perpetually goodhumored and wellmeaning teenager peter parker peter balanced his career as spiderman with his job as a freelance photographer for the daily bugle under the bombastic editorpublisher j jonah jameson to support himself and his frail aunt may at the same time peter dealt with public hostility towards spiderman and the antagonism of his classmates flash thompson and liz allan at midtown high school while embarking on a tentative illfated romance with jamesons secretary betty brant by focusing on parkers everyday problems lee and ditko created a groundbreakingly flawed selfdoubting superhero and the first major teenaged superhero to be a protagonist and not a sidekick ditkos quirky art provided a stark contrast to the more cleanly dynamic stylings of marvels most prominent artist jack kirby and combined with the humor and pathos of lees writing to lay the foundation for what became an enduring mythos most of spidermans key villains and supporting characters were introduced during this time issue no 1 mar 1963 featured the first appearances of j jonah jameson and his astronaut son john jameson and the supervillain the chameleon it included the heros first encounter with the superhero team the fantastic four issue no 2 may 1963 featured the first appearance of the vulture and the tinkerer as well as the beginning of parkers freelance photography career at the newspaper the daily bugle the leeditko era continued to usher in a significant number of villains and supporting characters including doctor octopus in no 3 july 1963 the sandman and betty brant in no 4 sept 1963 the lizard in no 6 nov 1963 living brain in no 8 jan 1964 electro in no 9 mar 1964 mysterio in no 13 june 1964 the green goblin in no 14 july 1964 kraven the hunter in no 15 aug 1964 reporter ned leeds in no 18 nov 1964 and the scorpion in no 20 jan 1965 the molten man was introduced in no 28 sept 1965 which also featured parkers graduation from high school peter began attending empire state university in no 31 dec 1965 which featured the first appearances of friends and classmates gwen stacy and harry osborn harrys father norman osborn first appeared in no 23 april 1965 as a member of jamesons country club but was not named nor revealed as harrys father until no 37 june 1966 one of the most celebrated issues of the leeditko run is no 33 feb 1966 the third part of the story arc if this be my destiny which features the dramatic scene of spiderman through force of will and thoughts of family escaping from being pinned by heavy machinery comics historian les daniels noted that steve ditko squeezes every ounce of anguish out of spidermans predicament complete with visions of the uncle he failed and the aunt he has sworn to save peter david observed that after his origin this twopage sequence from amazing spiderman no 33 is perhaps the bestloved sequence from the stan leesteve ditko era steve saffel stated the full page ditko image from the amazing spiderman no 33 is one of the most powerful ever to appear in the series and influenced writers and artists for many years to come and matthew k manning wrote that ditkos illustrations for the first few pages of this lee story included what would become one of the most iconic scenes in spidermans history the story was chosen as no 15 in the 100 greatest marvels of all time poll of marvels readers in 2001 editor robert greenberger wrote in his introduction to the story that these first five pages are a modernday equivalent to shakespeare as parkers soliloquy sets the stage for his next action and with dramatic pacing and storytelling ditko delivers one of the great sequences in all comics although credited only as artist for most of his run ditko would eventually plot the stories as well as draw them leaving lee to script the dialogue a rift between ditko and lee developed and the two men were not on speaking terms long before ditko completed his last issue the amazing spiderman no 38 july 1966 the exact reasons for the ditkolee split have never been fully explained spiderman successor artist john romita sr in a 2010 deposition recalled that lee and ditko ended up not being able to work together because they disagreed on almost everything cultural social historically everything they disagreed on characters in successor penciler romita srs first issue no 39 aug 1966 nemesis the green goblin discovers spidermans secret identity and reveals his own to the captive hero romitas spiderman more polished and heroiclooking than ditkos became the model for two decades the leeromita era saw the introduction of such characters as daily bugle managing editor robbie robertson in no 52 sept 1967 and nypd captain george stacy father of parkers girlfriend gwen stacy in no 56 jan 1968 the most important supporting character to be introduced during the romita era was mary jane watson who made her first full appearance in no 42 nov 1966 although she first appeared in no 25 june 1965 with her face obscured and had been mentioned since no 15 aug 1964 peter david wrote in 2010 that romita made the definitive statement of his arrival by pulling mary jane out from behind the oversized potted plant that blocked the readers view of her face in issue no 25 and placing her on panel in what would instantly become an iconic moment romita has stated that in designing mary jane he used annmargret from the movie bye bye birdie as a guide using her coloring the shape of her face her red hair and her formfitting short skirts lee and romita toned down the prevalent sense of antagonism in parkers world by improving parkers relationship with the supporting characters and having stories focused as much on the social and college lives of the characters as they did on spidermans adventures the stories became more topical addressing issues such as civil rights racism prisoners rights the vietnam war and political elections issue no 50 june 1967 introduced the highly enduring criminal mastermind the kingpin who would become a major force as well in the superhero series daredevil other notable first appearances in the leeromita era include the rhino in no 41 oct 1966 the shocker in no 46 mar 1967 the prowler in no 78 nov 1969 and the kingpins son richard fisk in no 83 apr 1970 1970s several spinoff series debuted in the 1970s marvel teamup in 1972 and the spectacular spiderman in 1976 a shortlived series titled giantsize spiderman began in july 1974 and ran six issues through 1975 spidey super stories a series aimed at children ages 610 ran for 57 issues from october 1974 through 1982 the flagship titles second decade took a grim turn with a story in 8990 octnov 1970 featuring the death of captain george stacy this was the first spiderman story to be penciled by gil kane who would alternate drawing duties with romita for the next yearandahalf and would draw several landmark issues one such story took place in the controversial issues 9698 mayjuly 1971 writereditor lee defied the comics code authority with this story in which parkers friend harry osborn was hospitalized after overdosing on pills lee wrote this story upon a request from the u s department of health education and welfare for a story about the dangers of drugs citing its dictum against depicting drug use even in an antidrug context the cca refused to put its seal on these issues with the approval of marvel publisher martin goodman lee had the comics published without the seal the comics sold well and marvel won praise for its socially conscious efforts the cca subsequently loosened the code to permit negative depictions of drugs among other new freedoms the six arms saga of 100102 septnov 1971 introduced morbius the living vampire the second installment was the first amazing spiderman story not written by cocreator lee with roy thomas taking over writing the book for several months before lee returned to write 105110 febjuly 1972 lee who was going on to become marvel comics publisher with thomas becoming editorinchief then turned writing duties over to 19yearold gerry conway who scripted the series through 1975 romita penciled conways first halfdozen issues which introduced the gangster hammerhead in no 113 oct 1972 kane then succeeded romita as penciler although romita would continue inking kane for a time issue 121 june 1973 by conwaykaneromita featured the death of gwen stacy at the hands of the green goblin in the night gwen stacy died her demise and the goblins apparent death one issue later formed a story arc widely considered as the most defining in the history of spiderman the aftermath of the story deepened both the characterization of mary jane watson and her relationship with parker in 1973 gil kane was succeeded by ross andru whose run lasted from issue 125 oct 1973 to 185 oct 1978 issue129 feb 1974 introduced the punisher who would become one of marvel comics most popular characters the conwayandru era featured the first appearances of the manwolf in 124125 septoct 1973 the nearmarriage of doctor octopus and aunt may in 131 apr 1974 harry osborn stepping into his fathers role as the green goblin in 135137 augoct1974 and the original clone saga containing the introduction of spidermans clone in 147149 augoct 1975 archie goodwin and gil kane produced the titles 150th issue nov 1975 before len wein became writer with issue no 151 during weins tenure harry osborn and liz allen dated and became engaged j jonah jameson was introduced to his eventual second wife marla madison and aunt may suffered a heart attack weins last story on amazing was a fiveissue arc in 176180 janmay 1978 featuring a third green goblin harry osborns psychiatrist bart hamilton marv wolfman marvels editorinchief from 1975 to 1976 succeeded wein as writer and in his first issue 182 july 1978 had parker propose marriage to watson who refused in the following issue keith pollard succeeded andru as artist shortly afterward and with wolfman introduced the likable rogue the black cat felicia hardy in 194 july 1979 as a love interest for spiderman the black cat would go on to be an important supporting character for the better part of the next decade and remain a friend and occasional lover into the 2010s 1980s the amazing spiderman 200 jan 1980 featured the return and death of the burglar who killed spidermans uncle ben writer marv wolfman and penciler keith pollard both left the title by midyear succeeded by dennis oneil a writer known for groundbreaking 1970s work at rival dc comics and penciler john romita jr oneil wrote two issues of the amazing spiderman annual which were both drawn by frank miller the 1980 annual featured a teamup with doctor strange while the 1981 annual showcased a meeting with the punisher roger stern who had written nearly 20 issues of sister title the spectacular spiderman took over amazing with 224 jan 1982 during his two years on the title stern augmented the backgrounds of longestablished spiderman villains and with romita jr created the mysterious supervillain the hobgoblin in 238239 marapr 1983 fans engaged with the mystery of the hobgoblins secret identity which continued throughout 244245 and 249251 septoct 1983 and febapril 1984 one lasting change was the reintroduction of mary jane watson as a more serious mature woman who becomes peters confidante after she reveals that she knows his secret identity stern also wrote the kid who collects spiderman in the amazing spiderman 248 jan 1984 a story which ranks among his most popular by mid1984 tom defalco and ron frenz took over scripting and penciling defalco helped establish parker and watsons mature relationship laying the foundation for the characters wedding in 1987 notably in 257 oct 1984 watson tells parker that she knows he is spiderman and in 259 dec 1984 she reveals to parker the extent of her troubled childhood other notable issues of the defalcofrenz era include 252 may 1984 the first appearance of spidermans black costume which the hero would wear almost exclusively for the next four years worth of comics the debut of criminal mastermind the rose in 253 june 1984 the revelation in 258 nov 1984 that the black costume is a living being a symbiote and the introduction of the female mercenary silver sable in 265 june 1985 defalco and frenz were both removed from the amazing spiderman in 1986 by editor jim owsley under acrimonious circumstances a succession of artists including alan kupperberg john romita jr and alex saviuk penciled the series from 1987 to 1988 and owsley wrote the book for the first half of 1987 scripting the fivepart gang war story 284288 that defalco plotted former spectacular spiderman writer peter david scripted 289 june 1987 which revealed ned leeds as being the hobgoblin although this was retconned in 1996 by roger stern into leeds not being the original hobgoblin after all david michelinie took over as writer in the next issue for a story arc in 290292 julysept 1987 that led to the marriage of peter parker and mary jane watson in amazing spiderman annual no 21 the kravens last hunt storyline by writer jm dematteis and artists mike zeck and bob mcleod crossed over into the amazing spiderman 293 and 294 issue no298 mar 1988 was the first spiderman comic to be drawn by future industry star todd mcfarlane the first regular artist on the amazing spiderman since frenzs departure mcfarlane revolutionized spidermans look his depiction ditkoesque poses large eyes wiry contorted limbs and messy knotted convoluted webbing influenced the way virtually all subsequent artists would draw the character mcfarlanes other significant contribution to the spiderman canon was the design for what would become one of spidermans most wildly popular antagonists the supervillain venom issue no 299 apr 1988 featured venoms first appearance a lastpage cameo before his first full appearance in 300 may 1988 the latter issue featured spiderman reverting to his original redandblue costume other notable issues of the micheliniemcfarlane era include 312 feb 1989 featuring the green goblin vs the hobgoblin and 315317 mayjuly 1989 with the return of venom in july 2012 todd mcfarlanes original cover art for the amazing spiderman no 328 sold for a bid of 657250 making it the most expensive american comic book art ever sold at auction 1990s with a civilian life as a married man the spiderman of the 1990s was different from the superhero of the previous three decades mcfarlane left the title in 1990 to write and draw a new series titled simply spiderman his successor erik larsen penciled the book from early 1990 to mid1991 after issue no 350 larsen was succeeded by mark bagley who had won the 1986 marvel tryout contest and was assigned a number of lowprofile penciling jobs followed by a run on new warriors in 1990 bagley penciled the flagship spiderman title from 1991 to 1996 during that time bagleys rendition of spiderman was used extensively for licensed material and merchandise issues 361363 apriljune 1992 introduced carnage a second symbiote nemesis for spiderman the series 30thanniversary issue no 365 aug 1992 was a doublesized hologramcover issue with the cliffhanger ending of peter parkers parents long thought dead reappearing alive it would be close to two years before they were revealed to be impostors who are killed in no 388 april 1994 scripter michelinies last issue his 19871994 stint gave him the secondlongest run as writer on the title behind stan lee issue no 375 was released with a gold foil cover there was an error affecting some issues and which are missing the majority of the foil with no 389 writer j m dematteis whose spiderman credits included the 1987 kravens last hunt story arc and a 19911993 run on the spectacular spiderman took over the title from october 1994 to june 1996 amazing stopped running stories exclusive to it and ran installments of multipart stories that crossed over into all the spiderman books one of the few selfcontained stories during this period was in no 400 april 1995 which featured the death of aunt may later revealed to have been faked although the death still stands in the mc2 continuity the clone saga culminated with the revelation that the spiderman who had appeared in the previous 20 years of comics was a clone of the real spiderman this plot twist was massively unpopular with many readers and was later reversed in the revelations story arc that crossed over the spiderman books in late 1996 the clone saga tied into a publishing gap after no 406 oct 1995 when the title was temporarily replaced by the amazing scarlet spider 12 novdec 1995 featuring ben reilly the series picked up again with no 407 jan 1996 with tom defalco returning as writer bagley completed his 5½year run by september 1996 a succession of artists including ron garney steve skroce joe bennett rafael kayanan and john byrne penciled the book until the final issue no 441 nov 1998 after which marvel rebooted the title with vol 2 no 1 jan 1999 relaunch and the 2000s marvel began the amazing spiderman relaunching the amazing comic book series with vol 2 1 jan 1999 howard mackie wrote the first 29 issues the relaunch included the sandman being regressed to his criminal ways and the death of mary jane which was ultimately reversed other elements included the introduction of a new spiderwoman who was spun off into her own shortlived series and references to john byrnes miniseries spiderman chapter one which was launched at the same time as the reboot byrne also penciled issues 118 from 1999 to 2000 and wrote 1314 john romita jr took his place soon after in october 2000 mackies run ended with the amazing spiderman annual 2001 which saw the return of mary jane who then left parker upon reuniting with him with issue no 30 june 2001 j michael straczynski took over as writer and oversaw additional storylines most notably his lengthy spidertotem arc which raised the issue of whether spidermans powers were magicbased rather than as the result of a radioactive spiders bite additionally straczynski resurrected the plot point of aunt may discovering her nephew was spiderman and returned mary jane with the couple reuniting in the amazing spiderman vol 2 50 straczynski gave spiderman a new profession having parker teach at his former high school issue no 30 began a dual numbering system with the original series numbering 471 returned and placed alongside the volume two number on the cover other longtime rebooted marvel comics titles including fantastic four likewise were given the dual numbering around this time after vol 2 58 nov 2003 the title reverted completely to its original numbering for issue no 500 dec 2003 mike deodato jr penciled the series from mid2004 until 2006 that year peter parker revealed his spiderman identity on live television in the companycrossover storyline civil war in which the superhero community is split over whether to conform to the federal governments new superhuman registration act this knowledge was erased from the world with the event of the fourpart crossover story arc one more day written partially by j michael straczynski and illustrated by joe quesada running through the amazing spiderman 544545 novdec 2007 friendly neighborhood spiderman no 24 nov 2007 and the sensational spiderman no 41 dec 2007 the final issues of those two titles here the demon mephisto makes a faustian bargain with parker and mary jane offering to save parkers dying aunt may if the couple will allow their marriage to have never existed rewriting that portion of their pasts this story arc marked the end of straczynskis work on the title following this marvel made the amazing spiderman the companys sole spiderman title increasing its frequency of publication to three issues monthly and inaugurating the series with a sequence of back to basics story arcs under the banner of brand new day parker now exists in a changed world where he and mary jane had never married and parker has no memory of being married to her with domino effect differences in their immediate world the most notable of these revisions to spiderman continuity are the return of harry osborn whose death in the spectacular spiderman no 200 may 1993 is erased and the reestablishment of spidermans secret identity with no one except mary jane able to recall that parker is spiderman although he soon reveals his secret identity to the new avengers and the fantastic four under the banner of brand new day marvel tried to only use newly created villains instead of relying on older ones characters like mister negative and overdrive both in free comic book day 2007 spiderman july 2007 menace in no 549 march 2008 ana and sasha kravinoff in no 565 september 2008 and no 567 october 2008 respectively and several more were introduced the alternating regular writers were initially dan slott bob gale marc guggenheim and zeb wells joined by a rotation of artists that included steve mcniven salvador larroca phil jimenez barry kitson chris bachalo mike mckone marcos martín and john romita jr joe kelly mark waid fred van lente and roger stern later joined the writing team and paolo rivera lee weeks and marco checchetto the artist roster waids work on the series included a meeting between spiderman and stephen colbert in the amazing spiderman no 573 dec 2008 issue no 583 march 2009 included a backup story in which spiderman meets president barack obama 2010s and temporary end of publication mark waid scripted the opening of the gauntlet storyline in issue no 612 jan 2010 the gauntlet story was concluded by grim hunt no 634637 which saw the resurrection of longdead spiderman villain kraven the hunter the series became a twicemonthly title with dan slott as sole writer at issue no 648 jan 2011 launching the big time storyline eight additional pages were added per issue big time saw major changes in spidermanpeter parkers life peter would start working at horizon labs and begin a relationship with carlie cooper his first serious relationship since his marriage to mary jane mac gargan returned as scorpion after spending the past few years as venom phil urich would take up the mantle of hobgoblin and the death of j jonah jamesons wife marla jameson issues 654 and 6541 saw the birth of agent venom flash thompson bonded with the venom symbiote which would lead to venom getting his own series venom volume 2 starting in no 659 and going to no 665 the series builtup to the spiderisland event which officially started in no 666 and ended in no 673 ends of the earth was the next event that ran from no 682 through no 687 this publishing format lasted until issue no 700 which concluded the dying wish storyline in which parker and doctor octopus swapped bodies and the latter taking on the mantle of spiderman when parker apparently died in doctor octopus body the amazing spiderman ended with this issue with the story continuing in the new series the superior spiderman despite the superior spiderman being considered a different series to the amazing spiderman the first 33 issue run goes towards the legacy numbering of the amazing spiderman acting as issues 701733 in december 2013 the series returned for five issues numbered 7001 through 7005 with the first two written by david morrell and drawn by klaus janson 2014 relaunch in january 2014 marvel confirmed that the amazing spiderman would be relaunched on april 30 2014 starting from issue no 1 with peter parker as spiderman once again the first issue of this new version of the amazing spiderman was according to diamond comics distributors the bestselling comic book in over a decade issues 16 were a story arc called lucky to be alive taking place immediately after goblin nation with issues no 4 and no 5 being a crossover with the original sin storyline issue no 4 introduced silk a new heroine who was bitten by the same spider as peter parker issues 78 featured a teamup between ms marvel and spiderman and had backup stories that tied into edge of spiderverse the next major plot arc titled spiderverse began in issue no 9 and ended in no 15 features every spiderman from across the dimensions being hunted by morlun and a teamup to stop him with peter parker of earth616 in command of the spidermens alliance the amazing spiderman annual no 1 of the relaunched series was released in december 2014 featuring stories unrelated to spiderverse the amazing spiderman renew your vows in 2015 marvel started the universe wide secret wars event where the core and several other marvel universes were combined into one big planet called battleworld battleworld was divided into sections with most of them being selfcontained universes marvel announced that several of these selfcontained universes would get their own tie in series and one of them was amazing spiderman renew your vows an alternate universe where peter parker and mary jane are still married and give birth to their child annie may parker written by dan slott despite the series being considered separate from the main amazing spiderman series the original 5 issue run is counted towards its legacy numbering acting as no 752756 2015 relaunch following the 2015 secret wars event a number of spidermanrelated titles were either relaunched or created as part of the allnew alldifferent marvel event among them the amazing spiderman was relaunched as well and primarily focused on peter parker continuing to run parker industries and becoming a successful businessman operating worldwide it also tied with civil war ii involving an inhuman named ulysses cain who can predict possible futures dead no more where ben reilly the original scarlet spider revealed to be revived and as one of the antagonists instead and secret empire during hydras reign led by a hydra influenced captain americasteve rogers and the dismissal of parker industries by peter parker to stop otto octavius starting in september 2017 marvel started the marvel legacy event which renumbered several marvel series to their original numbering the amazing spiderman was put back to its original numbering for 789 issues 789 through 791 focused on the aftermath of peter destroying parker industries and his fall from grace issues 792 and 793 were part of the venom inc story threat level red was the story for the next three issues which saw norman osborn obtain and bond with the carnage symbiote go down swinging saw the results of the combination of osborns goblin serum and carnage symbiote creating the red goblin issue no 801 was dan slotts goodbye issue 2018 relaunch in march 2018 it was announced that writer nick spencer would be writing the main semimonthly the amazing spiderman series beginning with a new no 1 replacing longtime writer dan slott as part of the fresh start relaunch that july the first fiveissue story arc was titled back to basics during the back to basics story kindred a mysterious villain with some relation to peters past was introduced and peter resumed his romantic relationship with mary jane once more the first major story under spencer was hunted which ran through issues 16 through 23 the story also included four hu issues for issues 16 18 19 and 20 the end of the story saw the death of longrunning spiderman villain kraven the hunter being replaced by his clone son the last son of kraven 2020s issue 45 kicked off the sins rising story which saw the resurrected sineater carry out the plans of kindred to cleanse the world of sin particularly that of norman osborn the story concluded with issue 49 issue 850 in legacy numbering seeing spiderman and green goblin team up to defeat sineater last remains started in issue 50 and concluded in issue 55 the story saw kindreds plans come to fruition as he tormented spiderman the story has also seen five lr for issues 50 51 52 53 and 54 which focused on the order of the web a new faction of spiderpeople consisting of julia carpenter madame web miles morales spiderman gwen stacy ghostspider cindy moon silk jessica drew spiderwoman and anya corazon spidergirl the story also revealed that kindred is harry osborn last remains also received two fallout issues called last remains postmortem nick spencer concluded his run with the sinister war story which wrapped up in no 74 legacy numbering 875 the story saw several retcons to the spiderman mythos including that kindred was gabriel and sarah stacy all along the fact that the stacy twins were actually genetically engineered beings using norman osborn and gwen stacys dna that the harry osborn that returned in brand new day was actually a clone and that norman had made a deal with mephisto where he sold harrys soul to the demon the story ended with the deaths of the harry clone gabriel and sarah and the real harrys soul being freed from mephistos grasp after spencer left the book marvel announced the beyond era of spiderman would start in 75 the book would be moving back to the format it had during brand new day where it would have a rotating cast of writers including kelly thompson saladin ahmed cody ziglar patrick gleason and zeb wells the book would also be released three times a month beyond would focus on ben reilly taking up the mantle of spiderman once again but backed by the beyond corporation peter also falls ill and cannot be spiderman so he gives ben his blessing to carry on as the main spiderman however following the conclusion of the storyline in 93 peter has resumed active duties as spiderman while ben suffers a mental breakdown and becomes the villain chasm 2022 relaunch in january 2022 it was announced that writer zeb wells and john romita jr would be working on a relaunched the amazing spiderman bringing the number of volumes for the title to its sixth with the series beginning in april 2022 as a semimonthly publication the relaunch encompasses both a legacy numbering of 900 as well as the 60th anniversary for the character the relaunch took place months after a mysterious event that left peter on bad terms with the superhero community and ended his relationship with mary jane he ends up taking a job at oscorp and begins working closely with norman osborn and starts dating black cat the volumes first crossover event was entitled dark web with chasm having teamed up with madelyne pryor to bring limbo to earth its later revealed that benjamin rabin the emissary of the mayan god of mischief wayeb sent peter and mary jane to an alternate dimension to conduct a ceremony that would allow wayeb to control the earth peter was sent back to his earth while due to the alternative passage of time mary jane and paul rabins son in that dimension spent four years in the realm together and adopted two children when peter eventually rescued them mary jane refused to part with her new family rabin then planned to sacrifice mary jane to resurrect wayeb but is ultimately stopped by ms marvel sacrificing herself but not before rabin reveals that paul and mary janes kids were illusions created by him and ceased their existence contributors vol 1 19631998 20032014 20172018 writers pencilers vol 2 19992003 writers pencilers vol 3 20142015 writers pencilers vol 4 20152017 writers pencilers vol 5 20182022 writers pencilers vol 6 2022present writers pencilers collected editions blackandwhite essential spiderman vol 1 120 annual 1 amazing fantasy 15 essential spiderman vol 2 2143 annual 23 essential spiderman vol 3 4465 annual 4 essential spiderman vol 4 6689 annual 5 essential spiderman vol 5 90113 essential spiderman vol 6 114137 giantsize super heroes 1 giantsize spiderman 12 essential spiderman vol 7 138160 annual 10 giantsize spiderman 45 essential spiderman vol 8 161185 annual 11 giantsize spiderman 6 nova 12 essential spiderman vol 9 186210 annual 1314 peter parker spectacular spiderman annual 1 essential spiderman vol 10 211230 annual 15 essential spiderman vol 11 231248 annual 1617 major story arcsartist runs marvel visionaries john romita sr 3940 42 50 108109 365 daredevil 1617 untold tales of spiderman 1 spiderman the death of captain stacy 8890 spiderman the death of gwen stacy 9698 121122 webspinners tales of spiderman 1 spiderman death of the stacys 8892 121122 a new goblin 176180 spiderman vs the black cat 194195 204205 226227 spiderman origin of the hobgoblin 238239 244245 249251 spectacular spiderman vol 1 85 spiderman birth of venom 252259 298300 315317 annual 25 fantastic four 274 secret wars 8 web of spiderman 1 the amazing spiderman the wedding 290292 annual 2 not brand echh 6 spiderman kravens last hunt 293294 web of spiderman 3132 the spectacular spiderman 131132 visionaries todd mcfarlane 298305 legends vol 2 todd mcfarlane 306314 the spectacular spiderman annual 10 legends vol 3 todd mcfarlane 315323 325 328 spiderman venom returns 330333 344347annual 25 spiderman carnage 344345 359363 collections vol 1 coming home 3035471476 vol 2 revelations 3639477480 vol 3 until the stars turn cold 4045481486 vol 4 the life and death of spiders 4650487491 vol 5 unintended consequences 5156492497 vol 6 happy birthday 5758500502498502 vol 7 the book of ezekiel 503508 vol 8 sins past 509514 vol 9 skin deep 515518 vol 10 new avengers 519524 spiderman the other 525528 friendly neighborhood spiderman 14 marvel knights spiderman 1922 civil war the road to civil war 529531 new avengers illuminati oneshot fantastic four 536537 vol 11 civil war 532538 vol 12 back in black 539543 friendly neighborhood spiderman 1723 annual 1 spiderman one more day 544545 friendly neighborhood spiderman 24 the sensational spiderman 41 marvel spotlight spiderman one more daybrand new day brand new day vol 1 546551 the amazing spiderman swing shift directors cut venom superspecial brand new day vol 2 552558 brand new day vol 3 559563 kravens first hunt 564567 the amazing spiderman extra 1 story 2 new ways to die 568573 marvel spotlight spiderman brand new day crime and punisher 574577 the amazing spiderman extra 1 story 1 death and dating 578583 annual 351 election day 584588 the amazing spiderman extra 1 story 3 3 story 1 the amazing spiderman presidents day special 247 589594 the amazing spiderman extra 2 american son 595599 material from the amazing spiderman extra 3 died in your arms tonight 600601 annual 36 material from amazing spiderman family 7 redheaded stranger 602605 return of the black cat 606611 material from web of spiderman vol 2 1 the gauntlet book 1 electro and sandman 612616 dark reign the list the amazing spiderman web of spiderman vol 2 2 electro story the gauntlet book 2 rhino and mysterio 617621 web of spiderman vol 2 34 the gauntlet book 3 vulture and morbius 622625 web of spiderman vol 2 2 5 vulture story the gauntlet book 4 juggernaut 229230 626629 the gauntlet book 5 lizard 629633 web of spiderman vol 2 6 spiderman grim hunt 634637 the amazing spiderman extra 3 spiderman grim hunt the kraven saga web of spiderman vol 2 7 one moment in time 638641 origin of the species 642647 spiderman saga web of spiderman vol 2 12 big time 648651 matters of life and death 652657 6541 spiderman the fantastic spiderman 658662 spiderman the return of antivenom 663665 free comic book day 2011 spiderman spiderman spiderisland 666673 venom 2011 68 spiderisland deadly foes infested prologues from 659660 and 662665 spiderman flying blind 674677 daredevil 8 spiderman trouble on the horizon 678681 6791 spiderman ends of the earth 682687 amazing spiderman ends of the earth 1 avenging spiderman 8 spiderman lizard no turning back 688691 untold tales of spiderman 9 spiderman danger zone 692697 avenging spiderman 11 spiderman dying wish 698700 the amazing spiderman omnibus vol 1 138 annual 12 amazing fantasy 15 strange tales annual 2 fantastic four annual 1 the amazing spiderman omnibus vol 2 3967 annual 35 spectacular spiderman 12 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 1 110 amazing fantasy 15 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 2 1119 annual 1 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 3 2030 annual 2 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 4 3140 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 5 4150 annual 3 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 6 5161 annual 4 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 7 6267 annual 5 the spectacular spiderman 12 magazine marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 8 6877 marvel super heroes 14 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 9 7887 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 10 8899 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 11 100109 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 12 110120 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 13 121131 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 14 132142 giantsize superheroes 1 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 15 143155 marvel special edition treasury 1 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 16 156168 annual 10 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 17 169180 annual 11 nova 12 marvel treasury edition 14 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 18 181192 mighty marvel comics calendar 1978 material from annual 12 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 19 193202 annual 13 peter parker the spectacular spiderman annual 1 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 20 203212 annual 14 marvel masterworks the amazing spiderman vol 21 213223 annual 15 amazing spiderman vol 1 the parker luck vol 3 16 ie legacy 732737 amazing spiderman vol 2 spiderverse prelude 78 ie legacy 738739 superior spiderman 3233 free comic book day 2014 guardians of the galaxy 1 amazing spiderman vol 3 spiderverse 915 ie legacy 740746 amazing spiderman vol 4 graveyard shift 1618 ie legacy 747749 annual 2015 amazing spiderman vol 5 spiral 161201ie legacy 750751 amazing spiderman renew your vows 15 ie legacy 752756 amazing spiderman worldwide vol 1 vol 4 15 amazing spiderman worldwide vol 2 611 amazing spiderman worldwide vol 3 1215 amazing spiderman worldwide vol 4 1619 amazing spiderman worldwide vol 5 2024 annual 1 amazing spiderman worldwide vol 6 2528 amazing spiderman worldwide vol 7 2932 ie legacy 785788 789791 amazing spiderman venom inc venom inc alpha venom inc omega 792793 venom 159160 amazing spiderman worldwide vol 8 794796 annual amazing spiderman worldwide vol 9 797801 amazing spiderman clone conspiracy 1924 the clone conspiracy 15 the clone conspiracy omega silk 1417 prowler 15 amazing spiderman red goblin 794801 amazing spiderman vol 1 back to basics 15 fcbd 2018 amazing spiderman amazing spiderman vol 2 friends and foes 610 amazing spiderman vol 3 lifetime achievement 1115 amazing spiderman vol 4 hunted 1623 161 181201 amazing spiderman vol 5 behind the scenes 2428 amazing spiderman vol 6 absolute carnage 2931 amazing spiderman vol 7 2099 3236 amazing spiderman vol 8 threats menaces 3743 amazing spiderman vol 9 sins rising 4447 amazing spider man sins rising 1 amazing spiderman vol 10 green goblin returns 4849 amazing spiderman the sins of norman osborn 1 fcbd 2020 spidermanvenom amazing spiderman vol 11 last remains 5055 amazing spiderman last remains companion 501541 amazing spiderman vol 12 shattered web 5660 amazing spiderman vol 13 kings ransom 6165 giant size amazing spiderman kings ransom 1 amazing spiderman vol 14 chameleon conspiracy 6669 giant size amazing spiderman chameleon conspiracy 1 amazing spiderman vol 15 what cost victory 7074 amazing spiderman beyond vol 1 7580 78bey amazing spiderman beyond vol 2 8185 80bey amazing spiderman beyond vol 3 8688 88bey amazing spiderman beyond vol 4 8993 92bey amazing spiderman vol 1 world without love 15 amazing spiderman vol 2 the new sinister 68 amazing spiderman vol 3 hobgoblin 914 amazing spiderman vol 4 dark web 1518 dark web 1 dark web omega 1 amazing spiderman vol 5 dead language 1923 see also references the amazing spiderman comic book sales figures from 1966present at the comics chronicles spiderman at marvel comics wikia the amazing spiderman cover gallery spiderman videos 1963 comics debuts comics by archie goodwin comics comics by dennis oneil comics by gerry conway comics by j m dematteis comics by j michael straczynski comics by john byrne comics comics by len wein comics by mark waid comics by marv wolfman comics by roger stern comics by stan lee comics by steve ditko spiderman titles	7,413
933	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AM	AM	am or am may refer to arts and entertainment music a minor a minor scale in music am chris young album am wilco album am abraham mateo album am arctic monkeys album am musician american musician am the a minor chord symbol armeemarschsammlung army march collection catalog of german military march music andrew moore musician canadian musician known as am dj am american dj and producer skengdo am british hip hop duo television and radio am radio program australian current affairs radio program american morning american morning television news program am antes del mediodía argentine current affairs television program am a character in the anthology star wars visions other media allied mastercomputer the antagonist of the short story i have no mouth and i must scream education active minds a mental health awareness charity arts et métiers paristech a french engineering school australian museum a museum in australia master of arts an academic degree military am the united states navy hull classification symbol for minesweeper air marshal a senior air officer rank used in commonwealth countries antimateriel rifle rifle designed for use against military equipment aviation structural mechanic a us navy occupational rating science am a complexity class related to arthurmerlin protocol adrenomedullin a protein air mass astronomy measure of the amount of air along the line of sight in astronomical observations am tropical monsoon climate in the köppen climate classification americium symbol am a chemical element attometre a unit of length attomolar am a unit of molar concentration technology am internet domain for armenia am a file extension associated with automake software am broadcasting radio broadcasting using amplitude modulation additive manufacturing or 3d printing a process of making a threedimensional solid object of virtually any shape from a digital model agile modeling a software engineering methodology for modeling and documenting software systems amplitude modulation an electronic communication technique automated mathematician an artificial intelligence program timekeeping anno martyrum a method of numbering years in the coptic calendar anno mundi a calendar era based on the biblical creation of the world ante meridiem latin for before midday written eg 6am transportation am automobile a 1906 french car aeroméxico iata airline code am airline in mexico allmountain a discipline of mountain biking arkansas and missouri railroad other uses am cuneiform a written syllable member of the order of australia postnominal letters which can be used by a member of the order assembly member disambiguation a political office formerly a member of the national assembly for wales now member of the senedd member of the london assembly amharic language iso 6391 language code am anguilla loc marc code am armenia iso country code am attacking midfielder a position in association football the book of amos part of the tanakh and old testament firstperson singular present of the copula verb to be see also proam am disambiguation am disambiguation am2 disambiguation ams disambiguation	479
951	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigua%20and%20Barbuda	Antigua and Barbuda	antigua and barbuda is a sovereign island country in the caribbean it lies at the conjuncture of the caribbean sea and the atlantic ocean in the leeward islands part of the lesser antilles the country consists of two major islands antigua and barbuda which are approximately apart and several smaller islands including great bird green guiana long maiden prickly pear york and redonda the permanent population is approximately 97120 estimates with 97 residing in antigua st johns antigua is the countrys capital major city and largest port codrington is barbudas largest town in 1493 christopher columbus surveyed the island of antigua which he named for the church of santa maría la antigua great britain colonized antigua in 1632 and barbuda in 1678 a part of the federal colony of the leeward islands from 1871 antigua and barbuda joined the west indies federation in 1958 with the breakup of the federation in 1962 it became one of the west indies associated states in 1967 following a period of internal selfgovernance it gained full independence from the united kingdom on 1 november 1981 antigua and barbuda is a member of the commonwealth and a commonwealth realm it is a constitutional monarchy with charles iii as its head of state the economy of antigua and barbuda is largely dependent on tourism which accounts for 80 of its gdp like other island nations antigua and barbuda is vulnerable to the effects of climate change such as sea level rise and increased intensity of extreme weather like hurricanes these cause coastal erosion water scarcity and other challenges antigua and barbuda offers a citizenship by investment program the country levies no personal income tax etymology is spanish for ancient and is spanish for bearded the island of antigua was originally called by the arawaks and is locally known by that name today the caribs possibly called barbuda christopher columbus while sailing by in 1493 may have named it after an icon in the spanish seville cathedral the bearded of barbuda is thought to refer either to the male inhabitants of the island or the bearded fig trees present there history precolonial period antigua was first settled by archaic age huntergatherer native americans called the ciboney carbon dating has established the earliest settlements started around 3100 bc they were succeeded by the ceramic age precolumbian arawakspeaking saladoid people who migrated from the lower orinoco river they introduced agriculture raising among other crops the famous antigua black pineapple ananas comosus corn sweet potatoes chiles guava tobacco and cotton later on the more bellicose caribs also settled the island possibly by force european arrival and settlement christopher columbus was the first european to sight the islands in 1493 the spanish did not colonise antigua until after a combination of european and african diseases malnutrition and slavery eventually extirpated most of the native population smallpox was probably the greatest killer the english settled on antigua in 1632 christopher codrington settled on barbuda in 1685 tobacco and then sugar was grown worked by a large population of slaves transported from west africa who soon came to vastly outnumber the european settlers colonial era the english maintained control of the islands repulsing an attempted french attack in 1666 the brutal conditions endured by the slaves led to revolts in 1701 and 1729 and a planned revolt in 1736 the last led by prince klaas though it was discovered before it began and the ringleaders were executed slavery was abolished in the british empire in 1833 affecting the economy this was exacerbated by natural disasters such as the 1843 earthquake and the 1847 hurricane mining occurred on the isle of redonda however this ceased in 1929 and the island has since remained uninhabited part of the leeward islands colony antigua and barbuda became part of the shortlived west indies federation from 1958 to 1962 antigua and barbuda subsequently became an associated state of the united kingdom with full internal autonomy on 27 february 1967 the 1970s were dominated by discussions as to the islands future and the rivalry between vere bird of the antigua and barbuda labour party ablp premier from 1967 to 1971 and 1976 to 1981 and the progressive labour movement plm of george walter premier 19711976 eventually antigua and barbuda gained full independence on 1 november 1981 vere bird became prime minister of the new country the country opted to remain within the commonwealth retaining queen elizabeth as head of state with the first governor sir wilfred jacobs as governorgeneral succeeding sir wilfred jacobs were sir james carlisle june 10 1993june 30 2007 dame louise laketack july 17 2007august 14 2014 and the present governor sir rodney williams august 14 2014present independence era the first two decades of antiguas independence were dominated politically by the bird family and the ablp with vere bird ruling from 1981 to 1994 followed by his son lester bird from 1994 to 2004 though providing a degree of political stability and boosting tourism to the country the bird governments were frequently accused of corruption cronyism and financial malfeasance vere bird jr the elder son was forced to leave the cabinet in 1990 following a scandal in which he was accused of smuggling israeli weapons to colombian drugtraffickers another son ivor bird was convicted of selling cocaine in 1995 in 1995 hurricane luis caused severe damage on barbuda the ablps dominance of antiguan politics ended with the 2004 antiguan general election which was won by winston baldwin spencers united progressive party upp winston baldwin spencer was prime minister of antigua and barbuda from 2004 to 2014 however the upp lost the 2014 antiguan general election with the ablp returning to power under gaston browne ablp won 15 of the 17 seats in the 2018 snap election under the leadership of incumbent prime minister gaston browne in 2016 nelsons dockyard was designated as a unesco world heritage site most of barbuda was devastated in early september 2017 by hurricane irma which brought winds with speeds reaching 295 kmh 185 mph the storm damaged or destroyed 95 of the islands buildings and infrastructure leaving barbuda barely habitable according to prime minister gaston browne nearly everyone on the island was evacuated to antigua amidst the following rebuilding efforts on barbuda that were estimated to cost at least 100 million the government announced plans to revoke a centuryold law of communal land ownership by allowing residents to buy land a move that has been criticised as promoting disaster capitalism geography limestone formations rather than volcanic activity have had the most impact on the topography of both antigua and barbuda which are both relatively lowlying islands boggy peak also known as mt obama from 2008 to 2016 is the highest point on both antigua and barbuda it is the remnant of a volcanic crater and rises a total of 402 meters boggy peak is located in the southwest of antigua 1319 feet both of these islands have very irregularly shaped coastlines that are dotted with beaches lagoons and natural harbors there are reefs and shoals that surround the islands on all sides because of the low amount of rainfall there are not many streams on neither of these islands can sufficient quantities of fresh groundwater be found redonda is a small uninhabited island located about 40 kilometers 25 miles to the southwest of antigua redonda is a rocky island cities and villages the most populous cities in antigua and barbuda are mostly on antigua being saint johns all saints piggotts and liberta the most populous city on barbuda is codrington it is estimated that 25 of the population lives in an urban area which is much lower than the international average of 55 islands antigua and barbuda consists mostly of its two namesake islands antigua and barbuda other than that antigua and barbudas biggest islands are guiana island and long island off the coast of antigua and redonda island which is far from both of the main islands climate rainfall averages per year with the amount varying widely from season to season in general the wettest period is between september and november the islands generally experience low humidity and recurrent droughts temperatures average with a range from to in the winter to from to in the summer and autumn the coolest period is between december and february hurricanes strike on an average of once a year including the powerful category 5 hurricane irma on 6 september 2017 which damaged 95 of the structures on barbuda some 1800 people were evacuated to antigua an estimate published by time indicated that over 100 million would be required to rebuild homes and infrastructure philmore mullin director of barbudas national office of disaster services said that all critical infrastructure and utilities are nonexistent food supply medicine shelter electricity water communications waste management he summarised the situation as follows public utilities need to be rebuilt in their entirety it is optimistic to think anything can be rebuilt in six months in my 25 years in disaster management i have never seen something like this environmental issues demographics ethnic groups antigua has a population of mostly made up of people of west african british and portuguese descent the ethnic distribution consists of 91 black 44 mixed race 17 white and 29 other primarily east indian most whites are of british descent christian levantine arabs and a small number of east asians and sephardic jews make up the remainder of the population an increasingly large percentage of the population lives abroad most notably in the united kingdom antiguan britons the united states and canada a minority of antiguan residents are immigrants from other countries particularly from dominica guyana and jamaica and increasingly from the dominican republic st vincent and the grenadines and nigeria an estimated 4500 american citizens also make their home in antigua and barbuda making their numbers one of the largest american populations in the englishspeaking eastern caribbean 6847 of the population was born in antigua and barbuda languages the language most commonly used in business is english there is a noticeable distinction between the antiguan accent and the barbudan one when compared to antiguan creole standard english was the language of choice in the years leading up to antigua and barbudas attainment of their independence the antiguan creole language is looked down upon by the upper and middle classes in general the antiguan creole language is discouraged from use in the educational system and instruction is carried out in standard british english instead a significant number of the words that are utilized in the antiguan dialect are derived from both the british and african languages this is readily apparent in phrases such as innit which literally translates to isnt it many common island proverbs can be traced back to africa such as the pidgin language approximately 10000 people are able to speak in spanish religion a majority 77 of antiguans are christians with the anglicans 176 being the largest single denomination other christian denominations present are seventhday adventist church 124 pentecostalism 122 moravian church 83 roman catholics 82 methodist church 56 wesleyan holiness church 45 church of god 41 baptists 36 mormonism 10 as well as jehovahs witnesses governance political system the politics of antigua and barbuda take place within a framework of a unitary parliamentary representative democratic monarchy in which the head of state is the monarch who appoints the governorgeneral as viceregal representative charles iii is the present king of antigua and barbuda having served in that position since the death