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HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 1 IMPORTANT TIPS ON PREPARING LEARNERS TO DO WELL IN HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT. History is one of the best and interesting subjects to ever imagine of because it cuts across time, humanity, medicine, art, agriculture, politics and education; History is based on facts and justification A good historian must be able to read different texts books, internalize facts, locate the past in the present day happenings and formulate questions based on the content. The following tips will help History AND Government students to excel in history and government 1. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PAPER 1 AND PAPER 2 History students should be sensitized early enough to distinguish between paper 1 and 2 topics. PAPER 1-The history of Kenya PAPER 2-Themes in world 311 1 PAPER ONE 311 2 PAPER TWO 1.Introduction to History and Govt 2.The Peoples of Kenya up to 19th Century 3.Social, Economic and Political Organization of Kenyan Communities 4.Contacts between East Africa and the outside world 5.Citizenship 6.National Integration 7.Constitutions and Constitution Making 8.Democracy and Human Rights 9.Establishment of Colonial Rule in Kenya 1.Introduction to History and Govt 2.The Early Man 3.Development of Agriculture 4.Trade 5.Transport 6.Communication 7.Development of Industry 8.Urbanisation 9.Social, Political and Economic organization of African Societies 10.Constitutions and constitution making-sources of British Constitution 11.Democracy and Human Rights 12.European invasion and the process of colonization of Africa 13.Colonial Administration For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 2 10.Social and Economic Developments in Kenya during colonial period 11.Political developments and the struggle for Independence in Kenya 12.Lives and Contributions of Kenyan Leaders 13.Formation, structure and functions of the Govt of Kenya 14.Social, Economic and Political Developments and challenges in Kenya since Independence 15.National Philosophies 16.Devolved Government 17.Public Revenue and expenditure 14.Rise of African Nationalism 15.
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The following tips will help History AND Government students to excel in history and government 1. DISTINGUISH BETWEEN PAPER 1 AND PAPER 2 History students should be sensitized early enough to distinguish between paper 1 and 2 topics. PAPER 1-The history of Kenya PAPER 2-Themes in world 311 1 PAPER ONE 311 2 PAPER TWO 1.Introduction to History and Govt 2.The Peoples of Kenya up to 19th Century 3.Social, Economic and Political Organization of Kenyan Communities 4.Contacts between East Africa and the outside world 5.Citizenship 6.National Integration 7.Constitutions and Constitution Making 8.Democracy and Human Rights 9.Establishment of Colonial Rule in Kenya 1.Introduction to History and Govt 2.The Early Man 3.Development of Agriculture 4.Trade 5.Transport 6.Communication 7.Development of Industry 8.Urbanisation 9.Social, Political and Economic organization of African Societies 10.Constitutions and constitution making-sources of British Constitution 11.Democracy and Human Rights 12.European invasion and the process of colonization of Africa 13.Colonial Administration For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 2 10.Social and Economic Developments in Kenya during colonial period 11.Political developments and the struggle for Independence in Kenya 12.Lives and Contributions of Kenyan Leaders 13.Formation, structure and functions of the Govt of Kenya 14.Social, Economic and Political Developments and challenges in Kenya since Independence 15.National Philosophies 16.Devolved Government 17.Public Revenue and expenditure 14.Rise of African Nationalism 15. World Wars 1 2 16.International Relations 17.Cooperation in Africa 18. Social, Economic and Political Developments and challenges in Africa since Independence. 19. The Electoral process, functions of governments in other parts of the World. -Britain -USA -India When answering questions for paper 2, never mention anything Kenyan. Learners should make good and summarized notes from KLB and Oxford history and government students course books, using their own language, given leading topical questions by the history teacher. 2.
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-Britain -USA -India When answering questions for paper 2, never mention anything Kenyan. Learners should make good and summarized notes from KLB and Oxford history and government students course books, using their own language, given leading topical questions by the history teacher. 2. TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONS a Cover page instructions-This enables candidates to know the number of sections in a paper and number of questions to be answered fro, each section e.g Section A has 17 questions N B-QUIZ 1 IN PAPER 1 AND 2 ALWAYS TEST ON TOPIC 1-FORM 1 WORK For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 3 8-2mark questions 16 marks 9-1mark question 9 marks Total marks 25 marks-the candidate answers all questions Section B has 4 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any three questions Section C has 3 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any two questions TOPICS COMMONLY TESTED ARE: PAPER 1- SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18 a b -The peoples of Kenya and or The social, economic and political organization the Kenyan Communities-F1 WORK 19a b Contacts between East Africa and the outside world FORM 1 WORK 20a b Establishment of colonial rule in Kenya and or the Social economic and political development in Kenya during the colonial period.-FORM 3 WORK 21a b Political developments and the struggle for independence in Kenya FORM 3 WORK Political, social and economic developments and challenges in Kenya since independenceFORM 4 WORK SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b-citizenship national integration-FORM 1 WORK Constitution and constitution making democracy and human rights-FORM 2 WORK 23a b Formation, structure and functions of the Government of Kenya-FORM 3 WORK 24 a b -Public revenue and expenditure in Kenya and devolved government-FORM 4 WORK PAPER 2 SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18a b Early man and Development of agriculture-form 1 work For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 4 19a b Trade development of transport and communication development of industry 20a b Urbanization scramble for and partition of Africa 21a b Rise of African Nationalism and political and socio-economic organization of the African societies social-economic and political developments and challenges in Africa since independence DRC-Congo and Tanzania SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b WORLD WARS COLONIAL ADMINSTRATION 23a b Cooperation in Africa International Relations 24a b Electoral process and functions of Government in U.S.A, Britain and India N B-If part a of the questions in the topics above is easier and part b is difficult,do not choose it because you may get at most 3 12 marks If part a is hard but part b is easier choose such question you will get atleast 12 15 marks 3.
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Learners should make good and summarized notes from KLB and Oxford history and government students course books, using their own language, given leading topical questions by the history teacher. 2. TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONS a Cover page instructions-This enables candidates to know the number of sections in a paper and number of questions to be answered fro, each section e.g Section A has 17 questions N B-QUIZ 1 IN PAPER 1 AND 2 ALWAYS TEST ON TOPIC 1-FORM 1 WORK For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 3 8-2mark questions 16 marks 9-1mark question 9 marks Total marks 25 marks-the candidate answers all questions Section B has 4 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any three questions Section C has 3 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any two questions TOPICS COMMONLY TESTED ARE: PAPER 1- SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18 a b -The peoples of Kenya and or The social, economic and political organization the Kenyan Communities-F1 WORK 19a b Contacts between East Africa and the outside world FORM 1 WORK 20a b Establishment of colonial rule in Kenya and or the Social economic and political development in Kenya during the colonial period.-FORM 3 WORK 21a b Political developments and the struggle for independence in Kenya FORM 3 WORK Political, social and economic developments and challenges in Kenya since independenceFORM 4 WORK SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b-citizenship national integration-FORM 1 WORK Constitution and constitution making democracy and human rights-FORM 2 WORK 23a b Formation, structure and functions of the Government of Kenya-FORM 3 WORK 24 a b -Public revenue and expenditure in Kenya and devolved government-FORM 4 WORK PAPER 2 SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18a b Early man and Development of agriculture-form 1 work For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 4 19a b Trade development of transport and communication development of industry 20a b Urbanization scramble for and partition of Africa 21a b Rise of African Nationalism and political and socio-economic organization of the African societies social-economic and political developments and challenges in Africa since independence DRC-Congo and Tanzania SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b WORLD WARS COLONIAL ADMINSTRATION 23a b Cooperation in Africa International Relations 24a b Electoral process and functions of Government in U.S.A, Britain and India N B-If part a of the questions in the topics above is easier and part b is difficult,do not choose it because you may get at most 3 12 marks If part a is hard but part b is easier choose such question you will get atleast 12 15 marks 3. INSTRUCTIONS WITH QUESTIONS The history students should understand the key words within the questions since it determines the kind of answers they will present,e.g a Name-giving an identity of something or someone,e.g name the early form of writing that was discovered in Egypt.
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2. TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONS a Cover page instructions-This enables candidates to know the number of sections in a paper and number of questions to be answered fro, each section e.g Section A has 17 questions N B-QUIZ 1 IN PAPER 1 AND 2 ALWAYS TEST ON TOPIC 1-FORM 1 WORK For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 3 8-2mark questions 16 marks 9-1mark question 9 marks Total marks 25 marks-the candidate answers all questions Section B has 4 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any three questions Section C has 3 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any two questions TOPICS COMMONLY TESTED ARE: PAPER 1- SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18 a b -The peoples of Kenya and or The social, economic and political organization the Kenyan Communities-F1 WORK 19a b Contacts between East Africa and the outside world FORM 1 WORK 20a b Establishment of colonial rule in Kenya and or the Social economic and political development in Kenya during the colonial period.-FORM 3 WORK 21a b Political developments and the struggle for independence in Kenya FORM 3 WORK Political, social and economic developments and challenges in Kenya since independenceFORM 4 WORK SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b-citizenship national integration-FORM 1 WORK Constitution and constitution making democracy and human rights-FORM 2 WORK 23a b Formation, structure and functions of the Government of Kenya-FORM 3 WORK 24 a b -Public revenue and expenditure in Kenya and devolved government-FORM 4 WORK PAPER 2 SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18a b Early man and Development of agriculture-form 1 work For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 4 19a b Trade development of transport and communication development of industry 20a b Urbanization scramble for and partition of Africa 21a b Rise of African Nationalism and political and socio-economic organization of the African societies social-economic and political developments and challenges in Africa since independence DRC-Congo and Tanzania SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b WORLD WARS COLONIAL ADMINSTRATION 23a b Cooperation in Africa International Relations 24a b Electoral process and functions of Government in U.S.A, Britain and India N B-If part a of the questions in the topics above is easier and part b is difficult,do not choose it because you may get at most 3 12 marks If part a is hard but part b is easier choose such question you will get atleast 12 15 marks 3. INSTRUCTIONS WITH QUESTIONS The history students should understand the key words within the questions since it determines the kind of answers they will present,e.g a Name-giving an identity of something or someone,e.g name the early form of writing that was discovered in Egypt. B state-giving a statement according to what has been asked e.g state three ways in which the Sumerians reclaimed their land in Mesopotamia.
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TYPES OF INSTRUCTIONS a Cover page instructions-This enables candidates to know the number of sections in a paper and number of questions to be answered fro, each section e.g Section A has 17 questions N B-QUIZ 1 IN PAPER 1 AND 2 ALWAYS TEST ON TOPIC 1-FORM 1 WORK For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 3 8-2mark questions 16 marks 9-1mark question 9 marks Total marks 25 marks-the candidate answers all questions Section B has 4 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any three questions Section C has 3 questions with part a and b each carrying 15 marks The candidate should answer any two questions TOPICS COMMONLY TESTED ARE: PAPER 1- SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18 a b -The peoples of Kenya and or The social, economic and political organization the Kenyan Communities-F1 WORK 19a b Contacts between East Africa and the outside world FORM 1 WORK 20a b Establishment of colonial rule in Kenya and or the Social economic and political development in Kenya during the colonial period.-FORM 3 WORK 21a b Political developments and the struggle for independence in Kenya FORM 3 WORK Political, social and economic developments and challenges in Kenya since independenceFORM 4 WORK SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b-citizenship national integration-FORM 1 WORK Constitution and constitution making democracy and human rights-FORM 2 WORK 23a b Formation, structure and functions of the Government of Kenya-FORM 3 WORK 24 a b -Public revenue and expenditure in Kenya and devolved government-FORM 4 WORK PAPER 2 SECTION B- The candidate should answer any three questions 18a b Early man and Development of agriculture-form 1 work For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 4 19a b Trade development of transport and communication development of industry 20a b Urbanization scramble for and partition of Africa 21a b Rise of African Nationalism and political and socio-economic organization of the African societies social-economic and political developments and challenges in Africa since independence DRC-Congo and Tanzania SECTION C- The candidate should answer any two questions 22a b WORLD WARS COLONIAL ADMINSTRATION 23a b Cooperation in Africa International Relations 24a b Electoral process and functions of Government in U.S.A, Britain and India N B-If part a of the questions in the topics above is easier and part b is difficult,do not choose it because you may get at most 3 12 marks If part a is hard but part b is easier choose such question you will get atleast 12 15 marks 3. INSTRUCTIONS WITH QUESTIONS The history students should understand the key words within the questions since it determines the kind of answers they will present,e.g a Name-giving an identity of something or someone,e.g name the early form of writing that was discovered in Egypt. B state-giving a statement according to what has been asked e.g state three ways in which the Sumerians reclaimed their land in Mesopotamia. C Identify-to pick to point and explain briefly e.g identify two forms of government in the world today d Define-giving the meaning of something .be simple and clear to the point e.g define the term rerun of elections e Give - present something as it is e.g give two forms of oral traditions.
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TYPES OF QUESTIONS 1. Main only questions-the answer to this question is only one e.g the main reason for the formation of KAU For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 6 Never write more than one response, you will get a zero. 3. Questions on who or names of personalities you can write the surname or full names 4. Questions on functions, you write the doing word the verb should be reflected 5. Questions of features or characteristics e.g on early man-consider the physical appearance-features of Homo rectus-consider the jaws, skin colour,arms,legs,eyes,height ;answers like He invented fire is wrong since invention of fire doesn t appear anywhere on the Homo erectus 6. Open questions the student is not limited to the number of answers to write.e.g what were the social results of the first world war?12 marks 7. Closed questions-these require a specific number of answers e.g Explain five effects of the Portuguese rule at the East African Coast Here only the first five answers are marked whether wrong or correct. In most cases a line is drawn after the fifth answer to ensure only the first five answers are marked. Other examples of closed questions are: Explain six social negative effects of partition of Africa. Such a quiz is closed four times i.e. on six,social,negative and effects 5. EMPHASIS ON THE EXAM LANGUAGE History students should be trained to understand the language used in the question and respond accordingly e.g 1. What are the challenges facing the county government in Kenya today? The answers for such question should be in the present tense. 2. What were the effects of early agriculture in Mesopotamia? The answers to such question should be in the past tense 3. What steps should the government take to improve education in Kenya? In such a question, the answers should be suggestive but not based on the past or the present tense 6. LEARNERS SHOULD PLAN THEIR WORK DURING EXAMS. A They should read through the questions especially in sec B and C in order to select questions they can answer best and present tidy work without cancelling after realizing there are questions they would have answered in a better manner.
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In such a question, the answers should be suggestive but not based on the past or the present tense 6. LEARNERS SHOULD PLAN THEIR WORK DURING EXAMS. A They should read through the questions especially in sec B and C in order to select questions they can answer best and present tidy work without cancelling after realizing there are questions they would have answered in a better manner. B They should write short main points against the question paper in pencil as rough work as they remember while going through the question in order to have a good flow of the For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 7 answers staring with the strongest to the weakest points. Also the points will not evaporate while answering questions 7. WRITING PRESENTABLE ANSWERS The art of writing presentable answers should be learnt as early as in form one .e.g In sec A, the answers should not contain unnecessary details e.g state two reasons why Christian missionaries came to East Africa. 1. They came to spread Christianity 2. They came to stop slave trade and advocate for legitimate trade These are enough details for this question. However answers such as: -Christianity and; Slave trade should be discouraged as they are not clear 8. In case of a question that require an answer to be abbreviated, the candidates should always be encouraged to write in full e.g name the body that supervises electoral process in Kenya? In this case IEBC is wrong since the abbreviation may stand for other words; The candidate should write the Independent Electoral and Boundaries commission IEBC Abbreviations accepted are; USA,USSR,FRELIMO AND LegCo 9. Candidates should not give examples they are not sure of e.g state two results of Trans-Atlantic trade Answer:1. It led to the growth or urban centres e.g Mombasa-in such case the whole answer becomes wrong because the word Mombasa. 10. Candidates should be encouraged to have order at all the time e.g numbering their questions correctly e.g 18a,18b, In section B and C, the answers to the part b questions e.g 18 b should be continuous prose.
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It led to the growth or urban centres e.g Mombasa-in such case the whole answer becomes wrong because the word Mombasa. 10. Candidates should be encouraged to have order at all the time e.g numbering their questions correctly e.g 18a,18b, In section B and C, the answers to the part b questions e.g 18 b should be continuous prose. Each point to be presented on its own paragraph well numbered like point 1,2,3,4 and so on A question should always be answered with all its parts following each other e.g the 18 b should follow 18a 11. KLB and evolving world students text books are the main reference books to be used by the history students during learning, studying and revising history and government. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT TIPS PAPER 1 2 KCSE REVISION 8 12. The students should be exposed to as many past paper questions as possible like the past KCSE quizzes, mocks, topical questions and marking schemes in order to be versed with exam language and the content. 13. When answering questions they should always write common points that are likely to appear in the marking schemes then later write complicated ones. 14. Embrace Group discussions on topical and KCSE quizzes especially in ability groups of four students. The copies of form 1 and 2 exams should be given to the form 4 weak students to sit for them to uplift their ability in history and government. 15. Internal history and government contests and symposiums should be organized like interclass contests e.g form fours against form ones form twos against form threes or form fours. This will make the form fours to study smarter so that the lower classes cannot beat them. 16. History and government students should always read ahead of their teacher with leading topical questions to ensure they are not clueless to a new topic to be covered. 17. Ensure you feed well to keep good health and manage your time by having study timetable with history and government subject included and avoid irrelevant discussions like bad company and too much leisure. 18. Always use the last five minutes to go through your work to identify grammatical errors before you submit it the invigilator. 19. Numbering your answers is accepted 20. Pray for the work done and work yet to be done and have faith in god you will make it.
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19.Numbering your answers is accepted 20.Pray for the work done and work yet to be done and have faith in god you will make it. For free KCSE Notes, Exams, and Past Papers Visit https: Teacher.co.ke.
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SIMPLIFIED HISTORY GOVERNMENT FORM ONE New Syllabus. Ii CONTENTS. Chapter 1: Introduction to history and government The meaning of history and government Sources of history and government Importance of studying history and government Review Questions Chapter 2: The Early Man Origin of man and his evolution Uses of early Archeulian tools Methods of dating fossils Early man s cultural practices Changes Early Man experienced Review Questions Chapter 3: Development of Agriculture Early Agriculture Early Agriculture in Egypt Early Agriculture in Mesopotamia Agrarian Revolution in USA Food situation in Third World countries Review Questions Chapter 4: The people of Kenya upto the 19th Century Classification of Kenyan communities Causes and effects of migration of Kenyan people Bantu, Nilotes, Cushites Review Questions Chapter 5: Social, Economic and Political organisation of Kenyan Societies in the 19th Century Organisation of Bantu Agikuyu, Ameru, Akamba, Abagusii, Mijiknda Organisation of Nilotes Luo, Nandi, Maasai Organisation of Cushites Somali, Boran Review Questionsiii Chapter 6: Contact between E. Africa and the outside world up to the 19th Century Contact by the Early visitors Development of trade between E. Africa and Asia How slaves were obtained The Portuguese at the coast Oman Seyyid Said s rule The long distance trade Development of international trade The spread of Christianity in E. Africa Review Questions Chapter 7: Citizenship The way one can become a Kenyan Citizen Rights and freedoms of a Kenyan citizen Responsibilities and elements of a good citizen Review Questions Chapter 8: National integration Meaning and importance of National Integration Factors which promote and limit National Unity Conflict and conflict resolution Review Questions1CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION TO HISTORY AND GOVERNMENT. History as a discipline, originated during the time the early Greek scholars such as Herodotus and Thucydides wrote documents concerning past activities of man. This activity of recording past events developed over time until the period when the written records began being imparted to learners in schools. In East Africa, the missionaries introduced the first formal schools. It was in these formal schools that history was introduced as a discipline. Since then history has been taught in schools and colleges. History has helped in shaping the people of East Africa intellectually.
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It was in these formal schools that history was introduced as a discipline. Since then history has been taught in schools and colleges. History has helped in shaping the people of East Africa intellectually. The meaning of History The term History comes from a Greek word Historia which implies to enquire, to search or to ask for the truth and there after report what you have found. History can therefore be defined as the study or account or story of man s true events of the past out of his interaction with his environment. History is being made from everyday news which concern mankind such that what we regard as news now is treated as history next hour. It is not easy to record all past events of man. The historian considers only what he thinks is important and ignores what he thinks is not important. He arranges historical happenings in chronological order considering the period events occurred. The events are considered to have occurred before the birth of Jesus Christ BC while others occurred after the birth of Christ AD . In Latin AD implies Anno domini or the year of our Lord . All known un-recorded history is referred to as Pre-history. Three major areas of study of history are social, political and economic. Social history deals with the cultural practices and traditions of the people. It deals with social institutions such as tribe, clan, age-set and families. Social history also deals with religious beliefs and practices such as sacrifice and mode of worship. It also deals with other cultural aspects such as rights of passage and many other societal values. Political history deals with wars, leadership, systems of government and settling of disputes. Economic history deals with things concerning activities such as cultivation, pastoralism, mining, trade, hunting and industry. 2The characters of historical events All events of history have the following characteristics: a Historical events should contain elements of truth either from first-hand information or from second-hand information. B Historical events mainly dwell on past happenings. C All historical events must concern man. This implies that they must somehow be connected with man. D Historical information may exist in either written or oral form. E All historical events must have evidence for them to qualify to be true. The meaning of government It means the exercise of authority over a political or social unit. It may also imply the practice of ruling or exercising continuous authority over one s subjects.
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E All historical events must have evidence for them to qualify to be true. The meaning of government It means the exercise of authority over a political or social unit. It may also imply the practice of ruling or exercising continuous authority over one s subjects. Any government must have: Sets of laws or rules to govern the people; specific individuals who ensure that the laid down laws, rules, traditions and customs are observed; specified ways of dealing with those who do not adhere to the laid down laws and regulations and a specified area where the set rules and regulations are exercised. The sources of information on History and Government Historians have been able to obtain historical information through various sources such as: a Written records: This is recorded information obtained from books, newspapers, journals, magazines and from oral tradition, interviews and observations. It is then stored for use over the years. Written records are advantageous because they are easily used by people majority of whom are literate, they are more accurate and reliable than the information from other sources, it is cheaper to come up with written records than to get information by use of other sources such as archaeology and linguistics, they store information in a relatively permanent way and they are easily translated into many languages for effective use. 3b Archaeology This is the study of the material remains of man s past. It includes the study of man s weapons, tools, settlements, pottery, skulls, bone and plant remains like grains, and cave paintings. When the remains are escavated, they are carefully examined by the archaeologists and necessary information is obtained. The archaeologists may escavate a place where erosion has exposed a stratum of rock and soil well below the surface, a place where there are partly visible remains or they may be guided by oral traditions to identify the place for instance if the place is orally mentioned for example the Great Zimbabwe and Merowe ruins. The remains exist in the following forms: - Those made by early man such as weapons, tools, pots and ornaments. -. Unmovable structures such as dwellings, dug wells, tombs and early towns. -. Items which are natural such as bone remains, horns, carbonized seeds or grains. Archaeology has various limitations: i It is expensive to use the method to obtain information. Ii It is time consuming especially when one uses the method to locate archaeological sites. Iii Weather can affect fossils, for example fossils may decay or change their form. Iv It is difficult to locate archaeological sites.
