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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TanDEM-X

TanDEM-X

["1 Mission","2 WorldDEM","3 First 3D Image","4 References","5 External links"]

German Earth observation satellite This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "TanDEM-X" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (July 2010) (Learn how and when to remove this message) TanDEM-XTanDEM-XMission typeRadar ImagingOperatorDLRCOSPAR ID2010-030A SATCAT no.36605WebsiteHomeMission durationElapsed: 13 years, 11 months and 25 days Spacecraft propertiesManufacturerEADS Astrium Satellites Start of missionLaunch date21 June 2010, 02:14:00 (2010-06-21UTC02:14Z) UTCRocketDneprLaunch siteBaikonur 109/95 Orbital parametersReference systemGeocentricRegimeLow Earth   TanDEM-X (TerraSAR-X add-on for Digital Elevation Measurement) is the name of TerraSAR-X's twin satellite, a German Earth observation satellite using SAR (Synthetic Aperture Radar) - a modern radar imaging technology. Implemented in a Public-Private-Partnership between the German Aerospace centre (DLR) and EADS Astrium (now Airbus Defence and Space), it is a second, almost identical spacecraft to TerraSAR-X (TSX). TanDEM-X (TDX) is also the name of the satellite mission flying the two satellites in a closely controlled formation with typical distances between 250 and 500 m. The twin satellite constellation allowed the generation of WorldDEM global digital elevation models starting in 2014. Mission The primary mission objective is the generation of WorldDEM, a consistent global Digital Elevation Model (DEM) with an unprecedented accuracy according to better than DTED Level 2 specifications. WorldDEM resolution will correspond to DTED Level 3 (post spacing of better than 12 meters) and a height accuracy of better than 2m (relative)- a standard not yet defined. Digital Elevation Models of posting better than DTED Level 2 are often called HRTI (High Resolution Terrain Information) DEM. WorldDEM WorldDEM is a highly accurate, detailed and consistent DEM of the Earth's entire land surface, acquired and generated within three years after launch. Available from 2014, WorldDEM is to feature a vertical accuracy of 2m (relative) and 4m (absolute), within a horizontal raster of approximately 12x12 square meters, slightly varying depending on the geographic latitude. Infoterra GmbH, a 100% subsidiary of Astrium, holds the exclusive commercial marketing rights for the WorldDEM and is responsible for the adaptation of the elevation model to the needs of commercial users worldwide. When the system launched, accuracy over forested areas was unknown. First 3D Image Researchers at the German Aerospace Center facility in Oberpfaffenhofen published the first 3D images from the TanDEM-X satellite mission. A group of Russian islands of the Severnaya Zemlya group in the Arctic Ocean was selected for the first test. The radar remote sensing satellites TanDEM X and Terra SAR X photographed while flying in close formation (photo by Marco Langbroek, Leiden, the Netherlands). Movement is from lower right to upper left in this 10 second exposure. References ^ a b German Aerospace Center. TanDEM-X - A New High Resolution Interferometric SAR Mission Verified 2010-10-16. ^ German Aerospace Center. TanDEM-X delivers first 3D images 2010-07-22. External links Spaceflight portal TanDEM-X at DLR website. TanDEM-X Archived 2011-07-19 at the Wayback Machine at Infoterra GmbH website. TanDEM-X Science Home at DLR website vte← 2009Orbital launches in 20102011 →January Compass-G1 Globus-1M No.12L February Progress M-04M STS-130 (Tranquility, Cupola) SDO Intelsat 16 March Kosmos 2459 / GLONASS-M 731, Kosmos 2460 / GLONASS-M 732, Kosmos 2461 / GLONASS-M 735 GOES-15 / EWS-G2 Yaogan 9A, Yaogan 9B, Yaogan 9C EchoStar XIV April Soyuz TMA-18 STS-131 (Leonardo MPLM) CryoSat-2 GSAT-4 Kosmos 2462 USA-212 SES-1 Kosmos 2463 Progress M-05M May STS-132 (Rassvet, ICC-VLD) Akatsuki, IKAROS (DCAM-1, DCAM-2), Shin'en, Waseda-SAT2, Hayato, Negai ☆'' Astra 3B, COMSATBw-2 USA-213 June SERVIS-2 Compass-G3 Badr-5 Dragon Spacecraft Qualification Unit STSAT-2B Shijian XII Prisma, Picard, BPA-1 Soyuz TMA-19 TanDEM-X Ofek-9 Arabsat-5A, Chollian Progress M-06M July EchoStar XV Cartosat-2B, AlSat-2A, StudSat, AISSat-1, TIsat-1 Compass-IGSO1 August Nilesat 201, RASCOM-QAF 1R Yaogan 10 USA-214 Tian Hui 1 September Kosmos 2464, Kosmos 2465, Kosmos 2466 Chinasat-6A Gonets-M No.2, Kosmos 2467, Kosmos 2468 Progress M-07M Michibiki USA-215 Yaogan 11, Zheda Pixing 1B, Zheda Pixing 1C USA-216 Kosmos 2469 October Chang'e 2 Shijian 6G, Shijian 6H Soyuz TMA-01M XM-5 Globalstar 73, Globalstar 74, Globalstar 75, Globalstar 76, Globalstar 77, Globalstar 79 Progress M-08M Eutelsat W3B, BSat 3B Compass-G4 November Meridian 3 Fengyun 3B COSMO-4 SkyTerra-1 STPSat-2, USA-220 / FASTSAT (NanoSail-D2), USA-221 / FalconSat-5, USA-222 / FASTRAC-1, USA-222 / FASTRAC-2, USA-218 / RAX, USA-219 / O/OREOS USA-223 / Orion 7 Chinasat 20A Intelsat 17, HYLAS-1 December Glonass-M No.39, Glonass-M No.40, Glonass-M No.41 SpaceX COTS Demo Flight 1, Mayflower, SMDC-ONE 1, QbX-1, QbX-2, Perseus 000, Perseus 001, Perseus 002, Perseus 003 Soyuz TMA-20 Compass-IGSO2 GSAT-5P KA-SAT Launches are separated by dots ( • ), payloads by commas ( , ), multiple names for the same satellite by slashes ( / ).Crewed flights are underlined. Launch failures are marked with the † sign. Payloads deployed from other spacecraft are (enclosed in parentheses).

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France%E2%80%93Switzerland_border

France–Switzerland border

["1 Detailed path","2 Border checks","3 Road customs control stations","4 Transportation","4.1 Rail","4.2 Tram","5 See also","6 References"]

International border France–Switzerland borderThe border on the river Doubs at the Saut du Doubs waterfall between Doubs, France and Neuchâtel, SwitzerlandCharacteristicsEntities France   SwitzerlandLength572 km (355 mi) The France–Switzerland border is 572 km (355 mi) long. Its current path is mostly the product of the Congress of Vienna of 1815, with the accession of Geneva, Neuchâtel and Valais to the Swiss Confederation, but it has since been modified in detail, the last time being in 2002. Although most of the border, marked with border stones, is unguarded, several checkpoints remain staffed, most notably on busy roads. Detailed path The tripoint where the border meets the Germany–Switzerland border and France–Germany border is on the river Rhine (at 47°35′23″N 7°35′20″E / 47.5898°N 7.5890°E / 47.5898; 7.5890) north of Basel. A monument has been built near it, known as the Dreiländereck. Border map Soldiers shaking hands on the Alsatian part of the France–Switzerland border in the midst of World War I The border runs south of EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg and then towards the southwest, separating the villages of Schönenbuch (Switzerland), Neuwiller (France), Leymen (France) and Rodersdorf (Switzerland). It then enters the Jura chain, rising above 800 metres of altitude before meeting the La Lucelle river at 460 m, between Roggenburg, Basel-Country and Kiffis (France). It follows the Lucelle as far as Lucelle municipality, running across the grounds of Lucelle Abbey. It then turns north to include the Swiss canton of Jura; it crosses the Doubs river at Brémoncourt, to include the Clos du Doubs region in Switzerland. It meets the Doubs a second time further upstream, at 481 m. From here, it follows the winding course of the river as far as the Lac des Brenets, north of Le Locle, at 756 m. After passing the Col des Roches at 920 m, the border runs in a south-westerly direction, generally following the Jura ridge, reaching an altitude of 1,288 m (Le Meix Musy). It turns towards the south to include Pontarlier in France and again to the southwest to include Vallorbe and the Lac de Joux in Switzerland. Here it reaches an altitude of 1,377 m, before crossing the Orbe river upstream of Bois-d'Amont. The France–Switzerland border crosses Lake Geneva. South of Les Rousses it turns to the south and then southeast, running towards Lake Geneva, rising to 1,400 m at 46°24′41″N 6°05′12″E / 46.4113°N 6.0866°E / 46.4113; 6.0866, passing south of La Dôle peak. Some 3 km before reaching the lake, the border runs parallel to the shore of Lake Geneva, forming the strip of land ceded by France to Switzerland in 1815 as the canton of Geneva, so that the City of Geneva has a land bridge connecting it to the rest of Switzerland. Three of the border stones in the canton of Geneva, nos 124, 125 and 126, are located on the CERN Meyrin site, which implies special agreements between France and Switzerland. The border now encircles the City of Geneva. West of the city, it follows the Rhône for some 6 km, until the westernmost point of Switzerland, at 46°07′57″N 5°57′21″E / 46.1324°N 5.9559°E / 46.1324; 5.9559. The border passes between Geneva and Annemasse, heading east towards Saint-Cergues; it finally finds Lake Geneva from the south, at Hermance. The border runs along the centre of Lake Geneva, but makes landfall before reaching the mouth of the Rhône, at Saint-Gingolph, which marks the western end of the Saint-Gingolph–Saint-Maurice railway in Switzerland. A project exists to reuse a now-abandoned line to Évian-les-Bains in France and thereby reconnect the two countries by train on the south shore of Lake Geneva. From here, the border runs south and southeast into the High Alps, forming the western border of the Valais. It passes Les Cornettes de Bise (2,431 m), the Dent de Barme (2,759 m), Petit Ruan (2,846 m), the Pointe des Rosses (2,965 m), the Pointe de la Fenive (2,838 m) and Le Cheval Blanc (2,830 m), placing the Lac du Vieux Émosson in Switzerland. From Grand Perrond (2,672 m), the border descends to 1,130 m, crossing the road from Martigny to Chamonix, before ascending to Les Grandes Otanes (2,656 m), the Aiguille du Tour (3,541 m), the Aiguille d'Argentière (3,898 m), Tour Noir (3,837 m) and finally to the tripoint with the French–Italian and Swiss–Italian borders, at a point just west of Mont Dolent, 45°55′22″N 7°02′39″E / 45.9227°N 7.0441°E / 45.9227; 7.0441 and at 3,752 metres (12,310 ft) altitude. Border checks French–Swiss customs post in EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg, 2018 French–Swiss customs post in Moillesulaz Since Switzerland's accession to the Schengen Area in 2008, there have been no permanent passport controls along the border, although there can be customs controls. There are two airports near the border which have both Swiss and French passport and customs controls; passengers are free to choose one. These are: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg which is located in France, but passengers can go to Switzerland without going through French border controls; and Geneva Airport which is located in Switzerland, but passengers can go to France without going through Swiss border controls. The Geneva Airport runway was extended in 1960 after France and Switzerland swapped territories to make this possible. Road customs control stations From northeast to south: Basel/St. Louis-Autobahn (E25/A35/A3) Boncourt/Delle-Autoroute (E27/N1019/A16) Col France (D461/20) Vallorbe (E23/N57/9) Bardonnex (A41/1) Thônex-Vallard (A411) St-Gingolph (D1005/21) There are several other roads which cross the border, but without staffed customs controls. Transportation Rail As of the December 2023 timetable change, cross-border services between France and Switzerland exist on the following railway lines (from North to South): Strasbourg–Basel railway between Saint-Louis and Basel St. Johann (served by TER, TGV) Delémont–Delle railway between Delle and Boncourt (served by RE) Besançon–Le Locle railway line between Morteau and Le Locle-Col-des-Roches (served by TER) Neuchâtel–Pontarlier railway between Pontarlier and Travers (served by TER and RE9) Dijon–Vallorbe railway between Labergement-Sainte-Marie and Vallorbe (served by TER) Lyon–Geneva railway between Pougny—Chancy and La Plaine (served by Léman Express line L6, TER, TGV) CEVA rail between Annemasse and Chêne-Bourg (served by Léman Express lines L1, L2, L3, L4, RE) Longeray-Léaz–Bouveret railway (Tonkin Railway) between Meillerie and Saint-Gingolph (cross-border section currently closed) Saint-Gervais–Vallorcine railway between Vallorcine and Le Châtelard-Frontière (served by TER, R) Tram As of the December 2023 timetable change, the following tram lines operate on cross-border routes: Basel tram Line 3 was extended to Saint-Louis in France in 2017 Basel tram Line 10 twice, with one station (Leymen) in France Geneva tram Line 17 was extended to Annemasse in France in 2019 See also Wikimedia Commons has media related to Borders of France-Switzerland. France–Switzerland relations References ^ "Swisstopo: National boundary". Archived from the original on 2014-10-20. Retrieved 2014-11-27. ^ "Suisse". CNIG. Retrieved 2021-03-15. ^ "Traité international". Swiss Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. Retrieved 24 January 2013.; minor corrections resulting in the exchange of a total of 1,578 square meters of territory. ^ "Dienststellenverzeichnis / Liste des offices / Elenco degli uffici / Customs offices". Pwebapps.ezv.admin.ch. Archived from the original on 2021-12-18. Retrieved 2021-03-15. vteBorders of FranceMetropolitan France Andorra Belgium Germany Italy Luxembourg Monaco Spain Switzerland United Kingdom Overseas France Brazil (French Guiana) Netherlands (Saint Martin)1 Suriname (French Guiana) 1 Subject to the Franco-Dutch treaty on Saint Martin border controls vteBorders of Switzerland Austria France Germany Italy Liechtenstein Territorial evolution: Early development, transmontane bailiwicks, Swabian War, Bündner Wirren, Peace of Westphalia, Savoy, Helvetic Republic, Congress of Vienna, County of Neuchâtel, World Wars, Swiss–EU relations, Schengen Agreement Portals: France Switzerland Geography

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Congress of Vienna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_of_Vienna"},{"link_name":"Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"link_name":"Neuchâtel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel"},{"link_name":"Valais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valais"},{"link_name":"Swiss Confederation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration_and_Regeneration_in_Switzerland"},{"link_name":"border stones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Border_stone"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The France–Switzerland border is 572 km (355 mi) long.[1][2] Its current path is mostly the product of the Congress of Vienna of 1815, with the accession of Geneva, Neuchâtel and Valais to the Swiss Confederation, but it has since been modified in detail, the last time being in 2002. Although most of the border, marked with border stones, is unguarded, several checkpoints remain staffed, most notably on busy roads.[3]","title":"France–Switzerland border"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tripoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tripoint"},{"link_name":"Germany–Switzerland border","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany%E2%80%93Switzerland_border"},{"link_name":"France–Germany border","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France%E2%80%93Germany_border"},{"link_name":"Rhine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhine"},{"link_name":"47°35′23″N 7°35′20″E / 47.5898°N 7.5890°E / 47.5898; 7.5890","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=France%E2%80%93Switzerland_border&params=47.5898_N_7.589_E_"},{"link_name":"Basel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel"},{"link_name":"Dreiländereck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dreil%C3%A4ndereck_(Basel)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grenzverlauf_CH_F.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:H%C3%A4ndesch%C3%BCtteln_an_der_els%C3%A4ssischen_Grenze_-_CH-BAR_-_3238404.tif"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EuroAirport_Basel_Mulhouse_Freiburg"},{"link_name":"Schönenbuch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sch%C3%B6nenbuch"},{"link_name":"Neuwiller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuwiller"},{"link_name":"Leymen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leymen"},{"link_name":"Rodersdorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodersdorf"},{"link_name":"Jura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jura_mountains"},{"link_name":"Roggenburg, Basel-Country","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roggenburg,_Basel-Country"},{"link_name":"Kiffis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kiffis"},{"link_name":"Lucelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucelle"},{"link_name":"Lucelle Abbey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucelle_Abbey"},{"link_name":"canton of Jura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Jura"},{"link_name":"Doubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doubs"},{"link_name":"Brémoncourt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Br%C3%A9moncourt"},{"link_name":"Clos du Doubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clos_du_Doubs"},{"link_name":"Lac des Brenets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lac_des_Brenets"},{"link_name":"Le Locle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Locle"},{"link_name":"Col des Roches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Col_des_Roches"},{"link_name":"Pontarlier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontarlier"},{"link_name":"Vallorbe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vallorbe"},{"link_name":"Lac de Joux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lac_de_Joux"},{"link_name":"Orbe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbe_(river)"},{"link_name":"Bois-d'Amont","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bois-d%27Amont"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chillon_Castle_02.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lake Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Geneva"},{"link_name":"Les Rousses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Rousses"},{"link_name":"Lake Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Geneva"},{"link_name":"46°24′41″N 6°05′12″E / 46.4113°N 6.0866°E / 46.4113; 6.0866","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=France%E2%80%93Switzerland_border&params=46.4113_N_6.0866_E_"},{"link_name":"La Dôle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_D%C3%B4le"},{"link_name":"canton of Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canton_of_Geneva"},{"link_name":"City of Geneva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Border_stone_126.jpg"},{"link_name":"CERN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CERN"},{"link_name":"Meyrin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meyrin"},{"link_name":"special agreements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterritoriality#Current_examples"},{"link_name":"Rhône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"46°07′57″N 5°57′21″E / 46.1324°N 5.9559°E / 46.1324; 5.9559","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=France%E2%80%93Switzerland_border&params=46.1324_N_5.9559_E_"},{"link_name":"Annemasse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annemasse"},{"link_name":"Saint-Cergues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Cergues"},{"link_name":"Hermance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermance"},{"link_name":"Rhône","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rh%C3%B4ne"},{"link_name":"Saint-Gingolph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Gingolph"},{"link_name":"Saint-Gingolph–Saint-Maurice railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Gingolph%E2%80%93Saint-Maurice_railway"},{"link_name":"Évian-les-Bains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89vian-les-Bains"},{"link_name":"High Alps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Alps"},{"link_name":"Valais","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valais"},{"link_name":"Dent de Barme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dent_de_Barme"},{"link_name":"Le Cheval Blanc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Cheval_Blanc_(mountain)"},{"link_name":"Lac du Vieux Émosson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lac_du_Vieux_%C3%89mosson"},{"link_name":"Martigny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martigny"},{"link_name":"Chamonix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chamonix"},{"link_name":"Les Grandes Otanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Les_Grandes_Otanes"},{"link_name":"Aiguille du Tour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aiguille_du_Tour"},{"link_name":"Aiguille d'Argentière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aiguille_d%27Argenti%C3%A8re"},{"link_name":"Tour Noir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour_Noir"},{"link_name":"French–Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France%E2%80%93Italy_border"},{"link_name":"Swiss–Italian borders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy%E2%80%93Switzerland_border"},{"link_name":"Mont Dolent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mont_Dolent"},{"link_name":"45°55′22″N 7°02′39″E / 45.9227°N 7.0441°E / 45.9227; 7.0441","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=France%E2%80%93Switzerland_border&params=45.9227_N_7.0441_E_"}],"text":"The tripoint where the border meets the Germany–Switzerland border and France–Germany border is on the river Rhine (at 47°35′23″N 7°35′20″E / 47.5898°N 7.5890°E / 47.5898; 7.5890) north of Basel. A monument has been built near it, known as the Dreiländereck.Border mapSoldiers shaking hands on the Alsatian part of the France–Switzerland border in the midst of World War IThe border runs south of EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg and then towards the southwest, separating the villages of Schönenbuch (Switzerland), Neuwiller (France), Leymen (France) and Rodersdorf (Switzerland).It then enters the Jura chain, rising above 800 metres of altitude before meeting the La Lucelle river at 460 m, between Roggenburg, Basel-Country and Kiffis (France). It follows the Lucelle as far as Lucelle municipality, running across the grounds of Lucelle Abbey. It then turns north to include the Swiss canton of Jura; it crosses the Doubs river at Brémoncourt, to include the Clos du Doubs region in Switzerland. It meets the Doubs a second time further upstream, at 481 m. From here, it follows the winding course of the river as far as the Lac des Brenets, north of Le Locle, at 756 m.After passing the Col des Roches at 920 m, the border runs in a south-westerly direction, generally following the Jura ridge, reaching an altitude of 1,288 m (Le Meix Musy). It turns towards the south to include Pontarlier in France and again to the southwest to include Vallorbe and the Lac de Joux in Switzerland. Here it reaches an altitude of 1,377 m, before crossing the Orbe river upstream of Bois-d'Amont.The France–Switzerland border crosses Lake Geneva.South of Les Rousses it turns to the south and then southeast, running towards Lake Geneva, rising to 1,400 m at 46°24′41″N 6°05′12″E / 46.4113°N 6.0866°E / 46.4113; 6.0866, passing south of La Dôle peak. Some 3 km before reaching the lake, the border runs parallel to the shore of Lake Geneva, forming the strip of land ceded by France to Switzerland in 1815 as the canton of Geneva, so that the City of Geneva has a land bridge connecting it to the rest of Switzerland.Three of the border stones in the canton of Geneva, nos 124, 125 and 126, are located on the CERN Meyrin site, which implies special agreements between France and Switzerland.The border now encircles the City of Geneva. West of the city, it follows the Rhône for some 6 km, until the westernmost point of Switzerland, at 46°07′57″N 5°57′21″E / 46.1324°N 5.9559°E / 46.1324; 5.9559. The border passes between Geneva and Annemasse, heading east towards Saint-Cergues; it finally finds Lake Geneva from the south, at Hermance.The border runs along the centre of Lake Geneva, but makes landfall before reaching the mouth of the Rhône, at Saint-Gingolph, which marks the western end of the Saint-Gingolph–Saint-Maurice railway in Switzerland. A project exists to reuse a now-abandoned line to Évian-les-Bains in France and thereby reconnect the two countries by train on the south shore of Lake Geneva. From here, the border runs south and southeast into the High Alps, forming the western border of the Valais. It passes Les Cornettes de Bise (2,431 m), the Dent de Barme (2,759 m), Petit Ruan (2,846 m), the Pointe des Rosses (2,965 m), the Pointe de la Fenive (2,838 m) and Le Cheval Blanc (2,830 m), placing the Lac du Vieux Émosson in Switzerland. From Grand Perrond (2,672 m), the border descends to 1,130 m, crossing the road from Martigny to Chamonix, before ascending to Les Grandes Otanes (2,656 m), the Aiguille du Tour (3,541 m), the Aiguille d'Argentière (3,898 m), Tour Noir (3,837 m) and finally to the tripoint with the French–Italian and Swiss–Italian borders, at a point just west of Mont Dolent, 45°55′22″N 7°02′39″E / 45.9227°N 7.0441°E / 45.9227; 7.0441 and at 3,752 metres (12,310 ft) altitude.","title":"Detailed path"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Customs_-_Europort.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:France-Swiss_Border_Checkpoint_(Moellesulaz).jpg"},{"link_name":"Schengen Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schengen_Area"},{"link_name":"EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EuroAirport_Basel_Mulhouse_Freiburg"},{"link_name":"Geneva Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geneva_Airport"}],"text":"French–Swiss customs post in EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg, 2018French–Swiss customs post in MoillesulazSince Switzerland's accession to the Schengen Area in 2008, there have been no permanent passport controls along the border, although there can be customs controls.There are two airports near the border which have both Swiss and French passport and customs controls; passengers are free to choose one. These are: EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg which is located in France, but passengers can go to Switzerland without going through French border controls; and Geneva Airport which is located in Switzerland, but passengers can go to France without going through Swiss border controls. The Geneva Airport runway was extended in 1960 after France and Switzerland swapped territories to make this possible.","title":"Border checks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"From northeast to south:[4]Basel/St. Louis-Autobahn (E25/A35/A3)\nBoncourt/Delle-Autoroute (E27/N1019/A16)\nCol France (D461/20)\nVallorbe (E23/N57/9)\nBardonnex (A41/1)\nThônex-Vallard (A411)\nSt-Gingolph (D1005/21)There are several other roads which cross the border, but without staffed customs controls.","title":"Road customs control stations"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=France%E2%80%93Switzerland_border&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Strasbourg–Basel railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strasbourg%E2%80%93Basel_railway"},{"link_name":"Saint-Louis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Louis_station"},{"link_name":"Basel St. Johann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel_St._Johann_railway_station"},{"link_name":"TER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basel_trinational_S-Bahn"},{"link_name":"TGV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TGV"},{"link_name":"Delémont–Delle railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del%C3%A9mont%E2%80%93Delle_railway"},{"link_name":"Delle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delle_station"},{"link_name":"Boncourt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boncourt_railway_station"},{"link_name":"RE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RegioExpress"},{"link_name":"Besançon–Le Locle railway line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Besan%C3%A7on%E2%80%93Le_Locle_railway_line"},{"link_name":"Morteau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Morteau_station&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Le Locle-Col-des-Roches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Locle-Col-des-Roches_railway_station"},{"link_name":"TER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TER_Bourgogne-Franche-Comt%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Neuchâtel–Pontarlier railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel%E2%80%93Pontarlier_railway"},{"link_name":"Pontarlier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pontarlier_station"},{"link_name":"Travers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travers_railway_station"},{"link_name":"TER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TER_Bourgogne-Franche-Comt%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"RE9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RegioExpress"},{"link_name":"Dijon–Vallorbe railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dijon%E2%80%93Vallorbe_railway"},{"link_name":"Labergement-Sainte-Marie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labergement-Sainte-Marie_station"},{"link_name":"Vallorbe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vallorbe_railway_station"},{"link_name":"TER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TER_Bourgogne-Franche-Comt%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Lyon–Geneva railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyon%E2%80%93Geneva_railway"},{"link_name":"Pougny—Chancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pougny%E2%80%94Chancy_station"},{"link_name":"La Plaine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Plaine_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Léman Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9man_Express"},{"link_name":"TER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TER_Auvergne-Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes"},{"link_name":"TGV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TGV"},{"link_name":"CEVA rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CEVA_rail"},{"link_name":"Annemasse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annemasse_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Chêne-Bourg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%AAne-Bourg_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Léman Express","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A9man_Express"},{"link_name":"RE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RegioExpress"},{"link_name":"Longeray-Léaz–Bouveret railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Longeray-L%C3%A9az%E2%80%93Bouveret_railway&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Tonkin Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tonkin_Railway"},{"link_name":"Meillerie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Meillerie_station&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Saint-Gingolph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Gingolph_railway_station"},{"link_name":"Saint-Gervais–Vallorcine railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Gervais%E2%80%93Vallorcine_railway"},{"link_name":"Vallorcine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vallorcine_station"},{"link_name":"Le Châtelard-Frontière","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Le_Ch%C3%A2telard-Fronti%C3%A8re_railway_station"},{"link_name":"TER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TER_Auvergne-Rh%C3%B4ne-Alpes"},{"link_name":"R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martigny%E2%80%93Ch%C3%A2telard_Railway"}],"sub_title":"Rail","text":"As of the December 2023 timetable change,[update] cross-border services between France and Switzerland exist on the following railway lines (from North to South):Strasbourg–Basel railway between Saint-Louis and Basel St. Johann (served by TER, TGV)\nDelémont–Delle railway between Delle and Boncourt (served by RE)\nBesançon–Le Locle railway line between Morteau and Le Locle-Col-des-Roches (served by TER)\nNeuchâtel–Pontarlier railway between Pontarlier and Travers (served by TER and RE9)\nDijon–Vallorbe railway between Labergement-Sainte-Marie and Vallorbe (served by TER)\nLyon–Geneva railway between Pougny—Chancy and La Plaine (served by Léman Express line L6, TER, TGV)\nCEVA rail between Annemasse and Chêne-Bourg (served by Léman Express lines L1, L2, L3, L4, RE)\nLongeray-Léaz–Bouveret railway (Tonkin Railway) between Meillerie and Saint-Gingolph (cross-border section currently closed)\nSaint-Gervais–Vallorcine railway between Vallorcine and Le Châtelard-Frontière (served by TER, R)","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=France%E2%80%93Switzerland_border&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Basel tram Line 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trams_in_Basel"},{"link_name":"Saint-Louis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-Louis,_Haut-Rhin"},{"link_name":"Basel tram Line 10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_10_(BLT)"},{"link_name":"Leymen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leymen"},{"link_name":"Geneva tram Line 17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trams_in_Geneva"},{"link_name":"Annemasse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annemasse"}],"sub_title":"Tram","text":"As of the December 2023 timetable change,[update] the following tram lines operate on cross-border routes:Basel tram Line 3 was extended to Saint-Louis in France in 2017\nBasel tram Line 10 twice, with one station (Leymen) in France\nGeneva tram Line 17 was extended to Annemasse in France in 2019","title":"Transportation"}]

[{"image_text":"Border map","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/Grenzverlauf_CH_F.png/220px-Grenzverlauf_CH_F.png"},{"image_text":"Soldiers shaking hands on the Alsatian part of the France–Switzerland border in the midst of World War I","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/H%C3%A4ndesch%C3%BCtteln_an_der_els%C3%A4ssischen_Grenze_-_CH-BAR_-_3238404.tif/lossy-page1-220px-H%C3%A4ndesch%C3%BCtteln_an_der_els%C3%A4ssischen_Grenze_-_CH-BAR_-_3238404.tif.jpg"},{"image_text":"The France–Switzerland border crosses Lake Geneva.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Chillon_Castle_02.jpg/220px-Chillon_Castle_02.jpg"},{"image_text":"Three of the border stones in the canton of Geneva, nos 124, 125 and 126, are located on the CERN Meyrin site, which implies special agreements between France and Switzerland.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Border_stone_126.jpg/220px-Border_stone_126.jpg"},{"image_text":"French–Swiss customs post in EuroAirport Basel Mulhouse Freiburg, 2018","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/Customs_-_Europort.jpg/220px-Customs_-_Europort.jpg"},{"image_text":"French–Swiss customs post in Moillesulaz","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/France-Swiss_Border_Checkpoint_%28Moellesulaz%29.jpg/220px-France-Swiss_Border_Checkpoint_%28Moellesulaz%29.jpg"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing

Audit

["1 Etymology","2 History","3 Information technology audit","4 Accounting","4.1 Integrated audits","4.2 Assessments","4.3 Auditors","5 Performance audits","6 Quality audits","7 Project audit","8 Energy audits","9 Operations audit","10 Forensic audits","11 See also","12 References","13 Further reading"]

Independent examination of an organization For other uses, see Audit (disambiguation). "Auditing" redirects here. For the Scientology practice, see Auditing (Scientology). "Paper trail" redirects here. For the T.I. album, see Paper Trail. Part of a series onAccounting Historical costConstant purchasing powerManagementTax Major typesAuditBudgetCostForensicFinancialFundGovernmentalManagementSocialTax Key conceptsAccounting periodAccrualConstant purchasing powerEconomic entityFair valueGoing concernHistorical costMatching principleMaterialityRevenue recognitionUnit of account Selected accountsAssetsCashCost of goods soldDepreciation / Amortization (business)EquityExpensesGoodwillLiabilitiesProfitRevenue Accounting standardsGenerally-accepted principlesGenerally-accepted auditing standardsConvergenceInternational Financial Reporting StandardsInternational Standards on AuditingManagement Accounting Principles Financial statementsAnnual reportBalance sheetCash-flowEquityIncomeManagement discussionNotes to the financial statements BookkeepingBank reconciliationDebits and creditsDouble-entry systemFIFO and LIFOJournalLedger / General ledgerTrial balance AuditingFinancialInternalFirmsReportSarbanes–Oxley Act People and organizationsAccountantsAccounting organizationsLuca Pacioli DevelopmentHistoryResearchPositive accountingSarbanes–Oxley Act MisconductCreativeEarnings managementError accountHollywoodOff-balance-sheetTwo sets of books vte Some typical stages in the audit process An audit is an "independent examination of financial information of any entity, whether profit oriented or not, irrespective of its size or legal form when such an examination is conducted with a view to express an opinion thereon." Auditing also attempts to ensure that the books of accounts are properly maintained by the concern as required by law. Auditors consider the propositions before them, obtain evidence, roll forward prior year working papers, and evaluate the propositions in their auditing report. Audits provide third-party assurance to various stakeholders that the subject matter is free from material misstatement. The term is most frequently applied to audits of the financial information relating to a legal person. Other commonly audited areas include: secretarial and compliance, internal controls, quality management, project management, water management, and energy conservation. As a result of an audit, stakeholders may evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance over the subject matter. In recent years auditing has expanded to encompass many areas of public and corporate life. Professor Michael Power refers to this extension of auditing practices as the "Audit Society". Etymology The word "audit" derives from the Latin word audire which means "to hear". History Auditing has been a safeguard measure since ancient times. During medieval times, when manual bookkeeping was prevalent, auditors in Britain used to hear the accounts read out for them and checked that the organization's personnel were not negligent or fraudulent. In 1951, Moyer identified that the most important duty of the auditor was to detect fraud. Chatfield documented that early United States auditing was viewed mainly as verification of bookkeeping detail. The Central Auditing Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Russian: Центральная ревизионная комиссия КПСС) operated from 1921 to 1990. Information technology audit Main article: Information technology audit See also: Software audit review An information technology audit, or information systems audit, is an examination of the management controls within an Information technology (IT) infrastructure. The evaluation of obtained evidence determines if the information systems are safeguarding assets, maintaining data integrity, and operating effectively to achieve the organization's goals or objectives. These reviews may be performed in conjunction with a financial statement audit, internal audit, or other form of attestation engagement. Accounting See also: Financial audit and Internal control Due to strong incentives (including taxation, misselling and other forms of fraud) to misstate financial information, auditing has become a legal requirement for many entities who have the power to exploit financial information for personal gain. Traditionally, audits were mainly associated with gaining information about financial systems and the financial records of a company or a business. Financial audits also assess whether a business or corporation adheres to legal duties as well as other applicable statutory customs and regulations. Financial audits are performed to ascertain the validity and reliability of information, as well as to provide an assessment of a system's internal control. As a result, a third party can express an opinion of the person / organization / system (etc.) in question. The opinion given on financial statements will depend on the audit evidence obtained. A statutory audit is a legally required review of the accuracy of a company's or government's financial statements and records. The purpose of a statutory audit is to determine whether an organization provides a fair and accurate representation of its financial position by examining information such as bank balances, bookkeeping records, and financial transactions. Due to constraints, an audit seeks to provide only reasonable assurance that the statements are free from material error. Hence, statistical sampling is often adopted in audits. In the case of financial audits, a set of financial statements are said to be true and fair when they are free of material misstatements – a concept influenced by both quantitative (numerical) and qualitative factors. But recently, the argument that auditing should go beyond just true and fair is gaining momentum. And the US Public Company Accounting Oversight Board has come out with a concept release on the same. Cost accounting is a process for verifying the cost of manufacturing or producing of any article, on the basis of accounts measuring the use of material, labor or other items of cost. In simple words, the term, cost audit means a systematic and accurate verification of the cost accounts and records, and checking for adherence to the cost accounting objectives. According to the Institute of Cost and Management Accountants, cost audit is "an examination of cost accounting records and verification of facts to ascertain that the cost of the product has been arrived at, in accordance with principles of cost accounting." In most nations, an audit must adhere to generally accepted standards established by governing bodies. These standards assure third parties or external users that they can rely upon the auditor's opinion on the fairness of financial statements or other subjects on which the auditor expresses an opinion. The audit must therefore be precise and accurate, containing no additional misstatements or errors. Integrated audits In the US, audits of publicly traded companies are governed by rules laid down by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB), which was established by Section 404 of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002. Such an audit is called an integrated audit, where auditors, in addition to an opinion on the financial statements, must also express an opinion on the effectiveness of a company's internal control over financial reporting, in accordance with PCAOB Auditing Standard No. 5. There are also new types of integrated auditing becoming available that use unified compliance material (see the unified compliance section in Regulatory compliance). Due to the increasing number of regulations and need for operational transparency, organizations are adopting risk-based audits that can cover multiple regulations and standards from a single audit event. This is a very new but necessary approach in some sectors to ensure that all the necessary governance requirements can be met without duplicating effort from both audit and audit hosting resources. Assessments The purpose of an assessment is to measure something or calculate a value for it. An auditor's objective is to determine whether financial statements are presented fairly, in all material respects, and are free of material misstatement. Although the process of producing an assessment may involve an audit by an independent professional, its purpose is to provide a measurement rather than to express an opinion about the fairness of statements or quality of performance. Auditors Auditors of financial statements & non-financial information (including compliance audit) can be classified into various categories: External auditor/Statutory auditor is an independent firm engaged by the client subject to the audit to express an opinion on whether the company's financial statements are free of material misstatements, whether due to fraud or error. For publicly traded companies, external auditors may also be required to express an opinion on the effectiveness of internal controls over financial reporting. External auditors may also be engaged to perform other agreed-upon procedures, related or unrelated to financial statements. Most importantly, external auditors, though engaged and paid by the company being audited, should be regarded as independent and remain third party. Cost auditor/Statutory cost auditor is an independent firm engaged by the client subject to the cost audit to express an opinion on whether the company's cost statements and cost sheet are free of material misstatements, whether due to fraud or error. For publicly traded companies, external auditors may also be required to express an opinion on the effectiveness of internal controls over cost reporting. These are Specialized Persons called Cost Accountants in India & CMA globally either Cost & Management Accountants or Certified Management Accountants. Government Auditors review the finances and practices of federal agencies. These auditors report their finds to congress, which uses them to create and manage policies and budgets. Government auditors work for the U.S. Government Accountability Office, and most state governments have similar departments to audit state and municipal agencies. Secretarial auditor/Statutory secretarial auditor is an independent firm engaged by the client subject to the audit of secretarial and applicable laws/compliances of other applicable laws to express an opinion on whether the company's secretarial records and compliance of applicable laws are free of material misstatements, whether due to fraud or error and inviting heavy fines or penalties. For bigger public companies, external secretarial auditors may also be required to express an opinion on the effectiveness of internal controls over compliances system management of the company. These are Specialized Persons called Company Secretaries in India who are the members of Institute of Company Secretaries of India and holding Certificate of Practice. (http://www.icsi.edu/) Internal auditors are employed by the organizations they audit. They work for government agencies (federal, state and local); for publicly traded companies; and for non-profit companies across all industries. The internationally recognized standard setting body for the profession is the Institute of Internal Auditors - IIA (www.theiia.org). The IIA has defined internal auditing as follows: "Internal auditing is an independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization's operations. It helps an organization accomplish its objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance processes". Thus professional internal auditors provide independent and objective audit and consulting services focused on evaluating whether the board of directors, shareholders, stakeholders, and corporate executives have reasonable assurance that the organization's governance, risk management, and control processes are designed adequately and function effectively. Internal audit professionals (Certified Internal Auditors - CIAs) are governed by the international professional standards and code of conduct of the Institute of Internal Auditors. While internal auditors are not independent of the companies that employ them, independence and objectivity are a cornerstone of the IIA professional standards; and are discussed at length in the standards and the supporting practice guides and practice advisories. Professional internal auditors are mandated by the IIA standards to be independent of the business activities they audit. This independence and objectivity are achieved through the organizational placement and reporting lines of the internal audit department. Internal auditors of publicly traded companies in the United States are required to report functionally to the board of directors directly, or a sub-committee of the board of directors (typically the audit committee), and not to management except for administrative purposes. As described often in the professional literature for the practice of internal auditing (such as Internal Auditor, the journal of the IIA) -, or other similar and generally recognized frameworks for management control when evaluating an entity's governance and control practices; and apply COSO's "Enterprise Risk Management-Integrated Framework" or other similar and generally recognized frameworks for entity-wide risk management when evaluating an organization's entity-wide risk management practices. Professional internal auditors also use control self-assessment (CSA) as an effective process for performing their work. Consultant auditors are external personnel contracted by the firm to perform an audit following the firm's auditing standards. This differs from the external auditor, who follows their own auditing standards. The level of independence is therefore somewhere between the internal auditor and the external auditor. The consultant auditor may work independently, or as part of the audit team that includes internal auditors. Consultant auditors are used when the firm lacks sufficient expertise to audit certain areas, or simply for staff augmentation when staff are not available. The most commonly used external audit standards are the US GAAS of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants and the International Standards on Auditing (ISA) developed by the International Auditing and Assurance Standard. Performance audits Performance audit refers to an independent examination of a program, function, operation or the management systems and procedures of a governmental or non-profit entity to assess whether the entity is achieving economy, efficiency and effectiveness in the employment of available resources. Safety, security, information systems performance, and environmental concerns are increasingly the subject of audits. There are now audit professionals who specialize in security audits and information systems audits. With nonprofit organizations and government agencies, there has been an increasing need for performance audits, examining their success in satisfying mission objectives. Quality audits Main article: Quality audit Quality audits are performed to verify conformance to standards through review of objective evidence. A system of quality audits may verify the effectiveness of a quality management system. This is part of certifications such as ISO 9001. Quality audits are essential to verify the existence of objective evidence showing conformance to required processes, to assess how successfully processes have been implemented, and to judge the effectiveness of achieving any defined target levels. Quality audits are also necessary to provide evidence concerning reduction and elimination of problem areas, and they are a hands-on management tool for achieving continual improvement in an organization. To benefit the organization, quality auditing should not only report non-conformance and corrective actions but also highlight areas of good practice and provide evidence of conformance. In this way, other departments may share information and amend their working practices as a result, also enhancing continual improvement. Project audit A project audit provides an opportunity to uncover issues, concerns and challenges encountered during the project lifecycle. Conducted midway through the project, an audit affords the project manager, project sponsor and project team an interim view of what has gone well, as well as what needs to be improved to successfully complete the project. If done at the close of a project, the audit can be used to develop success criteria for future projects by providing a forensic review. This review identifies which elements of the project were successfully managed and which ones presented challenges. As a result, the review will help the organization identify what it needs to do to avoid repeating the same mistakes on future projects Projects can undergo 2 types of Project audits: Regular Health Check Audits: The aim of a regular health check audit is to understand the current state of a project in order to increase project success. Regulatory Audits: The aim of a regulatory audit is to verify that a project is compliant with regulations and standards. Best practices of NEMEA Compliance Centre describe that, the regulatory audit must be accurate, objective, and independent while providing oversight and assurance to the organization. Other forms of Project audits: Formal: Applies when the project is in trouble, sponsor agrees that the audit is needed, sensitivities are high, and need to be able prove conclusions via sustainable evidence. Informal: Apply when a new project manager is provided, there is no indication the projects in trouble and there is a need to report whether the project is as opposed to where its supposed to Informal audits can apply the same criteria as formal audit but there is no need for such a in depth report or formal report. Energy audits Main article: Energy audit An energy audit is an inspection, survey and analysis of energy flows for energy conservation in a building, process or system to reduce the amount of energy input into the system without negatively affecting the output(s). Operations audit Further information: Operational audit An operations audit is an examination of the operations of the client's business. In this audit, the auditor thoroughly examines the efficiency, effectiveness and economy of the operations with which the management of the entity (client) is achieving its objective. The operational audit goes beyond the internal controls issues since management does not achieve its objectives merely by compliance of satisfactory system of internal controls. Operational audits cover any matters which may be commercially unsound. The objective of operational audit is to examine Three E's, namely: Effectiveness – doing the right things with least wastage of resources. Efficiency – performing work in least possible time. Economy – balance between benefits and costs to run the operations A control self-assessment is a commonly used tool for completing an operations audit. Forensic audits Also refer to forensic accountancy, forensic accountant or forensic accounting. It refers to an investigative audit in which accountants with specialized on both accounting and investigation seek to uncover frauds, missing money and negligence. See also Academic audit Accounting Audit plan Big Four accounting firms Clinical audit Comptroller, Comptroller General, and Comptroller General of the United States Continuous auditing Cost auditing COSO framework, Risk management EarthCheck Financial audit, External auditor, Certified Public Accountant (CPA), and Audit risk Information technology audit, History of information technology auditing, and Information security audit Internal audit International Organization of Supreme Audit Institutions (INTOSAI) Lead auditor, under the chief audit executive or Director of audit Mainframe audit Management auditing Operational auditing Peer review Quality audit Risk-based internal audit Technical audit SOFT audit References ^ Gupta, Kamal (November 2004). Contemporary Auditing. McGraw Hill. p. 1095. ISBN 0070585849. ^ "Audit assurance". ^ PricewaterhouseCoopers. "What is an audit?". PwC. Retrieved 2022-03-03. ^ Power, Michael (1999), The Audit Society: Rituals of Verification. Oxford: Oxford University Press. ^ Assurance, Auditing and. "Chapter 1". ICAI - The Institute of Chartered Accountants of India. Vol. 1. Institute of Chartered Accountants of India. p. 1. ^ Loeb, Stephen E.; Shamoo, Adil E. (1989-09-01). "Data audit: Its place in auditing". Accountability in Research. 1 (1): 23–32. doi:10.1080/08989628908573771. ISSN 0898-9621. PMID 26859053. ^ Derek Matthews, History of Auditing (2006-09-27). The changing audit process from the 19th century till date. Routledge-Taylor & Francis Group. p. 6. ISBN 9781134177912. ^ C. A., Moyer (January 1951). "Early Developments in American Auditing". Accounting Review. 26 (1): 3–8. JSTOR 239850. ^ Johnson, H. Thomas (1975). "Reviewed work: A History of Accounting Thought, Michael Chatfield". The Business History Review. 49 (2): 256–257. doi:10.2307/3113713. JSTOR 3113713. S2CID 154953655. ^ Mishra, Birendra K.; Paul Newman, D.; Stinson, Christopher H. (1997). "Environmental regulations and incentives for compliance audits". Journal of Accounting and Public Policy. 16 (2): 187–214. doi:10.1016/S0278-4254(97)00003-3. Retrieved 1 April 2023. ^ Thottoli, Mohammed Muneerali (2021). "The relevance of compliance audit on companies' compliance with disclosure guidelines of financial statements". Journal of Investment Compliance. 22 (2). Emerald Insight: 137–150. doi:10.1108/JOIC-12-2020-0047. S2CID 236598426. Retrieved 1 April 2023. ^ McKenna, Francine. "Auditors and Audit Reports: Is The Firm's "John Hancock" Enough?". Forbes. Retrieved 22 July 2011. ^ "CONCEPT RELEASE ON POSSIBLE REVISIONS TO PCAOB STANDARDS RELATED TO REPORTS ON AUDITED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS" (PDF). Retrieved 22 July 2011. ^ "Auditing Standard No. 5". pcaobus.org. Retrieved 2016-06-28. ^ Ladda, R.L. Basic Concepts Of Accounting. Solapur: Laxmi Book Publication. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-312-16130-6. ^ "Pages - Definition of Internal Auditing". Na.theiia.org. 2000-01-01. Retrieved 2013-09-02. ^ "Pages - International Professional Practices Framework (IPPF)". Na.theiia.org. 2000-01-01. Retrieved 2013-09-02. ^ "Professional internal auditors, in carrying out their responsibilities, apply COSO's Integrated Framework-Internal Control". Theiia.org. ^ a b Different Types of Audits (June 2013) Auditronix Guidance Note Archived July 18, 2013, at the Wayback Machine ^ Stanleigh, Micheal (2009). "UNDERTAKING A SUCCESSFUL PROJECT AUDIT" (PDF). PROJECT SMART. Retrieved 18 May 2016. ^ Clarke, Kevin; Walsh, Kathleen; Flanagan, Jack. "How prevalent are post-completion audits in Australia". Accounting, Accountability & Performance. 18 (2): 51–78. ^ Gilbert W. Joseph and Terry J. Engle (December 2005). "The Use of Control Self-Assessment by Independent Auditors". The CPA Journal. Retrieved 10 March 2012. Further reading Amat, O. (2008). "Earnings management and audit adjustments: An empirical study of IBEX 35 constituents". SSRN 1374232. vteSocial and environmental accountabilityEthics andprinciples Aarhus Convention Climate justice Corporate accountability / behaviour / environmental responsibility / responsibility / social responsibility Dirty hands Environmental racism / in Russia / in the United States / in Western Europe / inequality in the UK / injustice in Europe Ethical banking Ethical code Extended producer responsibility Externality Harm Little Eichmanns Loss and damage Organizational ethics Organizational justice Pollution Principles for Responsible Investment Racism Social impact assessment Social justice Social responsibility Stakeholder theory Sullivan principles Transparency (behavioral social) UN Global Compact Socialaccounting Corporate crime Double bottom line Ethical positioning index Higg Index Impact assessment (environmental equality social) ISO 26000 ISO 45001 Genuine progress indicator Performance indicator SA8000 Social return on investment Whole-life cost Environmentalaccounting Carbon accounting Eco-Management and Audit Scheme Emission inventory Environmental full-cost accounting / Environmental conflict / impact assessment / management system / profit-and-loss account ISO 14000 ISO 14031 Life-cycle assessment Pollutant release and transfer register Sustainability accounting / measurement / metrics and indices / standards and certification / supply chain Toxics Release Inventory Triple bottom line Reporting Global Reporting Initiative GxP guidelines Sustainability reporting Auditing Community-based monitoring Environmental (certification) Fair trade (certification) ISO 19011 Related Bangladesh Accord Benefit corporation Child labour Community interest company Conflict of interest Disasters Disinvestment Eco-labeling Environmental degradation Environmental pricing reform Environmental, social, and corporate governance Ethical consumerism Euthenics Global justice movement Health impact assessment Market governance mechanism Product certification Public participation SDG Publishers Compact Social enterprise Socially responsible business Socially responsible investing Socially responsible marketing Stakeholder (engagement) Supply chain management Environment portal Category Commons Organizations Authority control databases National Israel United States Czech Republic Other NARA