of his mother elizabeth ii she had been the queen since the islands independence from the united kingdom in 1981 the king is currently represented by governorgeneral sir rodney williams a council of ministers is appointed by the governorgeneral on the advice of the prime minister currently gaston browne 2014 the prime minister is the head of government executive power is exercised by the government while legislative power is vested in both the government and the two chambers of parliament the bicameral parliament consists of the senate 17 members appointed by members of the government and the opposition party and approved by the governorgeneral and the house of representatives 17 members elected by first past the post to serve fiveyear terms the current leader of his majestys loyal opposition is jamale pringle there has been recent development in the republicanism movement in antigua and barbuda following barbados becoming a republic in 2021 and following the death of elizabeth ii in 2022 with an opinion poll showing majority support for the change elections the last election was held on 21 march 2018 the antigua barbuda labour party ablp led by prime minister gaston browne won 15 of the 17 seats in the house of representatives the previous election was on 12 june 2014 during which the antigua labour party won 14 seats and the united progressive party 3 seats since 1951 elections have been won by the populist antigua labour party however in the antigua and barbuda legislative election of 2004 saw the defeat of the longestserving elected government in the caribbean vere bird was prime minister from 1981 to 1994 and chief minister of antigua from 1960 to 1981 except for the 19711976 period when the progressive labour movement plm defeated his party bird the nations first prime minister is credited with having brought antigua and barbuda and the caribbean into a new era of independence prime minister lester bryant bird succeeded the elder bird in 1994 party elections gaston browne defeated his predecessor lester bryant bird at the antigua labour partys biennial convention in november 2012 held to elect a political leader and other officers the party then altered its name from the antigua labour party alp to the antigua and barbuda labour party ablp this was done to officially include the partys presence on the sister island of barbuda in its organisation the only political party on the mainland to have a physical branch in barbuda judiciary the eastern caribbean supreme court is the highest court in the regions judicial system based in saint lucia one judge of the supreme court is a resident of the islands and presides over the high court of justice the caribbean court of justice counts antigua as one of its member states its highest court of appeal is the judicial committee of the privy council which acts in that capacity foreign relations antigua and barbuda is a member of the united nations the bolivarian alliance for the americas the commonwealth of nations the caribbean community the organization of eastern caribbean states the organization of american states the world trade organization and the eastern caribbeans regional security system antigua and barbuda is also a member of the international criminal court with a bilateral immunity agreement of protection for the us military as covered under article 98 of the rome statute in 2013 antigua and barbuda called for reparations for slavery at the united nations prime minister baldwin spencer said we have recently seen a number of leaders apologising and that they should now match their words with concrete and material benefits military about 260 people are currently serving in the antigua and barbuda defense force in a variety of capacities these personnel are distributed across the line infantry regiment the service and support unit the air force and the coast guard in addition there is the antigua and barbuda cadet corps which is made up of two hundred young people between the ages of 12 and 18 the defence board is in charge of directing the activities of the armed forces of the nation the national security council and the financial intelligence unit are the two intelligence agencies that antigua and barbuda have at their disposal camp blizzard serves as the administrative center for the defense force in 2018 antigua and barbuda signed the un treaty on the prohibition of nuclear weapons administrative divisions antigua and barbuda is divided into six parishes and two dependencies although they are referred to as dependencies both barbuda and redonda are actually integral parts of the state and can be thought of as administrative divisions simply put dependency is just a title the redonda is a secondlevel administrative division that is part of the saint john parishs district a barbuda is a local administrative division on the same level as antigua and barbuda and its council is the name of its local governing body in the year 2023 there have been discussions regarding the possibility of extending governmental authority to antiguas parishes there are currently sixty of what are known as major divisions on the islands of antigua and barbuda this administrative tier is known as the second level local government in the country of antigua and barbuda is only present on the island of barbuda at the present time however there is legislation in place for a system of village councils on the island of antigua however village councils have not been active since the 1940s and 1950s human rights as of july 2022 samesex sexual activity is legal in antigua and barbuda economy tourism dominates the economy accounting for more than half of the gross domestic product gdp as a destination for the most affluent travelers antigua is well known for its extensive collection of fivestar resorts however weaker tourist activity in lower and middle market segments since the beginning of the year 2000 has slowed the economy and put the government into a tight fiscal corner antigua and barbuda has enacted policies to attract highnetworth citizens and residents such as enacting a 0 personal income tax rate in 2019 the provision of investment banking and financial services also constitutes a significant portion of the economy major international financial institutions such as the royal bank of canada rbc and scotiabank both maintain offices in antigua pricewaterhousecoopers pannell kerr forster and kpmg are some of the other companies in the financial services industry that have offices in antigua the united states securities and exchange commission has leveled allegations against the antiguabased stanford international bank which is owned by the texas billionaire allen stanford of orchestrating a massive fraud that may have resulted in the theft of approximately 8 billion from investors the nation which consists of two islands directs the majority of its agricultural production toward the markets that are found within the nation this is done despite the fact that the nation has a limited water supply and a shortage of laborers as a result of the higher wages offered in the tourism and construction industries manufacturing comprises 2 of gdp and is made up of enclavetype assembly for export the major products being bedding handicrafts and electronic components prospects for economic growth in the medium term will continue to depend on income growth in the industrialised world especially in the united states from which about onethird to onehalf of all tourists come access to biocapacity is lower than world average in 2016 antigua and barbuda had 08 global hectares of biocapacity per person within its territory much less than the world average of 16 global hectares per person in 2016 antigua and barbuda used 43 global hectares of biocapacity per person their ecological footprint of consumption this means they use more biocapacity than antigua and barbuda contains as a result antigua and barbuda are running a biocapacity deficit the citizenship by investment unit ciu is the government authority responsible for processing all applications for agents licenses as well as all applications for citizenship by investment made by applicants and their family members this unit was established by the prime minister and is known as the citizenship by investment unit transport the transportation networks of antigua and barbuda are made up of both publicly operated and privately managed services the roads in the countryside are paved and their paths are winding and gradual in their ascents and descents they connect parishes to villages and communities cars are driven on the left side of the road antigua and barbuda has a speed limit of 40 miles per hour and there are traffic signs posted along the main roads that make it easier to commute additionally gps coordinates have been posted throughout the country which has made the process of navigation more manageable on the yellow license plates of public transportation vehicles the letters bus indicate that the vehicle is a bus and the letters tx indicate that the vehicle is a taxi taxi services are subject to government regulation which results in the establishment of flat rates rather than the use of meters it is required that taxi drivers keep a copy of the rates posted inside the cab at all times taxis are not hard to come by on antigua in particular you can find them at the airport and in the major hotels the role of tour guide is one that is frequently taken on by taxi drivers on the island of antigua buses run continuously throughout the day from 530 am until 600 pm connecting the capital city of st johns with a number of the surrounding villages on the other hand buses do not make stops at the airport or in the tourist area to the north although the timing of the bus departure is frequently up to the discretion of the driver most buses operate according to a predetermined schedule the routes that most buses take are typically displayed in the front windows of the vehicles which are typically private minivans with seating for approximately 15 passengers each both the east bus station on independence avenue close to the botanical gardens and the market street bus station close to the central market are the two bus stations that serve the city of st johns there are also a number of bus companies operating on the island of barbuda education culture the culture is primarily influenced by the traditions of west africa as well as those of the united kingdom the most popular sport in the country is cricket football boat racing and surfing are three additional popular forms of athletic competition antigua sailing week attracts locals and visitors from all over the world music due to the fact that the majority of antiguans and barbudans are descended from west africans who were brought to the islands as slaves by europeans the musical traditions of antigua and barbuda are predominately of an african origin and have only been marginally influenced by european musical traditions the island nation of antigua and barbuda can be found in the lesser antilles chain of islands in the caribbean it is a second home for many of the popular music genres that are popular throughout the caribbean including calypso soca steeldrum zouk and reggae and it has produced stars in these genres steeldrum and calypso are two musical styles that were brought to antigua from trinidad and tobago and they are the two that have had the most significant impact on the development of modern antiguan popular music other than this there has been very little to no research done on the musical history of antigua and barbuda as a consequence of this a significant amount of the knowledge on the subject comes from novels essays and other types of secondary sources festivals although on some islands carnival may be used to celebrate the beginning of lent the national carnival held every august is held to commemorate the abolition of slavery in the british west indies the national carnival is held in august the festive pageants shows and competitions along with the other events that take place are a major draw for tourists cuisine antigua and barbuda cuisine is a term used to describe the culinary traditions of the islands of antigua and barbuda in the caribbean fungie pronounced foonjee and pepperpot are the countrys official dish and dish of pride cornmeal is the main ingredient in fungie which is a dish that is very similar to the italian dish polenta other popular dishes from this region include ducana saltfish seasoned rice and lobster from barbuda in addition there are sweets that are made locally such as peanut brittle sugar cake fudge raspberry and tamarind stew and other similar dishes despite the fact that these foods are native to antigua and barbuda as well as to a number of other caribbean nations the diet of the locals has become increasingly diverse and now also includes traditional dishes from jamaica and trinidad such as jerk meats and roti as well as specialties from a number of other caribbean nations saltfish eggs eggplant also referred to as troba lettuce and other vegetables are typically served for breakfast lunches typically consist of a starch such as rice macaroni or pasta with vegetables or salad an entree such as fish chicken pork or beef and a side dish such as macaroni pie scalloped potatoes or plantains dinners typically consist of a protein such as fish chicken pork or beef on sundays the majority of people in the country attend religious services and then they return home to prepare a wide variety of meals for their families due to the fact that most people are off work on sundays dinner is typically served earlier in the day around 200 pm dinners might consist of pork chicken baked in the oven stewed lamb or turkey served with rice prepared in a variety of ways macaroni pie salads and a local beverage dessert options include ice cream and cake apple pie or mango or pineapple pie when those fruits are in season gelatin and cake the soft buttery loaf of bread known as antiguan butter bread does not require any additional butter to be added once it has been baked this dish is another mainstay of antiguan cuisine breakfast and other meals throughout the day often consist of freshbaked butter bread and cheese for the communitys residents throughout the city of antigua there are a great number of homes that have small bakeries built onto them these bakeries sell freshly baked loaves and locals can go to these bakeries to buy them they are served alongside cheese sardines andor a bright red sausage that residents of the area occasionally refer to as salami in addition to a great deal of other foods in addition the majority of meals feature something known as provisions which is typically a root vegetable or starch such as potatoes yams sweet potatoes or eddo during carnival a popular snack is souse which is a type of soup that is very spicy and is made with pig feet knuckles and tails in addition to many onions this soup is sold by vendors on the side of the road black pudding also referred to as blood sausage is a wellseasoned sausage that is made with rice meat and blood that is also enjoyed by locals in antigua on improvised grills locals in the countryside sell freshly picked corn that has been roasted typically while still in the husk the antiguan pineapple is typically quite succulent and sugary despite its diminutive size the entire island is covered with numerous small pineapple plantations the following are some examples of local beverages mauby seamoss tamarind juice raspberry juice mango juice lemonade coconut milk hibiscus juice ginger beer passion fruit juice guava juice soursop juice and ginger beer which is a soft drink beer malts and rums are some of the alcoholic beverages that can be found here many of these drinks are produced locally such as the awardwinning english harbour rum and the wadadli beer which takes its name from the islands former name a significant number of residents in the area consume bottled sodas which they refer to as sweet drink punch is a flavor that is enjoyed by many in addition to red stripe beer guinness stout heineken beer and malta the locals like to drink red malta ponche kuba cream liqueur is a special celebratory alcoholic drink that is very popular in antigua during the christmas holiday season this beverage has a brown color has a thick and creamy consistency is extremely sweet and contains a high percentage of alcohol media the antigua daily observer the antigua news room and the antiguan times are the names of the countrys three newspapers the antigua observer is the only newspaper that is published every day in printed form it is possible to watch the local television channel abs tv 10 it is the only station that shows exclusively local programs there are also a number of radio stations that broadcast regionally and locally some of these stations include v2cam 620 zdkam 1100 vybzfm 929 zdkfm 971 observer radio 911 fm dneca radio 901 fm second advent radio 1015 fm abundant life radio 1039 fm crusader radio 1073 fm nice fm 1043 pointe fm 991 and wtp 935fm monuments fort james an 18th century fort at the eastern entrance to st johns harbour fort barrington an 18th century fort at the western entrance to of st johns harbour shirley heights grounds of an 18th century military complex overlooking english harbour fort berkeley museums museum of antigua and barbuda dockyard museum bettys hope dows hill interpretation centre sports cricket is the most popular sport in the islands with sir isaac vivian alexander richards who represented the west indies cricket team between 1974 and 1991 antigua had one of the worlds most famous batsmen ever the antigua and barbuda national cricket team represented the country at the 1998 commonwealth games but antiguan cricketers otherwise play for the leeward islands cricket team in domestic matches and the west indies cricket team internationally the 2007 cricket world cup was hosted in the west indies from 11 march to 28 april 2007 antigua hosted eight matches at the sir vivian richards stadium which was completed on 11 february 2007 and can hold up to 20000 people antigua is a host of stanford twenty20 twenty20 cricket a version started by allen stanford in 2006 as a regional cricket game with almost all caribbean islands taking part from 15 january to 5 february 2022 the sir vivian richards stadium was one of the venues for the 2022 icc under19 cricket world cuprugby and netball are popular as well association football or soccer is also a very popular sport antigua has a national football team which entered world cup qualification for the 1974 tournament and for 1986 and beyond a professional team was formed in 2011 antigua barracuda fc which played in the usl pro a lower professional league in the us the nations team had a major achievement in 2012 getting out of its preliminary group for the 2014 world cup notably due to a victory over powerful haiti in its first game in the next concacaf group play on 8 june 2012 in tampa fl antigua and barbuda comprising 17 barracuda players and 7 from the lower english professional leagues scored a goal against the united states however the team lost 31 to the us daniel bailey had become the first antiguan to reach a world indoor final where he won a bronze medal at the 2010 iaaf world indoor championships he was also the first antiguan to make a 100m final at the 2009 world championships in athletics and the first antiguan to run under 10 seconds over 100m brendan christian won a gold medal in the 200m and bronze medal in the 100m at the 2007 pan american games james grayman won a bronze medal at the same games in the mens high jump miguel francis is the first antiguan to run sub 20 seconds in the 200m heather samuel won a bronze medal at the 1995 pan american games over 100m 400m hurdles olympian gold medalist rai benjamin previously represented antigua and barbuda before representing the united states his silver medal run at the 2020 olympic games made him the secondfastest person in history over 400m hurdles with a time of 4617 notable people symbols the frigatebird is the countrys official national bird and the bucida buceras is the official national tree whitewood tree clare waight keller designed meghan markles wedding veil which featured the distinctive flora of each commonwealth nation to represent antigua and barbuda agave karatto was included in the veil by clare waight keller the european fallow deer or dama dama is the countrys official mammal despite the fact that it is a nonnative species in 1992 the government held a contest to design a new national dress for the country and the winner of the competition was the artist heather doram see also geology of antigua and barbuda outline of antigua and barbuda index of antigua and barbudarelated articles transport in antigua and barbuda references works cited further reading nicholson desmond v antigua barbuda and redonda a historical sketch st johns antigua antigua and barbuda museum 1991 dyde brian a history of antigua the unsuspected isle london macmillan caribbean 2000 gaspar david barry bondmen rebels a study of masterslave relations in antigua with implications for colonial america harris david r plants animals and man in the outer leeward islands west indies an ecological study of antigua barbuda and anguilla henry paget peripheral capitalism and underdevelopment in antigua lazarusblack mindie legitimate acts and illegal encounters law and society in antigua and barbuda riley j h catalogue of a collection of birds from barbuda and antigua british west indies rouse irving and birgit faber morse excavations at the indian creek site antigua west indies thomas hearne southampton external links antigua and barbuda united states library of congress antigua and barbuda the world factbook central intelligence agency antigua and barbuda from ucb libraries govpubs antigua and barbuda from the bbc news world banks country data profile for antigua and barbuda archaeologyantiguaorg 2010march13 source of archaeological information for antigua and barbuda antigua barbuda official business hub countries in the caribbean island countries commonwealth realms countries in north america countries and territories where english is an official language member states of the caribbean community member states of the commonwealth of nations member states of the organisation of eastern caribbean states member states of the united nations small island developing states british leeward islands former british colonies and protectorates in the americas former colonies in north america 1630s establishments in the caribbean 1632 establishments in the british empire 1981 disestablishments in the united kingdom states and territories established in 1981	5,729
953	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azincourt	Azincourt	azincourt historically known in english as agincourt is a commune in the pasdecalais department in northern france it is situated northwest of saintpolsurternoise on the d71 road between hesdin and fruges the late medieval battle of agincourt between the english and the french took place in the commune in 1415 toponym the name is attested as aisincurt in 1175 derived from a germanic masculine name aizo aizino and the early northern french word curt which meant a farm with a courtyard derived from the late latin cortem the name has no etymological link with agincourt meurtheetmoselle attested as egincourt 875 which is derived separately from another germanic male name ingin history azincourt is known for being near the site of the battle fought on 25 october 1415 in which the army led by king henry v of england defeated the forces led by charles dalbret on behalf of charles vi of france which has gone down in history as the battle of agincourt according to m forrest the french knights were so encumbered by their armour that they were exhausted even before the start of the battle after he became king in 1509 henry viii is purported to have commissioned an english translation of a life of henry v so that he could emulate him on the grounds that he thought that launching a campaign against france would help him to impose himself on the european stage in 1513 henry viii crossed the english channel stopping by at azincourt the battle as was the tradition was named after a nearby castle called azincourt the castle has since disappeared and the settlement now known as azincourt adopted the name in the seventeenth century john cassell wrote in 1857 that the village of azincourt itself is now a group of dirty farmhouses and wretched cottages but where the hottest of the battle raged between that village and the commune of tramecourt there still remains a wood precisely corresponding with the one in which henry placed his ambush and there are yet existing the foundations of the castle of azincourt from which the king named the field population sights the original battlefield museum in the village featured model knights made out of action man figures this has now been replaced by the centre historique médiéval dazincourt chma more professional museum conference centre and exhibition space incorporating laser video slide shows audio commentaries and some interactive elements the museum building is shaped like a longbow similar to those used at the battle by archers under king henry since 2004 a large medieval festival organised by the local community the chm the azincourt alliance and various other uk societies commemorating the battle local history and medieval life arts and crafts has been held in the village prior to this date the festival was held in october but due to the inclement weather and local heavy clay soil like the battle making the festival difficult it was moved to the last sunday in july international relations azincourt is twinned with middleham united kingdom see also communes of the pasdecalais department the neighbourhood of agincourt toronto canada named for azincourt not agincourt meurtheetmoselle references communes of pasdecalais artois	531
954	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Speer	Albert Speer	berthold konrad hermann albert speer 19 march 1905 1 september 1981 was a german architect who served as the minister of armaments and war production in nazi germany during most of world war ii a close ally of adolf hitler he was convicted at the nuremberg trial and sentenced to 20 years in prison an architect by training speer joined the nazi party in 1931 his architectural skills made him increasingly prominent within the party and he became a member of hitlers inner circle hitler commissioned him to design and construct structures including the reich chancellery and the nazi party rally grounds in nuremberg in 1937 hitler appointed speer as general building inspector for berlin in this capacity he was responsible for the central department for resettlement that evicted jewish tenants from their homes in berlin in february 1942 speer was appointed as reich minister of armaments and war production using misleading statistics he promoted himself as having performed an armaments miracle that was widely credited with keeping germany in the war in 1944 speer established a task force to increase production of fighter aircraft it became instrumental in exploiting slave labor for the benefit of the german war effort after the war albert speer was among the 24 major war criminals charged with the crimes of the nazi regime before the international military tribunal he was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity principally for the use of slave labor narrowly avoiding a death sentence having served his full term speer was released in 1966 he used his writings from the time of imprisonment as the basis for two autobiographical books inside the third reich and spandau the secret diaries speers books were a success the public was fascinated by an inside view of the third reich speer died of a stroke in 1981 little remains of his personal architectural work through his autobiographies and interviews speer carefully constructed an image of himself as a man who deeply regretted having failed to discover the monstrous crimes of the third reich he continued to deny explicit knowledge of and responsibility for the holocaust this image dominated his historiography in the decades following the war giving rise to the speer myth the perception of him as an apolitical technocrat responsible for revolutionizing the german war machine the myth began to fall apart in the 1980s when the armaments miracle was attributed to nazi propaganda adam tooze wrote in the wages of destruction that the idea that speer was an apolitical technocrat was absurd martin kitchen writing in speer hitlers architect stated that much of the increase in germanys arms production was actually due to systems instituted by speers predecessor fritz todt and furthermore that speer was intimately involved in the final solution early years and personal life speer was born in mannheim into an uppermiddleclass family he was the second of three sons of luise máthilde wilhelmine hommel and albert friedrich speer in 1918 the family leased their mannheim residence and moved to a home they had in heidelberg henry t king deputy prosecutor at the nuremberg trials who later wrote a book about speer said love and warmth were lacking in the household of speers youth his brothers ernst and hermann bullied him throughout his childhood speer was active in sports taking up skiing and mountaineering he followed in the footsteps of his father and grandfather and studied architecture speer began his architectural studies at the university of karlsruhe instead of a more highly acclaimed institution because the hyperinflation crisis of 1923 limited his parents income in 1924 when the crisis had abated he transferred to the much more reputable technical university of munich in 1925 he transferred again this time to the technical university of berlin where he studied under heinrich tessenow whom speer greatly admired after passing his exams in 1927 speer became tessenows assistant a high honor for a man of 22 as such speer taught some of his classes while continuing his own postgraduate studies in munich speer began a close friendship ultimately spanning over 50 years with rudolf wolters who also studied under tessenow in mid1922 speer began courting margarete margret weber 19051987 the daughter of a successful craftsman who employed 50 workers the relationship was frowned upon by speers classconscious mother who felt the webers were socially inferior despite this opposition the two married in berlin on 28 august 1928 seven years elapsed before margarete was invited to stay at her inlaws home the couple would have six children together but albert speer grew increasingly distant from his family after 1933 he remained so even after his release from imprisonment in 1966 despite their efforts to forge closer bonds party architect and government functionary joining the nazis 19311934 in january 1931 speer applied for nazi party membership and on 1 march 1931 he became member number 474481 the same year with stipends shrinking amid the depression speer surrendered his position as tessenows assistant and moved to mannheim hoping to make a living as an architect after he failed to do so his father gave him a parttime job as manager of his properties in july 1932 the speers visited berlin to help out the party before the reichstag elections while they were there his friend nazi party official karl hanke recommended the young architect to joseph goebbels to help renovate the partys berlin headquarters when the commission was completed speer returned to mannheim and remained there as hitler took office in january 1933 the organizers of the 1933 nuremberg rally asked speer to submit designs for the rally bringing him into contact with hitler for the first time neither the organizers nor rudolf hess were willing to decide whether to approve the plans and hess sent speer to hitlers munich apartment to seek his approval this work won speer his first national post as nazi party commissioner for the artistic and technical presentation of party rallies and demonstrations shortly after hitler came into power he began to make plans to rebuild the chancellery at the end of 1933 he contracted paul troost to renovate the entire building hitler appointed speer whose work for goebbels had impressed him to manage the building site for troost as chancellor hitler had a residence in the building and came by every day to be briefed by speer and the building supervisor on the progress of the renovations after one of these briefings hitler invited speer to lunch to the architects great excitement speer quickly became part of hitlers inner circle he was expected to call on him in the morning for a walk or chat to provide consultation on architectural matters and to discuss hitlers ideas most days he was invited to dinner in the english version of his memoirs speer says that his political commitment merely consisted of paying his monthly dues he assumed his german readers would not be so gullible and told them the nazi party offered a new mission he was more forthright in an interview with william hamsher in which he said he joined the party in order to save germany from communism after the war he claimed to have had little interest in politics at all and had joined almost by chance like many of those in power in the third reich he was not an ideologue nor was he anything more than an instinctive antisemite the historian magnus brechtken discussing speer said he did not give antijewish public speeches and that his antisemitism can best be understood through his actionswhich were antisemitic brechtken added that throughout speers life his central motives were to gain power rule and acquire wealth nazi architect 19341937 when troost died on 21 january 1934 speer effectively replaced him as the partys chief architect hitler appointed speer as head of the chief office for construction which placed him nominally on hesss staff one of speers first commissions after troosts death was the zeppelinfeld stadium in nuremberg it was used for nazi propaganda rallies and can be seen in leni riefenstahls propaganda film triumph of the will the building was able to hold 340000 people speer insisted that as many events as possible be held at night both to give greater prominence to his lighting effects and to hide the overweight nazis nuremberg was the site of many official nazi buildings many more buildings were planned if built the german stadium in nuremberg would have accommodated 400000 spectators speer modified werner marchs design for the olympic stadium being built for the 1936 summer olympics he added a stone exterior that pleased hitler speer designed the german pavilion for the 1937 international exposition in paris berlins general building inspector 19371942 on 30 january 1937 hitler appointed speer as general building inspector for the reich capital this carried with it the rank of state secretary in the reich government and gave him extraordinary powers over the berlin city government he was to report directly to hitler and was independent of both the mayor and the gauleiter of berlin hitler ordered speer to develop plans to rebuild berlin these centered on a threemilelong grand boulevard running from north to south which speer called the prachtstrasse or street of magnificence he also referred to it as the northsouth axis at the northern end of the boulevard speer planned to build the volkshalle a huge domed assembly hall over high with floor space for 180000 people at the southern end of the avenue a great triumphal arch almost high and able to fit the arc de triomphe inside its opening was planned the existing berlin railroad termini were to be dismantled and two large new stations built speer hired wolters as part of his design team with special responsibility for the prachtstrasse the outbreak of world war ii in 1939 led to the postponement and later the abandonment of these plans which after nazi capitulation speer himself considered as awful plans to build a new reich chancellery had been underway since 1934 land had been purchased by the end of 1934 and starting in march 1936 the first buildings were demolished to create space at voßstraße speer was involved virtually from the beginning in the aftermath of the night of the long knives he had been commissioned to renovate the borsig palace on the corner of voßstraße and wilhelmstraße as headquarters of the sturmabteilung sa he completed the preliminary work for the new chancellery by may 1936 in june 1936 he charged a personal honorarium of 30000 reichsmark and estimated the chancellery would be completed within three to four years detailed plans were completed in july 1937 and the first shell of the new chancellery was complete on 1 january 1938 on 27 january 1938 speer received plenipotentiary powers from hitler to finish the new chancellery by 1 january 1939 for propaganda hitler claimed during the toppingout ceremony on 2 august 1938 that he had ordered speer to complete the new chancellery that year shortages of labor meant the construction workers had to work in tentotwelvehour shifts the ss built two concentration camps in 1938 and used the inmates to quarry stone for its construction a brick factory was built near the oranienburg concentration camp at speers behest when someone commented on the poor conditions there speer stated the yids got used to making bricks while in egyptian captivity the chancellery was completed in early january 1939 the building itself was hailed by hitler as the crowning glory of the greater german political empire during the chancellery project the pogrom of kristallnacht took place speer made no mention of it in the first draft of inside the third reich it was only on the urgent advice of his publisher that he added a mention of seeing the ruins of the central synagogue in berlin from his car kristallnacht accelerated speers ongoing efforts to dispossess berlins jews from their homes from 1939 on speers department used the nuremberg laws to evict jewish tenants of nonjewish landlords in berlin to make way for nonjewish tenants displaced by redevelopment or bombing eventually 75000 jews were displaced by these measures speer denied he knew they were being put on holocaust trains and claimed that those displaced were completely free and their families were still in their apartments he also said en route to my ministry on the city highway i could see crowds of people on the platform of nearby nikolassee railroad station i knew that these must be berlin jews who were being evacuated i am sure that an oppressive feeling struck me as i drove past i presumably had a sense of somber events matthias schmidt said speer had personally inspected concentration camps and described his comments as an outright farce martin kitchen described speers often repeated line that he knew nothing of the dreadful things as hollowbecause not only was he fully aware of the fate of the jews he was actively participating in their persecution as germany started world war ii in europe speer instituted quickreaction squads to construct roads or clear away debris before long these units would be used to clear bomb sites speer used forced jewish labor on these projects in addition to regular german workers construction stopped on the berlin and nüremberg plans at the outbreak of war though stockpiling of materials and other work continued this slowed to a halt as more resources were needed for the armament industry speers offices undertook building work for each branch of the military and for the ss using slave labor speers building work made him among the wealthiest of the nazi elite minister of armaments appointment and increasing power as one of the younger and more ambitious men in hitlers inner circle speer was approaching the height of his power in 1938 prussian minister president hermann göring had appointed him to the prussian state council in 1941 he was elected to the reichstag from electoral constituency 2 berlinwest on 8 february 1942 reich minister of armaments and munitions fritz todt died in a plane crash shortly after taking off from hitlers eastern headquarters at rastenburg speer arrived there the previous evening and accepted todts offer to fly with him to berlin speer cancelled some hours before takeoff because the previous night he had been up late in a meeting with hitler hitler appointed speer in todts place martin kitchen a british historian says that the choice was not surprising speer was loyal to hitler and his experience building prisoner of war camps and other structures for the military qualified him for the job speer succeeded todt not only as reich minister but in all his other powerful positions including inspector general of german roadways inspector general for water and energy and head of the nazi partys office of technology at the same time hitler also appointed speer as head of the organisation todt a massive governmentcontrolled construction company characteristically hitler did not give speer any clear remit he was left to fight his contemporaries in the regime for power and control as an example he wanted to be given power over all armaments issues under görings four year plan göring was reluctant to grant this however speer secured hitlers support and on 1 march 1942 göring signed a decree naming speer general plenipotentiary for armament tasks in the four year plan speer proved to be ambitious unrelenting and ruthless speer set out to gain control not just of armaments production in the army but in the whole armed forces it did not immediately dawn on his political rivals that his calls for rationalization and reorganization were hiding his desire to sideline them and take control by april 1942 speer had persuaded göring to create a threemember central planning board within the four year plan which he used to obtain supreme authority over procurement and allocation of raw materials and scheduling of production in order to consolidate german war production in a single agency speer was fêted at the time and in the postwar era for performing an armaments miracle in which german war production dramatically increased this miracle was brought to a halt in the summer of 1943 by among other factors the first sustained allied bombing other factors probably contributed to the increase more than speer himself germanys armaments production had already begun to result in increases under his predecessor todt naval armaments were not under speers supervision until october 1943 nor the luftwaffes armaments until june of the following year yet each showed comparable increases in production despite not being under speers control another factor that produced the boom in ammunition was the policy of allocating more coal to the steel industry production of every type of weapon peaked in june and july 1944 but there was now a severe shortage of fuel after august 1944 oil from the romanian fields was no longer available oil production became so low that any possibility of offensive action became impossible and weaponry lay idle as minister of armaments speer was responsible for supplying weapons to the army with hitlers full agreement he decided to prioritize tank production and he was given unrivaled power to ensure success hitler was closely involved with the design of the tanks but kept changing his mind about the specifications this delayed the program and speer was unable to remedy the situation in consequence despite tank production having the highest priority relatively little of the armaments budget was spent on it this led to a significant german army failure at the battle of prokhorovka a major turning point on the eastern front against the soviet red army as head of organisation todt speer was directly involved in the construction and alteration of concentration camps he agreed to expand auschwitz and some other camps allocating 137 million reichsmarks for the work to be carried out this allowed an extra 300 huts to be built at auschwitz increasing the total human capacity to 132000 included in the building works was material to build gas chambers crematoria and morgues the ss called this professor speers special programme speer realized that with six million workers drafted into the armed forces there was a labor shortage in the war economy and not enough workers for his factories in response hitler appointed fritz sauckel as a manpower dictator to obtain new workers speer and sauckel cooperated closely to meet speers labor demands hitler gave sauckel a free hand to obtain labor something that delighted speer who had requested 1000000 voluntary laborers to meet the need for armament workers sauckel had whole villages in france holland and belgium forcibly rounded up and shipped to speers factories sauckel obtained new workers often using the most brutal methods in occupied areas of the soviet union that had been subject to partisan action civilian men and women were rounded up en masse and sent to work forcibly in germany by april 1943 sauckel had supplied 1568801 voluntary laborers forced laborers prisoners of war and concentration camp prisoners to speer for use in his armaments factories it was for the maltreatment of these people that speer was principally convicted at the nuremberg trials consolidation of arms production following his appointment as minister of armaments speer was in control of armaments production solely for the army he coveted control of the production of armaments for the luftwaffe and kriegsmarine as well he set about extending his power and influence with unexpected ambition his close relationship with hitler provided him with political protection and he was able to outwit and outmaneuver his rivals in the regime hitlers cabinet was dismayed at his tactics but regardless he was able to accumulate new responsibilities and more power by july 1943 he had gained control of armaments production for the luftwaffe and kriegsmarine in august 1943 he took control of most of the ministry of economics to become in admiral dönitzs words europes economic dictator his formal title was changed on 2 september 1943 to reich minister for armaments and war production he had become one of the most powerful people in nazi germany speer and his handpicked director of submarine construction otto merker believed that the shipbuilding industry was being held back by outdated methods and revolutionary new approaches imposed by outsiders would dramatically improve output this belief proved incorrect and speer and merkers attempt to build the kriegsmarines new generation of submarines the type xxi and type xxiii as prefabricated sections at different facilities rather than at single dockyards contributed to the failure of this strategically important program the designs were rushed into production and the completed submarines were crippled by flaws which resulted from the way they had been constructed while dozens of submarines were built few ever entered service in december 1943 speer visited organisation todt workers in lapland where he seriously damaged his knee and was incapacitated for several months he was under the dubious care of professor karl gebhardt at a medical clinic called hohenlychen where patients mysteriously failed to survive in midjanuary 1944 speer had a lung embolism and fell seriously ill concerned about retaining power he did not appoint a deputy and continued to direct work of the armaments ministry from his bedside speers illness coincided with the allied big week a series of bombing raids on the german aircraft factories that were a devastating blow to aircraft production his political rivals used the opportunity to undermine his authority and damage his reputation with hitler he lost hitlers unconditional support and began to lose power in response to the allied big week adolf hitler authorized the creation of a fighter staff committee its aim was to ensure the preservation and growth of fighter aircraft production the task force was established by 1 march 1944 orders of speer with support from erhard milch of the reich aviation ministry production of german fighter aircraft more than doubled between 1943 and 1944 the growth however consisted in large part of models that were becoming obsolescent and proved easy prey for allied aircraft on 1 august 1944 speer merged the fighter staff into a newly formed armament staff committee the fighter staff committee was instrumental in bringing about the increased exploitation of slave labor in the war economy the ss provided 64000 prisoners for 20 separate projects from various concentration camps including mittelbaudora prisoners worked for junkers messerschmitt henschel and bmw among others to increase production speer introduced a system of punishments for his workforce those who feigned illness slacked off sabotaged production or tried to escape were denied food or sent to concentration camps in 1944 this became endemic over half a million workers were arrested by this time 140000 people were working in speers underground factories these factories were deathtraps discipline was brutal with regular executions there were so many corpses at the dora underground factory for example that the crematorium was overwhelmed speers own staff described the conditions there as hell the largest technological advance under speers command came through the rocket program it began in 1932 but had not supplied any weaponry speer enthusiastically supported the program and in march 1942 made an order for a4 rockets the predecessor of the worlds first ballistic missile the v2 rocket the rockets were researched at a facility in peenemünde along with the v1 flying bomb the v2s first target was paris on 8 september 1944 the program while advanced proved to be an impediment to the war economy the large capital investment was not repaid in military effectiveness the rockets were built at an underground factory at mittelwerk labor to build the a4 rockets came from the mittelbaudora concentration camp of the 60000 people who ended up at the camp 20000 died due to the appalling conditions on 14 april 1944 speer lost control of organisation todt to his deputy franz xaver dorsch he opposed the assassination attempt against hitler on 20 july 1944 he was not involved in the plot and played a minor role in the regimes efforts to regain control over berlin after hitler survived after the plot speers rivals attacked some of his closest allies and his management system fell out of favor with radicals in the party he lost yet more authority defeat of nazi germany losses of territory and a dramatic expansion of the allied strategic bombing campaign caused the collapse of the german economy from late 1944 air attacks on the transport network were particularly effective as they cut the main centres of production off from essential coal supplies in january 1945 speer told goebbels that armaments production could be sustained for at least a year however he concluded that the war was lost after soviet forces captured the important silesian industrial region later that month nevertheless speer believed that germany should continue the war for as long as possible with the goal of winning better conditions from the allies than the unconditional surrender they insisted upon during january and february speer claimed that his ministry would deliver decisive weapons and a large increase in armaments production which would bring about a dramatic change on the battlefield speer gained control over the railways in february and asked heinrich himmler to supply concentration camp prisoners to work on their repair by midmarch speer had accepted that germanys economy would collapse within the next eight weeks while he sought to frustrate directives to destroy industrial facilities in areas at risk of capture so that they could be used after the war he still supported the wars continuation speer provided hitler with a memorandum on 15 march which detailed germanys dire economic situation and sought approval to cease demolitions of infrastructure three days later he also proposed to hitler that germanys remaining military resources be concentrated along the rhine and vistula rivers in an attempt to prolong the fighting this ignored military realities as the german armed forces were unable to match the allies firepower and were facing total defeat hitler rejected speers proposal to cease demolitions instead he issued the nero decree on 19 march which called for the destruction of all infrastructure as the army retreated speer was appalled by this order and persuaded several key military and political leaders to ignore it during a meeting with speer on 2829 march hitler rescinded the decree and gave him authority over demolitions speer ended them though the army continued to blow up bridges by april little was left of the armaments industry and speer had few official duties speer visited the führerbunker on 22 april for the last time he met hitler and toured the damaged chancellery before leaving berlin to return to hamburg on 29 april the day before committing suicide hitler dictated a final political testament which dropped speer from the successor government speer was to be replaced by his subordinate karlotto saur speer was disappointed that hitler had not selected him as his successor after hitlers death speer offered his services to the socalled flensburg government headed by hitlers successor karl dönitz he took a role in that shortlived regime as minister of industry and production speer provided information to the allies regarding the effects of the air war and on a broad range of subjects beginning on 10 may on 23 may two weeks after the surrender of german forces british troops arrested the members of the flensburg government and brought nazi germany to a formal end postwar nuremberg trial speer was taken to several internment centres for nazi officials and interrogated in september 1945 he was told that he would be tried for war crimes and several days later he was moved to nuremberg and incarcerated there speer was indicted on four counts participating in a common plan or conspiracy for the accomplishment of crime against peace planning initiating and waging wars of aggression and other crimes against peace war crimes and crimes against humanity the chief united states prosecutor robert h jackson of the us supreme court said speer joined in planning and executing the program to dragoon prisoners of war and foreign workers into german war industries which waxed in output while the workers waned in starvation speers attorney hans flächsner successfully contrasted speer from other defendants and portrayed him as an artist thrust into political life who had always remained a nonideologue speer was found guilty of war crimes and crimes against humanity principally for the use of slave labor and forced labor he was acquitted on the other two counts he had claimed that he was unaware of nazi extermination plans and the allies had no proof that he was aware his claim was revealed to be false in a private correspondence written in 1971 and publicly disclosed in 2007 on 1 october 1946 he