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Ii It is time consuming especially when one uses the method to locate archaeological sites. Iii Weather can affect fossils, for example fossils may decay or change their form. Iv It is difficult to locate archaeological sites. V Sometimes people who use this method obtain inaccurate information. Vi The archaeological method cannot be used to obtain recent events and information. Only the study of ancient period can be done by use of this method. Vii It is difficult to date fossils and artefacts. A lot of estimation is involved. C Oral tradition This is the study of the past as revealed by what has been handed down by word of mouth from one generation to another. 4In African traditional societies, the elders and court workers acted as the custodians of the history of their community because they passed information concerning their people and their rulers to the young people. In order for the historian to reconstruct the history of the past by use of oral tradition, he refers to myths, legends, songs, proverbs, poems and to the lists of rulers. Oral traditions have a number of limitations as follows: i Information obtained may be exaggerated. Ii Information obtained may be inaccurate or distorted. Iii Sometimes the informants may conceal vital information. Iv Obtaining information by use of this method is expensive. V The method is time consuming and laborious to use. Vi Information may be omitted or even forgotten due to loss of memory. Vii A lot of information on successes and achievement is obtained but very little on failures when this method is used to obtain information concerning African traditional societies. D Linguistics This is the scientific study and analysis of languages. It is done to enable the historian to understand cultures and relationship between various language groups. People who speak related languages are assumed to be either connected or to have ever been in close contact. In East Africa, the study and analysis of languages has helped the historian to trace the origin, migration and settlement of communities. It has also helped historians to classify and group the people of East Africa and also to learn about their past relations and interactions as well as the common aspects of their social, political and economic organisations. Use of linguistics as a method of reconstructing the past may have the following limitations: i All kinds of information may not be possible to obtain because linguistics is only limited to the study of cultures, origins and migrations of communities. Ii Use of this method may lead to obtaining inaccurate information.
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It has also helped historians to classify and group the people of East Africa and also to learn about their past relations and interactions as well as the common aspects of their social, political and economic organisations. Use of linguistics as a method of reconstructing the past may have the following limitations: i All kinds of information may not be possible to obtain because linguistics is only limited to the study of cultures, origins and migrations of communities. Ii Use of this method may lead to obtaining inaccurate information. Iii The method itself is expensive especially if one tries to use it to obtain information from far away communities. 5iv It is difficult to use this method to estimate the actual time events occurred. V This method requires use of highly skilled manpower. Vi Learning other peoples languages may be time consuming and laborious. E Anthropology This is mainly the study of existing social institutions and relationships. An anthropologist interacts with people to experience their way of life. In so doing he obtains information from the following elements of social organisation:- Cultures of people and their cultural values, forms of government, religious organisations and beliefs, systems of marriage, family relations, inheritance and also from the material mode of life such as farming, livestock keeping, fishing and industry. The anthropologists collect data from the people and use it to draw conclusions after analysing it properly. Limitations of using Anthropology as a method of reconstructing history: i It can be too expensive to use. Ii It is time consuming and tedious. Iii One may obtain inaccurate information if the method is not properly used. Iv This method may require very well trained personnel. V It is limited to few aspects of history which includes social aspects and material aspects. Vi One cannot use this method alone to obtain all information. So it is not wholly reliable. F Genetics It deals with the study of the methods in which certain characteristics are transmitted from parents to their offspring. This method has helped the historian to study the history of the domestication of animals and plants by early man. It has also helped him to understand how new varieties came into being. The method is mainly scientific and at the same time expensive. For one to use this method he must be well trained. For example one may be an experienced Botanist. The method may not also be used to extract information from all aspects of man s activities. It is not easy to obtain very accurate information when using genetics.
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For example one may be an experienced Botanist. The method may not also be used to extract information from all aspects of man s activities. It is not easy to obtain very accurate information when using genetics. 6 In conclusion, out of all the above sources of information on history, written sources are the most reliable and most accurate. However, written sources may have the following limitations: a Though recorded, some information may be inaccurate, distorted or exaggerated. B Some written records are not readily available when required. For example some records may be available in archives which are far away from people who need the information. C Written records are useful and meaningful to people who are literate. D Some written records contain inadequate information. E Written information may contain biases. F Records preserved in foreign languages are difficult to interpret accurately and may call for experts to interpret. This may be expensive to achieve. G Written information can easily be misunderstood or misinterpreted. H People spend a lot of time when going through written records. I People find it expensive to buy books, newspapers and magazines in order to obtain written information. Why it is essential for people to study History It has become very necessary for people to study history so that people can develop a sense of belonging and also foster national pride. Also in order for them to understand and appreciate their past ways of life. This can help them to predict future events. To acquire the capacity for critical thinking or reasoning as they analyse historical information and to foster empathy or ability to understand how other people think and feel as well as their roles and positions in society. The study of history helps people understand the need of having a government and also to appreciate the cultures of other people and thereafter recognise the need of human interdependence. It helps them to attain a career and acquire employment in various professions such as Administration, teaching and business and in addition attain knowledge because history makes an individual develop interest and pleasure for reading and finding out new information. Lastly, it prepares people for life and the way they should react to future challenges. 7Why it is important to study Government. People study government to be able to understand and appreciate its system and the way it works. It enhances people to be aware of their rights and responsibilities and to understand the duties of leaders and their subjects and also how various societies have been administered over the years. The study of government enables them to understand the process of law making and the enforcement of law and also to understand issues concerning national budgets, revenue and expenditure.
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People study government to be able to understand and appreciate its system and the way it works. It enhances people to be aware of their rights and responsibilities and to understand the duties of leaders and their subjects and also how various societies have been administered over the years. The study of government enables them to understand the process of law making and the enforcement of law and also to understand issues concerning national budgets, revenue and expenditure. It enables them to understand the roles of the Judiciary, the Legislature and the Executive and finally, it enables them to admire and appreciate careers such as administration and those of judges and lawyers. Review Questions. 1. What do you understand by the following: i History ii Government 2. Explain the methods historians use to obtain historical information. 3. Give the limitations of: i Oral tradition ii Archaeology iii Linguistics 4. Give reasons why written records are regarded as the best sources of historical information. 5. Explain why history and government is studied in Kenyan schools and some colleges. 6. What are the limitations of using written records? 9CHAPTER 2 THE EARLY MAN. How the early man originated. There are three theories which explain the origin of man. These are: a Creation theory This has its origin in the Bible The Old Testament . The book of Genesis says that God created man in his own image and then told him to multiply and fill the earth. Creation theory is also contained in the Koran which states that the first man named Adam was created by Allah. From Adam s rib, Allah created his wife, Hawa Eve . B The evolution theory Evolution is the process of gradual change in living organisms. Evolution theory was formulated by Charles Darwin in 1859. He recorded the theory in his book entitled The origin of species . According to Darwin, man developed from the Ape-like creatures that were his ancestors many thousands of years ago. He says these apelike creatures slowly changed over the ages to look more man-like than ape-like. C Traditional Mythical theory Every traditional community had an explanation of its origin. This explanation was passed from one generation to the other and kept on revolving for ages. For example the Kikuyu myth of origin says that Ngai God created Gikuyu the first man and then provided him with a wife they called Mumbi. The evolution of man and the stages of his evolution. Evolution is the process of gradual change.
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For example the Kikuyu myth of origin says that Ngai God created Gikuyu the first man and then provided him with a wife they called Mumbi. The evolution of man and the stages of his evolution. Evolution is the process of gradual change. Many years ago man began to develop from ape-like creatures. At first he walked on all fours but later he used his hind limbs as legs and he stood upright. The early man first originated and lived in Africa. It is later when some of them spread into Europe, Asia and America. East Africa is very rich in archaeological sites, some of which are: Rusinga Island, Njoro river cave, Olorgesaille and Fort Ternan in Kenya. Also Kondora Irangi and Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania. 10Archaeological findings show that man evolved through the following stages: Dryopithecus Africanus Proconsul The Dryopithecus skull was found in Africa by Mary Louis Leaky. His skull and limb bones were escavated on Rusinga Island and he resembled apes more than he resembled man. Dryopithecus had the following physical and cultural features. I He walked on all fours ii He had long teeth iii He ate flesh and fruits iv He used limbs as arms v He hunted and gathered. Dryopithecus existed about 20 25 million years ago and lived in the East African forest. Ramapithecus Kenya pithecus : Dr. Leakey escavated these fossils at Fort Ternan near Kericho Ramapithecus had the following physical and cultural features: i He had massive jaws ii He had grinding teeth iii He resembled apes more than man iv He had smaller canines than those of apes. Ramapithecus existed in the East African grasslands 12 to 15 million years ago. Australopithecus Zinjanthropus : Their fossils were first escavated in South Africa Later fossils of these creatures were found at Olduvai Gorge in Tanzania and they were closer to modern man. These hominids had the following physical and cultural features. -. They had grinding teeth - Their bodies were hairy - They were short - They had low forehead and deep set eyes. -. They had a small brain capacity which was a third of that of modern man. -. They walked in upright posture.
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- They had grinding teeth - Their bodies were hairy - They were short - They had low forehead and deep set eyes. -. They had a small brain capacity which was a third of that of modern man. -. They walked in upright posture. -. They relied on fingers to acquire food. -. They ate flesh and fruits. -. They made and used simple stone tools. 11- They learnt that they could use stone tools for defence against other animals. -. They hunted and gathered. Australopithecines were living in Africa about 2 to 7 million years ago and existed in several species such as Australopithecus Afarensis, Australopithecus Africanus, Australopithecus Robustus and Australopithecus Boisei who was related to robustus. Homo Habilis The skull of Homo Habilis was escavated at Olduvai gorge in Tanzania and at Kobi Fora near lake Turkana Homo Habilis means handy man or man with ability or practical man . Man at this evolution stage had the following cultural and physical features: i He used his hands to grasp objects. Ii He had a large brain capacity 680cc iii He made useful tools from stones and sticks. Iv He could control his hands by use of his brain. V He hunted and gathered. Vi He resembled man more than apes. He is therefore regarded as a true ancestor of man. Vii He communicated through elementary language and lived in Africa about one and half million years ago. Homo Erectus Homo Erectus is also referred to as upright man . He was more man-like than Ape-like. His remains were escavated in Ethiopia. The following were his physical and cultural features: i He had upright walking posture. Ii He was more intelligent than the earlier man like apes. Iii He had a higher brain capacity 1000 cc . Iv He was able to make stone and bone weapons. He made Acheulian tools using Levallois technique of organising flakes into small pieces. V He learnt how to make fire. Vi He developed speech. Vii He painted pictures on the walls of his cave dwellings. Viii He hunted and gathered. Ix Home erectus existed during the middle stone age period. 12Rhodesian man His skull was escavated in Zambia, formerly known as Northern Rhodesia.
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Viii He hunted and gathered. Ix Home erectus existed during the middle stone age period. 12Rhodesian man His skull was escavated in Zambia, formerly known as Northern Rhodesia. He was closer to the modern man than Homo erectus. The following were his physical and cultural features: i He walked with long strides. Ii He made tools made of stone. Iii He had a well developed brain almost the size of that of modern man. Iv He walked on two legs and he had an upright posture although his forehead was sloping backward. V He hunted and gathered. Neanderthal man He was closer to the modern man than the Rhodesian man. His fossils were escavated in Neander valley in Germany and in several other sites in Europe. The following were his physical and cultural features: i He hunted and gathered. Ii He made tools and weapons from stone. Iii He walked in an upright posture. Iv He was heavily built. V His brain capacity was high and in some cases larger than that of modern man. Vi He fed on meat from the wild animals he hunted. Cro-Magnon His fossils were found in Western Europe and he was taller than modern man. He existed between 10,000 to 50,000 years ago. He had the following physical and cultural features: i He made and used delicate microlithic tools, which were well refined. Ii He hunted and gathered. Iii He lived in caves. Iv He used fire to warm himself and roast meat. V He painted pictures on the walls of caves. Vi His eye-brow range was thicker than that of modern man. Cro-Magnon lived during the Middle Stone age period and he used fire to cook. The tools he used were reasonably improved. The caves he lived in were painted. 13Homo Sapiens Homo Sapiens implies thinking man or intelligent man . He used advanced Acheulian tools and also manufactured other better tools such as daggers, side scrapers and chisels. Homo sapiens also learnt to make better tools by use of Levallois technique and later developed the microlith industry. He existed during the New Stone age. The following were the physical and cultural features of man during Homo Sapiens stage: a He tamed and kept livestock. B He cultivated. C He buried the dead. D He settled in villages.
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B He cultivated. C He buried the dead. D He settled in villages. E He began fishing by use of bone harpoons. F He developed government. G He started religion. H He began simple industry which made beads out of seeds, bones and egg shells and also pottery, basketry and painting. I He made better clothes from skins by knitting them with bone needles. J He built huts made of thatch and mud. Things which enable the archaeologists to study the origin of man. The study of early man has not been easy but inorder to facilitate it the archaeologists have tried to use the tools early man used for example the Acheulian tools such as scrapers, hand axe, arrow heads, choppers, spear heads and Microliths tools such as fishing harpoons, bone needles, arrow heads, sickles and blades. They have also used remains of garments or skin clothes, the weapons early man used, the remains of beads, the shelter of the early man, grains and food remains and also the cave paintings or art work as well as traces of the remains of fire e.g. charcoal and carbonised seeds. By use of all these the archaeologist has been able to make useful conclusions on man s origin and his evolution. 14Uses of the early Archeulian tools Archeulian tools were made from several materials. They were sharper than those used before. Examples of these types of tools were arrow-heads, axes and spear-heads. Archaeulian tools were used for digging roots, skinning animals, killing animals, grinding or pounding vegetables, scrapping animal skins and for breaking the bones of animals. Methods used when dating fossils by the archaeologists Carbon 14 tests Archaeologists use this to determine the amount of Carbon 14 in an object because the older the remains, the less carbon 14 they have. Potassium Argon test - This is mainly used to date the volcanic ash and also the fossils which may be escavated in the volcanic rocks. It can only be used to date artefacts which are old about 300,000 years and above . Paleomagnetic dating method This method is used to date fossils upto 10,000 years of age. Stratigraphy - It is used to date fossils lying between layers of sedimentary rocks. Some notable archaeologists in E. Africa who used some of these methods to date fossils were Dr.
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Stratigraphy - It is used to date fossils lying between layers of sedimentary rocks. Some notable archaeologists in E. Africa who used some of these methods to date fossils were Dr. Leakey, Dr. Freeman, Dr. Posnansky, Mr. Chittick, and Mr. Kirkman. Why early man made tools and weapons - For defence against other wild animals - For hunting and gathering for example animals and fruits respectively - For cultivating especially during the new stone age when he domesticated plants - For exchanging with other items. -. Due to his curiosity to find out things. The items early man used for making tools and weapons he used were stone, Bone, Horn, Flint, Wood and sticks. These were used to make a wide range of items which early man became specialised in. 15The earliest industries established by early man were tool making, weapon making, cloth making, pottery, weaving and basketry. Tools and weapons were made in the industries collectively called the Oldowan Industries, Lupemban industries, the Acheulian industries, the Still Bay Industries, the Mousterian Industries and the Microliths industries. The Oldowan tools included choppers and flakes. The Acheulian tools included the hand-axes, spear heads, arrow-heads, cleavers, knives, daggers and scrappers. Early men preparing a pit trap. The divisions of the culture of the early man and his cultural practices and economic practices The divisions of the culture of the early man are: a The Old Stone Age sometimes referred to as Early Stone Age or Lower Palaeolithic. B The Middle Stone Age sometimes referred to as Middle Palaeolithic. C The New Stone Age sometimes referred to as the late stone age or upper Palaeolithic. 16 a The old stone age: Culture and economic practices Man lived in small groups. He slept on trees and caves for fear of attack by wild animals. He walked naked and his body was covered with hair. Early man ate raw meat, birds, eggs and insects. He made simple stone tools such as hand axes and flakes using levallois technique. Finally, he hunted wild animals and gathered fruits and roots for food. B The middle stone age: Culture and economic practices Man lived in caves. He discovered fire and lit it on the doors of caves to scare away wild animals. Man also began making and wearing clothes made of skins. He also began cooking food and roasting meat and roots.
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He discovered fire and lit it on the doors of caves to scare away wild animals. Man also began making and wearing clothes made of skins. He also began cooking food and roasting meat and roots. Early man started trapping animals using pits and painting pictures of animals he hunted on the walls of caves. His language developed and finally he improved the quality of the tools he made by making them smaller, lighter, sharper, thinner and more convenient to use. Stone tools early man made. 17The Middle Stone Age men painting pictures on rocks18Why the discovery of fire was useful to early man This discovery was important for the following reasons: 1. Man warmed himself with it when it was cold. 2. He used it to cook and therefore soften his food as well as remove poison from vegetables. 3. He used it to light the caves where he spent the nights. 4. Man used it to scare wild animals which posed a threat to him. 5. He used fire to harden the tips of the tools he used such as spears and arrows. 6. Fire assisted man when hunting because he lit it to burn bushes where animals were hiding and they escaped towards swamps and caves where he would easily kill them. 7. He used fire to clear bushes close to his cave dwellings. 8. Man later used fire to harden pots made of clay. 9. The Homo Sapiens used it to clear bushes for cultivation. 10. It improved mans food by improving flavour, improving nutrition, removing poison, softening food and cooking food. C The New Stone Age: Culture and economic practices The new Stone Age is sometimes referred to as the Upper Paleolithic period. In this period man made better microlith tools such as blades and arrow-heads. He then made composite tools such as fish harpoons and bone needles. Man established permanent settlements and he began leading a settled life. Man then began decorating his body by use of red ochre, beads and bangles made of eggshells. He also began simple industry which included weaving, pottery, basketry and spinning. Man developed religion and began performing religious rites and ceremonies to influence natural forces like drought, death, earthquakes and rain. He developed governmental institutions, leading to establishment of early governments. Man began fishing using harpoons. He made better shelter such as houses made of mud and thatch. He then domesticated animals such as cats, dogs, sheep, cows, goats and chicken and finally, he began cultivating and this was the beginning of farming.
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Man began fishing using harpoons. He made better shelter such as houses made of mud and thatch. He then domesticated animals such as cats, dogs, sheep, cows, goats and chicken and finally, he began cultivating and this was the beginning of farming. 19The changes early man experienced during his evolution. The changes from early man to modern man took a very long period. Each of the changes man experienced was very important because it was the basis of his future life. It is due to these changes that modern man is at the level he is today. Early man experienced the following important changes which helped in modernising his culture and way of life. -. Increase in brain capacity. -. Development of upright posture. -. Walking on two legs instead of walking on all fours. -. Holding objects by use of front limbs hands . -. Continuous improvement of tools and weapons. -. He discovered fire. -. He learnt to domesticate animals and plants. This was the beginning of agriculture. -. He improved his shelter as time went on. -. He established religion. -. He formed government. -. He started simple industry such as weaving, pottery and basketry. -. He began weaving clothes made of skins. All the above changes helped early man to evolve to the modern man who is capable of making many inventions. Review Questions. 1. Identify the theories that explain the origin of human beings. 2. Why is Africa regarded to as the home of early man? 3. Discuss the economic and cultural activities which took place during the following: i Old Stone Age ii Middle Stone Age iii Late Stone Age 4. How was fire used during the Middle Stone Age? 5. Discuss the cultural and economic practices of early man during the following evolution stages: i Homo Habilis ii Homo erectus iii Homo Sapiens 6. Draw a map of East Africa and indicate all the archaeological sites and then describe the pattern of the distribution of these sites. 20CHAPTER 3. DEVELOPMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Early Agriculture. Early agriculture developed when man domesticated animals such as sheep, cows and goats, and when he started growing crops like wheat, barley, figs and vegetables. At first early man was mainly engaged in hunting and gathering. Later man accidentally realised that animals and plants could be domesticated and he could easily obtain food even when weather conditions were unfavourable. Man took control of the animals which were friendly and he had to feed them. Man therefore put up permanent settlements.
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C Fertile soils silt which were deposited along riverbanks. D Establishment of permanent settlements. E Invention of writing which enabled farmers to keep records. The impact of the development of the early agriculture in Mesopotamia Early agriculture in Mesopotamia led to specialisation on other activities such as pottery and weaving. It led to division of labour. Some people became cultivators while others became livestock keepers. It also led to the introduction of better farming tools and increase in food production. A class of wealthy people emerged. It contributed to the emergence of urban centres along the Euphrates and Tiger valleys. There were improved methods of cultivation for example use of the plough. It led to increased trade and also encouraged development of cottage industries. Finally, population increased as a result of increase in food production. 23Crops which were domesticated along Tigris and Euphrates River valley in Mesopotamia The crops which were domesticated were wheat, barley, figs, olives, vegetables and vines. The first crops to be domesticated were wheat and barley. The cultivation of barley and wheat spread to Egypt later. The invention of the ox-drawn plough helped in the cultivation of large areas of land while the invention of the seed drill made the planting of seeds to be easy. The Agrarian Revolution in Britain. Agrarian Revolution is the change in methods of cultivation and livestock rearing agriculture . Britain was the first country to experience Agrarian Revolution. This change in Britain was brought mainly by the invention and use of machines. The Agrarian Revolution was also speeded by use of farm inputs for example fertilizers, pesticides and curatives for livestock diseases. This change reduced manual labour in farms in Britain. However, food production increased. The agricultural practices in Britain before the Agrarian Revolution were:- i Shifting cultivation land was cultivated for a number of years until the soil got exhausted. It was then abandoned and the owner went to look for another virgin land. Ii Small scale farming crops were planted on small plots and there was little harvest. Iii Subsistence farming peasant farming the crops grown were for human consumption and not for sale. Iv Broadcasting scattering of seeds v Strip system or open field system farmland was split into small plots called strips. Vi Inter cropping a number of different crops were planted on the same plot at the same time.