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For the Scientology practice, see Auditing (Scientology). \"Paper trail\" redirects here. For the T.I. album, see Paper Trail.Some typical stages in the audit processAn audit is an \"independent examination of financial information of any entity, whether profit oriented or not, irrespective of its size or legal form when such an examination is conducted with a view to express an opinion thereon.\"[1] Auditing also attempts to ensure that the books of accounts are properly maintained by the concern as required by law. Auditors consider the propositions before them, obtain evidence, roll forward prior year working papers, and evaluate the propositions in their auditing report.[2]Audits provide third-party assurance to various stakeholders that the subject matter is free from material misstatement.[3] The term is most frequently applied to audits of the financial information relating to a legal person. Other commonly audited areas include: secretarial and compliance, internal controls, quality management, project management, water management, and energy conservation. As a result of an audit, stakeholders may evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance over the subject matter.In recent years auditing has expanded to encompass many areas of public and corporate life. Professor Michael Power refers to this extension of auditing practices as the \"Audit Society\".[4]","title":"Audit"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The word \"audit\" derives from the Latin word audire which means \"to hear\".[5]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Central Auditing Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Auditing_Commission_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_language"}],"text":"Auditing has been a safeguard measure since ancient times.[6] During medieval times, when manual bookkeeping was prevalent, auditors in Britain used to hear the accounts read out for them and checked that the organization's personnel were not negligent or fraudulent.[7] In 1951, Moyer identified that the most important duty of the auditor was to detect fraud.[8] Chatfield documented that early United States auditing was viewed mainly as verification of bookkeeping detail.[9]The Central Auditing Commission of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (Russian: Центральная ревизионная комиссия КПСС) operated from 1921 to 1990.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Software audit review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_audit_review"},{"link_name":"Information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrastructure"},{"link_name":"data integrity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_integrity"},{"link_name":"financial statement audit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_audit"},{"link_name":"internal audit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_audit"}],"text":"See also: Software audit reviewAn information technology audit, or information systems audit, is an examination of the management controls within an Information technology (IT) infrastructure. The evaluation of obtained evidence determines if the information systems are safeguarding assets, maintaining data integrity, and operating effectively to achieve the organization's goals or objectives. These reviews may be performed in conjunction with a financial statement audit, internal audit, or other form of attestation engagement.","title":"Information technology audit"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Financial audit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_audit"},{"link_name":"Internal control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_control"},{"link_name":"taxation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxation"},{"link_name":"misselling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misselling"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"validity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"reliability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reliability_(statistics)"},{"link_name":"assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/assessment"},{"link_name":"internal control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_control"},{"link_name":"audit evidence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audit_evidence"},{"link_name":"material","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Materiality_(auditing)"},{"link_name":"financial audits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_audit"},{"link_name":"financial statements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_statements"},{"link_name":"quantitative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_data"},{"link_name":"qualitative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qualitative_data"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Public Company Accounting Oversight Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Company_Accounting_Oversight_Board"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Cost accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_accounting"},{"link_name":"cost audit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_auditing"},{"link_name":"Management Accountants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Management_Accountant"},{"link_name":"cost audit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_auditing"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"See also: Financial audit and Internal controlDue to strong incentives (including taxation, misselling and other forms of fraud) to misstate financial information, auditing has become a legal requirement for many entities who have the power to exploit financial information for personal gain. Traditionally, audits were mainly associated with gaining information about financial systems and the financial records of a company or a business. Financial audits also assess whether a business or corporation adheres to legal duties as well as other applicable statutory customs and regulations.[10][11]Financial audits are performed to ascertain the validity and reliability of information, as well as to provide an assessment of a system's internal control. As a result, a third party can express an opinion of the person / organization / system (etc.) in question. The opinion given on financial statements will depend on the audit evidence obtained.A statutory audit is a legally required review of the accuracy of a company's or government's financial statements and records. The purpose of a statutory audit is to determine whether an organization provides a fair and accurate representation of its financial position by examining information such as bank balances, bookkeeping records, and financial transactions.Due to constraints, an audit seeks to provide only reasonable assurance that the statements are free from material error. Hence, statistical sampling is often adopted in audits. In the case of financial audits, a set of financial statements are said to be true and fair when they are free of material misstatements – a concept influenced by both quantitative (numerical) and qualitative factors. But recently, the argument that auditing should go beyond just true and fair is gaining momentum.[12] And the US Public Company Accounting Oversight Board has come out with a concept release on the same.[13]Cost accounting is a process for verifying the cost of manufacturing or producing of any article, on the basis of accounts measuring the use of material, labor or other items of cost. In simple words, the term, cost audit means a systematic and accurate verification of the cost accounts and records, and checking for adherence to the cost accounting objectives. According to the Institute of Cost and Management Accountants, cost audit is \"an examination of cost accounting records and verification of facts to ascertain that the cost of the product has been arrived at, in accordance with principles of cost accounting.\"[citation needed]In most nations, an audit must adhere to generally accepted standards established by governing bodies. These standards assure third parties or external users that they can rely upon the auditor's opinion on the fairness of financial statements or other subjects on which the auditor expresses an opinion. The audit must therefore be precise and accurate, containing no additional misstatements or errors.[citation needed]","title":"Accounting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"publicly traded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicly_traded"},{"link_name":"Public Company Accounting Oversight Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Company_Accounting_Oversight_Board"},{"link_name":"Sarbanes–Oxley Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarbanes%E2%80%93Oxley_Act"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Regulatory compliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_compliance"},{"link_name":"risk-based audits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Risk-based_audit"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"governance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governance"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Integrated audits","text":"In the US, audits of publicly traded companies are governed by rules laid down by the Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB), which was established by Section 404 of the Sarbanes–Oxley Act of 2002. Such an audit is called an integrated audit, where auditors, in addition to an opinion on the financial statements, must also express an opinion on the effectiveness of a company's internal control over financial reporting, in accordance with PCAOB Auditing Standard No. 5.[14]There are also new types of integrated auditing becoming available that use unified compliance material (see the unified compliance section in Regulatory compliance). Due to the increasing number of regulations and need for operational transparency, organizations are adopting risk-based audits that can cover multiple regulations and standards from a single audit event.[citation needed] This is a very new but necessary approach in some sectors to ensure that all the necessary governance requirements can be met without duplicating effort from both audit and audit hosting resources.[citation needed]","title":"Accounting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Assessments","text":"The purpose of an assessment is to measure something or calculate a value for it. An auditor's objective is to determine whether financial statements are presented fairly, in all material respects, and are free of material misstatement. Although the process of producing an assessment may involve an audit by an independent professional, its purpose is to provide a measurement rather than to express an opinion about the fairness of statements or quality of performance.[15]","title":"Accounting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"External auditor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_auditor"},{"link_name":"Statutory auditor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statutory_auditor"},{"link_name":"financial statements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_statements"},{"link_name":"publicly traded companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicly_traded_companies"},{"link_name":"internal controls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_controls"},{"link_name":"financial reporting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_reporting"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Cost auditor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_auditor"},{"link_name":"cost statements and cost sheet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_accounting"},{"link_name":"publicly traded companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Publicly_traded_companies"},{"link_name":"internal controls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_controls"},{"link_name":"auditor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditor"},{"link_name":"secretarial records","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Company_secretary"},{"link_name":"compliance of applicable laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulatory_compliance"},{"link_name":"bigger public companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_public_corporations_by_market_capitalization"},{"link_name":"internal controls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_controls"},{"link_name":"http://www.icsi.edu/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.icsi.edu/"},{"link_name":"Internal auditors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_auditor"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Certified Internal Auditors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Certified_Internal_Auditors"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"control self-assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_self-assessment"},{"link_name":"auditing standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditing_Standards_Board"},{"link_name":"external auditor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/External_auditor"},{"link_name":"GAAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GAAS"},{"link_name":"American Institute of Certified Public Accountants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Institute_of_Certified_Public_Accountants"},{"link_name":"International Standards on Auditing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standards_on_Auditing"},{"link_name":"International Auditing and Assurance Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Auditing_and_Assurance_Standards_Board"}],"sub_title":"Auditors","text":"Auditors of financial statements & non-financial information (including compliance audit) can be classified into various categories:External auditor/Statutory auditor is an independent firm engaged by the client subject to the audit to express an opinion on whether the company's financial statements are free of material misstatements, whether due to fraud or error. For publicly traded companies, external auditors may also be required to express an opinion on the effectiveness of internal controls over financial reporting. External auditors may also be engaged to perform other agreed-upon procedures, related or unrelated to financial statements. Most importantly, external auditors, though engaged and paid by the company being audited, should be regarded as independent and remain third party.[citation needed]\nCost auditor/Statutory cost auditor is an independent firm engaged by the client subject to the cost audit to express an opinion on whether the company's cost statements and cost sheet are free of material misstatements, whether due to fraud or error. For publicly traded companies, external auditors may also be required to express an opinion on the effectiveness of internal controls over cost reporting. These are Specialized Persons called Cost Accountants in India & CMA globally either Cost & Management Accountants or Certified Management Accountants.\nGovernment Auditors review the finances and practices of federal agencies. These auditors report their finds to congress, which uses them to create and manage policies and budgets. Government auditors work for the U.S. Government Accountability Office, and most state governments have similar departments to audit state and municipal agencies.\nSecretarial auditor/Statutory secretarial auditor is an independent firm engaged by the client subject to the audit of secretarial and applicable laws/compliances of other applicable laws to express an opinion on whether the company's secretarial records and compliance of applicable laws are free of material misstatements, whether due to fraud or error and inviting heavy fines or penalties. For bigger public companies, external secretarial auditors may also be required to express an opinion on the effectiveness of internal controls over compliances system management of the company. These are Specialized Persons called Company Secretaries in India who are the members of Institute of Company Secretaries of India and holding Certificate of Practice. (http://www.icsi.edu/)\nInternal auditors are employed by the organizations they audit. They work for government agencies (federal, state and local); for publicly traded companies; and for non-profit companies across all industries. The internationally recognized standard setting body for the profession is the Institute of Internal Auditors - IIA (www.theiia.org). The IIA has defined internal auditing as follows: \"Internal auditing is an independent, objective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization's operations. It helps an organization accomplish its objectives by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control, and governance processes\".[16] Thus professional internal auditors provide independent and objective audit and consulting services focused on evaluating whether the board of directors, shareholders, stakeholders, and corporate executives have reasonable assurance that the organization's governance, risk management, and control processes are designed adequately and function effectively. Internal audit professionals (Certified Internal Auditors - CIAs) are governed by the international professional standards and code of conduct of the Institute of Internal Auditors.[17] While internal auditors are not independent of the companies that employ them, independence and objectivity are a cornerstone of the IIA professional standards; and are discussed at length in the standards and the supporting practice guides and practice advisories. Professional internal auditors are mandated by the IIA standards to be independent of the business activities they audit. This independence and objectivity are achieved through the organizational placement and reporting lines of the internal audit department. Internal auditors of publicly traded companies in the United States are required to report functionally to the board of directors directly, or a sub-committee of the board of directors (typically the audit committee), and not to management except for administrative purposes. As described often in the professional literature for the practice of internal auditing (such as Internal Auditor, the journal of the IIA) -,[18] or other similar and generally recognized frameworks for management control when evaluating an entity's governance and control practices; and apply COSO's \"Enterprise Risk Management-Integrated Framework\" or other similar and generally recognized frameworks for entity-wide risk management when evaluating an organization's entity-wide risk management practices. Professional internal auditors also use control self-assessment (CSA) as an effective process for performing their work.\nConsultant auditors are external personnel contracted by the firm to perform an audit following the firm's auditing standards. This differs from the external auditor, who follows their own auditing standards. The level of independence is therefore somewhere between the internal auditor and the external auditor. The consultant auditor may work independently, or as part of the audit team that includes internal auditors. Consultant auditors are used when the firm lacks sufficient expertise to audit certain areas, or simply for staff augmentation when staff are not available.The most commonly used external audit standards are the US GAAS of the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants and the International Standards on Auditing (ISA) developed by the International Auditing and Assurance Standard.","title":"Accounting"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Performance audit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_audit"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-19"},{"link_name":"security audits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_audit"},{"link_name":"information systems audits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems_audit"},{"link_name":"government agencies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_agencies"}],"text":"Performance audit refers to an independent examination of a program, function, operation or the management systems and procedures of a governmental or non-profit entity to assess whether the entity is achieving economy, efficiency and effectiveness in the employment of available resources.\nSafety, security, information systems performance, and environmental concerns are increasingly the subject of audits.[19] There are now audit professionals who specialize in security audits and information systems audits. With nonprofit organizations and government agencies, there has been an increasing need for performance audits, examining their success in satisfying mission objectives.","title":"Performance audits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISO 9001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9001"}],"text":"Quality audits are performed to verify conformance to standards through review of objective evidence. A system of quality audits may verify the effectiveness of a quality management system. This is part of certifications such as ISO 9001. Quality audits are essential to verify the existence of objective evidence showing conformance to required processes, to assess how successfully processes have been implemented, and to judge the effectiveness of achieving any defined target levels. Quality audits are also necessary to provide evidence concerning reduction and elimination of problem areas, and they are a hands-on management tool for achieving continual improvement in an organization.To benefit the organization, quality auditing should not only report non-conformance and corrective actions but also highlight areas of good practice and provide evidence of conformance. In this way, other departments may share information and amend their working practices as a result, also enhancing continual improvement.","title":"Quality audits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-19"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"A project audit provides an opportunity to uncover issues, concerns and challenges encountered during the project lifecycle.[20] Conducted midway through the project, an audit affords the project manager, project sponsor and project team an interim view of what has gone well, as well as what needs to be improved to successfully complete the project. If done at the close of a project, the audit can be used to develop success criteria for future projects by providing a forensic review. This review identifies which elements of the project were successfully managed and which ones presented challenges. As a result, the review will help the organization identify what it needs to do to avoid repeating the same mistakes on future projectsProjects can undergo 2 types of Project audits:[19]Regular Health Check Audits: The aim of a regular health check audit is to understand the current state of a project in order to increase project success.\nRegulatory Audits: The aim of a regulatory audit is to verify that a project is compliant with regulations and standards. Best practices of NEMEA Compliance Centre describe that, the regulatory audit must be accurate, objective, and independent while providing oversight and assurance to the organization.Other forms of Project audits:Formal: Applies when the project is in trouble, sponsor agrees that the audit is needed, sensitivities are high, and need to be able prove conclusions via sustainable evidence.Informal: Apply when a new project manager is provided, there is no indication the projects in trouble and there is a need to report whether the project is as opposed to where its supposed to Informal audits can apply the same criteria as formal audit but there is no need for such a in depth report or formal report.[21]","title":"Project audit"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"energy conservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservation"}],"text":"An energy audit is an inspection, survey and analysis of energy flows for energy conservation in a building, process or system to reduce the amount of energy input into the system without negatively affecting the output(s).","title":"Energy audits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Operational audit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operational_audit"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"control self-assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_self-assessment"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CPAJournal-22"}],"text":"Further information: Operational auditAn operations audit is an examination of the operations of the client's business. In this audit, the auditor thoroughly examines the efficiency, effectiveness and economy of the operations with which the management of the entity (client) is achieving its objective. The operational audit goes beyond the internal controls issues since management does not achieve its objectives merely by compliance of satisfactory system of internal controls. Operational audits cover any matters which may be commercially unsound. The objective of operational audit is to examine Three E's, namely:[citation needed] Effectiveness – doing the right things with least wastage of resources. Efficiency – performing work in least possible time. Economy – balance between benefits and costs to run the operations[citation needed]A control self-assessment is a commonly used tool for completing an operations audit.[22]","title":"Operations audit"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"forensic accountancy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_accountancy"},{"link_name":"forensic accountant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_accountant"},{"link_name":"forensic accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forensic_accounting"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Also refer to forensic accountancy, forensic accountant or forensic accounting. It refers to an investigative audit in which accountants with specialized on both accounting and investigation seek to uncover frauds, missing money and negligence.[citation needed]","title":"Forensic audits"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SSRN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1374232","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1374232"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Social_accountability"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Social_accountability"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Social_accountability"},{"link_name":"Social","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_accounting#Formal_accountability"},{"link_name":"environmental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_accounting"},{"link_name":"accountability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accountability"},{"link_name":"Ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_ethics"},{"link_name":"Aarhus Convention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aarhus_Convention"},{"link_name":"Climate justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_justice"},{"link_name":"Corporate accountability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_crime"},{"link_name":"behaviour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_behaviour"},{"link_name":"environmental responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_environmental_responsibility"},{"link_name":"responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_responsibility"},{"link_name":"social responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_social_responsibility"},{"link_name":"Dirty hands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dirty_hands"},{"link_name":"Environmental racism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_racism"},{"link_name":"in Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Russia"},{"link_name":"in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"in Western Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_racism_in_Western_Europe"},{"link_name":"inequality in the UK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_inequality_in_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"injustice in Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_injustice_in_Europe"},{"link_name":"Ethical banking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_banking"},{"link_name":"Ethical code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_code"},{"link_name":"Extended producer responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extended_producer_responsibility"},{"link_name":"Externality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Externality"},{"link_name":"Harm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harm"},{"link_name":"Little Eichmanns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Little_Eichmanns"},{"link_name":"Loss and damage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loss_and_damage"},{"link_name":"Organizational ethics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_ethics"},{"link_name":"Organizational justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizational_justice"},{"link_name":"Pollution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollution"},{"link_name":"Principles for Responsible Investment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principles_for_Responsible_Investment"},{"link_name":"Racism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Racism"},{"link_name":"Social impact assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_Assessment"},{"link_name":"Social justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_justice"},{"link_name":"Social responsibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_responsibility"},{"link_name":"Stakeholder theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stakeholder_theory"},{"link_name":"Sullivan principles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sullivan_principles"},{"link_name":"Transparency (behavioral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)"},{"link_name":"social)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transparency_(behavior)"},{"link_name":"UN Global Compact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations_Global_Compact"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:OilCleanupAfterValdezSpill.jpg"},{"link_name":"Socialaccounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_accounting"},{"link_name":"Corporate crime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corporate_crime"},{"link_name":"Double bottom line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bottom_line"},{"link_name":"Ethical positioning index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_positioning_index"},{"link_name":"Higg Index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higg_Index"},{"link_name":"Impact assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_assessment"},{"link_name":"environmental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment"},{"link_name":"equality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equality_impact_assessment"},{"link_name":"social","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_impact_assessment"},{"link_name":"ISO 26000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_26000"},{"link_name":"ISO 45001","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_45001"},{"link_name":"Genuine progress indicator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genuine_progress_indicator"},{"link_name":"Performance indicator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Performance_indicator"},{"link_name":"SA8000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SA8000"},{"link_name":"Social return on investment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_return_on_investment"},{"link_name":"Whole-life cost","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whole-life_cost"},{"link_name":"Environmentalaccounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_accounting"},{"link_name":"Carbon accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_accounting"},{"link_name":"Eco-Management and Audit Scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eco-Management_and_Audit_Scheme"},{"link_name":"Emission inventory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emission_inventory"},{"link_name":"Environmental full-cost accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_full-cost_accounting"},{"link_name":"Environmental conflict","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_conflict"},{"link_name":"impact assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_assessment"},{"link_name":"management system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_management_system"},{"link_name":"profit-and-loss account","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_profit_and_loss_account"},{"link_name":"ISO 14000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_14000"},{"link_name":"ISO 14031","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_14031"},{"link_name":"Life-cycle assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life-cycle_assessment"},{"link_name":"Pollutant release and transfer register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pollutant_release_and_transfer_register"},{"link_name":"Sustainability accounting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_accounting"},{"link_name":"measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_measurement"},{"link_name":"metrics and indices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_metrics_and_indices"},{"link_name":"standards and certification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_standards_and_certification"},{"link_name":"supply chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_chain_sustainability"},{"link_name":"Toxics Release Inventory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxics_Release_Inventory"},{"link_name":"Triple bottom line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triple_bottom_line"},{"link_name":"Global Reporting Initiative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Reporting_Initiative"},{"link_name":"GxP guidelines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GxP"},{"link_name":"Sustainability reporting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sustainability_reporting"},{"link_name":"Auditing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Community-based monitoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community-based_monitoring"},{"link_name":"Environmental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_audit"},{"link_name":"certification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_certification"},{"link_name":"Fair trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_trade"},{"link_name":"certification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fair_trade_certification"},{"link_name":"ISO 19011","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_19011"},{"link_name":"Bangladesh Accord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accord_on_Fire_and_Building_Safety_in_Bangladesh"},{"link_name":"Benefit corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benefit_corporation"},{"link_name":"Child labour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Child_labour"},{"link_name":"Community interest company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Community_interest_company"},{"link_name":"Conflict of interest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_of_interest"},{"link_name":"Disasters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster"},{"link_name":"Disinvestment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disinvestment"},{"link_name":"Eco-labeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecolabel"},{"link_name":"Environmental degradation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_degradation"},{"link_name":"Environmental pricing reform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_pricing_reform"},{"link_name":"Environmental, social, and corporate governance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental,_social,_and_corporate_governance"},{"link_name":"Ethical consumerism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethical_consumerism"},{"link_name":"Euthenics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthenics"},{"link_name":"Global justice movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_justice_movement"},{"link_name":"Health impact assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_impact_assessment"},{"link_name":"Market governance mechanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Market_governance_mechanism"},{"link_name":"Product certification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_certification"},{"link_name":"Public participation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_participation"},{"link_name":"SDG Publishers Compact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SDG_Publishers_Compact"},{"link_name":"Social enterprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_enterprise"},{"link_name":"Socially responsible business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socially_responsible_business"},{"link_name":"Socially responsible investing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socially_responsible_investing"},{"link_name":"Socially responsible marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socially_responsible_marketing"},{"link_name":"Stakeholder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stakeholder_(corporate)"},{"link_name":"engagement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stakeholder_engagement"},{"link_name":"Supply chain management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_chain_management"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg"},{"link_name":"Environment portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Environment"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_responsibility"},{"link_name":"Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_accountability"},{"link_name":"Organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Social_responsibility_organizations"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q181487#identifiers"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007295861605171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85009477"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114094&CON_LNG=ENG"},{"link_name":"NARA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalog.archives.gov/id/10633194"}],"text":"Amat, O. (2008). \"Earnings management and audit adjustments: An empirical study of IBEX 35 constituents\". SSRN 1374232.vteSocial and environmental accountabilityEthics andprinciples\nAarhus Convention\nClimate justice\nCorporate accountability / behaviour / environmental responsibility / responsibility / social responsibility\nDirty hands\nEnvironmental racism / in Russia / in the United States / in Western Europe / inequality in the UK / injustice in Europe\nEthical banking\nEthical code\nExtended producer responsibility\nExternality\nHarm\nLittle Eichmanns\nLoss and damage\nOrganizational ethics\nOrganizational justice\nPollution\nPrinciples for Responsible Investment\nRacism\n Social impact assessment\nSocial justice\nSocial responsibility\nStakeholder theory\nSullivan principles\nTransparency (behavioral\nsocial)\nUN Global Compact\nSocialaccounting\nCorporate crime\nDouble bottom line\nEthical positioning index\nHigg Index\nImpact assessment (environmental\nequality\nsocial)\nISO 26000\nISO 45001\nGenuine progress indicator\nPerformance indicator\nSA8000\nSocial return on investment\nWhole-life cost\nEnvironmentalaccounting\nCarbon accounting\nEco-Management and Audit Scheme\nEmission inventory\nEnvironmental full-cost accounting / Environmental conflict / impact assessment / management system / profit-and-loss account\nISO 14000\nISO 14031\nLife-cycle assessment\nPollutant release and transfer register\nSustainability accounting / measurement / metrics and indices / standards and certification / supply chain\nToxics Release Inventory\nTriple bottom line\nReporting\nGlobal Reporting Initiative\nGxP guidelines\nSustainability reporting\nAuditing\nCommunity-based monitoring\nEnvironmental (certification)\nFair trade (certification)\nISO 19011\nRelated\nBangladesh Accord\nBenefit corporation\nChild labour\nCommunity interest company\nConflict of interest\nDisasters\nDisinvestment\nEco-labeling\nEnvironmental degradation\nEnvironmental pricing reform\nEnvironmental, social, and corporate governance\nEthical consumerism\nEuthenics\nGlobal justice movement\nHealth impact assessment\nMarket governance mechanism\nProduct certification\nPublic participation\nSDG Publishers Compact\nSocial enterprise\nSocially responsible business\nSocially responsible investing\nSocially responsible marketing\nStakeholder (engagement)\nSupply chain management\n\n Environment portal\n Category\n Commons\nOrganizationsAuthority control databases National\nIsrael\nUnited States\nCzech Republic\nOther\nNARA","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Some typical stages in the audit process","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Audit_Cycle.jpg/300px-Audit_Cycle.jpg"}]

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(1989-09-01). \"Data audit: Its place in auditing\". Accountability in Research. 1 (1): 23–32. doi:10.1080/08989628908573771. ISSN 0898-9621. PMID 26859053.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F08989628908573771","url_text":"10.1080/08989628908573771"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0898-9621","url_text":"0898-9621"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26859053","url_text":"26859053"}]},{"reference":"Derek Matthews, History of Auditing (2006-09-27). The changing audit process from the 19th century till date. Routledge-Taylor & Francis Group. p. 6. ISBN 9781134177912.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ONR8AgAAQBAJ&q=history+of+auditing&pg=PP1","url_text":"The changing audit process from the 19th century till date"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781134177912","url_text":"9781134177912"}]},{"reference":"C. A., Moyer (January 1951). \"Early Developments in American Auditing\". Accounting Review. 26 (1): 3–8. JSTOR 239850.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/239850","url_text":"239850"}]},{"reference":"Johnson, H. Thomas (1975). \"Reviewed work: A History of Accounting Thought, Michael Chatfield\". The Business History Review. 49 (2): 256–257. doi:10.2307/3113713. JSTOR 3113713. S2CID 154953655.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3113713","url_text":"10.2307/3113713"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3113713","url_text":"3113713"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154953655","url_text":"154953655"}]},{"reference":"Mishra, Birendra K.; Paul Newman, D.; Stinson, Christopher H. (1997). \"Environmental regulations and incentives for compliance audits\". Journal of Accounting and Public Policy. 16 (2): 187–214. doi:10.1016/S0278-4254(97)00003-3. Retrieved 1 April 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0278425497000033","url_text":"\"Environmental regulations and incentives for compliance audits\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0278-4254%2897%2900003-3","url_text":"10.1016/S0278-4254(97)00003-3"}]},{"reference":"Thottoli, Mohammed Muneerali (2021). \"The relevance of compliance audit on companies' compliance with disclosure guidelines of financial statements\". Journal of Investment Compliance. 22 (2). Emerald Insight: 137–150. doi:10.1108/JOIC-12-2020-0047. S2CID 236598426. 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Retrieved 22 July 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.forbes.com/francinemckenna/2011/07/08/auditors-and-audit-reports-is-the-firms-john-hancock-enough/","url_text":"\"Auditors and Audit Reports: Is The Firm's \"John Hancock\" Enough?\""}]},{"reference":"\"CONCEPT RELEASE ON POSSIBLE REVISIONS TO PCAOB STANDARDS RELATED TO REPORTS ON AUDITED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS\" (PDF). Retrieved 22 July 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://pcaobus.org/Rules/Rulemaking/Docket034/Concept_Release.pdf","url_text":"\"CONCEPT RELEASE ON POSSIBLE REVISIONS TO PCAOB STANDARDS RELATED TO REPORTS ON AUDITED FINANCIAL STATEMENTS\""}]},{"reference":"\"Auditing Standard No. 5\". pcaobus.org. Retrieved 2016-06-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://pcaobus.org/Standards/Auditing/pages/auditing_standard_5.aspx","url_text":"\"Auditing Standard No. 5\""}]},{"reference":"Ladda, R.L. Basic Concepts Of Accounting. Solapur: Laxmi Book Publication. p. 58. ISBN 978-1-312-16130-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-312-16130-6","url_text":"978-1-312-16130-6"}]},{"reference":"\"Pages - Definition of Internal Auditing\". Na.theiia.org. 2000-01-01. Retrieved 2013-09-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://na.theiia.org/standards-guidance/mandatory-guidance/Pages/Definition-of-Internal-Auditing.aspx","url_text":"\"Pages - Definition of Internal Auditing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Pages - International Professional Practices Framework (IPPF)\". Na.theiia.org. 2000-01-01. Retrieved 2013-09-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://na.theiia.org/standards-guidance/Pages/Standards-and-Guidance-IPPF.aspx","url_text":"\"Pages - International Professional Practices Framework (IPPF)\""}]},{"reference":"\"Professional internal auditors, in carrying out their responsibilities, apply COSO's Integrated Framework-Internal Control\". Theiia.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://na.theiia.org/periodicals/Pages/Internal-Auditor-Magazine.aspx","url_text":"\"Professional internal auditors, in carrying out their responsibilities, apply COSO's Integrated Framework-Internal Control\""}]},{"reference":"Stanleigh, Micheal (2009). \"UNDERTAKING A SUCCESSFUL PROJECT AUDIT\" (PDF). PROJECT SMART. Retrieved 18 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://page-audit.com/pdf/undertaking-a-successful-project-auditrt.pdf","url_text":"\"UNDERTAKING A SUCCESSFUL PROJECT AUDIT\""}]},{"reference":"Clarke, Kevin; Walsh, Kathleen; Flanagan, Jack. \"How prevalent are post-completion audits in Australia\". Accounting, Accountability & Performance. 18 (2): 51–78.","urls":[{"url":"https://search.informit.org/doi/abs/10.3316/ielapa.469182346697207?af=R","url_text":"\"How prevalent are post-completion audits in Australia\""}]},{"reference":"Gilbert W. Joseph and Terry J. Engle (December 2005). \"The Use of Control Self-Assessment by Independent Auditors\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separable_states

Separable state

["1 Separability of bipartite systems","1.1 Pure states","1.2 Mixed states","2 Extending to the multipartite case","3 Separability criterion","4 Characterization via algebraic geometry","5 Testing for separability","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