was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment while three of the eight judges two soviet and american francis biddle advocated the death penalty for speer the other judges did not and a compromise sentence was reached after two days of discussions imprisonment on 18 july 1947 speer was transferred to spandau prison in berlin to serve his prison term there he was known as prisoner number five speers parents died while he was incarcerated his father who died in 1947 despised the nazis and was silent upon meeting hitler his mother died in 1952 as a nazi party member she had greatly enjoyed dining with hitler wolters and longtime speer secretary annemarie kempf while not permitted direct communication with speer in spandau did what they could to help his family and carry out the requests speer put in letters to his wifethe only written communication he was officially allowed beginning in 1948 speer had the services of toni proost a sympathetic dutch orderly to smuggle mail and his writings in 1949 wolters opened a bank account for speer and began fundraising among those architects and industrialists who had benefited from speers activities during the war initially the funds were used only to support speers family but increasingly the money was used for other purposes they paid for toni proost to go on holiday and for bribes to those who might be able to secure speers release once speer became aware of the existence of the fund he sent detailed instructions about what to do with the money wolters raised a total of dm158000 for speer over the final seventeen years of his sentence the prisoners were forbidden to write memoirs speer was able to have his writings sent to wolters however and they eventually amounted to 20000 pages he had completed his memoirs by november 1953 which became the basis of inside the third reich in spandau diaries speer aimed to present himself as a tragic hero who had made a faustian bargain for which he endured a harsh prison sentence much of speers energy was dedicated to keeping fit both physically and mentally during his long confinement spandau had a large enclosed yard where inmates were allocated plots of land for gardening speer created an elaborate garden complete with lawns flower beds shrubbery and fruit trees to make his daily walks around the garden more engaging speer embarked on an imaginary trip around the globe carefully measuring distance travelled each day he mapped distances to the realworld geography he had walked more than ending his sentence near guadalajara mexico speer also read studied architectural journals and brushed up on english and french in his writings speer claimed to have finished five thousand books while in prison his sentence of twenty years amounted to 7305 days which only allotted one and a half days per book speers supporters maintained calls for his release among those who pledged support for his sentence to be commuted were charles de gaulle and us diplomat george wildman ball willy brandt was an advocate of his release putting an end to the denazification proceedings against him which could have caused his property to be confiscated speers efforts for an early release came to naught the soviet union having demanded a death sentence at trial was unwilling to entertain a reduced sentence speer served a full term and was released at midnight on 1 october 1966 release and later life speers release from prison was a worldwide media event reporters and photographers crowded both the street outside spandau and the lobby of the hotel berlin where speer spent the night he said little reserving most comments for a major interview published in der spiegel in november 1966 although he stated he hoped to resume an architectural career his sole project a collaboration for a brewery was unsuccessful instead he revised his spandau writings into two autobiographical books inside the third reich in german erinnerungen or reminiscences and spandau the secret diaries he later published a work about himmler and the ss which has been published in english as the slave state heinrich himmlers masterplan for ss supremacy or infiltration how heinrich himmler schemed to build an ss industrial empire in german der sklavenstaat meine auseinandersetzung mit der ss speer was aided in shaping the works by joachim fest and wolf jobst siedler from the publishing house ullstein he found himself unable to reestablish a relationship with his children even with his son albert who had also become an architect according to speers daughter hilde schramm one by one my sister and brothers gave up there was no communication he supported hermann his brother financially after the war however his other brother ernst had died in the battle of stalingrad despite repeated requests from his parents for speer to repatriate him following his release from spandau speer donated the chronicle his personal diary to the german federal archives it had been edited by wolters and made no mention of the jews david irving discovered discrepancies between the deceptively edited chronicle and independent documents speer asked wolters to destroy the material he had omitted from his donation but wolters refused and retained an original copy wolters friendship with speer deteriorated and one year before speers death wolters gave matthias schmidt access to the unedited chronicle schmidt authored the first book that was highly critical of speer speers memoirs were a phenomenal success the public was fascinated by an inside view of the third reich and a major war criminal became a popular figure almost overnight importantly he provided an alibi to older germans who had been nazis if speer who had been so close to hitler had not known the full extent of the crimes of the nazi regime and had just been following orders then they could tell themselves and others they too had done the same so great was the need to believe this speer myth that fest and siedler were able to strengthen iteven in the face of mounting historical evidence to the contrary death speer made himself widely available to historians and other enquirers in october 1973 he made his first trip to britain flying to london to be interviewed on the bbc midweek programme in the same year he appeared on the television programme the world at war speer returned to london in 1981 to participate in the bbc newsnight programme he suffered a stroke and died in london on 1 september he had remained married to his wife but he had formed a relationship with a german woman living in london and was with her at the time of his death his daughter margret nissen wrote in her 2005 memoirs that after his release from spandau he spent all of his time constructing the speer myth the speer myth the good nazi after his release from spandau speer portrayed himself as the good nazi he was welleducated middle class and bourgeois and could contrast himself with those who in the popular mind typified bad nazis in his memoirs and interviews he had distorted the truth and made so many major omissions that his lies became known as myths speer even invented his own births circumstances stating falsely that he was born at midday amid crashes of thunder and bells of the nearby christ church whereas it was between three and five oclock and the church was built only some years after speer took his mythmaking to a mass media level and his cunning apologies were reproduced frequently in postwar germany isabell trommer writes in her biography of speer that fest and siedler were coauthors of speers memoirs and cocreators of his myths in return they were paid handsomely in royalties and other financial inducements speer siedler and fest had constructed a masterpiece the image of the good nazi remained in place for decades despite historical evidence indicating that it was false speer had carefully constructed an image of himself as an apolitical technocrat who deeply regretted having failed to discover the monstrous crimes of the third reich this construction was accepted almost at face value by historian hugh trevorroper when investigating the death of adolf hitler for british intelligence and in writing the last days of hitler trevorroper frequently refers to speer as a technocrat who nourished a technocrats philosophy one who cared only for his building projects or his ministerial duties and who thought that politics was irrelevant at least until hitlers nero decree which speer according to his own telling worked assiduously to counter trevorroper who calls speer an administrative genius whose basic instincts were peaceful and constructive does take speer to task however for his failure to recognize the immorality of hitler and nazism calling him the real criminal of nazi germany for ten years he sat at the very centre of political power his keen intelligence diagnosed the nature and observed the mutations of nazi government and policy he saw and despised the personalities around him he heard their outrageous orders and understood their fantastic ambitions but he did nothing supposing politics to be irrelevant he turned aside and built roads and bridges and factories while the logical consequences of government by madmen emerged ultimately when their emergence involved the ruin of all his work speer accepted the consequences and acted then it was too late germany had been destroyed after speers death matthias schmidt published a book that demonstrated that speer had ordered the eviction of jews from their berlin homes by 1999 historians had amply demonstrated that speer had lied extensively even so public perceptions of speer did not change substantially until heinrich breloer aired a biographical film on tv in 2004 the film began a process of demystification and critical reappraisal adam tooze in his book the wages of destruction said speer had manoeuvred himself through the ranks of the regime skillfully and ruthlessly and that the idea he was a technocrat blindly carrying out orders was absurd trommer said he was not an apolitical technocrat instead he was one of the most powerful and unscrupulous leaders in the nazi regime kitchen said he had deceived the nuremberg tribunal and postwar germany brechtken said that if his extensive involvement in the holocaust had been known at the time of his trial he would have been sentenced to death the image of the good nazi was supported by numerous speer myths in addition to the myth that he was an apolitical technocrat he claimed he did not have full knowledge of the holocaust or the persecution of the jews another myth posits that speer revolutionized the german war machine after his appointment as minister of armaments he was credited with a dramatic increase in the shipment of arms that was widely reported as keeping germany in the war another myth centered around a faked plan to assassinate hitler with poisonous gas the idea for this myth came to him after he recalled the panic when car fumes came through an air ventilation system he fabricated the additional details brechtken wrote that his most brazen lie was fabricated during an interview with a french journalist in 1952 the journalist described an invented scenario in which speer had refused hitlers orders and hitler had left with tears in his eyes speer liked the scenario so much that he wrote it into his memoirs the journalist had unwittingly collaborated in one of his myths speer also sought to portray himself as an opponent of hitlers leadership despite his opposition to the 20 july plot he falsely claimed in his memoirs to have been sympathetic to the plotters he maintained hitler was cool towards him for the remainder of his life after learning they had included him on a list of potential ministers this formed a key element of the myths speer encouraged speer also falsely claimed that he had realised the war was lost at an early stage and thereafter worked to preserve the resources needed for the civilian populations survival in reality he had sought to prolong the war until further resistance was impossible thus contributing to the large number of deaths and the extensive destruction germany suffered in the conflicts final months denial of responsibility speer maintained at the nuremberg trials and in his memoirs that he had no direct knowledge of the holocaust he admitted only to being uncomfortable around jews in the published version of the spandau diaries in his final statement at nuremberg speer gave the impression of apologizing although he did not directly admit any personal guilt and the only victim he mentioned was the german people historian martin kitchen states that speer was actually fully aware of what had happened to the jews and was intimately involved in the final solution brechtken said speer only admitted to a generalized responsibility for the holocaust to hide his direct and actual responsibility speer was photographed with slave laborers at mauthausen concentration camp during a visit on 31 march 1943 he also visited gusen concentration camp although survivor francisco boix testified at the nuremberg trials about speers visit taylor writes that had the photo been available he would have been hanged in 2005 the daily telegraph reported that documents had surfaced indicating that speer had approved the allocation of materials for the expansion of auschwitz concentration camp after two of his assistants inspected the facility on a day when almost a thousand jews were massacred heinrich breloer discussing the construction of auschwitz said speer was not just a cog in the workhe was the terror itself speer did not deny being present at the posen speeches to nazi leaders at a conference in posen poznań on 6 october 1943 but claimed to have left the auditorium before himmler said during his speech the grave decision had to be taken to cause this people to vanish from the earth and later the jews must be exterminated speer is mentioned several times in the speech and himmler addresses him directly in 2007 the guardian reported that a letter from speer dated 23 december 1971 had been found in a collection of his correspondence with hélène jeanty the widow of a belgian resistance fighter in the letter speer says there is no doubti was present as himmler announced on october 6 1943 that all jews would be killed armaments miracle speer was credited with an armaments miracle during the winter of 194142 in the light of germanys disastrous defeat in the battle of moscow the german leadership including friedrich fromm georg thomas and fritz todt had come to the conclusion that the war could not be won the rational position to adopt was to seek a political solution that would end the war without defeat speer in response used his propaganda expertise to display a new dynamism of the war economy he produced spectacular statistics claiming a sixfold increase in munitions production a fourfold increase in artillery production and he sent further propaganda to the newsreels of the country he was able to curtail the discussion that the war should be ended the armaments miracle was a myth speer had used statistical manipulation to support his claims the production of armaments did go up however this was due to the normal causes of reorganization before speer came to office the relentless mobilization of slave labor and a deliberate reduction in the quality of output to favor quantity by july 1943 speers armaments propaganda became irrelevant because a catalogue of dramatic defeats on the battlefield meant the prospect of losing the war could no longer be hidden from the german public architectural legacy little remains of speers personal architectural works other than the plans and photographs no buildings designed by speer during the nazi era are extant in berlin other than the 4 entrance pavilions and underpasses leading to the victory column or siegessäule and the schwerbelastungskörper a heavy loadbearing body built around 1941 the concrete cylinder high was used to measure ground subsidence as part of feasibility studies for a massive triumphal arch and other large structures planned within hitlers postwar renewal project for the city of berlin as the world capital germania the cylinder is now a protected landmark and is open to the public the tribune of the zeppelinfeld stadium in nuremberg though partly demolished can also be seen during the war the speerdesigned new reich chancellery was largely destroyed by air raids and in the battle of berlin the exterior walls survived but they were eventually dismantled by the soviets unsubstantiated rumors have claimed that the remains were used for other building projects such as the humboldt university mohrenstraße metro station and soviet war memorials in berlin see also speer goes to hollywood downfall 2004 german film where he was portrayed by actor heino ferch legion speer transportflotte speer transportkorps speer hermann giesler references informational notes citations bibliography printed sources online sources further reading external links francisco boix identifies speer at nuremberg 1905 births 1981 deaths 20thcentury german architects 20thcentury german male writers architects from mannheim architects in the nazi party articles containing video clips german memoirists german neoclassical architects german people convicted of crimes against humanity holocaust perpetrators karlsruhe institute of technology alumni members of the prussian state council nazi germany members of the reichstag of nazi germany nazi germany ministers nazi party officials neurological disease deaths in england people convicted by the international military tribunal in nuremberg people from the grand duchy of baden politicians from mannheim recipients of the knights cross of the war merit cross albert technical university of berlin alumni technical university of munich alumni	7,728
956	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteraceae	Asteraceae	the family asteraceae with the original name compositae consists of over 32000 known species of flowering plants in over 1900 genera within the order asterales commonly referred to as the aster daisy composite or sunflower family compositae were first described in the year 1740 the number of species in asteraceae is rivaled only by the orchidaceae and which is the larger family is unclear as the quantity of extant species in each family is unknown most species of asteraceae are annual biennial or perennial herbaceous plants but there are also shrubs vines and trees the family has a widespread distribution from subpolar to tropical regions in a wide variety of habitats most occur in hot desert and cold or hot semidesert climates and they are found on every continent but antarctica their primary common characteristic is flower heads technically known as capitula consisting of sometimes hundreds of tiny individual florets enclosed by a whorl of protective involucral bracts the oldest known fossils are pollen grains from the late cretaceous campanian to maastrichtian of antarctica dated to million years ago mya it is estimated that the crown group of asteraceae evolved at least 859 mya late cretaceous santonian with a stem node age of 8889 mya late cretaceous coniacian asteraceae is an economically important family providing food staples garden plants and herbal medicines species outside of their native ranges can be considered weedy or invasive description members of the asteraceae are mostly herbaceous plants but some shrubs vines and trees such as lachanodes arborea do exist asteraceae species are generally easy to distinguish from other plants because of their unique inflorescence and other shared characteristics such as the joined anthers of the stamens nonetheless determining genera and species of some groups such as hieracium is notoriously difficult see damned yellow composite for example roots members of the family asteraceae generally produce taproots but sometimes they possess fibrous root systems some species have underground stems in the form of caudices or rhizomes these can be fleshy or woody depending on the species stems stems are herbaceous aerial branched and cylindrical with glandular hairs generally erect but can be prostrate to ascending the stems can contain secretory canals with resin or latex which is particularly common among the cichorioideae leaves leaves can be alternate opposite or whorled they may be simple but are often deeply lobed or otherwise incised often conduplicate or revolute the margins also can be entire or toothed resin or latex also can be present in the leaves inflorescences nearly all asteraceae bear their flowers in dense flower heads called capitula they are surrounded by involucral bracts and when viewed from a distance each capitulum may appear to be a single flower enlarged outer peripheral flowers in the capitulum may resemble petals and the involucral bracts may look like a calyx floral heads in plants of the asteraceae what appears to be a single daisytype flower is actually a composite of several much smaller flowers known as the capitulum or head by visually presenting as a single flower the capitulum functions in attracting pollinators in the same manner that other showy flowering plants in numerous other older plant families have evolved to attract pollinators the previous name for the family compositae reflects the fact that what appears to be a single floral entity is in fact a composite of much smaller flowers the petals or sunrays in an asteraceous head are in fact individual strapshaped flowers called ray flowers or ray florets and the sun disk is made up of smaller radially symmetric individual flowers called disc flowers or disc florets the word aster means star in greek referring to the appearance of most family members as a celestial body with rays the capitulum which often appears to be a single flower is often referred to as a head in some species the entire head is able to pivot its floral stem in the course of the day to track the sun like a smart solar panel thus maximizing the reflectivity of the entire floral unit and further attracting flying pollinators nearest to the flower stem lie a series of small usually green scalelike bracts these are known as phyllaries collectively they form the involucre which serves to protect the immature head of florets during its development the individual florets are arranged atop a domelike structure called the receptacle the individual florets in a head consist developmentally of five fused petals rarely four instead of sepals they have threadlike hairy or bristly structures known collectively as a pappus plural pappi the pappus surrounds the ovary and can when mature and attached to a seed adhere to animal fur or be carried by air currents aiding in seed dispersal the whitish fluffy head of a dandelion commonly blown on by children consists of numerous seeds resting on the receptacle each seed attached to its pappus the pappi provide a parachutelike structure to help the seed travel from its point of origin to a more hospitable site a ray flower is a two or threelobed strapshaped individual flower found in the head of most members of the asteraceae the corolla of the ray flower may have two tiny vestigial teeth opposite to the threelobed strap or tongue indicating its evolution by fusion from an ancestral fivepart corolla in some species the 32 arrangement is reversed with two lobes and zero or three tiny teeth visible opposite the tongue a ligulate flower is a fivelobed strapshaped individual flower found in the heads of certain other asteraceous species a ligule is the strapshaped tongue of the corolla of either a ray flower or of a ligulate flower a disk flower or disc flower is a radially symmetric individual flower in the head which is ringed by the ray flowers when both are present in some species ray flowers may be arranged around the disc in irregular symmetry or with a weakly bilaterally symmetric arrangement variations a radiate head has disc flowers surrounded by ray flowers a ligulate head has all ligulate flowers and no disc flowers when an asteraceae flower head has only disc flowers that are either sterile male or bisexual but not female and fertile it is a discoid head disciform heads possess only disc flowers in their heads but may produce two different sex types male or female within their disciform head some other species produce two different head types staminate allmale or pistillate allfemale in a few unusual species the head will consist of one single disc flower alternatively a few species will produce both singleflowered female heads along with multiflowered male heads in their pollination strategy floral structures the distinguishing characteristic of asteraceae is their inflorescence a type of specialised composite flower head or pseudanthium technically called a calathium or capitulum that may look superficially like a single flower the capitulum is a contracted raceme composed of numerous individual sessile flowers called florets all sharing the same receptacle a set of bracts forms an involucre surrounding the base of the capitulum these are called phyllaries or involucral bracts they may simulate the sepals of the pseudanthium these are mostly herbaceous but can also be brightly coloured eg helichrysum or have a scarious dry and membranous texture the phyllaries can be free or fused and arranged in one to many rows overlapping like the tiles of a roof imbricate or not this variation is important in identification of tribes and genera each floret may be subtended by a bract called a palea or receptacular bract these bracts are often called chaff the presence or absence of these bracts their distribution on the receptacle and their size and shape are all important diagnostic characteristics for genera and tribes the florets have five petals fused at the base to form a corolla tube and they may be either actinomorphic or zygomorphic disc florets are usually actinomorphic with five petal lips on the rim of the corolla tube the petal lips may be either very short or long in which case they form deeply lobed petals the latter is the only kind of floret in the carduoideae while the first kind is more widespread ray florets are always highly zygomorphic and are characterised by the presence of a ligule a strapshaped structure on the edge of the corolla tube consisting of fused petals in the asteroideae and other minor subfamilies these are usually borne only on florets at the circumference of the capitulum and have a 32 scheme above the fused corolla tube three very long fused petals form the ligule with the other two petals being inconspicuously small the cichorioideae has only ray florets with a 50 scheme all five petals form the ligule a 41 scheme is found in the barnadesioideae the tip of the ligule is often divided into teeth each one representing a petal some marginal florets may have no petals at all filiform floret the calyx of the florets may be absent but when present is always modified into a pappus of two or more teeth scales or bristles and this is often involved in the dispersion of the seeds as with the bracts the nature of the pappus is an important diagnostic feature there are usually four or five stamens the filaments are fused to the corolla while the anthers are generally connate syngenesious anthers thus forming a sort of tube around the style theca they commonly have basal andor apical appendages pollen is released inside the tube and is collected around the growing style and then as the style elongates is pushed out of the tube nüdelspritze the pistil consists of two connate carpels the style has two lobes stigmatic tissue may be located in the interior surface or form two lateral lines the ovary is inferior and has only one ovule with basal placentation fruits and seeds in members of the asteraceae the fruit is achenelike and is called a cypsela plural cypselae although there are two fused carpels there is only one locule and only one seed per fruit is formed it may sometimes be winged or spiny because the pappus which is derived from calyx tissue often remains on the fruit for example in dandelion in some species however the pappus falls off for example in helianthus cypsela morphology is often used to help determine plant relationships at the genus and species level the mature seeds usually have little endosperm or none pollen the pollen of composites is typically echinolophate a morphological term meaning with elaborate systems of ridges and spines dispersed around and between the apertures metabolites in asteraceae the energy store is generally in the form of inulin rather than starch they produce isochlorogenic acid sesquiterpene lactones pentacyclic triterpene alcohols various alkaloids acetylenes cyclic aromatic with vinyl end groups tannins they have terpenoid essential oils that never contain iridoids asteraceae produce secondary metabolites such as flavonoids and terpenoids some of these molecules can inhibit protozoan parasites such as plasmodium trypanosoma leishmania and parasitic intestinal worms and thus have potential in medicine taxonomy history compositae the original name for asteraceae were first described in 1740 by dutch botanist adriaan van royen traditionally two subfamilies were recognised asteroideae or tubuliflorae and cichorioideae or liguliflorae the latter has been shown to be extensively paraphyletic and has now been divided into 12 subfamilies but the former still stands the study of this family is known as synantherology phylogeny the phylogenetic tree of subfamilies presented below is based on panero funk 2002 updated in 2014 and now also includes the monotypic famatinanthoideae the diamond denotes a very poorly supported node 50 bootstrap support the dot a poorly supported node 80 the family includes over 32000 currently accepted species in over 1900 genera list in 13 subfamilies the number of species in the family asteraceae is rivaled only by orchidaceae which is the larger family is unclear because of the uncertainty about how many extant species each family includes the four subfamilies asteroideae cichorioideae carduoideae and mutisioideae contain 99 of the species diversity of the whole family approximately 70 14 11 and 3 respectively because of the morphological complexity exhibited by this family agreeing on generic circumscriptions has often been difficult for taxonomists as a result several of these genera have required multiple revisions paleontology and evolutionary processes the oldest known fossils of members of asteraceae are pollen grains from the late cretaceous of antarctica dated to 7666 mya campanian to maastrichtian and assigned to the extant genus dasyphyllum barreda et al 2015 estimated that the crown group of asteraceae evolved at least 859 mya late cretaceous santonian with a stem node age of 8889 mya late cretaceous coniacian it is not known whether the precise cause of their great success was the development of the highly specialised capitulum their ability to store energy as fructans mainly inulin which is an advantage in relatively dry zones or some combination of these and possibly other factors heterocarpy or the ability to produce different fruit morphs has evolved and is common in asteraceae it allows seeds to be dispersed over varying distances and each is adapted to different environments increasing chances of survival etymology and pronunciation the original name compositae is still valid under the international code of nomenclature for algae fungi and plants it refers to the composite nature of the capitula which consist of a few or many individual flowers the alternative as it came later name asteraceae comes to international scientific vocabulary from neolatin from aster the type genus aceae a standardized suffix for plant family names in modern taxonomy this genus name comes from the classical latin word star which came from ancient greek star it refers to the starlike form of the inflorescence the vernacular name daisy widely applied to members of this family is derived from the old english name of the daisy bellis perennis meaning days eye this is because the petals open at dawn and close at dusk distribution and habitat asteraceae species have a widespread distribution from subpolar to tropical regions in a wide variety of habitats most occur in hot desert and cold or hot semidesert climates and they are found on every continent but antarctica they are especially numerous in tropical and subtropical regions notably central america eastern brazil the mediterranean the levant southern africa central asia and southwestern china the largest proportion of the species occur in the arid and semiarid regions of subtropical and lower temperate latitudes the asteraceae family comprises 10 of all flowering plant species ecology asteraceae are especially common in open and dry environments many members of asteraceae are pollinated by insects which explains their value in attracting beneficial insects but anemophily is also present eg ambrosia artemisia there are many apomictic species in the family seeds are ordinarily dispersed intact with the fruiting body the cypsela anemochory wind dispersal is common assisted by a hairy pappus epizoochory is another common method in which the dispersal unit a single cypsela eg bidens or entire capitulum eg arctium has hooks spines or some structure to attach to the fur or plumage or even clothes as in the photo of an animal just to fall off later far from its mother plant some members of asteraceae are economically important as weeds notable in the united states are senecio jacobaea ragwort senecio vulgaris groundsel and taraxacum dandelion some are invasive species in particular regions often having been introduced by human agency examples include various tumbleweeds bidens ragweeds thistles and dandelion dandelion was introduced into north america by european settlers who used the young leaves as a salad green a number of species are toxic to grazing animals uses asteraceae is an economically important family providing products such as cooking oils leaf vegetables like lettuce sunflower seeds artichokes sweetening agents coffee substitutes and herbal teas several genera are of horticultural importance including pot marigold calendula officinalis echinacea coneflowers various daisies fleabane chrysanthemums dahlias zinnias and heleniums asteraceae are important in herbal medicine including grindelia yarrow and many others commercially important plants in asteraceae include the food crops lactuca sativa lettuce cichorium chicory cynara scolymus globe artichoke helianthus annuus sunflower smallanthus sonchifolius yacón carthamus tinctorius safflower and helianthus tuberosus jerusalem artichoke plants are used as herbs and in herbal teas and other beverages chamomile for example comes from two different species the annual matricaria chamomilla german chamomile and the perennial chamaemelum nobile roman chamomile calendula known as pot marigold is grown commercially for herbal teas and potpourri echinacea is used as a medicinal tea the wormwood genus artemisia includes absinthe a absinthium and tarragon a dracunculus winter tarragon tagetes lucida is commonly grown and used as a tarragon substitute in climates where tarragon will not survive many members of the family are grown as ornamental plants for their flowers and some are important ornamental crops for the cut flower industry some examples are chrysanthemum gerbera calendula dendranthema argyranthemum dahlia tagetes zinnia and many others many species of this family possess medicinal properties and are used as traditional antiparasitic medicine members of the family are also commonly featured in medical and phytochemical journals because the sesquiterpene lactone compounds contained within them are an important cause of allergic contact dermatitis allergy to these compounds is the leading cause of allergic contact dermatitis in florists in the us pollen from ragweed ambrosia is among the main causes of socalled hay fever in the united states asteraceae are also used for some industrial purposes french marigold tagetes patula is common in commercial poultry feeds and its oil is extracted for uses in cola and the cigarette industry the genera chrysanthemum pulicaria tagetes and tanacetum contain species with useful insecticidal properties parthenium argentatum guayule is a source of hypoallergenic latex several members of the family are copious nectar producers and are useful for evaluating pollinator populations during their bloom centaurea knapweed helianthus annuus domestic sunflower and some species of solidago goldenrod are major honey plants for beekeepers solidago produces relatively high protein pollen which helps honey bees over winter references bibliography external links asteraceae at the angiosperm phylogeny website compositaeorg compositae working group cwg and global compositae database gcd asterales families extant campanian first appearances	3,032
957	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apiaceae	Apiaceae	apiaceae or umbelliferae is a family of mostly aromatic flowering plants named after the type genus apium and commonly known as the celery carrot or parsley family or simply as umbellifers it is the 16thlargest family of flowering plants with more than 3800 species in about 446 genera including such wellknown and economically important plants as ajwain angelica anise asafoetida caraway carrot celery chervil coriander cumin dill fennel lovage cow parsley parsley parsnip and sea holly as well as silphium a plant whose identity is unclear and which may be extinct the family apiaceae includes a significant number of phototoxic species such as giant hogweed and a smaller number of highly poisonous species such as poison hemlock water hemlock spotted cowbane fools parsley and various species of water dropwort description most apiaceae are annual biennial or perennial herbs frequently with the leaves aggregated toward the base though a minority are woody shrubs or small trees such as bupleurum fruticosum their leaves are of variable size and alternately arranged or with the upper leaves becoming nearly opposite the leaves may be petiolate or sessile there are no stipules but the petioles are frequently sheathing and the leaves may be perfoliate the leaf blade is usually dissected ternate or pinnatifid but simple and entire in some genera eg bupleurum commonly their leaves emit a marked smell when crushed aromatic to fetid but absent in some species the defining characteristic of this family is the inflorescence the flowers nearly always aggregated in terminal umbels that may be simple or more commonly compound often umbelliform cymes the flowers are usually perfect hermaphroditic and actinomorphic but there may be zygomorphic flowers at the edge of the umbel as in carrot daucus carota and coriander with petals of unequal size the ones pointing outward from the umbel larger than the ones pointing inward some are andromonoecious polygamomonoecious or even dioecious as in acronema with a distinct calyx and corolla but the calyx is often highly reduced to the point of being undetectable in many species while the corolla can be white yellow pink or purple the flowers are nearly perfectly pentamerous with five petals and five stamens there is often variation in the functionality of the stamens even within a single inflorescence some flowers are functionally staminate where a pistil may be present but has no ovules capable of being fertilized while others are functionally pistillate where stamens are present but their anthers do not produce viable pollen pollination of one flower by the pollen of a different flower of the same plant geitonogamy is common the gynoecium consists of two carpels fused into a single bicarpellate pistil with an inferior ovary stylopodia support two styles and secrete nectar attracting pollinators like flies mosquitoes gnats beetles moths and bees the fruit is a schizocarp consisting of two fused carpels that separate at maturity into two mericarps each containing a single seed the fruits of many species are dispersed by wind but others such as those of daucus spp are covered in bristles which may be hooked in sanicle sanicula europaea and thus catch in the fur of animals the seeds have an oily endosperm and often contain essential oils containing aromatic compounds that are responsible for the flavour of commercially important umbelliferous seed such as anise cumin and coriander the shape and details of the ornamentation of the ripe fruits are important for identification to species level taxonomy apiaceae was first described by john lindley in 1836 the name is derived from the type genus apium which was originally used by pliny the elder circa 50 ad for a celerylike plant the alternative name for the family umbelliferae derives from the inflorescence being generally in the form of a compound umbel the family was one of the first to be recognized as a distinct group in jacques daleschamps 1586 historia generalis plantarum with robert morisons 1672 plantarum umbelliferarum distribution nova it became the first group of plants for which a systematic study was published the family is solidly placed within the apiales order in the apg iii system it is closely related to araliaceae and the boundaries between these families remain unclear traditionally groups within the family have been delimited largely based on fruit morphology and the results from this have not been congruent with the more recent molecular phylogenetic analyses the subfamilial and tribal classification for the family is currently in a state of flux with many of the groups being found to be grossly paraphyletic or polyphyletic classification and phylogeny prior to molecular phylogenetic studies the family was subdivided primarily based on fruit characteristics molecular phylogenetic analyses from the mid1990s onwards have shown that fruit characters evolved in parallel many times so that using them in classification resulted in units that were not monophyletic in 2004 it was proposed that apiaceae should be divided into four subfamilies apioideae seem azorelloideae gmplunkett lowry mackinlayoideae gmplunkett lowry saniculoideae burnett apioideae is by far the largest subfamily with about 90 of the genera most subsequent studies have supported this division although leaving some genera unplaced a 2021 study suggested the relationships shown in the following cladogram the platysace clade and the genera klotzschia and hermas fell outside the four subfamilies it was suggested that they could be accommodated in subfamilies of their own phlyctidocarpa was formerly placed in the subfamily apioideae but if kept there makes apioideae paraphyletic it could be placed in an enlarged saniculoideae or restored to apioideae if the latter were expanded to include saniculoideae the subfamilies can be further divided into tribes and clades with many clades falling outside formally recognized tribes genera the number of genera accepted by sources varies plants of the world online powo accepted 444 genera while grin taxonomy accepted 462 the powo genera are not a subset of those in grin for example haloselinum is accepted by powo but not by grin while halosciastrum is accepted by grin but not by powo which treats it as a synonym of angelica the angiosperm phylogeny website had an approximate list of 446 genera ecology the black swallowtail butterfly papilio polyxenes uses the family apiaceae for food and host plants for oviposition the 22spot ladybird is also commonly found eating mildew on these plants uses many members of this family are cultivated for various purposes parsnip pastinaca sativa carrot daucus carota and hamburg parsley petroselinum crispum produce tap roots that are large enough to be useful as food many species produce essential oils in their leaves or fruits and as a result are flavourful aromatic herbs examples are parsley petroselinum crispum coriander coriandrum sativum culantro and dill anethum graveolens the seeds may be used in cuisine as with coriander coriandrum sativum fennel foeniculum vulgare cumin cuminum cyminum and caraway carum carvi other notable cultivated apiaceae include chervil anthriscus cerefolium angelica angelica spp celery apium graveolens arracacha arracacia xanthorrhiza sea holly eryngium spp asafoetida ferula asafoetida galbanum ferula gummosa cicely myrrhis odorata anise pimpinella anisum lovage levisticum officinale and hacquetia sanicula epipactis cultivation generally all members of this family are best cultivated in the coolseason garden they may not grow at all if the soils are too warm almost every widely cultivated plant of this group is a considered useful as a companion plant one reason is that the tiny flowers clustered into umbels are well suited for ladybugs parasitic wasps and predatory flies which drink nectar when not reproducing they then prey upon insect pests on nearby plants some of the members of this family considered herbs produce scents that are believed to mask the odours of nearby plants thus making them harder for insect pests to find other uses the poisonous members of the apiaceae have been used for a variety of purposes globally the poisonous oenanthe crocata has been used as an aid in suicides and arrow poisons have been made from various other family species daucus carota has been used as coloring for butter dorema ammoniacum ferula galbaniflua and ferula moschata sumbul are sources of incense the woody azorella compacta phil has been used in south america for fuel toxicity many species in the family apiaceae produce phototoxic substances called furanocoumarins that sensitize human skin to sunlight contact with plant parts that contain furanocoumarins followed by exposure to sunlight may cause phytophotodermatitis a serious skin inflammation phototoxic species include ammi majus notobubon galbanum the parsnip pastinaca sativa and numerous species of the genus heracleum especially the giant hogweed heracleum mantegazzianum of all the plant species that have been reported to induce phytophotodermatitis approximately half belong to the family apiaceae the family apiaceae also includes a smaller number of poisonous species including poison hemlock water hemlock spotted cowbane fools parsley and various species of water dropwort some members of the family apiaceae including carrot celery fennel parsley and parsnip contain polyynes an unusual class of organic compounds that exhibit cytotoxic effects references further reading constance l 1971 history of the classification of umbelliferae apiaceae in heywood v h ed the biology and chemistry of the umbelliferae 111 academic press london cronquist a 1968 the evolution and classification of flowering plants boston houghton mifflin french d h 1971 ethnobotany of the umbelliferae in heywood v h ed the biology and chemistry of the umbelliferae 385412 academic press london hegnauer r 1971 chemical patterns and relationships of umbelliferae in heywood v h ed the biology and chemistry of the umbelliferae 267277 academic press london heywood v h 1971 systematic survey of old world umbelliferae in heywood v h ed the biology and chemistry of the umbelliferae 3141 academic press london judd w s et al 1999 plant systematics a phylogenetic approach sunderland ma sinauer associates inc nieto feliner gonzalo jury stephen leonard herrero nieto alberto eds flora iberica plantas vasculares de la península ibérica e islas baleares vol x araliaceaeumbelliferae 2003 madrid real jardín botánico csic in spanish external links umbelliferae at the families of flowering plants delta apiaceae at discover life umbellifer resource centre at the royal botanic garden edinburgh umbellifer information server at moscow state university asterid families	1,679