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Iii Subsistence farming peasant farming the crops grown were for human consumption and not for sale. Iv Broadcasting scattering of seeds v Strip system or open field system farmland was split into small plots called strips. Vi Inter cropping a number of different crops were planted on the same plot at the same time. Vii Use of simple agricultural implements e.g. hoes and digging sticks It is important to note that the open field system hindered full utilisation of land because the exhausted land was left to fallow. The road carts used and the footpaths used by people wasted a lot of land. 24There was time wastage as people travelled long distances to go and work in their scattered strips. It was also not possible to use machines to prepare the small strips. Livestock rearing was discouraged due to constant disease infections and shortage of cattle feeds during winter. The factors, which lead to the Agrarian Revolution in Britain The Agrarian Revolution in Britain was caused by increase in human population which led to high demand for food. The development of new farming tools and machinery for example threshing machines and the seed drill led to enlargement of farms. Industrial Revolution contributed because industrialisation provided the agricultural sector with inputs and markets. Replacement of open field system by enclosure system enabled farmers to improve their property without being hindered by neighbours. Development of new methods of breeding livestock increased output while the development of agricultural research contributed to improved soils and crop yields. Development of scientific methods such as food preservation by means of canning and refrigeration encouraged farmers to increase production. Finally, land consolidation enabled land to be properly utilised because it increased farm sizes and therefore encouraged use of machines. The Agricultural changes which occurred in Britain during the Agrarian Revolution The high demand for food in Britain brought about the following agricultural changes: i Land was consolidated and people were forced to fence it. Ii New methods of farming for example crop rotation, cross-breeding, use of farming machines and use of fertilisers and pesticides were introduced. Iii New crops like potatoes were introduced. Iv A variety of farm tools were invented for example seed-drills ploughs and threshing machines. V The fallow system of farming was discouraged. Vi The poor sold their land to the rich and they were left with no farmland. 25The effects of Agrarian Revolution in Britain 1.
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V The fallow system of farming was discouraged. Vi The poor sold their land to the rich and they were left with no farmland. 25The effects of Agrarian Revolution in Britain 1. Food production increased due to the enclosure system, better farming methods and use of machines and this gave rise to a rapid increase in population. 2. It also led to expansion of local and international trade due to increase in agricultural surpluses. 3. The use of new improved farming methods led to food security in Britain. 4. There was diversification of agriculture as a result of introduction of new crops such as potatoes and citrus fruits. 5. The agricultural research findings led to the development of exotic livestock breeds like Friesian and better farming methods such as crop rotation and use of fertilizers. 6. There was improved standards of living and high life expectancy due to production of enough food. 7. The price of the land in Britain went up due to Agrarian Revolution. 8. It contributed to the improvement of transport and communication facilities. 9. It also contributed to the emigration of Britons abroad for example to U.S.A. and South Africa. 10. Agrarian Revolution provided the newly established industries with raw materials and labour. 11. The poor were displaced by the rich leading to rural-urban migration and hence expansion of urban centres. 12. Establishment of large scale farming in Britain replaced subsistence farming. 13. Agrarian Revolution in Britain gave rise to class. There was a class of rich landlords and a class of the poor land less people. 26 The Agrarian Revolution in U.S.A. before 18th Century. The British citizens who were displaced after the introduction of the enclosure system in Britain migrated to the USA and introduced new methods of farming. The immigrants introduced different varieties of crops and animal breeds from Europe. They used slave labour in their farms to work in the cotton, tobacco and maize plantations. The development of agriculture in USA before 1800 was facilitated by the following factors: i The climate of U.S.A. was suitable for agriculture. Farmers planted cotton, tobacco, wheat, and maize and also kept livestock. Ii Europeans who migrated into U.S.A. led to population increase and high demand for food. At first they relied on food from Britain. Iii A large number of enterprising Europeans settled in U.S.A. and tried to make a living through agriculture.
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At first they relied on food from Britain. Iii A large number of enterprising Europeans settled in U.S.A. and tried to make a living through agriculture. Iv Availability of indigenous crops like yams and beans contributed to the development of agriculture in U.S.A. v Rivers in U.S.A. such as river Colorado, Sacramento and Arkansas provided water for irrigation. Vi Europeans emigrants introduced new methods of farming in U.S.A. such as crop rotation, use of fertilizers and inter breeding. Vii Introduction of new crops promoted development of agriculture. Viii There existed suitable soils for different types of crops. Ix Slave labour was available to work in the European farms in U.S.A. The Agricultural practices in U.S.A. before the Agrarian Revolution. The indigenous inhabitants of USA were the Red Indians. They were subsistence farmers who grew crops such as cotton, yams, beans, potatoes, cassava, tobacco and maize. When the British immigrants arrived in USA they found that the Red Indians were cultivating and applying the following agricultural practices: - Shifting cultivation - Small scale farming - Broadcasting of seeds - Use of simple agricultural implements - Inter-cropping. 27 The British immigrants then introduced the new methods of farming which included plantation farming which was a form of large-scale farming. The factors that led to the Agrarian Revolution in U.S.A. - The introduction of the enclosure system in Britain forced the landless to migrate to various parts of USA. Ownership of private land was legalised and this helped to promote agriculture. -. The introduction of slave labour ensured adequate supply of labour for farming. -. Farming land was available for cultivating crops such as wheat, tobacco and cotton. Wasteland was also reclaimed. -. The increased demand for agricultural raw materials by Europeans for use in their industries encouraged development and expansion of agriculture. The textile industries in Britain for example demanded cotton from USA. -. The USA government recognised individual land ownership. This encouraged settler farming. Farmers were also supported by the government by being provided with aid which enabled them to turn to large scale farming. -. The land was suitable for different crops such as tobacco, maize, cotton and wheat. -. The cotton gin was invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney. This led to increase in cotton production especially in southern USA because it separated seeds from fibre, made threads and weaved cloth. -. Improved transport and communication led to increase in crop production because the produce reached the market in time.
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- The cotton gin was invented in 1793 by Eli Whitney. This led to increase in cotton production especially in southern USA because it separated seeds from fibre, made threads and weaved cloth. -. Improved transport and communication led to increase in crop production because the produce reached the market in time. -. The mechanisation of agriculture encouraged establishment of big plantations. For example John Deere invented the steel plough therefore easing cultivation. -. Agricultural research facilitated the Agrarian Revolution in USA because new varieties were introduced in the area of livestock and crop production. -. Introduction of new methods of food preservation such as canning and refrigeration encouraged farmers to increase yields because perishable foods could be preserved in the area and be exported. -. Increase in population created demand for food which contributed to increase in food production and therefore expansion of agriculture to satisfy the internal and external market. -. The introduction of new methods of controlling animal and plant diseases led to increased production. 28- The division of USA into farming zones enabled crops to be grown where the climate was favourable for each particular crop. Farmers established the corn belt, the cotton belt, the wheat belt and livestock zones. The effects of the Agrarian Revolution in USA. As food production increased there was also increase in population. Agrarian Revolution in USA encouraged and promoted export trade with agricultural products. It encouraged and accelerated the trans-atlantic slave trade in a bid to acquire labour for use in plantations. It also contributed to growth of industries in Europe hence industrial revolution because it provided Europe with raw material for her industries. New and better farming methods such as crop rotation, use of fertilizers and planting in rows were introduced. Transport and communication was improved through establishment of roads, railways and water transport. Improved seeds and livestock breeds were introduced giving rise to improved agricultural output. The standard of living of the people of USA was improved. Scientific research was highly encouraged in order to come up with better livestock breeds. Many parts of USA were opened up for farming and for settlements. There was migration of people from rural areas to urban areas leading to expansion of towns. There was an increase in food production and diversification of agriculture through introduction of new crop and animal breeds. Agrarian Revolution in USA encouraged scientific inventions and discoveries such as the invention of the steel plough and the refrigeration facilities. It encouraged many Europeans to come and settle in USA because land was getting scarce in Europe and many Europeans were becoming landless. Food Situation in Africa and The Rest of the Third World.
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Agrarian Revolution in USA encouraged scientific inventions and discoveries such as the invention of the steel plough and the refrigeration facilities. It encouraged many Europeans to come and settle in USA because land was getting scarce in Europe and many Europeans were becoming landless. Food Situation in Africa and The Rest of the Third World. The term Third World refers to the developing countries in Africa, South America and Asia. Majority of the third world countries were formerly under colonial rule. Developing countries are not as industrialised as the developed countries such as Japan, Britain and USA. Almost all developing countries suffer from acute food shortages. 29Why many countries in Africa, Asia and South America suffer from acute food shortage 1. There are unreliable climatic conditions for example some countries experience too much rain or too little rain resulting to floods and drought. For example India has experienced floods several times while African countries lying along the Sahara desert experience drought. Problems of floods in Africa. 2. There is a rapid population growth. Birth rate has increased. This has outstripped the rate of agricultural production therefore making it difficult for the country to produce enough food for the ever growing population. 3. Africans in particular have placed more emphasis on cash crop production ignoring the importance of subsistence crops. They have even ignored planting drought resistant crops such as cassava, arrow roots, yams and sweet potatoes. 4. Inadequate transport and communication facilities hinder marketing of agricultural products and even distribution of food. 5. Political instability brought about by civil strife hinders the development of agriculture. This has been experienced in Uganda, Sudan, Somalia and Democratic Republic of Congo. 30 Rebels preparing for a strike. 6. Poor storage facilities as well as shortage of storage facilities lead to food wastage. A lot of grains are destroyed by weevils and rats. 7. Importation of food and dependence on foreign food aid hinder those who strive to improve the agricultural output. 8. Scarcity of capital makes it difficult for developing countries to mechanise their agricultural sector. Farmers are also unable to purchase farm inputs such as fertilizers and chemicals for controlling pests. 9. Poor farming methods such as inter-cropping result to low agricultural output. Also many farmers do not apply fertilizers on their farms. As a result they harvest very little. 10. Natural calamities such as locust and army worm invasion, hailstones and also wild animals such as monkeys reduce yields. 11.
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10. Natural calamities such as locust and army worm invasion, hailstones and also wild animals such as monkeys reduce yields. 11. Land tenure system affect food production especially where a few people are land owners and yet they don t make it into full use. 12. The high rate of poverty in many countries make people to experience food shortage even when food is available elsewhere because they cannot be able to buy it. 13. Negative attitudes towards certain foodstuffs have made people to abandon growing these crops. For example in some areas of Kenya Cassava is associated with people who are poor. The rich will not grow it. 14. Poor economic planning and poor marketing policies contribute to acute food shortages. 3115. Sometimes hoarding and smuggling of food lead to acute shortages. This is because all the food is taken away and the country is left in short of food. 16. Yields have also been affected by diseases and pests which affect crops. Livestock diseases and pests also kill many farm animals. 17. There has been an acute shortage of labour due to rural urban migration of people. This has also reduced yields. 18. HIV AIDS has caused death and also weakened many able bodied productive people who could engage in farming. Ways countries with food problems have attempted to solve them. Countries with food shortages have tried to improve soil fertility through crop-rotation, cross breeding and through use of chemical fertilizers. Research stations have been established to improve food production. Large scale and small-scale irrigation schemes have been established and idle land is being reclaimed. Swamps have been drained and crop growing has been established. Diversified agriculture is being encouraged to replace the monoculture economy. Farmers are provided with financial assistance in form of loans. Marketing facilities have been improved to encourage disposal of surplus food while farmers have been motivated through raising of the prices of food crops from time to time. Through research, chemicals to control pests and plant diseases have been introduced. Many countries are engaged on consolidating land to encourage individual land tenure. Farmers are from time to time encouraged to grow draught resistant crops such as yams, sweet potatoes, onions and cassava. At the same time extension services have been provided to farmers. The African, Asian and South America leaders as well as the international community members are encouraging political stability in order to encourage investment in agriculture and increase in agricultural yields. Finally, transport and communication is being improved through establishment of rural access roads to enable transportation of foodstuffs. The face of hunger in Africa.
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The African, Asian and South America leaders as well as the international community members are encouraging political stability in order to encourage investment in agriculture and increase in agricultural yields. Finally, transport and communication is being improved through establishment of rural access roads to enable transportation of foodstuffs. The face of hunger in Africa. 32 The impact of acute food shortages in Africa. I Death rate has increased especially in famine stricken areas. Ii Dependency on imported food has increased. Iii Food prices rise sharply due to high demands and shortages. Iv Famine stricken people blame their government when they fail to get relief food. This attitude may cause civil unrest and national political instability. V Famine causes people to wonder from place to place looking for food leading to social interactions especially by people who meet in the market places. Vi There is a very high degree of dependency on foreign aid and grants from donor countries. Vii There is migration of people from drought and famine striken areas to town and to other places where food can be obtained. 33viii There are rapid outbreaks of deficiency diseases. Ix It encourages increase in crime as social evils such robbery and prostitution. X Acute food shortages breed hatred between those who are rich and the poor. Xi In areas with acute food shortages, malnutrition has retarded normal growth of children and caused high child mortality. Review Questions. 1. What factors enabled early agriculture to develop? 2. Describe the development of the early agriculture in Egypt and Mesopotamia. 3. What were the benefits of the domestication of animals and plants to the early man? 4. Identify the impact of the development of early agriculture in Egypt and Mesopotamia. 5. How did the Agrarian Revolution in Britain contribute to the Agrarian Revolution in USA? 6. A Explain the causes of food shortages in the developing countries. B How have the governments concerned tried to rectify the problems of food shortages in the developing countries? 34CHAPTER 4. THE PEOPLES OF KENYA UP TO THE 19TH CENTURY. Kenya communities can be classified into three linguistic groups namely the Bantu, the Nilotes and the Cushites. They migrated into Kenya and came into contact with the earliest inhabitants who were of the Khoisan stock. Communities of Kenya. 35Classification of Kenya communities. A Bantu The term Bantus refers to people who speak related languages.
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Communities of Kenya. 35Classification of Kenya communities. A Bantu The term Bantus refers to people who speak related languages. These people call Man Mtu and their origin is Zaire formerly known as Congo . From their original homeland, they migrated slowly eastwards until they reached and settled in Kenya. The Bantu may be split into two categories: i The Eastern Kenya Bantu This category includes the Akamba, Kikuyu, Ameru, Embu, Taita, Giriama, Kombe, Chonyi, Digo, Rabai, Jibana, Pokomo, Duruma, Kauma and Ribe. From Congo forest they reached Mt. Kilimanjaro and moved to Taita hills where they dispersed in different directions. Those who went and settled at Shungwaya were later forced to migrate into the interior of Kenya following the course of river Tana by the Oromo. A few such as the Mijikenda were left at the Coast. Ii The Western Kenya Bantu This category includes the Abagusii, Abaluhyia, Abakuria, Abasuba and the Abakhene. This group of people settled in western Kenya. Some like the Abagusii entered Kenya from Uganda. B Nilotes The Nilotes migrated into Kenya from Sudan but they passed through Uganda. They may be split into three categories: i The River-Lake Nilotes This category includes the Luo who live on the shores of Lake Victoria. They migrated from south-eastern Sudan in the Bahrar el -Ghazal region and entered Uganda. Later they left Uganda and moved into Kenya. Ii The Plain Nilotes This category includes Samburu, Maasai, Karamojong, Teso and Turkana. They entered Kenya from Southern Ethiopia and passed along the shores of Lake Turkana. Iii The Highland Nilotes This category includes the Nandi, Keiyo, Tugen, Marakwet and Kipsigis. They migrated from North-West of Lake Turkana in Ethiopia. 36c Cushites The Cushites entered Kenya from the North Eastern direction. They were coming from the horn of Africa which was their original homeland. The Cushites may be split into two categories: i The Eastern Cushites This category includes the Oromo, Somali, Rendile, Gabbra, Shangilla and Burji.
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36c Cushites The Cushites entered Kenya from the North Eastern direction. They were coming from the horn of Africa which was their original homeland. The Cushites may be split into two categories: i The Eastern Cushites This category includes the Oromo, Somali, Rendile, Gabbra, Shangilla and Burji. Ii The Southern Cushites These migrated into Kenya from the Ethiopian Highlands. They went southwards and settled between Kenya and Northern Tanzania. This category includes the Sanye, Dahallo and Boni living at the mouth of River Tana. The causes and effects of the migration of the Bantu communities e.g. Kikuyu, Kamba, Meru and the Mijikenda a Causes of migration - Over population - Civil wars or internal wars - External attacks - Need to move for adventure - Need for better pastures for their livestock - Draught and famine - Need for cultivable land - Outbreaks of diseases or epidemics - Knowledge of iron smelting and making of superior iron weapons encouraged the Bantu people to migrate b Effects of migration There was assimilation of communities the Bantu people came across e.g. the Southern Cushites were assimilated by the Bantu who came into contact with them. The Kikuyu assimilated the Athi, Dorobo and Gumba. Intermarriages with other communities occurred. For instance, the Kikuyu intermarried with the Kamba and Maasai. New political institutions developed for instance the institution of Muthamaki among the Kikuyu. Bantu communities borrowed the cultural practices of the people they came across. The Kikuyu for example borrowed the cultural practices like circumcision of the Gumba and the Athi. They also borrowed the age-set system. 37Migration accelerated wars with other communities. Some communities were displaced after being conquered and made to disperse. The Bantu communities interacted with people of other linguistic groups through trade, raids and marriages. There was enrichment of language through word borrowing. Some Bantu communities were forced to change their economic way of life for example to change from cultivators to pastoralists. Why the Nilotic communities migrated from the Sudan into Kenya. -. Due to epidemics which attacked people and animals. -. Due to drought and famine. -. Due to internal or civil wars. -. Due to external attacks - Due to love for adventure - Due to need to look for pastures for their animals.
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- Due to drought and famine. -. Due to internal or civil wars. -. Due to external attacks - Due to love for adventure - Due to need to look for pastures for their animals. -. Due to over population - Due to the need to look for cultivable land by communities who farmed. -. Due to family and clan quarrels. The effects of the migration of the Nilotes a There was assimilation of communities. B There was change in the economic activities of some communities for example the Luo became fishermen. C There were inter marriages with other communities especially their neighbours for example the Abagusii and the Abaluhyia. D There was interaction with communities the Nilotes came across. E There was conquest and displacement of some communities. F Wars increased between communities. G There was borrowing of cultural practices by the people who came into contact with the Nilotes. H Some communities developed new political institutions for example Oloiboni by the Maasai and the institution of Orkoyiot by the Nandi. I There was enrichment of language through word borrowing. 38 Migration and settlement of the people of Kenya. Reasons for the migration of the Cushites. The reasons why the Cushites migrated were need for pastures for their livestock, search for fertile land for cultivation, love for adventure, outbreak of diseases, external attacks, internal wars and clan feuds, over population and natural calamities such as drought and famine. The effects of the migration of the Cushites. The Cushites came into contact with other communities and there was cultural exchange. There was language enrichment as Cushites interacted with others. They assimilated other weaker communities. There was population increase after settling in better lands. Also there was expansion of trade. There was interaction through trade, intermarriage and wars. The wars increased as the Cushites tried to acquire better pastures for their livestock. The Cushites for example the Oromo conquered and displaced the communities they came across in the process of migration. For instance, they dispersed the Bantu Communities who had settled at Shungwaya. 39Review Questions. 1. How did the Kenya communities interact during their migrations and settlements? 2. Describe the migration of the: a Cushites b Bantu c Nilotes 3. Identify the impact of the migrations of the following: a Bantu b Nilotes c Cushites 4.
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2. Describe the migration of the: a Cushites b Bantu c Nilotes 3. Identify the impact of the migrations of the following: a Bantu b Nilotes c Cushites 4. Describe the effects of the interactions of the Agikuyu and the people they came into contact with during migration. 5. Describe the course and effects of the migration of the Luo. 6. Why did the Bantu migrate from Shungwaya? 40CHAPTER 5. SOCIAL, ECONOMIC AND POLITICAL ORGANISATION OF KENYAN SOCIETIES IN THE 19TH CENTURY. The people of Kenya in the 19th century were of different linguistic groups comprising the Bantu, the Nilotes and the Cushites. The environment played a great role in determining their social, economic and political aspects which varied from one ethnic group to the other. The Social, Economic and political organisation of the Agikuyu in the 19th century Social organisation The Kikuyu were organised into clans. There were nine clans. Some of them were Anjiru, Ambui, Acera, Angari, Angeci and Airimu. The family was an important social political unit because it acted as the basis of the Kikuyu community. Above the family was the mbari or sub-clan under Muramati or caretaker. The Kikuyu had age set which was acquired from the Gumba. They conducted birth and marriage ceremony. Men cleared the land, looked after the live stock and milked while women cultivated. The Kikuyu initiated circumcised boys and girls to adult hood. They worshiped a God they called Ngai who lived on Mount Kenya Kirinyaga . The Kikuyu offered sacrifices to their God for thanks giving in sacred places. They slaughtered goats and sheep as sacrifice. They had medicinemen, rain makers and prophets. A medicineman was known as Mundu Mugo and he cured diseases. They also believed in ancestral spirits. Finally they paid dowry in form of cattle, sheep and goats. Economic Organisation The Agikuyu grew crops such as millet, sorghum, arrow roots and yams. They traded with their neighbours such as the Maasai and the Akamba.
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Finally they paid dowry in form of cattle, sheep and goats. Economic Organisation The Agikuyu grew crops such as millet, sorghum, arrow roots and yams. They traded with their neighbours such as the Maasai and the Akamba. They smelted iron for making hoes and axes and also weaved and practiced basketry as well as pottery. The Agikuyu hunted and gathered to substitute their diet. They kept beehives and harvested honey. Lastly, they kept livestock for example cattle, sheep and goats. 41Political Organisation: The Kikuyu were organised into clans-each made up of sub-clans called Mbari . They were politically organised into age set systems composed of boys who were initiated. The Kikuyu community was decentralised and it had the institution of the Muramati clan leader . Muramati co-ordinated all the activities of the sub-clan. There were warriors who defended the community. The Kikuyu had a council of elders KIAMA which maintained law and order and made final decisions. It presided over religious functions. Cases were handled by Kiama composed of individual who acted as judges. Kikuyu and Meru settlements. The Social, Economic and Political organisation of the Ameru in the 19th century Social organisation. The Ameru who comprised the Chuka, Tharaka, Mwimbi, Muthambi, Imenti, Tigania and Igembe were organised into clans. The family was an important social institution. They were also organised into age-set systems Nthuke Irua comprising of age mates. 42The Ameru conducted initiation ceremonies in form of circumcision. Both Girls and boys were circumcised. They worshiped God under the sacred Fig Mugumo trees and they also performed sacrifices to their God. The Ameru had medicinemen, rainmakers, fortune-tellers and prophets. They were ruled by a council of elders who also presided over religious ceremonies. Economic organisation. The Ameru grew crops such as millet and sorghum. They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats and they hunted wild animals and gathered roots and fruits. Some Ameru traded with their neighbours such as the Akamba, Mbere and Embu.