Quantum states that are not entangled In quantum mechanics, separable states are multipartite quantum states that can be written as a convex combination of product states. Product states are multipartite quantum states that can be written as a tensor product of states in each space. The physical intuition behind these definitions is that product states have no correlation between the different degrees of freedom, while separable states might have correlations, but all such correlations can be explained as due to a classical random variable, as opposed as being due to entanglement. In the special case of pure states the definition simplifies: a pure state is separable if and only if it is a product state. A state is said to be entangled if it is not separable. In general, determining if a state is separable is not straightforward and the problem is classed as NP-hard. Separability of bipartite systems Consider first composite states with two degrees of freedom, referred to as bipartite states. By a postulate of quantum mechanics these can be described as vectors in the tensor product space H 1 ⊗ H 2 {\displaystyle H_{1}\otimes H_{2}} . In this discussion we will focus on the case of the Hilbert spaces H 1 {\displaystyle H_{1}} and H 2 {\displaystyle H_{2}} being finite-dimensional. Pure states Let { | a i ⟩ } i = 1 n ⊂ H 1 {\displaystyle \{|{a_{i}}\rangle \}_{i=1}^{n}\subset H_{1}} and { | b j ⟩ } j = 1 m ⊂ H 2 {\displaystyle \{|{b_{j}}\rangle \}_{j=1}^{m}\subset H_{2}} be orthonormal bases for H 1 {\displaystyle H_{1}} and H 2 {\displaystyle H_{2}} , respectively. A basis for H 1 ⊗ H 2 {\displaystyle H_{1}\otimes H_{2}} is then { | a i ⟩ ⊗ | b j ⟩ } {\displaystyle \{|{a_{i}}\rangle \otimes |{b_{j}}\rangle \}} , or in more compact notation { | a i b j ⟩ } {\displaystyle \{|a_{i}b_{j}\rangle \}} . From the very definition of the tensor product, any vector of norm 1, i.e. a pure state of the composite system, can be written as | ψ ⟩ = ∑ i , j c i , j ( | a i ⟩ ⊗ | b j ⟩ ) = ∑ i , j c i , j | a i b j ⟩ , {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle =\sum _{i,j}c_{i,j}(|a_{i}\rangle \otimes |b_{j}\rangle )=\sum _{i,j}c_{i,j}|a_{i}b_{j}\rangle ,} where c i , j {\displaystyle c_{i,j}} is a constant. If | ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle } can be written as a simple tensor, that is, in the form | ψ ⟩ = | ψ 1 ⟩ ⊗ | ψ 2 ⟩ {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle =|\psi _{1}\rangle \otimes |\psi _{2}\rangle } with | ψ i ⟩ {\displaystyle |\psi _{i}\rangle } a pure state in the i-th space, it is said to be a product state, and, in particular, separable. Otherwise it is called entangled. Note that, even though the notions of product and separable states coincide for pure states, they do not in the more general case of mixed states. Pure states are entangled if and only if their partial states are not pure. To see this, write the Schmidt decomposition of | ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle } as | ψ ⟩ = ∑ k = 1 r ψ p k ( | u k ⟩ ⊗ | v k ⟩ ) , {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle =\sum _{k=1}^{r_{\psi }}{\sqrt {p_{k}}}(|u_{k}\rangle \otimes |v_{k}\rangle ),} where p k > 0 {\displaystyle {\sqrt {p_{k}}}>0} are positive real numbers, r ψ {\displaystyle r_{\psi }} is the Schmidt rank of | ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle } , and { | u k ⟩ } k = 1 r ψ ⊂ H 1 {\displaystyle \{|u_{k}\rangle \}_{k=1}^{r_{\psi }}\subset H_{1}} and { | v k ⟩ } k = 1 r ψ ⊂ H 2 {\displaystyle \{|v_{k}\rangle \}_{k=1}^{r_{\psi }}\subset H_{2}} are sets of orthonormal states in H 1 {\displaystyle H_{1}} and H 2 {\displaystyle H_{2}} , respectively. The state | ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle } is entangled if and only if r ψ > 1 {\displaystyle r_{\psi }>1} . At the same time, the partial state has the form ρ A ≡ Tr B ⁡ ( | ψ ⟩ ⟨ ψ | ) = ∑ k = 1 r ψ p k | u k ⟩ ⟨ u k | . {\displaystyle \rho _{A}\equiv \operatorname {Tr} _{B}(|\psi \rangle \!\langle \psi |)=\sum _{k=1}^{r_{\psi }}p_{k}\,|u_{k}\rangle \!\langle u_{k}|.} It follows that ρ A {\displaystyle \rho _{A}} is pure --- that is, is projection with unit-rank --- if and only if r ψ = 1 {\displaystyle r_{\psi }=1} , which is equivalent to | ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle } being separable. Physically, this means that it is not possible to assign a definite (pure) state to the subsystems, which instead ought to be described as statistical ensembles of pure states, that is, as density matrices. A pure state ρ = | ψ ⟩ ⟨ ψ | {\displaystyle \rho =|\psi \rangle \!\langle \psi |} is thus entangled if and only if the von Neumann entropy of the partial state ρ A ≡ Tr B ⁡ ( ρ ) {\displaystyle \rho _{A}\equiv \operatorname {Tr} _{B}(\rho )} is nonzero. Formally, the embedding of a product of states into the product space is given by the Segre embedding. That is, a quantum-mechanical pure state is separable if and only if it is in the image of the Segre embedding. For example, in a two-qubit space, where H 1 = H 2 = C 2 {\displaystyle H_{1}=H_{2}=\mathbb {C} ^{2}} , the states | 0 ⟩ ⊗ | 0 ⟩ {\displaystyle |0\rangle \otimes |0\rangle } , | 0 ⟩ ⊗ | 1 ⟩ {\displaystyle |0\rangle \otimes |1\rangle } , | 1 ⟩ ⊗ | 1 ⟩ {\displaystyle |1\rangle \otimes |1\rangle } , are all product (and thus separable) pure states, as is | 0 ⟩ ⊗ | ψ ⟩ {\displaystyle |0\rangle \otimes |\psi \rangle } with | ψ ⟩ ≡ 1 / 3 | 0 ⟩ + 2 / 3 | 1 ⟩ {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle \equiv {\sqrt {1/3}}|0\rangle +{\sqrt {2/3}}|1\rangle } . On the other hand, states like 1 / 2 | 00 ⟩ + 1 / 2 | 11 ⟩ {\displaystyle {\sqrt {1/2}}|00\rangle +{\sqrt {1/2}}|11\rangle } or 1 / 3 | 01 ⟩ + 2 / 3 | 10 ⟩ {\displaystyle {\sqrt {1/3}}|01\rangle +{\sqrt {2/3}}|10\rangle } are not separable. Mixed states Consider the mixed state case. A mixed state of the composite system is described by a density matrix ρ {\displaystyle \rho } acting on H 1 ⊗ H 2 {\displaystyle H_{1}\otimes H_{2}} . ρ is separable if there exist p k ≥ 0 {\displaystyle p_{k}\geq 0} , { ρ 1 k } {\displaystyle \{\rho _{1}^{k}\}} and { ρ 2 k } {\displaystyle \{\rho _{2}^{k}\}} which are mixed states of the respective subsystems such that ρ = ∑ k p k ρ 1 k ⊗ ρ 2 k {\displaystyle \rho =\sum _{k}p_{k}\rho _{1}^{k}\otimes \rho _{2}^{k}} where ∑ k p k = 1. {\displaystyle \;\sum _{k}p_{k}=1.} Otherwise ρ {\displaystyle \rho } is called an entangled state. We can assume without loss of generality in the above expression that { ρ 1 k } {\displaystyle \{\rho _{1}^{k}\}} and { ρ 2 k } {\displaystyle \{\rho _{2}^{k}\}} are all rank-1 projections, that is, they represent pure ensembles of the appropriate subsystems. It is clear from the definition that the family of separable states is a convex set. Notice that, again from the definition of the tensor product, any density matrix, indeed any matrix acting on the composite state space, can be trivially written in the desired form, if we drop the requirement that { ρ 1 k } {\displaystyle \{\rho _{1}^{k}\}} and { ρ 2 k } {\displaystyle \{\rho _{2}^{k}\}} are themselves states and ∑ k p k = 1. {\displaystyle \;\sum _{k}p_{k}=1.} If these requirements are satisfied, then we can interpret the total state as a probability distribution over uncorrelated product states. In terms of quantum channels, a separable state can be created from any other state using local actions and classical communication while an entangled state cannot. When the state spaces are infinite-dimensional, density matrices are replaced by positive trace class operators with trace 1, and a state is separable if it can be approximated, in trace norm, by states of the above form. If there is only a single non-zero p k {\displaystyle p_{k}} , then the state can be expressed just as ρ = ρ 1 ⊗ ρ 2 , {\textstyle \rho =\rho _{1}\otimes \rho _{2},} and is called simply separable or product state. One property of the product state is that in terms of entropy, S ( ρ ) = S ( ρ 1 ) + S ( ρ 2 ) . {\displaystyle S(\rho )=S(\rho _{1})+S(\rho _{2}).} Extending to the multipartite case The above discussion generalizes easily to the case of a quantum system consisting of more than two subsystems. Let a system have n subsystems and have state space H = H 1 ⊗ ⋯ ⊗ H n {\displaystyle H=H_{1}\otimes \cdots \otimes H_{n}} . A pure state | ψ ⟩ ∈ H {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle \in H} is separable if it takes the form | ψ ⟩ = | ψ 1 ⟩ ⊗ ⋯ ⊗ | ψ n ⟩ . {\displaystyle |\psi \rangle =|\psi _{1}\rangle \otimes \cdots \otimes |\psi _{n}\rangle .} Similarly, a mixed state ρ acting on H is separable if it is a convex sum ρ = ∑ k p k ρ 1 k ⊗ ⋯ ⊗ ρ n k . {\displaystyle \rho =\sum _{k}p_{k}\rho _{1}^{k}\otimes \cdots \otimes \rho _{n}^{k}.} Or, in the infinite-dimensional case, ρ is separable if it can be approximated in the trace norm by states of the above form. Separability criterion The problem of deciding whether a state is separable in general is sometimes called the separability problem in quantum information theory. It is considered to be a difficult problem. It has been shown to be NP-hard in many cases and is believed to be so in general. Some appreciation for this difficulty can be obtained if one attempts to solve the problem by employing the direct brute force approach, for a fixed dimension. The problem quickly becomes intractable, even for low dimensions. Thus more sophisticated formulations are required. The separability problem is a subject of current research. A separability criterion is a necessary condition a state must satisfy to be separable. In the low-dimensional (2 X 2 and 2 X 3) cases, the Peres-Horodecki criterion is actually a necessary and sufficient condition for separability. Other separability criteria include (but not limited to) the range criterion, reduction criterion, and those based on uncertainty relations. See Ref. for a review of separability criteria in discrete variable systems. In continuous variable systems, the Peres-Horodecki criterion also applies. Specifically, Simon formulated a particular version of the Peres-Horodecki criterion in terms of the second-order moments of canonical operators and showed that it is necessary and sufficient for 1 ⊕ 1 {\displaystyle 1\oplus 1} -mode Gaussian states (see Ref. for a seemingly different but essentially equivalent approach). It was later found that Simon's condition is also necessary and sufficient for 1 ⊕ n {\displaystyle 1\oplus n} -mode Gaussian states, but no longer sufficient for 2 ⊕ 2 {\displaystyle 2\oplus 2} -mode Gaussian states. Simon's condition can be generalized by taking into account the higher order moments of canonical operators or by using entropic measures. Characterization via algebraic geometry Quantum mechanics may be modelled on a projective Hilbert space, and the categorical product of two such spaces is the Segre embedding. In the bipartite case, a quantum state is separable if and only if it lies in the image of the Segre embedding. Jon Magne Leinaas, Jan Myrheim and Eirik Ovrum in their paper "Geometrical aspects of entanglement" describe the problem and study the geometry of the separable states as a subset of the general state matrices. This subset have some intersection with the subset of states holding Peres-Horodecki criterion. In this paper, Leinaas et al. also give a numerical approach to test for separability in the general case. Testing for separability Testing for separability in the general case is an NP-hard problem. Leinaas et al. formulated an iterative, probabilistic algorithm for testing if a given state is separable. When the algorithm is successful, it gives an explicit, random, representation of the given state as a separable state. Otherwise it gives the distance of the given state from the nearest separable state it can find. See also Entanglement witness References ^ Gharahi, Masoud; Mancini, Stefano; Ottaviani, Giorgio (October 1, 2020). "Fine-structure classification of multiqubit entanglement by algebraic geometry". Physical Review Research. 2 (4): 043003. arXiv:1910.09665. Bibcode:2020PhRvR...2d3003G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevResearch.2.043003. S2CID 204824024. ^ a b Gurvits, L., Classical deterministic complexity of Edmonds’ problem and quantum entanglement, in Proceedings of the 35th ACM Symposium on Theory of Computing, ACM Press, New York, 2003. ^ a b Sevag Gharibian, Strong NP-Hardness of the Quantum Separability Problem, Quantum Information and Computation, Vol. 10, No. 3&4, pp. 343-360, 2010. arXiv:0810.4507. ^ Hofmann, Holger F.; Takeuchi, Shigeki (September 22, 2003). "Violation of local uncertainty relations as a signature of entanglement". Physical Review A. 68 (3): 032103. arXiv:quant-ph/0212090. Bibcode:2003PhRvA..68c2103H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.68.032103. S2CID 54893300. ^ Gühne, Otfried (March 18, 2004). "Characterizing Entanglement via Uncertainty Relations". Physical Review Letters. 92 (11): 117903. arXiv:quant-ph/0306194. Bibcode:2004PhRvL..92k7903G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.92.117903. PMID 15089173. S2CID 5696147. ^ Gühne, Otfried; Lewenstein, Maciej (August 24, 2004). "Entropic uncertainty relations and entanglement". Physical Review A. 70 (2): 022316. arXiv:quant-ph/0403219. Bibcode:2004PhRvA..70b2316G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.70.022316. S2CID 118952931. ^ Huang, Yichen (July 29, 2010). "Entanglement criteria via concave-function uncertainty relations". Physical Review A. 82 (1): 012335. Bibcode:2010PhRvA..82a2335H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.82.012335. ^ Gühne, Otfried; Tóth, Géza (2009). "Entanglement detection". Physics Reports. 474 (1–6): 1–75. arXiv:0811.2803. Bibcode:2009PhR...474....1G. doi:10.1016/j.physrep.2009.02.004. S2CID 119288569. ^ Simon, R. (2000). "Peres-Horodecki Separability Criterion for Continuous Variable Systems". Physical Review Letters. 84 (12): 2726–2729. arXiv:quant-ph/9909044. Bibcode:2000PhRvL..84.2726S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.2726. PMID 11017310. S2CID 11664720. ^ Duan, Lu-Ming; Giedke, G.; Cirac, J. I.; Zoller, P. (2000). "Inseparability Criterion for Continuous Variable Systems". Physical Review Letters. 84 (12): 2722–2725. arXiv:quant-ph/9908056. Bibcode:2000PhRvL..84.2722D. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.84.2722. PMID 11017309. S2CID 9948874. ^ Werner, R. F.; Wolf, M. M. (2001). "Bound Entangled Gaussian States". Physical Review Letters. 86 (16): 3658–3661. arXiv:quant-ph/0009118. Bibcode:2001PhRvL..86.3658W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.86.3658. PMID 11328047. S2CID 20897950. ^ Shchukin, E.; Vogel, W. (2005). "Inseparability Criteria for Continuous Bipartite Quantum States". Physical Review Letters. 95 (23): 230502. arXiv:quant-ph/0508132. Bibcode:2005PhRvL..95w0502S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.95.230502. PMID 16384285. S2CID 28595936. ^ Hillery, Mark; Zubairy, M.Suhail (2006). "Entanglement Conditions for Two-Mode States". Physical Review Letters. 96 (5): 050503. arXiv:quant-ph/0507168. Bibcode:2006PhRvL..96e0503H. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.96.050503. PMID 16486912. S2CID 43756465. ^ Walborn, S.; Taketani, B.; Salles, A.; Toscano, F.; de Matos Filho, R. (2009). "Entropic Entanglement Criteria for Continuous Variables". Physical Review Letters. 103 (16): 160505. arXiv:0909.0147. Bibcode:2009PhRvL.103p0505W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.160505. PMID 19905682. S2CID 10523704. ^ Yichen Huang (October 2013). "Entanglement Detection: Complexity and Shannon Entropic Criteria". IEEE Transactions on Information Theory. 59 (10): 6774–6778. doi:10.1109/TIT.2013.2257936. S2CID 7149863. ^ a b "Geometrical aspects of entanglement", Physical Review A 74, 012313 (2006) External links "StateSeparator" web-app

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quantum mechanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"quantum states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_state"},{"link_name":"pure states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pure_states"},{"link_name":"entangled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_entanglement"},{"link_name":"NP-hard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-hard"}],"text":"In quantum mechanics, separable states are multipartite quantum states that can be written as a convex combination of product states. Product states are multipartite quantum states that can be written as a tensor product of states in each space. The physical intuition behind these definitions is that product states have no correlation between the different degrees of freedom, while separable states might have correlations, but all such correlations can be explained as due to a classical random variable, as opposed as being due to entanglement.In the special case of pure states the definition simplifies: a pure state is separable if and only if it is a product state.A state is said to be entangled if it is not separable. In general, determining if a state is separable is not straightforward and the problem is classed as NP-hard.","title":"Separable state"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tensor product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tensor_product_of_modules"},{"link_name":"Hilbert spaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert_space"}],"text":"Consider first composite states with two degrees of freedom, referred to as bipartite states. By a postulate of quantum mechanics these can be described as vectors in the tensor product space \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n 1\n \n \n ⊗\n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{1}\\otimes H_{2}}\n \n. In this discussion we will focus on the case of the Hilbert spaces \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{2}}\n \n being finite-dimensional.","title":"Separability of bipartite systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"partial states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_trace#Partial_trace_as_a_quantum_operation"},{"link_name":"pure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purity_(quantum_mechanics)"},{"link_name":"Schmidt decomposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schmidt_decomposition"},{"link_name":"density matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_matrix"},{"link_name":"von Neumann entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_entropy"},{"link_name":"Segre embedding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segre_embedding"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"sub_title":"Pure states","text":"Let \n \n \n \n {\n \n |\n \n \n \n a\n \n i\n \n \n \n ⟩\n \n }\n \n i\n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n ⊂\n \n H\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{|{a_{i}}\\rangle \\}_{i=1}^{n}\\subset H_{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n {\n \n |\n \n \n \n b\n \n j\n \n \n \n ⟩\n \n }\n \n j\n =\n 1\n \n \n m\n \n \n ⊂\n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{|{b_{j}}\\rangle \\}_{j=1}^{m}\\subset H_{2}}\n \n be orthonormal bases for \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{2}}\n \n, respectively. A basis for \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n 1\n \n \n ⊗\n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{1}\\otimes H_{2}}\n \n is then \n \n \n \n {\n \n |\n \n \n \n a\n \n i\n \n \n \n ⟩\n ⊗\n \n |\n \n \n \n b\n \n j\n \n \n \n ⟩\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{|{a_{i}}\\rangle \\otimes |{b_{j}}\\rangle \\}}\n \n, or in more compact notation \n \n \n \n {\n \n |\n \n \n a\n \n i\n \n \n \n b\n \n j\n \n \n ⟩\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{|a_{i}b_{j}\\rangle \\}}\n \n. From the very definition of the tensor product, any vector of norm 1, i.e. a pure state of the composite system, can be written as|\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n ,\n j\n \n \n \n c\n \n i\n ,\n j\n \n \n (\n \n |\n \n \n a\n \n i\n \n \n ⟩\n ⊗\n \n |\n \n \n b\n \n j\n \n \n ⟩\n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n ,\n j\n \n \n \n c\n \n i\n ,\n j\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n a\n \n i\n \n \n \n b\n \n j\n \n \n ⟩\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle =\\sum _{i,j}c_{i,j}(|a_{i}\\rangle \\otimes |b_{j}\\rangle )=\\sum _{i,j}c_{i,j}|a_{i}b_{j}\\rangle ,}where \n \n \n \n \n c\n \n i\n ,\n j\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle c_{i,j}}\n \n is a constant. \nIf \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle }\n \n can be written as a simple tensor, that is, in the form \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n =\n \n |\n \n \n ψ\n \n 1\n \n \n ⟩\n ⊗\n \n |\n \n \n ψ\n \n 2\n \n \n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle =|\\psi _{1}\\rangle \\otimes |\\psi _{2}\\rangle }\n \n with \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n ψ\n \n i\n \n \n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi _{i}\\rangle }\n \n a pure state in the i-th space, it is said to be a product state, and, in particular, separable. Otherwise it is called entangled. Note that, even though the notions of product and separable states coincide for pure states, they do not in the more general case of mixed states.Pure states are entangled if and only if their partial states are not pure. To see this, write the Schmidt decomposition of \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle }\n \n as|\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n \n r\n \n ψ\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n |\n \n \n u\n \n k\n \n \n ⟩\n ⊗\n \n |\n \n \n v\n \n k\n \n \n ⟩\n )\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle =\\sum _{k=1}^{r_{\\psi }}{\\sqrt {p_{k}}}(|u_{k}\\rangle \\otimes |v_{k}\\rangle ),}where \n \n \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {p_{k}}}>0}\n \n are positive real numbers, \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n ψ\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle r_{\\psi }}\n \n is the Schmidt rank of \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle }\n \n, and \n \n \n \n {\n \n |\n \n \n u\n \n k\n \n \n ⟩\n \n }\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n \n r\n \n ψ\n \n \n \n \n ⊂\n \n H\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{|u_{k}\\rangle \\}_{k=1}^{r_{\\psi }}\\subset H_{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n {\n \n |\n \n \n v\n \n k\n \n \n ⟩\n \n }\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n \n r\n \n ψ\n \n \n \n \n ⊂\n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{|v_{k}\\rangle \\}_{k=1}^{r_{\\psi }}\\subset H_{2}}\n \n are sets of orthonormal states in \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{1}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{2}}\n \n, respectively.\nThe state \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle }\n \n is entangled if and only if \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n ψ\n \n \n >\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r_{\\psi }>1}\n \n. At the same time, the partial state has the formρ\n \n A\n \n \n ≡\n \n Tr\n \n B\n \n \n ⁡\n (\n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n \n ⟨\n ψ\n \n |\n \n )\n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n =\n 1\n \n \n \n r\n \n ψ\n \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n u\n \n k\n \n \n ⟩\n \n ⟨\n \n u\n \n k\n \n \n \n |\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{A}\\equiv \\operatorname {Tr} _{B}(|\\psi \\rangle \\!\\langle \\psi |)=\\sum _{k=1}^{r_{\\psi }}p_{k}\\,|u_{k}\\rangle \\!\\langle u_{k}|.}It follows that \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n A\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{A}}\n \n is pure --- that is, is projection with unit-rank --- if and only if \n \n \n \n \n r\n \n ψ\n \n \n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle r_{\\psi }=1}\n \n, which is equivalent to \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle }\n \n being separable.Physically, this means that it is not possible to assign a definite (pure) state to the subsystems, which instead ought to be described as statistical ensembles of pure states, that is, as density matrices. A pure state \n \n \n \n ρ\n =\n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n \n ⟨\n ψ\n \n |\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho =|\\psi \\rangle \\!\\langle \\psi |}\n \n is thus entangled if and only if the von Neumann entropy of the partial state \n \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n A\n \n \n ≡\n \n Tr\n \n B\n \n \n ⁡\n (\n ρ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho _{A}\\equiv \\operatorname {Tr} _{B}(\\rho )}\n \n is nonzero.Formally, the embedding of a product of states into the product space is given by the Segre embedding.[1] That is, a quantum-mechanical pure state is separable if and only if it is in the image of the Segre embedding.For example, in a two-qubit space, where \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n 1\n \n \n =\n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n C\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{1}=H_{2}=\\mathbb {C} ^{2}}\n \n, the states \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n 0\n ⟩\n ⊗\n \n |\n \n 0\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |0\\rangle \\otimes |0\\rangle }\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n 0\n ⟩\n ⊗\n \n |\n \n 1\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |0\\rangle \\otimes |1\\rangle }\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n 1\n ⟩\n ⊗\n \n |\n \n 1\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |1\\rangle \\otimes |1\\rangle }\n \n, are all product (and thus separable) pure states, as is \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n 0\n ⟩\n ⊗\n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |0\\rangle \\otimes |\\psi \\rangle }\n \n with \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n ≡\n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 3\n \n \n \n |\n \n 0\n ⟩\n +\n \n \n 2\n \n /\n \n 3\n \n \n \n |\n \n 1\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle \\equiv {\\sqrt {1/3}}|0\\rangle +{\\sqrt {2/3}}|1\\rangle }\n \n. On the other hand, states like \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n |\n \n 00\n ⟩\n +\n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n |\n \n 11\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {1/2}}|00\\rangle +{\\sqrt {1/2}}|11\\rangle }\n \n or \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 3\n \n \n \n |\n \n 01\n ⟩\n +\n \n \n 2\n \n /\n \n 3\n \n \n \n |\n \n 10\n ⟩\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\sqrt {1/3}}|01\\rangle +{\\sqrt {2/3}}|10\\rangle }\n \n are not separable.","title":"Separability of bipartite systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"density matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Density_matrix"},{"link_name":"convex set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convex_set"},{"link_name":"product states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Product_state"},{"link_name":"quantum channels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_channel"},{"link_name":"local actions and classical communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LOCC"},{"link_name":"trace class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trace_class"},{"link_name":"entropy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_entropy"}],"sub_title":"Mixed states","text":"Consider the mixed state case. A mixed state of the composite system is described by a density matrix \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho }\n \n acting on \n \n \n \n \n H\n \n 1\n \n \n ⊗\n \n H\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{1}\\otimes H_{2}}\n \n. ρ is separable if there exist \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n k\n \n \n ≥\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{k}\\geq 0}\n \n, \n \n \n \n {\n \n ρ\n \n 1\n \n \n k\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\rho _{1}^{k}\\}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n {\n \n ρ\n \n 2\n \n \n k\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\rho _{2}^{k}\\}}\n \n which are mixed states of the respective subsystems such thatρ\n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n \n p\n \n k\n \n \n \n ρ\n \n 1\n \n \n k\n \n \n ⊗\n \n ρ\n \n 2\n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho =\\sum _{k}p_{k}\\rho _{1}^{k}\\otimes \\rho _{2}^{k}}where∑\n \n k\n \n \n \n p\n \n k\n \n \n =\n 1.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\;\\sum _{k}p_{k}=1.}Otherwise \n \n \n \n ρ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho }\n \n is called an entangled state. We can assume without loss of generality in the above expression that \n \n \n \n {\n \n ρ\n \n 1\n \n \n k\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\rho _{1}^{k}\\}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n {\n \n ρ\n \n 2\n \n \n k\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\rho _{2}^{k}\\}}\n \n are all rank-1 projections, that is, they represent pure ensembles of the appropriate subsystems. It is clear from the definition that the family of separable states is a convex set.Notice that, again from the definition of the tensor product, any density matrix, indeed any matrix acting on the composite state space, can be trivially written in the desired form, if we drop the requirement that \n \n \n \n {\n \n ρ\n \n 1\n \n \n k\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\rho _{1}^{k}\\}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n {\n \n ρ\n \n 2\n \n \n k\n \n \n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\rho _{2}^{k}\\}}\n \n are themselves states and \n \n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n \n p\n \n k\n \n \n =\n 1.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\;\\sum _{k}p_{k}=1.}\n \n If these requirements are satisfied, then we can interpret the total state as a probability distribution over uncorrelated product states.In terms of quantum channels, a separable state can be created from any other state using local actions and classical communication while an entangled state cannot.When the state spaces are infinite-dimensional, density matrices are replaced by positive trace class operators with trace 1, and a state is separable if it can be approximated, in trace norm, by states of the above form.If there is only a single non-zero \n \n \n \n \n p\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle p_{k}}\n \n, then the state can be expressed just as \n \n \n \n ρ\n =\n \n ρ\n \n 1\n \n \n ⊗\n \n ρ\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\textstyle \\rho =\\rho _{1}\\otimes \\rho _{2},}\n \n and is called simply separable or product state. One property of the product state is that in terms of entropy,S\n (\n ρ\n )\n =\n S\n (\n \n ρ\n \n 1\n \n \n )\n +\n S\n (\n \n ρ\n \n 2\n \n \n )\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle S(\\rho )=S(\\rho _{1})+S(\\rho _{2}).}","title":"Separability of bipartite systems"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The above discussion generalizes easily to the case of a quantum system consisting of more than two subsystems. Let a system have n subsystems and have state space \n \n \n \n H\n =\n \n H\n \n 1\n \n \n ⊗\n ⋯\n ⊗\n \n H\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H=H_{1}\\otimes \\cdots \\otimes H_{n}}\n \n. A pure state \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n ∈\n H\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle \\in H}\n \n is separable if it takes the form|\n \n ψ\n ⟩\n =\n \n |\n \n \n ψ\n \n 1\n \n \n ⟩\n ⊗\n ⋯\n ⊗\n \n |\n \n \n ψ\n \n n\n \n \n ⟩\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |\\psi \\rangle =|\\psi _{1}\\rangle \\otimes \\cdots \\otimes |\\psi _{n}\\rangle .}Similarly, a mixed state ρ acting on H is separable if it is a convex sumρ\n =\n \n ∑\n \n k\n \n \n \n p\n \n k\n \n \n \n ρ\n \n 1\n \n \n k\n \n \n ⊗\n ⋯\n ⊗\n \n ρ\n \n n\n \n \n k\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\rho =\\sum _{k}p_{k}\\rho _{1}^{k}\\otimes \\cdots \\otimes \\rho _{n}^{k}.}Or, in the infinite-dimensional case, ρ is separable if it can be approximated in the trace norm by states of the above form.","title":"Extending to the multipartite case"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"quantum information theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_information_theory"},{"link_name":"NP-hard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NP-hard"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NP-hard1-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NP-hard2-3"},{"link_name":"Peres-Horodecki criterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peres-Horodecki_criterion"},{"link_name":"range criterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_criterion"},{"link_name":"reduction criterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reduction_criterion"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Peres-Horodecki criterion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peres-Horodecki_criterion"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"The problem of deciding whether a state is separable in general is sometimes called the separability problem in quantum information theory. It is considered to be a difficult problem. It has been shown to be NP-hard in many cases [2][3] and is believed to be so in general. Some appreciation for this difficulty can be obtained if one attempts to solve the problem by employing the direct brute force approach, for a fixed dimension. The problem quickly becomes intractable, even for low dimensions. Thus more sophisticated formulations are required. The separability problem is a subject of current research.A separability criterion is a necessary condition a state must satisfy to be separable. In the low-dimensional (2 X 2 and 2 X 3) cases, the Peres-Horodecki criterion is actually a necessary and sufficient condition for separability. Other separability criteria include (but not limited to) the range criterion, reduction criterion, and those based on uncertainty relations.[4][5][6][7] See Ref.[8] for a review of separability criteria in discrete variable systems.In continuous variable systems, the Peres-Horodecki criterion also applies. Specifically, Simon [9] formulated a particular version of the Peres-Horodecki criterion in terms of the second-order moments of canonical operators and showed that it is necessary and sufficient for \n \n \n \n 1\n ⊕\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1\\oplus 1}\n \n-mode Gaussian states (see Ref.[10] for a seemingly different but essentially equivalent approach). It was later found [11] that Simon's condition is also necessary and sufficient for \n \n \n \n 1\n ⊕\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1\\oplus n}\n \n-mode Gaussian states, but no longer sufficient for \n \n \n \n 2\n ⊕\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2\\oplus 2}\n \n-mode Gaussian states. Simon's condition can be generalized by taking into account the higher order moments of canonical operators [12][13] or by using entropic measures.[14][15]","title":"Separability criterion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"projective Hilbert space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective_Hilbert_space"},{"link_name":"categorical product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Categorical_product"},{"link_name":"Segre embedding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Segre_embedding"},{"link_name":"image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Jon Magne Leinaas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Magne_Leinaas"},{"link_name":"Jan Myrheim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jan_Myrheim"},{"link_name":"Eirik Ovrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Eirik_Ovrum&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-geom_approach-16"}],"text":"Quantum mechanics may be modelled on a projective Hilbert space, and the categorical product of two such spaces is the Segre embedding. In the bipartite case, a quantum state is separable if and only if it lies in the image of the Segre embedding.\nJon Magne Leinaas, Jan Myrheim and Eirik Ovrum in their paper \"Geometrical aspects of entanglement\"[16] describe the problem and study the geometry of the separable states as a subset of the general state matrices. This subset have some intersection with the subset of states holding Peres-Horodecki criterion. In this paper, Leinaas et al. also give a numerical approach to test for separability in the general case.","title":"Characterization via algebraic geometry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NP-hard1-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NP-hard2-3"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-geom_approach-16"}],"text":"Testing for separability in the general case is an NP-hard problem.[2][3] Leinaas et al.[16] formulated an iterative, probabilistic algorithm for testing if a given state is separable. When the algorithm is successful, it gives an explicit, random, representation of the given state as a separable state. Otherwise it gives the distance of the given state from the nearest separable state it can find.","title":"Testing for separability"}]

[]

[{"title":"Entanglement witness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entanglement_witness"}]

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(2009). \"Entropic Entanglement Criteria for Continuous Variables\". Physical Review Letters. 103 (16): 160505. arXiv:0909.0147. Bibcode:2009PhRvL.103p0505W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.103.160505. PMID 19905682. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_Raagapella

Stanford Raagapella

["1 History","2 Music","3 Recordings","3.1 Raags to Riches (2005)","3.2 Raag Time (2016)","3.3 Raagstars (2019)","4 Awards and nominations","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Stanford RaagapellaOriginStanford University, Stanford, California, United StatesGenresWorld music, Bollywood music, Indian music, Pop music, A cappella,Years active2002–presentWebsitewww.raagapella.comMusical artist Stanford Raagapella (abbreviated Raag) is Stanford University's South Asian focus a cappella group. The group was founded as an all-male group in 2002 and transitioned to an all-gender group in 2017. Stanford Raagapella has released three albums to date, Raags to Riches, Raag Time and Raagstars. Raagapella regularly performs on campus in events hosted by the group itself as well as by organizations such as Stanford Sanskriti, the South Asian cultural organization. Stanford Raagapella has toured the United States and India, performing with artists such as A.R. Rahman. The group's repertoire consists of world music, much of which originates in India and Pakistan, and Western songs. History Stanford Raagapella was founded in 2002 by Mehul Trivedi, Bobby Ghosh, Sudeep Roy, and Jay Pandit. The group quickly grew from its founding four members to a steady size of fourteen to twenty. In 2005 and 2006 Stanford Raagapella won 1st Place at Anahat, a South Asian a cappella competition hosted yearly by UC Berkeley Indus. It placed 3rd in the competition in 2004 and 2007. In 2006, Stanford Raagapella also took part in the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella (ICCA) where it was a semi-finalist. In 2007, Stanford Raagapella won 2nd place at the ICCA West Region Quarterfinal. Later that year, Stanford Raagapella went on its first tour, starting a yearly tradition of touring in locations such as the East and West coasts of the United States, Texas, Chicago, Iowa and India, during which CNN-IBN did a story about the group. The group had its first tour in India in 2008, stopping in Mumbai, Bangalore, and Hyderabad, where one of the shows was organized by Tanvi Shah. Stanford Raagapella first performed with composer and singer A.R. Rahman in 2006 in the Hollywood Bowl, reconvening in 2007 (in the Oracle Arena, Oakland and NASA Colosseum), and again in the Hollywood Bowl in 2011. Stanford Raagapella makes regular appearances in events on Stanford campus as well. The group still tours the US, performing at various colleges and has performed in a variety of locations including Barcelona for the wedding of Shristi Mittal, niece of Lakshmi Mittal. Music Stanford Raagapella's music consists mainly of Bollywood and western pop. The repertoire also contains doo-wop (such as "I'll Take You Home"), Persian poetry ("Ey Karevan/Hallelujah"), a national song ("Vande Mataram"), hip hop ("Motel"), R&B ("Burn/Jaane Kye Chahe"), folk rock ("All Along the Watchtower") and bhangra ("Kangna"). While most songs are in Hindi and/or English, Stanford Raagapella has also sung in Punjabi, Sinhalese, Tamil, Persian, Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit, Arabic, and French. Stanford Raagapella places emphasis on its quality of blend and its volume and richness of sound. Stanford Raagapella's first album, Raag's to Riches was well received by The Recorded A Cappella Review Board, receiving a 4.3 out of 5 based on the reviews of RARB critics. The album also received an honorable mention for the year of 2006 by the RARB. In 2016, Stanford Raagapella released its second album, Raag Time. Recordings Raags to Riches (2005) Yun Hi Chala (from Swades, composed by A. R. Rahman, sung by Udit Narayan, Hariharan, and Kailash Kher) / Stay (Dave Matthews Band) Meri Jaan (Jay Sean) Ruk Ja O Dil Deewane (from Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, sung by Udit Narayan) Dance With You (Nachna Tere Naal) (Jay Sean) Tu Aashiqui Hai (From Jhankaar Beats, sung by KK) Oh! Carol! (Jahveena!) (Stereo Nation) Jaadu Teri Nazar (from Darr, sung by Udit Narayan) Motel (Hotel) (Cassidy) Woh Pehli Baar (from Pyaar Mein Kabhi Kabhi, sung by Shaan, Vishal Dadlani, Samrat, and Shiraz) / Dil Kya Kare (from Julie, sung by Kishore Kumar) Sukiyaki (Kyu Sakamoto, 4 P.M. (group)) Chak De Saare Gham (from Hum Tum, sung by Sonu Nigam and Sadhana Sargam) / This Love (Maroon 5) Maa Tujhe Salaam (Vande Mataram) (A. R. Rahman) Raag Time (2016) Oru Maalai / Oka Maru Kalisina Andam (From Ghajini, Karthik) Ajab Si (from Om Shanti Om, KK) Mahabharat (Title Song) (from Mahabharat (1988 TV series)) Jaane Kya Chahe Mann Bawra (Pyaar Ke Side Effects, Zubeen Garg) / Burn (Usher) Yaara / Without You (Vivek Agrawal) Aashayein (from Iqbal (film), KK) O Humdum Suniyo Re (from Saathiya (film), A. R. Rahman) Allah Ke Bande (from Waisa Bhi Hota Hai Part II, Kailash Kher) Woh Lamhe (from Zeher, Atif Aslam / Jal (band)) Kangna Tera Ni (from Chaar Din Ki Chandni, Master Rakesh) Raagstars (2019) Ab Laut Aa Chaiyya Chaiyya Aicha Silsila Ye Chahat Ka / Ae Dil Hai Mushkil Kannodu Kanbathellam Hallelujah / Ey Karevan Chandrachooda Awards and nominations The International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella (ICCA) first judged live a cappella performance competitions in 1996. ICCA results for Raagapella Year Level Result Points Citation 2007 West Region Quarterfinal #3 2nd 392 See also List of Stanford University a cappella groups References ^ "Student Organizations". Stanford University. Stanford University. Retrieved 12 February 2016. ^ a b "Stanford Raagapella | bio". Raagapella.com. Retrieved 2011-09-07. ^ a b Swapnil Pagare (2011-07-15), A R Rahman With LA Philharmonic Part 3, retrieved 2016-04-03 ^ "Raagapella | Hollywood Bowl". www.hollywoodbowl.com. Retrieved 2016-07-04. ^ "A Cappella News: Raagapella wins title". www.acappellanews.com. Retrieved 2016-07-04. ^ "Results". Varsity Vocals. 2015-08-12. Retrieved 2016-04-06. ^ a b "Raagapella | History". Stanford.edu. Retrieved 2011-09-07. ^ "Raagapella, Indianised form of Italian music". Ibnlive.in.com. Archived from the original on 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2011-09-07. ^ "Music review: A.R. Rahman and the Los Angeles Philharmonic in 'Journey to India' at Hollywood Bowl". Los Angeles Times. 11 July 2011. ^ Augustine, Seline (July 8, 2008). "The razzle dazzle of raags". The Hindu. The Hindu. Retrieved 16 May 2016. ^ "Mangalyam/O Humdum Suniyo Re - Stanford Raagapella @ Hollywood Bowl 2006". YouTube. ^ de Silva, Marisa. "Raag On!". Times Online Sri Lanka. ^ "Raagapella | A Cappella Music - The Contemporary A Cappella Society". Casa.org. Retrieved 2011-09-07. ^ "Raagapella - About the Performer". LA Phil. Retrieved 2011-09-07. ^ "Tag Archives: Raagapella". The Stanford Daily. The Stanford Daily. Retrieved 12 February 2016. ^ Doshi, Milan. "Spring Tour". Milan Doshi. Milan Doshi. Retrieved 12 February 2016. ^ Rai, Saritha. "Steel Tycoon Mittal's Niece Has Big Fat Indian Wedding In Spain". Forbes. Retrieved 9 May 2016. ^ "Stanford Raagapella | discography | Raags to Riches". Raagapella.com. 2005-12-01. Retrieved 2011-09-07. ^ Sethuraman, Shreya (11 June 2015). "'A Cappella' music: Masala Mania". OPEN Magazine: New Delhi. OPEN Magazine. Retrieved 16 April 2016. ^ "Stanford Raagapella: Raags to Riches". The Recorded A Cappella Review Board. The Recorded A Cappella Review Board. Retrieved 12 February 2016. ^ "RARB Picks of '06". The Recorded A Cappella Review Board. The Recorded A Cappella Review Board. Retrieved 12 February 2016. ^ "Raag Time". CDBaby. Retrieved 9 May 2016. ^ "Results: Official Results for the ICCA, ICHSA, and The Open (2007)". University of California, Berkeley: Varsity Vocals. 2007. Retrieved 16 February 2020. External links Stanford Raagapella Website Stanford Raagapella Youtube Channel vteStanford UniversityLocated in: Stanford, CaliforniaSchools Business Education Engineering Humanities and Sciences Law Medicine Sustainability Research Libraries (Green, Branner, Lane, Lathrop) Centers and institutes Cancer Institute Center for Advanced Study in the Behavioral Sciences Hasso Plattner Institute of Design Hoover Institution Hopkins Marine Station Institute for Economic Policy Research Institute for Theoretical Physics Jasper Ridge Biological Preserve Medical Center SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource Places Arboretum Arizona Cactus Garden Bing Concert Hall Braun Music Center Iris & B. Gerald Cantor Center for Visual Arts Clock Tower Dish Fire Truck House Frost Amphitheater Gates Computer Science Building Green Earth Sciences Haas Center for Public Service Hanna–Honeycomb House Hoover House Hoover Tower Lake Lagunita Main Quad Oval Stanford, California Mausoleum Memorial Auditorium Memorial Church Research Park Shopping Center Public art Bedford Sentinels Boo-Qwilla Column I Gay Liberation Monument Luna Moth Walk I Old Union Fountain The Sieve of Eratosthenes The Stanford Legacy Statue of Alexander von Humboldt Statue of Benjamin Franklin Statue of Johannes Gutenberg Statue of Louis Agassiz Tanner Fountain White Memorial Fountain Publications Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy HighWire Press Stanford Law Review Stanford University Press Student life Student housing KZSU Stanford Band A cappella groups Stanford Chaparral The Stanford Flipside The Stanford Daily The Stanford Review The Fountain Hopper Stanford Tree Business Association of Stanford Entrepreneurial Students StartX Athletics Overview: Stanford Cardinal (Pac-12 Conference and Atlantic Coast Conference) Teams Baseball Basketball Men Women Football Big Game The Play Men's gymnastics Soccer Men Women Women's volleyball Facilities Arrillaga Family Rowing and Sailing Center Burnham Pavilion Klein Field at Sunken Diamond Maloney Field at Laird Q. Cagan Stadium Maples Pavilion Stanford Beach Volleyball Stadium Stanford Golf Course Stanford Stadium Taube Tennis Center Misc. Stanford Axe NACDA Directors' Cup People President (Interim) Richard Saller President-Designate Jonathan Levin Provost Jenny Martínez Faculty and staff Alumni Leland Stanford Jr. Leland Stanford Jane Stanford Related History of Stanford University Dean of Stanford Law School Academic regalia Knight-Hennessy Scholars Stanford University Network (SUN) Orange County Stanford Cardinal Red Palo Alto Green