958	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon	Axon	an axon from greek ἄξων áxōn axis or nerve fiber or nerve fibre see spelling differences is a long slender projection of a nerve cell or neuron in vertebrates that typically conducts electrical impulses known as action potentials away from the nerve cell body the function of the axon is to transmit information to different neurons muscles and glands in certain sensory neurons pseudounipolar neurons such as those for touch and warmth the axons are called afferent nerve fibers and the electrical impulse travels along these from the periphery to the cell body and from the cell body to the spinal cord along another branch of the same axon axon dysfunction can be the cause of many inherited and acquired neurological disorders that affect both the peripheral and central neurons nerve fibers are classed into three typesgroup a nerve fibers group b nerve fibers and group c nerve fibers groups a and b are myelinated and group c are unmyelinated these groups include both sensory fibers and motor fibers another classification groups only the sensory fibers as type i type ii type iii and type iv an axon is one of two types of cytoplasmic protrusions from the cell body of a neuron the other type is a dendrite axons are distinguished from dendrites by several features including shape dendrites often taper while axons usually maintain a constant radius length dendrites are restricted to a small region around the cell body while axons can be much longer and function dendrites receive signals whereas axons transmit them some types of neurons have no axon and transmit signals from their dendrites in some species axons can emanate from dendrites known as axoncarrying dendrites no neuron ever has more than one axon however in invertebrates such as insects or leeches the axon sometimes consists of several regions that function more or less independently of each other axons are covered by a membrane known as an axolemma the cytoplasm of an axon is called axoplasm most axons branch in some cases very profusely the end branches of an axon are called telodendria the swollen end of a telodendron is known as the axon terminal which joins the dendrite or cell body of another neuron forming a synaptic connection axons make contact with other cellsusually other neurons but sometimes muscle or gland cellsat junctions called synapses in some circumstances the axon of one neuron may form a synapse with the dendrites of the same neuron resulting in an autapse at a synapse the membrane of the axon closely adjoins the membrane of the target cell and special molecular structures serve to transmit electrical or electrochemical signals across the gap some synaptic junctions appear along the length of an axon as it extends these are called en passant in passing synapses and can be in the hundreds or even the thousands along one axon other synapses appear as terminals at the ends of axonal branches a single axon with all its branches taken together can target multiple parts of the brain and generate thousands of synaptic terminals a bundle of axons make a nerve tract in the central nervous system and a fascicle in the peripheral nervous system in placental mammals the largest white matter tract in the brain is the corpus callosum formed of some 200 million axons in the human brain anatomy axons are the primary transmission lines of the nervous system and as bundles they form nerves some axons can extend up to one meter or more while others extend as little as one millimeter the longest axons in the human body are those of the sciatic nerve which run from the base of the spinal cord to the big toe of each foot the diameter of axons is also variable most individual axons are microscopic in diameter typically about one micrometer µm across the largest mammalian axons can reach a diameter of up to 20 µm the squid giant axon which is specialized to conduct signals very rapidly is close to 1 millimeter in diameter the size of a small pencil lead the numbers of axonal telodendria the branching structures at the end of the axon can also differ from one nerve fiber to the next axons in the central nervous system cns typically show multiple telodendria with many synaptic end points in comparison the cerebellar granule cell axon is characterized by a single tshaped branch node from which two parallel fibers extend elaborate branching allows for the simultaneous transmission of messages to a large number of target neurons within a single region of the brain there are two types of axons in the nervous system myelinated and unmyelinated axons myelin is a layer of a fatty insulating substance which is formed by two types of glial cells schwann cells and oligodendrocytes in the peripheral nervous system schwann cells form the myelin sheath of a myelinated axon oligodendrocytes form the insulating myelin in the cns along myelinated nerve fibers gaps in the myelin sheath known as nodes of ranvier occur at evenly spaced intervals the myelination enables an especially rapid mode of electrical impulse propagation called saltatory conduction the myelinated axons from the cortical neurons form the bulk of the neural tissue called white matter in the brain the myelin gives the white appearance to the tissue in contrast to the grey matter of the cerebral cortex which contains the neuronal cell bodies a similar arrangement is seen in the cerebellum bundles of myelinated axons make up the nerve tracts in the cns where these tracts cross the midline of the brain to connect opposite regions they are called commissures the largest of these is the corpus callosum that connects the two cerebral hemispheres and this has around 20 million axons the structure of a neuron is seen to consist of two separate functional regions or compartmentsthe cell body together with the dendrites as one region and the axonal region as the other axonal region the axonal region or compartment includes the axon hillock the initial segment the rest of the axon and the axon telodendria and axon terminals it also includes the myelin sheath the nissl bodies that produce the neuronal proteins are absent in the axonal region proteins needed for the growth of the axon and the removal of waste materials need a framework for transport this axonal transport is provided for in the axoplasm by arrangements of microtubules and intermediate filaments known as neurofilaments axon hillock the axon hillock is the area formed from the cell body of the neuron as it extends to become the axon it precedes the initial segment the received action potentials that are summed in the neuron are transmitted to the axon hillock for the generation of an action potential from the initial segment axonal initial segment the axonal initial segment ais is a structurally and functionally separate microdomain of the axon one function of the initial segment is to separate the main part of an axon from the rest of the neuron another function is to help initiate action potentials both of these functions support neuron cell polarity in which dendrites and in some cases the soma of a neuron receive input signals at the basal region and at the apical region the neurons axon provides output signals the axon initial segment is unmyelinated and contains a specialized complex of proteins it is between approximately 20 and 60 µm in length and functions as the site of action potential initiation both the position on the axon and the length of the ais can change showing a degree of plasticity that can finetune the neuronal output a longer ais is associated with a greater excitability plasticity is also seen in the ability of the ais to change its distribution and to maintain the activity of neural circuitry at a constant level the ais is highly specialized for the fast conduction of nerve impulses this is achieved by a high concentration of voltagegated sodium channels in the initial segment where the action potential is initiated the ion channels are accompanied by a high number of cell adhesion molecules and scaffold proteins that anchor them to the cytoskeleton interactions with ankyring are important as it is the major organizer in the ais axonal transport the axoplasm is the equivalent of cytoplasm in the cell microtubules form in the axoplasm at the axon hillock they are arranged along the length of the axon in overlapping sections and all point in the same directiontowards the axon terminals this is noted by the positive endings of the microtubules this overlapping arrangement provides the routes for the transport of different materials from the cell body studies on the axoplasm has shown the movement of numerous vesicles of all sizes to be seen along cytoskeletal filamentsthe microtubules and neurofilaments in both directions between the axon and its terminals and the cell body outgoing anterograde transport from the cell body along the axon carries mitochondria and membrane proteins needed for growth to the axon terminal ingoing retrograde transport carries cell waste materials from the axon terminal to the cell body outgoing and ingoing tracks use different sets of motor proteins outgoing transport is provided by kinesin and ingoing return traffic is provided by dynein dynein is minusend directed there are many forms of kinesin and dynein motor proteins and each is thought to carry a different cargo the studies on transport in the axon led to the naming of kinesin myelination in the nervous system axons may be myelinated or unmyelinated this is the provision of an insulating layer called a myelin sheath the myelin membrane is unique in its relatively high lipid to protein ratio in the peripheral nervous system axons are myelinated by glial cells known as schwann cells in the central nervous system the myelin sheath is provided by another type of glial cell the oligodendrocyte schwann cells myelinate a single axon an oligodendrocyte can myelinate up to 50 axons the composition of myelin is different in the two types in the cns the major myelin protein is proteolipid protein and in the pns it is myelin basic protein nodes of ranvier nodes of ranvier also known as myelin sheath gaps are short unmyelinated segments of a myelinated axon which are found periodically interspersed between segments of the myelin sheath therefore at the point of the node of ranvier the axon is reduced in diameter these nodes are areas where action potentials can be generated in saltatory conduction electrical currents produced at each node of ranvier are conducted with little attenuation to the next node in line where they remain strong enough to generate another action potential thus in a myelinated axon action potentials effectively jump from node to node bypassing the myelinated stretches in between resulting in a propagation speed much faster than even the fastest unmyelinated axon can sustain axon terminals an axon can divide into many branches called telodendria greek for end of tree at the end of each telodendron is an axon terminal also called a synaptic bouton or terminal bouton axon terminals contain synaptic vesicles that store the neurotransmitter for release at the synapse this makes multiple synaptic connections with other neurons possible sometimes the axon of a neuron may synapse onto dendrites of the same neuron when it is known as an autapse axonal varicosities in the normally developed brain along the shaft of some axons are located presynaptic boutons also known as axonal varicosities and these have been found in regions of the hippocampus that function in the release of neurotransmitters however axonal varicosities are also present in neurodegenerative diseases where they interfere with the conduction of an action potential axonal varicosities are also the hallmark of traumatic brain injuries axonal damage is usually to the axon cytoskeleton disrupting transport as a consequence protein accumulations such as amyloidbeta precursor protein can build up in a swelling resulting in a number of varicosities along the axon action potentials most axons carry signals in the form of action potentials which are discrete electrochemical impulses that travel rapidly along an axon starting at the cell body and terminating at points where the axon makes synaptic contact with target cells the defining characteristic of an action potential is that it is allornothingevery action potential that an axon generates has essentially the same size and shape this allornothing characteristic allows action potentials to be transmitted from one end of a long axon to the other without any reduction in size there are however some types of neurons with short axons that carry graded electrochemical signals of variable amplitude when an action potential reaches a presynaptic terminal it activates the synaptic transmission process the first step is rapid opening of calcium ion channels in the membrane of the axon allowing calcium ions to flow inward across the membrane the resulting increase in intracellular calcium concentration causes synaptic vesicles tiny containers enclosed by a lipid membrane filled with a neurotransmitter chemical to fuse with the axons membrane and empty their contents into the extracellular space the neurotransmitter is released from the presynaptic nerve through exocytosis the neurotransmitter chemical then diffuses across to receptors located on the membrane of the target cell the neurotransmitter binds to these receptors and activates them depending on the type of receptors that are activated the effect on the target cell can be to excite the target cell inhibit it or alter its metabolism in some way this entire sequence of events often takes place in less than a thousandth of a second afterward inside the presynaptic terminal a new set of vesicles is moved into position next to the membrane ready to be released when the next action potential arrives the action potential is the final electrical step in the integration of synaptic messages at the scale of the neuron extracellular recordings of action potential propagation in axons has been demonstrated in freely moving animals while extracellular somatic action potentials have been used to study cellular activity in freely moving animals such as place cells axonal activity in both white and gray matter can also be recorded extracellular recordings of axon action potential propagation is distinct from somatic action potentials in three ways 1 the signal has a shorter peaktrough duration 150μs than of pyramidal cells 500μs or interneurons 250μs 2 the voltage change is triphasic 3 activity recorded on a tetrode is seen on only one of the four recording wires in recordings from freely moving rats axonal signals have been isolated in white matter tracts including the alveus and the corpus callosum as well hippocampal gray matter in fact the generation of action potentials in vivo is sequential in nature and these sequential spikes constitute the digital codes in the neurons although previous studies indicate an axonal origin of a single spike evoked by shortterm pulses physiological signals in vivo trigger the initiation of sequential spikes at the cell bodies of the neurons in addition to propagating action potentials to axonal terminals the axon is able to amplify the action potentials which makes sure a secure propagation of sequential action potentials toward the axonal terminal in terms of molecular mechanisms voltagegated sodium channels in the axons possess lower threshold and shorter refractory period in response to shortterm pulses development and growth development the development of the axon to its target is one of the six major stages in the overall development of the nervous system studies done on cultured hippocampal neurons suggest that neurons initially produce multiple neurites that are equivalent yet only one of these neurites is destined to become the axon it is unclear whether axon specification precedes axon elongation or vice versa although recent evidence points to the latter if an axon that is not fully developed is cut the polarity can change and other neurites can potentially become the axon this alteration of polarity only occurs when the axon is cut at least 10 μm shorter than the other neurites after the incision is made the longest neurite will become the future axon and all the other neurites including the original axon will turn into dendrites imposing an external force on a neurite causing it to elongate will make it become an axon nonetheless axonal development is achieved through a complex interplay between extracellular signaling intracellular signaling and cytoskeletal dynamics extracellular signaling the extracellular signals that propagate through the extracellular matrix surrounding neurons play a prominent role in axonal development these signaling molecules include proteins neurotrophic factors and extracellular matrix and adhesion molecules netrin also known as unc6 a secreted protein functions in axon formation when the unc5 netrin receptor is mutated several neurites are irregularly projected out of neurons and finally a single axon is extended anteriorly the neurotrophic factorsnerve growth factor ngf brainderived neurotrophic factor bdnf and neurotrophin3 ntf3 are also involved in axon development and bind to trk receptors the gangliosideconverting enzyme plasma membrane ganglioside sialidase pmgs which is involved in the activation of trka at the tip of neutrites is required for the elongation of axons pmgs asymmetrically distributes to the tip of the neurite that is destined to become the future axon intracellular signaling during axonal development the activity of pi3k is increased at the tip of destined axon disrupting the activity of pi3k inhibits axonal development activation of pi3k results in the production of phosphatidylinositol 345trisphosphate ptdins which can cause significant elongation of a neurite converting it into an axon as such the overexpression of phosphatases that dephosphorylate ptdins leads into the failure of polarization cytoskeletal dynamics the neurite with the lowest actin filament content will become the axon pgms concentration and factin content are inversely correlated when pgms becomes enriched at the tip of a neurite its factin content is substantially decreased in addition exposure to actindepolimerizing drugs and toxin b which inactivates rhosignaling causes the formation of multiple axons consequently the interruption of the actin network in a growth cone will promote its neurite to become the axon growth growing axons move through their environment via the growth cone which is at the tip of the axon the growth cone has a broad sheetlike extension called a lamellipodium which contain protrusions called filopodia the filopodia are the mechanism by which the entire process adheres to surfaces and explores the surrounding environment actin plays a major role in the mobility of this system environments with high levels of cell adhesion molecules cams create an ideal environment for axonal growth this seems to provide a sticky surface for axons to grow along examples of cams specific to neural systems include ncam tag1an axonal glycoproteinand mag all of which are part of the immunoglobulin superfamily another set of molecules called extracellular matrixadhesion molecules also provide a sticky substrate for axons to grow along examples of these molecules include laminin fibronectin tenascin and perlecan some of these are surface bound to cells and thus act as short range attractants or repellents others are difusible ligands and thus can have long range effects cells called guidepost cells assist in the guidance of neuronal axon growth these cells that help axon guidance are typically other neurons that are sometimes immature when the axon has completed its growth at its connection to the target the diameter of the axon can increase by up to five times depending on the speed of conduction required it has also been discovered through research that if the axons of a neuron were damaged as long as the soma the cell body of a neuron is not damaged the axons would regenerate and remake the synaptic connections with neurons with the help of guidepost cells this is also referred to as neuroregeneration nogoa is a type of neurite outgrowth inhibitory component that is present in the central nervous system myelin membranes found in an axon it has a crucial role in restricting axonal regeneration in adult mammalian central nervous system in recent studies if nogoa is blocked and neutralized it is possible to induce longdistance axonal regeneration which leads to enhancement of functional recovery in rats and mouse spinal cord this has yet to be done on humans a recent study has also found that macrophages activated through a specific inflammatory pathway activated by the dectin1 receptor are capable of promoting axon recovery also however causing neurotoxicity in the neuron length regulation axons vary largely in length from a few micrometers up to meters in some animals this emphasizes that there must be a cellular length regulation mechanism allowing the neurons both to sense the length of their axons and to control their growth accordingly it was discovered that motor proteins play an important role in regulating the length of axons based on this observation researchers developed an explicit model for axonal growth describing how motor proteins could affect the axon length on the molecular level these studies suggest that motor proteins carry signaling molecules from the soma to the growth cone and vice versa whose concentration oscillates in time with a lengthdependent frequency classification the axons of neurons in the human peripheral nervous system can be classified based on their physical features and signal conduction properties axons were known to have different thicknesses from 01 to 20 µm and these differences were thought to relate to the speed at which an action potential could travel along the axonits conductance velocity erlanger and gasser proved this hypothesis and identified several types of nerve fiber establishing a relationship between the diameter of an axon and its nerve conduction velocity they published their findings in 1941 giving the first classification of axons axons are classified in two systems the first one introduced by erlanger and gasser grouped the fibers into three main groups using the letters a b and c these groups group a group b and group c include both the sensory fibers afferents and the motor fibers efferents the first group a was subdivided into alpha beta gamma and delta fibersaα aβ aγ and aδ the motor neurons of the different motor fibers were the lower motor neuronsalpha motor neuron beta motor neuron and gamma motor neuron having the aα aβ and aγ nerve fibers respectively later findings by other researchers identified two groups of aa fibers that were sensory fibers these were then introduced into a system lloyd classification that only included sensory fibers though some of these were mixed nerves and were also motor fibers this system refers to the sensory groups as types and uses roman numerals type ia type ib type ii type iii and type iv motor lower motor neurons have two kind of fibers different sensory receptors innervate different types of nerve fibers proprioceptors are innervated by type ia ib and ii sensory fibers mechanoreceptors by type ii and iii sensory fibers and nociceptors and thermoreceptors by type iii and iv sensory fibers autonomic the autonomic nervous system has two kinds of peripheral fibers clinical significance in order of degree of severity injury to a nerve in the peripheral nervous system can be described as neurapraxia axonotmesis or neurotmesis concussion is considered a mild form of diffuse axonal injury axonal injury can also cause central chromatolysis the dysfunction of axons in the nervous system is one of the major causes of many inherited and acquired neurological disorders that affect both peripheral and central neurons when an axon is crushed an active process of axonal degeneration takes place at the part of the axon furthest from the cell body this degeneration takes place quickly following the injury with the part of the axon being sealed off at the membranes and broken down by macrophages this is known as wallerian degeneration dying back of an axon can also take place in many neurodegenerative diseases particularly when axonal transport is impaired this is known as wallerianlike degeneration studies suggest that the degeneration happens as a result of the axonal protein nmnat2 being prevented from reaching all of the axon demyelination of axons causes the multitude of neurological symptoms found in the disease multiple sclerosis dysmyelination is the abnormal formation of the myelin sheath this is implicated in several leukodystrophies and also in schizophrenia a severe traumatic brain injury can result in widespread lesions to nerve tracts damaging the axons in a condition known as diffuse axonal injury this can lead to a persistent vegetative state it has been shown in studies on the rat that axonal damage from a single mild traumatic brain injury can leave a susceptibility to further damage after repeated mild traumatic brain injuries a nerve guidance conduit is an artificial means of guiding axon growth to enable neuroregeneration and is one of the many treatments used for different kinds of nerve injury terminology some general dictionaries define nerve fiber as any neuronal process including both axons and dendrites however medical sources generally use nerve fiber to refer to the axon only history german anatomist otto friedrich karl deiters is generally credited with the discovery of the axon by distinguishing it from the dendrites swiss rüdolf albert von kölliker and german robert remak were the first to identify and characterize the axon initial segment kölliker named the axon in 1896 louisantoine ranvier was the first to describe the gaps or nodes found on axons and for this contribution these axonal features are now commonly referred to as the nodes of ranvier santiago ramón y cajal a spanish anatomist proposed that axons were the output components of neurons describing their functionality joseph erlanger and herbert gasser earlier developed the classification system for peripheral nerve fibers based on axonal conduction velocity myelination fiber size etc alan hodgkin and andrew huxley also employed the squid giant axon 1939 and by 1952 they had obtained a full quantitative description of the ionic basis of the action potential leading to the formulation of the hodgkinhuxley model hodgkin and huxley were awarded jointly the nobel prize for this work in 1963 the formulae detailing axonal conductance were extended to vertebrates in the frankenhaeuserhuxley equations the understanding of the biochemical basis for action potential propagation has advanced further and includes many details about individual ion channels other animals the axons in invertebrates have been extensively studied the longfin inshore squid often used as a model organism has the longest known axon the giant squid has the largest axon known its size ranges from 05 typically to 1 mm in diameter and is used in the control of its jet propulsion system the fastest recorded conduction speed of 210 ms is found in the ensheathed axons of some pelagic penaeid shrimps and the usual range is between 90 and 200 meterss cf 100120 ms for the fastest myelinated vertebrate axon in other cases as seen in rat studies an axon originates from a dendrite such axons are said to have dendritic origin some axons with dendritic origin similarly have a proximal initial segment that starts directly at the axon origin while others have a distal initial segment discernibly separated from the axon origin in many species some of the neurons have axons that emanate from the dendrite and not from the cell body and these are known as axoncarrying dendrites in many cases an axon originates at an axon hillock on the soma such axons are said to have somatic origin some axons with somatic origin have a proximal initial segment adjacent the axon hillock while others have a distal initial segment separated from the soma by an extended axon hillock see also electrophysiology ganglionic eminence giant axonal neuropathy neuronal tracing pioneer axon references external links slide 3 spinal cord neurohistology	4,597
960	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aramaic%20alphabet	Aramaic alphabet	the ancient aramaic alphabet was used to write the aramaic languages spoken by ancient aramean prechristian tribes throughout the fertile crescent it was also adopted by other peoples as their own alphabet when empires and their subjects underwent linguistic aramaization during a language shift for governing purposesa precursor to arabization centuries laterincluding among assyrians who permanently replaced their akkadian language and its cuneiform script with aramaic and its script and among jews but not samaritans who adopted the aramaic language as their vernacular and started using the aramaic alphabet even for writing hebrew displacing the former paleohebrew alphabet the modern hebrew alphabet derives from the aramaic alphabet in contrast to the modern samaritan alphabet which derives from paleohebrew the letters in the aramaic alphabet all represent consonants some of which are also used as matres lectionis to indicate long vowels writing systems like the aramaic that indicate consonants but do not indicate most vowels other than by means of matres lectionis or added diacritical signs have been called abjads by peter t daniels to distinguish them from alphabets such as the greek alphabet that represent vowels more systematically the term was coined to avoid the notion that a writing system that represents sounds must be either a syllabary or an alphabet which would imply that a system like aramaic must be either a syllabary as argued by ignace gelb or an incomplete or deficient alphabet as most other writers had said before daniels rather daniels put forward this is a different type of writing system intermediate between syllabaries and full alphabets the aramaic alphabet is historically significant since virtually all modern middle eastern writing systems can be traced back to it that is primarily due to the widespread usage of the aramaic language after it was adopted as both a lingua franca and the official language of the neoassyrian and neobabylonian empires and their successor the achaemenid empire among the descendant scripts in modern use the jewish hebrew alphabet bears the closest relation to the imperial aramaic script of the 5th century bc with an identical letter inventory and for the most part nearly identical letter shapes by contrast the samaritan hebrew script is directly descended from protohebrewphoenician script which was in turn the ancestor of the aramaic alphabet the aramaic alphabet was also an ancestor to the nabataean alphabet which in turn had the arabic alphabet as a descendant history the earliest inscriptions in the aramaic language use the phoenician alphabet over time the alphabet developed into the aramaic alphabet by the 8th century bc it was used to write the aramaic languages spoken by ancient aramean prechristian tribes throughout the fertile crescent it was also adopted by other peoples as their own alphabet when empires and their subjects underwent linguistic aramaization during a language shift for governing purposesa precursor to arabization centuries laterincluding among assyrians who permanently replaced their akkadian language and its cuneiform script with aramaic and its script and among jews but not samaritans who adopted the aramaic language as their vernacular and started using the aramaic alphabet even for writing hebrew displacing the former paleohebrew alphabet the modern hebrew alphabet derives from the aramaic alphabet in contrast to the modern samaritan alphabet which derives from paleohebrew achaemenid empire the first persian empire around 500 bc following the achaemenid conquest of mesopotamia under darius i old aramaic was adopted by the persians as the vehicle for written communication between the different regions of the vast persian empire with its different peoples and languages the use of a single official language which modern scholarship has dubbed as official aramaic imperial aramaic or achaemenid aramaic can be assumed to have greatly contributed to the astonishing success of the achaemenid persians in holding their farflung empire together for as long as they did imperial aramaic was highly standardised its orthography was based more on historical roots than any spoken dialect and was influenced by old persian the aramaic glyph forms of the period are often divided into two main styles the lapidary form usually inscribed on hard surfaces like stone monuments and a cursive form whose lapidary form tended to be more conservative by remaining more visually similar to phoenician and early aramaic both were in use through the achaemenid persian period but the cursive form steadily gained ground over the lapidary which had largely disappeared by the 3rd century bc for centuries after the fall of the achaemenid empire in 331 bc imperial aramaic or something near enough to it to be recognisable would remain an influence on the various native iranian languages the aramaic script would survive as the essential characteristics of the iranian pahlavi writing system 30 aramaic documents from bactria have been recently discovered an analysis of which was published in november 2006 the texts which were rendered on leather reflect the use of aramaic in the 4th century bc in the persian achaemenid administration of bactria and sogdiana the widespread usage of achaemenid aramaic in the middle east led to the gradual adoption of the aramaic alphabet for writing hebrew formerly hebrew had been written using an alphabet closer in form to that of phoenician the paleohebrew alphabet aramaicderived scripts since the evolution of the aramaic alphabet out of the phoenician one was a gradual process the division of the worlds alphabets into the ones derived from the phoenician one directly and the ones derived from phoenician via aramaic is somewhat artificial in general the alphabets of the mediterranean region anatolia greece italy are classified as phoenicianderived adapted from around the 8th century bc and those of the east the levant persia central asia and india are considered aramaicderived adapted from around the 6th century bc from the imperial aramaic script of the achaemenid empire after the fall of the achaemenid empire the unity of the imperial aramaic script was lost diversifying into a number of descendant cursives the hebrew and nabataean alphabets as they stood by the roman era were little changed in style from the imperial aramaic alphabet ibn khaldun 13321406 alleges that not only the old nabataean writing was influenced by the syrian script ie aramaic but also the old chaldean script a cursive hebrew variant developed from the early centuries ad but it remained restricted to the status of a variant used alongside the noncursive by contrast the cursive developed out of the nabataean alphabet in the same period soon became the standard for writing arabic evolving into the arabic alphabet as it stood by the time of the early spread of islam the development of cursive versions of aramaic also led to the creation of the syriac palmyrene and mandaic alphabets which formed the basis of the historical scripts of central asia such as the sogdian and mongolian alphabets the old turkic script is generally considered to have its ultimate origins in aramaic in particular via the pahlavi or sogdian alphabets as suggested by v thomsen or possibly via kharosthi cf issyk inscription brahmi script was also possibly derived or inspired by aramaic brahmic family of scripts includes devanagari languages using the alphabet today biblical aramaic jewish neoaramaic dialects and the aramaic language of the talmud are written in the modernhebrew alphabet distinguished from the old hebrew script in classical jewish literature the name given to the modernhebrew script was ashurit the ancient assyrian script a script now known widely as the aramaic script it is believed that during the period of assyrian dominion that aramaic script and language received official status syriac and christian neoaramaic dialects are today written in the syriac alphabet which script has superseded the more ancient assyrian script and now bears its name mandaic is written in the mandaic alphabet the nearidentical nature of the aramaic and the classical hebrew alphabets caused aramaic text to be typeset mostly in the standard hebrew script in scholarly literature maaloula in maaloula one of few surviving communities in which a western aramaic dialect is still spoken an aramaic institute was established in 2007 by damascus university that teaches courses to keep the language alive the institutes activities were suspended in 2010 amidst fears that the square aramaic alphabet used in the program too closely resembled the square script of the hebrew alphabet and all the signs with the square aramaic script were taken down the program stated that they would instead use the more distinct syriac alphabet although use of the aramaic alphabet has continued to some degree al jazeera arabic also broadcast a program about western neoaramaic and the villages in which it is spoken with the square script still in use letters in aramaic writing waw and yodh serve a double function originally they represented only the consonants w and y but they were later adopted to indicate the long vowels ū and ī respectively as well often also ō and ē respectively in the latter role they are known as or mothers of reading ālap likewise has some of the characteristics of a because in initial positions it indicates a glottal stop followed by a vowel but otherwise it often also stands for the long vowels ā or ē among jews the influence of hebrew often led to the use of hē instead at the end of a word the practice of using certain letters to hold vowel values spread to aramaicderived writing systems such as in arabic and hebrew which still follow the practice unicode the imperial aramaic alphabet was added to the unicode standard in october 2009 with the release of version 52 the unicode block for imperial aramaic is u10840u1085f the syriac aramaic alphabet was added to the unicode standard in september 1999 with the release of version 30 the syriac abbreviation a type of overline can be represented with a special control character called the syriac abbreviation mark u070f the unicode block for syriac aramaic is u0700u074f see also syriac alphabet mandaic alphabet references sources byrne ryan middle aramaic scripts encyclopaedia of language and linguistics elsevier 2006 daniels peter t et al eds the worlds writing systems oxford 1996 coulmas florian the writing systems of the world blackwell publishers ltd oxford 1989 rudder joshua learn to write aramaic a stepbystep approach to the historical modern scripts np createspace independent publishing platform 2011 220 pp includes a wide variety of aramaic scripts ancient hebrew and aramaic on coins reading and transliterating protohebrew online edition judaea coin archive external links comparison of aramaic to related alphabets omniglot entry 8thcentury bc establishments obsolete writing systems persian scripts righttoleft writing systems abjad writing systems	1,760
966	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20shot	American shot	american shot or cowboy shot is a translation of a phrase from french film criticism and refers to a mediumlong knee film shot of a group of characters who are arranged so that all are visible to the camera the usual arrangement is for the actors to stand in an irregular line from one side of the screen to the other with the actors at the end coming forward a little and standing more in profile than the others the purpose of the composition is to allow complex dialogue scenes to be played out without changes in camera position in some literature this is simply referred to as a 34 shot one of the other main reasons why french critics called it american shot was its frequent use in the western genre this was because a shot that started at knee level would reveal the weapon of a cowboy usually holstered at their waist it is actually the closest the camera can get to an actor while keeping both their face and their holstered gun in frame the french critics thought it was characteristic of american films of the 1930s or 1940s however it was mostly characteristic of cheaper american movies such as charlie chan mysteries where people collected in front of a fireplace or at the foot of the stairs in order to explain what happened a few minutes ago howard hawks legitimized this style in his films allowing characters to act even when not talking when most of the audience would not be paying attention it became his trademark style references cinematography	264
967	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute%20disseminated%20encephalomyelitis	Acute disseminated encephalomyelitis	acute disseminated encephalomyelitis adem or acute demyelinating encephalomyelitis is a rare autoimmune disease marked by a sudden widespread attack of inflammation in the brain and spinal cord as well as causing the brain and spinal cord to become inflamed adem also attacks the nerves of the central nervous system and damages their myelin insulation which as a result destroys the white matter the cause is often a trigger such as from viral infection or vaccinations adems symptoms resemble the symptoms of multiple sclerosis ms so the disease itself is sorted into the classification of the multiple sclerosis borderline diseases however adem has several features that distinguish it from ms unlike ms adem occurs usually in children and is marked with rapid fever although adolescents and adults can get the disease too adem consists of a single flareup whereas ms is marked with several flareups or relapses over a long period of time relapses following adem are reported in up to a quarter of patients but the majority of these multiphasic presentations following adem likely represent ms adem is also distinguished by a loss of consciousness coma and death which is very rare in ms except in severe cases it affects about 8 per 1000000 people per year although it occurs in all ages most reported cases are in children and adolescents with the average age around 5 to 8 years old the disease affects males and females almost equally adem shows seasonal variation with higher incidence in winter and spring months which may coincide with higher viral infections during these months the mortality rate may be as high as 5 however full recovery is seen in 50 to 75 of cases with increase in survival rates up to 70 to 90 with figures including minor residual disability as well the average time to recover from adem flareups is one to six months adem produces multiple inflammatory lesions in the brain and spinal cord particularly in the white matter usually these are found in the subcortical and central white matter and cortical graywhite junction of both cerebral hemispheres cerebellum brainstem and spinal cord but periventricular white matter and gray matter of the cortex thalami and basal ganglia may also be involved when a person has more than one demyelinating episode of adem the disease is then called recurrent disseminated encephalomyelitis or multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis mdem also a fulminant course in adults has been described signs and symptoms adem has an abrupt onset and a monophasic course symptoms usually begin 13 weeks after infection major symptoms include fever headache nausea and vomiting confusion vision impairment drowsiness seizures and coma although initially the symptoms are usually mild they worsen rapidly over the course of hours to days with the average time to maximum severity being about four and a half days additional symptoms include hemiparesis paraparesis and cranial nerve palsies adem in covid19 neurological symptoms were the main presentation of covid19 which did not correlate with the severity of respiratory symptoms the high incidence of adem with hemorrhage is striking brain inflammation is likely caused by an immune response to the disease rather than neurotropism csf analysis was not indicative of an infectious process neurological impairment was not present in the acute phase of the infection and neuroimaging findings were not typical of classical toxic and metabolic disorders the finding of bilateral periventricular relatively asymmetrical lesions allied with deep white matter involvement that may also be present in cortical graywhite matter junction thalami basal ganglia cerebellum and brainstem suggests an acute demyelination process additionally hemorrhagic white matter lesions clusters of macrophages related to axonal injury and ademlike appearance were also found in subcortical white matter causes since the discovery of the antimog specificity against multiple sclerosis diagnosis it is considered that adem is one of the possible clinical causes of antimog associated encephalomyelitis about how the antimog antibodies appear in the patients serum there are several theories a preceding antigenic challenge can be identified in approximately twothirds of people some viral infections thought to induce adem include influenza virus dengue enterovirus measles mumps rubella varicella zoster epsteinbarr virus cytomegalovirus herpes simplex virus hepatitis a coxsackievirus and covid19 bacterial infections include mycoplasma pneumoniae borrelia burgdorferi leptospira and betahemolytic streptococci exposure to vaccines the only vaccine proven related to adem is the semple form of the rabies vaccine but hepatitis b pertussis diphtheria measles mumps rubella pneumococcus varicella influenza japanese encephalitis and polio vaccines have all been implicated the majority of the studies that correlate vaccination with adem onset use only small samples or are case studies largescale epidemiological studies eg of mmr vaccine or smallpox vaccine do not show increased risk of adem following vaccination an upper bound for the risk of adem from measles vaccination if it exists can be estimated to be 10 per million which is far lower than the risk of developing adem from an actual measles infection which is about 1 per 1000 cases for a rubella infection the risk is 1 per 5000 cases some early vaccines later shown to have been contaminated with host animal cns tissue had adem incidence rates as high as 1 in 600 in rare cases adem seems to follow from organ transplantation diagnosis the term adem has been inconsistently used at different times currently the commonly accepted international standard for the clinical case definition is the one published by the international pediatric ms study group revision 2007 given that the definition is clinical it is currently unknown if all the cases of adem are positive for antimog autoantibody in any case it appears to be strongly related to adem diagnosis differential diagnosis multiple sclerosis while adem and ms both involve autoimmune demyelination they differ in many clinical genetic imaging and histopathological aspects some authors consider ms and its borderline forms to constitute a spectrum differing only in chronicity severity and clinical course while others consider them discretely different diseases typically adem appears in children following an antigenic challenge and remains monophasic nevertheless adem does occur in adults and can also be clinically multiphasic problems for differential diagnosis increase due to the lack of agreement for a definition of multiple sclerosis if ms were defined only by the separation in time and space of the demyelinating lesions as mcdonald did it would not be enough to make a difference as some cases of adem satisfy these conditions therefore some authors propose to establish the dividing line as the shape of the lesions around the veins being therefore perivenous vs confluent demyelination the pathology of adem is very similar to that of ms with some differences the pathological hallmark of adem is perivenous inflammation with limited sleeves of demyelination nevertheless mslike plaques confluent demyelination can appear plaques in the white matter in ms are sharply delineated while the glial scar in adem is smooth axons are better preserved in adem lesions inflammation in adem is widely disseminated and illdefined and finally lesions are strictly perivenous while in ms they are disposed around veins but not so sharply nevertheless the cooccurrence of perivenous and confluent demyelination in some individuals suggests pathogenic overlap between acute disseminated encephalomyelitis and multiple sclerosis and misclassification even with biopsy or even postmortem adem in adults can progress to ms multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis when the person has more than one demyelinating episode of adem the disease is then called recurrent disseminated encephalomyelitis or multiphasic disseminated encephalomyelitis mdem it has been found that antimog autoantibodies are related to this kind of adem another variant of adem in adults has been described also related to antimog autoantibodies has been named fulminant disseminated encephalomyelitis and it has been reported to be clinically adem but showing mslike lesions on autopsy it has been classified inside the antimog associated inflammatory demyelinating diseases acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis acute hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis ahl or ahle acute hemorrhagic encephalomyelitis ahem acute necrotizing hemorrhagic leukoencephalitis anhle westonhurst syndrome or hursts disease is a hyperacute and frequently fatal form of adem ahl is relatively rare less than 100 cases have been reported in the medical literature it is seen in about 2 of adem cases and is characterized by necrotizing vasculitis of venules and hemorrhage and edema death is common in the first week and overall mortality is about 70 but increasing evidence points to favorable outcomes after aggressive treatment with corticosteroids immunoglobulins cyclophosphamide and plasma exchange about 70 of survivors show residual neurological deficits but some survivors have shown surprisingly little deficit considering the extent of the white matter affected this disease has been occasionally associated with ulcerative colitis and crohns disease malaria sepsis associated with immune complex deposition methanol poisoning and other underlying conditions also anecdotal association with ms has been reported laboratory studies that support diagnosis of ahl are peripheral leukocytosis cerebrospinal fluid csf pleocytosis associated with normal glucose and increased protein on magnetic resonance imaging mri lesions of ahl typically show extensive t2weighted and fluidattenuated inversion recovery flair white matter hyperintensities with areas of hemorrhages significant edema and mass effect treatment no controlled clinical trials have been conducted on adem treatment but aggressive treatment aimed at rapidly reducing inflammation of the cns is standard the widely accepted firstline treatment is high doses of intravenous corticosteroids such as methylprednisolone or dexamethasone followed by 36 weeks of gradually lower oral doses of prednisolone patients treated with methylprednisolone have shown better outcomes than those treated with dexamethasone oral tapers of less than three weeks duration show a higher chance of relapsing and tend to show poorer outcomes other antiinflammatory and immunosuppressive therapies have been reported to show beneficial effect such as plasmapheresis high doses of intravenous immunoglobulin ivig mitoxantrone and cyclophosphamide these are considered alternative therapies used when corticosteroids cannot be used or fail to show an effect there is some evidence to suggest that patients may respond to a combination of methylprednisolone and immunoglobulins if they fail to respond to either separately in a study of 16 children with adem 10 recovered completely after highdose methylprednisolone one severe case that failed to respond to steroids recovered completely after iv ig the five most severe cases with adam and severe peripheral neuropathy were treated with combined highdose methylprednisolone and immunoglobulin two remained paraplegic one had motor and cognitive handicaps and two recovered a recent review of ivig treatment of adem of which the previous study formed the bulk of the cases found that 70 of children showed complete recovery after treatment with ivig or ivig plus corticosteroids a study of ivig treatment in adults with adem showed that ivig seems more effective in treating sensory and motor disturbances while steroids seem more effective in treating impairments of cognition consciousness and rigor this same study found one subject a 71yearold man who had not responded to steroids that responded to an ivig treatment 58 days after disease onset prognosis full recovery is seen in 50 to 70 of cases ranging to 70 to 90 recovery with some minor residual disability typically assessed using measures such as mrs or edss average time to recover is one to six months the mortality rate may be as high as 510 poorer outcomes are associated with unresponsiveness to steroid therapy unusually severe neurological symptoms or sudden onset children tend to have more favorable outcomes than adults and cases presenting without fevers tend to have poorer outcomes the latter effect may be due to either protective effects of fever or that diagnosis and treatment is sought more rapidly when fever is present adem can progress to ms it will be considered ms if some lesions appear in different times and brain areas motor deficits residual motor deficits are estimated to remain in about 8 to 30 of cases the range in severity from mild clumsiness to ataxia and hemiparesis neurocognitive patients with demyelinating illnesses such as ms have shown cognitive deficits even when there is minimal physical disability research suggests that similar effects are seen after adem but that the deficits are less severe than those seen in ms a study of six children with adem mean age at presentation 77 years were tested for a range of neurocognitive tests after an average of 35 years of recovery all six children performed in the normal range on most tests including verbal iq and performance iq but performed at least one standard deviation below age norms in at least one cognitive domain such as complex attention one child shortterm memory one child and internalizing behaviouraffect two children group means for each cognitive domain were all within one standard deviation of age norms demonstrating that as a group they were normal these deficits were less severe than those seen in similar aged children with a diagnosis of ms another study compared nineteen children with a history of adem of which 10 were five years of age or younger at the time average age 38 years old tested an average of 39 years later and nine were older mean age 77y at time of adem tested an average of 22 years later to nineteen matched controls scores on iq tests and educational achievement were lower for the young onset adem group average iq 90 compared to the late onset average iq 100 and control groups average iq 106 while the late onset adem children scored lower on verbal processing speed again all groups means were within one standard deviation of the controls meaning that while effects were statistically reliable the children were as a whole still within the normal range there were also more behavioural problems in the early onset group although there is some suggestion that this may be due at least in part to the stress of hospitalization at a young age research the relationship between adem and antimog associated encephalomyelitis is currently under research a new entity called mogdem has been proposed about animal models the main animal model for ms experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis eae is also an animal model for adem being an acute monophasic illness eae is far more similar to adem than ms see also optic neuritis transverse myelitis victoria arlen references external links acute disseminated encephalomyelitis information information for parents about acute disseminated encephalomyelitis multiple sclerosis autoimmune diseases central nervous system disorders enterovirusassociated diseases measles rare diseases	2,373