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The Ameru grew crops such as millet and sorghum. They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats and they hunted wild animals and gathered roots and fruits. Some Ameru traded with their neighbours such as the Akamba, Mbere and Embu. They were engaged in traditional industries such as pottery, basketry, weaving, cloth making and iron smelting which enabled them to make knives, spears, arrow heads and iron hoes. Finally, they kept beehives and harvested honey. Political organisation. They were ruled by councils of elders called Njuri Nceke and they were organised into clans made up of several families which were related. There were age-set systems comprised of men who had been initiated into adult hood. There were warriors composed of strong circumcised men who defended the community in times of problems. The Ameru were decentralised as there were different independent groups such as the Tharaka, Tigania, Mwimbi, Imenti, Igembe, Chuka, Igoji and Muthambi. Religious leaders played an important role in the administration of the Ameru and also foretold the future. The social, economic and political organisation of the Akamba in the 19th Century. Social organisation The Akamba were organised into clans made up of several related families. They had age-groups and age-set system. They practiced circumcision as an initiation rite. They believed in witchcraft and had medicinemen and diviners. The Akamba conducted traditional ceremonies. Finally, they worshipped God and performed sacrifices to him. 43Economic organisation Some Akamba practiced crop cultivation and planted sorghum, millet, potatoes and beans while others kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats. The Akamba were skilled hunters and they also gathered fruits and roots to substitute their diet. They traded with the Kikuyu, Taita, Mijikenda and later with the coastal people. The Akamba sold honey, arrow poison and tobacco to them while they bought beads and cloth from the coast and also ivory and foodstuff from the interior communities like the Samburu and Mbeere respectively. They smelted iron and made spears, arrow-heads, hoes, knives, cattle bells and jingles. The Akamba were efficient beekeepers and they harvested a lot of honey. They were engaged in traditional industries where they manufactured pots, baskets, mats, stools and shields.
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They smelted iron and made spears, arrow-heads, hoes, knives, cattle bells and jingles. The Akamba were efficient beekeepers and they harvested a lot of honey. They were engaged in traditional industries where they manufactured pots, baskets, mats, stools and shields. Those who lived close to river Tana did some fishing. They made carvings from wood and sold them to the people in exchange for cloth, snuff boxes and beads. Political organisation Politically the Akamba were organised into clans made up of several related families. They had councils of elders each entitled to Nzama Sya Utui . They practiced the age-set system and they were ranked in age grades such as junior elders, medium elders, full elders and senior elders. The Akamba were decentralised. Akamba warriors defended the community. Judgement of cases was done by the council of elders. How the Abagusii were organised socially, economically and politically. Social Organisation The Abagusii were organised into clans. Their social organisation was based on the extended family whose members claimed to have a common ancestor. They conducted initiation ceremonies in form of circumcision for boys and clitoridectomy for girls. Polygamy was a very common social practice among the Abagusii. The Abagusii worshipped one supreme God called Engoro . They prayed through ancestral spirits. The Abagusii sacrificed to their God, Engoro who they regarded as the creator of the universe. They had medicinemen, rain makers and prophets. Lastly, they also conducted ceremonies marking birth, initiation and death. 44Economic organisation. The Abagusii were pastoralists and they kept cattle, sheep and goats. They cultivated crops such as millet, sorghum, pumpkins, potatoes and beans. Men hunted wild game while women gathered wild fruits and roots. They conducted trade with their neighbours such as the Luo and the Luhyia. Finally, they were engaged in traditional industries such as making stone curvings and iron hoes for cultivation. Political organisation. The Abagusii were politically organised into clans made up of related families and each clan was ruled by Omogambi . They had age-set systems and councils of elders which led the clans in wars and judged cases. The Abagusii were politically decentralised. They had warriors who defended their territory from the enemies. The social, economic and political organisation of the Mijikenda in the 19th Century. Social organisation.
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They had warriors who defended their territory from the enemies. The social, economic and political organisation of the Mijikenda in the 19th Century. Social organisation. The social organisation of the Mijikenda was based on the clan. They practiced the age-set system. Initiation of boys took place after every five years. The elders were the clan leaders. Inter marriages between Kayas existed. There was division of labour. Children looked after cattle, sheep and goats while young men built houses and cattle sheds, hunted and cleared the bush for cultivation. The Mijikenda worshipped God and offered sacrifices. They conducted ceremonies during the time of birth, initiation and marriage. Economic activities. The Mijikenda fished in the Indian Ocean. They kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats and hunted and gathered fruits, honey and vegetables. They were engaged in traditional industries such as weaving and basketry. The Mijikenda grew crops such as millet and also traded with the Swahilis and the people of the interior such as the Akamba. Political organisation The Mijikenda political set up was under the control of the clan. There were councils of elders who sorted out all matters concerning the Kayas . Age-set system existed. The Mijikenda had warriors who defended their territory and ensured that there was law and order. Cases were judged by the council of elders. 45The Social, economic, and political organisation of the Luo in the 19th Century. Social organisation The Luo were organised into clans composed of families with a common ancestor. The clans were grouped into larger territorial units called Gweng which were occupied by foreign lineages entitled Joka and clansmen. A council of elders existed which presided over religious ceremonies. The Luo worshipped a God called Nyasaye through their ancestral spirits. This was conducted in the sacred places. Priests existed who linked the people with the ancestral spirits. They had diviners who interpreted God s messages to the people. The Luo sacrificed for thanks giving and for appeasing their God. They initiated boys and girls into adulthood by removing their six lower teeth. They also prepared them for marriage. Finally, the Luo conducted other ceremonies and celebrations such as burial ceremonies, naming, beer drinking and wrestling. Economic organisation The Luo cultivated crops such as beans, sweet potatoes, peas, millet, groundnuts and sorghum. They hunted wild animals and collected fruits, vegetables and roots.
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Finally, the Luo conducted other ceremonies and celebrations such as burial ceremonies, naming, beer drinking and wrestling. Economic organisation The Luo cultivated crops such as beans, sweet potatoes, peas, millet, groundnuts and sorghum. They hunted wild animals and collected fruits, vegetables and roots. The Luo businessmen traded with their neighbours for example Abaluhyia, Abagusii, Nandi and Kipsigis. The Luo smelted iron and made iron tools and also engaged themselves in the traditional industries such as pottery, basketry and cloth making. They fished in Lake Victoria and in the rivers passing through their territory e.g. Rivers Sondu, Nzoia, Nyando, Kuja and Yala. The political organisation The Luo were politically organised into clans and they were decentralised. The clans were made up of families headed by Jaduong . Several clans merged together formed a gweng . There existed a council of elders made up of clan heads and other remarkable elders. Related clans formed alliances and defended their territory. Each Luo alliance Oganda had a political leader entitled Ruoth. There were individual clan councils, doho, controlled by Ladito. Also there was a council called Buch Piny made up of elders who advised the Ruoth for example the military leader, Osumba Mirwayi. The council of elders was made up of clan heads and other remarkable elders. It solved internal disputes over land, declared war and performed other political and religious functions. 46Doho was a smaller council which operated under smaller regional sub-divisions. There were warriors referred to as Thuondi who raided the neighbouring communities. The social, economic and political organisation of the Nandi in the 19th century Social organisation The Nandi were organised according to totemic clans. The house was an important social unit and several houses made a family. The Nandi practiced initiation ceremonies like circumcision of boys during adolescence at five years intervals. They had age-set and age-grades. The age sets were cyclic. The Nandi people worshipped a supreme God and sacrificed to Him. This God was entitled Asis. They had medicine men, prophets and rain makers. The Orkoyiot acted as a spiritual leader although he was also a political leader. He foretold the future and also adviced the council of elders. Economic activities The Nandi practiced mixed farming because they grew crops and kept livestock such as cattle, sheep and goats.
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The Somali later got converted into Islam through interaction with the Muslim immigrants. From the time they adopted Islam, they embraced Muslim culture. The Somali were socially organised into clans made up of related families. They conducted initiation of boys and then grouped them into agesets. Economic organisation The Somali kept livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats and donkeys as well as camels. Those who lived near wells and rivers practiced a bit of cultivation. They also smelted iron and made iron tools and weapons e.g. swords. The Somali hunted wild animals and gathered birds eggs. They traded with their neighbours such as the Oromo. Political organisation The Somali were politically organised into clans whose members traced their origin back to a common ancestor. Each of the Somali clans was headed by a council of elders. The Somali were controlled by an overall leader known as the Sultan. The Somali clans joined together to face an enemy in times of crisis. There were age-sets which provided the community with warriors. The senior age-sets retired from active public life and were settled in different territories. The social, economic and political organisation of the Boran in 19th century. Social organisation The Boran is one of the Oromo speaking communities in Kenya today. The Boran people were socially organised into clans each made of related families. They had age-groups and age-sets which integrated the Boran community by facilitating co-operation among all the members of the community. The Boran believed in the existence of one God. The Oromo name for their God was Wak. At first the Boran were believers in traditional religion but by the end of the 19th century many of them had been converted to Islam. 49Economic organisation The Boran were pastoralist and they kept sheep, cattle, goats and camels. They hunted elephants for ivory and sold them to the Swahili traders and other trading partners such as the Mijikenda and the Pokomo. Boran women collected and gathered a variety of items such as insects, roots and honey. The Boran were also engaged in simple industry for instance cloth making from animal skins and pottery. Some cultivated grains like peas, beans, pepper and vegetables. Political organisation The Boran like other Cushites were organised into clans and each of the clans was made up of related families. They had councils of elders who headed clans and presided over assemblies as well as acting as ritual experts. The council of elders settled disputes, maintained law and order and their decisions were final.
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Political organisation The Boran like other Cushites were organised into clans and each of the clans was made up of related families. They had councils of elders who headed clans and presided over assemblies as well as acting as ritual experts. The council of elders settled disputes, maintained law and order and their decisions were final. They had age-set system which provided them with warriors who defended their territory from external attacks. The Boran clans were autonomous except in times of disaster when they formed alliances to fight against a common enemy Finally, the Boran were politically decentralised. Review Questions. 1. Identify the economic organisation of each of the following during the colonial period: a Bantu communities b Cushites c Nilotes 2. Describe the political organisation of the following: i Luo ii Akamba iii Abagusii 3. What was the role of the council of elders among the Ameru. 4. Why was the institution of the Orkoiyot important among the Nandi. 5. Discuss the social organisation of the following: i Kikuyu ii Boran iii Maasai 6. What problems did the migrating communities encounter during the precolonial period? 50CHAPTER 6. CONTACTS BETWEEN EAST AFRICA AND THE OUTSIDE WORLD UP TO THE 19TH CENTURY. The early visitors to the Kenya Coast before the 15th century were Egyptians, Greeks, Persians, Romans, Phoenicians, Indians, Chinese and Arabs. The main reason of the coming of these early visitors was to trade with the people of the East African coast. The commodities traders obtained from the interior of East Africa and exported to the outside world e.g. from present day Kenya, Uganda and Tanzania were Ivory, Rhinocerous horns, Leopard skins and skins from many other animals, Ostrich feathers, Copper, Slaves, Tortoise shells, Gold and Emberglis. The commodities the people of East Africa obtain from the outside world e.g. from India, China, Arabia, Egypt were Spices, Cowrie shells, Drugs, Swords daggers, Salt, Porcelain cups and bowls , Glassware, Rugs and carpets, Beads, Cloth, Sugar and Mats. The Indian Ocean trade up to 1500 AD51The evidence which may clarify that early visitors reached the Kenya coast.
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The commodities the people of East Africa obtain from the outside world e.g. from India, China, Arabia, Egypt were Spices, Cowrie shells, Drugs, Swords daggers, Salt, Porcelain cups and bowls , Glassware, Rugs and carpets, Beads, Cloth, Sugar and Mats. The Indian Ocean trade up to 1500 AD51The evidence which may clarify that early visitors reached the Kenya coast. There has been a lot of remains of the Greek and Chinese coins along the East African coast especially in towns such as Malindi, Mombasa. Lamu, Gedi and Jumba la Mtwana which declined. These have been collected and some of them preserved and displayed in the Fort Jesus museum. There are also fragments of Chinese pottery. These include broken Chinese cups, jars and bowls made of porcelain. Archaeological findings along the coast reveal that there were foreigners who visited towns along the coast and they traded with people in those towns. Evidence is the remains of item escavated. There are some written documents, which mention the coast of East Africa, for instance the Periplus of the Erythrean Sea and Geography written by Ptelomy. The Arabs have lived along the East African coast for a long period. This is clear and undoubted evidence that early visitors came to the East African coast up to the 19th century. Reasons why trade developed between the East African coast and Asia before the 19th century Trade developed between the East African coast and Asia before the 19th century due to availability of the goods traders from both sides needed. Goods from East Africa were highly demanded in Asia while there was a high demand of Asian goods in East Africa. The monsoon winds enabled the traders to travel by the use of dhows. There was a relative political stability of the Kenyan coastal city states because rulers such as Seyyid Said ensured that peace prevailed and that traders were secure. The East African coast was easily accessible by sea due to existence of natural harbours such as the old Mombasa harbour and Malindi harbour where dhows could anchor. The trade developed also due to establishment of strong trade links between East Africa and Asia. How the trade between the East African coast and the outside world was organised before 1500. The coastal Arab and Swahilis obtained trade commodities from the interior communities such as the Akamba, Baganda, Yao and the Nyamwezi.
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The trade developed also due to establishment of strong trade links between East Africa and Asia. How the trade between the East African coast and the outside world was organised before 1500. The coastal Arab and Swahilis obtained trade commodities from the interior communities such as the Akamba, Baganda, Yao and the Nyamwezi. The trading commodities were like copper, gold, ivory, leopard skins, rhino horns, tortoise shells and ostrich feathers. 52The coastal Arab and Swahilis exchanged the commodities by giving African traders items such as Beads, sugar, salt, cloth, glassware, daggers, cowrie shells and porcelain cups. The form of exchange was barter. The Arab traders either transported the items across the Indian Ocean themselves or sold them to other Asian traders who were mainly Chinese, Greeks, Indians or fellow Arabs. These traders used dhows which sailed to E. Africa between November and April and to Asia between June and October. The East Coast traders. 53Why some Arabs migrated from Arabia to the East African coast Some Arabs came to trade with the people along the East African coast. Others came to trade with the people of East Africa. Some Arabs came as refugees. They were escaping the political and religious persecutions in Arabia after the death of Prophet Mohammed. There are some who came to the East African coast to establish settlements. Some came for adventure. A few came to explore the East African coast. The impact of the Indian Ocean trade on the people of East Africa East African coastal towns. The Indian Ocean trade took place for a long period along the East African coast. As a result of this towns were established along the East African coast such as Malindi, Mombasa, Lamu, Kilifi and Gedi. There was intermarriage between the foreigners such as Arabs and different African communities at the coast. This was promoted by the socialisation in the towns. The East African people adopted Asiatic architecture for example they began building rectangular stone houses. The Indian Ocean trade led to the spread of Islamic culture along the Kenyan coast. For instance, coastal people began wearing Arabic dress, building mosques, and being converted into Islam. It led to the spread of Kiswahili language. By 1500 it had become the main language of the coast. New crops were introduced for instance rice and coconut.
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It led to the spread of Kiswahili language. By 1500 it had become the main language of the coast. New crops were introduced for instance rice and coconut. It stimulated commercial activities between different communities in the interior for example trade between the Akamba and the Mijikenda also trade between the Baganda in Uganda and the Nyamwezi in Tanzania. 54The Arabs were able to control the East African coast and use Islamic law in their administration. The trade led to the emergence of a class of prosperous traders who controlled trade. The Indian Ocean trade also led to the development of the East African slave trade. African inhabitants acquired foreign goods e.g. cloth, beads and glassware from traders. Trade routes developed e.g. the one from Mombasa to Ukambani, and one from Bagamoyo to Nyamwezi land and going North to Buganda. Many African people suffered due to slave trade. Many others died. The Indian Ocean trade stimulated European interest on East African coast which eventually led to the colonisation of East Africa. The East African coast became known to the outside world and it also strengthened ties with India and the far East. How slave traders were obtaining slaves in East Africa during the slave trade. Slave merchants were exchanging slaves with other goods like cloth, beads and guns. They were kidnapping free men and selling them as slaves. Slave traders were conducting raids to capture slaves. This was very common with the Yao and the Nyamwezi communities in Tanzania. Slave traders were also organising intercommunity wars and the community which was defeated had the war captives sold as slaves. Criminals were being sold by rulers and this was regarded as punishment for law breakers. Children were being enticed with sweets and then captured. After being captured they were sent to the slave market in Zanzibar for sale. The slave market in Zanzibar. 55The main East African trade routes of the 19th century. 56The effects of the East African slave trade. The East African slave trade was mainly rampant in the 19th century and it left the region very different from the way it was before. Slave raids resulted to death of many innocent Africans. A lot of property was destroyed by being burnt during slave raids. There was a lot of suffering by those children and women whose families were broken. Slave trade settlements were established at Bagamoyo and Frere town near Mombasa. Some communities which depended on slave trade expanded.
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There was a lot of suffering by those children and women whose families were broken. Slave trade settlements were established at Bagamoyo and Frere town near Mombasa. Some communities which depended on slave trade expanded. Such communities were the Nyamwezi and the Yao in Tanzania. It encouraged development of trade merchants such as Tippu Tip, Msiri and Kivoi. East Africa was depopulated as a result of slave trade. It opened the interior for trade with other items such as ivory in exchange for beads, cloth and firearms. Slave trade contributed to the spread of Islam and Kiswahili language in the interior. African traditional industries such as pottery, weaving and iron smelting were abandoned due to constant raids. African communities who were raided and their families broken were forced to free and this affected African cultures. Reasons why the Portuguese came to the East African coast. The Portuguese came to conquer the Arabs who had attacked and conquered th Christians in Spain and Portugal and they also wished to spread Christianity along the East African coast. They wanted to look for a legendary Prester John, who was believed to be living in Ethiopia and who could assist them to conquer Arabs. The Portuguese wanted to trade with the coastal traders. Vasco da Gama landed at Malindi to be provided with a guide who would show him the way to India. Others like Alfonzo de Almeida came to conquer the coastal towns and acquire the wealth of those prosperous towns. Some came to settle along the coast in town such as Malindi and Mombasa. The Portuguese for example built and settled in Fort Jesus in Mombasa. Why the Portuguese developed interest on the East African coast after 1550. I East Africa provided bases for Portuguese ships and troops. Ii To levy tributes taxes from the wealthy coastal merchants. Iii To look for ways and means of controlling the Indian Ocean trade. Iv To capture the Sofala gold trade. 57v To take control of the East coast in order to use it as a strategic base as they controlled all trade to Europe. Vi To prevent the Turks and the Egyptians from acquiring support from the East coast in case of war with the Portuguese. Vii The East coast of Africa provided natural harbours where Portuguese ships could easily anchor before proceeding to India. Viii The climate of the East coast of Africa was conducive to the Portuguese men and they could also obtain fresh water and food before they continued their journey to India.
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Vi To prevent the Turks and the Egyptians from acquiring support from the East coast in case of war with the Portuguese. Vii The East coast of Africa provided natural harbours where Portuguese ships could easily anchor before proceeding to India. Viii The climate of the East coast of Africa was conducive to the Portuguese men and they could also obtain fresh water and food before they continued their journey to India. The Portuguese and Arab sea routes. 58The Portuguese conquest of the East Coast of Africa up to 1510. Fransisco d Almeida Alvares Pedro Cabral led an expedition in 1500 to capture Sofala but failed. In 1502 Vasco da Gama led an expedition which resulted to the conquest of Kilwa. In 1503, Ruy Lourenco Ravasco led an expedition against Zanzibar which he conquered and forced to pay tribute. In 1505, Fransisco de Almeida led an expedition of 20 ships and 1500 soldiers which conquered Kilwa, Mombasa and Sofala. Brava attempted to resist but it was rooted and then burnt. In 1506 Pate and the East coast was now under the control of the Portuguese. It is important to note that - The Portuguese after conquering the Arabs began establishing their rule which lasted for 200 years. The Portuguese headquarters along the East Coast were Mozambique and Mombasa. Each of these headquarters was under a Captain who was answerable to the Viceroy stationed at Goa in India. The duties of the captain were: i To collect tribute from the local rulers. Ii To suppress resistance or rebellion. Iii To supervise the ruling families in the city states. Iv To impose custom duties on import and exports. V To represent the Viceroy on the East coast of Africa. 59Reasons why the Portuguese were able to conquer the Kenya coast easily The Portuguese took a short time to conquer the East Coast of Africa after Vasco da Gama s visit on his way to India. The reasons for his success were as follows: a The city states which resisted were severely punished so as to discourage others from resisting. B The Wazimba who were cannibals they ate people assisted the Portuguese to conquer the Arabs so that they could feed on their flesh. C The Portuguese frequently organised and carried out surprise attacks on Arab settlements.
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The reasons for his success were as follows: a The city states which resisted were severely punished so as to discourage others from resisting. B The Wazimba who were cannibals they ate people assisted the Portuguese to conquer the Arabs so that they could feed on their flesh. C The Portuguese frequently organised and carried out surprise attacks on Arab settlements. D The ruler Sultan of Malindi collaborated with the Portuguese and helped them to fight fellow city states. E The coastal city states were disunited. F The Portuguese were better militarily trained and equipped. They used very powerful guns and cannons. G The natural harbours in Mombasa and Malindi provided the Portuguese with bases for their ships and troops. H The Portuguese constantly acquired reinforcement from their mother country or from their base in Goa in India. I The Portuguese troops fought with determination with the aim of establishing a Portuguese empire in the East. J The Portuguese used strong and superior ships compared with the Arab dhows which were driven by wind. Why the Portuguese rule and power along the coast declined The rivals of the Portuguese during the period they controlled the East African coast were the Egyptians, the British Turks, Persians, Oman Arabs and the East African Coastal Arabs. There was intense rivalry from the British and the Dutch. The coast was invaded by Muslim nations such as Oman and Turkey. The city states organised constant rebellions against the Portuguese. The Portuguese administrators were corrupt and inefficient. The people of Malindi refused to support the Portuguese because the Portuguese authority had mistreated them. The Portuguese never at any time united with coastal inhabitants to develop the coast. Instead the inhabitants were always suspicious of the Portuguese who also never trusted them. Revenue from gold declined. The Portuguese were also affected by the decline of the Indian Ocean trade because it was the main source of income for maintaining their empire. 60Portugal was weakened by its union with Spain. It was annexed by Spain between 1590 and 1640. Portugal was also too small to provide enough soldiers and administrators. For this reason, Portuguese soldiers were defeated and driven out of Fort Jesus by the Oman Arabs after a siege for 33 months. Fort Jesus. The impact of the Portuguese administration on the coast of East Africa Positive impact a The Portuguese introduced new crops such as sweet potatoes, ground nuts, cassava, maize, paw paws and pineapples. B The Portuguese built Fort Jesus which is today used as a museum.