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stanford University's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"South Asian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian"},{"link_name":"a cappella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_cappella"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"A.R. Rahman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A.R._Rahman"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Musical artistStanford Raagapella (abbreviated Raag) is Stanford University's South Asian focus a cappella group. The group was founded as an all-male group in 2002 and transitioned to an all-gender group in 2017. Stanford Raagapella has released three albums to date, Raags to Riches, Raag Time and Raagstars. Raagapella regularly performs on campus in events hosted by the group itself as well as by organizations such as Stanford Sanskriti, the South Asian cultural organization.[1] Stanford Raagapella has toured the United States and India, performing with artists such as A.R. Rahman.[2][3][4] The group's repertoire consists of world music, much of which originates in India and Pakistan, and Western songs.","title":"Stanford Raagapella"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Championship_of_Collegiate_A_Cappella"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-7"},{"link_name":"CNN-IBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNN-IBN"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Tanvi Shah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanvi_Shah"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"A.R. Rahman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._R._Rahman"},{"link_name":"Hollywood Bowl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollywood_Bowl"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Oracle Arena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Arena"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-3"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-7"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Lakshmi Mittal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshmi_Mittal"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Stanford Raagapella was founded in 2002 by Mehul Trivedi, Bobby Ghosh, Sudeep Roy, and Jay Pandit. The group quickly grew from its founding four members to a steady size of fourteen to twenty. In 2005 and 2006 Stanford Raagapella won 1st Place at Anahat, a South Asian a cappella competition hosted yearly by UC Berkeley Indus.[5] It placed 3rd in the competition in 2004 and 2007. In 2006, Stanford Raagapella also took part in the International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella (ICCA) where it was a semi-finalist. In 2007, Stanford Raagapella won 2nd place at the ICCA West Region Quarterfinal.[6]Later that year, Stanford Raagapella went on its first tour, starting a yearly tradition of touring in locations such as the East and West coasts of the United States, Texas, Chicago, Iowa and India,[7] during which CNN-IBN did a story about the group.[8][9] The group had its first tour in India in 2008, stopping in Mumbai, Bangalore, and Hyderabad, where one of the shows was organized by Tanvi Shah.[10] Stanford Raagapella first performed with composer and singer A.R. Rahman in 2006 in the Hollywood Bowl,[11][12] reconvening in 2007 (in the Oracle Arena, Oakland and NASA Colosseum), and again in the Hollywood Bowl in 2011.[3][7][13][14]\nStanford Raagapella makes regular appearances in events on Stanford campus as well.[15] The group still tours the US, performing at various colleges and has performed in a variety of locations including Barcelona for the wedding of Shristi Mittal, niece of Lakshmi Mittal.[16][17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doo-wop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doo-wop"},{"link_name":"Persian poetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_literature#Poetry_2"},{"link_name":"hip hop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hip_hop_music"},{"link_name":"R&B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%26B"},{"link_name":"folk rock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folk_rock"},{"link_name":"bhangra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhangra_(music)"},{"link_name":"Hindi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindi"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_language"},{"link_name":"Punjabi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punjabi_language"},{"link_name":"Sinhalese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinhalese_language"},{"link_name":"Tamil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamil_language"},{"link_name":"Persian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_language"},{"link_name":"Telugu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telugu_language"},{"link_name":"Kannada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kannada_language"},{"link_name":"Sanskrit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit"},{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bio-2"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"}],"text":"Stanford Raagapella's music consists mainly of Bollywood and western pop. The repertoire also contains doo-wop (such as \"I'll Take You Home\"), Persian poetry (\"Ey Karevan/Hallelujah\"), a national song (\"Vande Mataram\"), hip hop (\"Motel\"), R&B (\"Burn/Jaane Kye Chahe\"), folk rock (\"All Along the Watchtower\") and bhangra (\"Kangna\"). While most songs are in Hindi and/or English, Stanford Raagapella has also sung in Punjabi, Sinhalese, Tamil, Persian, Telugu, Kannada, Sanskrit, Arabic, and French.[2][18] Stanford Raagapella places emphasis on its quality of blend and its volume and richness of sound.[19]Stanford Raagapella's first album, Raag's to Riches was well received by The Recorded A Cappella Review Board, receiving a 4.3 out of 5 based on the reviews of RARB critics.[20] The album also received an honorable mention for the year of 2006 by the RARB.[21]In 2016, Stanford Raagapella released its second album, Raag Time.[22]","title":"Music"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Recordings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Swades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swades"},{"link_name":"A. R. Rahman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._R._Rahman"},{"link_name":"Udit Narayan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udit_Narayan"},{"link_name":"Hariharan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hariharan_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Kailash Kher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kailash_Kher"},{"link_name":"Dave Matthews Band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dave_Matthews_Band"},{"link_name":"Jay Sean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Sean"},{"link_name":"Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dilwale_Dulhania_Le_Jayenge"},{"link_name":"Udit Narayan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udit_Narayan"},{"link_name":"Jay Sean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Sean"},{"link_name":"Jhankaar Beats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jhankaar_Beats"},{"link_name":"KK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KK_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Stereo Nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarsame_Singh_Saini"},{"link_name":"Darr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darr"},{"link_name":"Udit Narayan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udit_Narayan"},{"link_name":"Cassidy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassidy_(rapper)"},{"link_name":"Pyaar Mein Kabhi Kabhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyaar_Mein_Kabhi_Kabhi"},{"link_name":"Shaan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaan_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Vishal Dadlani","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishal_Dadlani"},{"link_name":"Julie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julie_(1975_film)"},{"link_name":"Kishore Kumar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kishore_Kumar"},{"link_name":"Sukiyaki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukiyaki_(song)"},{"link_name":"Kyu Sakamoto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyu_Sakamoto"},{"link_name":"4 P.M. (group)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4_P.M._(group)"},{"link_name":"Hum Tum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hum_Tum_(film)"},{"link_name":"Sonu Nigam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonu_Nigam"},{"link_name":"Sadhana Sargam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sadhana_Sargam"},{"link_name":"Maroon 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maroon_5"},{"link_name":"A. R. Rahman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._R._Rahman"}],"sub_title":"Raags to Riches (2005)","text":"Yun Hi Chala (from Swades, composed by A. R. Rahman, sung by Udit Narayan, Hariharan, and Kailash Kher) / Stay (Dave Matthews Band)\nMeri Jaan (Jay Sean)\nRuk Ja O Dil Deewane (from Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, sung by Udit Narayan)\nDance With You (Nachna Tere Naal) (Jay Sean)\nTu Aashiqui Hai (From Jhankaar Beats, sung by KK)\nOh! Carol! (Jahveena!) (Stereo Nation)\nJaadu Teri Nazar (from Darr, sung by Udit Narayan)\nMotel (Hotel) (Cassidy)\nWoh Pehli Baar (from Pyaar Mein Kabhi Kabhi, sung by Shaan, Vishal Dadlani, Samrat, and Shiraz) / Dil Kya Kare (from Julie, sung by Kishore Kumar)\nSukiyaki (Kyu Sakamoto, 4 P.M. (group))\nChak De Saare Gham (from Hum Tum, sung by Sonu Nigam and Sadhana Sargam) / This Love (Maroon 5)\nMaa Tujhe Salaam (Vande Mataram) (A. R. Rahman)","title":"Recordings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ghajini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghajini_(2005_film)"},{"link_name":"Karthik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karthik_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Om Shanti Om","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Om_Shanti_Om"},{"link_name":"KK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KK_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Mahabharat (1988 TV series)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharat_(1988_TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Pyaar Ke Side Effects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyaar_Ke_Side_Effects"},{"link_name":"Zubeen Garg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zubeen_Garg"},{"link_name":"Burn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burn_(Usher_song)"},{"link_name":"Usher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usher_(musician)"},{"link_name":"Iqbal (film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iqbal_(film)"},{"link_name":"KK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KK_(singer)"},{"link_name":"Saathiya (film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saathiya_(film)"},{"link_name":"A. R. Rahman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._R._Rahman"},{"link_name":"Waisa Bhi Hota Hai Part II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waisa_Bhi_Hota_Hai_Part_II"},{"link_name":"Kailash Kher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kailash_Kher"},{"link_name":"Zeher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeher"},{"link_name":"Atif Aslam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atif_Aslam"},{"link_name":"Jal (band)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jal_(band)"},{"link_name":"Chaar Din Ki Chandni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaar_Din_Ki_Chandni"}],"sub_title":"Raag Time (2016)","text":"Oru Maalai / Oka Maru Kalisina Andam (From Ghajini, Karthik)\nAjab Si (from Om Shanti Om, KK)\nMahabharat (Title Song) (from Mahabharat (1988 TV series))\nJaane Kya Chahe Mann Bawra (Pyaar Ke Side Effects, Zubeen Garg) / Burn (Usher)\nYaara / Without You (Vivek Agrawal)\nAashayein (from Iqbal (film), KK)\nO Humdum Suniyo Re (from Saathiya (film), A. R. Rahman)\nAllah Ke Bande (from Waisa Bhi Hota Hai Part II, Kailash Kher)\nWoh Lamhe (from Zeher, Atif Aslam / Jal (band))\nKangna Tera Ni (from Chaar Din Ki Chandni, Master Rakesh)","title":"Recordings"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Raagstars (2019)","text":"Ab Laut Aa\nChaiyya Chaiyya\nAicha\nSilsila Ye Chahat Ka / Ae Dil Hai Mushkil\nKannodu Kanbathellam\nHallelujah / Ey Karevan\nChandrachooda","title":"Recordings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Championship_of_Collegiate_A_Cappella"}],"text":"The International Championship of Collegiate A Cappella (ICCA) first judged live a cappella performance competitions in 1996.","title":"Awards and nominations"}]

[]

[{"title":"List of Stanford University a cappella groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Stanford_University_a_cappella_groups"}]

[{"reference":"\"Student Organizations\". Stanford University. Stanford University. Retrieved 12 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://admission.stanford.edu/student/organizations/","url_text":"\"Student Organizations\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stanford Raagapella | bio\". Raagapella.com. Retrieved 2011-09-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.raagapella.com/bio","url_text":"\"Stanford Raagapella | bio\""}]},{"reference":"Swapnil Pagare (2011-07-15), A R Rahman With LA Philharmonic Part 3, retrieved 2016-04-03","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7xZn8A-Zbw","url_text":"A R Rahman With LA Philharmonic Part 3"}]},{"reference":"\"Raagapella | Hollywood Bowl\". www.hollywoodbowl.com. Retrieved 2016-07-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hollywoodbowl.com/philpedia/raagapella","url_text":"\"Raagapella | Hollywood Bowl\""}]},{"reference":"\"A Cappella News: Raagapella wins title\". www.acappellanews.com. Retrieved 2016-07-04.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.acappellanews.com/archive/001011.html","url_text":"\"A Cappella News: Raagapella wins title\""}]},{"reference":"\"Results\". Varsity Vocals. 2015-08-12. Retrieved 2016-04-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://varsityvocals.com/results-page/?fwp_year=2007&fwp_region=west","url_text":"\"Results\""}]},{"reference":"\"Raagapella | History\". Stanford.edu. Retrieved 2011-09-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stanford.edu/group/raagapella/history.html","url_text":"\"Raagapella | History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Raagapella, Indianised form of Italian music\". Ibnlive.in.com. Archived from the original on 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2011-09-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121016161318/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/raagapella-indianised-form-of-italian-music/67780-8.html","url_text":"\"Raagapella, Indianised form of Italian music\""},{"url":"http://ibnlive.in.com/news/raagapella-indianised-form-of-italian-music/67780-8.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Music review: A.R. Rahman and the Los Angeles Philharmonic in 'Journey to India' at Hollywood Bowl\". Los Angeles Times. 11 July 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/culturemonster/2011/07/music-review-ar-rahman-and-the-los-angeles-philharmonic-in-journey-to-india-at-hollywood-bowl.html","url_text":"\"Music review: A.R. Rahman and the Los Angeles Philharmonic in 'Journey to India' at Hollywood Bowl\""}]},{"reference":"Augustine, Seline (July 8, 2008). \"The razzle dazzle of raags\". The Hindu. The Hindu. Retrieved 16 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/the-razzle-dazzle-of-raags/article1420211.ece","url_text":"\"The razzle dazzle of raags\""}]},{"reference":"\"Mangalyam/O Humdum Suniyo Re - Stanford Raagapella @ Hollywood Bowl 2006\". YouTube.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BeCgqM13wg4","url_text":"\"Mangalyam/O Humdum Suniyo Re - Stanford Raagapella @ Hollywood Bowl 2006\""}]},{"reference":"de Silva, Marisa. \"Raag On!\". Times Online Sri Lanka.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sundaytimes.lk/071223/Mirror/mr606.html","url_text":"\"Raag On!\""}]},{"reference":"\"Raagapella | A Cappella Music - The Contemporary A Cappella Society\". Casa.org. Retrieved 2011-09-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.casa.org/node/3121","url_text":"\"Raagapella | A Cappella Music - The Contemporary A Cappella Society\""}]},{"reference":"\"Raagapella - About the Performer\". LA Phil. Retrieved 2011-09-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.laphil.com/philpedia/artist-detail.cfm?id=2912","url_text":"\"Raagapella - About the Performer\""}]},{"reference":"\"Tag Archives: Raagapella\". The Stanford Daily. The Stanford Daily. Retrieved 12 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stanforddaily.com/tag/raagapella/","url_text":"\"Tag Archives: Raagapella\""}]},{"reference":"Doshi, Milan. \"Spring Tour\". Milan Doshi. Milan Doshi. Retrieved 12 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://milandoshi.weebly.com/stanford-raagapella.html","url_text":"\"Spring Tour\""}]},{"reference":"Rai, Saritha. \"Steel Tycoon Mittal's Niece Has Big Fat Indian Wedding In Spain\". Forbes. Retrieved 9 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/saritharai/2013/12/17/steel-tycoon-mittals-niece-weds-in-big-fat-indian-wedding-in-spain/","url_text":"\"Steel Tycoon Mittal's Niece Has Big Fat Indian Wedding In Spain\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stanford Raagapella | discography | Raags to Riches\". Raagapella.com. 2005-12-01. Retrieved 2011-09-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.raagapella.com/discography?id=2625","url_text":"\"Stanford Raagapella | discography | Raags to Riches\""}]},{"reference":"Sethuraman, Shreya (11 June 2015). \"'A Cappella' music: Masala Mania\". OPEN Magazine: New Delhi. OPEN Magazine. Retrieved 16 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/art-culture/a-cappella-music-masala-mania#page4","url_text":"\"'A Cappella' music: Masala Mania\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stanford Raagapella: Raags to Riches\". The Recorded A Cappella Review Board. The Recorded A Cappella Review Board. Retrieved 12 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rarb.org/reviews/albums/624-raags-to-riches/","url_text":"\"Stanford Raagapella: Raags to Riches\""}]},{"reference":"\"RARB Picks of '06\". The Recorded A Cappella Review Board. The Recorded A Cappella Review Board. Retrieved 12 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rarb.org/picks/2006/","url_text":"\"RARB Picks of '06\""}]},{"reference":"\"Raag Time\". CDBaby. Retrieved 9 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.cdbaby.com/cd/raagapella5","url_text":"\"Raag Time\""}]},{"reference":"\"Results: Official Results for the ICCA, ICHSA, and The Open (2007)\". University of California, Berkeley: Varsity Vocals. 2007. Retrieved 16 February 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://varsityvocals.com/results-page/?fwp_year=2007&fwp_type=icca","url_text":"\"Results: Official Results for the ICCA, ICHSA, and The Open (2007)\""}]}]

[{"Link":"http://www.raagapella.com/","external_links_name":"www.raagapella.com"},{"Link":"http://admission.stanford.edu/student/organizations/","external_links_name":"\"Student Organizations\""},{"Link":"http://www.raagapella.com/bio","external_links_name":"\"Stanford Raagapella | bio\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=K7xZn8A-Zbw","external_links_name":"A R Rahman With LA Philharmonic Part 3"},{"Link":"http://www.hollywoodbowl.com/philpedia/raagapella","external_links_name":"\"Raagapella | Hollywood Bowl\""},{"Link":"http://www.acappellanews.com/archive/001011.html","external_links_name":"\"A Cappella News: Raagapella wins title\""},{"Link":"https://varsityvocals.com/results-page/?fwp_year=2007&fwp_region=west","external_links_name":"\"Results\""},{"Link":"http://www.stanford.edu/group/raagapella/history.html","external_links_name":"\"Raagapella | History\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121016161318/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/raagapella-indianised-form-of-italian-music/67780-8.html","external_links_name":"\"Raagapella, Indianised form of Italian music\""},{"Link":"http://ibnlive.in.com/news/raagapella-indianised-form-of-italian-music/67780-8.html","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/culturemonster/2011/07/music-review-ar-rahman-and-the-los-angeles-philharmonic-in-journey-to-india-at-hollywood-bowl.html","external_links_name":"\"Music review: A.R. Rahman and the Los Angeles Philharmonic in 'Journey to India' at Hollywood Bowl\""},{"Link":"http://www.thehindu.com/todays-paper/tp-features/tp-metroplus/the-razzle-dazzle-of-raags/article1420211.ece","external_links_name":"\"The razzle dazzle of raags\""},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BeCgqM13wg4","external_links_name":"\"Mangalyam/O Humdum Suniyo Re - Stanford Raagapella @ Hollywood Bowl 2006\""},{"Link":"http://www.sundaytimes.lk/071223/Mirror/mr606.html","external_links_name":"\"Raag On!\""},{"Link":"http://www.casa.org/node/3121","external_links_name":"\"Raagapella | A Cappella Music - The Contemporary A Cappella Society\""},{"Link":"http://www.laphil.com/philpedia/artist-detail.cfm?id=2912","external_links_name":"\"Raagapella - About the Performer\""},{"Link":"http://www.stanforddaily.com/tag/raagapella/","external_links_name":"\"Tag Archives: Raagapella\""},{"Link":"http://milandoshi.weebly.com/stanford-raagapella.html","external_links_name":"\"Spring Tour\""},{"Link":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/saritharai/2013/12/17/steel-tycoon-mittals-niece-weds-in-big-fat-indian-wedding-in-spain/","external_links_name":"\"Steel Tycoon Mittal's Niece Has Big Fat Indian Wedding In Spain\""},{"Link":"http://www.raagapella.com/discography?id=2625","external_links_name":"\"Stanford Raagapella | discography | Raags to Riches\""},{"Link":"http://www.openthemagazine.com/article/art-culture/a-cappella-music-masala-mania#page4","external_links_name":"\"'A Cappella' music: Masala Mania\""},{"Link":"http://www.rarb.org/reviews/albums/624-raags-to-riches/","external_links_name":"\"Stanford Raagapella: Raags to Riches\""},{"Link":"http://www.rarb.org/picks/2006/","external_links_name":"\"RARB Picks of '06\""},{"Link":"http://www.cdbaby.com/cd/raagapella5","external_links_name":"\"Raag Time\""},{"Link":"https://varsityvocals.com/results-page/?fwp_year=2007&fwp_type=icca","external_links_name":"\"Results: Official Results for the ICCA, ICHSA, and The Open (2007)\""},{"Link":"http://www.raagapella.com/","external_links_name":"Stanford Raagapella Website"},{"Link":"https://www.youtube.com/c/stanfordraagapella","external_links_name":"Stanford Raagapella Youtube Channel"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphen-minus

Hyphen-minus

["1 Description","2 Uses","2.1 Typing","2.2 Programming languages","2.3 Command line","2.4 diff output","3 Encoding","4 See also","5 Explanatory notes","6 References","7 External links"]

The most commonly used type of hyphen (-) "-" redirects here. For other uses, see - (disambiguation). -Hyphen-minusIn UnicodeU+002D - HYPHEN-MINUSGraphical variants﹣U+FE63 ﹣ SMALL HYPHEN-MINUS－U+FF0D － FULLWIDTH HYPHEN-MINUSDifferent fromDifferent fromU+2010 ‐ HYPHEN U+2011 ‑ NON-BREAKING HYPHEN U+2212 − MINUS SIGN U+2013 – EN DASH U+2014 — EM DASH The hyphen-minus symbol - is the form of hyphen most commonly used in digital documents. On most keyboards, it is the only character that resembles a minus sign or a dash so it is also used for these. The name hyphen-minus derives from the original ASCII standard, where it was called hyphen–(minus). The character is referred to as a hyphen, a minus sign, or a dash according to the context where it is being used. Description -+−-+−hyphen-minus, plus, and minus signsin proportional and monospaced fonts In early typewriters and character encodings, a single key/code was almost always used for hyphen, minus, various dashes, and strikethrough, since they all have a roughly similar appearance. The current Unicode Standard specifies distinct characters for several different dashes, an unambiguous minus sign (sometimes called the Unicode minus) at code point U+2212, an unambiguous hyphen (sometimes called the Unicode hyphen) at U+2010, the hyphen-minus at U+002D and a variety of other hyphen symbols for various uses. When a hyphen is called for, the hyphen-minus is a common choice as it is well known, easy to enter on keyboards, and still the only form recognized by many data formats and computer languages. Though the Unicode Standard states that the U+2010 hyphen is "preferred" over the hyphen-minus, the standard itself uses the hyphen-minus as its hyphen character. In most modern computer fonts, the hyphen-minus is either identical or very similar to the Unicode hyphen. In mathematical texts that include the plus sign, the Unicode minus is preferred to the hyphen-minus, because its metrics match the plus sign in level and length. Uses Typing See also: Two consecutive hyphens and Three consecutive hyphens This character is typed when a hyphen or a minus sign is wanted. Based on old typewriter conventions, it is common to use a pair -- to represent an em dash —, and to put spaces around it  -  to represent a spaced en dash  – ; this practice is deprecated in professional typography. Some word processors automatically convert these to the correct dash. The character can also be typed multiple times to simulate a horizontal line (though in most cases, repeated entry of the underscore will produce a solid line). Alternating the hyphen-minus with spaces produces a "dashed" line, often to indicate where paper is to be cut. On a typewriter, over-striking a section of text with this is used for strikethrough. Programming languages Most programming languages use the hyphen-minus for denoting subtraction and negation. It is rarely used to indicate a range, due to ambiguity with subtraction. Generally, other characters, such as the Unicode U+2212 − MINUS SIGN are not recognized as an operator. In some programming languages (for example MySQL) -- (two hyphen-minus) mark the beginning of a comment. It can be used to start the signature block in Usenet news system. YAML uses --- (three hyphen-minuses) to end a section. Command line The hyphen-minus character is often used when specifying command-line options, a convention popularized by Unix. Examples of the "short" form are -R or -q. A user can specify both by using -Rq. Some implementations allow two hyphen-minuses to specify "long" option names as --recursive or --quiet. These are easier to understand when reading commands (some software does not care about the number of hyphen-minuses, and either does not allow combinations of single-letter options, or requires the user to rearrange them, so they do not match a long option). A double hyphen-minus by itself (followed by a space) indicates that there are no more options, which is useful when one needs to specify a filename that starts with a hyphen-minus. An option of just a hyphen-minus (followed by a space) may be recognized in lieu of a filename and indicates that stdin is to be read. diff output - is used to denote deleted lines in diff output in the context format or the unified format. Encoding The glyph has a code point in Unicode as U+002D - HYPHEN-MINUS. It is also in ASCII with the same value. See also -- (disambiguation) Box-drawing characters including ─ (U+2500), useful for drawing horizontal lines Hyphen Soft hyphen Explanatory notes ^ In Lucida Sans Unicode, the hyphen-minus is drawn identically to the en dash. ^ The precise relationships depend on typeface design choices. References ^ Korpela, Jukka K. (2006). Unicode explained. O'Reilly. p. 382. ISBN 978-0-596-10121-3. ^ "3.1 General scripts" (PDF). Unicode Version 1.0 · Character Blocks. p. 30. Archived (PDF) from the original on 21 November 2021. Retrieved 10 December 2021. Loose vs. Precise Semantics. Some ASCII characters have multiple uses, either through ambiguity in the original standards or through accumulated reinterpretations of a limited codeset. For example, 27 hex is defined in ANSI X3.4 as apostrophe (closing single quotation mark; acute accent), and 2D hex as hyphen minus. In general, the Unicode standard provides the same interpretation for the equivalent code values, without adding to or subtracting from their semantics. The Unicode standard supplies unambiguous codes elsewhere for the most useful particular interpretations of these ASCII values; the corresponding unambiguous characters are cross-referenced in the character names list for this block. In a few cases, the Unicode standard indicates the generic interpretation of an ASCII code in the name of the corresponding Unicode character, for example U+0027 is APOSTROPHE-QUOTE'. ^ "American National Standard X3.4-1977: American Standard Code for Information Interchange" (PDF). National Institute of Standards and Technology. p. 10 (4.2 Graphic characters). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2021. ^ "The Unicode Standard, Version 13.0, Chapter 6.2" (PDF). 2020. General Punctuation § Dashes and Hyphens. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2020. ^ Korpela, Jukka. "Dashes and Hyphens § Typographic Usage". Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2020. ^ Marian, Jakub. "Hyphen, minus, en-dash, and em-dash: difference and usage in English". Archived from the original on 25 December 2020. Retrieved 23 December 2020. A hyphen is usually very short (it has its own Unicode character, but you can use the hyphen-minus instead because it looks the same) ... ^ French, Nigel (2006). InDesign Type: Professional Typography with Adobe InDesign CS2. Adobe Press. p. 72. ISBN 9780321385444. Retrieved 4 July 2020. ^ Bringhurst, Robert (2004). The elements of typographic style (third ed.). Hartley & Marks, Publishers. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-88179-206-5. Retrieved 10 November 2020. In typescript, a double hyphen (--) is often used for a long dash. Double hyphens in a typeset document are a sure sign that the type was set by a typist, not a typographer. A typographer will use an em dash, three-quarter em, or en dash, depending on context or personal style. The em dash is the nineteenth-century standard, still prescribed in many editorial style books, but the em dash is too long for use with the best text faces. Like the oversized space between sentences, it belongs to the padded and corseted aesthetic of Victorian typography. ^ Ritchie, Dennis (c. 1975). "C Reference Manual" (PDF). Bell Labs. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 April 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2016. ^ Marlow, Simon (ed.). Haskell 2010 Language Report (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016. External links The dictionary definition of - at Wiktionary vteTypographyPage Canons of page construction Column Even working Margin Page numbering Paper size Pagination Pull quote Recto and verso Intentionally blank page Paragraph Alignment Leading River Runaround Widows and orphans runt CharacterTypeface anatomy Counter Diacritics Dingbat Glyph Ink trap Ligature Rotation Subscript and superscript Swash Text figures Tittle Capitalization All caps Camel case Initial Letter case Small caps Snake case Title case Visual distinction Italics Oblique Bold Color printing Underline Blackboard bold Blackletter Horizontal aspects Figure space Kerning Letter-spacing Sentence spacing Space Thin space Vertical aspects Ascender Baseline Body height Cap height Descender Median Overshoot x-height Typeface classificationsRoman type Serif Antiqua Didone slab serif Sans-serif Blackletter type Fraktur Rotunda Schwabacher Gaelic type Insular Uncial Specialist Record type Display typeface script fat face reverse-contrast Punctuation Dashes Hanging punctuation Hyphen-minus Hyphenation Prime mark Quotation mark Typesetting Etaoin shrdlu Font computer monospaced Font catalog For position only Letterpress Lorem ipsum Microprinting Microtypography Movable type Pangram Phototypesetting Punchcutting Reversing type Sort Type color Type design Typeface list Typographic units Agate Cicero Em En Measure Pica Point traditional point-size names Proposed metric units Twip Digital typography Character encoding Hinting Rasterization Typographic features Web typography Bézier curves Desktop publishing Typography in otherwriting systems Arabic Cyrillic East Asian Thai Related articles Penmanship Handwriting Handwriting script Calligraphy Style guide Type design Type foundry History of Western typography Intellectual property protection of typefaces Technical lettering Vox-ATypI classification Related tables List of typographical symbols and punctuation marks Punctuation and other typographic symbols (template) Category vteCommon punctuation and other typographical symbols       space    ,   comma    :   colon    ;   semicolon    ‐   hyphen    ’   '   apostrophe    ′   ″   ‴   prime    .   full stop    &   ampersand    @   at sign    ^   caret    /   slash    \   backslash    …   ellipsis    *   asterisk    ⁂   asterism      *  *  *      dinkus    -   hyphen-minus    ‒   –   —   dash    ⹀   ⸗   double hyphen    ?   question mark    !   exclamation mark    ‽   interrobang    ¡   ¿   inverted ! and ?    ⸮   irony punctuation    #   number sign    №   numero sign    º   ª   ordinal indicator    %   percent sign    ‰   per mille    ‱   basis point    °   degree symbol    ⌀   diameter sign    +   −   plus and minus signs    ×   multiplication sign    ÷   division sign    ~   tilde    ±   plus–minus sign    ∓   minus-plus sign    ^   caret    _   underscore    ⁀   tie    |   ¦   ‖   vertical bar    •   bullet    ·   interpunct    ©   copyright symbol    ©   copyleft    ℗   sound recording copyright    ®   registered trademark    SM   service mark symbol    TM   trademark symbol    ‘ ’   “ ”   ' '   " "   quotation mark    ‹ ›   « »   guillemet    ( )      { }   ⟨ ⟩   bracket    ”   ditto mark    †   ‡   dagger    ❧   fleuron (hedera, aldus)    ☞   manicule    ◊   ⌑   lozenge    ¶   ⸿   pilcrow (paragraph mark)    §   section mark  Version of this table as a sortable list Currency symbols Diacritics (accents) Logic symbols Math symbols Whitespace Chinese punctuation Hebrew punctuation Japanese punctuation Korean punctuation

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On most keyboards, it is the only character that resembles a minus sign or a dash so it is also used for these.[1] The name hyphen-minus derives from the original ASCII standard,[2] where it was called hyphen–(minus).[3] The character is referred to as a hyphen, a minus sign, or a dash according to the context where it is being used.","title":"Hyphen-minus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"typewriters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typewriter"},{"link_name":"character encodings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encodings"},{"link_name":"Unicode Standard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode_Standard"},{"link_name":"dashes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dash"},{"link_name":"minus sign","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minus_sign"},{"link_name":"code point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_point"},{"link_name":"hyphen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphen"},{"link_name":"variety of other hyphen symbols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyphen#Unicode"},{"link_name":"keyboards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_keyboard"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"computer fonts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_font"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"In early typewriters and character encodings, a single key/code was almost always used for hyphen, minus, various dashes, and strikethrough, since they all have a roughly similar appearance. The current Unicode Standard specifies distinct characters for several different dashes, an unambiguous minus sign (sometimes called the Unicode minus) at code point U+2212, an unambiguous hyphen (sometimes called the Unicode hyphen) at U+2010, the hyphen-minus at U+002D and a variety of other hyphen symbols for various uses. When a hyphen is called for, the hyphen-minus is a common choice as it is well known, easy to enter on keyboards, and still the only form recognized by many data formats and computer languages. Though the Unicode Standard states that the U+2010 hyphen is \"preferred\" over the hyphen-minus,[4] the standard itself uses the hyphen-minus as its hyphen character.[5]In most modern computer fonts, the hyphen-minus is either identical or very similar to the Unicode hyphen.[6][a]In mathematical texts that include the plus sign, the Unicode minus is preferred to the hyphen-minus, because its metrics match the plus sign in level and length.[b]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Two consecutive hyphens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_consecutive_hyphens"},{"link_name":"Three consecutive hyphens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_consecutive_hyphens"},{"link_name":"em dash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Em_dash"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"spaced en dash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dash#En_dash_versus_em_dash"},{"link_name":"typography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typography"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"word processors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Word_processor"},{"link_name":"automatically convert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autocorrection"},{"link_name":"underscore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underscore#Modern_use"},{"link_name":"strikethrough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strikethrough"}],"sub_title":"Typing","text":"See also: Two consecutive hyphens and Three consecutive hyphensThis character is typed when a hyphen or a minus sign is wanted. Based on old typewriter conventions, it is common to use a pair -- to represent an em dash —,[7] and to put spaces around it  -  to represent a spaced en dash  – ; this practice is deprecated in professional typography.[8] Some word processors automatically convert these to the correct dash. The character can also be typed multiple times to simulate a horizontal line (though in most cases, repeated entry of the underscore will produce a solid line). Alternating the hyphen-minus with spaces produces a \"dashed\" line, often to indicate where paper is to be cut. On a typewriter, over-striking a section of text with this is used for strikethrough.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"further explanation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-c-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-haskell-12"},{"link_name":"MINUS SIGN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plus_and_minus_signs#Minus_sign"},{"link_name":"operator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"MySQL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MySQL"},{"link_name":"comment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comment_(computer_programming)"},{"link_name":"signature block","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signature_block"},{"link_name":"Usenet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usenet"},{"link_name":"YAML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YAML"}],"sub_title":"Programming languages","text":"Most programming languages use the hyphen-minus for denoting subtraction and negation.[further explanation needed][9][10] It is rarely used to indicate a range, due to ambiguity with subtraction. Generally, other characters, such as the Unicode U+2212 − MINUS SIGN are not recognized as an operator.[citation needed]In some programming languages (for example MySQL) -- (two hyphen-minus) mark the beginning of a comment. It can be used to start the signature block in Usenet news system. YAML uses --- (three hyphen-minuses) to end a section.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"command-line options","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command-line_option"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"in lieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/in_lieu"},{"link_name":"stdin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stdin"}],"sub_title":"Command line","text":"The hyphen-minus character is often used when specifying command-line options, a convention popularized by Unix. Examples of the \"short\" form are -R or -q. A user can specify both by using -Rq. Some implementations allow two hyphen-minuses to specify \"long\" option names as --recursive or --quiet. These are easier to understand when reading commands (some software does not care about the number of hyphen-minuses, and either does not allow combinations of single-letter options, or requires the user to rearrange them, so they do not match a long option). A double hyphen-minus by itself (followed by a space) indicates that there are no more options, which is useful when one needs to specify a filename that starts with a hyphen-minus. An option of just a hyphen-minus (followed by a space) may be recognized in lieu of a filename and indicates that stdin is to be read.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"diff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diff"},{"link_name":"context format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diff#Context_format"},{"link_name":"unified format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diff#Unified_format"}],"sub_title":"diff output","text":"- is used to denote deleted lines in diff output in the context format or the unified format.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"code point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code_point"},{"link_name":"Unicode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"}],"text":"The glyph has a code point in Unicode as U+002D - HYPHEN-MINUS. It is also in ASCII with the same value.","title":"Encoding"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"Lucida Sans Unicode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucida_Sans_Unicode"},{"link_name":"en dash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En_dash"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"typeface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typeface"}],"text":"^ In Lucida Sans Unicode, the hyphen-minus is drawn identically to the en dash.\n\n^ The precise relationships depend on typeface design choices.","title":"Explanatory notes"}]

[]

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In general, the Unicode standard provides the same interpretation for the equivalent code values, without adding to or subtracting from their semantics. The Unicode standard supplies unambiguous codes elsewhere for the most useful particular interpretations of these ASCII values; the corresponding unambiguous characters are cross-referenced in the character names list for this block. In a few cases, the Unicode standard indicates the generic interpretation of an ASCII code in the name of the corresponding Unicode character, for example U+0027 is APOSTROPHE-QUOTE'.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode1.0.0/ch03_1.pdf","url_text":"\"3.1 General scripts\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211121032137/http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode1.0.0/ch03_1.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"American National Standard X3.4-1977: American Standard Code for Information Interchange\" (PDF). National Institute of Standards and Technology. p. 10 (4.2 Graphic characters). Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022. Retrieved 10 December 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/FIPS/fipspub1-2-1977.pdf","url_text":"\"American National Standard X3.4-1977: American Standard Code for Information Interchange\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/Legacy/FIPS/fipspub1-2-1977.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Unicode Standard, Version 13.0, Chapter 6.2\" (PDF). 2020. General Punctuation § Dashes and Hyphens. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode13.0.0/ch06.pdf","url_text":"\"The Unicode Standard, Version 13.0, Chapter 6.2\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210122014331/http://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode13.0.0/ch06.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Korpela, Jukka. \"Dashes and Hyphens § Typographic Usage\". Archived from the original on 26 January 2021. Retrieved 30 December 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://jkorpela.fi/dashes.html#usage","url_text":"\"Dashes and Hyphens § Typographic Usage\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210126133809/https://jkorpela.fi/dashes.html#usage","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Marian, Jakub. \"Hyphen, minus, en-dash, and em-dash: difference and usage in English\". Archived from the original on 25 December 2020. Retrieved 23 December 2020. A hyphen is usually very short (it has its own Unicode character, but you can use the hyphen-minus instead because it looks the same) ...","urls":[{"url":"https://jakubmarian.com/hyphen-minus-en-dash-and-em-dash-difference-and-usage-in-english/","url_text":"\"Hyphen, minus, en-dash, and em-dash: difference and usage in English\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201225144522/https://jakubmarian.com/hyphen-minus-en-dash-and-em-dash-difference-and-usage-in-english/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"French, Nigel (2006). InDesign Type: Professional Typography with Adobe InDesign CS2. Adobe Press. p. 72. ISBN 9780321385444. Retrieved 4 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=l_YJY3JalQgC&q=double+hyphen+typewriter+em+dash&pg=PA72","url_text":"InDesign Type: Professional Typography with Adobe InDesign CS2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780321385444","url_text":"9780321385444"}]},{"reference":"Bringhurst, Robert (2004). The elements of typographic style (third ed.). Hartley & Marks, Publishers. p. 80. ISBN 978-0-88179-206-5. Retrieved 10 November 2020. In typescript, a double hyphen (--) is often used for a long dash. Double hyphens in a typeset document are a sure sign that the type was set by a typist, not a typographer. A typographer will use an em dash, three-quarter em, or en dash, depending on context or personal style. The em dash is the nineteenth-century standard, still prescribed in many editorial style books, but the em dash is too long for use with the best text faces. Like the oversized space between sentences, it belongs to the padded and corseted aesthetic of Victorian typography.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780881791327/page/80/mode/2up","url_text":"The elements of typographic style"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88179-206-5","url_text":"978-0-88179-206-5"}]},{"reference":"Ritchie, Dennis (c. 1975). \"C Reference Manual\" (PDF). Bell Labs. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 April 2017. Retrieved 7 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dennis_Ritchie","url_text":"Ritchie, Dennis"},{"url":"https://www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/cman.pdf","url_text":"\"C Reference Manual\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs","url_text":"Bell Labs"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170403063708/https://www.bell-labs.com/usr/dmr/www/cman.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Marlow, Simon (ed.). Haskell 2010 Language Report (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 4 December 2016. Retrieved 7 December 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.haskell.org/definition/haskell2010.pdf","url_text":"Haskell 2010 Language Report"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161204164945/https://www.haskell.org/definition/haskell2010.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seto_Windhill

Seto Windhill

["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]

Coordinates: 33°26′8″N 132°13′24″E / 33.43556°N 132.22333°E / 33.43556; 132.22333Wind farm in Ehime Prefecture, Japan View from the neighboring park, taken on October 19, 2005 The Seto Windhill (瀬戸ウインドヒル発電所, Seto uindo hiru hatsudensho) is a collection of wind turbines located on the peaks of mountains along the Sadamisaki Peninsula, in the town of Ikata, Ehime Prefecture, Japan. The windfarm borders the Seto Wind Hill Park. The installation consists of 11 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries MWT-1000s with a nameplate capacity of 1000 kW. They were erected starting September 2002, and began full operation in October 2003. See also Japan portalWeather portalRenewable energy portal Nunobiki Plateau Wind Farm Aoyama Plateau Wind Farm References ^ "Mitsubishi to construct 11 MW wind farm in Ehime". WindPower Monthly. Haymarket Media Group Ltd. 1 July 2002. Retrieved 11 October 2014. External links Ikata's Wind Power Initiative Seto Wind Hill Park webcams vteWind powerWind power Airborne wind energy By country History Land vehicles Offshore Turbines on public display Windmill panemone Wind farms Lists of wind farms Community-owned Offshore farms Onshore farms Wind turbines Aerodynamics Airborne Crosswind kite Design Floating Nacelle Pitch bearing QBlade Small Unconventional Vertical-axis Savonius Darrieus Yaw system bearing drive Wind power industry Consulting companies Manufacturers Software Manufacturers Enercon GE Wind Energy including GE Offshore Wind Goldwind Nordex Senvion Siemens Gamesa Suzlon Vestas Concepts 2020s in wind power research Betz's law Blade element momentum theory Capacity factor Energy return on investment Energy storage grid Energy subsidy HVDC Hybrid power Laddermill Net energy gain Tip-speed ratio Variable renewable energy Virtual power plant Wind power forecasting Wind profile power law Wind resource assessment Wind power portal Category Commons Additional portals: Renewable energy Energy 33°26′8″N 132°13′24″E / 33.43556°N 132.22333°E / 33.43556; 132.22333 This article about a wind farm is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This Ehime Prefecture location article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This article about a Japanese power station is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brussels_effect