969	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ataxia	Ataxia	ataxia from greek α a negative prefix τάξις order lack of order is a neurological sign consisting of lack of voluntary coordination of muscle movements that can include gait abnormality speech changes and abnormalities in eye movements that indicates dysfunction of parts of the nervous system that coordinate movement such as the cerebellum these nervous system dysfunctions occur in several different patterns with different results and different possible causes ataxia can be limited to one side of the body which is referred to as hemiataxia friedreichs ataxia has gait abnormality as the most commonly presented symptom dystaxia is a mild degree of ataxia types cerebellar the term cerebellar ataxia is used to indicate ataxia due to dysfunction of the cerebellum the cerebellum is responsible for integrating a significant amount of neural information that is used to coordinate smoothly ongoing movements and to participate in motor planning although ataxia is not present with all cerebellar lesions many conditions affecting the cerebellum do produce ataxia people with cerebellar ataxia may have trouble regulating the force range direction velocity and rhythm of muscle contractions this results in a characteristic type of irregular uncoordinated movement that can manifest itself in many possible ways such as asthenia asynergy delayed reaction time and dyschronometria individuals with cerebellar ataxia could also display instability of gait difficulty with eye movements dysarthria dysphagia hypotonia dysmetria and dysdiadochokinesia these deficits can vary depending on which cerebellar structures have been damaged and whether the lesion is bi or unilateral people with cerebellar ataxia may initially present with poor balance which could be demonstrated as an inability to stand on one leg or perform tandem gait as the condition progresses walking is characterized by a widened base and high stepping as well as staggering and lurching from side to side turning is also problematic and could result in falls as cerebellar ataxia becomes severe great assistance and effort are needed to stand and walk dysarthria an impairment with articulation may also be present and is characterized by scanning speech that consists of slower rate irregular rhythm and variable volume also slurring of speech tremor of the voice and ataxic respiration may occur cerebellar ataxia could result with incoordination of movement particularly in the extremities overshooting or hypermetria occurs with fingertonose testing and heel to shin testing thus dysmetria is evident impairments with alternating movements dysdiadochokinesia as well as dysrhythmia may also be displayed tremor of the head and trunk titubation may be seen in individuals with cerebellar ataxia dysmetria is thought to be caused by a deficit in the control of interaction torques in multijoint motion interaction torques are created at an associated joint when the primary joint is moved for example if a movement required reaching to touch a target in front of the body flexion at the shoulder would create a torque at the elbow while extension of the elbow would create a torque at the wrist these torques increase as the speed of movement increases and must be compensated and adjusted for to create coordinated movement this may therefore explain decreased coordination at higher movement velocities and accelerations dysfunction of the vestibulocerebellum flocculonodular lobe impairs balance and the control of eye movements this presents itself with postural instability in which the person tends to separate hisher feet upon standing to gain a wider base and to avoid titubation bodily oscillations tending to be forwardbackward ones the instability is therefore worsened when standing with the feet together regardless of whether the eyes are open or closed this is a negative rombergs test or more accurately it denotes the individuals inability to carry out the test because the individual feels unstable even with open eyes dysfunction of the spinocerebellum vermis and associated areas near the midline presents itself with a widebased drunken sailor gait called truncal ataxia characterised by uncertain starts and stops lateral deviations and unequal steps as a result of this gait impairment falling is a concern in patients with ataxia studies examining falls in this population show that 7493 of patients have fallen at least once in the past year and up to 60 admit to fear of falling dysfunction of the cerebrocerebellum lateral hemispheres presents as disturbances in carrying out voluntary planned movements by the extremities called appendicular ataxia these include intention tremor coarse trembling accentuated over the execution of voluntary movements possibly involving the head and eyes as well as the limbs and torso peculiar writing abnormalities large unequal letters irregular underlining a peculiar pattern of dysarthria slurred speech sometimes characterised by explosive variations in voice intensity despite a regular rhythm inability to perform rapidly alternating movements known as dysdiadochokinesia occurs and could involve rapidly switching from pronation to supination of the forearm movements become more irregular with increases of speed inability to judge distances or ranges of movement happens this dysmetria is often seen as undershooting hypometria or overshooting hypermetria the required distance or range to reach a target this is sometimes seen when a patient is asked to reach out and touch someones finger or touch his or her own nose the rebound phenomenon also known as the loss of the check reflex is also sometimes seen in patients with cerebellar ataxia for example when patients are flexing their elbows isometrically against a resistance when the resistance is suddenly removed without warning the patients arms may swing up and even strike themselves with an intact check reflex the patients check and activate the opposing triceps to slow and stop the movement patients may exhibit a constellation of subtle to overt cognitive symptoms which are gathered under the terminology of schmahmanns syndrome sensory the term sensory ataxia is used to indicate ataxia due to loss of proprioception the loss of sensitivity to the positions of joint and body parts this is generally caused by dysfunction of the dorsal columns of the spinal cord because they carry proprioceptive information up to the brain in some cases the cause of sensory ataxia may instead be dysfunction of the various parts of the brain that receive positional information including the cerebellum thalamus and parietal lobes sensory ataxia presents itself with an unsteady stomping gait with heavy heel strikes as well as a postural instability that is usually worsened when the lack of proprioceptive input cannot be compensated for by visual input such as in poorly lit environments physicians can find evidence of sensory ataxia during physical examination by having patients stand with their feet together and eyes shut in affected patients this will cause the instability to worsen markedly producing wide oscillations and possibly a fall this is called a positive rombergs test worsening of the fingerpointing test with the eyes closed is another feature of sensory ataxia also when patients are standing with arms and hands extended toward the physician if the eyes are closed the patients fingers tend to fall down and then be restored to the horizontal extended position by sudden muscular contractions the ataxic hand vestibular the term vestibular ataxia is used to indicate ataxia due to dysfunction of the vestibular system which in acute and unilateral cases is associated with prominent vertigo nausea and vomiting in slowonset chronic bilateral cases of vestibular dysfunction these characteristic manifestations may be absent and dysequilibrium may be the sole presentation causes the three types of ataxia have overlapping causes so can either coexist or occur in isolation cerebellar ataxia can have many causes despite normal neuroimaging focal lesions any type of focal lesion of the central nervous system such as stroke brain tumor multiple sclerosis inflammatory such as sarcoidosis and chronic lymphocytyc inflammation with pontine perivascular enhancement responsive to steroids syndrome clippers will cause the type of ataxia corresponding to the site of the lesion cerebellar if in the cerebellum sensory if in the dorsal spinal cordto include cord compression by thickened ligamentum flavum or stenosis of the boney spinal canaland rarely in the thalamus or parietal lobe or vestibular if in the vestibular system including the vestibular areas of the cerebral cortex exogenous substances metabolic ataxia exogenous substances that cause ataxia mainly do so because they have a depressant effect on central nervous system function the most common example is ethanol alcohol which is capable of causing reversible cerebellar and vestibular ataxia chronic intake of ethanol causes atrophy of the cerebellum by oxidative and endoplasmic reticulum stresses induced by thiamine deficiency other examples include various prescription drugs eg most antiepileptic drugs have cerebellar ataxia as a possible adverse effect lithium level over 15meql synthetic cannabinoid hu211 ingestion and various other medical and recreational drugs eg ketamine pcp or dextromethorphan all of which are nmda receptor antagonists that produce a dissociative state at high doses a further class of pharmaceuticals which can cause short term ataxia especially in high doses are benzodiazepines exposure to high levels of methylmercury through consumption of fish with high mercury concentrations is also a known cause of ataxia and other neurological disorders radiation poisoning ataxia can be induced as a result of severe acute radiation poisoning with an absorbed dose of more than 30 grays vitamin b12 deficiency vitamin b12 deficiency may cause among several neurological abnormalities overlapping cerebellar and sensory ataxia neuropsychological symptoms may include sense loss difficulty in proprioception poor balance loss of sensation in the feet changes in reflexes dementia and psychosis can be reversible with treatment complications may include a neurological complex known as subacute combined degeneration of spinal cord and other neurological disorders hypothyroidism symptoms of neurological dysfunction may be the presenting feature in some patients with hypothyroidism these include reversible cerebellar ataxia dementia peripheral neuropathy psychosis and coma most of the neurological complications improve completely after thyroid hormone replacement therapy causes of isolated sensory ataxia peripheral neuropathies may cause generalised or localised sensory ataxia eg a limb only depending on the extent of the neuropathic involvement spinal disorders of various types may cause sensory ataxia from the lesioned level below when they involve the dorsal columns nonhereditary cerebellar degeneration nonhereditary causes of cerebellar degeneration include chronic alcohol use disorder head injury paraneoplastic and nonparaneoplastic autoimmune ataxia high altitude cerebral oedema coeliac disease normal pressure hydrocephalus and infectious or postinfectious cerebellitis hereditary ataxias ataxia may depend on hereditary disorders consisting of degeneration of the cerebellum or of the spine most cases feature both to some extent and therefore present with overlapping cerebellar and sensory ataxia even though one is often more evident than the other hereditary disorders causing ataxia include autosomal dominant ones such as spinocerebellar ataxia episodic ataxia and dentatorubropallidoluysian atrophy as well as autosomal recessive disorders such as friedreichs ataxia sensory and cerebellar with the former predominating and niemann pick disease ataxiatelangiectasia sensory and cerebellar with the latter predominatingautosomal recessive spinocerebellar ataxia14 and abetalipoproteinaemia an example of xlinked ataxic condition is the rare fragile xassociated tremorataxia syndrome or fxtas arnoldchiari malformation congenital ataxia arnoldchiari malformation is a malformation of the brain it consists of a downward displacement of the cerebellar tonsils and the medulla through the foramen magnum sometimes causing hydrocephalus as a result of obstruction of cerebrospinal fluid outflow succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency succinic semialdehyde dehydrogenase deficiency is an autosomalrecessive gene disorder where mutations in the aldh5a1 gene results in the accumulation of gammahydroxybutyric acid ghb in the body ghb accumulates in the nervous system and can cause ataxia as well as other neurological dysfunction wilsons disease wilsons disease is an autosomalrecessive gene disorder whereby an alteration of the atp7b gene results in an inability to properly excrete copper from the body copper accumulates in the nervous system and liver and can cause ataxia as well as other neurological and organ impairments gluten ataxia gluten ataxia is an autoimmune disease triggered by the ingestion of gluten early diagnosis and treatment with a glutenfree diet can improve ataxia and prevent its progression the effectiveness of the treatment depends on the elapsed time from the onset of the ataxia until diagnosis because the death of neurons in the cerebellum as a result of gluten exposure is irreversible it accounts for 40 of ataxias of unknown origin and 15 of all ataxias less than 10 of people with gluten ataxia present any gastrointestinal symptom and only about 40 have intestinal damage this entity is classified into primary autoimmune cerebellar ataxias paca potassium pump malfunction of the sodiumpotassium pump may be a factor in some ataxias the pump has been shown to control and set the intrinsic activity mode of cerebellar purkinje neurons this suggests that the pump might not simply be a homeostatic housekeeping molecule for ionic gradients but could be a computational element in the cerebellum and the brain indeed an ouabain block of pumps in the cerebellum of a live mouse results in it displaying ataxia and dystonia ataxia is observed for lower ouabain concentrations dystonia is observed at higher ouabain concentrations cerebellar ataxia associated with antigad antibodies antibodies against the enzyme glutamic acid decarboxylase gad enzyme changing glutamate into gaba cause cerebellar deficits the antibodies impair motor learning and cause behavioral deficits gad antibodies related ataxia is part of the group called immunemediated cerebellar ataxias the antibodies induce a synaptopathy the cerebellum is particularly vulnerable to autoimmune disorders cerebellar circuitry has capacities to compensate and restore function thanks to cerebellar reserve gathering multiple forms of plasticity ltdpathies gather immune disorders targeting longterm depression ltd a form of plasticity diagnosis imaging studies a ct scan or mri of the brain might help determine potential causes an mri can sometimes show shrinkage of the cerebellum and other brain structures in people with ataxia it may also show other treatable findings such as a blood clot or benign tumour that could be pressing on the cerebellum lumbar puncture spinal tap a needle is inserted into the lower back lumbar region between two lumbar vertebrae to obtain a sample of cerebrospinal fluid for testing genetic testing determines whether the mutation that causes one of the hereditary ataxic conditions is present tests are available for many but not all of the hereditary ataxias treatment the treatment of ataxia and its effectiveness depend on the underlying cause treatment may limit or reduce the effects of ataxia but it is unlikely to eliminate them entirely recovery tends to be better in individuals with a single focal injury such as stroke or a benign tumour compared to those who have a neurological degenerative condition a review of the management of degenerative ataxia was published in 2009 a small number of rare conditions presenting with prominent cerebellar ataxia are amenable to specific treatment and recognition of these disorders is critical diseases include vitamin e deficiency abetalipoproteinemia cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis niemannpick type c disease refsums disease glucose transporter type 1 deficiency episodic ataxia type 2 gluten ataxia glutamic acid decarboxylase ataxia novel therapies target the rna defects associated with cerebellar disorders using in particular antisense oligonucleotides the movement disorders associated with ataxia can be managed by pharmacological treatments and through physical therapy and occupational therapy to reduce disability some drug treatments that have been used to control ataxia include 5hydroxytryptophan 5htp idebenone amantadine physostigmine lcarnitine or derivatives trimethoprimsulfamethoxazole vigabatrin phosphatidylcholine acetazolamide 4aminopyridine buspirone and a combination of coenzyme q10 and vitamin e physical therapy requires a focus on adapting activity and facilitating motor learning for retraining specific functional motor patterns a recent systematic review suggested that physical therapy is effective but there is only moderate evidence to support this conclusion the most commonly used physical therapy interventions for cerebellar ataxia are vestibular habituation frenkel exercises proprioceptive neuromuscular facilitation pnf and balance training however therapy is often highly individualized and gait and coordination training are large components of therapy current research suggests that if a person is able to walk with or without a mobility aid physical therapy should include an exercise program addressing five components static balance dynamic balance trunklimb coordination stairs and contracture prevention once the physical therapist determines that the individual is able to safely perform parts of the program independently it is important that the individual be prescribed and regularly engage in a supplementary home exercise program that incorporates these components to further improve long term outcomes these outcomes include balance tasks gait and individual activities of daily living while the improvements are attributed primarily to changes in the brain and not just the hip or ankle joints it is still unknown whether the improvements are due to adaptations in the cerebellum or compensation by other areas of the brain decomposition simplification or slowing of multijoint movement may also be an effective strategy that therapists may use to improve function in patients with ataxia training likely needs to be intense and focusedas indicated by one study performed with stroke patients experiencing limb ataxia who underwent intensive upper limb retraining their therapy consisted of constraintinduced movement therapy which resulted in improvements of their arm function treatment should likely include strategies to manage difficulties with everyday activities such as walking gait aids such as a cane or walker can be provided to decrease the risk of falls associated with impairment of balance or poor coordination severe ataxia may eventually lead to the need for a wheelchair to obtain better results possible coexisting motor deficits need to be addressed in addition to those induced by ataxia for example muscle weakness and decreased endurance could lead to increasing fatigue and poorer movement patterns there are several assessment tools available to therapists and health care professionals working with patients with ataxia the international cooperative ataxia rating scale icars is one of the most widely used and has been proven to have very high reliability and validity other tools that assess motor function balance and coordination are also highly valuable to help the therapist track the progress of their patient as well as to quantify the patients functionality these tests include but are not limited to the berg balance scale tandem walking to test for tandem gaitability scale for the assessment and rating of ataxia sara tapping tests the person must quickly and repeatedly tap their arm or leg while the therapist monitors the amount of dysdiadochokinesia fingernose testing this test has several variations including fingertotherapists finger fingertofinger and alternate nosetofinger other uses the term ataxia is sometimes used in a broader sense to indicate lack of coordination in some physiological process examples include optic ataxia lack of coordination between visual inputs and hand movements resulting in inability to reach and grab objects and ataxic respiration lack of coordination in respiratory movements usually due to dysfunction of the respiratory centres in the medulla oblongata optic ataxia may be caused by lesions to the posterior parietal cortex which is responsible for combining and expressing positional information and relating it to movement outputs of the posterior parietal cortex include the spinal cord brain stem motor pathways premotor and prefrontal cortex basal ganglia and the cerebellum some neurons in the posterior parietal cortex are modulated by intention optic ataxia is usually part of balints syndrome but can be seen in isolation with injuries to the superior parietal lobule as it represents a disconnection between visualassociation cortex and the frontal premotor and motor cortex see also ataxic cerebral palsy locomotor ataxia bruns apraxia national ataxia foundation references further reading symptoms and signs nervous system stroke	3,203
974	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ada%20Lovelace	Ada Lovelace	augusta ada king countess of lovelace née byron 10 december 1815 27 november 1852 was an english mathematician and writer chiefly known for her work on charles babbages proposed mechanical generalpurpose computer the analytical engine she was the first to recognise that the machine had applications beyond pure calculation ada byron was the only legitimate child of poet lord byron and reformer lady byron all lovelaces halfsiblings lord byrons other children were born out of wedlock to other women byron separated from his wife a month after ada was born and left england forever he died in greece when ada was eight her mother remained bitter and promoted adas interest in mathematics and logic in an effort to prevent her from developing her fathers perceived insanity despite this ada remained interested in him naming her two sons byron and gordon upon her death she was buried next to him at her request although often ill in her childhood ada pursued her studies assiduously she married william king in 1835 king was made earl of lovelace in 1838 ada thereby becoming countess of lovelace her educational and social exploits brought her into contact with scientists such as andrew crosse charles babbage sir david brewster charles wheatstone michael faraday and the author charles dickens contacts which she used to further her education ada described her approach as poetical science and herself as an analyst metaphysician when she was eighteen her mathematical talents led her to a long working relationship and friendship with fellow british mathematician charles babbage who is known as the father of computers she was in particular interested in babbages work on the analytical engine lovelace first met him in june 1833 through their mutual friend and her private tutor mary somerville between 1842 and 1843 ada translated an article by the military engineer luigi menabrea later prime minister of italy about the analytical engine supplementing it with an elaborate set of seven notes simply called notes lovelaces notes are important in the early history of computers especially since the seventh one contained what many consider to be the first computer programthat is an algorithm designed to be carried out by a machine other historians reject this perspective and point out that babbages personal notes from the years 18361837 contain the first programs for the engine she also developed a vision of the capability of computers to go beyond mere calculating or numbercrunching while many others including babbage himself focused only on those capabilities her mindset of poetical science led her to ask questions about the analytical engine as shown in her notes examining how individuals and society relate to technology as a collaborative tool biography childhood lord byron expected his child to be a glorious boy and was disappointed when lady byron gave birth to a girl the child was named after byrons halfsister augusta leigh and was called ada by byron himself on 16 january 1816 at lord byrons command lady byron left for her parents home at kirkby mallory taking their fiveweekold daughter with her although english law at the time granted full custody of children to the father in cases of separation lord byron made no attempt to claim his parental rights but did request that his sister keep him informed of adas welfare on 21 april lord byron signed the deed of separation although very reluctantly and left england for good a few days later aside from an acrimonious separation lady byron continued throughout her life to make allegations about her husbands immoral behaviour this set of events made lovelace infamous in victorian society ada did not have a relationship with her father he died in 1824 when she was eight years old her mother was the only significant parental figure in her life lovelace was not shown the family portrait of her father until her 20th birthday lovelace did not have a close relationship with her mother she was often left in the care of her maternal grandmother judith hon lady milbanke who doted on her however because of societal attitudes of the timewhich favoured the husband in any separation with the welfare of any child acting as mitigationlady byron had to present herself as a loving mother to the rest of society this included writing anxious letters to lady milbanke about her daughters welfare with a cover note saying to retain the letters in case she had to use them to show maternal concern in one letter to lady milbanke she referred to her daughter as it i talk to it for your satisfaction not my own and shall be very glad when you have it under your own lady byron had her teenage daughter watched by close friends for any sign of moral deviation lovelace dubbed these observers the furies and later complained they exaggerated and invented stories about her lovelace was often ill beginning in early childhood at the age of eight she experienced headaches that obscured her vision in june 1829 she was paralyzed after a bout of measles she was subjected to continuous bed rest for nearly a year something which may have extended her period of disability by 1831 she was able to walk with crutches despite the illnesses she developed her mathematical and technological skills ada byron had an affair with a tutor in early 1833 she tried to elope with him after she was caught but the tutors relatives recognised her and contacted her mother lady byron and her friends covered the incident up to prevent a public scandal lovelace never met her younger halfsister allegra the daughter of lord byron and claire clairmont allegra died in 1822 at the age of five lovelace did have some contact with elizabeth medora leigh the daughter of byrons halfsister augusta leigh who purposely avoided lovelace as much as possible when introduced at court adult years lovelace became close friends with her tutor mary somerville who introduced her to charles babbage in 1833 she had a strong respect and affection for somerville and they corresponded for many years other acquaintances included the scientists andrew crosse sir david brewster charles wheatstone michael faraday and the author charles dickens she was presented at court at the age of seventeen and became a popular belle of the season in part because of her brilliant mind by 1834 ada was a regular at court and started attending various events she danced often and was able to charm many people and was described by most people as being dainty although john hobhouse byrons friend described her as a large coarseskinned young woman but with something of my friends features particularly the mouth this description followed their meeting on 24 february 1834 in which ada made it clear to hobhouse that she did not like him probably due to her mothers influence which led her to dislike all of her fathers friends this first impression was not to last and they later became friends on 8 july 1835 she married william 8th baron king becoming lady king they had three homes ockham park surrey a scottish estate on loch torridon in rossshire and a house in london they spent their honeymoon at worthy manor in ashley combe near porlock weir somerset the manor had been built as a hunting lodge in 1799 and was improved by king in preparation for their honeymoon it later became their summer retreat and was further improved during this time from 1845 the familys main house was horsley towers built in the tudorbethan fashion by the architect of the houses of parliament charles barry and later greatly enlarged to lovelaces own designs they had three children byron born 1836 anne isabella called annabella born 1837 and ralph gordon born 1839 immediately after the birth of annabella lady king experienced a tedious and suffering illness which took months to cure ada was a descendant of the extinct barons lovelace and in 1838 her husband was made earl of lovelace and viscount ockham meaning ada became the countess of lovelace in 184344 adas mother assigned william benjamin carpenter to teach adas children and to act as a moral instructor for ada he quickly fell for her and encouraged her to express any frustrated affections claiming that his marriage meant he would never act in an unbecoming manner when it became clear that carpenter was trying to start an affair ada cut it off in 1841 lovelace and medora leigh the daughter of lord byrons halfsister augusta leigh were told by adas mother that adas father was also medoras father on 27 february 1841 ada wrote to her mother i am not in the least astonished in fact you merely confirm what i have for years and years felt scarcely a doubt about but should have considered it most improper in me to hint to you that i in any way suspected she did not blame the incestuous relationship on byron but instead blamed augusta leigh i fear she is more inherently wicked than he ever was in the 1840s ada flirted with scandals firstly from a relaxed approach to extramarital relationships with men leading to rumours of affairs and secondly from her love of gambling she apparently lost more than 3000 on the horses during the later 1840s the gambling led to her forming a syndicate with male friends and an ambitious attempt in 1851 to create a mathematical model for successful large bets this went disastrously wrong leaving her thousands of pounds in debt to the syndicate forcing her to admit it all to her husband she had a shadowy relationship with andrew crosses son john from 1844 onwards john crosse destroyed most of their correspondence after her death as part of a legal agreement she bequeathed him the only heirlooms her father had personally left to her during her final illness she would panic at the idea of the younger crosse being kept from visiting her education from 1832 when she was seventeen her mathematical abilities began to emerge and her interest in mathematics dominated the majority of her adult life her mothers obsession with rooting out any of the insanity of which she accused byron was one of the reasons that ada was taught mathematics from an early age she was privately educated in mathematics and science by william frend william king and mary somerville the noted 19thcentury researcher and scientific author in the 1840s the mathematician augustus de morgan extended her much help in her mathematical studies including study of advanced calculus topics including the numbers of bernoulli that formed her celebrated algorithm for babbages analytical engine in a letter to lady byron de morgan suggested that adas skill in mathematics might lead her to become an original mathematical investigator perhaps of firstrate eminence lovelace often questioned basic assumptions through integrating poetry and science whilst studying differential calculus she wrote to de morgan i may remark that the curious transformations many formulae can undergo the unsuspected and to a beginner apparently impossible identity of forms exceedingly dissimilar at first sight is i think one of the chief difficulties in the early part of mathematical studies i am often reminded of certain sprites and fairies one reads of who are at ones elbows in one shape now and the next minute in a form most dissimilar lovelace believed that intuition and imagination were critical to effectively applying mathematical and scientific concepts she valued metaphysics as much as mathematics viewing both as tools for exploring the unseen worlds around us death lovelace died at the age of 36 on 27 november 1852 from uterine cancer the illness lasted several months in which time annabella took command over whom ada saw and excluded all of her friends and confidants under her mothers influence ada had a religious transformation and was coaxed into repenting of her previous conduct and making annabella her executor she lost contact with her husband after confessing something to him on 30 august which caused him to abandon her bedside it is not known what she told him she was buried at her request next to her father at the church of st mary magdalene in hucknall nottinghamshire a memorial plaque written in latin to her and her father is in the chapel attached to horsley towers work throughout her life lovelace was strongly interested in scientific developments and fads of the day including phrenology and mesmerism after her work with babbage lovelace continued to work on other projects in 1844 she commented to a friend woronzow greig about her desire to create a mathematical model for how the brain gives rise to thoughts and nerves to feelings a calculus of the nervous system she never achieved this however in part her interest in the brain came from a longrunning preoccupation inherited from her mother about her potential madness as part of her research into this project she visited the electrical engineer andrew crosse in 1844 to learn how to carry out electrical experiments in the same year she wrote a review of a paper by baron karl von reichenbach researches on magnetism but this was not published and does not appear to have progressed past the first draft in 1851 the year before her cancer struck she wrote to her mother mentioning certain productions she was working on regarding the relation of maths and music lovelace first met charles babbage in june 1833 through their mutual friend mary somerville later that month babbage invited lovelace to see the prototype for his difference engine she became fascinated with the machine and used her relationship with somerville to visit babbage as often as she could babbage was impressed by lovelaces intellect and analytic skills he called her the enchantress of number in 1843 he wrote to her during a ninemonth period in 184243 lovelace translated the italian mathematician luigi menabreas article on babbages newest proposed machine the analytical engine with the article she appended a set of notes explaining the analytical engines function was a difficult task many other scientists did not grasp the concept and the british establishment had shown little interest in it lovelaces notes even had to explain how the analytical engine differed from the original difference engine her work was well received at the time the scientist michael faraday described himself as a supporter of her writing the notes are around three times longer than the article itself and include in note g in complete detail a method for calculating a sequence of bernoulli numbers using the analytical engine which might have run correctly had it ever been built only babbages difference engine has been built completed in london in 2002 based on this work lovelace is now considered by many to be the first computer programmer and her method has been called the worlds first computer program others dispute this because some of charles babbages earlier writings could be considered computer programs note g also contains lovelaces dismissal of artificial intelligence she wrote that the analytical engine has no pretensions whatever to originate anything it can do whatever we know how to order it to perform it can follow analysis but it has no power of anticipating any analytical relations or truths this objection has been the subject of much debate and rebuttal for example by alan turing in his paper computing machinery and intelligence most modern computer scientists argue that this view is outdated and that computer software can develop in ways that cannot necessarily be anticipated by programmers lovelace and babbage had a minor falling out when the papers were published when he tried to leave his own statement criticising the governments treatment of his engine as an unsigned preface which could have been mistakenly interpreted as a joint declaration when taylors scientific memoirs ruled that the statement should be signed babbage wrote to lovelace asking her to withdraw the paper this was the first that she knew he was leaving it unsigned and she wrote back refusing to withdraw the paper the historian benjamin woolley theorised that his actions suggested he had so enthusiastically sought adas involvement and so happily indulged her because of her celebrated name their friendship recovered and they continued to correspond on 12 august 1851 when she was dying of cancer lovelace wrote to him asking him to be her executor though this letter did not give him the necessary legal authority part of the terrace at worthy manor was known as philosophers walk it was there that lovelace and babbage were reputed to have walked while discussing mathematical principles first published computer program in 1840 babbage was invited to give a seminar at the university of turin about his analytical engine luigi menabrea a young italian engineer and the future prime minister of italy transcribed babbages lecture into french and this transcript was subsequently published in the bibliothèque universelle de genève in october 1842 babbages friend charles wheatstone commissioned ada lovelace to translate menabreas paper into english she then augmented the paper with notes which were added to the translation ada lovelace spent the better part of a year doing this assisted with input from babbage these notes which are more extensive than menabreas paper were then published in the september 1843 edition of taylors scientific memoirs under the initialism aal ada lovelaces notes were labelled alphabetically from a to g in note g she describes an algorithm for the analytical engine to compute bernoulli numbers it is considered to be the first published algorithm ever specifically tailored for implementation on a computer and ada lovelace has often been cited as the first computer programmer for this reason the engine was never completed and so her program was never tested in 1953 more than a century after her death ada lovelaces notes on babbages analytical engine were republished as an appendix to b v bowdens faster than thought a symposium on digital computing machines the engine has now been recognised as an early model for a computer and her notes as a description of a computer and software insight into potential of computing devices in her notes ada lovelace emphasised the difference between the analytical engine and previous calculating machines particularly its ability to be programmed to solve problems of any complexity she realised the potential of the device extended far beyond mere number crunching in her notes she wrote this analysis was an important development from previous ideas about the capabilities of computing devices and anticipated the implications of modern computing one hundred years before they were realised walter isaacson ascribes adas insight regarding the application of computing to any process based on logical symbols to an observation about textiles when she saw some mechanical looms that used punchcards to direct the weaving of beautiful patterns it reminded her of how babbages engine used punched cards to make calculations this insight is seen as significant by writers such as betty toole and benjamin woolley as well as the programmer john grahamcumming whose project plan 28 has the aim of constructing the first complete analytical engine according to the historian of computing and babbage specialist doron swade ada saw something that babbage in some sense failed to see in babbages world his engines were bound by numberwhat lovelace sawwas that number could represent entities other than quantity so once you had a machine for manipulating numbers if those numbers represented other things letters musical notes then the machine could manipulate symbols of which number was one instance according to rules it is this fundamental transition from a machine which is a number cruncher to a machine for manipulating symbols according to rules that is the fundamental transition from calculation to computationto generalpurpose computationand looking back from the present high ground of modern computing if we are looking and sifting history for that transition then that transition was made explicitly by ada in that 1843 paper distinction between mechanism and logical structure lovelace recognized the difference between the details of the computing mechanism as covered in a 1834 article on the difference engine and the logical structure of the analytical engine on which the article she was reviewing dwelt she noted that different specialists might be required in each area the 1834 article chiefly treats it under its mechanical aspect entering but slightly into the mathematical principles of which that engine is the representative but giving in considerable length many details of the mechanism and contrivances by means of which it tabulates the various orders of differences m menabrea on the contrary exclusively developes the analytical view taking it for granted that mechanism is able to perform certain processes but without attempting to explain how and devoting his whole attention to explanations and illustrations of the manner in which analytical laws can be so arranged and combined as to bring every branch of that vast subject within the grasp of the assumed powers of mechanism it is obvious that in the invention of a calculating engine these two branches of the subject are equally essential fields of investigation they are indissolubly connected though so different in their intrinsic nature that perhaps the same mind might not be likely to prove equally profound or successful in both controversy over contribution though lovelace is often referred to as the first computer programmer some biographers computer scientists and historians of computing suggest otherwise allan g bromley in the 1990 article difference and analytical engines bruce collier wrote that lovelace made a considerable contribution to publicizing the analytical engine but there is no evidence that she advanced the design or theory of it in any way eugene eric kim and betty alexandra toole consider it incorrect to regard lovelace as the first computer programmer as babbage wrote the initial programs for his analytical engine although the majority were never published bromley notes several dozen sample programs prepared by babbage between 1837 and 1840 all substantially predating lovelaces notes dorothy k stein regards lovelaces notes as more a reflection of the mathematical uncertainty of the author the political purposes of the inventor and above all of the social and cultural context in which it was written than a blueprint for a scientific development doron swade has said that ada only published the first computer program instead of actually writing it but agrees that she was the only person to see the potential of the analytical engine as a machine capable of expressing entities other than quantities in his book idea makers stephen wolfram defends lovelaces contributions while acknowledging that babbage wrote several unpublished algorithms for the analytical engine prior to lovelaces notes wolfram argues that theres nothing as sophisticatedor as cleanas adas computation of the bernoulli numbers babbage certainly helped and commented on adas work but she was definitely the driver of it wolfram then suggests that lovelaces main achievement was to distill from babbages correspondence a clear exposition of the abstract operation of the machinesomething which babbage never did commemoration the computer language ada created on behalf of the united states department of defense was named after lovelace the reference manual for the language was approved on 10 december 1980 and the department of defense military standard for the language milstd1815 was given the number of the year of her birth in 1981 the association for women in computing inaugurated its ada lovelace award the british computer society bcs has awarded the lovelace medal and in 2008 initiated an annual competition for women students bcswomen sponsors the lovelace colloquium an annual conference for women undergraduates ada college is a furthereducation college in tottenham hale london focused on digital skills ada lovelace day is an annual event celebrated on the second tuesday of october which began in 2009 its goal is to raise the profile of women in science technology engineering and maths and to create new role models for girls and women in these fields events have included wikipedia editathons with the aim of improving the representation of women on wikipedia in terms of articles and editors to reduce unintended gender bias on wikipedia the ada initiative was a nonprofit organisation dedicated to increasing the involvement of women in the free culture and open source movements the engineering in computer science and telecommunications college building in zaragoza university is called the ada byron building the computer centre in the village of porlock near where lovelace lived is named after her ada lovelace house is a councilowned building in kirkbyinashfield nottinghamshire near where lovelace spent her infancy in 2012 a google doodle and blog post honoured her on her birthday in 2013 ada developers academy was founded and named after her the mission of ada developers academy is to diversify tech by providing women and gender diverse people the skills experience and community support to become professional software developers to change the face of tech on 17 september 2013 the bbc radio 4 biography programme great lives devoted an episode to ada lovelace she was sponsored by tv presenter konnie huq as of november 2015 all new british passports have included an illustration of lovelace and babbage in 2017 a google doodle honoured her with other women on international womens day on 2 february 2018 satellogic a highresolution earth observation imaging and analytics company launched a ñusat type microsatellite named in honour of ada lovelace in march 2018 the new york times published a belated obituary for ada lovelace on 27 july 2018 senator ron wyden submitted in the united states senate the designation of 9 october 2018 as national ada lovelace day to honor the life and contributions of ada lovelace as a leading woman in science and mathematics the resolution sres592 was considered and agreed to without amendment and with a preamble by unanimous consent in november 2020 it was announced that trinity college dublin whose library had previously held forty busts all of them of men was commissioning four new busts of women one of whom was to be lovelace in march 2022 a statue of ada lovelace was installed at the site of the former ergon house in the city of westminster london honoring its scientific history the redevelopment was part of a complex with imperial chemical house the statue was sculpted by etienne and mary millner and based on the portrait by margaret sarah carpenter the sculpture was unveiled on international womens day 2022 it stands on the 7th floor of millbank quarter overlooking the junction of dean bradley street and horseferry road in september 2022 nvidia announced the ada lovelace graphics processing unit gpu microarchitecture in july 2023 the uks royal mint issued four commemorative 2 coins in various metals to honour the innovative contributions of computer science visionary ada lovelace and her legacy as a female trailblazer bicentenary 2015 the bicentenary of ada lovelaces birth was celebrated with a number of events including the ada lovelace bicentenary lectures on computability israel institute for advanced studies 20 december 2015 31 january 2016 ada lovelace symposium university of oxford 1314 october 2015 adaadaada a onewoman show about the life and work of ada lovelace using an led dress premiered at edinburgh international science festival on 11 april 2015 and continued to touring internationally to promote diversity on stem at technology conferences businesses government and educational organisations special exhibitions were displayed by the science museum in london england and the weston library part of the bodleian library in oxford england in popular culture novels and plays lovelace is portrayed in romulus linneys 1977 play childe byron in tom stoppards 1993 play arcadia the precocious teenage genius thomasina coverlya character apparently based on ada lovelace the play also involves lord byroncomes to understand chaos theory and theorises the second law of thermodynamics before either is officially recognised in the 1990 steampunk novel the difference engine by william gibson and bruce sterling lovelace delivers a lecture on the punched cards programme which proves gödels incompleteness theorems decades before their actual discovery lovelace and mary shelley as teenagers are the central characters in jordan stratfords steampunk series the wollstonecraft detective agency lovelace features in john crowleys 2005 novel lord byrons novel the evening land as an unseen character whose personality is forcefully depicted in her annotations and antiheroic efforts to archive her fathers lost novel the 2015 play ada and the engine by lauren gunderson portrays lovelace and charles babbage in unrequited love and it imagines a postdeath meeting between lovelace and her father lovelace and babbage are also the main characters in sydney paduas webcomic and graphic novel the thrilling adventures of lovelace and babbage the comic features extensive footnotes on the history of ada lovelace and many lines of dialogue are drawn from actual correspondence lovelace is a primary character in the 2019 big finish doctor who audio play the enchantress of numbers starring tom baker as the fourth doctor and jane slavin as his current companion wpc ann kelso lovelace is played by finty williams in 2019 lovelace is a featured character in the play stem femmes by philadelphia theater company applied mechanics film and television in the 1997 film conceiving ada a computer scientist obsessed with ada finds a way of communicating with her in the past by means of undying information waves lovelace identified as ada augusta byron is portrayed by lily lesser in the second season of the frankenstein chronicles she is employed as an analyst to provide the workings of a lifesized humanoid automaton the brass workings of the machine are reminiscent of babbages analytical engine her employment is described as keeping her occupied until she returns to her studies in advanced mathematics lovelace and babbage appear as characters in the second season of the itv series victoria 2017 emerald fennell portrays lovelace in the episode the greeneyed monster lovelace is the name given to the operating system designed by the character cameron howe in halt and catch fire lovelace features as a character in spyfall part 2 the second episode of doctor who series 12 which first aired on bbc one on 5 january 2020 the character was portrayed by sylvie briggs alongside characterisations of charles babbage and noor inayat khan software the cardano cryptocurrency platform launched in 2017 uses ada as the name for the cryptocurrency and lovelace as the smallest subunit of an ada in 2021 lovelace was directly honoured in the codename of nvidias new gpu architecture featured in its rtx 4000 series ada lovelace is the first nvidia architecture to feature both a first and last name publications lovelace ada king ada the enchantress of numbers a selection from the letters of lord byrons daughter and her description of the first computer mill valley ca strawberry press 1992 also available on wikisource the menebrea article the notes by ada lovelace publication history six copies of the 1843 first edition of sketch of the analytical engine with ada lovelaces notes have been located three are held at harvard university one at the university of oklahoma and one at the united states air force academy on 20 july 2018 the sixth copy was sold at auction to an anonymous buyer for 95000 a digital facsimile of one of the copies in the harvard university library is available online in december 2016 a letter written by ada lovelace was forfeited by martin shkreli to the new york state department of taxation and finance for unpaid taxes owed by shkreli see also aida humanoid robot completed in 2019 code debugging the gender gap list of pioneers in computer science timeline of women in science women in computing women in stem fields explanatory notes references citations general and cited sources with notes upon the memoir by the translator miller clair cain ada lovelace 18151852 new york times 8 march 2018 further reading jennifer chiaverini 2017 enchantress of numbers dutton 426 pp christopher hollings ursula martin and adrian rice 2018 ada lovelace the making of a computer scientist bodleian library 114 pp miranda seymour 2018 in byrons wake the turbulent lives of byrons wife and daughter annabella milbanke and ada lovelace pegasus 547 pp jenny uglow 22 november 2018 stepping out of byrons shadow the new york review of books vol lxv no 18 pp 3032 external links adas army gets set to rewrite history at inspirefest 2018 by luke maxwell 4 august 2018 untangling the tale of ada lovelace by stephen wolfram december 2015 1815 births 1852 deaths 19thcentury british women scientists 19thcentury english writers 19thcentury english mathematicians 19thcentury english women writers 19thcentury british inventors 19thcentury english nobility ada programming language british countesses british women computer scientists british women mathematicians burials in nottinghamshire ada computer designers daughters of barons deaths from cancer in england deaths from uterine cancer english computer programmers english people of scottish descent english women poets godwin family lord byron mathematicians from london women of the victorian era burials at the church of st mary magdalene hucknall	5,486