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Fort Jesus. The impact of the Portuguese administration on the coast of East Africa Positive impact a The Portuguese introduced new crops such as sweet potatoes, ground nuts, cassava, maize, paw paws and pineapples. B The Portuguese built Fort Jesus which is today used as a museum. C The Portuguese introduced the use of birds droppings called Guano as a way of increasing soil fertility. They also introduced crop rotation. D The Portuguese words contributed to Kiswahili language e.g. the word mvinyo . E The Portuguese architecture was borrowed by coastal inhabitants. F The Portuguese directly linked the Kenya coast with India. G The Portuguese Christians tried to introduce Christianity to the coastal dwellers although they failed totally. 61Negative impact. A Frequent attacks and wars between the Portuguese and the coastal inhabitants led to loss of lives of many people. B Property was destroyed as the Portuguese burnt the coastal towns to punish rebels. C Traditional industries declined along the coast. D Coastal towns declined. Some for instance Gedi and Jumba La Mtwana never recovered even after the Portuguese power declined e The Portuguese affected the culture of the coastal people. F The economic development of the coast was retarded due to destruction of towns, burning of crops and rooting by Portuguese. G Slave trade was intensified as a result of acquisition of firearms. H The coastal people suffered a lot due to frequent attacks by the Portuguese. I Hatred developed between the coastal people and the Portuguese and also between the coastal city states. J The Portuguese introduced dangerous weapons e.g. guns. How Seyyid Said s rule encouraged development of plantation agriculture on the East African coast Seyyid Said made Zanzibar his capital in 1840 and from there he controlled the East coast towns and the Indian ocean trade which was an international trade. Having established political control over coastal city states, Seyyid Said appointed governors Liwalis to control the city states on his behalf. The Oman Arabs settled along the East African coast and began developing grain plantations around Malindi and Takaungu and also coconut plantations around Mombasa. Slave labour was used to work in the plantations. This practice therefore became the major cause of increased slave trade in East Africa in the 19th century.
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The Oman Arabs settled along the East African coast and began developing grain plantations around Malindi and Takaungu and also coconut plantations around Mombasa. Slave labour was used to work in the plantations. This practice therefore became the major cause of increased slave trade in East Africa in the 19th century. Seyyid Said encouraged more and more wealthy Arab and Swahili settlers to acquire land around Mombasa, Malindi and Lamu and establish more plantatons. The food produced was sold in Oman as well as in the islands of Zanzibar and Pemba which were mainly growing cloves. When Seyyid Said signed the Hammerton Treaty in 1845 and forbid export of slaves from Africa, the supply of slave labour on the coastal plantations increased. This was followed by the production of more rice, maize, millet and beans than ever before such that by 1870 the Kenyan coast had become the granary of East Africa. 62The factors which enabled Seyyid Said to establish the Oman rule on the East African coast The Portuguese were driven out of Fort Jesus by the Oman Arabs who then replaced them as the new rulers. Seyyid Said appointed governors Liwali to help him administer Oman from 1806 to 1840. In 1840 Seyyid Said transferred his capital to Zanzibar and he was able to rule the coast from close quarters. Seyyid Said overcame the rebellious Mazrui governors before he transferred to establish his capital in Zanzibar. Note that - Seyyid Said chose Zanzibar to be his capital because: i It had a good climate for crop growing. Ii It had a deep natural harbour where ships could anchor. Iii Zanzibar had fresh water. Iv It had fertile soils for cultivation. V It was close to the coast where he ruled and strategically placed. Vi Zanzibar was convenient for trade with the mainland. Vii Zanzibar had supported the efforts of Seyyid Said to control the East African coast. The impact of the Oman rule on the East African coast a Establishment of the Oman rule led to the establishment of clove plantations in Zanzibar and Pemba. B It led to the development of slave trade at the coast because slaves were used as labourers in the plantations.
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Vii Zanzibar had supported the efforts of Seyyid Said to control the East African coast. The impact of the Oman rule on the East African coast a Establishment of the Oman rule led to the establishment of clove plantations in Zanzibar and Pemba. B It led to the development of slave trade at the coast because slaves were used as labourers in the plantations. C It led to the establishment of a commercial empire along the East African coast. D It stimulated the development of the long distance trade among the Yao, Akamba, and the Nyamwezi of Tanzania. E It led to the growth and expansion of towns like Kilwa, Pemba and Zanzibar. F The Swahili culture was intensified along the coast. G It led to the establishment of strong political empire under the rule of the Sultan s at the coast. H The Indian traders Banyans introduced the Rupee as the currency for use along the East African coast. I The slave trade which was intensified by the Oman rulers broke down families in most of the areas where raids took place. There was also suffering and loss of property due to burning of houses during raids. 63The development of the long distance trade in East Africa Trade between the Kenya Coast and other outside countries began very early. It was in the 19th century that this trade expanded rapidly especially during the rule of Seyyid Said. This international trade led to the development of the long distance trade. The long distance trade involved trade between the East Coast of Africa and the interior. It developed due to the demand for slaves in Arabia and the demand for Ivory in Europe. The people involved in this trade were mainly the Akamba and the Mijikenda of Kenya, the Nyamwezi and Yao of Tanzania, the coastal Arabs and the Swahilis and the Baganda of Uganda. The main commodities of trade obtained in the interior of East Africa in the 19th century were ivory and slaves which were in great demand at the coast. These were exchanged with cloth, beads, glassware utensils, ironware and carpets. The Arab and Swahili traders were at first waiting for trade goods to be supplied to them at the coast but later in 1860s they started penetrating into the interior.
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The main commodities of trade obtained in the interior of East Africa in the 19th century were ivory and slaves which were in great demand at the coast. These were exchanged with cloth, beads, glassware utensils, ironware and carpets. The Arab and Swahili traders were at first waiting for trade goods to be supplied to them at the coast but later in 1860s they started penetrating into the interior. They took control of the long distance trade from the Africans such as the Akamba and the Nyamwezi and they travelled into the interior as far as Buganda and the Democratic Republic of Congo. The traders moved in caravans for security reasons. The goods they obtained were shipped across the Indian Ocean and taken to Asian countries such as India, Persia, Arabia and China. The factors which facilitated the Akamba long distance trade The Akamba began the long distance trade due the existence of prominent personalities like Kivoi who attracted a large following of men who regarded him as their leader and accompanied him during trading expeditions. The Akamba geographical position gave them the advantage of being the middlemen between the coastal traders and the communities in central Kenya who provided ivory. Many parts of Kambaland were not suitable for agriculture because of being hilly, rocky, sandy and also because of receiving inadequate rain and having very poor soils. The second quarter of the 19th century was associated with drought and famine in Ukambani which forced the Akamba to engage themselves in the long distance trade. The Akamba were experienced traders having acquired trading skills in the local and intercommunity trade. There was no competition because the coastal traders did not venture in the interior for trade because they feared the Maasai warriors. The Akamba gave false stories about the fierceness of the people of the interior. This scared away foreigners from entering the interior. 64Organisation of the Akamba long distance trade. The Akamba were organised into trading and hunting groups. The hunters killed animals such as elephants to obtain ivory. They also obtained hides and skins. The traders organised themselves into caravans consisting of about 700 people who included slaves, porters and the traders themselves. The form of trade was at first barter system before the introduction of currency. Traders moved into the interior as far as Lake Baringo and Samburu. There were resting places between Ukambani and the Coast such as Mariakani. At first the Akamba acted as middlemen between the coastal traders and the people of interior.
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Traders moved into the interior as far as Lake Baringo and Samburu. There were resting places between Ukambani and the Coast such as Mariakani. At first the Akamba acted as middlemen between the coastal traders and the people of interior. Later the coastal traders such as Arabs and Swahilis began penetrating into the interior. The Akamba trade links Factors which contributed to the decline of the Akamba long distance trade There was competition from Arab and Swahili traders who affected the middleman position of the Akamba. The Kikuyu and the Embu refused to trade with the Akamba because the Akamba raided them to obtain slaves. The Akamba were raided by the Oromo and the Maasai therefore the Kamba trading activity was no longer secure. The interior communities began taking their trade goods to the coast therefore ignoring the Kamba middlemen position. 65The European occupation and the abolition of slave trade undermined Akamba long distance trade even further. After the slave trade was abolished it became difficult to transport ivory to the coast. Also the number of elephants had become drastically reduced making this trade uneconomical. The stories the Akamba gave to scare the foreign traders from going to the interior were proved untrue. As a result of this the Akamba trade ceased to thrive. The impact of the Akamba long distance trade on the people of Kenya? A The Akamba long distance trade made foreign traders to be aware of the wealth of Kenya. The first to come and spy about this wealth were traders and explorers. This later contributed to colonisation by the Europeans. B The people of the interior developed a taste of imported foreign goods such as cloth, beads, glassware and ironware. They started exchanging ivory, hides and skins with the coastal traders to obtain them. C It is stimulated local and inter community trade. D The Akamba long distance trade contributed to the expansion of slave trade because slaves were used to carry ivory. E The long distance trade gave rise to prosperous and well-known merchants like Kivoi and Ngonyo. F The Wanga kingdom was strengthened due to acquisition of wealth and firearms. G The interior was opened for trade with the coastal Arabs and Swahilis. H The traders developed good communication between the interior and the coast. I It enabled Islam and Swahili culture to penetrate into the interior through Kamba converts.
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G The interior was opened for trade with the coastal Arabs and Swahilis. H The traders developed good communication between the interior and the coast. I It enabled Islam and Swahili culture to penetrate into the interior through Kamba converts. J New crops such as mangoes, rice and bananas were introduced into the interior of Kenya. K Akamba borrowed aspects of other cultures from the trading partners. Development of international trade. It was the efforts of Seyyid Said in Zanzibar which enabled East Africa to get involved in the international trade in the 19th century. The foreign traders from USA, Britain and France signed commercial treaties with Seyyid Said which enabled them to open consulates in Zanzibar. Seyyid Said also invited the Indian Banyans and allowed them to settle and participate in trade with the other foreign traders. 66The international trade developed due to the following factors: 1. Seyyid Said created commercial relations with foreign countries after signing treaties with Britain, France, Germany and USA. 2. The traders were provided with funds to boost trade. The Indian Banyans loaned traders along the East African Coast. 3. Seyyid Said who was a powerful ruler maintained peace and political stability along the East African coast therefore creating a conducive atmosphere for trade. 4. Industrial Revolution which occurred in Britain in the 19th century brought about a high demand for raw materials from East Africa. 5. The people of East Africa demanded foreign manufactured goods therefore creating a ready market for foreign goods. 6. The people of the East African coast were experienced in trade because they had traded with the people of Asia many years before the 19th century. 7. The East African coast with its natural harbours and good climate attracted many foreign traders. 8. There existed a class of wealthy traders who promoted trade. Impact of international trade on the people of East Africa a The East African slave trade was boosted through introduction of ammunitions such as guns. B The foreign traders paved the way for colonisers who took control of East Africa. C The traders opened up the interior of East Africa a thing which encouraged the missionaries to penetrate into the interior to stop slave trade and spread Christianity. D The people of East Africa developed a taste of imported goods such as guns, cloth and ironware. E The trade led to the growth of urban centres. F East African coast was exposed to the outside world.
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D The people of East Africa developed a taste of imported goods such as guns, cloth and ironware. E The trade led to the growth of urban centres. F East African coast was exposed to the outside world. The Spread of Christianity in East Africa. The Portuguese were the first foreigners to attempt to spread Christianity in East Africa but totally failed. The Christian missionaries of the 19th century from Germany and Britain succeeded in spreading Christianity and winning converts in East Africa. They established mission schools hospitals and churches which contributed a lot in the spread of Christianity. 67The Christian missionary societies which established mission stations in Africa were Church Missionary Society CMS , the London Missionary Society LMS , the Baptist Mission Society, the Bremen Society, the Besel Missionary Society, the Scottish Missionary Society, the Church of England Society for the propagation of the Gospel, the Wesleyan Methodist Missionary Society and the Universities Mission to Central Africa. The spread of Missionary activity in East Africa. Why the Christian Missionaries come to East Africa The Christian missionaries came to East Africa in order to: - Carry out exploration activities. -. Spread christianity. -. Civilize Africans - Abolish slave trade and slavery. -. Spread western education and culture. -. Introduce legitimate trade in areas where slave trade was abolished. -. Introduce better health services. 68The activities of the Christian Missionaries in East Africa in the19th century The Christian missionaries who came to East Africa in the 19th Century were engaged in training freed slaves on how to contribute in the spread of Christianity, spreading Christianity and converting the local people to be followers of Christianity. They were also engaged in establishing churches, schools, hospitals and dispensaries. They also translated the Bible into African languages and paved the way for European colonisation. The missionaries also helped to eradicate slave trade and slavery by advocating the evils associated with this inhuman trade to the British Government. The factors which contributed to the spread of Christianity in East Africa in the 19th century. A The Christian missionaries were given support by Seyyid Said. He gave them letters which introduced them to the governors of the coastal towns. B Some African traditional rulers such as Nabongo Mumia of Wanga in western Kenya, Kabaka Mutesa of Buganda and Mirambo of Nyamwezi were friendly to the missionaries. C The establishment of many mission Schools and Churches helped in winning more converts.
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He gave them letters which introduced them to the governors of the coastal towns. B Some African traditional rulers such as Nabongo Mumia of Wanga in western Kenya, Kabaka Mutesa of Buganda and Mirambo of Nyamwezi were friendly to the missionaries. C The establishment of many mission Schools and Churches helped in winning more converts. D Missionaries studied African languages and made it easy for them to translate the bible into local languages; e.g. Kikamba , Kirabai and Kiswahili. E Freed slaves from FRERE TOWN who served as catechists helped much in the spread of Christianity. F Development of transport and communication e.g. railways and roads made easier for the missionaries to venture deep into the interior of Kenya. G When Quinine was discovered it enabled the missionaries to venture into the interior without fear of malaria. H The peace which prevailed in East Africa during the colonial period encouraged the spread of Christianity. This peace was as a result of abolition of slave trade and establishment of colonial rule which marked the end of inter community wars. 69The problems which the missionaries in East Africa encountered before the attainment of independence 1. Language barrier was an obstacle to the spread of Christianity. 2. There were problems of Transport and communication because even at the eve of independence very few areas were served by railway lines and roads. 3. Missionaries suffered from tropical diseases like malaria. 4. Missionaries lacked adequate capital to maintain and sustain them. 5. There was severe opposition from Islam, which had already spread along the East African coast. 6. The Missionaries were attacked by hostile African communities such as the Nandi of Kenya. 7. Sometimes due to lack of security the property of the missionaries were stolen 8. There was rivalry between different Missionary groups which resulted to hatred and disunity. 9. Missionaries encountered shortages of essential human requirements like food and water. 10. African communities opposed missionaries who interfered with their culture and way of life. 11. They were attacked by slave traders. The contributions of Christian Missionaries to the welfare of the people of East Africa Missionaries established schools and taught Africans how to read and write. They provided modern medical services by establishing hospitals and dispensaries. Missionaries advocated for the abolition of slave trade and slavery and they established freed slave settlement and used freed slaves to spread Christianity. Missionaries spread Christianity and made many converts.
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They provided modern medical services by establishing hospitals and dispensaries. Missionaries advocated for the abolition of slave trade and slavery and they established freed slave settlement and used freed slaves to spread Christianity. Missionaries spread Christianity and made many converts. They translated the Bible into African languages such as Kikamba, Kirabai and Kiswahili. The Missionaries also contributed a lot in the development of transport and communication by building roads to serve mission stations. The Christian missionaries helped to eradicate some inhuman practices such as human sacrifice and tried to discourage witchcraft. They introduced new crops such as tea, coffee, cotton and pyrethrum and new better methods of farming. 70The results of the Christian missionary activities in East Africa The missionaries translated the Bible into native languages such as Kiswahili, Kikamba and Kirabai. They converted Africans to Christianity. Those converted abandoned traditional customs such as polygamy and human sacrifice. The Christian Missionaries introduced Western education and civilization. They also established medical services by establishing hospitals and dispensaries which improved the welfare of the Africans and reduced death rate. The missionaries explored part of Kenya and reported their findings to their mother countries. This contributed to the colonization of Kenya and the rest of East African countries. The Christian Missionaries also experimented with new crops such as coffee. They also introduced new methods of farming. Transport and communication means were developed especially those which served the mission centres. Such means were roads and telephone lines. They collected useful information concerning the customs and the institutions of African communities. For instance Dr. Krapf studied and recorded the customs of the Mijikenda. This information is very useful for reconstructing history today. Review Questions. 1. Why did the early foreigners visit the East African coast before 1500 AD? 2. I How was the trade between the East African coast and the outside world organised before 1900 AD? Ii What factors contributed to the development of the above trade? 3. I Identify the problems the Portuguese encountered along the East African coast. Ii Show the ways the Portuguese tried to evade those problems. 4. A Discuss the positive and negative impact of the Portuguese administration on the East African coast. B Give all the reasons for the decline of the coastal towns during the Portuguese era. 5. Explain the contribution of Seyyid Said in East Africa. 6. Describe the factors which facilitated the spread of Christianity in East Africa. 71CHAPTER 7. CITIZENSHIP.
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E He satisfies the minister that he intends, if naturalised, to continue living in Kenya. F He has been lawfully and ordinarily living in Kenya for a period totalling to 4 years in the previous 8 years including the 12 months preceding his application. G He applies in the manner prescribed by parliament and the minister grants a certificate of naturalisation. The conditions in which citizenship may be revoked withdrawn Kenyan citizens by birth cannot be denied citizenship. Only those who have registered or naturalised citizenships may have them revoked if the person has been proved as being disloyal to Kenya by his conduct or speech, if the legislation or naturalisation was obtained by false representation or by fraud, if the naturalised person has been imprisoned within the first five years of his legislation for 12 months without a pardon in any country and lastly if the naturalised or registered person has lived in another country for a continuous period of seven years and not in the service of Kenya since he became a citizen. The rights and freedoms that Kenyan citizens are entitled to enjoy Right to own property Every citizen in Kenya has a right to own property in any area of the country. Right to life One should not be deprived of his or her life intentionally. This implies that no person is supposed to murder another or commit suicide. Anyone who does any of these two is prosecuted in a court of law. The right to liberty No one should be imprisoned or detained without good reason. Also no one should be enslaved by the other. A person who is arrested must be taken to court within a specified period maximum 24 hours . Freedom of conscience and religion Every Kenyan citizen has a right to take an active part in a religion of his or her own choice and think freely. The religion one joins should be legally registered. 73Freedom of expression One is free to hold an opinion without interference from the government. At the same time one is not allowed to incite anybody against the government. Freedom of movement One is free to move to any part of Kenya or live in any part of this country. Kenyans should therefore allow fellow Kenyans to move freely without interference. There are legally prohibited areas where one is not allowed to trespass for example private homes and state house. Freedom of speech One is free to say anything so long as it does not interfere with other people's freedoms or go against the government.
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Kenyans should therefore allow fellow Kenyans to move freely without interference. There are legally prohibited areas where one is not allowed to trespass for example private homes and state house. Freedom of speech One is free to say anything so long as it does not interfere with other people's freedoms or go against the government. Right of protection from discrimination All people in Kenya are supposed to receive fair treatment irrespective of their sex gender , race, tribe, political opinion and colour. Everyone therefore deserves mutual respect and honour. Right of protection against arbitrary search and entry Nobody should be searched without his consent or a valid court warrant. The police can search individuals houses if they are suspected of crimes such as theft or if they have escaped from prison and also if they house seditious documents. In this case the police must produce search warrants. Right of protection from the law of land A person who is charged with a criminal offence must be offered a fair hearing within a reasonable time by a court of law. This time should not go beyond twenty four 24 hours unless during public holidays and weekends. Right of protection from torture and any other insecurity No one should be tortured for any reason at all even by police after arrest because the law assumes an individual to be innocent until proved guilty by a court of law. 74The situations in which Kenyan citizens may be denied some of their rights and freedoms: Kenya citizens may be denied some of their rights and freedoms if they interfere with those of other people. They will also be denied some of their freedom if they misuse their rights and freedoms with the aim of destabilising the country by causing instability, by criticising the government or by dispersing seditious publications with the aim of destabilising the country. One can be denied the freedom of religion if he uses it wrongly to undermine the government or to disunite Kenyans. There may be a great need for the government to take individuals' land for public use e.g. for road, hospitals or schools. In this case the individuals has to be compensated. In times of war the government may limit the freedom of movement by curfew or by declaring a state of emergency. People may be denied freedom of speech if they begin uttering false statements about other people or when they incite people against the government with the aim of causing instability in the government. The occasion in which a person is likely to be denied the right to personal liberty in Kenya - In case of having unsound mind e.g. if a person is mad or crazy.
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In this case one is entitled the right to think and worship. D An individual is guaranteed freedom of association or assembly. Individuals therefore are free to assemble and associate with people of their own choice without harassment. E An individual is guaranteed the right to worship and join a religion of his choice. F The bill of rights protects a person against arbitrary search, detention and arrest. G It provides freedom of movement of the individual. One has right to move freely in any part of the country. 76h An individual is protected from being enslaved or being forced to supply unpaid labour. I The bill or rights provides the individual with freedom of expression or speech through writing and talking. The responsibilities of a good citizen. A good Kenyan citizen is one who is ready to obey all the Kenyan laws in order to maintain peace and order in the country. He is one who participates in development projects such as roads, dispensaries, hospitals and schools - which help to improve the welfare of the people of Kenya. A good citizen is also one who participates in the democratic process by getting involved in voting to elect the most responsible representatives of the people in both the parliament and the local authorities. The elements of good citizenship A good citizen will demonstrate the following: - High degree of patriotism. This may be demonstrated by full participation in development projects and respect of the law. -. High degree of honesty in all what one does. -. High degree of generosity. -. Always being well informed in all activities taking place in one s country so that one can participate fully in the democratic process, in public meetings and in the elections. -. Always being free to air views on all issues affecting the people and the country at large. Kenyans conducting voting exercise77Review Questions. 1. What does the term citizenship imply? 2. In which ways may one become a citizen of Kenya? 3. How may citizenship be with held? 4. Explain the circumstances which may compel the government to interfere with the: i Freedom of speech ii Right to life 5. Outline the rights and freedoms contained in the Bill of Rights in Kenya. 6. Describe the qualities of a good citizen. 78CHAPTER 8. NATIONAL INTEGRATION. The meaning of National integration meaning and importance. National integration is the process of uniting all the people of Kenya irrespective of their cultures, occupations, religions, races and ethnic groups into one solid and responsible nation.
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NATIONAL INTEGRATION. The meaning of National integration meaning and importance. National integration is the process of uniting all the people of Kenya irrespective of their cultures, occupations, religions, races and ethnic groups into one solid and responsible nation. National integration is important because: i It encourages socialisation of people of different races, cultures, religion and ethnic groups. Ii it encourages rapid economic and social developments in the country for example trade, games and sports. Iii It brings national stability by ensuring that there is security in the country iv It promotes national building. V It enables the nation to prosper. Vi It enhances patriotism and nationalism. Vii It fuses various communities of Kenya into one viii It causes people to develop a sense of pride for their nation. Ix It encourages foreigners to visit our country. X It encourages teamwork when solving national problems like the problem of drought, famine and epidemics. The factors promoting national unity. National language: This makes it possible for people of different communities to communicate with one another. Kiswahili and English help to achieve this goal. The constitution: It protects Kenya citizens from any kind of discrimination. It provides equal opportunities for all Kenyans. Education: This helps Kenyans children to meet, mix and interact freely. It helps Kenyans to develop a sense of belonging and desire to serve the nation whole-heartedly. 79School children socialising on their way to school. Equal distribution of resources: Schools, clean water and health centres should be distributed fairly and equally to serve the needs of all Kenyans. Social economic interactions: This occurs when people undertake social and economic activities such as trading , games and conducting marriage ceremonies . The Presidency: All Kenyans are united under one President who they respect and honour. The President is in charge of the entire nation. He links the nation with the rest of the world. The factors which play the role of limiting national unity. Tribalism: Favouring people of ones own tribe on matters pertaining to employment, economic benefits, educational privileges and promotions. Nepotism: Favouring relatives. His Excellency Mwai Kibaki, President of the Republic of Kenya80Racism Racialism: Favouring people of ones race for example favouring Africans and discriminating Asians. Religious differences: This is division along religious lines due to different beliefs and practices.