Brussels effect

["1 Etymology","2 Cause","3 Effect","4 Examples","4.1 Antitrust","4.2 Chemicals","4.3 Airplane emissions","4.4 Data protection and privacy","4.5 Exploitation of natural resources","4.6 Consumer electronics","5 See also","6 References"]

Market mechanisms by which the European Union regulation is adopted globally The Berlaymont building in Brussels, the headquarters of the European Commission The Brussels effect is the process of unilateral regulatory globalisation caused by the European Union who de facto (but not necessarily de jure) externalizes its laws outside its borders through market mechanisms. Through the Brussels effect, regulated entities, especially corporations, end up complying with EU laws even outside the EU for a variety of reasons. The effect is named after the city of Brussels, the de facto capital of the European Union. Etymology The term Brussels effect was coined in 2012 by Professor Anu Bradford of Columbia Law School and named after the similar California effect that can be seen within the United States. Cause The combination of market size, market importance, relatively stringent standards and regulatory capacity of the European Union can have the effect that firms trading internationally find that it is not economically, legally or technically practical to maintain lower standards in non-EU markets. Non-EU companies exporting globally can find that it is beneficial to adopt standards set in Brussels uniformly throughout their business. Effect The California effect and the Brussels effect are a form of "race to the top" where the most stringent standard has an appeal to companies operating across multiple regulatory environments as it makes global production and exports easier. The effects are the opposite of the Delaware effect, a race to the bottom where jurisdictions can purposefully choose to lower their regulatory requirements in an attempt to attract businesses looking for the least stringent standard. Scholars could so far not empirically verify the limits of the Brussels Effect in international law, especially World Trade Organization (WTO) law. Furthermore, for the Brussels effect to occur, it was shown that not all prerequisites identified by Bradford have to occur cumulatively. Research has indicated that the EU's regulatory power varies substantially depending on the context of the regulation involved. Examples Antitrust The October 2000 $42 billion proposed acquisition of US-based Honeywell by US-based General Electric was blocked by the EU antitrust authorities on the grounds of risking a horizontal monopoly in jet engines. The merger could not proceed because, despite the American Department of Justice having already approved the merger between these two US-based entities, it was not legally possible to let the acquisition proceed in one important market, but not in another. Chemicals US-based multinational Dow Chemical announced in 2006 it would comply with the EU's Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) regulation for the production and use of chemical substances across its global operation. Airplane emissions In 2012 the EU included aviation into its existing Emission Trading Scheme. This means that any airline, regardless of their country of origin, has to purchase emissions permits for any flights within the European Economic Area. The cost of complying with EU aviation emission regulation puts pressure on manufacturers to design airplanes with improved efficiency and reduced emissions. As major airlines would not likely purchase airplanes specifically to fly outside the EEA, the EU's stricter aviation standards have an impact on global airplane fleets, regardless of the jurisdiction of the airline. Data protection and privacy With the introduction of the Data Protection Directive in 1995 the EU had opted for a strict top-down approach to data privacy. Its successor, the EU's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), was adopted on 14 April 2016 and had a global effect. In 2017, during negotiations for a new Japan-EU trade deal, Japan set up an independent agency to handle privacy complaints to conform with the EU's new privacy regulation. Facebook announced in April 2018 that it would implement parts of the GDPR globally. Sonos announced in April 2018 that it would implement the GDPR globally, and Microsoft announced in May 2018 that it would implement GDPR compliance for all its customers globally. Exploitation of natural resources The Brussels effect can be observed in two regulatory frameworks that regulate the exploitation of natural resources, the Conflict Minerals Regulation and Country by Country Reporting Rules for payments to governments. Consumer electronics In October 2022 the European Parliament adopted a directive which required many consumer electronic devices – notably mobile phones – to adopt USB-C as a universal charger by 2024. This was seen as being particularly applicable to Apple and its iPhone product range which had, until then, rejected standardisation. The expectation was that, due to the EU's large marketplace, the EU-specific regulation would nonetheless result a change in how products were manufactured for sale in other countries (to ensure a single global product), and that other jurisdictions would adopt equivalent legislation. See also California effect Convergence (economics) Free trade Global workforce Globalization Invisible hand Multinational corporation Supply and demand References ^ a b c d e Bradford, Anu (2012). "The Brussels Effect". Northwestern University Law Review (PDF). Columbia Law and Economics Working Paper No. 533. 107 (1). SSRN 2770634. ^ Lecture, March 2012 – "The Brussels Effect: The Rise of a Regulatory Superstate in Europe" ^ Bradford, Anu (2020). The Brussels Effect: How the European Union Rules the World. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088583.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-008858-3. ^ Vogel, David (1995). Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental regulation in a global economy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674900837. ^ Bach, David; Newman, Abraham (2007). "The European regulatory state and global public policy: micro-institutions, macro-influence". Journal of European Public Policy. doi:10.1080/13501760701497659. ^ "The Brussels Effect: The Rise of a Regulatory Superstate in Europe". Columbia Law School. 8 January 2013. Archived from the original on 4 May 2018. Retrieved 17 May 2018. ^ "Hot U.S. Import: European Regulations". The Wall Street Journal. 7 May 2018. ^ "Why the 'Brussels effect' will undermine Brexit regulatory push". Financial Times. July 2017. ^ "Why the whole world feels the 'Brussels effect'". Financial Times. November 2017. ^ Bach, David (25 May 2018). "Three Questions: Prof. David Bach on the Reach of European Privacy Regulations". Yale Insights. ^ Wright, Robert E. (8 June 2012). "How Delaware Became the King of U.S. Corporate Charters". Bloomberg View. Archived from the original on 16 March 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2018. ^ Sinopoli, Dominique; Purnhagen, Kai (2016). "Reversed Harmonization or Horizontalization of EU standards?: Does WTO Law Facilitate or Contrain the Brussels Effect?". Wisconsin International Law Journal: 92–119. ^ Sinopoli, Dominique; Purnhagen, Kai (2016). "Reversed Harmonization or Horizontalization of EU standards?: Does WTO Law Facilitate or Contrain the Brussels Effect?". Wisconsin International Law Journal: 92–119. ^ Young, Alasdair R. "The European Union as a global regulator? Context and comparison." Journal of European Public Policy 22, no. 9 (2015): 1233-1252. ^ Young, Alasdair R. "Europe as a global regulator? The limits of EU influence in international food safety standards." Journal of European Public Policy 21, no. 6 (2014): 904-922. ^ European Commission – Case No COMP/M.2220 – General Electric/Honeywell ^ "Dow and REACH – Protecting human health and the environment". dow.com. ^ "Reach External FAQs". Archived from the original on 2018-05-25. Retrieved 2018-05-17. ^ "European Commission – Reducing emissions from aviation". ^ Bradford, Anu (2012). "The Brussels Effect". Rochester, NY. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ Gady, Franz-Stefan (2014). "EU/U.S. Approaches to Data Privacy and the 'Brussels Effect': A Comparative Analysis". Georgetown Journal of International Affairs: 12–23. JSTOR 43773645. ^ "Information wars: How Europe became the world's data police". Financial Times. May 2018. ^ International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (May 2018). "Europe's Data Privacy Rules Set New Global Approach to Consumer Rights". Archived from the original on 2018-08-13. Retrieved 2018-08-13. ^ "Europe's new data protection rules export privacy standards worldwide". Politico.EU. 31 January 2018. ^ "Facebook's commitment to data protection and privacy in compliance with the GDPR". facebook.com. ^ "Complying With New Privacy Laws and Offering New Privacy Protections to Everyone, No Matter Where You Live". ^ "We're Updating the Sonos Privacy Statement". sonos.com. Archived from the original on 2019-09-04. Retrieved 2018-08-13. ^ "Microsoft's commitment to GDPR, privacy and putting customers in control of their own data". blogs.microsoft.com. ^ Nissen, A. (11 November 2019). "The European Union as a Manager of Global 'Business and Human Rights' Regulation: Country-by-Country Reporting Rules" (PDF). UCL Journal of Law & Jurisprudence. 8 (2): 708. doi:10.14324/111.2052-1871.120. ^ "Long-awaited common charger for mobile devices will be a reality in 2024". European Parliament. 2022-04-10. Retrieved 2022-10-06. ^ "EU Passes Law to Switch iPhone to USB-C by End of 2024". MacRumors. Retrieved 2022-10-06. ^ Guarascio, Francesco (2022-10-04). "Apple forced to change charger in Europe as EU approves overhaul". Reuters. Retrieved 2022-10-06.

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Through the Brussels effect, regulated entities, especially corporations, end up complying with EU laws even outside the EU for a variety of reasons. The effect is named after the city of Brussels, the de facto capital of the European Union.","title":"Brussels effect"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Anu Bradford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anu_Bradford"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bradford2012-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"California effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_effect"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The term Brussels effect was coined in 2012 by Professor Anu Bradford of Columbia Law School[1][2][3] and named after the similar California effect that can be seen within the United States.[4]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bradford2012-1"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"The combination of market size, market importance,[1] relatively stringent standards and regulatory capacity[5] of the European Union can have the effect that firms trading internationally find that it is not economically, legally or technically practical to maintain lower standards in non-EU markets. Non-EU companies exporting globally can find that it is beneficial to adopt standards set in Brussels uniformly throughout their business.[6][7]","title":"Cause"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_effect"},{"link_name":"race to the top","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_to_the_top_(phrase)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Delaware effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delaware_effect&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"race to the bottom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Race_to_the_bottom"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bloomberg_NJ_Del.-11"},{"link_name":"World Trade Organization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Trade_Organization"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"The California effect and the Brussels effect are a form of \"race to the top\" where the most stringent standard has an appeal to companies operating across multiple regulatory environments as it makes global production and exports easier.[8][9][10] The effects are the opposite of the Delaware effect, a race to the bottom where jurisdictions can purposefully choose to lower their regulatory requirements in an attempt to attract businesses looking for the least stringent standard.[11]Scholars could so far not empirically verify the limits of the Brussels Effect in international law, especially World Trade Organization (WTO) law.[12] Furthermore, for the Brussels effect to occur, it was shown that not all prerequisites identified by Bradford have to occur cumulatively.[13] Research has indicated that the EU's regulatory power varies substantially depending on the context of the regulation involved.[14][15]","title":"Effect"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Honeywell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honeywell"},{"link_name":"General Electric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Electric"},{"link_name":"horizontal monopoly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horizontal_integration"},{"link_name":"American Department of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bradford2012-1"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Antitrust","text":"The October 2000 $42 billion proposed acquisition of US-based Honeywell by US-based General Electric was blocked by the EU antitrust authorities on the grounds of risking a horizontal monopoly in jet engines. The merger could not proceed because, despite the American Department of Justice having already approved the merger between these two US-based entities, it was not legally possible to let the acquisition proceed in one important market, but not in another.[1][16]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dow Chemical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dow_Chemical"},{"link_name":"Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Registration,_Evaluation,_Authorisation_and_Restriction_of_Chemicals"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bradford2012-1"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Chemicals","text":"US-based multinational Dow Chemical announced in 2006 it would comply with the EU's Registration, Evaluation, Authorisation and Restriction of Chemicals (REACH) regulation for the production and use of chemical substances across its global operation.[1][17][18]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Emission Trading Scheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Union_Emission_Trading_Scheme"},{"link_name":"European Economic Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Economic_Area"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bradford2012-1"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Airplane emissions","text":"In 2012 the EU included aviation into its existing Emission Trading Scheme. This means that any airline, regardless of their country of origin, has to purchase emissions permits for any flights within the European Economic Area.[19] The cost of complying with EU aviation emission regulation puts pressure on manufacturers to design airplanes with improved efficiency and reduced emissions. As major airlines would not likely purchase airplanes specifically to fly outside the EEA, the EU's stricter aviation standards have an impact on global airplane fleets, regardless of the jurisdiction of the airline.[1][20]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Data Protection Directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_Protection_Directive"},{"link_name":"data privacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_privacy"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"General Data Protection Regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Data_Protection_Regulation"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Data protection and privacy","text":"With the introduction of the Data Protection Directive in 1995 the EU had opted for a strict top-down approach to data privacy.[21] Its successor, the EU's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), was adopted on 14 April 2016 and had a global effect.[22][23] In 2017, during negotiations for a new Japan-EU trade deal, Japan set up an independent agency to handle privacy complaints to conform with the EU's new privacy regulation.[24]Facebook announced in April 2018 that it would implement parts of the GDPR globally.[25][26] Sonos announced in April 2018 that it would implement the GDPR globally,[27] and Microsoft announced in May 2018 that it would implement GDPR compliance for all its customers globally.[28]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Conflict Minerals Regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conflict_Minerals_Regulation"},{"link_name":"Country by Country Reporting Rules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country_by_Country_Reporting_Rules"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"sub_title":"Exploitation of natural resources","text":"The Brussels effect can be observed in two regulatory frameworks that regulate the exploitation of natural resources, the Conflict Minerals Regulation and Country by Country Reporting Rules for payments to governments.[29] [clarification needed]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a directive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_Equipment_Directive_(2022)"},{"link_name":"USB-C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB-C"},{"link_name":"universal charger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_charger"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Apple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple_Inc."},{"link_name":"iPhone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPhone"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Consumer electronics","text":"In October 2022 the European Parliament adopted a directive which required many consumer electronic devices – notably mobile phones – to adopt USB-C as a universal charger by 2024.[30] This was seen as being particularly applicable to Apple and its iPhone product range which had, until then, rejected standardisation.[31] The expectation was that, due to the EU's large marketplace, the EU-specific regulation would nonetheless result a change in how products were manufactured for sale in other countries (to ensure a single global product), and that other jurisdictions would adopt equivalent legislation.[32]","title":"Examples"}]

[{"image_text":"The Berlaymont building in Brussels, the headquarters of the European Commission","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Banderas_europeas_en_la_Comisi%C3%B3n_Europea.jpg/300px-Banderas_europeas_en_la_Comisi%C3%B3n_Europea.jpg"}]

[{"title":"California effect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_effect"},{"title":"Convergence (economics)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convergence_(economics)"},{"title":"Free trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_trade"},{"title":"Global workforce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_workforce"},{"title":"Globalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization"},{"title":"Invisible hand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisible_hand"},{"title":"Multinational corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_corporation"},{"title":"Supply and demand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supply_and_demand"}]

[{"reference":"Bradford, Anu (2012). \"The Brussels Effect\". Northwestern University Law Review (PDF). Columbia Law and Economics Working Paper No. 533. 107 (1). SSRN 2770634.","urls":[{"url":"https://deliverypdf.ssrn.com/delivery.php?ID=718089001090031006080013081102097014099041034067091025005102121018117007106095071081011061119126051016016071017113116076087003010025086075035121000116096105121005095055063106071121030066125103119085072123108069086100099024022003120126001091097104031&EXT=pdf&INDEX=TRUE","url_text":"\"The Brussels Effect\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSRN_(identifier)","url_text":"SSRN"},{"url":"https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2770634","url_text":"2770634"}]},{"reference":"Bradford, Anu (2020). The Brussels Effect: How the European Union Rules the World. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/oso/9780190088583.001.0001. ISBN 978-0-19-008858-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://oxford.universitypressscholarship.com/view/10.1093/oso/9780190088583.001.0001/oso-9780190088583","url_text":"The Brussels Effect: How the European Union Rules the World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190088583.001.0001","url_text":"10.1093/oso/9780190088583.001.0001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-008858-3","url_text":"978-0-19-008858-3"}]},{"reference":"Vogel, David (1995). Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental regulation in a global economy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 9780674900837.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/tradingupconsume0000voge","url_text":"Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental regulation in a global economy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780674900837","url_text":"9780674900837"}]},{"reference":"Bach, David; Newman, Abraham (2007). \"The European regulatory state and global public policy: micro-institutions, macro-influence\". Journal of European Public Policy. doi:10.1080/13501760701497659.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13501760701497659","url_text":"10.1080/13501760701497659"}]},{"reference":"\"The Brussels Effect: The Rise of a Regulatory Superstate in Europe\". Columbia Law School. 8 January 2013. Archived from the original on 4 May 2018. Retrieved 17 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180504131629/http://www.law.columbia.edu/media_inquiries/news_events/2013/january2013/brussels-effect","url_text":"\"The Brussels Effect: The Rise of a Regulatory Superstate in Europe\""},{"url":"http://www.law.columbia.edu/media_inquiries/news_events/2013/january2013/brussels-effect","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Hot U.S. Import: European Regulations\". The Wall Street Journal. 7 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wsj.com/articles/techs-pickup-of-new-data-privacy-rules-reflects-eus-growing-influence-1525685400","url_text":"\"Hot U.S. Import: European Regulations\""}]},{"reference":"\"Why the 'Brussels effect' will undermine Brexit regulatory push\". Financial Times. July 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ft.com/content/fd5ca278-6654-11e7-8526-7b38dcaef614","url_text":"\"Why the 'Brussels effect' will undermine Brexit regulatory push\""}]},{"reference":"\"Why the whole world feels the 'Brussels effect'\". Financial Times. November 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ft.com/content/7059dbf8-a82a-11e7-ab66-21cc87a2edde","url_text":"\"Why the whole world feels the 'Brussels effect'\""}]},{"reference":"Bach, David (25 May 2018). \"Three Questions: Prof. David Bach on the Reach of European Privacy Regulations\". Yale Insights.","urls":[{"url":"https://insights.som.yale.edu/insights/three-questions-prof-david-bach-on-the-reach-of-european-privacy-regulations","url_text":"\"Three Questions: Prof. David Bach on the Reach of European Privacy Regulations\""}]},{"reference":"Wright, Robert E. (8 June 2012). \"How Delaware Became the King of U.S. Corporate Charters\". Bloomberg View. Archived from the original on 16 March 2016. Retrieved 18 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160316023059/http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2012-06-08/how-delaware-became-the-king-of-u-s-corporate-charters","url_text":"\"How Delaware Became the King of U.S. Corporate Charters\""},{"url":"http://www.bloombergview.com/articles/2012-06-08/how-delaware-became-the-king-of-u-s-corporate-charters","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Sinopoli, Dominique; Purnhagen, Kai (2016). \"Reversed Harmonization or Horizontalization of EU standards?: Does WTO Law Facilitate or Contrain the Brussels Effect?\". Wisconsin International Law Journal: 92–119.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Sinopoli, Dominique; Purnhagen, Kai (2016). \"Reversed Harmonization or Horizontalization of EU standards?: Does WTO Law Facilitate or Contrain the Brussels Effect?\". 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Rochester, NY.","urls":[{"url":"https://papers.ssrn.com/abstract=2770634","url_text":"\"The Brussels Effect\""}]},{"reference":"Gady, Franz-Stefan (2014). \"EU/U.S. Approaches to Data Privacy and the 'Brussels Effect': A Comparative Analysis\". Georgetown Journal of International Affairs: 12–23. JSTOR 43773645.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/43773645","url_text":"43773645"}]},{"reference":"\"Information wars: How Europe became the world's data police\". Financial Times. May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ft.com/content/1aa9b0fa-5786-11e8-bdb7-f6677d2e1ce8","url_text":"\"Information wars: How Europe became the world's data police\""}]},{"reference":"International Centre for Trade and Sustainable Development (May 2018). \"Europe's Data Privacy Rules Set New Global Approach to Consumer Rights\". Archived from the original on 2018-08-13. 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Politico.EU. 31 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.politico.eu/article/europe-data-protection-privacy-standards-gdpr-general-protection-data-regulation/","url_text":"\"Europe's new data protection rules export privacy standards worldwide\""}]},{"reference":"\"Facebook's commitment to data protection and privacy in compliance with the GDPR\". facebook.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.facebook.com/business/news/facebooks-commitment-to-data-protection-and-privacy-in-compliance-with-the-gdpr","url_text":"\"Facebook's commitment to data protection and privacy in compliance with the GDPR\""}]},{"reference":"\"Complying With New Privacy Laws and Offering New Privacy Protections to Everyone, No Matter Where You Live\".","urls":[{"url":"https://newsroom.fb.com/news/2018/04/new-privacy-protections/","url_text":"\"Complying With New Privacy Laws and Offering New Privacy Protections to Everyone, No Matter Where You Live\""}]},{"reference":"\"We're Updating the Sonos Privacy Statement\". sonos.com. Archived from the original on 2019-09-04. Retrieved 2018-08-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190904063128/https://blog.sonos.com/en-gb/updating-sonos-privacy-statement/","url_text":"\"We're Updating the Sonos Privacy Statement\""},{"url":"https://blog.sonos.com/en-gb/updating-sonos-privacy-statement/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Microsoft's commitment to GDPR, privacy and putting customers in control of their own data\". blogs.microsoft.com.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.microsoft.com/on-the-issues/2018/05/21/microsofts-commitment-to-gdpr-privacy-and-putting-customers-in-control-of-their-own-data/","url_text":"\"Microsoft's commitment to GDPR, privacy and putting customers in control of their own data\""}]},{"reference":"Nissen, A. (11 November 2019). \"The European Union as a Manager of Global 'Business and Human Rights' Regulation: Country-by-Country Reporting Rules\" (PDF). UCL Journal of Law & Jurisprudence. 8 (2): 708. doi:10.14324/111.2052-1871.120.","urls":[{"url":"https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10086921/1/The%20European%20Union%20as%20a%20Manager%20of%20Global.pdf","url_text":"\"The European Union as a Manager of Global 'Business and Human Rights' Regulation: Country-by-Country Reporting Rules\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.14324%2F111.2052-1871.120","url_text":"10.14324/111.2052-1871.120"}]},{"reference":"\"Long-awaited common charger for mobile devices will be a reality in 2024\". European Parliament. 2022-04-10. Retrieved 2022-10-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.europarl.europa.eu/news/en/press-room/20220930IPR41928/long-awaited-common-charger-for-mobile-devices-will-be-a-reality-in-2024","url_text":"\"Long-awaited common charger for mobile devices will be a reality in 2024\""}]},{"reference":"\"EU Passes Law to Switch iPhone to USB-C by End of 2024\". MacRumors. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza

Influenza

["1 Signs and symptoms","2 Virology","2.1 Types of virus","2.2 Genome and structure","2.3 Life cycle","2.4 Antigenic drift and shift","3 Mechanism","3.1 Transmission","3.2 Pathophysiology","3.3 Immunology","4 Prevention","4.1 Vaccination","4.2 Antiviral chemoprophylaxis","4.3 Infection control","5 Diagnosis","6 Treatment","6.1 Antivirals","7 Prognosis","8 Epidemiology","9 History","9.1 Etymology","10 Research","11 In animals","11.1 Birds","11.2 Pigs","11.3 Other animals","12 References","13 Further reading"]