980	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%20Derleth	August Derleth	august william derleth february 24 1909 july 4 1971 was an american writer and anthologist he was the first book publisher of the writings of h p lovecraft he made contributions to the cthulhu mythos and the cosmic horror genre and helped found the publisher arkham house which did much to bring supernatural fiction into print in hardcover in the us that had only been readily available in the uk derleth was also a leading american regional writer of his day as well as prolific in several other genres including historical fiction poetry detective fiction science fiction and biography notably he created the fictional detective solar pons a pastiche of arthur conan doyles sherlock holmes a 1938 guggenheim fellow derleth considered his most serious work to be the ambitious sac prairie saga a series of fiction historical fiction poetry and nonfiction naturalist works designed to memorialize life in the wisconsin he knew derleth can also be considered a pioneering naturalist and conservationist in his writing life the son of william julius derleth and rose louise volk derleth grew up in sauk city wisconsin he was educated in local parochial and public high school derleth wrote his first fiction at age 13 he was interested most in reading and he made three trips to the library a week he would save his money to buy books his personal library exceeded 12000 volumes later on in life some of his biggest influences were ralph waldo emersons essays walt whitman h l menckens the american mercury samuel johnsons the history of rasselas prince of abissinia alexandre dumas edgar allan poe walter scott and henry david thoreaus walden forty rejected stories and three years later according to anthologist jim stephens he sold his first story bats belfry to weird tales magazine in 1926 derleth wrote throughout his four years at the university of wisconsin where he received a ba in 1930 during this time he also served briefly as associate editor of minneapolisbased fawcett publications mystic magazine returning to sauk city in the summer of 1931 derleth worked in a local canning factory and collaborated with childhood friend mark schorer later chairman of the university of california berkeley english department they rented a cabin writing gothic and other horror stories and selling them to weird tales magazine derleth won a place on the obrien roll of honor for five alone published in place of hawks but was first published in pagany magazine as a result of his early work on the sac prairie saga derleth was awarded the prestigious guggenheim fellowship his sponsors were helen c white nobel prizewinning novelist sinclair lewis and poet edgar lee masters of spoon river anthology fame in the mid1930s derleth organized a rangers club for young people served as clerk and president of the local school board served as a parole officer organized a local mens club and a parentteacher association he also lectured in american regional literature at the university of wisconsin and was a contributing editor of outdoors magazine with longtime friend donald wandrei derleth founded arkham house in 1939 its initial objective was to publish the works of h p lovecraft with whom derleth had corresponded since his teenage years at the same time he began teaching a course in american regional literature at the university of wisconsin in 1941 he became literary editor of the capital times newspaper in madison a post he held until his resignation in 1960 his hobbies included fencing swimming chess philately and comicstrips derleth reportedly used the funding from his guggenheim fellowship to bind his comic book collection most recently valued in the millions of dollars rather than to travel abroad as the award intended derleths true avocation however was hiking the terrain of his native wisconsin lands and observing and recording nature with an expert eye derleth once wrote of his writing methods i write very swiftly from 750000 to a million words yearly very little of it pulp material in 1948 he was elected president of the associated fantasy publishers at the 6th world science fiction convention in toronto he was married april 6 1953 to sandra evelyn winters they divorced six years later derleth retained custody of the couples two children april rose derleth and walden william derleth april earned a bachelor of arts degree in english from the university of wisconsinmadison in 1977 she became majority stockholder president and ceo of arkham house in 1994 she remained in that capacity until her death she was known in the community as a naturalist and humanitarian april died on march 21 2011 in 1960 derleth began editing and publishing a magazine called hawk and whippoorwill dedicated to poems of man and nature derleth died of a heart attack on july 4 1971 and is buried in st aloysius cemetery in sauk city the us 12 bridge over the wisconsin river is named in his honor derleth was roman catholic in derleths biography dorothy m grobe litersky stated that derleth was bisexual and maintained longterm romantic relationships with both men and women this assertion has not been verified however no names were given of these romantic partners in the interest of privacy according to litersky and no evidence or acknowledgement of derleth having a bisexual or homosexual orientation has ever been found in his personal correspondence or writings career derleth wrote more than 150 short stories and more than 100 books during his lifetime the sac prairie saga derleth wrote an expansive series of novels short stories journals poems and other works about sac prairie derleth intended this series to comprise up to 50 novels telling the projected lifestory of the region from the 19th century onwards with analogies to balzacs human comedy and prousts remembrance of things past this and other early work by derleth made him a wellknown figure among the regional literary figures of his time early pulitzer prize winners hamlin garland and zona gale as well as sinclair lewis the last both an admirer and critic of derleth as edward wagenknecht wrote in cavalcade of the american novel what mr derleth has that is lackingin modern novelists generally is a country he belongs he writes of a land and a people that are bone of his bone and flesh of his flesh in his fictional world there is a unity much deeper and more fundamental than anything that can be conferred by an ideology it is clear too that he did not get the best and most fictionally useful part of his background material from research in the library like scott in his border novels he gives rather the impression of having drunk it in with his mothers milk jim stephens editor of an august derleth reader 1992 argues what derleth accomplishedwas to gather a wisconsin mythos which gave respect to the ancient fundament of our contemporary life the author inaugurated the sac prairie saga with four novellas comprising place of hawks published by loring mussey in 1935 at publication the detroit news wrote certainly with this book mr derleth may be added to the american writers of distinction derleths first novel still is the summer night was published two years later by the famous charles scribners editor maxwell perkins and was the second in his sac prairie saga village year the first in a series of journals meditations on nature midwestern village american life and more was published in 1941 to praise from the new york times book review a book of instant sensitive responsivenessrecreates its scene with acuteness and beauty and makes an unusual contribution to the americana of the present day the new york herald tribune observed that derlethdeepens the value of his village setting by presenting in full the enduring natural background with the people projected against this the writing comes to have the quality of an old flemish picture humanity lively and amusing and loveable in the foreground and nature magnificent beyond james grey writing in the st louis dispatch concluded derleth has achieved a kind of prose equivalent of the spoon river anthology in the same year evening in spring was published by charles scribners sons this work derleth considered among his finest what the milwaukee journal called this beautiful little love story is an autobiographical novel of first love beset by smalltown religious bigotry the work received critical praise the new yorker considered it a story told with tenderness and charm while the chicago tribune concluded its as though he turned back the pages of an old diary and told with rekindled emotion of the pangs of pain and the sharp clear sweetness of a boys first love helen constance white wrote in the capital times that it was the best articulated the most fully disciplined of his stories these were followed in 1943 with shadow of night a scribners novel of which the chicago sun wrote structurally it has the perfection of a carved jewela psychological novel of the first order and an adventure tale that is unique and inspiriting in november 1945 however derleths work was attacked by his onetime admirer and mentor sinclair lewis writing in esquire lewis observed it is a proof of mr derleths merit that he makes one want to make the journey and see his particular avalon the wisconsin river shining among its islands and the castles of baron pierneau and hercules dousman he is a champion and a justification of regionalism yet he is also a burly bounding bustling selfconfident opinionated and highlysweatered young man with faults so grievous that a melancholy perusal of them may be of more value to apprentices than a study of his serious virtues if he could ever be persuaded that he isnt half as good as he thinks he is if he would learn the art of sitting still and using a blue pencil he might become twice as good as he thinks he is which would about rank him with homer derleth goodhumoredly reprinted the criticism along with a photograph of himself sans sweater on the back cover of his 1948 country journal village daybook a lighter side to the sac prairie saga is a series of quasiautobiographical short stories known as the gus elker stories amusing tales of country life that peter ruber derleths last editor said were models of construction andfused with some of the most memorable characters in american literature most were written between 1934 and the late 1940s though the last tail of the dog was published in 1959 and won the scholastic magazine short story award for the year the series was collected and republished in country matters in 1996 walden west published in 1961 is considered by many derleths finest work this prose meditation is built out of the same fundamental material as the series of sac prairie journals but is organized around three themes the persistence of memorythe sounds and odors of the countryand thoreaus observation that the mass of men lead lives of quiet desperation a blend of nature writing philosophic musings and careful observation of the people and place of sac prairie of this work george vukelich author of north country notebook writes derleths walden west isthe equal of sherwood andersons winesburgohio thornton wilders our town and edgar lee masters spoon river anthology this was followed eight years later by return to walden west a work of similar quality but with a more noticeable environmentalist edge to the writing notes critic norbert blei a close literary relative of the sac prairie saga was derleths wisconsin saga which comprises several historical novels detective fiction and solar pons detective fiction represented another substantial body of derleths work most notable among this work was a series of 70 stories in affectionate pastiche of sherlock holmes whose creator sir arthur conan doyle he admired greatly the stories feature a holmesstyled british detective named solar pons of 7b praed street in london these included one published novel as well mr fairlies final journey the series was greatly admired by such notable writers and critics of mystery and detective fiction as ellery queen frederic dannay anthony boucher vincent starrett and howard haycraft in his 1944 volume the misadventures of sherlock holmes ellery queen wrote of derleths the norcross riddle an early pons story how many budding authors not even old enough to vote could have captured the spirit and atmosphere with as much fidelity queen adds his choice of the euphonic solar pons is an appealing addition to the fascinating lore of sherlockian nomenclature vincent starrett in his foreword to the 1964 edition of the casebook of solar pons wrote that the series is as sparkling a galaxy of sherlockian pastiches as we have had since the canonical entertainments came to an end despite close similarities to doyles creation pons lived in the postworld war i era in the decades of the 1920s and 1930s though derleth never wrote a pons novel to equal the hound of the baskervilles editor peter ruber wrote that derleth produced more than a few solar pons stories almost as good as sir arthurs and many that had better plot construction although these stories were a form of diversion for derleth ruber who edited the original text solar pons omnibus edition 2000 argued because the stories were generally of such high quality they ought to be assessed on their own merits as a unique contribution in the annals of mystery fiction rather than suffering comparison as one of the endless imitators of sherlock holmes some of the stories were selfpublished through a new imprint called mycroft moran an appellation of humorous significance to holmesian scholars for approximately a decade an active supporting group was the praed street irregulars patterned after the baker street irregulars in 1946 conan doyles two sons made some attempts to force derleth to cease publishing the solar pons series but the efforts were unsuccessful and were eventually withdrawn derleths mystery and detective fiction also included a series of works set in sac prairie and featuring judge peck as the central character youth and childrens fiction derleth wrote many and varied childrens works including biographies meant to introduce younger readers to explorer jacques marquette as well as ralph waldo emerson and henry david thoreau arguably most important among his works for younger readers however is the steve and sim mystery series also known as the mill creek irregulars series the tenvolume series published between 1958 and 1970 is set in sac prairie of the 1920s and can thus be considered in its own right a part of the sac prairie saga as well as an extension of derleths body of mystery fiction robert hood writing in the new york times said steve and sim the major characters are twentiethcentury cousins of huck finn and tom sawyer derleths minor characters little gems of comic drawing the first novel in the series the moon tenders does in fact involve a rafting adventure down the wisconsin river which led regional writer jesse stuart to suggest the novel was one that older people might read to recapture the spirit and dream of youth the connection to the sac prairie saga was noted by the chicago tribune once again a small midwest community in 1920s is depicted with perception skill and dry humor arkham house and the cthulhu mythos derleth was a correspondent and friend of h p lovecraft when lovecraft wrote about le comte derlette in his fiction it was in homage to derleth derleth invented the term cthulhu mythos to describe the fictional universe depicted in the series of stories shared by lovecraft and other writers in his circle when lovecraft died in 1937 derleth and donald wandrei assembled a collection of lovecrafts stories and tried to get them published existing publishers showed little interest so derleth and wandrei founded arkham house in 1939 for that purpose the name of the company derived from lovecrafts fictional town of arkham massachusetts which features in many of his stories in 1939 arkham house published the outsider and others a huge collection that contained most of lovecrafts known short stories derleth and wandrei soon expanded arkham house and began a regular publishing schedule after its second book someone in the dark a collection of some of derleths own horror stories was published in 1941 following lovecrafts death derleth wrote a number of stories based on fragments and notes left by lovecraft these were published in weird tales and later in book form under the byline h p lovecraft and august derleth with derleth calling himself a posthumous collaborator this practice has raised objections in some quarters that derleth simply used lovecrafts name to market what was essentially his own fiction s t joshi refers to the posthumous collaborations as marking the beginning of perhaps the most disreputable phase of derleths activities dirk w mosig s t joshi and richard l tierney were dissatisfied with derleths invention of the term cthulhu mythos lovecraft himself used yogsothothery and his presentation of lovecrafts fiction as having an overall pattern reflecting derleths own christian world view which they contrast with lovecrafts depiction of an amoral universe however robert m price points out that while derleths tales are distinct from lovecrafts in their use of hope and his depiction of a struggle between good and evil nevertheless the basis of derlerths systemization are found in lovecraft he also suggests that the differences can be overstated derleth was more optimistic than lovecraft in his conception of the mythos but we are dealing with a difference more of degree than kind there are indeed tales wherein derleths protagonists get off scotfree like the shadow in the attic witches hollow or the shuttered room but often the hero is doomed eg the house in the valley the peabody heritage something in wood as in lovecraft and it must be remembered that an occasional lovecraftian hero does manage to overcome the odds eg in the horror in the museum the shunned house and the case of charles dexter ward derleth also treated lovecrafts great old ones as representatives of elemental forces creating new fictional entities to flesh out this framework such debates aside derleths founding of arkham house and his successful effort to rescue lovecraft from literary oblivion are widely acknowledged by practitioners in the horror field as seminal events in the field for instance ramsey campbell has acknowledged derleths encouragement and guidance during the early part of his own writing career and kirby mccauley has cited derleth and arkham house as an inspiration for his own anthology dark forces arkham house and derleth published dark carnival the first book by ray bradbury as well brian lumley cites the importance of derleth to his own lovecraftian work and contends in a 2009 introduction to derleths work that he was one of the first finest and most discerning editors and publishers of macabre fiction important as was derleths work to rescue hp lovecraft from literary obscurity at the time of lovecrafts death derleth also built a body of horror and spectral fiction of his own still frequently anthologized the best of this work recently reprinted in four volumes of short stories most of which were originally published in weird tales illustrates derleths original abilities in the genre while derleth considered his work in this genre less important than his most serious literary efforts the compilers of these four anthologies including ramsey campbell note that the stories still resonate after more than 50 years in 2009 the library of america selected derleths story the panelled room for inclusion in its twocentury retrospective of american fantastic tales other works derleth also wrote many historical novels as part of both the sac prairie saga and the wisconsin saga he also wrote history arguably most notable among these was the wisconsin river of a thousand isles published in 1942 the work was one in a series entitled the rivers of america conceived by writer constance lindsay skinner during the great depression as a series that would connect americans to their heritage through the history of the great rivers of the nation skinner wanted the series to be written by artists not academicians derleth while not a trained historian was according to former wisconsin state historian william f thompson a very competent regional historian who based his historical writing upon research in the primary documents and who regularly sought the help of professionals in the foreword to the 1985 reissue of the work by the university of wisconsin press thompson concluded no other writer of whatever background or training knew and understood his particular corner of the earth better than august derleth additionally derleth wrote a number of volumes of poetry three of his collections rind of earth 1942 selected poems 1944 and the edge of night 1945 were published by the decker press which also printed the work of other midwestern poets such as edgar lee masters derleth was also the author of several biographies of other writers including zona gale ralph waldo emerson and henry david thoreau he also wrote introductions to several collections of classic early 20th century comics such as buster brown little nemo in slumberland and katzenjammer kids as well as a book of childrens poetry entitled a boys way and the foreword to tales from an indian lodge by phebe jewell nichols derleth also wrote under the pen names stephen grendon kenyon holmes and tally mason derleths papers were donated to the wisconsin historical society in madison bibliography awards obrien roll of honour for short story 1933 guggenheim fellow 1938 see also august derleth award list of authors of new sherlock holmes stories list of horror fiction authors list of people from wisconsin mark schorer sherlock holmes pastiches notes references meudt edna august derleth a simple honorable man wisconsin academy review 192 summer 1972 811 schorer mark an appraisal of the work of august derleth the capital times july 9 1971 further reading robert bloch two great editors is no 4 oct 1971 reprint in blochs out of my head cambridge ma nesfa press 1986 7179 lin carter a day in derleth country is no 4 oct 1971 reprint in crypt of cthulhu 1 no 6 john howard the ghosts of sauk county all hallows 18 1998 in howards touchstones essays on the fantastic staffordshire uk alchemy press 2014 david e schultz and st joshi eds eccentric impractical devils the letters of august derleth and clark ashton smith ny hippocampus press 2020 external links the august derleth society a biography august derleth bibliography derleth collection guides at university of wisconsin libraries papers comics derleth collection guide at syracuse university works 1909 births 1971 deaths university of wisconsinmadison alumni american short story writers american mystery writers american speculative fiction editors 20thcentury american novelists cthulhu mythos writers american horror writers people from sauk city wisconsin novelists from wisconsin science fiction editors solar pons american anthologists american male novelists american male short story writers catholics from wisconsin 20thcentury roman catholics writers from wisconsin weird fiction writers 20thcentury american male writers	3,841
981	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alps	Alps	the alps are the highest and most extensive mountain range that is entirely in europe stretching approximately across eight alpine countries from west to east monaco france switzerland italy liechtenstein germany austria and slovenia the alpine arch extends from nice on the western mediterranean to trieste on the adriatic and vienna at the beginning of the pannonian basin the mountains were formed over tens of millions of years as the african and eurasian tectonic plates collided extreme shortening caused by the event resulted in marine sedimentary rocks rising by thrusting and folding into high mountain peaks such as mont blanc and the matterhorn mont blanc spans the frenchitalian border and at is the highest mountain in the alps the alpine region area contains 128 peaks higher than the altitude and size of the range affect the climate in europe in the mountains precipitation levels vary greatly and climatic conditions consist of distinct zones wildlife such as ibex live in the higher peaks to elevations of and plants such as edelweiss grow in rocky areas in lower elevations as well as in higher elevations evidence of human habitation in the alps goes back to the palaeolithic era a mummified man ötzi determined to be 5000 years old was discovered on a glacier at the austrianitalian border in 1991 by the 6th century bc the celtic la tène culture was well established hannibal notably crossed the alps with a herd of elephants and the romans had settlements in the region in 1800 napoleon crossed one of the mountain passes with an army of 40000 the 18th and 19th centuries saw an influx of naturalists writers and artists in particular the romantics followed by the golden age of alpinism as mountaineers began to ascend the peaks of the alps the alpine region has a strong cultural identity the traditional culture of farming cheesemaking and woodworking still exists in alpine villages although the tourist industry began to grow early in the 20th century and expanded greatly after world war ii to become the dominant industry by the end of the century the winter olympic games have been hosted in the swiss french italian austrian and german alps the region is home to 14 million people and has 120 million annual visitors etymology and toponymy the english word alps comes from the latin alpes the latin word alpes could possibly come from the adjective albus white or could possibly come from the greek goddess alphito whose name is related to alphita the white flour alphos a dull white leprosy and finally the protoindoeuropean word albʰós similarly the river god alpheus is also supposed to derive from the greek alphos and means whitish in his commentary on the aeneid of vergil the late fourthcentury grammarian maurus servius honoratus says that all high mountains are called alpes by celts according to the oxford english dictionary the latin alpes might derive from a preindoeuropean word alb hill albania is a related derivation albania a name not native to the region known as the country of albania has been used as a name for several mountainous areas across europe in roman times albania was a name for the eastern caucasus while in the english languages albania or albany was occasionally used as a name for scotland although it is more likely derived from the latin word albus the colour white in modern languages the term alp alm albe or alpe refers to a grazing pastures in the alpine regions below the glaciers not the peaks an alp refers to a high mountain pasture typically near or above the tree line where cows and other livestock are taken to be grazed during the summer months and where huts and hay barns can be found sometimes constituting tiny hamlets therefore the term the alps as a reference to the mountains is a misnomer the term for the mountain peaks varies by nation and language words such as horn kogel kopf gipfel spitze stock and berg are used in germanspeaking regions mont pic tête pointe dent roche and aiguille in frenchspeaking regions and monte picco corno punta pizzo or cima in italianspeaking regions geography the alps are a crescent shaped geographic feature of central europe that ranges in an arc curved line from east to west and is in width the mean height of the mountain peaks is the range stretches from the mediterranean sea north above the po basin extending through france from grenoble and stretching eastward through mid and southern switzerland the range continues onward toward vienna austria and southeast to the adriatic sea and slovenia to the south it dips into northern italy and to the north extends to the southern border of bavaria in germany in areas like chiasso switzerland and allgäu bavaria the demarcation between the mountain range and the flatlands are clear in other places such as geneva the demarcation is less clear the alps is found in the following countries austria 287 of the ranges area italy 272 france 214 switzerland 132 germany 58 slovenia 36 liechtenstein 008 and monaco 0001 the highest portion of the range is divided by the glacial trough of the rhône valley from mont blanc to the matterhorn and monte rosa on the southern side and the bernese alps on the northern the peaks in the easterly portion of the range in austria and slovenia are smaller than those in the central and western portions the variances in nomenclature in the region spanned by the alps make classification of the mountains and subregions difficult but a general classification is that of the eastern alps and western alps with the divide between the two occurring in eastern switzerland according to geologist stefan schmid near the splügen pass the highest peaks of the western alps and eastern alps respectively are mont blanc at and piz bernina at the secondhighest major peaks are monte rosa at and ortler at respectively a series of lower mountain ranges run parallel to the main chain of the alps including the french prealps in france and the jura mountains in switzerland and france the secondary chain of the alps follows the watershed from the mediterranean sea to the wienerwald passing over many of the highest and most wellknown peaks in the alps from the colle di cadibona to col de tende it runs westwards before turning to the northwest and then near the colle della maddalena to the north upon reaching the swiss border the line of the main chain heads approximately eastnortheast a heading it follows until its end near vienna the northeast end of the alpine arc directly on the danube which flows into the black sea is the leopoldsberg near vienna in contrast the southeastern part of the alps ends on the adriatic sea in the area around trieste towards duino and barcola passes the alps have been crossed for war and commerce and by pilgrims students and tourists crossing routes by road train or foot are known as passes and usually consist of depressions in the mountains in which a valley leads from the plains and hilly premountainous zones in the medieval period hospices were established by religious orders at the summits of many of the main passes the most important passes are the col de liseran the highest the col agnel the brenner pass the montcenis the great st bernard pass the col de tende the gotthard pass the semmering pass the simplon pass and the stelvio pass crossing the italianaustrian border the brenner pass separates the ötztal alps and zillertal alps and has been in use as a trading route since the 14th century the lowest of the alpine passes at the semmering crosses from lower austria to styria since the 12th century when a hospice was built there it has seen continuous use a railroad with a tunnel long was built along the route of the pass in the mid19th century with a summit of the great st bernard pass is one of the highest in the alps crossing the italianswiss border east of the pennine alps along the flanks of mont blanc the pass was used by napoleon bonaparte to cross 40000 troops in 1800 the mont cenis pass has been a major commercial and military road between western europe and italy the pass was crossed by many troops on their way to the italian peninsula from constantine i pepin the short and charlemagne to henry iv napoléon and more recently the german gebirgsjägers during world war ii now the pass has been supplanted by the fréjus highway tunnel opened 1980 and rail tunnel opened 1871 the saint gotthard pass crosses from central switzerland to ticino in 1882 the saint gotthard railway tunnel was opened connecting lucerne in switzerland with milan in italy 98 years later followed gotthard road tunnel long connecting the a2 motorway in göschenen on the north side with airolo on the south side exactly like the railway tunnel on 1 june 2016 the worlds longest railway tunnel the gotthard base tunnel was opened which connects erstfeld in canton of uri with bodio in canton of ticino by two single tubes of it is the first tunnel that traverses the alps on a flat route from 11 december 2016 it has been part of the regular railway timetable and used hourly as standard ride between basellucernezurich and bellinzonaluganomilan the highest pass in the alps is the col de liseran in savoy france at followed by the stelvio pass in northern italy at the road was built in the 1820s highest mountains the union internationale des associations dalpinisme uiaa has defined a list of 82 official alpine summits that reach at least the list includes not only mountains but also subpeaks with little prominence that are considered important mountaineering objectives below are listed the 29 fourthousanders with at least of prominence while mont blanc was first climbed in 1786 and the jungfrau in 1811 most of the alpine fourthousanders were climbed during the second half of the 19th century notably piz bernina 1850 the dom 1858 the grand combin 1859 the weisshorn 1861 and the barre des écrins 1864 the ascent of the matterhorn in 1865 marked the end of the golden age of alpinism karl blodig 18591956 was among the first to successfully climb all the major 4000 m peaks he completed his series of ascents in 1911 many of the big alpine threethousanders were climbed in the early 19th century notably the grossglockner 1800 and the ortler 1804 although some of them were climbed only much later such at mont pelvoux 1848 monte viso 1861 and la meije 1877 the first british mont blanc ascent by a man was in 1788 the first ascent by a woman was in 1808 by the mid1850s swiss mountaineers had ascended most of the peaks and were eagerly sought as mountain guides edward whymper reached the top of the matterhorn in 1865 after seven attempts and in 1938 the last of the six great north faces of the alps was climbed with the first ascent of the eiger nordwand north face of the eiger geology and orogeny important geological concepts were established as naturalists began studying the rock formations of the alps in the 18th century in the mid19th century the nowdefunct idea of geosynclines was used to explain the presence of folded mountain chains this theory was replaced in the mid20th century by the theory of plate tectonics the formation of the alps the alpine orogeny was an episodic process that began about 300 million years ago in the paleozoic era the pangaean supercontinent consisted of a single tectonic plate it broke into separate plates during the mesozoic era and the tethys sea developed between laurasia and gondwana during the jurassic period the tethys was later squeezed between colliding plates causing the formation of mountain ranges called the alpide belt from gibraltar through the himalayas to indonesiaa process that began at the end of the mesozoic and continues into the present the formation of the alps was a segment of this orogenic process caused by the collision between the african and the eurasian plates that began in the late cretaceous period under extreme compressive stresses and pressure marine sedimentary rocks were uplifted forming characteristic recumbent folds and thrust faults as the rising peaks underwent erosion a layer of marine flysch sediments was deposited in the foreland basin and the sediments became involved in younger folds as the orogeny progressed coarse sediments from the continual uplift and erosion were later deposited in foreland areas north of the alps these regions in switzerland and bavaria are welldeveloped containing classic examples of flysch which is sedimentary rock formed during mountain building the alpine orogeny occurred in ongoing cycles through to the paleogene causing differences in folded structures with a latestage orogeny causing the development of the jura mountains a series of tectonic events in the triassic jurassic and cretaceous periods caused different paleogeographic regions the alps are subdivided by different lithology rock composition and nappe structures according to the orogenic events that affected them the geological subdivision differentiates the western eastern alps and southern alps the helveticum in the north the penninicum and austroalpine system in the centre and south of the periadriatic seam the southern alpine system according to geologist stefan schmid because the western alps underwent a metamorphic event in the cenozoic era while the austroalpine peaks underwent an event in the cretaceous period the two areas show distinct differences in nappe formations flysch deposits in the southern alps of lombardy probably occurred in the cretaceous or later peaks in france italy and switzerland lie in the houillière zone which consists of basement with sediments from the mesozoic era high massifs with external sedimentary cover are more common in the western alps and were affected by neogene period thinskinned thrusting whereas the eastern alps have comparatively few high peaked massifs similarly the peaks in eastern switzerland extending to western austria helvetic nappes consist of thinskinned sedimentary folding that detached from former basement rock in simple terms the structure of the alps consists of layers of rock of european african and oceanic tethyan origin the bottom nappe structure is of continental european origin above which are stacked marine sediment nappes topped off by nappes derived from the african plate the matterhorn is an example of the ongoing orogeny and shows evidence of great folding the tip of the mountain consists of gneisses from the african plate the base of the peak below the glaciated area consists of european basement rock the sequence of tethyan marine sediments and their oceanic basement is sandwiched between rock derived from the african and european plates the core regions of the alpine orogenic belt have been folded and fractured in such a manner that erosion produced the characteristic steep vertical peaks of the swiss alps that rise seemingly straight out of the foreland areas peaks such as mont blanc the matterhorn and high peaks in the pennine alps the briançonnais and hohe tauern consist of layers of rock from the various orogenies including exposures of basement rock due to the everpresent geologic instability earthquakes continue in the alps to this day typically the largest earthquakes in the alps have been between magnitude 6 and 7 on the richter scale geodetic measurements show ongoing topographic uplift at rates of up to about 25 mm per year in the north western and central alps and at 1 mm per year in the eastern and southwestern alps the underlying mechanisms that jointly drive the presentday uplift pattern are the isostatic rebound due to the melting of the last glacial maximum icecap or longterm erosion detachment of the western alpine subducting slab mantle convection as well as ongoing horizontal convergence between africa and europe but their relative contributions to the uplift of the alps are difficult to quantify and likely to vary significantly in space and time minerals the alps are a source of minerals that have been mined for thousands of years in the 8th to 6th centuries bc during the hallstatt culture celtic tribes mined copper later the romans mined gold for coins in the bad gastein area erzberg in styria furnishes highquality iron ore for the steel industry crystals such as cinnabar amethyst and quartz are found throughout much of the alpine region the cinnabar deposits in slovenia are a notable source of cinnabar pigments alpine crystals have been studied and collected for hundreds of years and began to be classified in the 18th century leonhard euler studied the shapes of crystals and by the 19thcentury crystal hunting was common in alpine regions david friedrich wiser amassed a collection of 8000 crystals that he studied and documented in the 20th century robert parker wrote a wellknown work about the rock crystals of the swiss alps at the same period a commission was established to control and standardize the naming of alpine minerals glaciers in the miocene epoch the mountains underwent severe erosion because of glaciation which was noted in the mid19th century by naturalist louis agassiz who presented a paper proclaiming the alps were covered in ice at various intervalsa theory he formed when studying rocks near his neuchâtel home which he believed originated to the west in the bernese oberland because of his work he came to be known as the father of the iceage concept although other naturalists before him put forth similar ideas agassiz studied glacier movement in the 1840s at the unteraar glacier where he found the glacier moved per year more rapidly in the middle than at the edges his work was continued by other scientists and now a permanent laboratory exists inside a glacier under the jungfraujoch devoted exclusively to the study of alpine glaciers glaciers pick up rocks and sediment with them as they flow this causes erosion and the formation of valleys over time the inn valley is an example of a valley carved by glaciers during the ice ages with a typical terraced structure caused by erosion eroded rocks from the most recent ice age lie at the bottom of the valley while the top of the valley consists of erosion from earlier ice ages glacial valleys have characteristically steep walls reliefs valleys with lower reliefs and talus slopes are remnants of glacial troughs or previously infilled valleys moraines piles of rock picked up during the movement of the glacier accumulate at edges centre and the terminus of glaciers alpine glaciers can be straight rivers of ice long sweeping rivers spread in a fanlike shape piedmont glaciers and curtains of ice that hang from vertical slopes of the mountain peaks the stress of the movement causes the ice to break and crack loudly perhaps explaining why the mountains were believed to be home to dragons in the medieval period the cracking creates unpredictable and dangerous crevasses often invisible under new snowfall which causes the greatest danger to mountaineers glaciers end in ice caves the rhône glacier by trailing into a lake or river or by shedding snowmelt on a meadow sometimes a piece of glacier will detach or break resulting in flooding property damage and loss of life high levels of precipitation cause the glaciers to descend to permafrost levels in some areas whereas in other more arid regions glaciers remain above about the level the of the alps covered by glaciers in 1876 had shrunk to by 1973 resulting in decreased river runoff levels forty percent of the glaciation in austria has disappeared since 1850 and 30 of that in switzerland although the alpine topography shows marked glacial morphologies the mechanisms by which glacial reshaping occurs are unclear numerical modeling suggests that glacial erosion propagates from low elevations to high elevations leading to an early increase of local relief followed by lowering of the mean orogen elevation rivers and lakes the alps provide lowland europe with drinking water irrigation and hydroelectric power although the area is only about 11 of the surface area of europe the alps provide up to 90 of water to lowland europe particularly to arid areas and during the summer months cities such as milan depend on 80 of water from alpine runoff water from the rivers is used in at least 550 hydroelectricity power plants considering only those producing at least 10mw of electricity major european rivers flow from the alps such as the rhine the rhône the inn and the po all of which have headwaters in the alps and flow into neighbouring countries finally emptying into the north sea the mediterranean sea the adriatic sea and the black sea other rivers such as the danube have major tributaries flowing into them that originate in the alps the rhône is second to the nile as a freshwater source to the mediterranean sea the river begins as glacial meltwater flows into lake geneva and from there to france where one of its uses is to cool nuclear power plants the rhine originates in a area in switzerland and represents almost 60 of water exported from the country tributary valleys some of which are complicated channel water to the main valleys which can experience flooding during the snowmelt season when rapid runoff causes debris torrents and swollen rivers the rivers form lakes such as lake geneva a crescentshaped lake crossing the swiss border with lausanne on the swiss side and the town of evianlesbains on the french side in germany the medieval st bartholomews chapel was built on the south side of the königssee accessible only by boat or by climbing over the abutting peaks additionally the alps have led to the creation of large lakes in italy for instance the sarca the primary inflow of lake garda originates in the italian alps the italian lakes are a popular tourist destination since the roman era for their mild climate scientists have been studying the impact of climate change and water use for example each year more water is diverted from rivers for snowmaking in the ski resorts the effect of which is yet unknown furthermore the decrease of glaciated areas combined with a succession of winters with lowerthanexpected precipitation may have a future impact on the rivers in the alps as well as an effect on the water availability to the lowlands climate the alps are a classic example of what happens when a temperate area at lower altitude gives way to higherelevation terrain elevations around the world that have cold climates similar to those of the polar regions have been called alpine a rise from sea level into the upper regions of the atmosphere causes the temperature to decrease see adiabatic lapse rate the effect of mountain chains on prevailing winds is to carry warm air belonging to the lower region into an upper zone where it expands in volume at the cost of a proportionate loss of temperature often accompanied by precipitation in the form of snow or rain the height of the alps is sufficient to divide the weather patterns in europe into a wet north and dry south because moisture is sucked from the air as it flows over the high peaks the severe weather in the alps has been studied since the 18th century particularly the weather patterns such as the seasonal foehn wind numerous weather stations were placed in the mountains early in the early 20th century providing continuous data for climatologists some of the valleys are quite arid such as the aosta valley in italy the maurienne in france the valais in switzerland and northern tyrol the areas that are not arid and receive high precipitation experience periodic flooding from rapid snowmelt and runoff the mean precipitation in the alps ranges from a low of per year to per year with the higher levels occurring at high altitudes at altitudes between snowfall begins in november and accumulates through to april or may when the melt begins snow lines vary from above which the snow is permanent and the temperatures hover around the freezing point even during july and august highwater levels in streams and rivers peak in june and july when the snow is still melting at the higher altitudes the alps are split into five climatic zones each with different vegetation the climate plant life and animal life vary among the different sections or zones of the mountains the lowest zone is the colline zone which exists between depending on the location the montane zone extends from followed by the subalpine zone from the alpine zone extending from tree line to the snow line is followed by the glacial zone which covers the glaciated areas of the mountain climatic conditions show variances within the same zones for example weather conditions at the head of a mountain valley extending directly from the peaks are colder and more severe than those at the mouth of a valley which tend to be less severe and receive less snowfall climate change various models of climate change have been projected into the 22nd century for the alps with an expectation that a trend toward increased temperatures will have an effect on snowfall snowpack glaciation and river runoff significant changes of both natural and anthropogenic origins have already been diagnosed from observations including a 56 reduction per decade in snow cover duration over the last 50 years which also highlights climate change adaptation needs due to impacts on the climate and regional socioeconomic activities ecology flora thirteen thousand species of plants have been identified in the alpine regions alpine plants are grouped by habitat and soil type which can be limestone or noncalcareous the habitats range from meadows bogs and woodland deciduous and coniferous areas to soilless scree and moraines and rock faces and ridges a natural vegetation limit with altitude is given by the presence of the chief deciduous treesoak beech ash and sycamore maple these do not reach the same elevation nor are they often found growing together but their upper limit corresponds accurately enough to the change from a temperate to a colder climate that is further proved by a change in the presence of wild herbaceous vegetation this limit usually lies about above the sea on the north side of the alps but on the southern slopes it often rises to sometimes even to above the forestry there is often a band of short pine trees pinus mugo which is in turn superseded by alpenrosen dwarf shrubs typically rhododendron ferrugineum on acid soils or rhododendron hirsutum on alkaline soils although alpenrose prefers acidic soil the plants are found throughout the region above the tree line is the area defined as alpine where in the alpine meadow plants are found that have adapted well to harsh conditions of cold temperatures aridity and high altitudes the alpine area fluctuates greatly because of regional fluctuations in tree lines alpine plants such as the alpine gentian grow in abundance in areas such as the meadows above the lauterbrunnental gentians are named after the illyrian king gentius and 40 species of the earlyspring blooming flower grow in the alps in a range of writing about the gentians in switzerland d h lawrence described them as darkening the daytime torchlike with the smoking blueness of plutos gloom gentians tend to appear repeatedly as the spring blooming takes place at progressively later dates moving from the lower altitude to the higher altitude meadows where the snow melts much later than in the valleys on the highest rocky ledges the spring flowers bloom in the summer at these higher altitudes the plants tend to form isolated cushions in the alps several species of flowering plants have been recorded above including ranunculus glacialis androsace alpina and saxifraga biflora eritrichium nanum commonly known as the king of the alps is the most elusive of the alpine flowers growing on rocky ridges at perhaps the best known of the alpine plants is edelweiss which grows in rocky areas and can be found at altitudes as low as and as high as the plants that grow at the highest altitudes have adapted to conditions by specialization such as growing in rock screes that give protection from winds the extreme and stressful climatic conditions give way to the growth of plant species with secondary metabolites important for medicinal purposes origanum vulgare prunella vulgaris solanum nigrum and urtica dioica are some of the more useful medicinal species found in the alps human interference has nearly exterminated the trees in many areas and except for the beech forests of the austrian alps forests of deciduous trees are rarely found after the extreme deforestation between the 17th and 19th centuries the vegetation has changed since the second half of the 20th century as the high alpine meadows cease to be harvested for hay or used for grazing which eventually might result in a regrowth of the forest in some areas the modern practice of building ski runs by mechanical means has destroyed the underlying tundra from which the plant life cannot recover during the nonskiing months whereas areas that still practice a natural piste type of ski slope building preserve the fragile underlayers fauna the alps are a habitat for 30000 species of wildlife ranging from the tiniest snow fleas to brown bears many of which have made adaptations to the harsh cold conditions and high altitudes to the point that some only survive in specific microclimates either directly above or below the snow line the largest mammal to live in the highest altitudes are the alpine ibex which have been sighted as high as the ibex live in caves and descend to eat the succulent alpine grasses classified as antelopes chamois are smaller than ibex and found throughout the alps living above the tree line and are common in the entire alpine range areas of the eastern alps are still home to brown bears in switzerland the canton of bern was named for the bears but the last bear is recorded as having been killed in 1792 above kleine scheidegg by three hunters from grindelwald many rodents such as voles live underground marmots live almost exclusively above the tree line as high as they hibernate in large groups to provide warmth and can be found in all areas of the alps in large colonies they build beneath the alpine pastures golden eagles and bearded vultures are the largest birds to be found in the alps they nest high on rocky ledges and can be found at altitudes of the most common bird is the alpine chough which can be found scavenging at climbers huts or the jungfraujoch a highaltitude tourist destination reptiles such as adders and vipers live up to the snow line because they cannot bear the cold temperatures they hibernate underground and soak up the warmth on rocky ledges the highaltitude alpine salamanders have adapted to living above the snow line by giving birth to fully developed young rather than laying eggs brown trout can be found in the streams up to the snow line molluscs such as the wood snail live up the snow line popularly gathered as food the snails are now protected several species of moths live in the alps some of which are believed to have evolved in the same habitat up to 120 million years ago long before the alps were created blue butterflies can commonly be seen drinking from the snowmelt some species of blues fly as high as the butterflies tend to be large such as those from the swallowtail parnassius family with a habitat that ranges to twelve species of beetles have habitats up to the snow line the most beautiful and formerly collected for its colours but now protected is rosalia alpina spiders such as the large wolf spider live above the snow line and can be seen as high as scorpions can be found in the italian alps some of the species of moths and insects show evidence of having been indigenous to the area from as long ago as the alpine orogeny in émosson in valais switzerland dinosaur tracks were found in the 1970s dating probably from the triassic period history prehistory when the ice melted after the würm glaciation paleolithic settlements were established along the lake shores and in cave systems evidence of human habitation has been found in caves near the vercors cave system close to grenoble and echirolles in austria the mondsee lake shows evidence of houses built on piles standing stones have been found in the alpine areas of france and italy about 200000 drawings and etchings have been documented and are known as the rock drawings in valcamonica a mummy of a neolithic human known as ötzi was discovered on the similaun his clothing lets modern people assume that he was an alpine farmer while the location and manner of his death suggests that ötzi was traveling analysis of the mitochondrial dna of ötzi has shown that he belongs to the k1 subclade from the 13th to the 6th century bc much of the alps was settled by the germanic peoples lombards alemanni bavarii and franks celt tribes settled in modernday switzerland between 1500 and 1000 bc the raeti lived in the eastern regions while the west was occupied by the helvetii and the allobroges settled in the rhône valley and in savoy the ligures and adriatic veneti lived in northwest italy and triveneto respectively the celts mined salt in areas such as salzburg where evidence was found of the hallstatt culture by the 6th century bc the la tène culture was well established in the region and became known for high quality celtic art between 430 and 400 bc prolonged warfare in the alps resulted in the devastation of agricultural land and human settlements ultimately triggering the enslavement of men women and children goods had to be imported as a result the etruscan civilization responded to raids by the massalia and acquired absolute control over the alpine trade routes aggressors in modernday italy were dealt with and an alliance was formed with the celts the grip of the etruscan settlements broke down as the roman political system expanded so as to take control over alpine trade routes that connected human settlements in the alps with settlements in the mediterranean during the second punic war in 218 bc the carthage general hannibal initiated one of the most celebrated achievements of any military force in ancient warfare recorded as hannibal crossing the alps the roman people built roads along the alpine mountain passes which continued to be used through the medieval period roman road markers can still be found on the alpine mountain passes during the gallic wars in 58 bc julius caesar defeated the helvetii the rhaetian continued to resist but their territory was eventually conquered when the romans crossed the danube valley and defeated the brigantes the romans built settlements in the alps in towns such as aosta martigny lausanne and partenkirchen remains of villas arenas and temples have been discovered christianity feudalism and napoleonic wars christianity was established in the alps by the roman people monasteries and churches were constructed even at high alpine altitudes the franks expanded their carolingian empire while the baiuvarii introduced feudalism in the eastern alps the construction of castles in the alps supported the growing number of dukedoms and kingdoms castello del buonconsiglio in trento still has intricate frescoes and excellent examples of gothic art the château de chillon is preserved as an example of medieval architecture there are several important alpine saints and one such one is saint maurice much of the medieval period was a time of power struggles between competing dynasties such as the house of savoy the visconti of milan and the house of habsburg the great st bernard hospice built in the 9th or 10th centuries at the summit of the great saint bernard pass was a shelter for humans and destination for pilgrims in 1291 to protect themselves from incursions by the house of habsburg four alpine cantons drew up the federal charter of 1291 which is considered to be a declaration of independence from neighboring kingdoms after a series of battles fought in the 13th 14th and 15th centuries more cantons joined the confederacy and by the 16th century switzerland was established as a sovereign state in the alps the war of the spanish succession fallout resulted in a 1713 treaty part of the peace of utrecht which relocated the western alps border along the watersheds historically the alps were used to determine the borders of political and administrative gangs but the peace of utrecht was the first significant body of treaty that considered geographical conditions the alps were carved up and borders were agreed so that enclaves in the alps could be eliminated during the napoleonic wars in the late 18th century and early 19th century napoleon annexed territory formerly controlled by the house of habsburg and the house of savoy in 1798 the helvetic republic was established two years later an army across the great st bernard pass in 1799 the russian imperial military engaged the revolutionary french army in the alps this episode has been recorded as significant achievement in mountain warfare in october 1799 the troops commanded by alexander suvorov were surrounded in the alps by much larger french troops the russian troops broke out mauled the french troops and retreated through the panix pass after the fall of napoleon many alpine countries developed heavy protections to prevent further invasion thus savoy built a series of fortifications to protect the major alpine passes such as the col du montcenis which was crossed by charlemagne to obliterate the lombards in the 19th century the monasteries built in the alps to shelter humans became tourist destinations the benedictines had built monasteries in lucerne and oberammergau the cistercians built their temple at lake constance meanwhile the augustinians maintained abbeys in savoy and one in interlaken exploration radiocarbondated charcoal placed around 50000 years ago was found in the drachloch dragons hole cave above the village of vattis in the canton of st gallen proving that the high peaks were visited by prehistoric people seven bear skulls from the cave may have been buried by