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Forming national and international organisations aimed at promoting peace and harmony in the world or between nations and also between various people in a nation. The process of resolving conflicts First identify the type of conflict in question. Secondly isolate the people or parties involved in the conflict. Then cross-examine the major causes of the conflict. Engage an impartial or neutral arbitrator. Now use dialogue as a way of settling the dispute. Incase of a stalemate or deadlock, engage more and more arbitrators. They should maintain a high degree of neutrality and understanding. Try to exhaust the available ways, means as well as the existing machinery for resolving conflicts. You may involve neutral leaders, elders, lawyers, opinion leaders and all other kinds of mediators. Also refer to the way82similar issues were dealt with in the past. If the outcome was negative then forget about it and try your own. If the parties agree, then they should sign binding agreements or treaties which clearly explain what is expected of them in future. If the parties fail to agree, encourage constant meetings aimed at resolving the conflict and also employ as many mediators or arbitrators as possible until an agreement is reached. It is therefore important note that when resolving conflict methods such as Negotiation, mediation and arbitration are very necessary. In negotiation one has to study the kind and nature of conflict and then analyse all the facts about that particular conflict. The conflicting states or individuals or groups are then assembled for discussion which continues until a lasting solution is reached. When this is achieved then an agreement is reached and the concerned sign as away of expressing their commitment. -. It should also be noted that an arbitrator or a mediator should be a neutral person who is not likely to favour any side. Arbitration should never include people who have vested interests, or people who are corrupt and can take bribes. Mediator should not include people who are related to any one group or individual or those involved in the dispute in question. Various levels of conflict i. Interstate conflict: In this case a disagreement may arise between two countries. The causes of this may be boundary disputes, hatred between two heads of state, people of one country raiding people of the neighbouring country to capture or steal livestock, ideological differences and abuse of human rights and international laws. Ii. Conflict between two people: This is a very common level of conflict brought about by issues such as failure to pay debt, land ownership wrangle, family disagreement, political differences between individuals and jealousy.
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Various levels of conflict i. Interstate conflict: In this case a disagreement may arise between two countries. The causes of this may be boundary disputes, hatred between two heads of state, people of one country raiding people of the neighbouring country to capture or steal livestock, ideological differences and abuse of human rights and international laws.ii. Conflict between two people: This is a very common level of conflict brought about by issues such as failure to pay debt, land ownership wrangle, family disagreement, political differences between individuals and jealousy.iii. Conflict between a state and an individual: This is likely to occur especially when one is denied individual human rights for example, The government may take an individual s land and fail to compensate it. Powerful individual may also grab public land and then the government struggles to repossess it once more for public interest.iv. Conflict between two or more groups: some of the causes of this conflict may be stiff competition in business, land ownership claims,83power struggle by rival political parties and religious differences which involve different religious groups or denominations. The role of a mediator during resolving conflicts.- A mediator explains the rules to be followed during the process of helping the parties to reach an agreement.- A mediator acts as referee to ensure that no party interrupts the other when explaining the cause of conflicts.- The mediator listens to the parties and compiles the facts which he later uses to help reach an agreement.- The mediator gives his own solutions and the parties give out their suggestions.- If an agreement is reached the mediator records it and the parties concerned are requested to honour and show commitment to it. Review Questions.1.i What is the meaning of National Integration ii Why should there be National Integration 2.Describe the factors that may limit National Unity.3.Define the term conflict.4.Identify the main methods of resolving conflicts.5.How can conflicts affect the running of schools in Kenya?6.Discuss the process of resolving conflicts.7.Identify the ways through which conflicts may be avoided.
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In 1905, Germany announced her support for Moroccan independence. War was narrowly avoided by a conference which allowed France to retain possession of Morocco. However, in 1911, the Germans were again protesting against French possession of Morocco. Britain supported France and Germany was persuaded to back down for part of French Congo. 7 Bosnian Crisis In 1908, Austria-Hungary took over the former Turkish province of Bosnia. This angered Serbians who felt the province should be theirs. Serbia threatened AustriaHungary with war. Russia, allied to Serbia, mobilized its forces. Germany, allied to Austria-Hungary mobilized its forces and prepared to threaten Russia. War was avoided when Russia backed down. There was, however, war in the Balkans between SPECIAL COVERAGE The First Moroccan Crisis The First Moroccan Crisis clearly indicated that Germany s relation with France was at best fragile. In 1905 Morocco was one of the few African states not occupied by a European power. In May 1905 it was agreed that an international conference should be held on Morocco in Algeciras. The Algeciras Conference of 1906 The main aim was to decide what was to be done with regards to Morocco. The two main protagonists at Algeciras were France and Germany. However, it soon became very clear to Germany that other European powers had sided with France Britain, Spain and Italy. The Algeciras Conference ended on April 7th 1906.The Germans got very little out of the conference. The plan to create a triple alliance or even a quadruple alliance to isolate Great Britain failed. Arguably, by the end of the conference, Britain and France had even closer ties to one another. A German presence in North Africa had also failed to materialize. The French media portrayed Germany as an inferior nation, much to the concern of the more experienced politicians in Paris. The Algeciras Conference may have resolved the crisis in Morocco but the outcome clearly defined Europe into certain camps. At this conference Germany publicly lost out. The Agadir Crisis of 1911 the Second Moroccan Crisis. The Agadir Crisis occurred in 1911 just four years after the First Moroccan Crisis. Germany s attention was diverted after the 1905-06 crises by other issues, mainly building up her navy so that it rivaled the Royal Navy. As a result France spent five years having far more influence in Morocco than Germany.
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The Agadir Crisis of 1911 the Second Moroccan Crisis. The Agadir Crisis occurred in 1911 just four years after the First Moroccan Crisis. Germany s attention was diverted after the 1905-06 crises by other issues, mainly building up her navy so that it rivaled the Royal Navy. As a result France spent five years having far more influence in Morocco than Germany. They backed the corrupt Sultan, Abdul Aziz, who was accused by some of his countrymen of selling out Morocco to the French. The half-brother of Aziz, Mulay Hafid, took a stand on behalf of the Moroccan people who proclaimed him Sultan in January 1908. Fez also came under attack. In April 1911 a decision was made in Germany to send troops to Fez to support the foreign contingent living there. The plan was to send German warships to Agadir and Mogador ostensibly to defend German citizens in Morocco. A gunboat, the Panther , was sent to Agadir on July 1st 1911. What part did the Agadir Crisis play in the outbreak of World War One? The episode proved that Germany was hell-bent on trying to dominate Europe as a whole. Winston Churchill and David Lloyd George were among those who believed this. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 4 1911 and 1912 when the Balkan states drove Turkey out of the area. The states then fought each other over which area should belong to which state. Austria-Hungary then intervened and forced Serbia to give up some of its acquisitions. Tension between Serbia and Austria-Hungary was high. 8 The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand A secret society called Ujedinjenje Ili Smrt, 'Union or Death' or Black Hand was founded in Belgrade, an outgrowth of an older Serb nationalist group: Narodna Odbrana. When it was learned that the Heir-Apparent to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand, was scheduled to visit Sarajevo in June of 1914, the Black Hand decided to assassinate him. Three young Bosnians were recruited, trained and equipped: Gavrilo Princip, Nedjelko Cabrinovic and Trifko Grabez. The murders of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie brought Austro-Serbian tensions to a head.
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When it was learned that the Heir-Apparent to the Austrian throne, Franz Ferdinand, was scheduled to visit Sarajevo in June of 1914, the Black Hand decided to assassinate him. Three young Bosnians were recruited, trained and equipped: Gavrilo Princip, Nedjelko Cabrinovic and Trifko Grabez. The murders of Franz Ferdinand and Sophie brought Austro-Serbian tensions to a head. As Vienna took a hard line against Serbia, the other powers in Europe took sides. The wheels of war gained speed. The Crisis of July turned into world war, just over thirty days after Franz Ferdinand and his wife Sophie were shot. System of Alliances. By 1914, Europe had divided into two camps. 1 The Triple Alliance was Germany, Italy and Austria-Hungary. 2 The Triple Entente was Britain, France and Russia. 1 The Triple Alliance The alliance between Germany and Austria was natural. Both spoke the same language - German - and had a similar culture. Austria was in political trouble in the south-east of Europe - the Balkans. She needed the might of Germany to back her up if trouble got worse. Italy had joined these countries as she feared their power on her northern border. Each member of the Triple Alliance Germany, Austria and Italy promised to help the others if they were attacked by another country. By the close of the war the Central Powers had been extended to incorporate Bulgaria and Turkey 2 The Triple Entente The Entente Powers comprised a military alliance - driven by a variety of inter-related treaties - of France, Great Britain and Russia. The Entente alliance sprang from the military concerns of Germany's neighbours to east and west. Russia and France; accordingly in 1894 they signed an alliance based upon fears of growing German power. Britain subsequently forged alliances with both Russia and France once it became clear that Germany intended to construct a navy to match the Royal Navy in the late 1890s. Thus the Entente Alliance was not a formal alliance. The term was later replaced by the more general 'Allies' to include other nations including Italy and Japan. THE COURSE OF THE WAR. The war was fought in three continents; Europe, Africa and Asia and both on land and on the sea. In Europe, the war was fought in two frontsKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 5 1.
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Early on July 31, Russia began a full mobilization of its forces in preparation for war with Austria-Hungary. On August 1, Germany declared war on Russia and German troops began moving into Luxembourg in preparation for invading Belgium and France. On August 2, Germany contacted the Belgian government requesting free passage through Belgium for its troops. This was refused by King Albert and Germany declared war on both Belgium and France on August 3. The German Army went into Belgium on the 4 August. On the same day, Great Britain started a war on Germany, because Britain was a friend of Belgium. When the Germans got to the Belgian city of Li ge, they did finally push the Belgians out of the city, but it had taken longer than the German generals had planned. On December 24-25, 1914, there was a temporary halt to the fighting on parts of the Western Front. This was the Christmas truce. The initial force behind the Christmas Truce came from the Germans. Christmas was celebrated in full, with men visiting across the lines and gifts of food and tobacco being exchanged. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 6 As Christmas ended, both sides reluctantly returned to war, the bonds forged at Christmas slowly eroded as units rotated out and the fighting became more ferocious. By 1915, the Western Front had become a stalemate as both sides engaged in trench warfare. The men on both sides took spades and dug lines of trenches went all the way from Switzerland to the North Sea, because they did not want to be killed. In front of the trenches, there was barbed wire that cut anyone who tried to climb over it, and mines that blew up anyone who tried to run across the "no man's land" that was in between the trenches. Gas was also an important weapon used. The war in the west was static in the next three years and attempts by the military commanders on both sides to break the stalemate led to deaths of many soldiers. At the battle of the Somme in 1916 60,000 British men died in a single day. It was one of the bloodiest days in the history of the British army. Seeking to shatter the Anglo-French lines, the German Chief of Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, began planning a massive assault on the French city of Verdun.
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At the battle of the Somme in 1916 60,000 British men died in a single day. It was one of the bloodiest days in the history of the British army. Seeking to shatter the Anglo-French lines, the German Chief of Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, began planning a massive assault on the French city of Verdun. The Battle of Verdun lasted from February 21, 1916 until December 18, 1916 and was one of the longest and bloodiest battles of World War I. A brutal battle of attrition, Verdun cost the French an estimated 161,000 dead, 101,000 missing and 216,000 wounded. German losses were approximately 142,000 killed and 187,000 wounded. 2. The Eastern Front was fought in Central and Eastern Europe and was one of the main places where World War I took place. The start of the war on the eastern front involved an attack on Russia on 1st of august 1914. On August 6, Austria-Hungary declared war on Russia and six days later entered into hostilities with France and Britain. The Russians were decisively defeated by allied forces of Austria and Germany at the battle of Tanneberg in august 1914 and at the battle of Missourian Lakes in September 1914. War in the seas Some of the fiercest battles between the Allies and the central powers took place in the sea. By May 1916, Germany s main fleet was stationed in the North Sea to attack Britain s fleet. However, the British intelligence decoded the German wireless code and was able to prepare the royal navy to fully counter Germany s challenge. Both sides suffered causalities in the war that followed. 11 german ships and 14 British ships were lost. Importance of Britain s supremacy at sea a The British naval forces assisted in blocking the central powers particularly the Germans from accessing food and raw materials from other parts of the world. This derailed their war plans. B Her naval supremacy enabled the allies to capture colonies of the central powers. C The sea blockade enabled the allies to maintain uninterrupted communication with other allied forces, as well as safeguard the british food and raw material supplies from other parts of the world.
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This derailed their war plans. B Her naval supremacy enabled the allies to capture colonies of the central powers. C The sea blockade enabled the allies to maintain uninterrupted communication with other allied forces, as well as safeguard the british food and raw material supplies from other parts of the world. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 7 The final phase of World War 1 The final phase of the war was a second Germany onslaught on France in 1918 where the Germans were decisively defeated in the hands of USA soldiers. End of World War I. Two events that led to the end of World War I were: 1 Russia s withdrawal from the war after the Great Russian revolution. 2 The declaration of war by the United States of America against the central powers. The First Russian Revolution In 1917, there was a revolution in Russia. The Russian people didn't want to fight anymore, because the war had been putting burdens on them, and many of them were poor and hungry. The Second Russian Revolution Two factions fought to rule over Russia. The passive Mensheviks lost against radical Bolsheviks. The leader of the Bolsheviks was Vladimir Lenin 1870-1924 which was Communist who followed the ideas of Karl Marx. The new government sued the Germans for peace, and signed a peace treaty called Brest-Litvosk with the Central Powers in March 1918 at the city of Brest Litovsk. The Germans and Russians stopped fighting. This gave Germany lots of land in Eastern Europe and the Baltic Sea USA entry into the war. The German generals using submarines named U-boats underwater boats attacked American ships Lusitania that were carrying food and weapons to Great Britain. Some Americans were killed by the submarines. Germany also wrote a secret telegram note to Mexico suggesting that the two countries work together to attack the United States the Zimmerman Telegram- because the person who sent it was named Arthur Zimmerman-the german foreign minister . Other reasons why USA entered the war on the side of the Allies were; a America was concerned with safeguarding her trade with Britain. US Anglo relationship was strong . USA was fully aware that the a defeat of Allied powers would cost her financial and industrial institutions b The USA and British intelligence were able to link some Germany sympathizers with the industrial sabotage in factories and trade unions in the USA.
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Other reasons why USA entered the war on the side of the Allies were; a America was concerned with safeguarding her trade with Britain. US Anglo relationship was strong . USA was fully aware that the a defeat of Allied powers would cost her financial and industrial institutions b The USA and British intelligence were able to link some Germany sympathizers with the industrial sabotage in factories and trade unions in the USA. C Cruelty of the Germans led to the growth of anti-Germany feelings in the United States. Many of the Allies sympathizers had relatives in either France or Britain. American people decided that they wanted their country to enter the war to punish Germany. On April 6, 1917 the United States declared war against Germany and became part of the Allies. The socialist politicians declared Germany a republic and met with the Supreme Commander of the allied forces on 7th November 1918, Ferdinand Foch, to negotiate for end of the war with very stiff terms to the Germans. The stiff terms given to the Germans included; a Germany to withdraw from all occupied territories, including overseas colonies. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 8 b All German forces west of the Rhine to be withdrawn. C All German warships to surrender to the Allies. D Occupation of some parts of Germany by the Allies. E All Allied prisoners of war to be released. The Germans were given 72 hours to either accept or reject these stiff conditions. Protesting bitterly, they signed an armistice on 9th November 1918. At 11:00 AM on 9th November 1918, the war ended. Reasons why the allies won World War I. a Allied powers had many supporters drawn from 25 states some of which were Britain, France, Belgium, Russia, Italy, USA, Japan and Portugal. They had more manpower than the central powers. B Germany failure to effectively control her expensive colonies and others turned against her. C USA entry into war on the side of the allies accelerated the defeat of the central powers. The industrial might of USA and her economic wealth helped the Allies to force the central powers to their knees. D The Allies had able and focussed political leaders like Lloyd George-the British Premier and Georges Clemenceau, the French Premier. E Germans axis powers made serious technical mistakes like invasion of the neutral Belgium by Germany which turned the world opinion against the central powers.
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The industrial might of USA and her economic wealth helped the Allies to force the central powers to their knees. D The Allies had able and focussed political leaders like Lloyd George-the British Premier and Georges Clemenceau, the French Premier. E Germans axis powers made serious technical mistakes like invasion of the neutral Belgium by Germany which turned the world opinion against the central powers. F Superior naval power of the Allies. The superiority of the British Royal Navy enabled the Allies to enforce a naval Blockade that caused severe food shortages among the central powers. G Germany fought the war on many fronts. H Germany was badly led down by her colleagues like Italy who decamped and Bulgaria and Austria-Hungary who had to be assisted all the time. Turkey on her part easily accepted defeat. I The Allies had financial and industrial resources in Europe and in their colonies which were used to great advantage during the war. J The Allies had powerful weapons e.g. they used Tankers, Aircraft and Battleships. K The allies were united under the Command of General Foch which disadvantaged the central powers. German also used young and inexperienced soldiers after 1918 due to heavy causalities. L The central powers were surrounded by the Allies as they lay in the centre of Europe. They also lacked an extensive coastline and thus were easily blockaded. The Peace Treaties. In January 1918, Woodrow Wilson, President of the USA, outlined, in his speech to the congress, the fourteen points that were essential in maintenance of world peace. Among these were three great principles that formed the basis of world peace namely; 1. Self-determination of all peoples, i.e, the right of peoples all over the world to determine their own fate. 2. The need to make public all diplomatic and international agreements. 3. The need to establish a League of Nations which would provide an avenue forKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 9 discussing all international problems, protect small states from aggression by large ones. In January 1919, statesmen from the 27 Allied powers converged at Paris, France to determine the fate of the defeated central powers. The central powers were not party to the discussions but were required to sign on the final draft.
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The need to establish a League of Nations which would provide an avenue forKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 9 discussing all international problems, protect small states from aggression by large ones. In January 1919, statesmen from the 27 Allied powers converged at Paris, France to determine the fate of the defeated central powers. The central powers were not party to the discussions but were required to sign on the final draft. The Key personalities at the conference were; a Lloyd George PM of Britain b George Clemenceau PM of France c Woodrow Wilson President of USA d Vittorio Orlando PM of Italy Five treaties were signed with each of the central powers separately as follows; a The Treaty of Versailles with Germany 28th June 1919 b Treaty of St. Germaine with Austria 10th September 1919 c Treaty of Neuilly with Bulgaria 27th November 1919 d Treaty of Trianon with Hungary 4th June 1920 e Treaty of Sevres in 1920 and Lausanne in 1923 with Turkey. The Treaty of Versailles. It should be noted that all the above treaties were generally referred to as the Treaty of Versailles. Terms of the Versailles Treaty of 1919. A The treaty declared Germany an aggressor who was supposed to pay reparations and whose military capability was to be reduced. B She lost all her colonial passions with the African colonies being taken from her and put under supervision of the League of Nations. C The treaty of St. Germaine provided for the creation of Yugoslavia, Bosnia, Herzegovina and Malta as mandated territories. D Germany was totally disarmed and only allowed to retain a force of 100,000 soldiers and her navy was disbanded. Military conscription was banned in Germany. E Germany s population and size was reduced as Austria, with a large German population was allowed to remain independent. Italy acquired Stria, the Italianspeaking region of Austria. F Rhineland was to be permanently demilitarized. Germany troops were not allowed in the region. G h By the treaty of Versailles, Germany lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to France. I The treaty established the League of Nation. Failures of the treaty of Versailles.
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G h By the treaty of Versailles, Germany lost the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to France. I The treaty established the League of Nation. Failures of the treaty of Versailles. A The treaty handed Germany a heavy punishment as if she was the only one to blame for World War 1. This provoked deep resentment and bitterness among the German nationals. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 10 b The treaty ignored the interests of the colonial people. The former colonial possessions of Germany and turkey were handed over to France and Britain in total disregard to the African grievances during the Versailles conference c The treaty failed to carter for the interests of the minority in Europe. The new republic of Austria was forbidden from merging with Germany though a national vote was for the merger. D Italy was given a raw deal in the settlement. She was only given Stria, an Italianspeaking region formerly belonging to Austria. E Though the treaty proposal for the formation of the League of Nations came from the USA president Wilson, the US constitution prohibited commitment to such an organization, whose membership required a nation to help a future victim of aggression. RESULTS OF WORLD WAR I a Nationalist movements in Asia and Africa grew in strength and number after the war and a sense of patriotism arose. B USA gained an upper hand in the post war European affairs. She emerged as a leading world power. C German military capability was reduced on land and sea and heavy indemnity imposed on her. She lost all her colonies, which were made mandated territories of the League of Nations. D The end of the war marked the beginning of the decline of western imperialism. As early as 1920, there was a possibility of independence for colonial countries. The war encouraged imperial powers to give more freedom to their subjects. E The end of the war witnessed the creation of new states e.g. Yugoslavia, Czechoslovakia, Poland and Finland. F Germany and Italy fell in the hands of dictators e.g. Mussolini and Hitler. G The war Created bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought in the war. This continued until the outbreak of the Second World War. H It led to the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in Russia as radicals took over government there. I It led to a change of government in Britain. J There was greater use of motor vehicles and aircraft, which facilitated transport.
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H It led to the Bolshevik Revolution of 1917 in Russia as radicals took over government there. I It led to a change of government in Britain. J There was greater use of motor vehicles and aircraft, which facilitated transport. K The art of surgery improved. L Between 1914 and 1918, European factories were destroyed and business brought down hence heavy losses. M There was massive destruction of property and infrastructure. N It led to the great depression 1920 to 1921, which affected economies worldwide. O It led to increased taxation by he colonial authorities to meet war and post-war demands. THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS Origin and organization of the League of Nations. The League of Nations was established by the victors of the First World War in 1920 at the treaty of Versailles with the main aim of preventing the occurrence of another war. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 11 The idea of its formation was mooted by Woodrow Wilson, the US president who was supported by Lord Robert Cecil of Britain, Jan Smuts of South Africa and Leon Bourgeois of France. The League of Nation came into force during the first meeting in London Britain, on 10th January 1920. Reasons for the formation of the League of Nations in 1920. A It was formed for the Maintenance of world peace It was specifically created to prevent the outbreak of another world war b The League of Nations was meant to foster international cooperation in solving problems as they arise. C It was formed to jointly take instant action against an agreed aggressor by economic and possibly by military means. D Members were to secure and maintain fair and humane conditions of labour as one way of maintaining peace in the world. E It was formed to oversee development of territories lost to central powers during the First World War. E.g. Tanganyika, Togo, South West Africa etc. The main organs of the League of Nations were; The Council. It was made up of permanent and Non-permanent members. The permanent members were France, Britain, Italy and Japan. Non permanent members were four, elected by the general assembly. The main role of the council which sat in Geneva was to appoint committees and secretary General with the approval of the majority of the Assembly. It also dealt with disputes amongst member states, reduction of armament, execution of arbitral awards and admittance and expulsion of members.