Infectious disease For other uses, see Influenza (disambiguation), Flu (disambiguation), and Grippe (disambiguation). "Flus" redirects here. For the diagnostic class of thyroid nodules, see FLUS. Not to be confused with Flue. Medical conditionInfluenzaOther namesflu, the flu, grippe (French for flu)Influenza virusSpecialtyInfectious diseaseSymptomsFever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pain, headache, coughing, fatigueUsual onset1–4 days after exposureDuration2–8 daysCausesInfluenza virusesPreventionHand washing, flu vaccinesMedicationAntiviral drugs such as oseltamivirFrequency3–5 million severe cases per yearDeaths>290,000–650,000 deaths per year Influenza, commonly known as "the flu" or just "flu", is an infectious disease caused by influenza viruses. Symptoms range from mild to severe and often include fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pain, headache, coughing, and fatigue. These symptoms begin one to four (typically two) days after exposure to the virus and last for about two to eight days. Diarrhea and vomiting can occur, particularly in children. Influenza may progress to pneumonia from the virus or a subsequent bacterial infection. Other complications include acute respiratory distress syndrome, meningitis, encephalitis, and worsening of pre-existing health problems such as asthma and cardiovascular disease. There are four types of influenza virus: types A, B, C, and D. Aquatic birds are the primary source of influenza A virus (IAV), which is also widespread in various mammals, including humans and pigs. Influenza B virus (IBV) and influenza C virus (ICV) primarily infect humans, and influenza D virus (IDV) is found in cattle and pigs. Influenza A virus and influenza B virus circulate in humans and cause seasonal epidemics, and influenza C virus causes a mild infection, primarily in children. Influenza D virus can infect humans but is not known to cause illness. In humans, influenza viruses are primarily transmitted through respiratory droplets from coughing and sneezing. Transmission through aerosols and surfaces contaminated by the virus also occur. Frequent hand washing and covering one's mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing reduce transmission. Annual vaccination can help to provide protection against influenza. Influenza viruses, particularly influenza A virus, evolve quickly, so flu vaccines are updated regularly to match which influenza strains are in circulation. Vaccines provide protection against influenza A virus subtypes H1N1 and H3N2 and one or two influenza B virus subtypes. Influenza infection is diagnosed with laboratory methods such as antibody or antigen tests and a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify viral nucleic acid. The disease can be treated with supportive measures and, in severe cases, with antiviral drugs such as oseltamivir. In healthy individuals, influenza is typically self-limiting and rarely fatal, but it can be deadly in high-risk groups. In a typical year, five to 15 percent of the population contracts influenza. There are 3 to 5 million severe cases annually, with up to 650,000 respiratory-related deaths globally each year. Deaths most commonly occur in high-risk groups, including young children, the elderly, and people with chronic health conditions. In temperate regions, the number of influenza cases peaks during winter, whereas in the tropics, influenza can occur year-round. Since the late 1800s, pandemic outbreaks of novel influenza strains have occurred every 10 to 50 years. Five flu pandemics have occurred since 1900: the Spanish flu from 1918 to 1920, which was the most severe; the Asian flu in 1957; the Hong Kong flu in 1968; the Russian flu in 1977; and the swine flu pandemic in 2009. Signs and symptoms Symptoms of influenza, with fever and cough the most common symptoms The symptoms of influenza are similar to those of a cold, although usually more severe and less likely to include a runny nose. The time between exposure to the virus and development of symptoms (the incubation period) is one to four days, most commonly one to two days. Many infections are asymptomatic. The onset of symptoms is sudden, and initial symptoms are predominately non-specific, including fever, chills, headaches, muscle pain, malaise, loss of appetite, lack of energy, and confusion. These are usually accompanied by respiratory symptoms such as a dry cough, sore or dry throat, hoarse voice, and a stuffy or runny nose. Coughing is the most common symptom. Gastrointestinal symptoms may also occur, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, and gastroenteritis, especially in children. The standard influenza symptoms typically last for two to eight days. Some studies suggest influenza can cause long-lasting symptoms in a similar way to long COVID. Symptomatic infections are usually mild and limited to the upper respiratory tract, but progression to pneumonia is relatively common. Pneumonia may be caused by the primary viral infection or a secondary bacterial infection. Primary pneumonia is characterized by rapid progression of fever, cough, labored breathing, and low oxygen levels that cause bluish skin. It is especially common among those who have an underlying cardiovascular disease such as rheumatic heart disease. Secondary pneumonia typically has a period of improvement in symptoms for one to three weeks followed by recurrent fever, sputum production, and fluid buildup in the lungs, but can also occur just a few days after influenza symptoms appear. About a third of primary pneumonia cases are followed by secondary pneumonia, which is most frequently caused by the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus. Virology Types of virus Influenza virus nomenclature (for a Fujian flu virus) Influenza viruses comprise four species, each the sole member of its own genus. The four influenza genera comprise four of the seven genera in the family Orthomyxoviridae. They are: Influenza A virus (IAV), genus Alphainfluenzavirus Influenza B virus (IBV), genus Betainfluenzavirus Influenza C virus (ICV), genus Gammainfluenzavirus Influenza D virus (IDV), genus Deltainfluenzavirus Influenza A virus is responsible for most cases of severe illness as well as seasonal epidemics and occasional pandemics. It infects people of all ages but tends to disproportionately cause severe illness in the elderly, the very young, and those with chronic health issues. Birds are the primary reservoir of influenza A virus, especially aquatic birds such as ducks, geese, shorebirds, and gulls, but the virus also circulates among mammals, including pigs, horses, and marine mammals. Influenza A virus is classified into subtypes based on the viral proteins haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N). As of 2019, 18 H subtypes and 11 N subtypes have been identified. Most potential combinations have been reported in birds, but H17-18 and N10-11 have only been found in bats. Only H subtypes H1-3 and N subtypes N1-2 are known to have circulated in humans. The influenza A virus subtypes in circulation as of 2018 are H1N1 and H3N2. Influenza A virus samples are identified a nomenclature which specifies by host species, location of collection, strain number, and year - such as A/swine/South Dakota/152B/2009 (H1N2). Influenza B virus mainly infects humans but has been identified in seals, horses, dogs, and pigs. Influenza B virus does not have subtypes like influenza A virus but has two antigenically distinct lineages, termed the B/Victoria/2/1987-like and B/Yamagata/16/1988-like lineages, or simply (B/)Victoria(-like) and (B/)Yamagata(-like). Both lineages are in circulation in humans, disproportionately affecting children. Influenza B viruses contribute to seasonal epidemics alongside influenza A viruses but have never been associated with a pandemic. Influenza C virus, like influenza B virus, is primarily found in humans, though it has been detected in pigs, feral dogs, dromedary camels, cattle, and dogs. Influenza C virus infection primarily affects children and is usually asymptomatic or has mild cold-like symptoms, though more severe symptoms such as gastroenteritis and pneumonia can occur. Unlike influenza A virus and influenza B virus, influenza C virus has not been a major focus of research pertaining to antiviral drugs, vaccines, and other measures against influenza. Influenza C virus is subclassified into six genetic/antigenic lineages. Influenza D virus has been isolated from pigs and cattle, the latter being the natural reservoir. Infection has also been observed in humans, horses, dromedary camels, and small ruminants such as goats and sheep. Influenza D virus is distantly related to influenza C virus. While cattle workers have occasionally tested positive to prior influenza D virus infection, it is not known to cause disease in humans. Influenza C virus and influenza D virus experience a slower rate of antigenic evolution than influenza A virus and influenza B virus. Because of this antigenic stability, relatively few novel lineages emerge. Genome and structure Structure of the influenza virion. The hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) proteins are shown on the surface of the particle. The viral RNAs that make up the genome are shown as red coils inside the particle and bound to ribonucleoproteins (RNP). Influenza viruses have a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA genome that is segmented. The negative sense of the genome means it can be used as a template to synthesize messenger RNA (mRNA). Influenza A virus and influenza B virus have eight genome segments that encode 10 major proteins. Influenza C virus and influenza D virus have seven genome segments that encode nine major proteins. Three segments encode three subunits of an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) complex: PB1, a transcriptase, PB2, which recognizes 5' caps, and PA (P3 for influenza C virus and influenza D virus), an endonuclease. The matrix protein (M1) and membrane protein (M2) share a segment, as do the non-structural protein (NS1) and the nuclear export protein (NEP). For influenza A virus and influenza B virus, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) are encoded on one segment each, whereas influenza C virus and influenza D virus encode a hemagglutinin-esterase fusion (HEF) protein on one segment that merges the functions of HA and NA. The final genome segment encodes the viral nucleoprotein (NP). Influenza viruses also encode various accessory proteins, such as PB1-F2 and PA-X, that are expressed through alternative open reading frames and which are important in host defense suppression, virulence, and pathogenicity. The virus particle, called a virion, is pleomorphic and varies between being filamentous, bacilliform, or spherical in shape. Clinical isolates tend to be pleomorphic, whereas strains adapted to laboratory growth typically produce spherical virions. Filamentous virions are about 250 nanometers (nm) by 80 nm, bacilliform 120–250 by 95 nm, and spherical 120 nm in diameter. The virion consists of each segment of the genome bound to nucleoproteins in separate ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes for each segment, all of which are surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane called the viral envelope. There is a copy of the RdRp, all subunits included, bound to each RNP. The envelope is reinforced structurally by matrix proteins on the interior that enclose the RNPs, and the envelope contains HA and NA (or HEF) proteins extending outward from the exterior surface of the envelope. HA and HEF proteins have a distinct "head" and "stalk" structure. M2 proteins form proton ion channels through the viral envelope that are required for viral entry and exit. Influenza B viruses contain a surface protein named NB that is anchored in the envelope, but its function is unknown. Life cycle Host cell invasion and replication by the influenza virus The viral life cycle begins by binding to a target cell. Binding is mediated by the viral HA proteins on the surface of the envelope, which bind to cells that contain sialic acid receptors on the surface of the cell membrane. For N1 subtypes with the "G147R" mutation and N2 subtypes, the NA protein can initiate entry. Prior to binding, NA proteins promote access to target cells by degrading mucus, which helps to remove extracellular decoy receptors that would impede access to target cells. After binding, the virus is internalized into the cell by an endosome that contains the virion inside it. The endosome is acidified by cellular vATPase to have lower pH, which triggers a conformational change in HA that allows fusion of the viral envelope with the endosomal membrane. At the same time, hydrogen ions diffuse into the virion through M2 ion channels, disrupting internal protein-protein interactions to release RNPs into the host cell's cytosol. The M1 protein shell surrounding RNPs is degraded, fully uncoating RNPs in the cytosol. RNPs are then imported into the nucleus with the help of viral localization signals. There, the viral RNA polymerase transcribes mRNA using the genomic negative-sense strand as a template. The polymerase snatches 5' caps for viral mRNA from cellular RNA to prime mRNA synthesis and the 3'-end of mRNA is polyadenylated at the end of transcription. Once viral mRNA is transcribed, it is exported out of the nucleus and translated by host ribosomes in a cap-dependent manner to synthesize viral proteins. RdRp also synthesizes complementary positive-sense strands of the viral genome in a complementary RNP complex which are then used as templates by viral polymerases to synthesize copies of the negative-sense genome. During these processes, RdRps of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) function optimally at a higher temperature than mammalian influenza viruses. Newly synthesized viral polymerase subunits and NP proteins are imported to the nucleus to further increase the rate of viral replication and form RNPs. HA, NA, and M2 proteins are trafficked with the aid of M1 and NEP proteins to the cell membrane through the Golgi apparatus and inserted into the cell's membrane. Viral non-structural proteins including NS1, PB1-F2, and PA-X regulate host cellular processes to disable antiviral responses. PB1-F2 also interacts with PB1 to keep polymerases in the nucleus longer. M1 and NEP proteins localize to the nucleus during the later stages of infection, bind to viral RNPs and mediate their export to the cytoplasm where they migrate to the cell membrane with the aid of recycled endosomes and are bundled into the segments of the genome. Progeny viruses leave the cell by budding from the cell membrane, which is initiated by the accumulation of M1 proteins at the cytoplasmic side of the membrane. The viral genome is incorporated inside a viral envelope derived from portions of the cell membrane that have HA, NA, and M2 proteins. At the end of budding, HA proteins remain attached to cellular sialic acid until they are cleaved by the sialidase activity of NA proteins. The virion is then released from the cell. The sialidase activity of NA also cleaves any sialic acid residues from the viral surface, which helps prevent newly assembled viruses from aggregating near the cell surface and improving infectivity. Similar to other aspects of influenza replication, optimal NA activity is temperature- and pH-dependent. Ultimately, presence of large quantities of viral RNA in the cell triggers apoptosis (programmed cell death), which is initiated by cellular factors to restrict viral replication. Antigenic drift and shift Antigenic shift, or reassortment, can result in novel and highly pathogenic strains of human influenza. Two key processes that influenza viruses evolve through are antigenic drift and antigenic shift. Antigenic drift is when an influenza virus' antigens change due to the gradual accumulation of mutations in the antigen's (HA or NA) gene. This can occur in response to evolutionary pressure exerted by the host immune response. Antigenic drift is especially common for the HA protein, in which just a few amino acid changes in the head region can constitute antigenic drift. The result is the production of novel strains that can evade pre-existing antibody-mediated immunity. Antigenic drift occurs in all influenza species but is slower in B than A and slowest in C and D. Antigenic drift is a major cause of seasonal influenza, and requires that flu vaccines be updated annually. HA is the main component of inactivated vaccines, so surveillance monitors antigenic drift of this antigen among circulating strains. Antigenic evolution of influenza viruses of humans appears to be faster than in swine and equines. In wild birds, within-subtype antigenic variation appears to be limited but has been observed in poultry. Antigenic shift is a sudden, drastic change in an influenza virus' antigen, usually HA. During antigenic shift, antigenically different strains that infect the same cell can reassort genome segments with each other, producing hybrid progeny. Since all influenza viruses have segmented genomes, all are capable of reassortment. Antigenic shift only occurs among influenza viruses of the same genus and most commonly occurs among influenza A viruses. In particular, reassortment is very common in AIVs, creating a large diversity of influenza viruses in birds, but is uncommon in human, equine, and canine lineages. Pigs, bats, and quails have receptors for both mammalian and avian influenza A viruses, so they are potential "mixing vessels" for reassortment. If an animal strain reassorts with a human strain, then a novel strain can emerge that is capable of human-to-human transmission. This has caused pandemics, but only a limited number, so it is difficult to predict when the next will happen. Mechanism Transmission People who are infected can transmit influenza viruses through breathing, talking, coughing, and sneezing, which spread respiratory droplets and aerosols that contain virus particles into the air. A person susceptible to infection can contract influenza by coming into contact with these particles. Respiratory droplets are relatively large and travel less than two meters before falling onto nearby surfaces. Aerosols are smaller and remain suspended in the air longer, so they take longer to settle and can travel further. Inhalation of aerosols can lead to infection, but most transmission is in the area about two meters around an infected person via respiratory droplets that come into contact with mucosa of the upper respiratory tract. Transmission through contact with a person, bodily fluids, or intermediate objects (fomites) can also occur, since influenza viruses can survive for hours on non-porous surfaces. If one's hands are contaminated, then touching one's face can cause infection. Influenza is usually transmissible from one day before the onset of symptoms to 5–7 days after. In healthy adults, the virus is shed for up to 3–5 days. In children and the immunocompromised, the virus may be transmissible for several weeks. Children ages 2–17 are considered to be the primary and most efficient spreaders of influenza. Children who have not had multiple prior exposures to influenza viruses shed the virus at greater quantities and for a longer duration than other children. People at risk of exposure to influenza include health care workers, social care workers, and those who live with or care for people vulnerable to influenza. In long-term care facilities, the flu can spread rapidly. A variety of factors likely encourage influenza transmission, including lower temperature, lower absolute and relative humidity, less ultraviolet radiation from the sun, and crowding. Influenza viruses that infect the upper respiratory tract like H1N1 tend to be more mild but more transmissible, whereas those that infect the lower respiratory tract like H5N1 tend to cause more severe illness but are less contagious. Pathophysiology How the different sites of infection (shown in red) of H1N1 and H5N1 influences their transmission and lethality In humans, influenza viruses first cause infection by infecting epithelial cells in the respiratory tract. Illness during infection is primarily the result of lung inflammation and compromise caused by epithelial cell infection and death, combined with inflammation caused by the immune system's response to infection. Non-respiratory organs can become involved, but the mechanisms by which influenza is involved in these cases are unknown. Severe respiratory illness can be caused by multiple, non-exclusive mechanisms, including obstruction of the airways, loss of alveolar structure, loss of lung epithelial integrity due to epithelial cell infection and death, and degradation of the extracellular matrix that maintains lung structure. In particular, alveolar cell infection appears to drive severe symptoms since this results in impaired gas exchange and enables viruses to infect endothelial cells, which produce large quantities of pro-inflammatory cytokines. Pneumonia caused by influenza viruses is characterized by high levels of viral replication in the lower respiratory tract, accompanied by a strong pro-inflammatory response called a cytokine storm. Infection with H5N1 or H7N9 especially produces high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In bacterial infections, early depletion of macrophages during influenza creates a favorable environment in the lungs for bacterial growth since these white blood cells are important in responding to bacterial infection. Host mechanisms to encourage tissue repair may inadvertently allow bacterial infection. Infection also induces production of systemic glucocorticoids that can reduce inflammation to preserve tissue integrity but allow increased bacterial growth. The pathophysiology of influenza is significantly influenced by which receptors influenza viruses bind to during entry into cells. Mammalian influenza viruses preferentially bind to sialic acids connected to the rest of the oligosaccharide by an α-2,6 link, most commonly found in various respiratory cells, such as respiratory and retinal epithelial cells. AIVs prefer sialic acids with an α-2,3 linkage, which are most common in birds in gastrointestinal epithelial cells and in humans in the lower respiratory tract. Cleavage of the HA protein into HA1, the binding subunit, and HA2, the fusion subunit, is performed by different proteases, affecting which cells can be infected. For mammalian influenza viruses and low pathogenic AIVs, cleavage is extracellular, which limits infection to cells that have the appropriate proteases, whereas for highly pathogenic AIVs, cleavage is intracellular and performed by ubiquitous proteases, which allows for infection of a greater variety of cells, thereby contributing to more severe disease. Immunology Cells possess sensors to detect viral RNA, which can then induce interferon production. Interferons mediate expression of antiviral proteins and proteins that recruit immune cells to the infection site, and they notify nearby uninfected cells of infection. Some infected cells release pro-inflammatory cytokines that recruit immune cells to the site of infection. Immune cells control viral infection by killing infected cells and phagocytizing viral particles and apoptotic cells. An exacerbated immune response can harm the host organism through a cytokine storm. To counter the immune response, influenza viruses encode various non-structural proteins, including NS1, NEP, PB1-F2, and PA-X, that are involved in curtailing the host immune response by suppressing interferon production and host gene expression. B cells, a type of white blood cell, produce antibodies that bind to influenza antigens HA and NA (or HEF) and other proteins to a lesser degree. Once bound to these proteins, antibodies block virions from binding to cellular receptors, neutralizing the virus. In humans, a sizeable antibody response occurs about one week after viral exposure. This antibody response is typically robust and long-lasting, especially for influenza C virus and influenza D virus. People exposed to a certain strain in childhood still possess antibodies to that strain at a reasonable level later in life, which can provide some protection to related strains. There is, however, an "original antigenic sin", in which the first HA subtype a person is exposed to influences the antibody-based immune response to future infections and vaccines. Prevention Further information: Influenza prevention Vaccination Main article: Influenza vaccine Giving an influenza vaccination Annual vaccination is the primary and most effective way to prevent influenza and influenza-associated complications, especially for high-risk groups. Vaccines against the flu are trivalent or quadrivalent, providing protection against an H1N1 strain, an H3N2 strain, and one or two influenza B virus strains corresponding to the two influenza B virus lineages. Two types of vaccines are in use: inactivated vaccines that contain "killed" (i.e. inactivated) viruses and live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs) that contain weakened viruses. There are three types of inactivated vaccines: whole virus, split virus, in which the virus is disrupted by a detergent, and subunit, which only contains the viral antigens HA and NA. Most flu vaccines are inactivated and administered via intramuscular injection. LAIVs are sprayed into the nasal cavity. Vaccination recommendations vary by country. Some recommend vaccination for all people above a certain age, such as 6 months, whereas other countries limit recommendations to high-risk groups. Young infants cannot receive flu vaccines for safety reasons, but they can inherit passive immunity from their mother if vaccinated during pregnancy. Influenza vaccination helps to reduce the probability of reassortment. An Influenza A&B Antigen Test (bottom) showing negative results for both Influenza A and B) In general, influenza vaccines are only effective if there is an antigenic match between vaccine strains and circulating strains. Most commercially available flu vaccines are manufactured by propagation of influenza viruses in embryonated chicken eggs, taking 6–8 months. Flu seasons are different in the northern and southern hemisphere, so the WHO meets twice a year, once for each hemisphere, to discuss which strains should be included based on observation from HA inhibition assays. Other manufacturing methods include an MDCK cell culture-based inactivated vaccine and a recombinant subunit vaccine manufactured from baculovirus overexpression in insect cells. Antiviral chemoprophylaxis Influenza can be prevented or reduced in severity by post-exposure prophylaxis with the antiviral drugs oseltamivir, which can be taken orally by those at least three months old, and zanamivir, which can be inhaled by those above seven years. Chemoprophylaxis is most useful for individuals at high risk for complications and those who cannot receive the flu vaccine. Post-exposure chemoprophylaxis is only recommended if oseltamivir is taken within 48 hours of contact with a confirmed or suspected case and zanamivir within 36 hours. It is recommended for people who have yet to receive a vaccine for the current flu season, who have been vaccinated less than two week since contact, if there is a significant mismatch between vaccine and circulating strains, or during an outbreak in a closed setting regardless of vaccination history. Infection control Hand hygiene is important in reducing the spread of influenza. This includes frequent hand washing with soap and water, using alcohol-based hand sanitizers, and not touching one's eyes, nose, and mouth with one's hands. Covering one's nose and mouth when coughing or sneezing is important. Other methods to limit influenza transmission include staying home when sick, avoiding contact with others until one day after symptoms end, and disinfecting surfaces likely to be contaminated by the virus. Research thus far has not shown a significant reduction in seasonal influenza with mask usage. The effectiveness of screening at points of entry into countries is not well researched. Social distancing measures such as school closures, isolation or quarantine, and limiting mass gatherings may reduce transmission, but these measures are often expensive, unpopular, and difficult to implement. Consequently, the commonly recommended methods of infection control are respiratory etiquette, hand hygiene, and mask wearing, which are inexpensive and easy. Pharmaceutical measures are effective but may not be available in the early stages of an outbreak. In health care settings, infected individuals may be cohorted or assigned to individual rooms. Protective clothing such as masks, gloves, and gowns is recommended when coming into contact with infected individuals if there is a risk of exposure to infected bodily fluids. Keeping patients in negative pressure rooms and avoiding aerosol-producing activities may help, but special air handling and ventilation systems are not considered necessary to prevent the spread of influenza in the air. In residential homes, new admissions may need to be closed until the spread of influenza is controlled. Since influenza viruses circulate in animals such as birds and pigs, prevention of transmission from these animals is important. Water treatment, indoor raising of animals, quarantining sick animals, vaccination, and biosecurity are the primary measures used. Placing poultry houses and piggeries on high ground away from high-density farms, backyard farms, live poultry markets, and bodies of water helps to minimize contact with wild birds. Closure of live poultry markets appears to the most effective measure and has shown to be effective at controlling the spread of H5N1, H7N9, and H9N2. Other biosecurity measures include cleaning and disinfecting facilities and vehicles, banning visits to poultry farms, not bringing birds intended for slaughter back to farms, changing clothes, disinfecting foot baths, and treating food and water. If live poultry markets are not closed, then "clean days" when unsold poultry is removed and facilities are disinfected and "no carry-over" policies to eliminate infectious material before new poultry arrive can be used to reduce the spread of influenza viruses. If a novel influenza viruses has breached the aforementioned biosecurity measures, then rapid detection to stamp it out via quarantining, decontamination, and culling may be necessary to prevent the virus from becoming endemic. Vaccines exist for avian H5, H7, and H9 subtypes that are used in some countries. In China, for example, vaccination of domestic birds against H7N9 successfully limited its spread, indicating that vaccination may be an effective strategy if used in combination with other measures to limit transmission. In pigs and horses, management of influenza is dependent on vaccination with biosecurity. Diagnosis X-ray of 29-year-old person with H1N1 Diagnosis based on symptoms is fairly accurate in otherwise healthy people during seasonal epidemics and should be suspected in cases of pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), sepsis, or if encephalitis, myocarditis, or breakdown of muscle tissue occur. Because influenza is similar to other viral respiratory tract illnesses, laboratory diagnosis is necessary for confirmation. Common sample collection methods for testing include nasal and throat swabs. Samples may be taken from the lower respiratory tract if infection has cleared the upper but not lower respiratory tract. Influenza testing is recommended for anyone hospitalized with symptoms resembling influenza during flu season or who is connected to an influenza case. For severe cases, earlier diagnosis improves patient outcome. Diagnostic methods that can identify influenza include viral cultures, antibody- and antigen-detecting tests, and nucleic acid-based tests. Viruses can be grown in a culture of mammalian cells or embryonated eggs for 3–10 days to monitor cytopathic effect. Final confirmation can then be done via antibody staining, hemadsorption using red blood cells, or immunofluorescence microscopy. Shell vial cultures, which can identify infection via immunostaining before a cytopathic effect appears, are more sensitive than traditional cultures with results in 1–3 days. Cultures can be used to characterize novel viruses, observe sensitivity to antiviral drugs, and monitor antigenic drift, but they are relatively slow and require specialized skills and equipment. Serological assays can be used to detect an antibody response to influenza after natural infection or vaccination. Common serological assays include hemagglutination inhibition assays that detect HA-specific antibodies, virus neutralization assays that check whether antibodies have neutralized the virus, and enzyme-linked immunoabsorbant assays. These methods tend to be relatively inexpensive and fast but are less reliable than nucleic-acid based tests. Direct fluorescent or immunofluorescent antibody (DFA/IFA) tests involve staining respiratory epithelial cells in samples with fluorescently-labeled influenza-specific antibodies, followed by examination under a fluorescent microscope. They can differentiate between influenza A virus and influenza B virus but can not subtype influenza A virus. Rapid influenza diagnostic tests (RIDTs) are a simple way of obtaining assay results, are low cost, and produce results in less than 30 minutes, so they are commonly used, but they can not distinguish between influenza A virus and influenza B virus or between influenza A virus subtypes and are not as sensitive as nucleic-acid based tests. Nucleic acid-based tests (NATs) amplify and detect viral nucleic acid. Most of these tests take a few hours, but rapid molecular assays are as fast as RIDTs. Among NATs, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the most traditional and considered the gold standard for diagnosing influenza because it is fast and can subtype influenza A virus, but it is relatively expensive and more prone to false-positives than cultures. Other NATs that have been used include loop-mediated isothermal amplification-based assays, simple amplification-based assays, and nucleic acid sequence-based amplification. Nucleic acid sequencing methods can identify infection by obtaining the nucleic acid sequence of viral samples to identify the virus and antiviral drug resistance. The traditional method is Sanger sequencing, but it has been largely replaced by next-generation methods that have greater sequencing speed and throughput. Treatment Main article: Influenza treatment Treatment in cases of mild or moderate illness is supportive and includes anti-fever medications such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen, adequate fluid intake to avoid dehydration, and rest. Cough drops and throat sprays may be beneficial for sore throat. It is recommended to avoid alcohol and tobacco use while ill. Aspirin is not recommended to treat influenza in children due to an elevated risk of developing Reye syndrome. Corticosteroids are not recommended except when treating septic shock or an underlying medical condition, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma exacerbation, since they are associated with increased mortality. If a secondary bacterial infection occurs, then antibiotics may be necessary. Antivirals Antiviral drugs Drug Route of administration Approved age of use Oseltamivir Oral At least two weeks old Zanamivir Inhalation At least five years old Peramivir Intravenous injection At least 18 years old Laninamivir Inhalation 40 milligrams (mg) dose for people at least 10 years old, 20 mg for those under 10 Baloxavir marboxil Oral At least 12 years old Antiviral drugs are primarily used to treat severely ill patients, especially those with compromised immune systems. Antivirals are most effective when started in the first 48 hours after symptoms appear. Later administration may still be beneficial for those who have underlying immune defects, those with more severe symptoms, or those who have a higher risk of developing complications if these individuals are still shedding the virus. Antiviral treatment is also recommended if a person is hospitalized with suspected influenza instead of waiting for test results to return and if symptoms are worsening. Most antiviral drugs against influenza fall into two categories: neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors and M2 inhibitors. Baloxavir marboxil is a notable exception, which targets the endonuclease activity of the viral RNA polymerase and can be used as an alternative to NA and M2 inhibitors for influenza A virus and influenza B virus. NA inhibitors target the enzymatic activity of NA receptors, mimicking the binding of sialic acid in the active site of NA on influenza A virus and influenza B virus virions so that viral release from infected cells and the rate of viral replication are impaired. NA inhibitors include oseltamivir, which is consumed orally in a prodrug form and converted to its active form in the liver, and zanamivir, which is a powder that is inhaled nasally. Oseltamivir and zanamivir are effective for prophylaxis and post-exposure prophylaxis, and research overall indicates that NA inhibitors are effective at reducing rates of complications, hospitalization, and mortality and the duration of illness. Additionally, the earlier NA inhibitors are provided, the better the outcome, though late administration can still be beneficial in severe cases. Other NA inhibitors include laninamivir and peramivir, the latter of which can be used as an alternative to oseltamivir for people who cannot tolerate or absorb it. The adamantanes amantadine and rimantadine are orally administered drugs that block the influenza virus' M2 ion channel, preventing viral uncoating. These drugs are only functional against influenza A virus but are no longer recommended for use because of widespread resistance to them among influenza A viruses. Adamantane resistance first emerged in H3N2 in 2003, becoming worldwide by 2008. Oseltamivir resistance is no longer widespread because the 2009 pandemic H1N1 strain (H1N1 pdm09), which is resistant to adamantanes, seemingly replaced resistant strains in circulation. Since the 2009 pandemic, oseltamivir resistance has mainly been observed in patients undergoing therapy, especially the immunocompromised and young children. Oseltamivir resistance is usually reported in H1N1, but has been reported in H3N2 and influenza B viruss less commonly. Because of this, oseltamivir is recommended as the first drug of choice for immunocompetent people, whereas for the immunocompromised, oseltamivir is recommended against H3N2 and influenza B virus and zanamivir against H1N1 pdm09. Zanamivir resistance is observed less frequently, and resistance to peramivir and baloxavir marboxil is possible. Prognosis In healthy individuals, influenza infection is usually self-limiting and rarely fatal. Symptoms usually last for 2–8 days. Influenza can cause people to miss work or school, and it is associated with decreased job performance and, in older adults, reduced independence. Fatigue and malaise may last for several weeks after recovery, and healthy adults may experience pulmonary abnormalities that can take several weeks to resolve. Complications and mortality primarily occur in high-risk populations and those who are hospitalized. Severe disease and mortality are usually attributable to pneumonia from the primary viral infection or a secondary bacterial infection, which can progress to ARDS. Other respiratory complications that may occur include sinusitis, bronchitis, bronchiolitis, excess fluid buildup in the lungs, and exacerbation of chronic bronchitis and asthma. Middle ear infection and croup may occur, most commonly in children. Secondary S. aureus infection has been observed, primarily in children, to cause toxic shock syndrome after influenza, with hypotension, fever, and reddening and peeling of the skin. Complications affecting the cardiovascular system are rare and include pericarditis, fulminant myocarditis with a fast, slow, or irregular heartbeat, and exacerbation of pre-existing cardiovascular disease. Inflammation or swelling of muscles accompanied by muscle tissue breaking down occurs rarely, usually in children, which presents as extreme tenderness and muscle pain in the legs and a reluctance to walk for 2–3 days. Influenza can affect pregnancy, including causing smaller neonatal size, increased risk of premature birth, and an increased risk of child death shortly before or after birth. Neurological complications have been associated with influenza on rare occasions, including aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, disseminated encephalomyelitis, transverse myelitis, and Guillain–Barré syndrome. Additionally, febrile seizures and Reye syndrome can occur, most commonly in children. Influenza-associated encephalopathy can occur directly from central nervous system infection from the presence of the virus in blood and presents as sudden onset of fever with convulsions, followed by rapid progression to coma. An atypical form of encephalitis called encephalitis lethargica, characterized by headache, drowsiness, and coma, may rarely occur sometime after infection. In survivors of influenza-associated encephalopathy, neurological defects may occur. Primarily in children, in severe cases the immune system may rarely dramatically overproduce white blood cells that release cytokines, causing severe inflammation. People who are at least 65 years of age, due to a weakened immune system from aging or a chronic illness, are a high-risk group for developing complications, as are children less than one year of age and children who have not been previously exposed to influenza viruses multiple times. Pregnant women are at an elevated risk, which increases by trimester and lasts up to two weeks after childbirth. Obesity, in particular a body mass index greater than 35–40, is associated with greater amounts of viral replication, increased severity of secondary bacterial infection, and reduced vaccination efficacy. People who have underlying health conditions are also considered at-risk, including those who have congenital or chronic heart problems or lung (e.g. asthma), kidney, liver, blood, neurological, or metabolic (e.g. diabetes) disorders, as are people who are immunocompromised from chemotherapy, asplenia, prolonged steroid treatment, splenic dysfunction, or HIV infection. Tobacco use, including past use, places a person at risk. The role of genetics in influenza is not well researched, but it may be a factor in influenza mortality. Epidemiology Further information: Flu season and Flu pandemics Influenza mortality in symptomatic cases in the US for the 2018/2019 season. Influenza is typically characterized by seasonal epidemics and sporadic pandemics. Most of the burden of influenza is a result of flu seasons caused by influenza A virus and influenza B virus. Among influenza A virus subtypes, H1N1 and H3N2 circulate in humans and are responsible for seasonal influenza. Cases disproportionately occur in children, but most severe causes are among the elderly, the very young, and the immunocompromised. In a typical year, influenza viruses infect 5–15% of the global population, causing 3–5 million cases of severe illness annually and accounting for 290,000–650,000 deaths each year due to respiratory illness. 5–10% of adults and 20–30% of children contract influenza each year. The reported number of influenza cases is usually much lower than the actual number. During seasonal epidemics, it is estimated that about 80% of otherwise healthy people who have a cough or sore throat have the flu. Approximately 30–40% of people hospitalized for influenza develop pneumonia, and about 5% of all severe pneumonia cases in hospitals are due to influenza, which is also the most common cause of ARDS in adults. In children, influenza and respiratory syncytial virus are the two most common causes of ARDS. About 3–5% of children each year develop otitis media due to influenza. Adults who develop organ failure from influenza and children who have PIM scores and acute renal failure have higher rates of mortality. During seasonal influenza, mortality is concentrated in the very young and the elderly, whereas during flu pandemics, young adults are often affected at a high rate. Seasonal risk areas for influenza: November–April (blue), April–November (red), and year-round (yellow) In temperate regions, the number of influenza cases varies from season to season. Lower vitamin D levels, presumably due to less sunlight, lower humidity, lower temperature, and minor changes in virus proteins caused by antigenic drift contribute to annual epidemics that peak during the winter season. In the northern hemisphere, this is from October to May (more narrowly December to April), and in the southern hemisphere, this is from May to October (more narrowly June to September). There are therefore two distinct influenza seasons every year in temperate regions, one in the northern hemisphere and one in the southern hemisphere. In tropical and subtropical regions, seasonality is more complex and appears to be affected by various climatic factors such as minimum temperature, hours of sunshine, maximum rainfall, and high humidity. Influenza may therefore occur year-round in these regions. Influenza epidemics in modern times have the tendency to start in the eastern or southern hemisphere, with Asia being a key reservoir. Influenza A virus and influenza B virus co-circulate, so have the same patterns of transmission. The seasonality of influenza C virus, however, is poorly understood. Influenza C virus infection is most common in children under the age of two, and by adulthood most people have been exposed to it. Influenza C virus-associated hospitalization most commonly occurs in children under the age of three and is frequently accompanied by co-infection with another virus or a bacterium, which may increase the severity of disease. When considering all hospitalizations for respiratory illness among young children, influenza C virus appears to account for only a small percentage of such cases. Large outbreaks of influenza C virus infection can occur, so incidence varies significantly. Outbreaks of influenza caused by novel influenza viruses are common. Depending on the level of pre-existing immunity in the population, novel influenza viruses can spread rapidly and cause pandemics with millions of deaths. These pandemics, in contrast to seasonal influenza, are caused by antigenic shifts involving animal influenza viruses. To date, all known flu pandemics have been caused by influenza A viruses, and they follow the same pattern of spreading from an origin point to the rest of the world over the course of multiple waves in a year. Pandemic strains tend to be associated with higher rates of pneumonia in otherwise healthy individuals. Generally after each influenza pandemic, the pandemic strain continues to circulate as the cause of seasonal influenza, replacing prior strains. From 1700 to 1889, influenza pandemics occurred about once every 50–60 years. Since then, pandemics have occurred about once every 10–50 years, so they may be getting more frequent over time. History The main types of influenza viruses in humans. Solid squares show the appearance of a new strain, causing recurring influenza pandemics. Broken lines indicate uncertain strain identifications. The first influenza epidemic may have occurred around 6,000 BC in China, and possible descriptions of influenza exist in Greek writings from the 5th century BC. In both 1173–1174 AD and 1387 AD, epidemics occurred across Europe that were named "influenza". Whether these epidemics or others were caused by influenza is unclear since there was then no consistent naming pattern for epidemic respiratory diseases, and "influenza" did not become clearly associated with respiratory disease until centuries later. Influenza may have been brought to the Americas as early as 1493, when an epidemic disease resembling influenza killed most of the population of the Antilles. The first convincing record of an influenza pandemic was in 1510. It began in East Asia before spreading to North Africa and then Europe. Following the pandemic, seasonal influenza occurred, with subsequent pandemics in 1557 and 1580. The flu pandemic in 1557 was potentially the first time influenza was connected to miscarriage and death of pregnant women. The 1580 influenza pandemic originated in Asia during summer, spread to Africa, then Europe, and finally America. By the end of the 16th century, influenza was beginning to become understood as a specific, recognizable disease with epidemic and endemic forms. In 1648, it was discovered that horses also experience influenza. Influenza data after 1700 is more accurate, so it is easier to identify flu pandemics after this point. The first flu pandemic of the 18th century started in 1729 in Russia in spring, spreading worldwide over the course of three years with distinct waves, the later ones being more lethal. Another flu pandemic occurred in 1781–1782, starting in China in autumn. From this pandemic, influenza became associated with sudden outbreaks of febrile illness. The next flu pandemic was from 1830 to 1833, beginning in China in winter. This pandemic had a high attack rate, but the mortality rate was low. A minor influenza pandemic occurred from 1847 to 1851 at the same time as the third cholera pandemic and was the first flu pandemic to occur with vital statistics being recorded, so influenza mortality was clearly recorded for the first time. Highly pathogenic avian influenza was recognized in 1878 and was soon linked to transmission to humans. By the time of the 1889 pandemic, which may have been caused by an H2N2 strain, the flu had become an easily recognizable disease. The microbial agent responsible for influenza was incorrectly identified in 1892 by R. F. J. Pfeiffer as the bacteria species Haemophilus influenzae, which retains "influenza" in its name. From 1901 to 1903, Italian and Austrian researchers were able to show that avian influenza, then called "fowl plague", was caused by a microscopic agent smaller than bacteria by using filters with pores too small for bacteria to pass through. The fundamental differences between viruses and bacteria, however, were not yet fully understood. The difference between the influenza mortality age distributions of the 1918 epidemic and normal epidemics. Deaths per 100,000 persons in each age group, United States, for the interpandemic years 1911–1917 (dashed line) and the pandemic year 1918 (solid line). From 1918 to 1920, the Spanish flu pandemic became the most devastating influenza pandemic and one of the deadliest pandemics in history. The pandemic, probably caused by H1N1, likely began in the United States before spreading worldwide via soldiers during and after the First World War. The initial wave in the first half of 1918 was relatively minor and resembled past flu pandemics, but the second wave later that year had a much higher mortality rate. A third wave with lower mortality occurred in many places a few months after the second. By the end of 1920, it is estimated that about a third to half of all people in the world had been infected, with tens of millions of deaths, disproportionately young adults. During the 1918 pandemic, the respiratory route of transmission was clearly identified and influenza was shown to be caused by a "filter passer", not a bacterium, but there remained a lack of agreement about influenza's cause for another decade and research on influenza declined. After the pandemic, H1N1 circulated in humans in seasonal form until the next pandemic. In 1931, Richard Shope published three papers identifying a virus as the cause of swine influenza, a then newly recognized disease among pigs that was characterized during the second wave of the 1918 pandemic. Shope's research reinvigorated research on human influenza, and many advances in virology, serology, immunology, experimental animal models, vaccinology, and immunotherapy have since arisen from influenza research. Just two years after influenza viruses were discovered, in 1933, influenza A virus was identified as the agent responsible for human influenza. Subtypes of influenza A virus were discovered throughout the 1930s, and influenza B virus was discovered in 1940. During the Second World War, the US government worked on developing inactivated vaccines for influenza, resulting in the first influenza vaccine being licensed in 1945 in the United States. Influenza C virus was discovered two years later in 1947. In 1955, avian influenza was confirmed to be caused by influenza A virus. Four influenza pandemics have occurred since WWII. The first of these was the Asian flu from 1957 to 1958, caused by an H2N2 strain and beginning in China's Yunnan province. The number of deaths probably exceeded one million, mostly among the very young and very old. This was the first flu pandemic to occur in the presence of a global surveillance system and laboratories able to study the novel influenza virus. After the pandemic, H2N2 was the influenza A virus subtype responsible for seasonal influenza. The first antiviral drug against influenza, amantadine, was approved in 1966, with additional antiviral drugs being used since the 1990s. In 1968, H3N2 was introduced into humans through a rearrangement between an avian H3N2 strain and an H2N2 strain that was circulating in humans. The novel H3N2 strain emerged in Hong Kong and spread worldwide, causing the Hong Kong flu pandemic, which resulted in 500,000–2,000,000 deaths. This was the first pandemic to spread significantly by air travel. H2N2 and H3N2 co-circulated after the pandemic until 1971 when H2N2 waned in prevalence and was completely replaced by H3N2. In 1977, H1N1 reemerged in humans, possibly after it was released from a freezer in a laboratory accident, and caused a pseudo-pandemic. This H1N1 strain was antigenically similar to the H1N1 strains that circulated prior to 1957. Since 1977, both H1N1 and H3N2 have circulated in humans as part of seasonal influenza. In 1980, the classification system used to subtype influenza viruses was introduced. Thermal imaging camera and screen, photographed in an airport terminal in Greece during the 2009 flu pandemic. Thermal imaging can detect elevated body temperature, one of the signs of swine flu. At some point, influenza B virus diverged into two strains, named the B/Victoria-like and B/Yamagata-like lineages, both of which have been circulating in humans since 1983. In 1996, HPAI H5N1 was detected in Guangdong, China and a year later emerged in poultry in Hong Kong, gradually spreading worldwide from there. A small H5N1 outbreak in humans in Hong Kong occurred then, and sporadic human cases have occurred since 1997, carrying a high case fatality rate. The most recent flu pandemic was the 2009 swine flu pandemic, which originated in Mexico and resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths. It was caused by a novel H1N1 strain that was a reassortment of human, swine, and avian influenza viruses. The 2009 pandemic had the effect of replacing prior H1N1 strains in circulation with the novel strain but not any other influenza viruses. Consequently, H1N1, H3N2, and both influenza B virus lineages have been in circulation in seasonal form since the 2009 pandemic. In 2011, influenza D virus was discovered in pigs in Oklahoma, USA, and cattle were later identified as the primary reservoir of influenza D virus. In the same year, avian H7N9 was detected in China and began to cause human infections in 2013, starting in Shanghai and Anhui and remaining mostly in China. HPAI H7N9 emerged sometime in 2016 and has occasionally infected humans incidentally. Other AIVs have less commonly infected humans since the 1990s, including H5N6, H6N1, H7N2-4, H7N7, and H10N7-8, and HPAI H subtypes such as H5N1-3, H5N5-6, and H5N8 have begun to spread throughout much of the world since the 2010s. Future flu pandemics, which may be caused by an influenza virus of avian origin, are viewed as almost inevitable, and increased globalization has made it easier for novel viruses to spread, so there are continual efforts to prepare for future pandemics and improve the prevention and treatment of influenza. Etymology The word influenza comes from the Italian word influenza, from medieval Latin influentia, originally meaning 'visitation' or 'influence'. Terms such as influenza di freddo, meaning 'influence of the cold', and influenza di stelle, meaning 'influence of the stars' are attested from the 14th century. The latter referred to the disease's cause, which at the time was ascribed by some to unfavorable astrological conditions. As early as 1504, influenza began to mean a 'visitation' or 'outbreak' of any disease affecting many people in a single place at once. During an outbreak of influenza in 1743 that started in Italy and spread throughout Europe, the word reached the English language and was anglicized in pronunciation. Since the mid-1800s, influenza has also been used to refer to severe colds. The shortened form of the word, "flu", is first attested in 1839 as flue with the spelling flu confirmed in 1893. Other names that have been used for influenza include epidemic catarrh, la grippe from French, sweating sickness, and, especially when referring to the 1918 pandemic strain, Spanish fever. Research Professional examining a laboratory-grown reconstruction of the 1918 Spanish flu virus in a biosafety level 3 environment Influenza research includes efforts to understand how influenza viruses enter hosts, the relationship between influenza viruses and bacteria, how influenza symptoms progress, and why some influenza viruses are deadlier than others. Non-structural proteins encoded by influenza viruses are periodically discovered and their functions are continually under research. Past pandemics, and especially the 1918 pandemic, are the subject of much research to understand flu pandemics. As part of pandemic preparedness, the Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System is a global network of laboratories that monitors influenza transmission and epidemiology. Additional areas of research include ways to improve the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of influenza. Existing diagnostic methods have a variety of limitations coupled with their advantages. For example, NATs have high sensitivity and specificity but are impractical in under-resourced regions due to their high cost, complexity, maintenance, and training required. Low-cost, portable RIDTs can rapidly diagnose influenza but have highly variable sensitivity and are unable to subtype influenza A virus. As a result of these limitations and others, research into new diagnostic methods revolves around producing new methods that are cost-effective, less labor-intensive, and less complex than existing methods while also being able to differentiate influenza species and influenza A virus subtypes. One approach in development are lab-on-a-chips, which are diagnostic devices that make use of a variety of diagnostic tests, such as RT-PCR and serological assays, in microchip form. These chips have many potential advantages, including high reaction efficiency, low energy consumption, and low waste generation. New antiviral drugs are also in development due to the elimination of adamantines as viable drugs and concerns over oseltamivir resistance. These include: NA inhibitors that can be injected intravenously, such as intravenous formulations of zanamivir; favipiravir, which is a polymerase inhibitor used against several RNA viruses; pimodivir, which prevents cap-binding required during viral transcription; and nitazoxanide, which inhibits HA maturation. Reducing excess inflammation in the respiratory tract is also subject to much research since this is one of the primary mechanisms of influenza pathology. Other forms of therapy in development include monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies that target viral proteins, convalescent plasma, different approaches to modify the host antiviral response, and stem cell-based therapies to repair lung damage. Much research on LAIVs focuses on identifying genome sequences that can be deleted to create harmless influenza viruses in vaccines that still confer immunity. The high variability and rapid evolution of influenza virus antigens, however, is a major obstacle in developing effective vaccines. Furthermore, it is hard to predict which strains will be in circulation during the next flu season, manufacturing a sufficient quantity of flu vaccines for the next season is difficult, LAIVs have limited efficacy, and repeated annual vaccination potentially has diminished efficacy. For these reasons, "broadly-reactive" or "universal" flu vaccines are being researched that can provide protection against many or all influenza viruses. Approaches to develop such a vaccine include HA stalk-based methods such as chimeras that have the same stalk but different heads, HA head-based methods such as computationally optimized broadly neutralizing antigens, anti-idiotypic antibodies, and vaccines to elicit immune responses to highly conserved viral proteins. mRNA vaccines to provide protection against influenza are also under research. In recent years, controversy emerged over the ethical justifications for certain 'gain-of-function' (GOF) studies on influenza. In animals Birds Aquatic birds such as ducks, geese, shorebirds, and gulls are the primary reservoir of influenza A viruses (IAVs). Because of the impact of avian influenza on economically important chicken farms, a classification system was devised in 1981 which divided avian virus strains as either highly pathogenic (and therefore potentially requiring vigorous control measures) or low pathogenic. The test for this is based solely on the effect on chickens - a virus strain is highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) if 75% or more of chickens die after being deliberately infected with it. The alternative classification is low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) which produces mild or no symptoms. This classification system has since been modified to take into account the structure of the virus' haemagglutinin protein. At the genetic level, an AIV can be identified as an HPAI virus if it has a multibasic cleavage site in the HA protein, which contains additional residues in the HA gene. Other species of birds, especially water birds, can become infected with HPAI virus without experiencing severe symptoms and can spread the infection over large distances; the exact symptoms depend on the species of bird and the strain of virus. Classification of an avian virus strain as HPAI or LPAI does not predict how serious the disease might be if it infects humans or other mammals. Symptoms of HPAI infection in chickens include lack of energy and appetite, decreased egg production, soft-shelled or misshapen eggs, swelling of the head, comb, wattles, and hocks, purple discoloration of wattles, combs, and legs, nasal discharge, coughing, sneezing, incoordination, and diarrhea; birds infected with an HPAI virus may also die suddenly without any signs of infection. Most AIVs are LPAI. Notable HPAI viruses include HPAI A (H5N1) and HPAI A (H7N9). HPAI viruses have been a major disease burden in the 21st century, resulting in the death of large numbers of birds. In H7N9's case, some circulating strains were originally LPAI but became HPAI by acquiring the HA multibasic cleavage site. Avian H9N2 is also of concern because although it is LPAI, it is a common donor of genes to H5N1 and H7N9 during reassortment. Migratory birds can spread influenza across long distances. An example of this was when an H5N1 strain in 2005 infected birds at Qinghai Lake, China, which is a stopover and breeding site for many migratory birds, subsequently spreading the virus to more than 20 countries across Asia, Europe, and the Middle East. AIVs can be transmitted from wild birds to domestic free-range ducks and in turn to poultry through contaminated water, aerosols, and fomites. Ducks therefore act as key intermediates between wild and domestic birds. Transmission to poultry typically occurs in backyard farming and live animal markets where multiple species interact with each other. From there, AIVs can spread to poultry farms in the absence of adequate biosecurity. Among poultry, HPAI transmission occurs through aerosols and contaminated feces, cages, feed, and dead animals. Back-transmission of HPAI viruses from poultry to wild birds has occurred and is implicated in mass die-offs and intercontinental spread. AIVs have occasionally infected humans through aerosols, fomites, and contaminated water. Direction transmission from wild birds is rare. Instead, most transmission involves domestic poultry, mainly chickens, ducks, and geese but also a variety of other birds such as guinea fowl, partridge, pheasants, and quails. The primary risk factor for infection with AIVs is exposure to birds in farms and live poultry markets. Typically, infection with an AIV has an incubation period of 3–5 days but can be up to 9 days. H5N1 and H7N9 cause severe lower respiratory tract illness, whereas other AIVs such as H9N2 cause a more mild upper respiratory tract illness, commonly with conjunctivitis. Limited transmission of avian H2, H5-7, H9, and H10 subtypes from one person to another through respiratory droplets, aerosols, and fomites has occurred, but sustained human-to-human transmission of AIVs has not occurred. Before 2013, H5N1 was the most common AIV to infect humans. Since then, H7N9 has been responsible for most human cases. Pigs Chinese inspectors checking airline passengers for fever, a common symptom of swine flu Influenza in pigs is a respiratory disease similar to influenza in humans and is found worldwide. Asymptomatic infections are common. Symptoms typically appear 1–3 days after infection and include fever, lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, labored breathing, coughing, sneezing, and nasal discharge. In sows, pregnancy may be aborted. Complications include secondary infections and potentially fatal bronchopneumonia. Pigs become contagious within a day of infection and typically spread the virus for 7–10 days, which can spread rapidly within a herd. Pigs usually recover within 3–7 days after symptoms appear. Prevention and control measures include inactivated vaccines and culling infected herds. Influenza A virus subtypes H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2 are usually responsible for swine flu. Some influenza A viruses can be transmitted via aerosols from pigs to humans and vice versa. Pigs, along with bats and quails, are recognized as a mixing vessel of influenza viruses because they have both α-2,3 and α-2,6 sialic acid receptors in their respiratory tract. Because of that, both avian and mammalian influenza viruses can infect pigs. If co-infection occurs, reassortment is possible. A notable example of this was the reassortment of a swine, avian, and human influenza virus that caused the 2009 flu pandemic. Spillover events from humans to pigs appear to be more common than from pigs to humans. Other animals Influenza viruses have been found in many other animals, including cattle, horses, dogs, cats, and marine mammals. Nearly all influenza A viruses are apparently descended from ancestral viruses in birds. The exception are bat influenza-like viruses, which have an uncertain origin. These bat viruses have HA and NA subtypes H17, H18, N10, and N11. H17N10 and H18N11 are unable to reassort with other influenza A viruses, but they are still able to replicate in other mammals. AIVs sometimes crossover into mammals. For example, in late 2016 to early 2017, an avian H7N2 strain was found to be infecting cats in New York. Equine influenza A viruses include H7N7 and two lineages of H3N8. H7N7, however, has not been detected in horses since the late 1970s, so it may have become extinct in horses. H3N8 in equines spreads via aerosols and causes respiratory illness. Equine H3N8 perferentially binds to α-2,3 sialic acids, so horses are usually considered dead-end hosts, but transmission to dogs and camels has occurred, raising concerns that horses may be mixing vessels for reassortment. In canines, the only influenza A viruses in circulation are equine-derived H3N8 and avian-derived H3N2. Canine H3N8 has not been observed to reassort with other subtypes. H3N2 has a much broader host range and can reassort with H1N1 and H5N1. An isolated case of H6N1 likely from a chicken was found infecting a dog, so other AIVs may emerge in canines. Other mammals to be infected by influenza A viruses include H7N7 and H4N5 in seals, H1N3 in whales, and H10N4 and H3N2 in minks. Various mutations have been identified that are associated with AIVs adapting to mammals. Since HA proteins vary in which sialic acids they bind to, mutations in the HA receptor binding site can allow AIVs to infect mammals. Other mutations include mutations affecting which sialic acids NA proteins cleave and a mutation in the PB2 polymerase subunit that improves tolerance of lower temperatures in mammalian respiratory tracts and enhances RNP assembly by stabilizing NP and PB2 binding. Influenza B virus is mainly found in humans but has also been detected in pigs, dogs, horses, and seals. Likewise, influenza C virus primarily infects humans but has been observed in pigs, dogs, cattle, and dromedary camels. Influenza D virus causes an influenza-like illness in pigs but its impact in its natural reservoir, cattle, is relatively unknown. It may cause respiratory disease resembling human influenza on its own, or it may be part of a bovine respiratory disease (BRD) complex with other pathogens during co-infection. BRD is a concern for the cattle industry, so influenza D virus' possible involvement in BRD has led to research on vaccines for cattle that can provide protection against influenza D virus. 