the same prehistoric people the peaks however were mostly ignored except for a few notable examples and long left to the exclusive attention of the people of the adjoining valleys the mountain peaks were seen as terrifying the abode of dragons and demons to the point that people blindfolded themselves to cross the alpine passes the glaciers remained a mystery and many still believed the highest areas to be inhabited by dragons charles vii of france ordered his chamberlain to climb mont aiguille in 1356 the knight reached the summit of rocciamelone where he left a bronze triptych of three crosses a feat which he conducted with the use of ladders to traverse the ice in 1492 antoine de ville climbed mont aiguille without reaching the summit an experience he described as horrifying and terrifying leonardo da vinci was fascinated by variations of light in the higher altitudes and climbed a mountainscholars are uncertain which one some believe it may have been monte rosa from his description of a blue like that of a gentian sky it is thought that he reached a significantly high altitude in the 18th century four chamonix men almost made the summit of mont blanc but were overcome by altitude sickness and snowblindness conrad gessner was the first naturalist to ascend the mountains in the 16th century to study them writing that in the mountains he found the theatre of the lord by the 19th century more naturalists began to arrive to explore study and conquer the high peaks two men who first explored the regions of ice and snow were horacebénédict de saussure 17401799 in the pennine alps and the benedictine monk of disentis placidus a spescha 17521833 born in geneva saussure was enamoured with the mountains from an early age he left a law career to become a naturalist and spent many years trekking through the bernese oberland the savoy the piedmont and valais studying the glaciers and geology as he became an early proponent of the theory of rock upheaval saussure in 1787 was a member of the third ascent of mont blanctoday the summits of all the peaks have been climbed the romantics and alpinists albrecht von hallers poem die alpen published in 1732 described the mountains as an area of mythical purity jeanjacques rousseau presented the alps as a place of allure and beauty in his novel julie or the new heloise published in 1761 later the first wave of romanticism such as johann wolfgang von goethe and j m w turner came to admire the alpine scenery wordsworth visited the area in 1790 writing of his experiences in the prelude 1799 schiller later wrote the play william tell 1804 which tells the story of the legendary swiss marksman william tell as part of the greater swiss struggle for independence from the habsburg empire in the early 14th century at the end of the napoleonic wars the alpine countries began to see an influx of poets artists and musicians as visitors came to experience the sublime effects of monumental nature in 1816 byron percy bysshe shelley and his wife mary shelley visited geneva and all three were inspired by the scenery in their writings during these visits shelley wrote the poem mont blanc byron wrote the prisoner of chillon and the dramatic poem manfred and mary shelley who found the scenery overwhelming conceived the idea for the novel frankenstein in her villa on the shores of lake geneva amid a thunderstorm when coleridge travelled to chamonix he declaimed in defiance of shelley who had signed himself atheos in the guestbook of the hotel de londres near montenvers who would be who could be an atheist in this valley of wonders by the mid19th century scientists began to arrive en masse to study the geology and ecology of the region from the beginning of the 19th century the tourism and mountaineering development of the alps began in the early years of the golden age of alpinism initially scientific activities were mixed with sport for example by the physicist john tyndall with the first ascent of the matterhorn by edward whymper being the highlight in the later years the silver age of alpinism the focus was on mountain sports and climbing the first president of the alpine club john ball is considered the discoverer of the dolomites which for decades were the focus of climbers like paul grohmann michael innerkofler and angelo dibona the nazis fall 1932 adolf hitler commissioned the first of a series of refurbishments which eventually turned a mountain cottage later named berghof into a fortified citadel this domestic but representative fortification had two small bedrooms and a full bathroom planned by the munich architect and nsdap member josef neumaier guests such as rudolf hess stayed over sleeping in tents or over the garage the alps adolf hitler and improbable powerful organizations have been subject to crime fiction the alps acted as a geographical barrier to italy and the alps for centuries were permeated with established smuggling routes known as green line after world war ii members of the schutzstaffel that feared prosecution as war criminals known in modern english only as ss disappeared into a crowd of refugees massive numbers of refugees entered italy illegally by navigating the alps undocumented migrants smugglers of humans claim that crossing the alps is less dangerous or deadly than traveling 355 km on water between tripoli and lampedusa with a tramp ship carretta del mare or a dinghy undocumented migrants visa overstayers false tourists asylum seekers and other clandestine humans lose their lives crossing the alps the exact number of smuggled humans who die a brutal death in the alps can only be estimated largest alpine cities the largest city within the alps is the city of grenoble in france other larger and important cities within the alps with over 100000 inhabitants are in tyrol with bolzanobozen italy trento italy and innsbruck austria larger cities outside the alps are milan verona turin italy munich germany graz vienna salzburg austria ljubljana maribor kranj slovenia zurich geneva switzerland nice and lyon france cities with over 100000 inhabitants in the alps are alpine people and culture the population of the region is 14 million spread across eight countries on the rim of the mountains on the plateaus and on the plains the economy consists of manufacturing and service jobs whereas in the higher altitudes and the mountains farming is still essential to the economy farming and forestry continue to be mainstays of alpine culture industries that provide for export to the cities and maintain the mountain ecology the alpine regions are multicultural and linguistically diverse dialects are common and vary from valley to valley and region to region in the slavic alps alone 19 dialects have been identified some of the romance dialects spoken in the french swiss and italian alps of aosta valley derive from arpitan while the southern part of the western range is related to occitan the german dialects derive from germanic tribal languages romansh spoken by two percent of the population in southeast switzerland is an ancient rhaetoromanic language derived from latin remnants of ancient celtic languages and perhaps etruscan much of the alpine culture is unchanged since the medieval period when skills that guaranteed survival in the mountain valleys and the highest villages became mainstays leading to strong traditions of carpentry woodcarving baking pastrymaking and cheesemaking farming has been a traditional occupation for centuries although it became less dominant in the 20th century with the advent of tourism grazing and pasture land are limited because of the steep and rocky topography of the alps in midjune cows are moved to the highest pastures close to the snowline where they are watched by herdsmen who stay in the high altitudes often living in stone huts or wooden barns during the summers villagers celebrate the day the cows are herded up to the pastures and again when they return in midseptember the almabtrieb alpabzug alpabfahrt désalpes coming down from the alps is celebrated by decorating the cows with garlands and enormous cowbells while the farmers dress in traditional costumes cheesemaking is an ancient tradition in most alpine countries a wheel of cheese from the emmental in switzerland can weigh up to and the beaufort in savoy can weigh up to owners of the cows traditionally receive from the cheesemakers a portion about the proportion of the cows milk from the summer months in the high alps haymaking is an important farming activity in mountain villages that have become somewhat mechanized in recent years although the slopes are so steep that scythes are usually necessary to cut the grass hay is normally brought in twice a year often also on festival days in the high villages people live in homes built according to medieval designs that withstand cold winters the kitchen is separated from the living area called the stube the area of the home heated by a stove and secondfloor bedrooms benefit from rising heat the typical swiss chalet originated in the bernese oberland chalets often face south or downhill and are built of solid wood with a steeply gabled roof to allow accumulated snow to slide off easily stairs leading to upper levels are sometimes built on the outside and balconies are sometimes enclosed food is passed from the kitchen to the stube where the dining room table is placed some meals are communal such as fondue where a pot is set in the middle of the table for each person to dip into other meals are still served traditionally on carved wooden plates furniture has been traditionally elaborately carved and in many alpine countries carpentry skills are passed from generation to generation roofs are traditionally constructed from alpine rocks such as pieces of schist gneiss or slate such chalets are typically found in the higher parts of the valleys as in the maurienne valley in savoy where the amount of snow during the cold months is important the inclination of the roof cannot exceed 40 allowing the snow to stay on top thereby functioning as insulation from the cold in the lower areas where the forests are widespread wooden tiles are traditionally used commonly made of norway spruce they are called tavaillon in the germanspeaking parts of the alps austria bavaria south tyrol liechtenstein and switzerland there is a strong tradition of alpine folk culture old traditions are carefully maintained among inhabitants of alpine areas even though this is seldom obvious to the visitor many people are members of cultural associations where the alpine folk culture is cultivated at cultural events traditional folk costume in german tracht is expected typically lederhosen for men and dirndls for women visitors can get a glimpse of the rich customs of the alps at public volksfeste even when large events feature only a little folk culture all participants take part with gusto good opportunities to see local people celebrating the traditional culture occur at the many fairs wine festivals and firefighting festivals which fill weekends in the countryside from spring to autumn alpine festivals vary from country to country frequently they include music eg the playing of alpenhorns dance eg schuhplattler sports eg wrestling marches and archery as well as traditions with pagan roots such as the lighting of fires on walpurgis night and saint johns eve many areas celebrate fastnacht in the weeks before lent folk costume also continues to be worn for most weddings and festivals tourism the alps are one of the more popular tourist destinations in the world with many resorts such as oberstdorf in bavaria saalbach in austria davos in switzerland chamonix in france and cortina dampezzo in italy recording more than a million annual visitors with over 120 million visitors a year tourism is integral to the alpine economy with much of it coming from winter sports although summer visitors are also an important component the tourism industry began in the early 19th century when foreigners visited the alps travelled to the bases of the mountains to enjoy the scenery and stayed at the sparesorts large hotels were built during the belle époque cograilways built early in the 20th century brought tourists to everhigher elevations with the jungfraubahn terminating at the jungfraujoch well above the eternal snowline after going through a tunnel in eiger during this period winter sports were slowly introduced in 1882 the first figure skating championship was held in st moritz and downhill skiing became a popular sport with english visitors early in the 20th century as the first skilift was installed in 1908 above grindelwald in the first half of the 20th century the olympic winter games were held three times in alpine venues the 1924 winter olympics in chamonix france the 1928 winter olympics in st moritz switzerland and the 1936 winter olympics in garmischpartenkirchen germany during world war ii the winter games were cancelled but after that time the winter games have been held in st moritz 1948 cortina dampezzo 1956 innsbruck austria 1964 and 1976 grenoble france 1968 albertville france 1992 and torino 2006 in 1930 the lauberhorn rennen lauberhorn race was run for the first time on the lauberhorn above wengen the equally demanding hahnenkamm was first run in the same year in kitzbühl austria both races continue to be held each january on successive weekends the lauberhorn is the more strenuous downhill race at and poses danger to racers who reach within seconds of leaving the start gate during the postworld war i period ski lifts were built in swiss and austrian towns to accommodate winter visitors and summer tourism continued to be important by the mid20th century the popularity of downhill skiing increased greatly as it became more accessible and in the 1970s several new villages were built in france devoted almost exclusively to skiing such as les menuires until this point austria and switzerland had been the traditional and more popular destinations for winter sports and by the end of the 20th century and into the early 21st century france italy and tyrol began to see increases in winter visitors from 1980 to the present skilifts have been modernized and snowmaking machines installed at many resorts leading to mounting concerns regarding the loss of traditional alpine culture and uncertainties regarding sustainable development for instance the number of ski resorts and piste kilometres has declined since 2015 a likely result of climatic change avalanchesnowslide 17thcentury frenchitalian border avalanche in the 17th century about 2500 people were killed by an avalanche in a village on the frenchitalian border 19th century zermatt avalanche in the 19th century 120 homes in a village near zermatt were destroyed by an avalanche december 13 1916 marmoladamountainavalanche 19501951 winterofterror avalanches february 10 1970 val disère avalanche february 9 1999 montroc avalanche february 21 1999 evolène avalanche february 23 1999 galtür avalanche the deadliest avalanche in the alps in 40 years july 2014 montblanc avalanche january 13 2016 lesdeuxalpes avalanche january 18 2016 valfréjus avalanche july 3 2022 marmolada serac collapse transportation the region is serviced by of roads used by six million vehicles per year train travel is well established in the alps with for instance of track for every in a country such as switzerland most of europes highest railways are located there in 2007 the new lötschberg base tunnel was opened which circumvents the 100 years older lötschberg tunnel with the opening of the gotthard base tunnel on june 1 2016 it bypasses the gotthard tunnel built in the 19th century and realizes the first flat route through the alps some high mountain villages are carfree either because of inaccessibility or by choice wengen and zermatt in switzerland are accessible only by cable car or cograil trains avoriaz in france is carfree with other alpine villages considering becoming carfree zones or limiting the number of cars for reasons of sustainability of the fragile alpine terrain the lower regions and larger towns of the alps are wellserved by motorways and main roads but higher mountain passes and byroads which are amongst the highest in europe can be treacherous even in summer due to steep slopes many passes are closed in winter several airports around the alps and some within as well as longdistance rail links from all neighbouring countries afford large numbers of travellers easy access notes references works cited alpine convention 2010 the alps people and pressures in the mountains the facts at a glance allaby michael et al the encyclopedia of earth 2008 berkeley university of california press beattie andrew 2006 the alps a cultural history new york oxford university press benniston martin et al 2011 impact of climatic change on water and natural hazards in the alps environmental science and policy volume 30 19 cebon peter et al 1998 views from the alps regional perspectives on climate change cambridge ma mit press chatré baptiste et al 2010 the alps people and pressures in the mountains the facts at a glance permanent secretariat of the alpine convention alpconvorg retrieved august 4 2012 de graciansky pierrecharles et al 2011 the western alps from rift to passive margin to orogenic belt amsterdam elsevier feuer ab 2006 packs on memoirs of the 10th mountain division in world war ii mechanicsburg pennsylvania stackpole books fleming fergus 2000 killing dragons the conquest of the alps new york grove gerrard aj 1990 mountain environments an examination of the physical geography of mountains boston mit press halbrook stephen p 1998 target switzerland swiss armed neutrality in world war ii rockville center ny sarpedon halbrook stephen p 2006 the swiss and the nazis how the alpine republic survived in the shadow of the third reich havertown pa casemate hudson simon 2000 snow business a study of the international ski industry new york cengage körner christian 2003 alpine plant life new york springer verlag lancel serge 1999 hannibal oxford blackwell mitchell arthur h 2007 hitlers mountain jefferson nc mcfarland prevas john 2001 hannibal crosses the alps the invasion of italy and the punic wars cambridge ma da capo press reynolds kev 2012 the swiss alps cicerone press roth philipe 2007 minerals first discovered in switzerland lausanne ch museum of geology schmid stefan m 2004 regional tectonics from the rhine graben to the po plain a summary of the tectonic evolution of the alps and their forelands basel geologischpaläontologisches institut sharp hilary 2002 trekking and climbing in the western alps london new holland shoumatoff nicholas and nina 2001 the alps europes mountain heart ann arbor mi university of michigan press viazzo pier paolo 1980 upland communities environment population and social structure in the alps since the sixteenth century cambridge cambridge university press external links 17 2005 satellite photo of the alps taken on august 31 2005 by modis aboard terra official website of the alpine space programme this eucofunded programme cofinances transnational projects in the alpine region geography of europe mountain ranges of austria mountain ranges of france mountain ranges of germany mountain ranges of hungary mountain ranges of italy mountain ranges of liechtenstein mountain ranges of monaco mountain ranges of slovenia mountain ranges of switzerland physiographic provinces	9,562
983	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert%20Camus	Albert Camus	albert camus 7 november 1913 4 january 1960 was an algerianfrench philosopher author dramatist journalist and political activist he was the recipient of the 1957 nobel prize in literature at the age of 44 the secondyoungest recipient in history his works include the stranger the plague the myth of sisyphus the fall and the rebel camus was born in french algeria to pieds noirs parents he spent his childhood in a poor neighbourhood and later studied philosophy at the university of algiers he was in paris when the germans invaded france during world war ii in 1940 camus tried to flee but finally joined the french resistance where he served as editorinchief at combat an outlawed newspaper after the war he was a celebrity figure and gave many lectures around the world he married twice but had many extramarital affairs camus was politically active he was part of the left that opposed joseph stalin and the soviet union because of their totalitarianism camus was a moralist and leaned towards anarchosyndicalism he was part of many organisations seeking european integration during the algerian war 19541962 he kept a neutral stance advocating for a multicultural and pluralistic algeria a position that was rejected by most parties philosophically camuss views contributed to the rise of the philosophy known as absurdism some consider camuss work to show him to be an existentialist even though he himself firmly rejected the term throughout his lifetime life early years and education albert camus was born on 7 november 1913 in a workingclass neighbourhood in mondovi presentday dréan in french algeria his mother catherine hélène camus née sintès was french with balearic spanish ancestry he never knew his father lucien camus a poor french agricultural worker killed in action while serving with zouaves in october 1914 during world war i camus his mother and other relatives lived without many basic material possessions during his childhood in the belcourt section of algiers camus was a secondgeneration french inhabitant of algeria a french territory from 1830 until 1962 his paternal grandfather along with many others of his generation had moved to algeria for a better life during the first decades of the 19th century hence he was called a slang term for people of french and other european descent born in algeria his identity and poor background had a substantial effect on his later life nevertheless camus was a french citizen and enjoyed more rights than arab and berber algerians under indigénat during his childhood he developed a love for football and swimming under the influence of his teacher louis germain camus gained a scholarship in 1924 to continue his studies at a prestigious lyceum secondary school near algiers in 1930 at the age of 17 he was diagnosed with tuberculosis because it is a transmitted disease he moved out of his home and stayed with his uncle gustave acault a butcher who influenced the young camus it was at that time he turned to philosophy with the mentoring of his philosophy teacher jean grenier he was impressed by ancient greek philosophers and friedrich nietzsche during that time he was only able to study parttime to earn money he took odd jobs as a private tutor car parts clerk and assistant at the meteorological institute in 1933 camus enrolled at the university of algiers and completed his licence de philosophie ba in 1936 after presenting his thesis on plotinus camus developed an interest in early christian philosophers but nietzsche and arthur schopenhauer had paved the way towards pessimism and atheism camus also studied novelistphilosophers such as stendhal herman melville fyodor dostoyevsky and franz kafka in 1933 he also met simone hié then a partner of a friend of camus who would become his first wife camus played goalkeeper for the racing universitaire dalger junior team from 1928 to 1930 the sense of team spirit fraternity and common purpose appealed to him enormously in match reports he was often praised for playing with passion and courage any football ambitions however disappeared when he contracted tuberculosis camus drew parallels among football human existence morality and personal identity for him the simplistic morality of football contradicted the complicated morality imposed by authorities such as the state and church formative years in 1934 aged 20 camus was in a relationship with simone hié simone had an addiction to morphine a drug she used to ease her menstrual pains his uncle gustave did not approve of the relationship but camus married hié to help her fight her addiction he subsequently discovered she was in a relationship with her doctor at the same time and the couple later divorced camus joined the french communist party pcf in early 1935 he saw it as a way to fight inequalities between europeans and natives in algeria even though he was not a marxist he explained we might see communism as a springboard and asceticism that prepares the ground for more spiritual activities camus left the pcf a year later in 1936 the independenceminded algerian communist party pca was founded and camus joined it after his mentor grenier advised him to do so camuss main role within the pca was to organise the théâtre du travail workers theatre camus was also close to the parti du peuple algérien algerian peoples party ppa which was a moderate anticolonialistnationalist party as tensions in the interwar period escalated the stalinist pca and ppa broke ties camus was expelled from the pca for refusing to toe the party line this series of events sharpened his belief in human dignity camuss mistrust of bureaucracies that aimed for efficiency instead of justice grew he continued his involvement with theatre and renamed his group théâtre de lequipe theatre of the team some of his scripts were the basis for his later novels in 1938 camus began working for the leftist newspaper alger républicain founded by pascal pia as he had strong antifascist feelings and the rise of fascist regimes in europe was worrying him by then camus had developed strong feelings against authoritative colonialism as he witnessed the harsh treatment of the arabs and berbers by french authorities alger républicain was banned in 1940 and camus flew to paris to take a new job at parissoir as editorinchief in paris he almost completed his first cycle of works dealing with the absurd and the meaninglessthe novel létranger the outsider uk or the stranger us the philosophical essay le mythe de sisyphe the myth of sisyphus and the play caligula each cycle consisted of a novel an essay and a theatrical play world war ii resistance and combat soon after camus moved to paris the outbreak of world war ii began to affect france camus volunteered to join the army but was not accepted because he once had tuberculosis as the germans were marching towards paris camus fled he was laid off from parissoir and ended up in lyon where he married pianist and mathematician francine faure on 3 december 1940 camus and faure moved back to algeria oran where he taught in primary schools because of his tuberculosis he moved to the french alps on medical advice there he began writing his second cycle of works this time dealing with revolta novel la peste the plague and a play le malentendu the misunderstanding by 1943 he was known because of his earlier work he returned to paris where he met and became friends with jeanpaul sartre he also became part of a circle of intellectuals including simone de beauvoir andré breton and others among them was the actress maría casares who would later have an affair with camus camus took an active role in the underground resistance movement against the germans during the french occupation upon his arrival in paris he started working as a journalist and editor of the banned newspaper combat he continued writing for the paper after the liberation of france camus used a pseudonym for his combat articles and used false id cards to avoid being captured during that period he composed four lettres à un ami allemand letters to a german friend explaining why resistance was necessary postworld war ii after the war camus lived in paris with faure who gave birth to twins catherine and jean in 1945 camus was now a celebrated writer known for his role in the resistance he gave lectures at various universities in the united states and latin america during two separate trips he also visited algeria once more only to leave disappointed by the continued oppressive colonial policies which he had warned about many times during this period he completed the second cycle of his work with the essay lhomme révolté the rebel camus attacked totalitarian communism while advocating libertarian socialism and anarchosyndicalism upsetting many of his colleagues and contemporaries in france with his rejection of communism the book brought about the final split with sartre his relations with the marxist left deteriorated further during the algerian war camus was a strong supporter of european integration in various marginal organisations working towards that end in 1944 he founded the comité français pour la féderation européennecffe french committee for the european federationdeclaring that europe can only evolve along the path of economic progress democracy and peace if the nationstates become a federation in 194748 he founded the groupes de liaison internationale gli a trade union movement in the context of revolutionary syndicalism syndicalisme révolutionnaire his main aim was to express the positive side of surrealism and existentialism rejecting the negativity and the nihilism of andré breton camus also raised his voice against the soviet invasion of hungary and the totalitarian tendencies of francos regime in spain camus had numerous affairs particularly an irregular and eventually public affair with the spanishborn actress maría casares with whom he had extensive correspondence faure did not take this affair lightly she had a mental breakdown and needed hospitalisation in the early 1950s camus who felt guilty withdrew from public life and was slightly depressed for some time in 1957 camus received the news that he was to be awarded the nobel prize in literature this came as a shock to him he was anticipating andré malraux would win the prestigious award at age 44 he was the secondyoungest recipient of the prize after rudyard kipling who was 42 after this he began working on his autobiography le premier homme the first man in an attempt to examine moral learning he also turned to the theatre once more financed by the money he received with his nobel prize he adapted and directed for the stage dostoyevskys novel demons the play opened in january 1959 at the antoine theatre in paris and was a critical success during these years he published posthumously the works of the philosopher simone weil in the series espoir hope which he had founded for éditions gallimard weil had great influence on his philosophy since he saw her writings as an antidote to nihilism camus described her as the only great spirit of our times death camus died on 4 january 1960 at the age of 46 in a car accident near sens in le grand fossard in the small town of villeblevin he had spent the new years holiday of 1960 at his house in lourmarin vaucluse with his family and his publisher michel gallimard of éditions gallimard along with gallimards wife janine and daughter camuss wife and children went back to paris by train on 2 january but camus decided to return in gallimards luxurious facel vega fv2 the car crashed into a plane tree on a long straight stretch of the route nationale 5 now the rn 6 or d606 camus who was in the passenger seat died instantly gallimard died five days later although his wife and daughter were unharmed 144 pages of a handwritten manuscript entitled le premier homme the first man were found in the wreckage camus had predicted that this unfinished novel based on his childhood in algeria would be his finest work camus was buried in the lourmarin cemetery vaucluse france where he had lived his friend sartre read a eulogy paying tribute to camuss heroic stubborn humanism william faulkner wrote his obituary saying when the door shut for him he had already written on this side of it that which every artist who also carries through life with him that one same foreknowledge and hatred of death is hoping to do i was here literary career camuss first publication was a play called révolte dans les asturies revolt in the asturias written with three friends in may 1936 the subject was the 1934 revolt by spanish miners that was brutally suppressed by the spanish government resulting in 1500 to 2000 deaths in may 1937 he wrote his first book lenvers et lendroit betwixt and between also translated as the wrong side and the right side both were published by edmond charlots small publishing house camus separated his work into three cycles each cycle consisted of a novel an essay and a play the first was the cycle of the absurd consisting of létranger le mythe de sysiphe and caligula the second was the cycle of the revolt which included la peste the plague lhomme révolté the rebel and les justes the just assassins the third the cycle of the love consisted of nemesis each cycle was an examination of a theme with the use of a pagan myth and including biblical motifs the books in the first cycle were published between 1942 and 1944 but the theme was conceived earlier at least as far back as 1936 with this cycle camus aims to pose a question on the human condition discuss the world as an absurd place and warn humanity of the consequences of totalitarianism camus began his work on the second cycle while he was in algeria in the last months of 1942 just as the germans were reaching north africa in the second cycle camus used prometheus who is depicted as a revolutionary humanist to highlight the nuances between revolution and rebellion he analyses various aspects of rebellion its metaphysics its connection to politics and examines it under the lens of modernity of historicity and the absence of a god after receiving the nobel prize camus gathered clarified and published his pacifist leaning views at actuelles iii chronique algérienne 19391958 algerian chronicles he then decided to distance himself from the algerian war as he found the mental burden too heavy he turned to theatre and the third cycle which was about love and the goddess nemesis the greek and roman goddess of revenge two of camuss works were published posthumously the first entitled la mort heureuse a happy death 1970 features a character named patrice mersault comparable to the strangers meursault there is scholarly debate about the relationship between the two books the second was an unfinished novel le premier homme the first man 1995 which camus was writing before he died it was an autobiographical work about his childhood in algeria and its publication in 1994 sparked a widespread reconsideration of camuss allegedly unrepentant colonialism political stance camus was a moralist he claimed morality should guide politics while he did not deny that morals change over time he rejected the classical marxist view that historical material relations define morality camus was also strongly critical of marxismleninism especially in the case of the soviet union which he considered totalitarian camus rebuked those sympathetic to the soviet model and their decision to call total servitude freedom a proponent of libertarian socialism he claimed the ussr was not socialist and the united states was not liberal his critique of the ussr caused him to clash with others on the political left most notably with his onagain offagain friend jeanpaul sartre active in the french resistance to the nazi occupation of france during world war ii camus wrote for and edited the resistance journal combat of the french collaboration with the german occupiers he wrote now the only moral value is courage which is useful here for judging the puppets and chatterboxes who pretend to speak in the name of the people after frances liberation camus remarked this country does not need a talleyrand but a saintjust the reality of the postwar tribunals soon changed his mind camus publicly reversed himself and became a lifelong opponent of capital punishment camus had anarchist sympathies which intensified in the 1950s when he came to believe that the soviet model was morally bankrupt camus was firmly against any kind of exploitation authority property the state and centralization he however opposed revolution separating the rebel from the revolutionary and believing that the belief in absolute truth most often assuming the guise of history or reason inspires the revolutionary and leads to tragic results he believed that rebellion is spurred by our outrage over the worlds lack of transcendent significance while political rebellion is our response to attacks against the dignity and autonomy of the individual camus opposed political violence tolerating it only in rare and very narrowly defined instances as well as revolutionary terror which he accused of sacrificing innocent lives on the altar of history philosophy professor david sherman considers camus an anarchosyndicalist graeme nicholson considers camus an existentialist anarchist the anarchist andré prudhommeaux first introduced him at a meeting of the cercle des étudiants anarchistes anarchist student circle in 1948 as a sympathiser familiar with anarchist thought camus wrote for anarchist publications such as le libertaire the libertarian la révolution prolétarienne the proletarian revolution and solidaridad obrera workers solidarity the organ of the anarchosyndicalist confederación nacional del trabajo cnt national confederation of labor camus kept a neutral stance during the algerian revolution 195462 while he was against the violence of the national liberation front fln he acknowledged the injustice and brutalities imposed by colonialist france he was supportive of pierre mendès frances unified socialist party psu and its approach to the crisis mendes france advocated reconciliation camus also supported a likeminded algerian militant aziz kessous camus traveled to algeria to negotiate a truce between the two belligerents but was met with distrust by all parties in one often misquoted incident camus confronted an algerian critic during his 1957 nobel prize acceptance speech in stockholm rejecting the false equivalence of justice with revolutionary terrorism people are now planting bombs in the tramways of algiers my mother might be on one of those tramways if that is justice then i prefer my mother camuss critics have labelled the response as reactionary and a result of a colonialist attitude he was sharply critical of the proliferation of nuclear weapons and the bombings of hiroshima and nagasaki in the 1950s camus devoted his efforts to human rights in 1952 he resigned from his work for unesco when the un accepted spain under the leadership of the caudillo general francisco franco as a member camus maintained his pacifism and resisted capital punishment anywhere in the world he wrote an essay against capital punishment in collaboration with arthur koestler the writer intellectual and founder of the league against capital punishment entitled réflexions sur la peine capitale reflections on capital punishment published by calmannlevy in 1957 along with albert einstein camus was one of the sponsors of the peoples world convention pwc also known as peoples world constituent assembly pwca which took place in 195051 at palais electoral geneva switzerland role in algeria born in algeria to french parents camus was familiar with the institutional racism of france against arabs and berbers but he was not part of a rich elite he lived in very poor conditions as a child but was a citizen of france and as such was entitled to citizens rights members of the countrys arab and berber majority were not camus was a vocal advocate of the new mediterranean culture this was his vision of embracing the multiethnicity of the algerian people in opposition to latiny a popular profascist and antisemitic ideology among other piedsnoirsor french or europeans born in algeria for camus this vision encapsulated the hellenic humanism which survived among ordinary people around the mediterranean sea his 1938 address on the new mediterranean culture represents camuss most systematic statement of his views at this time camus also supported the blumviollette proposal to grant algerians full french citizenship in a manifesto with arguments defending this assimilative proposal on radical egalitarian grounds in 1939 camus wrote a stinging series of articles for the alger républicain on the atrocious living conditions of the inhabitants of the kabylie highlands he advocated for economic educational and political reforms as a matter of emergency in 1945 following the sétif and guelma massacre after arab revolts against french mistreatment camus was one of only a few mainland journalists to visit the colony he wrote a series of articles reporting on conditions and advocating for french reforms and concessions to the demands of the algerian people when the algerian war began in 1954 camus was confronted with a moral dilemma he identified with the piedsnoirs such as his own parents and defended the french governments actions against the revolt he argued the algerian uprising was an integral part of the new arab imperialism led by egypt and an antiwestern offensive orchestrated by russia to encircle europe and isolate the united states although favoring greater algerian autonomy or even federation though not fullscale independence he believed the piedsnoirs and arabs could coexist during the war he advocated a civil truce that would spare the civilians it was rejected by both sides who regarded it as foolish behind the scenes he began working for imprisoned algerians who faced the death penalty his position drew much criticism from the left and later postcolonial literary critics such as edward said who were opposed to european imperialism and charged that camuss novels and short stories are plagued with colonial depictions or conscious erasures of algerias arab population in their eyes camus was no longer the defender of the oppressed camus once said that the troubles in algeria affected him as others feel pain in their lungs philosophy existentialism even though camus is mostly connected to absurdism he is routinely categorized as an existentialist a term he rejected on several occasions camus himself said his philosophical origins lay in ancient greek philosophy nietzsche and 17thcentury moralists whereas existentialism arises from 19th and early 20thcentury philosophy such as kierkegaard karl jaspers and heidegger he also said his work the myth of sisyphus was a criticism of various aspects of existentialism camus was rejecting existentialism as a philosophy but his critique was mostly focused on sartrean existentialism and to a lesser extent on religious existentialism he thought that the importance of history held by marx and sartre was incompatible with his belief in human freedom david sherman and others also suggest the rivalry between sartre and camus also played a part in his rejection of existentialism david simpson argues further that his humanism and belief in human nature set him apart from the existentialist doctrine that existence precedes essence on the other hand camus focused most of his philosophy around existential questions the absurdity of life the inevitable ending death is highlighted in his acts his belief was that the absurdlife being void of meaning or mans inability to know that meaning if it were to existwas something that man should embrace his antichristianity his commitment to individual moral freedom and responsibility are only a few of the similarities with other existential writers more importantly camus addressed one of the fundamental questions of existentialism the problem of suicide he wrote there is only one really serious philosophical question and that is suicide camus viewed the question of suicide as arising naturally as a solution to the absurdity of life absurdism many existentialist writers have addressed the absurd each with their own interpretation of what it is and what makes it important kierkegaard explains that the absurdity of religious truths prevents us from reaching god rationally sartre recognizes the absurdity of individual experience camuss thoughts on the absurd begin with his first cycle of books and the literary essay the myth of sisyphus le mythe de sisyphe his major work on the subject in 1942 he published the story of a man living an absurd life in the stranger he also wrote a play about the roman emperor caligula pursuing an absurd logic which was not performed until 1945 his early thoughts appeared in his first collection of essays lenvers et lendroit betwixt and between in 1937 absurd themes were expressed with more sophistication in his second collection of essays noces nuptials in 1938 in these essays camus reflects on the experience of the absurd aspects of the notion of the absurd can be found in the plague camus follows sartres definition of the absurd that which is meaningless thus mans existence is absurd because his contingency finds no external justification the absurd is created because man who is placed in an unintelligent universe realises that human values are not founded on a solid external component or as camus himself explains the absurd is the result of the confrontation between human need and the unreasonable silence of the world even though absurdity is inescapable camus does not drift towards nihilism but the realization of absurdity leads to the question why should someone continue to live suicide is an option that camus firmly dismisses as the renunciation of human values and freedom rather he proposes we accept that absurdity is a part of our lives and live with it the turning point in camuss attitude to the absurd occurs in a collection of four letters to an anonymous german friend written between july 1943 and july 1944 the first was published in the revue libre in 1943 the second in the cahiers de libération in 1944 and the third in the newspaper libertés in 1945 the four letters were published as lettres à un ami allemand letters to a german friend in 1945 and were included in the collection resistance rebellion and death camus regretted the continued reference to himself as a philosopher of the absurd he showed less interest in the absurd shortly after publishing le mythe de sisyphe to distinguish his ideas scholars sometimes refer to the paradox of the absurd when referring to camuss absurd revolt camus articulated the case for revolting against any kind of oppression injustice or whatever disrespects the human condition he is cautious enough however to set the limits on the rebellion lhomme révolté the rebel explains in detail his thoughts on the issue there he builds upon the absurd described in the myth of sisyphus but goes further in the introduction where he examines the metaphysics of rebellion he concludes with the phrase i revolt therefore we exist implying the recognition of a common human condition camus also delineates the difference between revolution and rebellion and notices that history has shown that the rebels revolution might easily end up as an oppressive regime he therefore places importance on the morals accompanying the revolution camus poses a crucial question is it possible for humans to act in an ethical and meaningful manner in a silent universe according to him the answer is yes as the experience and awareness of the absurd creates the moral values and also sets the limits of our actions camus separates the modern form of rebellion into two modes first there is the metaphysical rebellion which is the movement by which man protests against his condition and against the whole of creation the other mode historical rebellion is the attempt to materialize the abstract spirit of metaphysical rebellion and change the world in this attempt the rebel must balance between the evil of the world and the intrinsic evil which every revolt carries and not cause any unjustifiable suffering legacy camuss novels and philosophical essays are still influential after his death interest in camus followed the rise and diminution of the new left following the collapse of the soviet union interest in his alternative road to communism resurfaced he is remembered for his skeptical humanism and his support for political tolerance dialogue and civil rights although camus has been linked to antisoviet communism reaching as far as anarchosyndicalism some neoliberals have tried to associate him with their policies for instance the french president nicolas sarkozy suggested that his remains be moved to the panthéon an idea that was criticised by camuss surviving family and angered many on the left american heavy metal band avenged sevenfold has stated their album life is but a dream is inspired by the work of camus albert camus also served as the inspiration for the aquarius gold saint camus in the classic anime and manga saint seiya tributes in tipasa algeria inside the roman ruins facing the sea and mount chenoua a stele was erected in 1961 in honor of albert camus with this phrase in french extracted from his work noces à tipasa i understand here what is called glory the right to love beyond measure je comprends ici ce quon appelle gloire le droit daimer sans mesure the french post published a stamp with his effigy on 26 june 1967 works the works of albert camus include novels a happy death la mort heureuse written 193638 published 1971 the stranger létranger often translated as the outsider an alternate meaning of létranger is foreigner 1942 the plague la peste 1947 the fall la chute 1956 the first man le premier homme incomplete published 1994 short stories exile and the kingdom lexil et le royaume collection 1957 containing the following short stories the adulterous woman la femme adultère the renegade or a confused spirit le renégat ou un esprit confus the silent men les muets the guest lhôte jonas or the artist at work jonas ou lartiste au travail the growing stone la pierre qui pousse academic theses christian metaphysics and neoplatonism métaphysique chrétienne et néoplatonisme 1935 the thesis that enabled camus to teach in secondary schools in france nonfiction betwixt and between lenvers et lendroit also translated as the wrong side and the right side collection 1937 nuptials noces 1938 the myth of sisyphus le mythe de sisyphe 1942 the rebel lhomme révolté 1951 algerian chronicles chroniques algériennes 1958 first english translation published 2013 resistance rebellion and death collection 1961 notebooks 19351942 carnets mai 1935 fevrier 1942 1962 notebooks 19421951 carnets ii janvier 1942mars 1951 1965 lyrical and critical essays collection 1968 american journals journaux de voyage 1978 notebooks 19511959 2008 published as carnets tome iii mars 1951 december 1959 1989 correspondence 19441959 the correspondence of albert camus and maría casares with a preface by his daughter catherine camus 2017 plays caligula performed 1945 written 1938 the misunderstanding le malentendu 1944 the state of siege létat de siège 1948 the just assassins les justes 1949 requiem for a nun requiem pour une nonne adapted from william faulkners novel by the same name 1956 the possessed les possédés adapted from fyodor dostoyevskys novel demons 1959 essays the crisis of man lecture at columbia university 28 march 1946 neither victims nor executioners series of essays in combat 1946 why spain essay for the theatrical play letat de siège 1948 summer lété 1954 reflections on the guillotine réflexions sur la guillotine extended essay 1957 create dangerously essay on realism and artistic creation lecture at the university of uppsala in sweden 1957 references footnotes sources further reading selected biographies external links albert camus selective and cumulative bibliography gaycrosier camus collection at university of florida library albert camus society uk 1913 births 1960 deaths 20thcentury atheists 20thcentury french dramatists and playwrights 20thcentury french essayists 20thcentury french journalists 20thcentury french male writers 20thcentury french novelists 20thcentury french philosophers 20thcentury short story writers absurdist writers anarchosyndicalists antistalinist left atheist philosophers communist members of the french resistance existentialists french anarchists french anticapitalists french antideath penalty activists french antifascists french atheists french communist party members french humanists french male essayists french nobel laureates french pacifists french people of spanish descent french socialists french syndicalists legion of honour refusals libertarian socialists modernist writers nobel laureates in literature people from dréan people of french algeria philosophers of death philosophers of pessimism piedsnoirs road incident deaths in france university of algiers alumni	5,377