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Non permanent members were four, elected by the general assembly. The main role of the council which sat in Geneva was to appoint committees and secretary General with the approval of the majority of the Assembly. It also dealt with disputes amongst member states, reduction of armament, execution of arbitral awards and admittance and expulsion of members. The Assembly. It met once a year at Geneva and was comprised of three delegates from each member state. It elected non-permanent members to the council. The functions of the Assembly included; a Control of the Budget of the organization including contributions and expenditure . B Admission of new members after approval of a two-thirds majority. C Appointment of non-permanent members of the League of Nations Council. D Consideration of treaties. E Supervision of the work of the League of Nations council. F Appointment of the 15 judges of the permanent Court of International Justice. G Giving approval to the appointment of Secretary-General. The Secretariat. The Secretariat, based in Geneva, consisted of the secretary general and his staff. It was the administrative body of the League of Nations. It kept records of the organization and conducted correspondences including treaties by member states. It implemented theKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 12 decisions of the League of Nations. It provided continuity between one meeting of the council or the assembly and the next, The International Court of Justice. Set up between 1920 and 1922, it comprised of eleven judges and four deputy judges elected for nine years by the assembly and the council. It was based at the Hague- Holland. Decisions made by the court were binding on all parties in dispute. International Labour Organization. It consisted of 4 delegates- two for member states and two for workers from each member state. Its main aim was to maintain good working conditions for men, women and children. The Mandates Commission. It had then responsibility of supervising the administration of the trustee colonies. The League of Nations also had several specialized agencies. Achievements of the League of Nations. A The League of Nations, through the Permanent Court of International Justice, maintained international peace and security. E.g. in the city of Danzig in spite of the hostility between the poles and the Germans. B The League of Nations achieved its objective of treating the minority with humane. The International Office for Refugees, for example, assisted refugees. Victims of the Nazi persecutions were also assisted.
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B The League of Nations achieved its objective of treating the minority with humane. The International Office for Refugees, for example, assisted refugees. Victims of the Nazi persecutions were also assisted. C The league assisted in the administration of the trust territories, through the Mandates Commission. E.g. in Togo, Tanganyika Cameroon and Rwanda-urundi. In addition, the territories acquired from turkey. E.g. Iraq and Palestine. D The league was able to solve several interstate disputes in a peaceful manner. E.g the frontier dispute between turkey and Iraq over the Mosul province 1924-1926 , the dispute between Poland and Germany over northern Silesia. E The league successfully restored financial stability in Austria following the economic slump in the country after the World War 1. F It successfully enforced control over the manufacture and sale of arms. It also held disarmament meetings. G The league ensured signing of peace treaties to promote security in the world. For example, the Locarno treaties of 1925 that settled boundary disputes between Germany and France. Failures of the League of Nations. The League of Nations failed its Prime objective of maintaining world peace in the following ways; a It failed to solve the Sino-Japanese dispute after Japan invaded Manchuria in China in 1931. Japan after refusing to abide by the League s demands that it withdraws from the Chinese territory, even pulled out of the league in 1933. B The Italian invasion of Ethiopia in 1935. Benito Mussolini, rather than accept the League s verdict that he withdraws Italian troops from Ethiopia, pulled out of the League. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 13 c The League failed to stop German Violation of the terms of the Versailles Treaty. She embarked on a remilitarization programme and established a navy and an airbase. D Nations continued to make many defensive pacts in total disregard of the Treaty of Versailles. E Germany invaded other regions such as Poland and Austria between 1936 and 1939, while Russia invaded Finland in 1939 in violation of the League of Nations. Factors that undermined the effectiveness of the League of Nations. A Member countries were not willing to take disputes to the international court of justice. B German was still determined to increase its military strength and continue with its aggression policy.
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Factors that undermined the effectiveness of the League of Nations. A Member countries were not willing to take disputes to the international court of justice. B German was still determined to increase its military strength and continue with its aggression policy. C Individual nations were more pre-occupied with national interests and pride, at the expense of the organization s interests. D The Versailles peace settlement resolutions were too harsh to Germany thus leaving the Germans aggrieved and refuse to cooperate with the League of Nations. E The League of Nations lacked the executive authority to implement its resolutions. F USA congress refused to ratify the treaty of the League of Nations. This denied the organization diplomatic and economic strength. G There was shortage of funds to implement the functions of the League of Nations. H The Appeasement Policy of Britain and France forced them to stand aside and avoid taking a firm action against Japan when she invaded china, Germany when she invaded and occupied Rhineland, and Italy when she attacked Ethiopia. The Second World War. The 1930 s witnessed the rise of dictators in Europe like Adolf Hitler of Germany, Benito Mussolini of Italy and General Francisco Franco of Spain who intentionally defied international opinion and disregarded the Versailles Treaty and League of Nations. Their activities and those of Japan began to interfere with prevailing peace in the world. This happened at the time when USA had retreated into isolation leaving the task of maintaining world peace only to Britain and France. The Second World War involved most countries in the world with millions of people conscripted for service in both the military and war related industries. Causes of the Second World War. A Germany s dissatisfaction based on territorial grievances. The Versailles treaty of 1919 imposed harsh and humiliating conditions on Germany, which aggrieved the Germans to the level of being ready to go to war again. B The rise of nationalism in Europe. In Germany, the chancellor, Adolf Hitler who had the desire to dominate the whole world, fuelled it. For example, he encouraged German speakers in Sudetenland, Czechoslovakia to demand independence from Czechoslovakia. Italy under Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, in 1939 to regain her lost glory and national pride after the Adowa defeat I 1896. Syria rose up against France. C Political developments in Europe.
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Italy under Mussolini invaded Ethiopia, in 1939 to regain her lost glory and national pride after the Adowa defeat I 1896. Syria rose up against France. C Political developments in Europe. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 14 In Italy in 1922, the fascist government under Benito Mussolini came to power. In Germany, Hitler s Nazi government assumed power in 1933. The Fascist government in Italy emphasized on the regaining of lost glory. The Nazi government began a fresh new policy of aggression. D The economic problems caused by the great depression of 1929 to 1931. The great slump led to widespread unemployment, declining wages, poverty etc. These led to social discontent and political unrest in many countries of the world. E The failure of Germany to pay reparations. This was followed by the French invasion of the Ruhr industrial region- a German territory. This led to increased tension. F Weakening of the League of Nations. Japan left the League of Nations after protest over Manchuria, which she had grabbed, from china. Italy left the League of Nations after Mussolini had grabbed Abyssinia and annexed it against the will of the allies and Ethiopians. Russia invaded Finland in 1939 and the league was unable to intervene. There were many secret treaties among members of the league. G The Spanish civil war 1936-1939 . The republican revolution of 1931 ended the Spanish monarchy. The struggle between the royalists and socialists, however, continued. The European powers took sides in the civil war. France, Britain and Russia supported the royalists. Germany and Italy supported General Franco who was fighting from exile in Morocco. H Growth of military alliances. Hitler and Mussolini established a military pact in 1936 The Berlin-Rome Axis . It became the Berlin-Rome-Tokyo Axis with the joining of Italy. The alliance between Russia and German to divide Poland widened the gap between them and the allied forces. It created fear and suspicion. I The invasion of Poland by Germany. This happened in September 1939 was the immediate cause of the war. This upset Britain and France, who stated their intensions of assisting Poland. They declared war on Germany in October 1939.
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This happened in September 1939 was the immediate cause of the war. This upset Britain and France, who stated their intensions of assisting Poland. They declared war on Germany in October 1939. COURSE OF WORLD WAR 2 The invasion of Poland by German forces on 1st of September 1939 and the subsequent declaration of war against Germany by Britain and France on 3rd of September 1939 marked the beginning of the Second World War. Meanwhile on 17th September 1939, the USSR attacked Poland from the East, as per the secret clause in the Nazi-Soviet act of August 1939. Poland had been overrun by German and Russian forces by 27th September 1939. The country was divided between Russia and Germany. The phoney war. This was a period during world war two when no major military operations were undertaken on the western front although war had been declared on Germany by France and Britain. The period lasted eight months from 3rd of September 1939. It was used by the Allied countries to fully mobilise their forces for an attack on Germany since they had not initially been prepared. Hitler on his part did not want to be involved inKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 15 war in the west since his armies had not fully recovered from the consequents in the east. During this period, two unsuccessful attempts were made to bring peace; a On 6th October 1939, Hitler and Stalin of Russia made an attempt to convince the Allies to accept the Nazi Occupation of Poland and make peace. B On 7th October, King Leopold of Belgium and Queen Wilhelmina of Netherlands appealed to the Axis powers and the Western Allies to make peace. War in Western Europe. On 9th April 1940, Hitler launched a sea-borne invasion against Norway after attacking Denmark via land. They were assisted by a Norwegian Nazi sympathiser Vidkund Quisling. The prime minister of Norway and his Ministers fled to London and Hitler established a puppet government in the country. The defeat of British and French forces in Norway sparked off a parliamentary revolution in Britain forcing the PM Neville Chamberlain to resign to be replaced by Sir Winston Churchill. Germany extended their attack on Luxembourg, Netherlands and Belgium. The Allies were unable to contain the German advance and even retreated to the French port of Dunkirk, marking a major defeat of the allies in Europe.
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The defeat of British and French forces in Norway sparked off a parliamentary revolution in Britain forcing the PM Neville Chamberlain to resign to be replaced by Sir Winston Churchill. Germany extended their attack on Luxembourg, Netherlands and Belgium. The Allies were unable to contain the German advance and even retreated to the French port of Dunkirk, marking a major defeat of the allies in Europe. On 14th June 1940, the Germans captured Paris forcing the new Prime Minister Paul Reynaud to sue for peace with Hitler on 22nd June 1940. Under the peace agreement, The Germans took over Alsace Lorraine, Northern France and the Atlantic coastline. The French government fled to Vichy, southern France. Why the French were defeated so quickly. A The French forces were not psychologically prepared for the war and thus were found divided. B The French forces were not as well organized as the Germans thus exposing various military weaknesses. For example, the Germans were supported by combat planes which the French did not use. C Poor communication between the army and the airforce. The French generals failed to coordinate the war properly to the extend of ignoring the fact that the Airforce could have been used to drive German Bombers off. Having succeeded in their Paris onslaught, the Germans attacked Britain in July 1940. However, Winston Churchill, the British Premier, had mobilized forces to resist this attack successfully he even obtained reinforcement from USA. The battle of Britain determined the future of World War II. It forced Hitler to delay his attacks. War in North Africa. WWII in Africa was marked by the Italian successful attack on French and British Somaliland. Under Marshal Graziani, the Italian forces advanced to Egypt though unsuccessful. In June1942, German forces moved to North Africa to reinforce the Italians. However, British forces led by General Bernard Montgomery moved quickly and captured Malta which would have been used as a base for attack by the Germans. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 16 General Montgomery attacked the Germans at El Alamein in Egypt, forcing them to move to west. On 8th November 1942, British and American forces invaded Morocco and Algeria. Although the Germans continued fighting in Tunisia, by May 1943, their Army under General Rommel had surrendered. War in the Balkans. In August 1940, Hitler Attacked and captured Romania and Bulgaria. In April 1941, Yugoslavia and Greece were taken.
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War in the Balkans. In August 1940, Hitler Attacked and captured Romania and Bulgaria. In April 1941, Yugoslavia and Greece were taken. Crete was taken in May 1941. On 22nd June 1941, Hitler attacked USSR forcing the Russian troops to retreat. However, he failed to capture Moscow before the onset of winter. In June 1942, the Germans resumed their offensive. They were finally defeated at the battle of Stalingrad on 31st January 1943 by the Russian Red Army led by Marshal Zhukov. The Germans lost 300,000 men while 100,000 survivors surrendered. By May 1944, the Russians had pushed the Germans from their territory and were approaching Germany itself. Why the Germans were defeated during the Russian Invasion. A The Germany army was fighting in several fronts at the same time as compared to the allies. This lack of concentration in one area allowed the other Russian army to defeat them. B The soviet forces employed the scorched earth policy which left very little for the German forces. C The Germans ill-treated the soviet people and exploited their economic resources causing resentment and unity to fight with determination. D Weak leadership by the German military leaders contributed to their defeat. USA entry into World War I. The Japanese attack on the American great Naval Base at Pearl Harbour on the Hawaiian island is the one incident that dragged USA into WWII. On 8th December 1941, the USA, Britain and the Netherlands declared war on Japan. The Germans and Italians also declared war on the USA. Russia kept off the war in Asia having signed a treaty with Japan. Japan resisted fiercely. Her airforce sank two British battleships on 10th December 1941.She captured Hong Kong, Malaya in Malaysia and took over the great naval base at Singapore. She also occupied Burma, Dutch East Indies, the Philippines and parts of the western pacific islands. The Japanese forces were repulsed while on their way to Port Moresby, New Guinea in may 1942. In 1942, Britain used her bases in India to attack Japan. Japan attacked India in 1944, but the strong and large allied forces defeated the Japanese at the battle of Kohima. The defeat of Germany. After 1942, the tide of success began to turn against Hitler. German forces were defeated by the allies in North Africa and France.
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The defeat of Germany. After 1942, the tide of success began to turn against Hitler. German forces were defeated by the allies in North Africa and France. By March 1945, the Allies had crossed the Rhine, pushed the Germans out of France in June 1944. The Germans were meanwhile facing the Russian attack from the East. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 17 Hitler accepted defeated and handed over power to one of the Military Generals to retreat to an underground Bunker in Berlin. On 29th April 1945, Hitler married his long term Mistress Eva Braun. On the following day, he committed suicide by shooting himself while Eva Braun took Poison. On 7th May 1945, the Germans surrendered unconditionally Why the Germans were defeated. A Germany had acquired far too many territories and she was unable to effectively control them. B The USSR recovered from her losses and began to rearm in a bid to fight against Germany. C The USA entry into the war in 1941 on the side of the allies contributed to the eventual defeat of the Germans. D Germany s Axis powers were only four, fighting against more than 27 allies. Even among the Germany collaborators, Italy surrendered while Bulgaria and Romania also were a burden to the Germans. The defeat of Japan. After Germany surrender, Japan continued with fierce fighting sometimes employing the services of suicide bombers known as Kamikaze. The allies were able to liberate the territories captured by Japan After the defeat at Okinawa, Japan was certain of defeat, but her PM , Admiral Suzuki Kantaro, did not believe in unconditional defeat. On 6th August 1945, a bomber Aeroplane, Enola Gay, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets, flew over Hiroshima dropping a 4535.15kg atomic bomb. About 78,000 people died. On 8th August 1945, Russia attacked Japan. On 9th August 1945, an even larger Bomb was dropped on Nagasaki killing more than 40,000 people. Japan surrendered unconditionally on 15th August 1945 bringing WWII to an end. Factors that enabled the allied powers to win the Second World War. A Allies had more wealth in terms of food, raw materials and equipments. B Allies controlled the North Sea, which ensured safe transportation of troops and equipment. They were also able to block the central powers in the sea.
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A Allies had more wealth in terms of food, raw materials and equipments. B Allies controlled the North Sea, which ensured safe transportation of troops and equipment. They were also able to block the central powers in the sea. C Entry of USA in the war led to defeat of Germany. America had strong American air force and war resources, d Germany s inability to control her expansive territories and some turned against her and in favour of the allied powers. E The unity, morale and determination of the allied leaders and fighters. F Popular sentiment was for allied victory and Hitler s defeat. G Hitler's over-confidence and craziness did not allow him to comprehend the enormity of opposition up against him and the axis forces. H External support especially from the colonial people in Africa, Asia and elsewhere. I Axis powers dropped out of war one by one. J Allies had better industries and financial resources superior economy, war tactics and superior diplomacy by all the allied powers. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 18 k The axis powers made serious tactical mistakes e.g. Hitler failed to prepare for a winter campaign in Russia and was obsessed with the idea that Germans must not retreat. L When the USSR recovered from her losses, she rearmed her self and attacked Germany. Social results of Second World War a Depopulation and great suffering as Millions of people perished either in war or due to famine and diseases. B People suffered psychologically and emotionally from the loss of loved ones and torture of the war. C The end of the war witnessed change in the status of women. Women started doing work, which was initially monopolized by men. E.g. military and management. D There was permanent ill health and shortening of life for millions of peoples because of years of under- nourishment or captivity. E There was massive Destruction of property such as homes, houses, buildings, roads and bridges. F A large number of people were displaced as people moved to look for peaceful areas and this led to great suffering. The new refugees included the Jews, Slavs and the poles. G The war fomented bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought h The war helped to shade off the myth popularized by Europeans that they were a superior race to Africans as European causalities in the war proved that they were mortals Identify the political effects of the World War II.
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F A large number of people were displaced as people moved to look for peaceful areas and this led to great suffering. The new refugees included the Jews, Slavs and the poles. G The war fomented bitter feelings and mistrust among the countries that fought h The war helped to shade off the myth popularized by Europeans that they were a superior race to Africans as European causalities in the war proved that they were mortals Identify the political effects of the World War II. A Defeat of axis powers led to government changes in Germany, Italy and Japan. B The division of Europe into two opposing blocks led to the cold war, which was followed by an arms race between USA and USSR. C Germany was divided into two. The communist East and the capitalist West. The city of Berlin was also divided between the east and the west. D Germany and Italy were weakened especially with the loss of their colonies. E U.S.A U.S.S.R emerged as superpowers. The pre-war balance of power was destroyed and the power vacuum was filled by two new superpowers, the USA and USSR f A weakness of the League of Nations to prevent the outbreak of war was demonstrated. This Led to UNO formation. G There was rise of nationalism in Asia and Africa. It led to Africans struggle for independence because they were confident knowing that Europeans were no superior to them. Nationalists among the Asians leading to attainment of independence in Pakistan and India in 1947, in Burma Myanmar in 1948, and in Ceylon Sri Lanka. In 1949. H The Japanese destroyed the myth of European military superiority due to the defeat of British and American forces in the Far East. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 19 i New states were created. In 1948, the state of Israel was established in the Middle East, to settle the Jews who were displaced during the war. Economic effects of World War 2. A Agriculture and industries were disrupted due to lack of equipment, raw materials and human resources. B External trade almost came to a standstill because of fear and insecurity. C It led to increased dependency on colonies by European powers. There was need of raw materials to reconstruct the destroyed industries. D Some Industries were established in the colonies to manufacture goods because of the difficulties faced in running them during the war.
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C It led to increased dependency on colonies by European powers. There was need of raw materials to reconstruct the destroyed industries. D Some Industries were established in the colonies to manufacture goods because of the difficulties faced in running them during the war. E It led to the rise of European economic cooperation. The post war economic destructions led to the need for cooperation. This paved way for formation of the European Economic Community in 1957. INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS International Relations refers to the cooperation or interaction between individuals or groups of nations of the world Benefits of international relations. A Enhance peace and security in the world the diplomatic policies of nations call for peaceful settlement of disputes, thus reducing war incidences. B Promote understanding and unity. This done through Encouraging cultural exchange between nations. C Help in getting collectives solutions to world problems. Problems of global concern like desertification, global warming, armament and environmental pollution, are dealt with collectively. D Promote economic growth through trade. Due to good relations , there is expanded international trade which enables countries to acquire goods they don t produce e Developing countries get financial assistance. Developed nations have continued to provide financial and technical assistance to developing nations Ways in which nations relate internationally. A Economic relations. This is through trade and commercial activities among nations. For example, developed nations giving loans and grants to developing nations. B Diplomatic relations. This is a peaceful means of relationship between nations in which there is exchange of Ambassadors or High Commissioners. C Political relations. This involves cooperation between countries with similar political systems or ideologies. E.g. USA and Western Europe, in 1964, Tanganyika united with the island of Zanzibar to form the United Republic of Tanzania. D Socio-cultural relations. This takes place in form of exchange and competition between dance troops, musicians, acrobats, sports teams, theatre groups etc, e.g. participation in Commonwealth Games. International Organizations There are two types of international organizations;Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 20 1. International Governmental Organizations IGOs for example UN, Commonwealth, NAM and African Union. Formed by two or more sovereign states . 2. International Non-Governmental Organizations NGOs created by individuals or private organizations. E.g. International Red cross, Amnesty International and Transparency International. Role played by International Governmental Organizations.
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E.g. International Red cross, Amnesty International and Transparency International. Role played by International Governmental Organizations. A The provide member states with a forum to consult and tackle problems of concern. B They act as regulators in their fields to ensure the welfare of Humankind e.g World Health Organization WHO regulates health sector through immunization, vaccination and other prevention campaigns. C They enhance peace and security through peace-keeping missions and response to disasters. D They contribute to charity and facilitate equitable distribution of resources in the world. For example, the International Monetary Fund IMF and World Bank advance loans to developing nations. THE UNITED NATIONS. The UN was founded after world war Two as an organization of independent states with the following objectives; a To promote and maintain international peace and security and prevent the occurrence of another world war. B To foster friendly relations among nations of the world. C To promote respect for fundamental human rights and freedoms. D To promote social progress and better living standards of the people. E To protect the interests of minority groups such as women and children. F To promote economic growth among member states who are working towards reconstructing the world economy that was destroyed by the World War 2. G To replace the league of nations which had collapsed before the outbreak of world war 2 Formation of the United Nations. The signing of the Allied declaration in London on 12th June 1941 marked the first step in the formation of the UN. On 14th August 1941, Franklin Delano Roosevelt of USA and Winston Churchill of Britain, meeting in USA, proposed a set of principles for international collaboration in maintaining peace and security. This was the Atlantic Charter. The charter pledged respect for human Freedom, Allowed all nations the freedom to choose the form of government they preferred and provided that no territory should change hands after war without consent of its people. On 1st January 1942, representatives of Allied nations meeting in Washington signed the Declaration by United Nations and proclaimed support for the Atlantic Charter. This marked the first official use of the term United Nations as suggested by President Roosevelt in reference to the 26 nations. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 21 The first Blueprint of the UN was prepared at a conference held at Dumbarton Oaks Estate, Washington from 21st September to 7th October 1944.