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Mouritz AA (1921). The Flu: A Brief History of Influenza in U.S. America, Europe, Hawaii. Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S. America: Advertiser Publishing Co. ClassificationDICD-10: J10, J11ICD-9-CM: 487OMIM: 614680MeSH: D007251DiseasesDB: 6791External resourcesMedlinePlus: 000080eMedicine: med/1170 ped/3006Patient UK: Influenza vteInfluenzaGeneral topics Research Vaccine Treatment Genome sequencing Reassortment Superinfection Flu season Viruses Orthomyxoviridae Influenza A Influenza B Influenza C Influenza D Influenza A virussubtypes H1N1 H1N2 H2N2 H2N3 H3N1 H3N2 H3N8 H5N1 H5N2 H5N3 H5N6 H5N8 H5N9 H6N1 H7N1 H7N2 H7N3 H7N4 H7N7 H7N9 H9N2 H10N3 H10N7 H10N8 H11N2 H11N9 H1N1Pandemics 1918 (Spanish flu) 1977 (Russian flu) 2009 (Swine flu) Science 2009 A/H1N1 H5N1Outbreaks Croatia (2005) India (2006) UK (2007) West Bengal (2008) 2020s outbreak Science Genetic structure Transmission and infection Global spread Vaccine clinical trials Human mortality Social impact Pandemic preparation H5N8Outbreaks 2020–2022 TreatmentsAntiviral drugs Adamantane derivatives Amantadine Rimantadine Neuraminidase inhibitor Oseltamivir Laninamivir Peramivir Zanamivir Peramivir (experimental) Umifenovir Baloxavir marboxil Vaccines Live attenuated influenza vaccine Brands Pandemrix Audenz Pandemics andepidemicsPandemics Influenza pandemic (1510) Influenza pandemic (1557) Russian flu (1889–1890) Spanish flu (1918) Asian flu (1957-1958) Hong Kong flu (1968) 1977 Russian flu Swine flu (2009) Epidemics Fujian flu (H3N2) 1989–1990 UK outbreak Central Luzon H5N6 (2017) Non-humanMammals Canine Feline Equine 2007 Australian outbreak Swine Non-mammals Avian Fujian (H5N1) Complications Acute bronchitis Bronchiolitis Croup Otitis media Pharyngitis Pneumonia Sinusitis Strep throat Related topics Influenza-like illness 2017–2018 United States flu season US influenza statistics by flu season vteDiseases of the respiratory systemUpper RT(including URTIs,common cold)Head sinuses Sinusitis nose Rhinitis Vasomotor rhinitis Atrophic rhinitis Hay fever Nasal polyp Rhinorrhea nasal septum Nasal septum deviation Nasal septum perforation Nasal septal hematoma tonsil Tonsillitis Adenoid hypertrophy Peritonsillar abscess Neck pharynx Pharyngitis Strep throat Laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) Retropharyngeal abscess larynx Croup Laryngomalacia Laryngeal cyst Laryngitis Laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) Laryngospasm vocal cords Laryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR) Vocal fold nodule Vocal fold paresis Vocal cord dysfunction epiglottis Epiglottitis trachea Tracheitis Laryngotracheal stenosis Lower RT/lung disease(including LRTIs)Bronchial/obstructive acute Acute bronchitis chronic COPD Chronic bronchitis Acute exacerbation of COPD) Asthma (Status asthmaticus AERD Exercise-induced Bronchiectasis Cystic fibrosis unspecified Bronchitis Bronchiolitis Bronchiolitis obliterans Diffuse panbronchiolitis Interstitial/restrictive(fibrosis)External agents/occupationallung disease Pneumoconiosis Aluminosis Asbestosis Baritosis Bauxite fibrosis Berylliosis Caplan's syndrome Chalicosis Coalworker's pneumoconiosis Siderosis Silicosis Talcosis Byssinosis Hypersensitivity pneumonitis Bagassosis Bird fancier's lung Farmer's lung Lycoperdonosis Other ARDS Combined pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema Pulmonary edema Löffler's syndrome/Eosinophilic pneumonia Respiratory hypersensitivity Allergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis Hamman–Rich syndrome Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis Sarcoidosis Vaping-associated pulmonary injury Obstructive / RestrictivePneumonia/pneumonitisBy pathogen Viral Bacterial Pneumococcal Klebsiella Atypical bacterial Mycoplasma Legionnaires' disease Chlamydiae Fungal Pneumocystis Parasitic noninfectious Chemical/Mendelson's syndrome Aspiration/Lipid By vector/route Community-acquired Healthcare-associated Hospital-acquired By distribution Broncho- Lobar IIP UIP DIP BOOP-COP NSIP RB Other Atelectasis circulatory Pulmonary hypertension Pulmonary embolism Lung abscess Pleural cavity/mediastinumPleural disease Pleuritis/pleurisy Pneumothorax/Hemopneumothorax Pleural effusion Hemothorax Hydrothorax Chylothorax Empyema/pyothorax Malignant Fibrothorax Mediastinal disease Mediastinitis Mediastinal emphysema Other/general Respiratory failure Influenza Common cold SARS COVID-19 Idiopathic pulmonary haemosiderosis Pulmonary alveolar proteinosis vteInfectious diseases – viral systemic diseasesOncovirus DNA virus HBV Hepatocellular carcinoma HPV Cervical cancer Anal cancer Penile cancer Vulvar cancer Vaginal cancer Oropharyngeal cancer KSHV Kaposi's sarcoma EBV Nasopharyngeal carcinoma Burkitt's lymphoma Hodgkin lymphoma Follicular dendritic cell sarcoma Extranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type MCPyV Merkel-cell carcinoma RNA virus HCV Hepatocellular carcinoma Splenic marginal zone lymphoma HTLV-I Adult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma Immune disorders HIV AIDS Central nervous systemEncephalitis/meningitis DNA virus Human polyomavirus 2 Progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy RNA virus MeV Subacute sclerosing panencephalitis LCV Lymphocytic choriomeningitis Arbovirus encephalitis Orthomyxoviridae (probable) Encephalitis lethargica RV Rabies Chandipura vesiculovirus Herpesviral meningitis Ramsay Hunt syndrome type 2 Myelitis Poliovirus Poliomyelitis Post-polio syndrome HTLV-I Tropical spastic paraparesis Eye Cytomegalovirus Cytomegalovirus retinitis HSV Herpes of the eye Cardiovascular CBV Pericarditis Myocarditis Respiratory system/acute viralnasopharyngitis/viral pneumoniaDNA virus Epstein–Barr virus EBV infection/Infectious mononucleosis Cytomegalovirus RNA virus IV: Human coronavirus 229E/NL63/HKU1/OC43 Common cold MERS coronavirus Middle East respiratory syndrome SARS coronavirus Severe acute respiratory syndrome SARS-CoV-2 COVID-19 V, Orthomyxoviridae: Influenza virus A/B/C/D Influenza/Avian influenza V, Paramyxoviridae: Human parainfluenza viruses Parainfluenza Human orthopneumovirus hMPV Human digestive systemPharynx/Esophagus MuV Mumps Cytomegalovirus Cytomegalovirus esophagitis Gastroenteritis/diarrhea DNA virus Adenovirus Adenovirus infection RNA virus Rotavirus (Gastroenteritis) Norovirus Astrovirus Coronavirus Hepatitis DNA virus HBV (B) RNA virus CBV HAV (A) HCV (C) HDV (D) HEV (E) Pancreatitis CBV Urogenital BK virus MuV Mumps Portals: Medicine VirusesInfluenza at Wikipedia's sister projects:Definitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsNews from WikinewsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from WikisourceTextbooks from WikibooksResources from WikiversityTravel guides from WikivoyageTaxa from WikispeciesData from Wikidata Authority control databases National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Croatia 2 Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi"},{"link_name":"Influenza (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Flu (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flu_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Grippe (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grippe_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"FLUS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLUS"},{"link_name":"Flue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flue"},{"link_name":"infectious disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infectious_disease"},{"link_name":"influenza viruses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_viruses"},{"link_name":"fever","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fever"},{"link_name":"runny nose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinorrhea"},{"link_name":"sore throat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sore_throat"},{"link_name":"muscle pain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myalgia"},{"link_name":"headache","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Headache"},{"link_name":"coughing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cough"},{"link_name":"fatigue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatigue"},{"link_name":"Diarrhea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diarrhea"},{"link_name":"vomiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vomiting"},{"link_name":"pneumonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pneumonia"},{"link_name":"bacterial infection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bacterial_infection"},{"link_name":"acute respiratory distress syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acute_respiratory_distress_syndrome"},{"link_name":"meningitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meningitis"},{"link_name":"encephalitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encephalitis"},{"link_name":"asthma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asthma"},{"link_name":"cardiovascular disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease"},{"link_name":"Aquatic birds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquatic_bird"},{"link_name":"influenza A virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_A_virus"},{"link_name":"Influenza B virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_B_virus"},{"link_name":"influenza C virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_C_virus"},{"link_name":"influenza D virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_D_virus"},{"link_name":"epidemics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidemic"},{"link_name":"transmitted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disease_transmission"},{"link_name":"respiratory droplets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_droplet"},{"link_name":"aerosols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol"},{"link_name":"hand washing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_washing"},{"link_name":"Annual vaccination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_vaccination"},{"link_name":"H1N1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H1N1"},{"link_name":"H3N2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H3N2"},{"link_name":"antibody","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody"},{"link_name":"antigen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigen"},{"link_name":"PCR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction"},{"link_name":"nucleic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid"},{"link_name":"supportive measures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supportive_measures"},{"link_name":"antiviral drugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antiviral_drug"},{"link_name":"oseltamivir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oseltamivir"},{"link_name":"self-limiting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-limiting_(biology)"},{"link_name":"temperate regions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_region"},{"link_name":"tropics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropics"},{"link_name":"pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pandemic"},{"link_name":"flu pandemics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_pandemic"},{"link_name":"Spanish flu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_flu"},{"link_name":"Asian flu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_flu"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong flu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_flu"},{"link_name":"Russian flu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977_Russian_flu"},{"link_name":"swine flu pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic"}],"text":"Infectious diseaseFor other uses, see Influenza (disambiguation), Flu (disambiguation), and Grippe (disambiguation).\"Flus\" redirects here. For the diagnostic class of thyroid nodules, see FLUS.Not to be confused with Flue.Medical conditionInfluenza, commonly known as \"the flu\" or just \"flu\", is an infectious disease caused by influenza viruses. Symptoms range from mild to severe and often include fever, runny nose, sore throat, muscle pain, headache, coughing, and fatigue. These symptoms begin one to four (typically two) days after exposure to the virus and last for about two to eight days. Diarrhea and vomiting can occur, particularly in children. Influenza may progress to pneumonia from the virus or a subsequent bacterial infection. Other complications include acute respiratory distress syndrome, meningitis, encephalitis, and worsening of pre-existing health problems such as asthma and cardiovascular disease.There are four types of influenza virus: types A, B, C, and D. Aquatic birds are the primary source of influenza A virus (IAV), which is also widespread in various mammals, including humans and pigs. Influenza B virus (IBV) and influenza C virus (ICV) primarily infect humans, and influenza D virus (IDV) is found in cattle and pigs. Influenza A virus and influenza B virus circulate in humans and cause seasonal epidemics, and influenza C virus causes a mild infection, primarily in children. Influenza D virus can infect humans but is not known to cause illness. In humans, influenza viruses are primarily transmitted through respiratory droplets from coughing and sneezing. Transmission through aerosols and surfaces contaminated by the virus also occur.Frequent hand washing and covering one's mouth and nose when coughing and sneezing reduce transmission. Annual vaccination can help to provide protection against influenza. Influenza viruses, particularly influenza A virus, evolve quickly, so flu vaccines are updated regularly to match which influenza strains are in circulation. Vaccines provide protection against influenza A virus subtypes H1N1 and H3N2 and one or two influenza B virus subtypes. Influenza infection is diagnosed with laboratory methods such as antibody or antigen tests and a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) to identify viral nucleic acid. The disease can be treated with supportive measures and, in severe cases, with antiviral drugs such as oseltamivir. In healthy individuals, influenza is typically self-limiting and rarely fatal, but it can be deadly in high-risk groups.In a typical year, five to 15 percent of the population contracts influenza. There are 3 to 5 million severe cases annually, with up to 650,000 respiratory-related deaths globally each year. Deaths most commonly occur in high-risk groups, including young children, the elderly, and people with chronic health conditions. In temperate regions, the number of influenza cases peaks during winter, whereas in the tropics, influenza can occur year-round. Since the late 1800s, pandemic outbreaks of novel influenza strains have occurred every 10 to 50 years. Five flu pandemics have occurred since 1900: the Spanish flu from 1918 to 1920, which was the most severe; the Asian flu in 1957; the Hong Kong flu in 1968; the Russian flu in 1977; and the swine flu pandemic in 2009.","title":"Influenza"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Symptoms_of_influenza.svg"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid15728170-7"},{"link_name":"runny nose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Runny_nose"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CMAJ2014-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"incubation period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incubation_period"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"muscle pain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myalgia"},{"link_name":"malaise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaise"},{"link_name":"loss of appetite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anorexia"},{"link_name":"dry cough","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dry_cough"},{"link_name":"sore or dry throat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pharyngitis"},{"link_name":"hoarse voice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoarseness"},{"link_name":"stuffy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_congestion"},{"link_name":"runny nose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhinorrhea"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sederdahl-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"long COVID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Long_COVID"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"upper respiratory tract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_respiratory_tract"},{"link_name":"secondary bacterial infection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_infection"},{"link_name":"labored breathing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyspnea"},{"link_name":"low oxygen levels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypoxia_(medical)"},{"link_name":"bluish skin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyanosis"},{"link_name":"cardiovascular disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease"},{"link_name":"rheumatic heart disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rheumatic_heart_disease"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kalil-17"},{"link_name":"sputum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sputum"},{"link_name":"fluid buildup in the lungs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_effusion"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kalil-17"},{"link_name":"Streptococcus pneumoniae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Streptococcus_pneumoniae"},{"link_name":"Staphylococcus aureus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staphylococcus_aureus"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"}],"text":"Symptoms of influenza,[5][6] with fever and cough the most common symptoms[7]The symptoms of influenza are similar to those of a cold, although usually more severe and less likely to include a runny nose.[8][9] The time between exposure to the virus and development of symptoms (the incubation period) is one to four days, most commonly one to two days. Many infections are asymptomatic.[10] The onset of symptoms is sudden, and initial symptoms are predominately non-specific, including fever, chills, headaches, muscle pain, malaise, loss of appetite, lack of energy, and confusion. These are usually accompanied by respiratory symptoms such as a dry cough, sore or dry throat, hoarse voice, and a stuffy or runny nose. Coughing is the most common symptom.[1] Gastrointestinal symptoms may also occur, including nausea, vomiting, diarrhea,[11] and gastroenteritis,[12] especially in children. The standard influenza symptoms typically last for two to eight days.[13] Some studies suggest influenza can cause long-lasting symptoms in a similar way to long COVID.[14][15][16]Symptomatic infections are usually mild and limited to the upper respiratory tract, but progression to pneumonia is relatively common. Pneumonia may be caused by the primary viral infection or a secondary bacterial infection. Primary pneumonia is characterized by rapid progression of fever, cough, labored breathing, and low oxygen levels that cause bluish skin. It is especially common among those who have an underlying cardiovascular disease such as rheumatic heart disease. Secondary pneumonia typically has a period of improvement in symptoms for one to three weeks[17] followed by recurrent fever, sputum production, and fluid buildup in the lungs,[1] but can also occur just a few days after influenza symptoms appear.[17] About a third of primary pneumonia cases are followed by secondary pneumonia, which is most frequently caused by the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae and Staphylococcus aureus.[10][1]","title":"Signs and symptoms"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Virology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Influenza_nomenclature.svg"},{"link_name":"nomenclature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Committee_on_Taxonomy_of_Viruses"},{"link_name":"Fujian flu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fujian_flu"},{"link_name":"Orthomyxoviridae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthomyxoviridae"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ictv-18"},{"link_name":"Influenza A virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_A_virus"},{"link_name":"Influenza B virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_B_virus"},{"link_name":"Influenza C virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_C_virus"},{"link_name":"Influenza D virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_D_virus"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"haemagglutinin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemagglutinin"},{"link_name":"neuraminidase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuraminidase"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Influenza&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"virus samples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolation_(microbiology)"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PAHO2-23"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"dromedary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dromedary"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sederdahl-12"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sederdahl-12"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sederdahl-12"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-su-24"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-su-24"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sederdahl-12"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-su-24"}],"sub_title":"Types of virus","text":"Influenza virus nomenclature (for a Fujian flu virus)Influenza viruses comprise four species, each the sole member of its own genus. The four influenza genera comprise four of the seven genera in the family Orthomyxoviridae. They are:[1][18]Influenza A virus (IAV), genus Alphainfluenzavirus\nInfluenza B virus (IBV), genus Betainfluenzavirus\nInfluenza C virus (ICV), genus Gammainfluenzavirus\nInfluenza D virus (IDV), genus DeltainfluenzavirusInfluenza A virus is responsible for most cases of severe illness as well as seasonal epidemics and occasional pandemics. It infects people of all ages but tends to disproportionately cause severe illness in the elderly, the very young, and those with chronic health issues. Birds are the primary reservoir of influenza A virus, especially aquatic birds such as ducks, geese, shorebirds, and gulls,[19][20] but the virus also circulates among mammals, including pigs, horses, and marine mammals. Influenza A virus is classified into subtypes based on the viral proteins haemagglutinin (H) and neuraminidase (N).[21] As of 2019, 18 H subtypes and 11 N subtypes have been identified. Most potential combinations have been reported in birds, but H17-18 and N10-11 have only been found in bats. Only H subtypes H1-3 and N subtypes N1-2 are known to have circulated in humans.[21] The influenza A virus subtypes in circulation as of 2018[update] are H1N1 and H3N2.[2] Influenza A virus samples are identified a nomenclature which specifies by host species, location of collection, strain number, and year[22] - such as A/swine/South Dakota/152B/2009 (H1N2).[23]Influenza B virus mainly infects humans but has been identified in seals, horses, dogs, and pigs.[21] Influenza B virus does not have subtypes like influenza A virus but has two antigenically distinct lineages, termed the B/Victoria/2/1987-like and B/Yamagata/16/1988-like lineages,[1] or simply (B/)Victoria(-like) and (B/)Yamagata(-like).[21][2] Both lineages are in circulation in humans,[1] disproportionately affecting children.[11] Influenza B viruses contribute to seasonal epidemics alongside influenza A viruses but have never been associated with a pandemic.[21]Influenza C virus, like influenza B virus, is primarily found in humans, though it has been detected in pigs, feral dogs, dromedary camels, cattle, and dogs.[12][21] Influenza C virus infection primarily affects children and is usually asymptomatic[1][11] or has mild cold-like symptoms, though more severe symptoms such as gastroenteritis and pneumonia can occur.[12] Unlike influenza A virus and influenza B virus, influenza C virus has not been a major focus of research pertaining to antiviral drugs, vaccines, and other measures against influenza.[21] Influenza C virus is subclassified into six genetic/antigenic lineages.[12][24]Influenza D virus has been isolated from pigs and cattle, the latter being the natural reservoir. Infection has also been observed in humans, horses, dromedary camels, and small ruminants such as goats and sheep.[21][24] Influenza D virus is distantly related to influenza C virus. While cattle workers have occasionally tested positive to prior influenza D virus infection, it is not known to cause disease in humans.[1][11][12] Influenza C virus and influenza D virus experience a slower rate of antigenic evolution than influenza A virus and influenza B virus. Because of this antigenic stability, relatively few novel lineages emerge.[24]","title":"Virology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:3D_Influenza_virus.png"},{"link_name":"virion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/virion"},{"link_name":"hemagglutinin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemagglutinin"},{"link_name":"neuraminidase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuraminidase"},{"link_name":"genome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome"},{"link_name":"ribonucleoproteins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_virus_nucleoprotein"},{"link_name":"negative-sense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sense_(molecular_biology)"},{"link_name":"messenger RNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Messenger_RNA"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sederdahl-12"},{"link_name":"RNA-dependent RNA polymerase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RNA-dependent_RNA_polymerase"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mccauley-25"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mccauley-25"},{"link_name":"expressed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gene_expression"},{"link_name":"open reading frames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_reading_frame"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shim-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hao-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dadonaite-28"},{"link_name":"viral envelope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_envelope"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-su-24"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-su-24"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"}],"sub_title":"Genome and structure","text":"Structure of the influenza virion. The hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) proteins are shown on the surface of the particle. The viral RNAs that make up the genome are shown as red coils inside the particle and bound to ribonucleoproteins (RNP).Influenza viruses have a negative-sense, single-stranded RNA genome that is segmented. The negative sense of the genome means it can be used as a template to synthesize messenger RNA (mRNA).[10] Influenza A virus and influenza B virus have eight genome segments that encode 10 major proteins. Influenza C virus and influenza D virus have seven genome segments that encode nine major proteins.[12] Three segments encode three subunits of an RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) complex: PB1, a transcriptase, PB2, which recognizes 5' caps, and PA (P3 for influenza C virus and influenza D virus), an endonuclease.[25] The matrix protein (M1) and membrane protein (M2) share a segment, as do the non-structural protein (NS1) and the nuclear export protein (NEP).[1] For influenza A virus and influenza B virus, hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) are encoded on one segment each, whereas influenza C virus and influenza D virus encode a hemagglutinin-esterase fusion (HEF) protein on one segment that merges the functions of HA and NA. The final genome segment encodes the viral nucleoprotein (NP).[25] Influenza viruses also encode various accessory proteins, such as PB1-F2 and PA-X, that are expressed through alternative open reading frames[1][26] and which are important in host defense suppression, virulence, and pathogenicity.[27]The virus particle, called a virion, is pleomorphic and varies between being filamentous, bacilliform, or spherical in shape. Clinical isolates tend to be pleomorphic, whereas strains adapted to laboratory growth typically produce spherical virions. Filamentous virions are about 250 nanometers (nm) by 80 nm, bacilliform 120–250 by 95 nm, and spherical 120 nm in diameter.[28] The virion consists of each segment of the genome bound to nucleoproteins in separate ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complexes for each segment, all of which are surrounded by a lipid bilayer membrane called the viral envelope. There is a copy of the RdRp, all subunits included, bound to each RNP. The envelope is reinforced structurally by matrix proteins on the interior that enclose the RNPs,[3] and the envelope contains HA and NA (or HEF[24]) proteins extending outward from the exterior surface of the envelope. HA and HEF[24] proteins have a distinct \"head\" and \"stalk\" structure. M2 proteins form proton ion channels through the viral envelope that are required for viral entry and exit. Influenza B viruses contain a surface protein named NB that is anchored in the envelope, but its function is unknown.[1]","title":"Virology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Virus_Replication_large.svg"},{"link_name":"sialic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sialic_acid"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"endosome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endosome"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shim-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hao-27"},{"link_name":"cytosol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytosol"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shim-26"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"transcribes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcription_(biology)"},{"link_name":"snatches 5' caps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cap_snatching"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mccauley-25"},{"link_name":"translated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Translation_(biology)"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shim-26"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mccauley-25"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hao-27"},{"link_name":"Golgi apparatus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_apparatus"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mccauley-25"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hao-27"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shim-26"}],"sub_title":"Life cycle","text":"Host cell invasion and replication by the influenza virusThe viral life cycle begins by binding to a target cell. Binding is mediated by the viral HA proteins on the surface of the envelope, which bind to cells that contain sialic acid receptors on the surface of the cell membrane.[1][19][3] For N1 subtypes with the \"G147R\" mutation and N2 subtypes, the NA protein can initiate entry. Prior to binding, NA proteins promote access to target cells by degrading mucus, which helps to remove extracellular decoy receptors that would impede access to target cells.[3] After binding, the virus is internalized into the cell by an endosome that contains the virion inside it. The endosome is acidified by cellular vATPase[26] to have lower pH, which triggers a conformational change in HA that allows fusion of the viral envelope with the endosomal membrane.[27] At the same time, hydrogen ions diffuse into the virion through M2 ion channels, disrupting internal protein-protein interactions to release RNPs into the host cell's cytosol. The M1 protein shell surrounding RNPs is degraded, fully uncoating RNPs in the cytosol.[26][3]RNPs are then imported into the nucleus with the help of viral localization signals. There, the viral RNA polymerase transcribes mRNA using the genomic negative-sense strand as a template. The polymerase snatches 5' caps for viral mRNA from cellular RNA to prime mRNA synthesis and the 3'-end of mRNA is polyadenylated at the end of transcription.[25] Once viral mRNA is transcribed, it is exported out of the nucleus and translated by host ribosomes in a cap-dependent manner to synthesize viral proteins.[26] RdRp also synthesizes complementary positive-sense strands of the viral genome in a complementary RNP complex which are then used as templates by viral polymerases to synthesize copies of the negative-sense genome.[1][3] During these processes, RdRps of avian influenza viruses (AIVs) function optimally at a higher temperature than mammalian influenza viruses.[13]Newly synthesized viral polymerase subunits and NP proteins are imported to the nucleus to further increase the rate of viral replication and form RNPs.[25] HA, NA, and M2 proteins are trafficked with the aid of M1 and NEP proteins[27] to the cell membrane through the Golgi apparatus[25] and inserted into the cell's membrane. Viral non-structural proteins including NS1, PB1-F2, and PA-X regulate host cellular processes to disable antiviral responses.[1][27][3] PB1-F2 also interacts with PB1 to keep polymerases in the nucleus longer.[20] M1 and NEP proteins localize to the nucleus during the later stages of infection, bind to viral RNPs and mediate their export to the cytoplasm where they migrate to the cell membrane with the aid of recycled endosomes and are bundled into the segments of the genome.[1][3]Progeny viruses leave the cell by budding from the cell membrane, which is initiated by the accumulation of M1 proteins at the cytoplasmic side of the membrane. The viral genome is incorporated inside a viral envelope derived from portions of the cell membrane that have HA, NA, and M2 proteins. At the end of budding, HA proteins remain attached to cellular sialic acid until they are cleaved by the sialidase activity of NA proteins. The virion is then released from the cell. The sialidase activity of NA also cleaves any sialic acid residues from the viral surface, which helps prevent newly assembled viruses from aggregating near the cell surface and improving infectivity.[1][3] Similar to other aspects of influenza replication, optimal NA activity is temperature- and pH-dependent.[13] Ultimately, presence of large quantities of viral RNA in the cell triggers apoptosis (programmed cell death), which is initiated by cellular factors to restrict viral replication.[26]","title":"Virology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Influenza_geneticshift.svg"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-29"},{"link_name":"antigenic drift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigenic_drift"},{"link_name":"antigenic shift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigenic_shift"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"evolutionary pressure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolutionary_pressure"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-su-24"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-su-24"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hastings-30"},{"link_name":"antigenic variation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigenic_variation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"reassort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reassortment"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sederdahl-12"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-su-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mccauley-25"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lycett-31"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"}],"sub_title":"Antigenic drift and shift","text":"Antigenic shift, or reassortment, can result in novel and highly pathogenic strains of human influenza.[29]Two key processes that influenza viruses evolve through are antigenic drift and antigenic shift. Antigenic drift is when an influenza virus' antigens change due to the gradual accumulation of mutations in the antigen's (HA or NA) gene.[19] This can occur in response to evolutionary pressure exerted by the host immune response. Antigenic drift is especially common for the HA protein, in which just a few amino acid changes in the head region can constitute antigenic drift.[2][24] The result is the production of novel strains that can evade pre-existing antibody-mediated immunity.[1][11] Antigenic drift occurs in all influenza species but is slower in B than A and slowest in C and D.[24] Antigenic drift is a major cause of seasonal influenza,[30] and requires that flu vaccines be updated annually. HA is the main component of inactivated vaccines, so surveillance monitors antigenic drift of this antigen among circulating strains. Antigenic evolution of influenza viruses of humans appears to be faster than in swine and equines. In wild birds, within-subtype antigenic variation appears to be limited but has been observed in poultry.[1][11]Antigenic shift is a sudden, drastic change in an influenza virus' antigen, usually HA. During antigenic shift, antigenically different strains that infect the same cell can reassort genome segments with each other, producing hybrid progeny. Since all influenza viruses have segmented genomes, all are capable of reassortment.[12][24] Antigenic shift only occurs among influenza viruses of the same genus[25] and most commonly occurs among influenza A viruses. In particular, reassortment is very common in AIVs, creating a large diversity of influenza viruses in birds, but is uncommon in human, equine, and canine lineages.[31] Pigs, bats, and quails have receptors for both mammalian and avian influenza A viruses, so they are potential \"mixing vessels\" for reassortment.[21] If an animal strain reassorts with a human strain,[2] then a novel strain can emerge that is capable of human-to-human transmission. This has caused pandemics, but only a limited number, so it is difficult to predict when the next will happen.[1][11]","title":"Virology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Mechanism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"respiratory droplets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_droplet"},{"link_name":"aerosols","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerosol"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kalil-17"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kutter-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kutter-32"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-killingley-33"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-killingley-33"},{"link_name":"fomites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fomite"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kutter-32"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-weber-34"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"humidity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humidity"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-killingley-33"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-moriyama-35"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kutter-32"},{"link_name":"H5N1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H5N1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"}],"sub_title":"Transmission","text":"People who are infected can transmit influenza viruses through breathing, talking, coughing, and sneezing, which spread respiratory droplets and aerosols that contain virus particles into the air. A person susceptible to infection can contract influenza by coming into contact with these particles.[17][32] Respiratory droplets are relatively large and travel less than two meters before falling onto nearby surfaces. Aerosols are smaller and remain suspended in the air longer, so they take longer to settle and can travel further.[32][4] Inhalation of aerosols can lead to infection,[33] but most transmission is in the area about two meters around an infected person via respiratory droplets[10] that come into contact with mucosa of the upper respiratory tract.[33] Transmission through contact with a person, bodily fluids, or intermediate objects (fomites) can also occur,[10][32] since influenza viruses can survive for hours on non-porous surfaces.[4] If one's hands are contaminated, then touching one's face can cause infection.[34]Influenza is usually transmissible from one day before the onset of symptoms to 5–7 days after.[11] In healthy adults, the virus is shed for up to 3–5 days. In children and the immunocompromised, the virus may be transmissible for several weeks.[10] Children ages 2–17 are considered to be the primary and most efficient spreaders of influenza.[1][11] Children who have not had multiple prior exposures to influenza viruses shed the virus at greater quantities and for a longer duration than other children.[1] People at risk of exposure to influenza include health care workers, social care workers, and those who live with or care for people vulnerable to influenza. In long-term care facilities, the flu can spread rapidly.[11] A variety of factors likely encourage influenza transmission, including lower temperature, lower absolute and relative humidity, less ultraviolet radiation from the sun,[33][35] and crowding.[32] Influenza viruses that infect the upper respiratory tract like H1N1 tend to be more mild but more transmissible, whereas those that infect the lower respiratory tract like H5N1 tend to cause more severe illness but are less contagious.[10]","title":"Mechanism"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:H1N1_versus_H5N1_pathology.png"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-29"},{"link_name":"inflammation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inflammation"},{"link_name":"alveolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulmonary_alveolus"},{"link_name":"cytokines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytokine"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kalil-17"},{"link_name":"cytokine storm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytokine_storm"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"H7N9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H7N9"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"macrophages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrophage"},{"link_name":"glucocorticoids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glucocorticoid"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kalil-17"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shim-26"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shao-36"},{"link_name":"Cleavage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteolysis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lycett-31"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-steinhauer-37"}],"sub_title":"Pathophysiology","text":"How the different sites of infection (shown in red) of H1N1 and H5N1 influences their transmission and lethality[29]In humans, influenza viruses first cause infection by infecting epithelial cells in the respiratory tract. Illness during infection is primarily the result of lung inflammation and compromise caused by epithelial cell infection and death, combined with inflammation caused by the immune system's response to infection. Non-respiratory organs can become involved, but the mechanisms by which influenza is involved in these cases are unknown. Severe respiratory illness can be caused by multiple, non-exclusive mechanisms, including obstruction of the airways, loss of alveolar structure, loss of lung epithelial integrity due to epithelial cell infection and death, and degradation of the extracellular matrix that maintains lung structure. In particular, alveolar cell infection appears to drive severe symptoms since this results in impaired gas exchange and enables viruses to infect endothelial cells, which produce large quantities of pro-inflammatory cytokines.[17]Pneumonia caused by influenza viruses is characterized by high levels of viral replication in the lower respiratory tract, accompanied by a strong pro-inflammatory response called a cytokine storm.[1] Infection with H5N1 or H7N9 especially produces high levels of pro-inflammatory cytokines.[19] In bacterial infections, early depletion of macrophages during influenza creates a favorable environment in the lungs for bacterial growth since these white blood cells are important in responding to bacterial infection. Host mechanisms to encourage tissue repair may inadvertently allow bacterial infection. Infection also induces production of systemic glucocorticoids that can reduce inflammation to preserve tissue integrity but allow increased bacterial growth.[17]The pathophysiology of influenza is significantly influenced by which receptors influenza viruses bind to during entry into cells. Mammalian influenza viruses preferentially bind to sialic acids connected to the rest of the oligosaccharide by an α-2,6 link, most commonly found in various respiratory cells,[1][19][3] such as respiratory and retinal epithelial cells.[26] AIVs prefer sialic acids with an α-2,3 linkage, which are most common in birds in gastrointestinal epithelial cells[1][19][3] and in humans in the lower respiratory tract.[36] Cleavage of the HA protein into HA1, the binding subunit, and HA2, the fusion subunit, is performed by different proteases, affecting which cells can be infected. For mammalian influenza viruses and low pathogenic AIVs, cleavage is extracellular, which limits infection to cells that have the appropriate proteases, whereas for highly pathogenic AIVs, cleavage is intracellular and performed by ubiquitous proteases, which allows for infection of a greater variety of cells, thereby contributing to more severe disease.[1][31][37]","title":"Mechanism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"interferon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferon"},{"link_name":"phagocytizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phagocytosis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-shim-26"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hao-27"},{"link_name":"B cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/B_cell"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-su-24"},{"link_name":"neutralizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutralizing_antibody"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-su-24"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"original antigenic sin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_antigenic_sin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"}],"sub_title":"Immunology","text":"Cells possess sensors to detect viral RNA, which can then induce interferon production. Interferons mediate expression of antiviral proteins and proteins that recruit immune cells to the infection site, and they notify nearby uninfected cells of infection. Some infected cells release pro-inflammatory cytokines that recruit immune cells to the site of infection. Immune cells control viral infection by killing infected cells and phagocytizing viral particles and apoptotic cells. An exacerbated immune response can harm the host organism through a cytokine storm.[1][13][26] To counter the immune response, influenza viruses encode various non-structural proteins, including NS1, NEP, PB1-F2, and PA-X, that are involved in curtailing the host immune response by suppressing interferon production and host gene expression.[1][27]B cells, a type of white blood cell, produce antibodies that bind to influenza antigens HA and NA (or HEF[24]) and other proteins to a lesser degree. Once bound to these proteins, antibodies block virions from binding to cellular receptors, neutralizing the virus. In humans, a sizeable antibody response occurs about one week after viral exposure.[38] This antibody response is typically robust and long-lasting, especially for influenza C virus and influenza D virus.[1][24] People exposed to a certain strain in childhood still possess antibodies to that strain at a reasonable level later in life, which can provide some protection to related strains.[1] There is, however, an \"original antigenic sin\", in which the first HA subtype a person is exposed to influences the antibody-based immune response to future infections and vaccines.[2]","title":"Mechanism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Influenza prevention","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza_prevention"}],"text":"Further information: Influenza prevention","title":"Prevention"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Defense.gov_News_Photo_041028-N-9864S-021.jpg"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tregoning-40"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"passive immunity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passive_immunity"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-principi-41"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:COVID-19-Antigen-with-Influenza-A-B-Rapid-Antigen-Combo.jpg"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"which strains should be included","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historical_annual_reformulations_of_the_influenza_vaccine"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"MDCK cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madin-Darby_Canine_Kidney_cells"},{"link_name":"baculovirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baculovirus"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-barr-42"}],"sub_title":"Vaccination","text":"Giving an influenza vaccinationAnnual vaccination is the primary and most effective way to prevent influenza and influenza-associated complications, especially for high-risk groups.[10][1][39] Vaccines against the flu are trivalent or quadrivalent, providing protection against an H1N1 strain, an H3N2 strain, and one or two influenza B virus strains corresponding to the two influenza B virus lineages.[10][2] Two types of vaccines are in use: inactivated vaccines that contain \"killed\" (i.e. inactivated) viruses and live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs) that contain weakened viruses.[1] There are three types of inactivated vaccines: whole virus, split virus, in which the virus is disrupted by a detergent, and subunit, which only contains the viral antigens HA and NA.[40] Most flu vaccines are inactivated and administered via intramuscular injection. LAIVs are sprayed into the nasal cavity.[1]Vaccination recommendations vary by country. Some recommend vaccination for all people above a certain age, such as 6 months,[39] whereas other countries limit recommendations to high-risk groups.[1][11] Young infants cannot receive flu vaccines for safety reasons, but they can inherit passive immunity from their mother if vaccinated during pregnancy.[41] Influenza vaccination helps to reduce the probability of reassortment.[13]An Influenza A&B Antigen Test (bottom) showing negative results for both Influenza A and B)In general, influenza vaccines are only effective if there is an antigenic match between vaccine strains and circulating strains.[10][2] Most commercially available flu vaccines are manufactured by propagation of influenza viruses in embryonated chicken eggs, taking 6–8 months.[2] Flu seasons are different in the northern and southern hemisphere, so the WHO meets twice a year, once for each hemisphere, to discuss which strains should be included based on observation from HA inhibition assays.[10][3] Other manufacturing methods include an MDCK cell culture-based inactivated vaccine and a recombinant subunit vaccine manufactured from baculovirus overexpression in insect cells.[2][42]","title":"Prevention"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"oseltamivir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oseltamivir"},{"link_name":"zanamivir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zanamivir"},{"link_name":"Chemoprophylaxis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemoprophylaxis"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"}],"sub_title":"Antiviral chemoprophylaxis","text":"Influenza can be prevented or reduced in severity by post-exposure prophylaxis with the antiviral drugs oseltamivir, which can be taken orally by those at least three months old, and zanamivir, which can be inhaled by those above seven years. Chemoprophylaxis is most useful for individuals at high risk for complications and those who cannot receive the flu vaccine.[10] Post-exposure chemoprophylaxis is only recommended if oseltamivir is taken within 48 hours of contact with a confirmed or suspected case and zanamivir within 36 hours.[10][11] It is recommended for people who have yet to receive a vaccine for the current flu season, who have been vaccinated less than two week since contact, if there is a significant mismatch between vaccine and circulating strains, or during an outbreak in a closed setting regardless of vaccination history.[11]","title":"Prevention"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"alcohol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"hand sanitizers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_sanitizer"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-43"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-43"},{"link_name":"Social distancing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_distancing"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-saunders-44"},{"link_name":"negative pressure rooms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negative_pressure_room"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"air handling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_handling"},{"link_name":"ventilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventilation_(architecture)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"Water treatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_treatment"},{"link_name":"biosecurity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosecurity"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"H9N2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H9N2"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-avian-45"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lycett-31"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"}],"sub_title":"Infection control","text":"Hand hygiene is important in reducing the spread of influenza. This includes frequent hand washing with soap and water, using alcohol-based hand sanitizers, and not touching one's eyes, nose, and mouth with one's hands. Covering one's nose and mouth when coughing or sneezing is important.[43] Other methods to limit influenza transmission include staying home when sick,[1] avoiding contact with others until one day after symptoms end,[11] and disinfecting surfaces likely to be contaminated by the virus.[1]Research thus far has not shown a significant reduction in seasonal influenza with mask usage. The effectiveness of screening at points of entry into countries is not well researched.[43] Social distancing measures such as school closures, isolation or quarantine, and limiting mass gatherings may reduce transmission,[1][43] but these measures are often expensive, unpopular, and difficult to implement. Consequently, the commonly recommended methods of infection control are respiratory etiquette, hand hygiene, and mask wearing, which are inexpensive and easy. Pharmaceutical measures are effective but may not be available in the early stages of an outbreak.[44]In health care settings, infected individuals may be cohorted or assigned to individual rooms. Protective clothing such as masks, gloves, and gowns is recommended when coming into contact with infected individuals if there is a risk of exposure to infected bodily fluids. Keeping patients in negative pressure rooms and avoiding aerosol-producing activities may help,[10] but special air handling and ventilation systems are not considered necessary to prevent the spread of influenza in the air.