984	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agatha%20Christie	Agatha Christie	dame agatha mary clarissa christie lady mallowan 15 september 1890 12 january 1976 was an english writer known for her 66 detective novels and 14 short story collections particularly those revolving around fictional detectives hercule poirot and miss marple she also wrote the worlds longestrunning play the murder mystery the mousetrap which has been performed in the west end since 1952 a writer during the golden age of detective fiction christie has been called the queen of crime she also wrote six novels under the pseudonym mary westmacott in 1971 she was made a dame dbe by queen elizabeth ii for her contributions to literature guinness world records lists christie as the bestselling fiction writer of all time her novels having sold more than two billion copies christie was born into a wealthy uppermiddleclass family in torquay devon and was largely homeschooled she was initially an unsuccessful writer with six consecutive rejections but this changed in 1920 when the mysterious affair at styles featuring detective hercule poirot was published her first husband was archibald christie they married in 1914 and had one child before divorcing in 1928 following the breakdown of her marriage and the death of her mother in 1926 she made international headlines by going missing for eleven days during both world wars she served in hospital dispensaries acquiring a thorough knowledge of the poisons that featured in many of her novels short stories and plays following her marriage to archaeologist max mallowan in 1930 she spent several months each year on digs in the middle east and used her firsthand knowledge of this profession in her fiction according to unescos index translationum she remains the mosttranslated individual author her novel and then there were none is one of the topselling books of all time with approximately 100 million copies sold christies stage play the mousetrap holds the world record for the longest initial run it opened at the ambassadors theatre in the west end on 25 november 1952 and by 2018 there had been more than 27500 performances the play was temporarily closed in 2020 because of covid19 lockdowns in london before it reopened in 2021 in 1955 christie was the first recipient of the mystery writers of americas grand master award later that year witness for the prosecution received an edgar award for best play in 2013 she was voted the best crime writer and the murder of roger ackroyd the best crime novel ever by 600 professional novelists of the crime writers association in 2015 and then there were none was named the worlds favourite christie in a vote sponsored by the authors estate many of christies books and short stories have been adapted for television radio video games and graphic novels more than 30 feature films are based on her work life and career childhood and adolescence 18901907 agatha mary clarissa miller was born on 15 september 1890 into a wealthy upper middle class family in torquay devon she was the youngest of three children born to frederick alvah miller a gentleman of substance and his wife clarissa margaret clara miller née boehmer christies mother clara was born in dublin in 1854 to british army officer frederick boehmer and his wife mary ann boehmer née west boehmer died in jersey in 1863 leaving his widow to raise clara and her brothers on a meagre income two weeks after boehmers death marys sister margaret west married widowed dry goods merchant nathaniel frary miller a us citizen to assist mary financially they agreed to foster nineyearold clara the family settled in timperley cheshire margaret and nathaniel had no children together but nathaniel had a 17yearold son fred miller from his previous marriage fred was born in new york city and travelled extensively after leaving his swiss boarding school he and clara were married in london in 1878 their first child margaret frary madge was born in torquay in 1879 the second louis montant monty was born in morristown new jersey in 1880 while the family was on an extended visit to the united states when freds father died in 1869 he left clara 2000 approximately in 1881 they used this to buy the leasehold of a villa in torquay named ashfield it was here that their third and last child agatha was born in 1890 she described her childhood as very happy the millers lived mainly in devon but often visited her stepgrandmothergreataunt margaret miller in ealing and maternal grandmother mary boehmer in bayswater a year was spent abroad with her family in the french pyrenees paris dinard and guernsey because her siblings were so much older and there were few children in their neighbourhood christie spent much of her time playing alone with her pets and imaginary companions she eventually made friends with other girls in torquay noting that one of the highlights of my existence was her appearance with them in a youth production of gilbert and sullivans the yeomen of the guard in which she played the hero colonel fairfax according to christie clara believed she should not learn to read until she was eight thanks to her curiosity she was reading by the age of four her sister had been sent to a boarding school but their mother insisted that christie receive her education at home as a result her parents and sister supervised her studies in reading writing and basic arithmetic a subject she particularly enjoyed they also taught her music and she learned to play the piano and the mandolin christie was a voracious reader from an early age among her earliest memories were of reading childrens books by mrs molesworth and edith nesbit when a little older she moved on to the surreal verse of edward lear and lewis carroll as an adolescent she enjoyed works by anthony hope walter scott charles dickens and alexandre dumas in april 1901 aged 10 she wrote her first poem the cow slip by 1901 her fathers health had deteriorated because of what he believed were heart problems fred died in november 1901 from pneumonia and chronic kidney disease christie later said that her fathers death when she was 11 marked the end of her childhood the familys financial situation had by this time worsened madge married the year after their fathers death and moved to cheadle cheshire monty was overseas serving in a british regiment christie now lived alone at ashfield with her mother in 1902 she began attending miss guyers girls school in torquay but found it difficult to adjust to the disciplined atmosphere in 1905 her mother sent her to paris where she was educated in a series of boarding schools focusing on voice training and piano playing deciding she lacked the temperament and talent she gave up her goal of performing professionally as a concert pianist or an opera singer early literary attempts marriage literary success 19071926 after completing her education christie returned to england to find her mother ailing they decided to spend the northern winter of 19071908 in the warm climate of egypt which was then a regular tourist destination for wealthy britons they stayed for three months at the gezirah palace hotel in cairo christie attended many dances and other social functions she particularly enjoyed watching amateur polo matches while they visited some ancient egyptian monuments such as the great pyramid of giza she did not exhibit the great interest in archaeology and egyptology that developed in her later years returning to britain she continued her social activities writing and performing in amateur theatrics she also helped put on a play called the blue beard of unhappiness with female friends at 18 christie wrote her first short story the house of beauty while recovering in bed from an illness it consisted of about 6000 words about madness and dreams subjects of fascination for her her biographer janet morgan has commented that despite infelicities of style the story was compelling the story became an early version of her story the house of dreams other stories followed most of them illustrating her interest in spiritualism and the paranormal these included the call of wings and the little lonely god magazines rejected all her early submissions made under pseudonyms including mac miller nathaniel miller and sydney west some submissions were later revised and published under her real name often with new titles around the same time christie began work on her first novel snow upon the desert writing under the pseudonym monosyllaba she set the book in cairo and drew upon her recent experiences there she was disappointed when the six publishers she contacted declined the work clara suggested that her daughter ask for advice from the successful novelist eden phillpotts a family friend and neighbour who responded to her enquiry encouraged her writing and sent her an introduction to his own literary agent hughes massie who also rejected snow upon the desert but suggested a second novel meanwhile christies social activities expanded with country house parties riding hunting dances and roller skating she had shortlived relationships with four men and an engagement to another in october 1912 she was introduced to archibald archie christie at a dance given by lord and lady clifford at ugbrooke about from torquay the son of a barrister in the indian civil service archie was a royal artillery officer who was seconded to the royal flying corps in april 1913 the couple quickly fell in love three months after their first meeting archie proposed marriage and agatha accepted with the outbreak of world war i in august 1914 archie was sent to france to fight they married on christmas eve 1914 at emmanuel church clifton bristol close to the home of his mother and stepfather when archie was on home leave rising through the ranks he was posted back to britain in september 1918 as a colonel in the air ministry christie involved herself in the war effort as a member of the voluntary aid detachment of the british red cross from october 1914 to may 1915 then from june 1916 to september 1918 she worked 3400 hours in the town hall red cross hospital torquay first as a nurse unpaid then as a dispenser at 16 approximately a year from 1917 after qualifying as an apothecarys assistant her war service ended in september 1918 when archie was reassigned to london and they rented a flat in st johns wood christie had long been a fan of detective novels having enjoyed wilkie collinss the woman in white and the moonstone and arthur conan doyles early sherlock holmes stories she wrote her first detective novel the mysterious affair at styles in 1916 it featured hercule poirot a former belgian police officer with magnificent moustaches and a head exactly the shape of an egg who had taken refuge in britain after germany invaded belgium christies inspiration for the character came from belgian refugees living in torquay and the belgian soldiers she helped to treat as a volunteer nurse during the first world war her original manuscript was rejected by hodder stoughton and methuen after keeping the submission for several months john lane at the bodley head offered to accept it provided that christie change how the solution was revealed she did so and signed a contract committing her next five books to the bodley head which she later felt was exploitative it was published in 1920 christie settled into married life giving birth to her only child rosalind margaret clarissa later hicks in august 1919 at ashfield archie left the air force at the end of the war and began working in the city financial sector on a relatively low salary they still employed a maid her second novel the secret adversary 1922 featured a new detective couple tommy and tuppence again published by the bodley head it earned her 50 approximately a third novel murder on the links again featured poirot as did the short stories commissioned by bruce ingram editor of the sketch magazine from 1923 she now had no difficulty selling her work in 1922 the christies joined an aroundtheworld promotional tour for the british empire exhibition led by major ernest belcher leaving their daughter with agathas mother and sister in 10 months they travelled to south africa australia new zealand hawaii and canada they learned to surf prone in south africa then in waikiki they were among the first britons to surf standing up and extended their time there by three months to practise she is remembered at the british surfing museum as having said about surfing oh it was heaven nothing like rushing through the water at what seems to you a speed of about two hundred miles an hour it is one of the most perfect physical pleasures i have known when they returned to england archie resumed work in the city and christie continued to work hard at her writing after living in a series of apartments in london they bought a house in sunningdale berkshire which they renamed styles after the mansion in christies first detective novel christies mother clarissa miller died in april 1926 they had been exceptionally close and the loss sent christie into a deep depression in august 1926 reports appeared in the press that christie had gone to a village near biarritz to recuperate from a breakdown caused by overwork disappearance 1926 in august 1926 archie asked agatha for a divorce he had fallen in love with nancy neele a friend of major belcher on 3december 1926 the pair quarrelled after archie announced his plan to spend the weekend with friends unaccompanied by his wife late that evening christie disappeared from their home in sunningdale the following morning her car a morris cowley was discovered at newlands corner in surrey parked above a chalk quarry with an expired driving licence and clothes inside it was feared that she might have drowned herself in the silent pool a nearby beauty spot the disappearance quickly became a news story as the press sought to satisfy their readers hunger for sensation disaster and scandal home secretary william joynsonhicks pressured police and a newspaper offered a 100 reward more than a thousand police officers 15000 volunteers and several aeroplanes searched the rural landscape sir arthur conan doyle gave a spirit medium one of christies gloves to find her christies disappearance made international headlines including featuring on the front page of the new york times despite the extensive manhunt she was not found for another 10 days on 14 december 1926 she was located at the swan hydropathic hotel in harrogate yorkshire north of her home in sunningdale registered as mrs tressa neele the surname of her husbands lover from sa south africa the next day christie left for her sisters residence at abney hall cheadle where she was sequestered in guarded hall gates locked telephone cut off and callers turned away christies autobiography makes no reference to the disappearance two doctors diagnosed her with an unquestionable genuine loss of memory yet opinion remains divided over the reason for her disappearance some including her biographer morgan believe she disappeared during a fugue state the author jared cade concluded that christie planned the event to embarrass her husband but did not anticipate the resulting public melodrama christie biographer laura thompson provides an alternative view that christie disappeared during a nervous breakdown conscious of her actions but not in emotional control of herself public reaction at the time was largely negative supposing a publicity stunt or an attempt to frame her husband for murder second marriage and later life 19271976 in january 1927 christie looking very pale sailed with her daughter and secretary to las palmas canary islands to complete her convalescence returning three months later christie petitioned for divorce and was granted a decree nisi against her husband in april 1928 which was made absolute in october 1928 archie married nancy neele a week later christie retained custody of their daughter rosalind and kept the christie surname for her writing reflecting on the period in her autobiography christie wrote so after illness came sorrow despair and heartbreak there is no need to dwell on it in 1928 christie left england and took the simplon orient express to istanbul and then to baghdad in iraq she became friends with archaeologist leonard woolley and his wife who invited her to return to their dig in february 1930 on that second trip she met archaeologist max mallowan 13 years her junior in a 1977 interview mallowan recounted his first meeting with christie when he took her and a group of tourists on a tour of his expedition site in iraq christie and mallowan married in edinburgh in september 1930 their marriage lasted until christies death in 1976 she accompanied mallowan on his archaeological expeditions and her travels with him contributed background to several of her novels set in the middle east other novels such as peril at end house were set in and around torquay where she was raised christie drew on her experience of international train travel when writing her 1934 novel murder on the orient express the pera palace hotel in istanbul the eastern terminus of the railway claims the book was written there and maintains christies room as a memorial to the author christie and mallowan first lived in cresswell place in chelsea and later in sheffield terrace holland park kensington both properties are now marked by blue plaques in 1934 they bought winterbrook house in winterbrook a hamlet near wallingford this was their main residence for the rest of their lives and the place where christie did much of her writing this house also bears a blue plaque christie led a quiet life despite being known in wallingford from 1951 to 1976 she served as president of the local amateur dramatic society the couple acquired the greenway estate in devon as a summer residence in 1938 it was given to the national trust in 2000 christie frequently stayed at abney hall cheshire which was owned by her brotherinlaw james watts and based at least two stories there a short story the adventure of the christmas pudding in the story collection of the same name and the novel after the funeral one christie compendium notes that abney became agathas greatest inspiration for countryhouse life with all its servants and grandeur being woven into her plots the descriptions of the fictional chimneys stonygates and other houses in her stories are mostly abney hall in various forms during world war ii christie moved to london and lived in a flat at the isokon in hampstead whilst working in the pharmacy at university college hospital uch london where she updated her knowledge of poisons her later novel the pale horse was based on a suggestion from harold davis the chief pharmacist at uch in 1977 a thallium poisoning case was solved by british medical personnel who had read christies book and recognised the symptoms she described the british intelligence agency mi5 investigated christie after a character called major bletchley appeared in her 1941 thriller n or m which was about a hunt for a pair of deadly fifth columnists in wartime england mi5 was concerned that christie had a spy in britains topsecret codebreaking centre bletchley park the agencys fears were allayed when christie told her friend the codebreaker dilly knox i was stuck there on my way by train from oxford to london and took revenge by giving the name to one of my least lovable characters christie was elected a fellow of the royal society of literature in 1950 in honour of her many literary works christie was appointed commander of the order of the british empire cbe in the 1956 new year honours she was copresident of the detection club from 1958 to her death in 1976 in 1961 she was awarded an honorary doctor of literature degree by the university of exeter in the 1971 new year honours she was promoted to dame commander of the order of the british empire dbe three years after her husband had been knighted for his archaeological work after her husbands knighthood christie could also be styled lady mallowan from 1971 to 1974 christies health began to fail but she continued to write her last novel was postern of fate in 1973 textual analysis suggested that christie may have begun to develop alzheimers disease or other dementia at about this time personal qualities in 1946 christie said of herself my chief dislikes are crowds loud noises gramophones and cinemas i dislike the taste of alcohol and do not like smoking i do like sun sea flowers travelling strange foods sports concerts theatres pianos and doing embroidery christie was a lifelong quietly devout member of the church of england attended church regularly and kept her mothers copy of the imitation of christ by her bedside after her divorce she stopped taking the sacrament of communion the agatha christie trust for children was established in 1969 and shortly after christies death a charitable memorial fund was set up to help two causes that she favoured old people and young children christies obituary in the times notes that she never cared much for the cinema or for wireless and television further death and estate death and burial christie died peacefully on 12 january 1976 at age 85 from natural causes at her home at winterbrook house upon her death two west end theatresthe st martins where the mousetrap was playing and the savoy which was home to a revival of murder at the vicaragedimmed their outside lights in her honour she was buried in the nearby churchyard of st marys cholsey in a plot she had chosen with her husband 10 years previously the simple funeral service was attended by about 20 newspaper and tv reporters some having travelled from as far away as south america thirty wreaths adorned christies grave including one from the cast of her longrunning play the mousetrap and one sent on behalf of the multitude of grateful readers by the ulverscroft large print book publishers mallowan who remarried in 1977 died in 1978 and was buried next to christie estate and subsequent ownership of works christie was unhappy about becoming an employed wage slave and for tax reasons set up a private company in 1955 agatha christie limited to hold the rights to her works in about 1959 she transferred her 278acre home greenway estate to her daughter rosalind hicks in 1968 when christie was almost 80 she sold a 51 stake in agatha christie limited and the works it owned to booker books better known as booker authors division which by 1977 had increased its stake to 64 agatha christie limited still owns the worldwide rights for more than 80 of christies novels and short stories 19 plays and nearly 40 tv films in the late 1950s christie had reputedly been earning around 100000 approximately per year christie sold an estimated 300 million books during her lifetime at the time of her death in 1976 she was the bestselling novelist in history one estimate of her total earnings from more than a halfcentury of writing is 20 million approximately million in as a result of her tax planning her will left only 106683 approximately net which went mostly to her husband and daughter along with some smaller bequests her remaining 36 share of agatha christie limited was inherited by hicks who passionately preserved her mothers works image and legacy until her own death 28 years later the familys share of the company allowed them to appoint 50 of the board and the chairman and retain a veto over new treatments updated versions and republications of her works in 2004 hicks obituary in the telegraph noted that she had been determined to remain true to her mothers vision and to protect the integrity of her creations and disapproved of merchandising activities upon her death on 28 october 2004 the greenway estate passed to her son mathew prichard after his stepfathers death in 2005 prichard donated greenway and its contents to the national trust christies family and family trusts including greatgrandson james prichard continue to own the 36 stake in agatha christie limited and remain associated with the company in 2020 james prichard was the companys chairman mathew prichard also holds the copyright to some of his grandmothers later literary works including the mousetrap christies work continues to be developed in a range of adaptations in 1998 booker sold its shares in agatha christie limited at the time earning 2100000 approximately annual revenue for 10000000 approximately to chorion whose portfolio of authors works included the literary estates of enid blyton and dennis wheatley in february 2012 after a management buyout chorion began to sell off its literary assets this included the sale of chorions 64 stake in agatha christie limited to acorn media uk in 2014 rlj entertainment inc rlje acquired acorn media uk renamed it acorn media enterprises and incorporated it as the rlje uk development arm in late february 2014 media reports stated that the bbc had acquired exclusive tv rights to christies works in the uk previously associated with itv and made plans with acorns cooperation to air new productions for the 125th anniversary of christies birth in 2015 as part of that deal the bbc broadcast partners in crime and and then there were none both in 2015 subsequent productions have included the witness for the prosecution but plans to televise ordeal by innocence at christmas 2017 were delayed because of controversy surrounding one of the cast members the threepart adaptation aired in april 2018 a threepart adaptation of the abc murders starring john malkovich and rupert grint began filming in june 2018 and was first broadcast in december 2018 a twopart adaptation of the pale horse was broadcast on bbc1 in february 2020 death comes as the end will be the next bbc adaptation since 2020 reissues of christies miss marple and hercule poirot novels by harpercollins have removed passages containing descriptions insults or references to ethnicity works works of fiction hercule poirot and miss marple christies first published book the mysterious affair at styles was released in 1920 and introduced the detective hercule poirot who appeared in 33 of her novels and more than 50 short stories over the years christie grew tired of poirot much as doyle did with sherlock holmes by the end of the 1930s christie wrote in her diary that she was finding poirot insufferable and by the 1960s she felt he was an egocentric creep thompson believes christies occasional antipathy to her creation is overstated and points out that in later life she sought to protect him against misrepresentation as powerfully as if he were her own flesh and blood unlike doyle she resisted the temptation to kill her detective off while he was still popular she married off poirots watson captain arthur hastings in an attempt to trim her cast commitments miss jane marple was introduced in a series of short stories that began publication in december 1927 and were subsequently collected under the title the thirteen problems marple was a genteel elderly spinster who solved crimes using analogies to english village life christie said miss marple was not in any way a picture of my grandmother she was far more fussy and spinsterish than my grandmother ever was but her autobiography establishes a firm connection between the fictional character and christies stepgrandmother margaret miller auntiegrannie and her ealing cronies both marple and miller always expected the worst of everyone and everything and were with almost frightening accuracy usually proved right marple appeared in 12 novels and 20 stories during the second world war christie wrote two novels curtain and sleeping murder featuring hercule poirot and miss marple respectively both books were sealed in a bank vault and she made over the copyrights by deed of gift to her daughter and her husband to provide each with a kind of insurance policy christie had a heart attack and a serious fall in 1974 after which she was unable to write her daughter authorised the publication of curtain in 1975 and sleeping murder was published posthumously in 1976 these publications followed the success of the 1974 film version of murder on the orient express shortly before the publication of curtain poirot became the first fictional character to have an obituary in the new york times which was printed on page one on 6 august 1975 christie never wrote a novel or short story featuring both poirot and miss marple in a recording discovered and released in 2008 christie revealed the reason for this hercule poirot a complete egoist would not like being taught his business or having suggestions made to him by an elderly spinster lady hercule poirota professional sleuthwould not be at home at all in miss marples world in 2013 the christie family supported the release of a new poirot story the monogram murders written by british author sophie hannah hannah later published three more poirot mysteries closed casket in 2016 the mystery of three quarters in 2018 and the killings at kingfisher hill in 2020 formula and plot devices christie has been called the duchess of death the mistress of mystery and the queen of crime early in her career a reporter noted that her plots are possible logical and always new according to hannah at the start of each novel she shows us an apparently impossible situation and we go mad wondering how can this be happening then slowly she reveals how the impossible is not only possible but the only thing that could have happened christie developed her storytelling techniques during what has been called the golden age of detective fiction author dilys winn called christie the doyenne of coziness a subgenre which featured a small village setting a hero with faintly aristocratic family connections a plethora of red herrings and a tendency to commit homicide with sterling silver letter openers and poisons imported from paraguay at the end in a christie hallmark the detective usually gathers the surviving suspects into one room explains the course of their deductive reasoning and reveals the guilty party but there are exceptions where it is left to the guilty party to explain all such as and then there were none and endless night christie did not limit herself to quaint english villagesthe action might take place on a small island and then there were none an aeroplane death in the clouds a train murder on the orient express a steamship death on the nile a smart london flat cards on the table a resort in the west indies a caribbean mystery or an archaeological dig murder in mesopotamiabut the circle of potential suspects is usually closed and intimate family members friends servants business associates fellow travellers stereotyped characters abound the the stolid policeman the devoted servant the dull colonel but these may be subverted to stymie the reader impersonations and secret alliances are always possible there is always a motivemost often money there are very few killers in christie who enjoy murder for its own sake professor of pharmacology michael c gerald noted that in over half her novels one or more victims are poisoned albeit not always to the full satisfaction of the perpetrator guns knives garrottes tripwires blunt instruments and even a hatchet were also used but christie never resorted to elaborate mechanical or scientific means to explain her ingenuity according to john curran author and literary adviser to the christie estate many of her clues are mundane objects a calendar a coffee cup wax flowers a beer bottle a fireplace used during a heat wave according to crime writer p d james christie was prone to making the unlikeliest character the guilty party alert readers could sometimes identify the culprit by identifying the least likely suspect christie mocked this insight in her foreword to cards on the table spot the person least likely to have committed the crime and in nine times out of ten your task is finished since i do not want my faithful readers to fling away this book in disgust i prefer to warn them beforehand that this is not that kind of book on bbc radio 4s desert island discs in 2007 brian aldiss said christie had told him she wrote her books up to the last chapter then decided who the most unlikely suspect was after which she would go back and make the necessary changes to frame that person based upon a study of her working notebooks curran describes how christie would first create a cast of characters choose a setting and then produce a list of scenes in which specific clues would be revealed the order of scenes would be revised as she developed her plot of necessity the murderer had to be known to the author before the sequence could be finalised and she began to type or dictate the first draft of her novel much of the work particularly dialogue was done in her head before she put it on paper in 2013 the 600 members of the crime writers association chose the murder of roger ackroyd as the best whodunit ever written author julian symons observed in an obvious sense the book fits within the conventions the setting is a village deep within the english countryside roger ackroyd dies in his study there is a butler who behaves suspiciously every successful detective story in this period involved a deceit practised upon the reader and here the trick is the highly original one of making the murderer the local doctor who tells the story and acts as poirots watson critic sutherland scott stated if agatha christie had made no other contribution to the literature of detective fiction she would still deserve our grateful thanks for writing this novel in september 2015 to mark her 125th birthday and then there were none was named the worlds favourite christie in a vote sponsored by the authors estate the novel is emblematic of both her use of formula and her willingness to discard it and then there were none carries the closed society type of murder mystery to extreme lengths according to author charles osborne it begins with the classic setup of potential victims and killers isolated from the outside world but then violates conventions there is no detective involved in the action no interviews of suspects no careful search for clues and no suspects gathered together in the last chapter to be confronted with the solution as christie herself said ten people had to die without it becoming ridiculous or the murderer being obvious critics agreed she had succeeded the arrogant mrs christie this time set herself a fearsome test of her own ingenuity the reviews not surprisingly were without exception wildly adulatory character stereotypes and racism christie included stereotyped descriptions of characters in her work especially before 1945 when such attitudes were more commonly expressed publicly particularly in regard to italians jews and noneuropeans for example she described men of hebraic extraction sallow men with hooked noses wearing rather flamboyant jewellery in the short story the soul of the croupier from the collection the mysterious mr quin in 1947 the antidefamation league in the us sent an official letter of complaint to christies american publishers dodd mead and company regarding perceived antisemitism in her works christies british literary agent later wrote to her us representative authorising american publishers to omit the word jew when it refers to an unpleasant character in future books in the hollow published in 1946 one of the characters is described by another as a whitechapel jewess with dyed hair and a voice like a corncrake a small woman with a thick nose henna red and a disagreeable voice to contrast with the more stereotyped descriptions christie portrayed some foreign characters as victims or potential victims at the hands of english malefactors such as respectively olga seminoff halloween party and katrina reiger in the short story how does your garden grow jewish characters are often seen as unenglish such as oliver manders in three act tragedy but they are rarely the culprits in 2023 the telegraph reported that several agatha christie novels have been edited to remove potentially offensive language including insults and references to ethnicity poirot and miss marple mysteries written between 1920 and 1976 have had passages reworked or removed in new editions published by harpercollins in order to strip them of language and descriptions that modern audiences find offensive especially those involving the characters christies protagonists encounter outside the uk sensitivity readers had made the edits which were evident in digital versions of the new editions including the entire miss marple run and selected poirot novels set to be released or that have been released since 2020 other detectives in addition to hercule poirot and miss marple christie also created amateur detectives thomas tommy beresford and his wife prudence tuppence née cowley who appear in four novels and one collection of short stories published between 1922 and 1974 unlike her other sleuths the beresfords were only in their early twenties when introduced in the secret adversary and were allowed to age alongside their creator she treated their stories with a lighter touch giving them a dash and verve which was not universally admired by critics their last adventure postern of fate was christies last novel harley quin was easily the most unorthodox of christies fictional detectives inspired by christies affection for the figures from the harlequinade the semisupernatural quin always works with an elderly conventional man called satterthwaite the pair appear in 14 short stories 12 of which were collected in 1930 as the mysterious mr quin mallowan described these tales as detection in a fanciful vein touching on the fairy story a natural product of agathas peculiar imagination satterthwaite also appears in a novel three act tragedy and a short story dead mans mirror both of which feature poirot another of her lesserknown characters is parker pyne a retired civil servant who assists unhappy people in an unconventional manner the 12 short stories which introduced him parker pyne investigates 1934 are best remembered for the case of the discontented soldier which features ariadne oliver an amusing and satirical selfportrait of agatha christie over the ensuing decades oliver reappeared in seven novels in most of them she assists poirot plays in 1928 michael morton adapted the murder of roger ackroyd for the stage under the name of alibi the play enjoyed a respectable run but christie disliked the changes made to her work and in future preferred to write for the theatre herself the first of her own stage works was black coffee which received good reviews when it opened in the west end in late 1930 she followed this up with adaptations of her detective novels and then there were none in 1943 appointment with death in 1945 and the hollow in 1951 in the 1950s the theatre engaged much of agathas attention she next adapted her short radio play into the mousetrap which premiered in the west end in 1952 produced by peter saunders and starring richard attenborough as the original detective sergeant trotter her expectations for the play were not high she believed it would run no more than eight months the mousetrap has long since made theatrical history as the worlds longestrunning play staging its 27500th performance in september 2018 the play temporarily closed in march 2020 when all uk theatres shut due to the coronavirus pandemic before it reopened on 17 may 2021 in 1953 she followed this with witness for the prosecution whose broadway production won the new york drama critics circle award for best foreign play of 1954 and earned christie an edgar award from the mystery writers of america spiders web an original work written for actress margaret lockwood at her request premiered in the west end in 1954 and was also a hit christie became the first female playwright to have three plays running simultaneously in london the mousetrap witness for the prosecution and spiders web she said plays are much easier to write than books because you can see them in your minds eye you are not hampered by all that description which clogs you so terribly in a book and stops you from getting on with whats happening in a letter to her daughter christie said being a playwright was a lot of fun as mary westmacott christie published six mainstream novels under the name mary westmacott a pseudonym which gave her the freedom to explore her most private and precious imaginative garden these books typically received better reviews than her detective and thriller fiction of the first giants bread published in 1930 a reviewer for the new york times wrote her book is far above the average of current fiction in fact comes well under the classification of a good book and it is only a satisfying novel that can claim that appellation it was publicized from the very beginning that mary westmacott was a pen name of a wellknown author although the identity behind the pen name was kept secret the dust jacket of giants bread mentions that the author had previously written under her real namehalf a dozen books that have each passed the thirty thousand mark in sales in fact though this was technically true it disguised christies identity through understatement by the publication of giants bread christie had published 10 novels and two short story collections all of which had sold considerably more than 30000 copies after christies authorship of the first four westmacott novels was revealed by a journalist in 1949 she wrote two more the last in 1956 the other westmacott titles are unfinished portrait 1934 absent in the spring 1944 the rose and the yew tree 1948 a daughters a daughter 1952 and the burden 1956 nonfiction works christie published a few nonfiction works come tell me how you live about working on an archaeological dig was drawn from her life with mallowan the grand tour around the world with the queen of mystery is a collection of correspondence from her 1922 grand tour of the british empire including south africa australia new zealand and canada agatha christie an autobiography was published posthumously in 1977 and adjudged the best criticalbiographical work at the 1978 edgar awards titles many of christies works from 1940 onward have titles drawn from literature with the original context of the title typically printed as an epigraph the inspirations for some of christies titles include william shakespeares works sad cypress by the pricking of my thumbs there is a tide absent in the spring and the mousetrap for example osborne notes that shakespeare is the writer most quoted in the works of agatha christie the bible evil under the sun the burden and the pale horse other works of literature the mirror crackd from side to side from tennysons the lady of shalott the moving finger from edward fitzgeralds translation of the rubáiyát of omar khayyám the rose and the yew tree from t s eliots four quartets postern of fate from james elroy fleckers gates of damascus endless night from william blakes auguries of innocence n or m from the book of common prayer and come tell me how you live from lewis carrolls through the lookingglass christie biographer gillian gill said christies writing has the sparseness the directness the narrative pace and the universal appeal of the fairy story and it is perhaps as modern fairy stories for grownup children that christies novels succeed reflecting a juxtaposition of innocence and horror numerous christie titles were drawn from wellknown childrens nursery rhymes and then there were none from ten little niggers a rhyme also published as ten little indians both of which were also used for the books title in some printings one two buckle my shoe from one two buckle my shoe five little pigs from this little piggy crooked house from there was a crooked man a pocket full of rye from sing a song of sixpence hickory dickory dock from hickory dickory dock and three blind mice from three blind mice critical reception christie is regularly referred to as the queen of crimewhich is now trademarked by the christie estateor queen of mystery and is considered a master of suspense plotting and characterisation in 1955 she became the first recipient of the mystery writers of americas grand master award she was named best writer of the century and the hercule poirot series of books was named best series of the century at the 2000 bouchercon world mystery convention in 2013 she was voted best crime writer in a survey of 600 members of the crime writers association of professional novelists however the writer raymond chandler criticised the artificiality of her books as did writer julian symons the literary critic edmund wilson described her prose as banal and her characterisations as superficial in 2011 christie was named by the digital crime drama tv channel alibi as the second most financially successful crime writer of all time in the united kingdom after james bond author ian fleming with total earnings around 100 million in 2012 christie was among the people selected by the artist peter blake to appear in a new version of his most famous work the beatles sgt peppers lonely hearts club band album cover to celebrate the british cultural figures he most admires on the recordbreaking longevity of christies the mousetrap which had marked its 60th anniversary in 2012 stephen moss in the guardian wrote the play and its author are the stars in 2015 marking the 125th anniversary of her birth date 25 contemporary mystery writers and one publisher gave their views on christies works many of the authors had read christies novels first before other mystery writers in english or in their native language influencing their own writing and nearly all still viewed her as the queen of crime and creator of the plot twists used by mystery authors nearly all had one or more favourites among christies mysteries and found her books still good to read nearly 100 years after her first novel was published just one of the 25 authors held with wilsons views book sales in her prime christie was rarely out of the bestseller list she was the first crime writer to have 100000 copies of 10 of her titles published by penguin on the same day in 1948 guinness world records listed christie as the bestselling fiction writer of all time her novels had sold more than two billion copies in 44 languages half the sales are of englishlanguage editions and half are translations according to index translationum she was the mosttranslated individual author christie is one of the mostborrowed authors in uk libraries she is also the uks bestselling spokenbook author in 2002 117696 christie audiobooks were sold in comparison to 97755 for j k rowling 78770 for roald dahl and 75841 for j r r tolkien in 2015 the christie estate claimed and then there were none was the bestselling crime novel of all time with approximately 100 million sales also making it one of the highestselling books of all time more than two million copies of her books were sold in english in 2020 legacy in 2016 the royal mail marked the centenary of christies first detective story by issuing six firstclass postage stamps of her works the mysterious affair at styles the murder of roger ackroyd murder on the orient express and then there were none the body in the library and a murder is announced the guardian reported that each design incorporates microtext uv ink and thermochromic ink these concealed clues can be revealed using either a magnifying glass uv light or body heat and provide pointers to the mysteries solutions her characters and her face appeared on the stamps of many countries like dominica and the somali republic in 2020 christie was commemorated on a 2 coin by the royal mint for the first time to mark the centenary of her first novel the mysterious affair at styles in 2023 a lifesize bronze statue of christie sitting on a park bench holding a book was unveiled in wallingford adaptations christies works have been adapted for cinema and television the first was the 1928 british film the passing of mr quin poirots first film appearance was in 1931 in alibi which starred austin trevor as christies sleuth margaret rutherford played marple in a series of films released in the 1960s christie liked her acting but considered the first film pretty poor and thought no better of the rest she felt differently about the 1974 film murder on the orient express directed by sidney lumet which featured major stars and high production values her attendance at the london premiere was one of her last public outings in 2017 a new film version was released directed by kenneth branagh who also starred wearing the most extravagant mustache moviegoers have ever seen the television adaptation agatha christies poirot 19892013 with david suchet in the title role ran for 70 episodes over 13 series it received nine bafta award nominations and won four bafta awards in 19901992 the television series miss marple 19841992 with joan hickson as the bbcs peerless miss marple adapted all 12 marple novels the french television series 20092012 20132020 adapted 36 of christies stories christies books have also been adapted for bbc radio a video game series and graphic novels interests and influences pharmacology during the first world war christie took a break from nursing to train for the apothecaries hall examination while she subsequently found dispensing in the hospital pharmacy monotonous and thus less enjoyable than nursing her new knowledge provided her with a background in potentially toxic drugs early in the second world war she brought her skills up to date at torquay hospital as michael c gerald puts it her activities as a hospital dispenser during both world wars not only supported the war effort but also provided her with an appreciation of drugs as therapeutic agents and poisons these hospital experiences were also likely responsible for the prominent role physicians nurses and pharmacists play in her stories there were to be many medical practitioners pharmacists and scientists naïve or suspicious in christies cast of characters featuring in murder in mesopotamia cards on the table the pale horse and mrs mcgintys dead among many others gillian gill notes that the murder method in christies first detective novel the mysterious affair at styles comes right out of agatha christies work in the hospital dispensary in an interview with journalist marcelle bernstein christie stated i dont like messy deaths im more interested in peaceful people who die in their own beds and no one knows why with her expert knowledge christie had no need of poisons unknown to science which were forbidden under ronald knoxs ten rules for detective fiction arsenic aconite strychnine digitalis nicotine thallium and other substances were used to dispatch victims in the ensuing decades archaeology in her youth christie showed little interest in antiquities after her marriage to mallowan in 1930 she accompanied him on annual expeditions spending three to four months at a time in syria and iraq at excavation sites at ur nineveh tell arpachiyah chagar bazar tell brak and nimrud the mallowans also took side trips whilst travelling to and from expedition sites visiting italy greece egypt iran and the soviet union among other places their experiences travelling and living abroad are reflected in novels such as murder on the orient express death on the nile and appointment with death for the 1931 digging season at nineveh christie bought a writing table to continue her own work in the early 1950s she paid to add a small writing room to the teams house at nimrud she also devoted time and effort each season in making herself useful by photographing cleaning and recording finds and restoring ceramics which she especially enjoyed she also provided funds for the expeditions many of the settings for christies books were inspired by her archaeological fieldwork in the middle east this is reflected in the detail with which she describes themfor instance the temple of abu simbel as depicted in death on the nilewhile the settings for they came to baghdad were places she and mallowan had recently stayed similarly she drew upon her knowledge of daily life on a dig throughout murder in mesopotamia archaeologists and experts in middle eastern cultures and artefacts featured in her works include dr eric leidner in murder in mesopotamia and signor richetti in death on the nile after the second world war christie chronicled her time in syria in come tell me how you live which she described as small beera very little book full of everyday doings and happenings from 8november 2001 to march 2002 the british museum presented a colourful and episodic exhibition called agatha christie and archaeology mystery in mesopotamia which illustrated how her activities as a writer and as the wife of an archaeologist intertwined in popular culture some of christies fictional portrayals have explored and offered accounts of her disappearance in 1926 the film agatha 1979 with vanessa redgrave has christie sneaking away to plan revenge against her husband christies heirs sued unsuccessfully to prevent the films distribution the doctor who episode the unicorn and the wasp 17 may 2008 stars fenella woolgar as christie and explains her disappearance as being connected to aliens the film agatha and the truth of murder 2018 sends her undercover to solve the murder of florence nightingales goddaughter florence nightingale shore a fictionalised account of christies disappearance is also the central theme of a korean musical agatha the christie affair a christielike mystery story of love and revenge by author nina de gramont was a 2022 novel loosely based on christies disappearance other portrayals such as the hungarian film kojak budapesten 1980 create their own scenarios involving christies criminal skills in the tv play murder by the book 1986 christie dame peggy ashcroft murders one of her fictionalturnedreal characters poirot christie features as a character in gaylord larsens dorothy and agatha and the london blitz murders by max allan collins the american television program unsolved mysteries devoted a segment to her famous disappearance with agatha portrayed by actress tessa pritchard a young agatha is depicted in the spanish historical television series gran hotel 2011 in which she finds inspiration to write her new novel while aiding local detectives in the alternative history television film agatha and the curse of ishtar 2018 christie becomes involved in a murder case at an archaeological dig in iraq in 2019 honeysuckle weeks portrayed christie in an episode no friends like old friends in a canadian drama frankie drake mysteries in 2020 heather terrell under the pseudonym of marie benedict published the mystery of mrs christie a fictional reconstruction of christies december 1926 disappearance the novel was on the usa today and the new york times best seller lists in december 2020 library reads named terrell a hall of fame author for the book andrew wilson has written four novels featuring agatha christie as a detective a talent for murder 2017 a different kind of evil 2018 death in a desert land 2019 and i saw him die 2020 christie was portrayed by shirley henderson in the 2022 comedymystery film see how they run see also agatha christie indult an oecumenical request to which christie was signatory seeking permission for the occasional use of the tridentine latin mass in england and wales agatha awards literary awards for mystery and crime writers agatha christie award japan literary award for unpublished mystery novels list of solved missing person cases notes references further reading bernthal jc 2022 agatha christie a companion to the mystery fiction jefferson nc mcfarland curran john 2009 agatha christies secret notebooks fifty years of mysteries in the making london harpercollins curran john 2011 agatha christie murder in the making london harpercollins curran john 75 facts about christie the home of agatha christie agatha christie limited retrieved 21 july 2017 gerald michael c 1993 the poisonous pen of agatha christie austin texas university of texas press morgan janet p 1984 agatha christie a biography london harpercollins retrieved 8 march 2015 prichard mathew 2012 the grand tour around the world with the queen of mystery new york ny harpercollins thompson laura 2008 agatha christie an english mystery london headline review external links a christie reading list on official website agatha christiesir max mallowans blue plaque at cholsey agatha christie profile on pbsorg agatha christie profile on famousauthorsorg agatha christie recording oral history at the imperial war museum agatha christie business papers at the university of exeter shocking real murders book released to mark the 125th anniversary of christies birth hercule poirot central 1890 births 1976 deaths 20thcentury english novelists 20thcentury english dramatists and playwrights 20thcentury english women writers 20thcentury british short story writers 20thcentury english memoirists anthony award winners booker authors division british autobiographers british detective fiction writers british women in world war i british women short story writers burials in oxfordshire cozy mystery writers dames commander of the order of the british empire ghost story writers edgar award winners english people of american descent english crime fiction writers english mystery writers english short story writers english women dramatists and playwrights english women novelists fellows of the royal society of literature female nurses in world war i female wartime nurses formerly missing people members of the detection club missing person cases in england people from cholsey people from sunningdale pseudonymous women writers temporary disappearances wives of knights women mystery writers british women memoirists women historical novelists writers of historical mysteries writers from torquay 20thcentury pseudonymous writers	9,651

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