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On 1st January 1942, representatives of Allied nations meeting in Washington signed the Declaration by United Nations and proclaimed support for the Atlantic Charter. This marked the first official use of the term United Nations as suggested by President Roosevelt in reference to the 26 nations. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 21 The first Blueprint of the UN was prepared at a conference held at Dumbarton Oaks Estate, Washington from 21st September to 7th October 1944. Representatives of USSR, USA, UK and China agreed on the aims, structure and functions of a world organization. On 11th February 1945, the Yalta Conference held by US president Roosevelt, UK PM Churchill and Russian PM Stalin declared the resolve to establish an international organization to maintain peace and security. On 25th April 1945, the United Nations Conference on International Organization began in San Francisco, USA attended by delegates from 50 nations. It drew a 111-Article Charter which was adopted on 25th June 1945. The UN began its official functions on 24th October 1945 after ratification of the charter by USSR, USA, Britain, China and France. Organization of the UNO. Membership to the UN is open to all peace-loving nations that accept the obligations of the charter. By 1945, only 51 states had signed the charter. Kenya Joined on 16th December 1963By April 2003 membership had grown to 191 states. To achieve its aims, the UN spelt out in its charter the following principles; a It is based on the sovereign equality of all its members. B All member states must fulfil, in good faith, their charter obligations. C All member states must settle international disputes by peaceful means and without endangering peace, security and justice. D They must refrain, in their international relations, from the threat or use of force against others. E They must give the United Nations every assistance to any action it takes in accordance with the charte r, and shall not assist states against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action. F The United Nations must ensure that states which are not members act in accordance with these principles insofar as necessary for maintenance of international peace and security.
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D They must refrain, in their international relations, from the threat or use of force against others. E They must give the United Nations every assistance to any action it takes in accordance with the charte r, and shall not assist states against which the United Nations is taking preventive or enforcement action. F The United Nations must ensure that states which are not members act in accordance with these principles insofar as necessary for maintenance of international peace and security. The UNO structure comprises six principal organs as follows; THE GENERAL ASSEMBLY This is the main deliberative organ of the UNO, but which cannot enforce action on members. It comprises all member states. Functions of the UN General Assembly. MAKE REFERENCE TO EVOLVING WORLD PAGE 44 To help in its operation, the general assembly has the following committees; The political and security committee, the special political committee, the economic and financial committee, the committee on social ,humanitarian and cultural issues, the trusteeship committee , the administration budget committee and the legal affairs committee. THE SECURITY COUNCIL It has 15 members from 15 countries. Ten of these are non-permanent. It also has five permanent members namely china, France, USA, Russia and UK. Its main function is to maintain world peace and security. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 22 ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL COUNCIL Its membership is 54. 18 are elected each year for a term of three years. Its function is to coordinate the economic and social work of UN and its specialized agencies. E.g. in trade, status of women. Population, science and technology. TRUSTEESHIP COUNCIL. It inherited the work of the Mandates Commission of the former League of Nations. It had responsibility over the territories under colonial rule-. -. To promote social, economic, political and educational advancement of the inhabitants of the trust territories. Consists of five permanent members and six additional ones appointed by the General Assembly. THE SECRETARIAT. The head of the secretariat is the secretary general. It has its headquarters in New York. Its staff members come from 139 countries. Its work covers all areas outlined in the UN Charter. THE INTERNATIONAL COURT OF JUSTICE. It has its headquarters at Hague. It is the principal judicial body of the UN. It gives advisory opinions on legal questions. It has 15 judges. SPECIALIZED AGENCIES.
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It gives advisory opinions on legal questions. It has 15 judges. SPECIALIZED AGENCIES. These are separate specialized agencies which are autonomous organizations related to the UN by special agreements. REF TO PAGE 49 OF EVOLVING WORLD Past Secretary Generals of the United Nations Organization since its inception. A Trygve lie of Norway 1946-1953 . B Dag Hammarskj ld of Sweden 1953-1961 c U Thant of Burma 1961-1971 d Kurt Waldheim of Austria 1972-1982 e Javier Perez de Cueller of Peru 1982-1991 f Boutros Ghali Boutros. Of Egypt 1992-1996 g Kofi Annan of Ghana 1997-2000 h Ban Ki Moon. 2000 up to present Achievements of the United Nations Organization. A The organization has succeeded in keeping peace amid the threats of nuclear war and seemingly endless regional conflicts in the world. UNO has developed more than 35 peacekeeping missions and observer nations. B The UN specialized agencies are engaged in a vast array of social work, affecting positively, every aspect of people s lives around the world. E.g., child survival and development, environmental protection, medical research, agricultural development, education etc. C The organization has helped in promoting democracy around the world. It has enabled people in more than 45 countries to participate in free and fair elections, e.g. in Namibia, Cambodia, El Salvador, Eritrea, Mozambique, South Africa etc. D The UNO has promoted development of skills and potentials vital for all aspects of development. The UNDP, in close co-operation with over 170 member states andKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 23 the UN agencies designs and implements projects for agriculture, industry, education and environment. E It has helped in promotion of Human Rights. Since the adoption of the universal declaration of human rights in 1948, the UN has helped to enact more than 80 agreements on political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights. F It has played a vital role in environmental protection. The Earth Summit , the UN Conference On Environment and Development held in Rio De Janeiro in 1992, resulted in treaties on biodiversity and climate change g Promoting self-determination and independence.
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Since the adoption of the universal declaration of human rights in 1948, the UN has helped to enact more than 80 agreements on political, civil, economic, social and cultural rights. F It has played a vital role in environmental protection. The Earth Summit , the UN Conference On Environment and Development held in Rio De Janeiro in 1992, resulted in treaties on biodiversity and climate change g Promoting self-determination and independence. The organization has brought about independence of 80 countries that are now among its member states. H Providing humanitarian aid to victims of conflicts. More than 30 million refugees fleeing war, famine or persecution have received aid from the UN high commission for refugees since 1951. Problems facing the United Nations Organization in its operation. A National sovereignty. Many countries disregard the UNO resolutions in favour of their sovereignty. B It is unable to stop aggressions and conflicts between individual countries when super powers are involved. C Lacks sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. E.g it has not always been able to send enough peacekeeping forces due to lack of sufficient funds. D It lacks an effective machinery to affect its decisions. It also lacks a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions. E The permanent members with veto powers often adopt policies that promote their own national interests at the expense of the collective interests of most countries in the world. F Loyalty to other organizations. UNO members are also members of other organizations; the interests of these organizations are not in accord with those of the UNO. G Ideological disputes among member states have hampered the work of UNO in promoting world peace. This was manifested in the cold war period. H The arms race. The UNO has found it difficult to achieve world peace because of the arms race in different parts of the world. The arms race generates and sustains conflict rather than peace. I Differences in economic development levels of member states militate against cooperation. J The increased occurrence of natural disasters such as famine, floods and epidemics has created an unexpected demand for economic resources. This automatically the UN s resources. THE COMMONWEALTH. Origin and structure of Commonwealth of Nations.
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This automatically the UN s resources. THE COMMONWEALTH. Origin and structure of Commonwealth of Nations. It is a voluntary association of 54 sovereign countries around the world, which were initially part of the British Empire. The commonwealth origin is the British EmpireKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 24 comprising the British protectorates, colonies and dominions, which included Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Newfoundland, Irish Free State and South Africa. The idea to launch the association is traced back to 1839, with the publication of the Durham report. The modern commonwealth began in 1947 with the end of the British rule in India. In 1949, India and Pakistan joined the commonwealth. The commonwealth secretariat is based in London. It deals with day to day running of the organization and organizes meetings. The head of the commonwealth is the Queen King of England. The Commonwealth has the Heads of State Summit which meets for a week every two years to discuss political and economic issues. There are also the Ministerial meetings once after every three years to deal with different issues. The commonwealth has specialized agencies dealing with various areas of concern. Membership to commonwealth. It comprised 54 developed and developing nations. The members are categorized as follows; 1. Britain and her Dominions of Canada, Australia and New Zealand. 2. African Nations. 3. Asian nations. 4. Islands from the Caribbean, Pacific and Mediterranean. Characteristics of commonwealth states. A Members of the commonwealth use English as a common language. B Members maintain cultural ties. For instance, they participate in the commonwealth games every four years. C Members co-operate in the field of education. D Members recognize the queen of England as the head of commonwealth. E Members have a common military tradition based on the British military system. They also promote military exchange programmes. F Members share common democratic institutions from Britain such as parliamentary system of government. G Members have adopted constitutions that are almost similar. Objectives that led to the formation of the commonwealth nations. A To promote world peace and international understanding. Members are expected to abide by the UN Peace programmes. B To promote development of poor member states. C To intensify co-operation between member states, in matters of education, sport and economic development.
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Members are expected to abide by the UN Peace programmes. B To promote development of poor member states. C To intensify co-operation between member states, in matters of education, sport and economic development. D To ensure personal liberty and equality of rights to all citizens regardless of race, colour, creed or political beliefs. E To oppose all forms of colonial dominion by being committed to the principles of human dignity and equality, self-determination and non-racism. F To promote the exchange of knowledge, professionalism and cultural, economic, legal and political issues. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 25 g T fights poverty, ignorance and disease to remove wealth disparities and raise the living standards, and achieve a more equitable international society. H To enhance free international trade by removing trade barriers, bur tat the same time, giving due consideration to the special requirements of the developing countries. Organization of the Commonwealth. The structure of the commonwealth comprises of three organs; 1. The Head of state Summit. It meets once in every two years for a week for extensive decisions and consultations. Decisions are reached by consensus. 2. Ministerial Meetings. The commonwealth ministers of Finance, Foreign Affairs and defence hold regular meetings once every year. Ministers of Health, Education and Law hold meetings once every three years 3. The Commonwealth Secretariat: headed by the secretary general and with a staff of 350 drawn from member countries. It co-ordinates co-operation among members. The first secretary General was Arnold Smith of Canada. In 1990, Chief Emeka Anyaoku of Nigeria became the first African Secretary General. 4. Specialized Agencies. A The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co-Operation; supplies funds, finance, experts and advisers for projects carried out in member states. B The Commonwealth Agricultural Bureau; it provides co-operation in the field of agriculture. C The Commonwealth Parliamentary Association; helps to improve relations between parliamentarians of member states. D The Commonwealth Regional Health Secretariat for East, Central and Southern Africa; promotes co-operation in health. Benefits of membership to Commonwealth. A Member states have received technical expertise through the provision of experts and advisers in various fields e.g. agriculture. B The developing member states of the organization have acquired skilled manpower through the provision of scholarship and setting up of training programmes by nations like Britain and Canada.
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A Member states have received technical expertise through the provision of experts and advisers in various fields e.g. agriculture. B The developing member states of the organization have acquired skilled manpower through the provision of scholarship and setting up of training programmes by nations like Britain and Canada. C Member states have been able to interact with one another through activities such as the commonwealth games and cultural exchange programmes. D Member states have conducted trade among themselves with relative ease and this has helped them to develop their economies. E The organization has promoted friendship and understanding among member states through conferences such as The Heads of Government meetings. F It has enhanced democratization process in developing member states of the organization Functions of commonwealth REF to evolving world page 60 Problems facing Commonwealth of Nations. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 26 a Differences in economic development levels of member states militate against cooperation. Members coming from developing world have very different outlook from those coming from the developed world. B Ideological disputes among member states have hampered the operations of the Commonwealth of Nations. C Lacks sufficient funds to carry out its work efficiently. Poor members normally owe many debts to their foreign masters and would therefore toe to their demands. D The problem of sovereignty. Many countries disregard the commonwealth resolutions in favour of their sovereignty. E It lacks an effective machinery to affect its decisions. It also lacks a standing army to implement and effect its resolutions. F Loyalty to other organizations. Commonwealth members are also members of other organizations; the interests of these organizations are not in accord with those of the commonwealth g The colonial legacy. Many problems arising from past colonial policies have rocked the organization. E.g. the land issue in Zimbabwe. H The influence of other organizations like NATO who weaken the commonwealth by wooing members to their regions. I Race and colour problem. The conflict between white and black people or other color has become another setback. J Dominance by the big powers. This has caused dismay to the organization. Serious inner tension still undermines the commonwealth activities. THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT NAM STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION NAM was an organization that did not have formal structures like UNO and Commonwealth. It did not have a secretariat or a constitution. The movement had a unique administrative style as follows.
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THE NON-ALIGNED MOVEMENT NAM STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION NAM was an organization that did not have formal structures like UNO and Commonwealth. It did not have a secretariat or a constitution. The movement had a unique administrative style as follows. Coordination The administration is non-hierarchical, rotational and inclusive, providing all member states, regardless of size and importance with an opportunity to participate in global decision making and world politics. The country that hosts the summit holds office until the next summit. Non-aligned countries place the onus of an administrative structure on the country assuming the chair. The country is required to create or designate an entire section of the ministry of foreign affairs to deal specifically with the Non-Aligned Movement. The chair s ambassador in the United Nations essentially functions as the minister of Non-Aligned Affairs . NAM has also created contact groups, task forces and committees to facilitate the chair s responsibility as follows; The Coordinating Bureau. This is the focal point for coordination. It reviews and facilitates the harmonization of the NAM working groups, contact groups, task forces and committees. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 27 Working Groups, Contact Groups, Task Forces and Committees. They include NAM High-level working group for the restructuring of the United Nations, NAM working group on Human Rights, Disarmament, Committee on Palestine, Contact Groups on Cyprus, and Task Force on Somalia etc. These groupings meet often. Non-Aligned security Caucus. The countries that make up the NAM council caucus are expected to constantly strive to adopt unified positions so that the decisions and positions of NAM are reflected in the Security Council decisions without prejudice to their sovereignty. Joint coordinating committee This is a coordinating committee established in 1994 and sitting in New York, whose main mandate is to promote cooperation and coordination between the NAM and the Group of 77 in promoting the interests of developing countries in international fora. Coordination of non-aligned countries in the UN centres. This is aimed at facilitating coordination and cooperation with the coordinating bureau and enhances the role of NAM in the international Fora. The Troika. The concept of Troika emerged on 6th April 1997 in New Delhi, India, during the meeting of foreign ministers of NAM representing past, present and future chairs. The concept simply implies a meeting of past, present and future chairs who began to meet in September 1997 as a discussion forum.
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The Troika. The concept of Troika emerged on 6th April 1997 in New Delhi, India, during the meeting of foreign ministers of NAM representing past, present and future chairs. The concept simply implies a meeting of past, present and future chairs who began to meet in September 1997 as a discussion forum. Panel of economists This is an ad hoc panel of economists formed from Non-Aligned countries to assess the current international economic situation from the perspective of developing countries and to identify and analyze their major issues of concern. Documentation. This is the responsibility of the host country but after wide consultation. The host country must circulate the First Draft not later than one month before the meeting. Decision making. The movement makes all its decisions by consensus. This concept presupposes understanding of and respect for different points of view, including disagreement and mutual accommodation. This promotes solidarity and unity of the movement. NAM Meetings They include the following a Conference of Heads of State and Government. This is NAM s highest decisionmaking authority and meets once every three years. It has two committees, one on political issues and another on economic and social issues. The summit is held atleast one month before the regular session of the UN General Assembly. During the summit, there is a formal ceremony for handing over the chair. B Ministerial conference. Its task is to review developments and implement decisions of the preceding summit and also discuss matters of urgency. The conference meets 18 months after the summit. C Ministerial meeting in New York during a session of the UN General Assembly. This is a meeting of foreign ministers annually in New York at the beginning of the regularKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 28 session of the UN Assembly. The purpose of the meeting is to deliberate on the items of the Agenda of the General Assembly that are of major importance to the movement. D Ministerial Meeting of the Coordinating Bureau. The main task is to prepare for the summits, and where necessary, to consider issues of major importance to the movement. E Meeting of the Ministerial Committee on Methodology. The attendance is by all NAM members and its meetings are held by the decision of the summit or the ministerial conference. The meetings are chaired by the chair of NAM. F Meeting of the standing ministerial committee on economic cooperation.
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The attendance is by all NAM members and its meetings are held by the decision of the summit or the ministerial conference. The meetings are chaired by the chair of NAM. F Meeting of the standing ministerial committee on economic cooperation. These meetings are meant to strengthen south-south cooperation, reactivate the dialogue between the developing and developed countries and enhance the role of the UN General Assembly, in international cooperation for development. The meetings are held frequently upon recommendation of the coordinating Bureau. G Ministerial Meetings in various fields of international cooperation. They discuss issues like agriculture, information and external debt. H Extraordinary Meetings of the Coordinating Bureau. They address exceptional cases that call for urgent consideration. I Meetings of the Working Groups, Task Forces, Contact Groups and Committees. The meetings are held as often as necessary. The growth of NAM. After the Bandung Conference of 1955 which established the movement, NAM has attracted many developing counties. . A number of conferences have been held since then; a The first summit, Belgrade, 1961. The attendance was by 25 non-aligned countries who met at a time when world peace was threatened seriously by the looming nuclear war. The meeting s objective was to prevent the outbreak of a nuclear war in the world. B The second summit, Cairo, 1964. The summit of October 1964 was attended by 47 Nations and 10 observers. There were 28 representatives from Africa. The conference mainly focused on problems facing NAM countries due to colonial inheritance, policies of former colonial powers and the rivalry between the great powers.. c The third summit, Lusaka, 1970. The attendance was by 53 members the meeting resolved that time was ripe for declaration on peace, independence, cooperation and democratization. The members were out to fight colonialism and racism. The main resolution was the members determination to achieve economic emancipation. D The Fourth Summit, Algiers, 1973. It was attended by 75 members, eight observers, three guest nations and 15 liberation movements. The meeting was an attempt to transform the existing system of economic and financial relations in a manner that would liberate developing countries from a subordinate role into an equal positionKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 29 with industrialized countries. The members developed an action programme in the interest of economic cooperation. E The fifth Summit, Colombo, 1976.
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The meeting was an attempt to transform the existing system of economic and financial relations in a manner that would liberate developing countries from a subordinate role into an equal positionKey notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 29 with industrialized countries. The members developed an action programme in the interest of economic cooperation. E The fifth Summit, Colombo, 1976. It was attended by 86 members, who focused on the liberation of Zimbabwe and Namibia, the abolition of apartheid in South Africa as a way of promoting world peace. F The sixth Summit, Havana, 1979. The conference was attended by 93 members, 12 observers, 8 guest nations and seven new members. The meeting declared that imperialism, colonialism, neo-colonialism, apartheid, racism, foreign aggression, expansion, occupation, domination, interference or hegemony, Great power bloc, Subjugation, dependency and pressures in international relations as enemies of nonalignment. The chairman of the summit was Fidel Castro who put forth his ideas that the socialist bloc is a natural ally of the movement. G The seventh summit, New Delhi, 1983. It was attended by 96 members, 16 observers and 20 guest nations. The summit took place at a time when there was intense confrontation as the great powers continued to amass nuclear weapons. . Indra Gandhi appeared to be the moderate leader to host the conference and soften the impact of Cuban radicalism. The conference discussed peace, nuclear disarmament, development strategies for north-south Dialogue on a new world economic order, and the south-south cooperation for collective self-reliance. H The eighth summit, Harare, 1986. It marked NAM s silver Jubilee. The main concern was Namibia s independence and apartheid in south Africa.. NAM emphasized its sanctions against the Pretoria South Africa regime. It drew an action plan to deal with the threat posed by South Africa. The summit came up with a special solidarity fund to help the frontline states. I The Ninth summit, Belgrade, 1989. J The tenth Summit, Jakarta, 1992. K The eleventh Summit, Cartagena de Indias, 1995. L The twelfth Summit, Durban 1998. M The thirteenth Summit, Kuala Lumpar, 2003. Performance of the Non-Aligned Movement.
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L The twelfth Summit, Durban 1998. M The thirteenth Summit, Kuala Lumpar, 2003. Performance of the Non-Aligned Movement. Though critics have questioned the relevance of NAM after dismantling apartheid and achieving independence, and after end of cold war, there still exist situations that require NAM s participation. Reasons why NAM is still relevant. A NAM is the only forum that can articulate the voice of justice and sanity in the world in view of the unending Arms Race. B NAM is the only forum through which the demand for a less unjust world economic order can be raised given the kind of hold the developed nations still have on developing nations. C NAM remains the third world s shield against the pressures of the superpower elephants that can easily trample on the grass of the lesser animals even after end of cold war. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 30 d NAM can still play a role in addressing emerging world issues such as terrorism, environmental degradation, HIV AIDS and racism. Achievements of NAM. A It has helped speed up the attainment of freedom in states that were under colonial bondage. B NAM has assisted its members in safeguarding their national security and territorial integrity. C Nan-aligned nations also worked to eliminate conflict between the superpowers. This helped in the promotion of peace and security for the non-aligned world. India for example played a role in solving the Korean War, the Suez crisis and IndoChinese conflict. D NAM created a conducive environment for peace, justice, equality and international cooperation by contributing to the relaxation of international tension by keeping clear of the two military blocs, USA and USSR. E The movement has strengthened African and Asian Countries diplomatically at a time when they lacked necessary physical strength. They were able to exert their voting power as Afro-Asian bloc to influence world affairs. F NAM provided an international forum where members voices could be heard. It was able to work to dismantle apartheid by its two-third world community membership despite the Reagan administration s opposition to sanctions against South Africa. G The movement has given members freedom to put their national interests before those of the great power blocs. H The NAM through the Cairo and Colombo Summits termed as World Disarmament conferences, played a key role in the disarmament process.
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It was able to work to dismantle apartheid by its two-third world community membership despite the Reagan administration s opposition to sanctions against South Africa. G The movement has given members freedom to put their national interests before those of the great power blocs. H The NAM through the Cairo and Colombo Summits termed as World Disarmament conferences, played a key role in the disarmament process. The 1967 Treaty of Tlatelolco, signed by 22 states, set up a weapon Free Zone in Latin America. I The Non-aligned states have helped in international crisis management since they are not committed to any course of military action. For example during the 1961 Berlin crisis, Nehru of India and Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana went to Moscow for a peace mission, while Achmad Sukarno of Indonesia and Modibo Keita of Mali went to Washington DC to try and create a conducive atmosphere for managing the crisis. J NAM has worked towards creation of new international economic order. Members of the movement are able to trade with both the great power blocs. Membership to the Group of 77 in the United Nations Conference on Trade and Development UNCTAD is drawn from the non-aligned nations. The non-aligned nations were open to aid from both blocs and also ready to expand their trade with both sides of the ideological divide. K The Solidarity fund established during the Harare Summit of 1986 cushioned the frontline states against the economic sanctions imposed on apartheid South Africa. L NAM has worked to create the new scientific and technological order. The members have demanded a new scientific and technological order by favouring access to the most advanced technology and scientific research available as a means of bridging the technological gap between the developed countries and developing ones. Factors which have undermined the activities of the Non-Aligned Movement. Key notes for the teacher and students- Cheloti 2012-2013 Page 31 a Political instability is frequently experienced by some member states. For example, civil wars and military coups in DRC, the Sudan, Rwanda, Burundi, interstate wars like in the case of Iran and Irag. This has undermined their contribution to the movement. B Economic ties between the third world countries and their colonial masters had made it difficult for the member states to pursue an independent line. C Border disputes between neighboring member countries has weakened the course of the movement. E.g.
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