[4] In residential homes, new admissions may need to be closed until the spread of influenza is controlled.[11]Since influenza viruses circulate in animals such as birds and pigs, prevention of transmission from these animals is important. Water treatment, indoor raising of animals, quarantining sick animals, vaccination, and biosecurity are the primary measures used. Placing poultry houses and piggeries on high ground away from high-density farms, backyard farms, live poultry markets, and bodies of water helps to minimize contact with wild birds.[1] Closure of live poultry markets appears to the most effective measure[19] and has shown to be effective at controlling the spread of H5N1, H7N9, and H9N2.[20] Other biosecurity measures include cleaning and disinfecting facilities and vehicles, banning visits to poultry farms, not bringing birds intended for slaughter back to farms,[45] changing clothes, disinfecting foot baths, and treating food and water.[1]If live poultry markets are not closed, then \"clean days\" when unsold poultry is removed and facilities are disinfected and \"no carry-over\" policies to eliminate infectious material before new poultry arrive can be used to reduce the spread of influenza viruses. If a novel influenza viruses has breached the aforementioned biosecurity measures, then rapid detection to stamp it out via quarantining, decontamination, and culling may be necessary to prevent the virus from becoming endemic.[1] Vaccines exist for avian H5, H7, and H9 subtypes that are used in some countries.[19] In China, for example, vaccination of domestic birds against H7N9 successfully limited its spread, indicating that vaccination may be an effective strategy[31] if used in combination with other measures to limit transmission.[1] In pigs and horses, management of influenza is dependent on vaccination with biosecurity.[1]","title":"Prevention"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:X-ray_of_29-year-old_person_with_H1N1.jpg"},{"link_name":"sepsis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sepsis"},{"link_name":"myocarditis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocarditis"},{"link_name":"breakdown of muscle tissue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhabdomyolysis"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kalil-17"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"viral cultures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viral_culture"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vemula-46"},{"link_name":"embryonated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embryonated"},{"link_name":"red blood cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_blood_cell"},{"link_name":"immunofluorescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immunofluorescence"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vemula-46"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vemula-46"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vemula-46"},{"link_name":"Rapid influenza diagnostic tests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid_influenza_diagnostic_test"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vemula-46"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vemula-46"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_transcription_polymerase_chain_reaction"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vemula-46"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"loop-mediated isothermal amplification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop-mediated_isothermal_amplification"},{"link_name":"Sanger sequencing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanger_sequencing"},{"link_name":"next-generation methods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massive_parallel_sequencing"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vemula-46"}],"text":"X-ray of 29-year-old person with H1N1Diagnosis based on symptoms is fairly accurate in otherwise healthy people during seasonal epidemics and should be suspected in cases of pneumonia, acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), sepsis, or if encephalitis, myocarditis, or breakdown of muscle tissue occur.[17] Because influenza is similar to other viral respiratory tract illnesses, laboratory diagnosis is necessary for confirmation. Common sample collection methods for testing include nasal and throat swabs.[1] Samples may be taken from the lower respiratory tract if infection has cleared the upper but not lower respiratory tract. Influenza testing is recommended for anyone hospitalized with symptoms resembling influenza during flu season or who is connected to an influenza case. For severe cases, earlier diagnosis improves patient outcome.[39] Diagnostic methods that can identify influenza include viral cultures, antibody- and antigen-detecting tests, and nucleic acid-based tests.[46]Viruses can be grown in a culture of mammalian cells or embryonated eggs for 3–10 days to monitor cytopathic effect. Final confirmation can then be done via antibody staining, hemadsorption using red blood cells, or immunofluorescence microscopy. Shell vial cultures, which can identify infection via immunostaining before a cytopathic effect appears, are more sensitive than traditional cultures with results in 1–3 days.[1][39][46] Cultures can be used to characterize novel viruses, observe sensitivity to antiviral drugs, and monitor antigenic drift, but they are relatively slow and require specialized skills and equipment.[1]Serological assays can be used to detect an antibody response to influenza after natural infection or vaccination. Common serological assays include hemagglutination inhibition assays that detect HA-specific antibodies, virus neutralization assays that check whether antibodies have neutralized the virus, and enzyme-linked immunoabsorbant assays. These methods tend to be relatively inexpensive and fast but are less reliable than nucleic-acid based tests.[1][46]Direct fluorescent or immunofluorescent antibody (DFA/IFA) tests involve staining respiratory epithelial cells in samples with fluorescently-labeled influenza-specific antibodies, followed by examination under a fluorescent microscope. They can differentiate between influenza A virus and influenza B virus but can not subtype influenza A virus.[46] Rapid influenza diagnostic tests (RIDTs) are a simple way of obtaining assay results, are low cost, and produce results in less than 30 minutes, so they are commonly used, but they can not distinguish between influenza A virus and influenza B virus or between influenza A virus subtypes and are not as sensitive as nucleic-acid based tests.[1][46]Nucleic acid-based tests (NATs) amplify and detect viral nucleic acid. Most of these tests take a few hours,[46] but rapid molecular assays are as fast as RIDTs.[39] Among NATs, reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) is the most traditional and considered the gold standard for diagnosing influenza[46] because it is fast and can subtype influenza A virus, but it is relatively expensive and more prone to false-positives than cultures.[1] Other NATs that have been used include loop-mediated isothermal amplification-based assays, simple amplification-based assays, and nucleic acid sequence-based amplification. Nucleic acid sequencing methods can identify infection by obtaining the nucleic acid sequence of viral samples to identify the virus and antiviral drug resistance. The traditional method is Sanger sequencing, but it has been largely replaced by next-generation methods that have greater sequencing speed and throughput.[46]","title":"Diagnosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"acetaminophen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acetaminophen"},{"link_name":"ibuprofen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibuprofen"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MLP2010-47"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MLP2010-47"},{"link_name":"Aspirin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspirin"},{"link_name":"Reye syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reye_syndrome"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-banday-48"},{"link_name":"Corticosteroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corticosteroid"},{"link_name":"septic shock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Septic_shock"},{"link_name":"chronic obstructive pulmonary disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronic_obstructive_pulmonary_disease"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"}],"text":"Treatment in cases of mild or moderate illness is supportive and includes anti-fever medications such as acetaminophen and ibuprofen,[47] adequate fluid intake to avoid dehydration, and rest.[11] Cough drops and throat sprays may be beneficial for sore throat. It is recommended to avoid alcohol and tobacco use while ill.[47] Aspirin is not recommended to treat influenza in children due to an elevated risk of developing Reye syndrome.[48] Corticosteroids are not recommended except when treating septic shock or an underlying medical condition, such as chronic obstructive pulmonary disease or asthma exacerbation, since they are associated with increased mortality.[39] If a secondary bacterial infection occurs, then antibiotics may be necessary.[11]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"adamantanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamantane"},{"link_name":"amantadine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amantadine"},{"link_name":"rimantadine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rimantadine"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"}],"sub_title":"Antivirals","text":"Antiviral drugs are primarily used to treat severely ill patients, especially those with compromised immune systems. Antivirals are most effective when started in the first 48 hours after symptoms appear. Later administration may still be beneficial for those who have underlying immune defects, those with more severe symptoms, or those who have a higher risk of developing complications if these individuals are still shedding the virus. Antiviral treatment is also recommended if a person is hospitalized with suspected influenza instead of waiting for test results to return and if symptoms are worsening.[1][39] Most antiviral drugs against influenza fall into two categories: neuraminidase (NA) inhibitors and M2 inhibitors.[13] Baloxavir marboxil is a notable exception, which targets the endonuclease activity of the viral RNA polymerase and can be used as an alternative to NA and M2 inhibitors for influenza A virus and influenza B virus.[10][19][4]NA inhibitors target the enzymatic activity of NA receptors, mimicking the binding of sialic acid in the active site of NA on influenza A virus and influenza B virus virions[1] so that viral release from infected cells and the rate of viral replication are impaired.[11] NA inhibitors include oseltamivir, which is consumed orally in a prodrug form and converted to its active form in the liver, and zanamivir, which is a powder that is inhaled nasally. Oseltamivir and zanamivir are effective for prophylaxis and post-exposure prophylaxis, and research overall indicates that NA inhibitors are effective at reducing rates of complications, hospitalization, and mortality[1] and the duration of illness.[13][39][4] Additionally, the earlier NA inhibitors are provided, the better the outcome,[4] though late administration can still be beneficial in severe cases.[1][39] Other NA inhibitors include laninamivir[1] and peramivir, the latter of which can be used as an alternative to oseltamivir for people who cannot tolerate or absorb it.[39]The adamantanes amantadine and rimantadine are orally administered drugs that block the influenza virus' M2 ion channel,[1] preventing viral uncoating.[4] These drugs are only functional against influenza A virus[39] but are no longer recommended for use because of widespread resistance to them among influenza A viruses.[4] Adamantane resistance first emerged in H3N2 in 2003, becoming worldwide by 2008. Oseltamivir resistance is no longer widespread because the 2009 pandemic H1N1 strain (H1N1 pdm09), which is resistant to adamantanes, seemingly replaced resistant strains in circulation. Since the 2009 pandemic, oseltamivir resistance has mainly been observed in patients undergoing therapy,[1] especially the immunocompromised and young children.[4] Oseltamivir resistance is usually reported in H1N1, but has been reported in H3N2 and influenza B viruss less commonly.[1] Because of this, oseltamivir is recommended as the first drug of choice for immunocompetent people, whereas for the immunocompromised, oseltamivir is recommended against H3N2 and influenza B virus and zanamivir against H1N1 pdm09. Zanamivir resistance is observed less frequently, and resistance to peramivir and baloxavir marboxil is possible.[4]","title":"Treatment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"sinusitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinusitis"},{"link_name":"bronchitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronchitis"},{"link_name":"bronchiolitis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronchiolitis"},{"link_name":"Middle ear infection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otitis_media"},{"link_name":"croup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croup"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"toxic shock syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toxic_shock_syndrome"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"fast, slow, or irregular heartbeat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrythmia"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"Inflammation or swelling of muscles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myositis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kalil-17"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"Guillain–Barré syndrome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guillain%E2%80%93Barr%C3%A9_syndrome"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kalil-17"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"the presence of the virus in blood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viremia"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"dramatically overproduce white blood cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemophagocytic_lymphohistiocytosis"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"body mass index","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Body_mass_index"},{"link_name":"diabetes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diabetes"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"asplenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asplenia"},{"link_name":"HIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HIV"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"}],"text":"In healthy individuals, influenza infection is usually self-limiting and rarely fatal.[10][11] Symptoms usually last for 2–8 days.[13] Influenza can cause people to miss work or school, and it is associated with decreased job performance and, in older adults, reduced independence. Fatigue and malaise may last for several weeks after recovery, and healthy adults may experience pulmonary abnormalities that can take several weeks to resolve. Complications and mortality primarily occur in high-risk populations and those who are hospitalized. Severe disease and mortality are usually attributable to pneumonia from the primary viral infection or a secondary bacterial infection,[1][11] which can progress to ARDS.[13]Other respiratory complications that may occur include sinusitis, bronchitis, bronchiolitis, excess fluid buildup in the lungs, and exacerbation of chronic bronchitis and asthma. Middle ear infection and croup may occur, most commonly in children.[10][1] Secondary S. aureus infection has been observed, primarily in children, to cause toxic shock syndrome after influenza, with hypotension, fever, and reddening and peeling of the skin.[1] Complications affecting the cardiovascular system are rare and include pericarditis, fulminant myocarditis with a fast, slow, or irregular heartbeat, and exacerbation of pre-existing cardiovascular disease.[10][11] Inflammation or swelling of muscles accompanied by muscle tissue breaking down occurs rarely, usually in children, which presents as extreme tenderness and muscle pain in the legs and a reluctance to walk for 2–3 days.[1][11][17]Influenza can affect pregnancy, including causing smaller neonatal size, increased risk of premature birth, and an increased risk of child death shortly before or after birth.[11] Neurological complications have been associated with influenza on rare occasions, including aseptic meningitis, encephalitis, disseminated encephalomyelitis, transverse myelitis, and Guillain–Barré syndrome.[17] Additionally, febrile seizures and Reye syndrome can occur, most commonly in children.[1][11] Influenza-associated encephalopathy can occur directly from central nervous system infection from the presence of the virus in blood and presents as sudden onset of fever with convulsions, followed by rapid progression to coma.[10] An atypical form of encephalitis called encephalitis lethargica, characterized by headache, drowsiness, and coma, may rarely occur sometime after infection.[1] In survivors of influenza-associated encephalopathy, neurological defects may occur.[10] Primarily in children, in severe cases the immune system may rarely dramatically overproduce white blood cells that release cytokines, causing severe inflammation.[10]People who are at least 65 years of age,[11] due to a weakened immune system from aging or a chronic illness, are a high-risk group for developing complications, as are children less than one year of age and children who have not been previously exposed to influenza viruses multiple times. Pregnant women are at an elevated risk, which increases by trimester[1] and lasts up to two weeks after childbirth.[11][39] Obesity, in particular a body mass index greater than 35–40, is associated with greater amounts of viral replication, increased severity of secondary bacterial infection, and reduced vaccination efficacy. People who have underlying health conditions are also considered at-risk, including those who have congenital or chronic heart problems or lung (e.g. asthma), kidney, liver, blood, neurological, or metabolic (e.g. diabetes) disorders,[10][1][11] as are people who are immunocompromised from chemotherapy, asplenia, prolonged steroid treatment, splenic dysfunction, or HIV infection.[11] Tobacco use, including past use, places a person at risk.[39] The role of genetics in influenza is not well researched,[1] but it may be a factor in influenza mortality.[13]","title":"Prognosis"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Flu season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flu_season"},{"link_name":"Flu pandemics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flu_pandemics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:InfluenzaCaseMortality.svg"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vemula-46"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-principi-41"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"respiratory syncytial virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Respiratory_syncytial_virus"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kalil-17"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dharmapalan-10"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kalil-17"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Influenza_Seasonal_Risk_Areas.svg"},{"link_name":"vitamin D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitamin_D"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-moriyama-35"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potter-52"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potter-52"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sederdahl-12"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mccauley-25"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ghebrehewet-11"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kalil-17"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potter-52"}],"text":"Further information: Flu season and Flu pandemicsInfluenza mortality in symptomatic cases in the US for the 2018/2019 season.[50]Influenza is typically characterized by seasonal epidemics and sporadic pandemics. Most of the burden of influenza is a result of flu seasons caused by influenza A virus and influenza B virus. Among influenza A virus subtypes, H1N1 and H3N2 circulate in humans and are responsible for seasonal influenza. Cases disproportionately occur in children, but most severe causes are among the elderly, the very young,[1] and the immunocompromised.[4] In a typical year, influenza viruses infect 5–15% of the global population,[3][46] causing 3–5 million cases of severe illness annually[1][2] and accounting for 290,000–650,000 deaths each year due to respiratory illness.[3][4][51] 5–10% of adults and 20–30% of children contract influenza each year.[21] The reported number of influenza cases is usually much lower than the actual number.[1][41]During seasonal epidemics, it is estimated that about 80% of otherwise healthy people who have a cough or sore throat have the flu.[1] Approximately 30–40% of people hospitalized for influenza develop pneumonia, and about 5% of all severe pneumonia cases in hospitals are due to influenza, which is also the most common cause of ARDS in adults. In children, influenza and respiratory syncytial virus are the two most common causes of ARDS.[17] About 3–5% of children each year develop otitis media due to influenza.[10] Adults who develop organ failure from influenza and children who have PIM scores and acute renal failure have higher rates of mortality.[17] During seasonal influenza, mortality is concentrated in the very young and the elderly, whereas during flu pandemics, young adults are often affected at a high rate.[13]Seasonal risk areas for influenza: November–April (blue), April–November (red), and year-round (yellow)In temperate regions, the number of influenza cases varies from season to season. Lower vitamin D levels, presumably due to less sunlight,[35] lower humidity, lower temperature, and minor changes in virus proteins caused by antigenic drift contribute to annual epidemics that peak during the winter season. In the northern hemisphere, this is from October to May (more narrowly December to April[13]), and in the southern hemisphere, this is from May to October (more narrowly June to September[13]). There are therefore two distinct influenza seasons every year in temperate regions, one in the northern hemisphere and one in the southern hemisphere.[1][11][2] In tropical and subtropical regions, seasonality is more complex and appears to be affected by various climatic factors such as minimum temperature, hours of sunshine, maximum rainfall, and high humidity.[1][52] Influenza may therefore occur year-round in these regions.[13] Influenza epidemics in modern times have the tendency to start in the eastern or southern hemisphere,[52] with Asia being a key reservoir.[13]Influenza A virus and influenza B virus co-circulate, so have the same patterns of transmission.[1] The seasonality of influenza C virus, however, is poorly understood. Influenza C virus infection is most common in children under the age of two, and by adulthood most people have been exposed to it. Influenza C virus-associated hospitalization most commonly occurs in children under the age of three and is frequently accompanied by co-infection with another virus or a bacterium, which may increase the severity of disease. When considering all hospitalizations for respiratory illness among young children, influenza C virus appears to account for only a small percentage of such cases. Large outbreaks of influenza C virus infection can occur, so incidence varies significantly.[12]Outbreaks of influenza caused by novel influenza viruses are common.[25] Depending on the level of pre-existing immunity in the population, novel influenza viruses can spread rapidly and cause pandemics with millions of deaths. These pandemics, in contrast to seasonal influenza, are caused by antigenic shifts involving animal influenza viruses. To date, all known flu pandemics have been caused by influenza A viruses, and they follow the same pattern of spreading from an origin point to the rest of the world over the course of multiple waves in a year.[1][11][39] Pandemic strains tend to be associated with higher rates of pneumonia in otherwise healthy individuals.[17] Generally after each influenza pandemic, the pandemic strain continues to circulate as the cause of seasonal influenza, replacing prior strains.[1] From 1700 to 1889, influenza pandemics occurred about once every 50–60 years. Since then, pandemics have occurred about once every 10–50 years, so they may be getting more frequent over time.[52]","title":"Epidemiology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Influenza_subtypes.svg"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Palese-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mordini-54"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potter-52"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-martin-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-morens1-56"},{"link_name":"Antilles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antilles"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guerra1988-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guerra1993-58"},{"link_name":"in 1510","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1510_influenza_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-morens2-59"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-morens1-56"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-knobler-60"},{"link_name":"1580 influenza pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1580_influenza_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potter-52"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-morens1-56"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-morens2-59"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taubenberger-61"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potter-52"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taubenberger-61"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hastings-30"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potter-52"},{"link_name":"third cholera pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Third_cholera_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taubenberger-61"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taubenberger-61"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-morens2-59"},{"link_name":"1889 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1889%E2%80%931890_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vijgen-62"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-morens2-59"},{"link_name":"R. F. J. Pfeiffer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Friedrich_Johannes_Pfeiffer"},{"link_name":"Haemophilus influenzae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-morens2-59"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taubenberger-61"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lycett-31"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taubenberger-61"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:W_curve.png"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Taubenberger2-63"},{"link_name":"Spanish flu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_flu"},{"link_name":"First World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_World_War"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potter-52"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hastings-30"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potter-52"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hastings-30"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taubenberger-61"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taubenberger-61"},{"link_name":"Richard Shope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Shope"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-knobler-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taubenberger-61"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taubenberger-61"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-knobler-60"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smith-64"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taubenberger-61"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lycett-31"},{"link_name":"Asian flu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_flu"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-saunders-44"},{"link_name":"Yunnan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yunnan"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potter-52"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hastings-30"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"amantadine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amantadine"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong flu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong_flu"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hastings-30"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-allen-3"},{"link_name":"a pseudo-pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1977_Russian_flu"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hastings-30"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taubenberger-61"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-heinen-65"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Airport_Thermographic_Camera.jpg"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"Guangdong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guangdong"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lycett-31"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-steinhauer-37"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vemula-46"},{"link_name":"2009 swine flu pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2009_swine_flu_pandemic"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hastings-30"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hastings-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lycett-31"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sederdahl-12"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vemula-46"},{"link_name":"Shanghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shanghai"},{"link_name":"Anhui","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anhui"},{"link_name":"H5N6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H5N6"},{"link_name":"H6N1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H6N1"},{"link_name":"H7N7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H7N7"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"H5N8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H5N8"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lycett-31"},{"link_name":"globalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hastings-30"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-knobler-60"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"}],"text":"The main types of influenza viruses in humans. Solid squares show the appearance of a new strain, causing recurring influenza pandemics. Broken lines indicate uncertain strain identifications.[53]The first influenza epidemic may have occurred around 6,000 BC in China,[54] and possible descriptions of influenza exist in Greek writings from the 5th century BC.[52][55] In both 1173–1174 AD and 1387 AD, epidemics occurred across Europe that were named \"influenza\". Whether these epidemics or others were caused by influenza is unclear since there was then no consistent naming pattern for epidemic respiratory diseases, and \"influenza\" did not become clearly associated with respiratory disease until centuries later.[56] Influenza may have been brought to the Americas as early as 1493, when an epidemic disease resembling influenza killed most of the population of the Antilles.[57][58]The first convincing record of an influenza pandemic was in 1510. It began in East Asia before spreading to North Africa and then Europe.[59] Following the pandemic, seasonal influenza occurred, with subsequent pandemics in 1557 and 1580.[56] The flu pandemic in 1557 was potentially the first time influenza was connected to miscarriage and death of pregnant women.[60] The 1580 influenza pandemic originated in Asia during summer, spread to Africa, then Europe, and finally America.[52] By the end of the 16th century, influenza was beginning to become understood as a specific, recognizable disease with epidemic and endemic forms.[56] In 1648, it was discovered that horses also experience influenza.[59]Influenza data after 1700 is more accurate, so it is easier to identify flu pandemics after this point.[61] The first flu pandemic of the 18th century started in 1729 in Russia in spring, spreading worldwide over the course of three years with distinct waves, the later ones being more lethal. Another flu pandemic occurred in 1781–1782, starting in China in autumn.[52] From this pandemic, influenza became associated with sudden outbreaks of febrile illness.[61] The next flu pandemic was from 1830 to 1833, beginning in China in winter. This pandemic had a high attack rate, but the mortality rate was low.[30][52]A minor influenza pandemic occurred from 1847 to 1851 at the same time as the third cholera pandemic and was the first flu pandemic to occur with vital statistics being recorded, so influenza mortality was clearly recorded for the first time.[61] Highly pathogenic avian influenza was recognized in 1878[61] and was soon linked to transmission to humans.[59] By the time of the 1889 pandemic, which may have been caused by an H2N2 strain,[62] the flu had become an easily recognizable disease.[59]The microbial agent responsible for influenza was incorrectly identified in 1892 by R. F. J. Pfeiffer as the bacteria species Haemophilus influenzae, which retains \"influenza\" in its name.[59][61] From 1901 to 1903, Italian and Austrian researchers were able to show that avian influenza, then called \"fowl plague\",[31] was caused by a microscopic agent smaller than bacteria by using filters with pores too small for bacteria to pass through. The fundamental differences between viruses and bacteria, however, were not yet fully understood.[61]The difference between the influenza mortality age distributions of the 1918 epidemic and normal epidemics. Deaths per 100,000 persons in each age group, United States, for the interpandemic years 1911–1917 (dashed line) and the pandemic year 1918 (solid line).[63]From 1918 to 1920, the Spanish flu pandemic became the most devastating influenza pandemic and one of the deadliest pandemics in history. The pandemic, probably caused by H1N1, likely began in the United States before spreading worldwide via soldiers during and after the First World War. The initial wave in the first half of 1918 was relatively minor and resembled past flu pandemics, but the second wave later that year had a much higher mortality rate.[52] A third wave with lower mortality occurred in many places a few months after the second.[30] By the end of 1920, it is estimated that about a third[13] to half of all people in the world had been infected, with tens of millions of deaths, disproportionately young adults.[52] During the 1918 pandemic, the respiratory route of transmission was clearly identified[30] and influenza was shown to be caused by a \"filter passer\", not a bacterium, but there remained a lack of agreement about influenza's cause for another decade and research on influenza declined.[61] After the pandemic, H1N1 circulated in humans in seasonal form[1] until the next pandemic.[61]In 1931, Richard Shope published three papers identifying a virus as the cause of swine influenza, a then newly recognized disease among pigs that was characterized during the second wave of the 1918 pandemic.[60][61] Shope's research reinvigorated research on human influenza, and many advances in virology, serology, immunology, experimental animal models, vaccinology, and immunotherapy have since arisen from influenza research.[61] Just two years after influenza viruses were discovered, in 1933, influenza A virus was identified as the agent responsible for human influenza.[60][64] Subtypes of influenza A virus were discovered throughout the 1930s,[61] and influenza B virus was discovered in 1940.[21]During the Second World War, the US government worked on developing inactivated vaccines for influenza, resulting in the first influenza vaccine being licensed in 1945 in the United States.[1] Influenza C virus was discovered two years later in 1947.[21] In 1955, avian influenza was confirmed to be caused by influenza A virus.[31] Four influenza pandemics have occurred since WWII. The first of these was the Asian flu from 1957 to 1958, caused by an H2N2 strain[1][44] and beginning in China's Yunnan province. The number of deaths probably exceeded one million, mostly among the very young and very old.[52] This was the first flu pandemic to occur in the presence of a global surveillance system and laboratories able to study the novel influenza virus.[30] After the pandemic, H2N2 was the influenza A virus subtype responsible for seasonal influenza.[1] The first antiviral drug against influenza, amantadine, was approved in 1966, with additional antiviral drugs being used since the 1990s.[4]In 1968, H3N2 was introduced into humans through a rearrangement between an avian H3N2 strain and an H2N2 strain that was circulating in humans. The novel H3N2 strain emerged in Hong Kong and spread worldwide, causing the Hong Kong flu pandemic, which resulted in 500,000–2,000,000 deaths. This was the first pandemic to spread significantly by air travel.[3][30] H2N2 and H3N2 co-circulated after the pandemic until 1971 when H2N2 waned in prevalence and was completely replaced by H3N2.[3] In 1977, H1N1 reemerged in humans, possibly after it was released from a freezer in a laboratory accident, and caused a pseudo-pandemic.[30][61] This H1N1 strain was antigenically similar to the H1N1 strains that circulated prior to 1957. Since 1977, both H1N1 and H3N2 have circulated in humans as part of seasonal influenza.[1] In 1980, the classification system used to subtype influenza viruses was introduced.[65]Thermal imaging camera and screen, photographed in an airport terminal in Greece during the 2009 flu pandemic. Thermal imaging can detect elevated body temperature, one of the signs of swine flu.At some point, influenza B virus diverged into two strains, named the B/Victoria-like and B/Yamagata-like lineages, both of which have been circulating in humans since 1983.[21] In 1996, HPAI H5N1 was detected in Guangdong, China[31] and a year later emerged in poultry in Hong Kong, gradually spreading worldwide from there. A small H5N1 outbreak in humans in Hong Kong occurred then,[37] and sporadic human cases have occurred since 1997, carrying a high case fatality rate.[19][46] The most recent flu pandemic was the 2009 swine flu pandemic, which originated in Mexico and resulted in hundreds of thousands of deaths.[30] It was caused by a novel H1N1 strain that was a reassortment of human, swine, and avian influenza viruses.[20][4] The 2009 pandemic had the effect of replacing prior H1N1 strains in circulation with the novel strain but not any other influenza viruses. Consequently, H1N1, H3N2, and both influenza B virus lineages have been in circulation in seasonal form since the 2009 pandemic.[1][30][31]In 2011, influenza D virus was discovered in pigs in Oklahoma, USA, and cattle were later identified as the primary reservoir of influenza D virus.[12][21] In the same year,[46] avian H7N9 was detected in China and began to cause human infections in 2013, starting in Shanghai and Anhui and remaining mostly in China. HPAI H7N9 emerged sometime in 2016 and has occasionally infected humans incidentally. Other AIVs have less commonly infected humans since the 1990s, including H5N6, H6N1, H7N2-4, H7N7, and H10N7-8,[19] and HPAI H subtypes such as H5N1-3, H5N5-6, and H5N8 have begun to spread throughout much of the world since the 2010s. Future flu pandemics, which may be caused by an influenza virus of avian origin,[31] are viewed as almost inevitable, and increased globalization has made it easier for novel viruses to spread,[30] so there are continual efforts to prepare for future pandemics[60] and improve the prevention and treatment of influenza.[1]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_language"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"astrological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-espinosa-66"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-etymonline-67"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oed-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-etymflu-69"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_language"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-calisher-70"}],"sub_title":"Etymology","text":"The word influenza comes from the Italian word influenza, from medieval Latin influentia, originally meaning 'visitation' or 'influence'. Terms such as influenza di freddo, meaning 'influence of the cold', and influenza di stelle, meaning 'influence of the stars' are attested from the 14th century. The latter referred to the disease's cause, which at the time was ascribed by some to unfavorable astrological conditions. As early as 1504, influenza began to mean a 'visitation' or 'outbreak' of any disease affecting many people in a single place at once. During an outbreak of influenza in 1743 that started in Italy and spread throughout Europe, the word reached the English language and was anglicized in pronunciation. Since the mid-1800s, influenza has also been used to refer to severe colds.[66][67][68] The shortened form of the word, \"flu\", is first attested in 1839 as flue with the spelling flu confirmed in 1893.[69] Other names that have been used for influenza include epidemic catarrh, la grippe from French, sweating sickness, and, especially when referring to the 1918 pandemic strain, Spanish fever.[70]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Influenza_virus_research.jpg"},{"link_name":"Spanish flu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_flu"},{"link_name":"biosafety level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosafety_level"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-niaid-71"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hao-27"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-potter-52"},{"link_name":"Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Influenza_Surveillance_and_Response_System"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gisrs-72"},{"link_name":"lab-on-a-chips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lab-on-a-chip"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-vemula-46"},{"link_name":"favipiravir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Favipiravir"},{"link_name":"pimodivir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pimodivir"},{"link_name":"nitazoxanide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitazoxanide"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kalil-17"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chow-39"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nachbagauer-73"},{"link_name":"stem cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stem_cell"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-peteranderl-13"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hao-27"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"anti-idiotypic antibodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-idiotypic_vaccine"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nachbagauer-73"},{"link_name":"mRNA vaccines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MRNA_vaccine"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"}],"text":"Professional examining a laboratory-grown reconstruction of the 1918 Spanish flu virus in a biosafety level 3 environmentInfluenza research includes efforts to understand how influenza viruses enter hosts, the relationship between influenza viruses and bacteria, how influenza symptoms progress, and why some influenza viruses are deadlier than others.[71] Non-structural proteins encoded by influenza viruses are periodically discovered and their functions are continually under research.[27] Past pandemics, and especially the 1918 pandemic, are the subject of much research to understand flu pandemics.[52] As part of pandemic preparedness, the Global Influenza Surveillance and Response System is a global network of laboratories that monitors influenza transmission and epidemiology.[72] Additional areas of research include ways to improve the diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of influenza.Existing diagnostic methods have a variety of limitations coupled with their advantages. For example, NATs have high sensitivity and specificity but are impractical in under-resourced regions due to their high cost, complexity, maintenance, and training required. Low-cost, portable RIDTs can rapidly diagnose influenza but have highly variable sensitivity and are unable to subtype influenza A virus. As a result of these limitations and others, research into new diagnostic methods revolves around producing new methods that are cost-effective, less labor-intensive, and less complex than existing methods while also being able to differentiate influenza species and influenza A virus subtypes. One approach in development are lab-on-a-chips, which are diagnostic devices that make use of a variety of diagnostic tests, such as RT-PCR and serological assays, in microchip form. These chips have many potential advantages, including high reaction efficiency, low energy consumption, and low waste generation.[46]New antiviral drugs are also in development due to the elimination of adamantines as viable drugs and concerns over oseltamivir resistance. These include: NA inhibitors that can be injected intravenously, such as intravenous formulations of zanamivir; favipiravir, which is a polymerase inhibitor used against several RNA viruses; pimodivir, which prevents cap-binding required during viral transcription; and nitazoxanide, which inhibits HA maturation.[1][13] Reducing excess inflammation in the respiratory tract is also subject to much research since this is one of the primary mechanisms of influenza pathology.[13][17] Other forms of therapy in development include monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies that target viral proteins, convalescent plasma, different approaches to modify the host antiviral response,[39][73] and stem cell-based therapies to repair lung damage.[13]Much research on LAIVs focuses on identifying genome sequences that can be deleted to create harmless influenza viruses in vaccines that still confer immunity.[27] The high variability and rapid evolution of influenza virus antigens, however, is a major obstacle in developing effective vaccines. Furthermore, it is hard to predict which strains will be in circulation during the next flu season, manufacturing a sufficient quantity of flu vaccines for the next season is difficult,[2] LAIVs have limited efficacy, and repeated annual vaccination potentially has diminished efficacy.[1] For these reasons, \"broadly-reactive\" or \"universal\" flu vaccines are being researched that can provide protection against many or all influenza viruses. Approaches to develop such a vaccine include HA stalk-based methods such as chimeras that have the same stalk but different heads, HA head-based methods such as computationally optimized broadly neutralizing antigens, anti-idiotypic antibodies, and vaccines to elicit immune responses to highly conserved viral proteins.[2][73] mRNA vaccines to provide protection against influenza are also under research.[74]In recent years, controversy emerged over the ethical justifications for certain 'gain-of-function' (GOF) studies on influenza.[75]","title":"Research"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"In animals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:AA6-76"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lycett-31"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:AA6-76"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:AA6-76"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-avian-45"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"Migratory birds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bird_migration"},{"link_name":"Qinghai Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qinghai_Lake"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lycett-31"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lycett-31"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lycett-31"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sautto-2"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-li-19"}],"sub_title":"Birds","text":"Aquatic birds such as ducks, geese, shorebirds, and gulls are the primary reservoir of influenza A viruses (IAVs).[19][20]Because of the impact of avian influenza on economically important chicken farms, a classification system was devised in 1981 which divided avian virus strains as either highly pathogenic (and therefore potentially requiring vigorous control measures) or low pathogenic. The test for this is based solely on the effect on chickens - a virus strain is highly pathogenic avian influenza (HPAI) if 75% or more of chickens die after being deliberately infected with it. The alternative classification is low pathogenic avian influenza (LPAI) which produces mild or no symptoms.[76] This classification system has since been modified to take into account the structure of the virus' haemagglutinin protein.[77] At the genetic level, an AIV can be identified as an HPAI virus if it has a multibasic cleavage site in the HA protein, which contains additional residues in the HA gene.[20][31] Other species of birds, especially water birds, can become infected with HPAI virus without experiencing severe symptoms and can spread the infection over large distances; the exact symptoms depend on the species of bird and the strain of virus.[76] Classification of an avian virus strain as HPAI or LPAI does not predict how serious the disease might be if it infects humans or other mammals.[76][78]Symptoms of HPAI infection in chickens include lack of energy and appetite, decreased egg production, soft-shelled or misshapen eggs, swelling of the head, comb, wattles, and hocks, purple discoloration of wattles, combs, and legs, nasal discharge, coughing, sneezing, incoordination, and diarrhea; birds infected with an HPAI virus may also die suddenly without any signs of infection.[45] Most AIVs are LPAI.[citation needed] Notable HPAI viruses include HPAI A (H5N1) and HPAI A (H7N9). HPAI viruses have been a major disease burden in the 21st century, resulting in the death of large numbers of birds. In H7N9's case, some circulating strains were originally LPAI but became HPAI by acquiring the HA multibasic cleavage site. Avian H9N2 is also of concern because although it is LPAI, it is a common donor of genes to H5N1 and H7N9 during reassortment.[1]Migratory birds can spread influenza across long distances. An example of this was when an H5N1 strain in 2005 infected birds at Qinghai Lake, China, which is a stopover and breeding site for many migratory birds, subsequently spreading the virus to more than 20 countries across Asia, Europe, and the Middle East.[19][31] AIVs can be transmitted from wild birds to domestic free-range ducks and in turn to poultry through contaminated water, aerosols, and fomites.[1] Ducks therefore act as key intermediates between wild and domestic birds.[31] Transmission to poultry typically occurs in backyard farming and live animal markets where multiple species interact with each other. From there, AIVs can spread to poultry farms in the absence of adequate biosecurity. Among poultry, HPAI transmission occurs through aerosols and contaminated feces,[1] cages, feed, and dead animals.[19] Back-transmission of HPAI viruses from poultry to wild birds has occurred and is implicated in mass die-offs and intercontinental spread.[20]AIVs have occasionally infected humans through aerosols, fomites, and contaminated water.[1] Direction transmission from wild birds is rare.[31] Instead, most transmission involves domestic poultry, mainly chickens, ducks, and geese but also a variety of other birds such as guinea fowl, partridge, pheasants, and quails.[20] The primary risk factor for infection with AIVs is exposure to birds in farms and live poultry markets.[19] Typically, infection with an AIV has an incubation period of 3–5 days but can be up to 9 days. H5N1 and H7N9 cause severe lower respiratory tract illness, whereas other AIVs such as H9N2 cause a more mild upper respiratory tract illness, commonly with conjunctivitis.[1] Limited transmission of avian H2, H5-7, H9, and H10 subtypes from one person to another through respiratory droplets, aerosols, and fomites has occurred,[1][2] but sustained human-to-human transmission of AIVs has not occurred. Before 2013, H5N1 was the most common AIV to infect humans. Since then, H7N9 has been responsible for most human cases.[19]","title":"In animals"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ChineseFluInspectors.JPG"},{"link_name":"bronchopneumonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronchopneumonia"},{"link_name":"H1N2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H1N2"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-swine-79"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lampejo-4"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"}],"sub_title":"Pigs","text":"Chinese inspectors checking airline passengers for fever, a common symptom of swine fluInfluenza in pigs is a respiratory disease similar to influenza in humans and is found worldwide. Asymptomatic infections are common. Symptoms typically appear 1–3 days after infection and include fever, lethargy, anorexia, weight loss, labored breathing, coughing, sneezing, and nasal discharge. In sows, pregnancy may be aborted. Complications include secondary infections and potentially fatal bronchopneumonia. Pigs become contagious within a day of infection and typically spread the virus for 7–10 days, which can spread rapidly within a herd. Pigs usually recover within 3–7 days after symptoms appear. Prevention and control measures include inactivated vaccines and culling infected herds. Influenza A virus subtypes H1N1, H1N2, and H3N2 are usually responsible for swine flu.[79]Some influenza A viruses can be transmitted via aerosols from pigs to humans and vice versa.[1] Pigs, along with bats and quails,[21] are recognized as a mixing vessel of influenza viruses because they have both α-2,3 and α-2,6 sialic acid receptors in their respiratory tract. Because of that, both avian and mammalian influenza viruses can infect pigs. If co-infection occurs, reassortment is possible.[20] A notable example of this was the reassortment of a swine, avian, and human influenza virus that caused the 2009 flu pandemic.[20][4] Spillover events from humans to pigs appear to be more common than from pigs to humans.[20]","title":"In animals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"H17N10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=H17N10&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"H18N11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=H18N11&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"H7N2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H7N2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"H3N8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H3N8"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mccauley-25"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-krammer-1"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"H4N5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=H4N5&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"H1N3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=H1N3&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"H10N4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=H10N4&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mccauley-25"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-joseph-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sederdahl-12"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"bovine respiratory disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bovine_respiratory_disease"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-su-24"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-asha-21"}],"sub_title":"Other animals","text":"Influenza viruses have been found in many other animals, including cattle, horses, dogs, cats, and marine mammals. Nearly all influenza A viruses are apparently descended from ancestral viruses in birds. The exception are bat influenza-like viruses, which have an uncertain origin. These bat viruses have HA and NA subtypes H17, H18, N10, and N11. H17N10 and H18N11 are unable to reassort with other influenza A viruses, but they are still able to replicate in other mammals.[1] AIVs sometimes crossover into mammals. For example, in late 2016 to early 2017, an avian H7N2 strain was found to be infecting cats in New York.[1]Equine influenza A viruses include H7N7 and two lineages[1] of H3N8. H7N7, however, has not been detected in horses since the late 1970s,[25] so it may have become extinct in horses.[20] H3N8 in equines spreads via aerosols and causes respiratory illness.[1] Equine H3N8 perferentially binds to α-2,3 sialic acids, so horses are usually considered dead-end hosts, but transmission to dogs and camels has occurred, raising concerns that horses may be mixing vessels for reassortment. In canines, the only influenza A viruses in circulation are equine-derived H3N8 and avian-derived H3N2. Canine H3N8 has not been observed to reassort with other subtypes. H3N2 has a much broader host range and can reassort with H1N1 and H5N1. An isolated case of H6N1 likely from a chicken was found infecting a dog, so other AIVs may emerge in canines.[20]Other mammals to be infected by influenza A viruses include H7N7 and H4N5 in seals, H1N3 in whales, and H10N4 and H3N2 in minks.[25] Various mutations have been identified that are associated with AIVs adapting to mammals. Since HA proteins vary in which sialic acids they bind to, mutations in the HA receptor binding site can allow AIVs to infect mammals. Other mutations include mutations affecting which sialic acids NA proteins cleave and a mutation in the PB2 polymerase subunit that improves tolerance of lower temperatures in mammalian respiratory tracts and enhances RNP assembly by stabilizing NP and PB2 binding.[20]Influenza B virus is mainly found in humans but has also been detected in pigs, dogs, horses, and seals.[21] Likewise, influenza C virus primarily infects humans but has been observed in pigs, dogs, cattle, and dromedary camels.[12][21] Influenza D virus causes an influenza-like illness in pigs but its impact in its natural reservoir, cattle, is relatively unknown. It may cause respiratory disease resembling human influenza on its own, or it may be part of a bovine respiratory disease (BRD) complex with other pathogens during co-infection. BRD is a concern for the cattle industry, so influenza D virus' possible involvement in BRD has led to research on vaccines for cattle that can provide protection against influenza D virus.[21][24] Two antigenic lineages are in circulation: D/swine/Oklahoma/1334/2011 (D/OK) and D/bovine/Oklahoma/660/2013 (D/660).[21]","title":"In animals"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1501181245","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1501181245"},{"link_name":"Mouritz AA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Albert_St._Mouritz"},{"link_name":"The Flu: A Brief History of Influenza in U.S. America, Europe, 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States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85066127"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00569893"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph119236&CON_LNG=ENG"},{"link_name":"Croatia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000058166&local_base=nsk10"},{"link_name":"2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000181197&local_base=nsk10"},{"link_name":"Historical Dictionary of Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/022714"},{"link_name":"NARA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalog.archives.gov/id/10638694"}],"text":"Brown J (2018). Influenza: The Hundred Year Hunt to Cure the Deadliest Disease in History. New York: Atria. ISBN 978-1501181245.\nMouritz AA (1921). The Flu: A Brief History of Influenza in U.S. America, Europe, Hawaii. Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S. America: Advertiser Publishing Co.ClassificationDICD-10: J10, J11ICD-9-CM: 487OMIM: 614680MeSH: D007251DiseasesDB: 6791External resourcesMedlinePlus: 000080eMedicine: med/1170 ped/3006Patient UK: InfluenzavteInfluenzaGeneral topics\nResearch\nVaccine\nTreatment\nGenome sequencing\nReassortment\nSuperinfection\nFlu season\nViruses\nOrthomyxoviridae\nInfluenza A\nInfluenza B\nInfluenza C\nInfluenza D\nInfluenza A virussubtypes\nH1N1\nH1N2\nH2N2\nH2N3\nH3N1\nH3N2\nH3N8\nH5N1\nH5N2\nH5N3\nH5N6\nH5N8\nH5N9\nH6N1\nH7N1\nH7N2\nH7N3\nH7N4\nH7N7\nH7N9\nH9N2\nH10N3\nH10N7\nH10N8\nH11N2\nH11N9\nH1N1Pandemics\n1918 (Spanish flu)\n1977 (Russian flu)\n2009 (Swine flu)\nScience\n2009 A/H1N1\nH5N1Outbreaks\nCroatia (2005)\nIndia (2006)\nUK (2007)\nWest Bengal (2008)\n2020s outbreak\nScience\nGenetic structure\nTransmission and infection\nGlobal spread\nVaccine\nclinical trials\nHuman mortality\nSocial impact\nPandemic preparation\nH5N8Outbreaks\n2020–2022\nTreatmentsAntiviral drugs\nAdamantane derivatives\nAmantadine\nRimantadine\nNeuraminidase inhibitor\nOseltamivir\nLaninamivir\nPeramivir\nZanamivir\nPeramivir (experimental)\nUmifenovir\nBaloxavir marboxil\nVaccines\nLive attenuated influenza vaccine\nBrands\nPandemrix\nAudenz\nPandemics andepidemicsPandemics\nInfluenza pandemic (1510)\nInfluenza pandemic (1557)\nRussian flu (1889–1890)\nSpanish flu (1918)\nAsian flu (1957-1958)\nHong Kong flu (1968)\n1977 Russian flu\nSwine flu (2009)\nEpidemics\nFujian flu (H3N2)\n1989–1990 UK outbreak\nCentral Luzon H5N6 (2017)\nNon-humanMammals\nCanine\nFeline\nEquine\n2007 Australian outbreak\nSwine\nNon-mammals\nAvian\nFujian (H5N1)\nComplications\nAcute bronchitis\nBronchiolitis\nCroup\nOtitis media\nPharyngitis\nPneumonia\nSinusitis\nStrep throat\nRelated topics\nInfluenza-like illness\n2017–2018 United States flu season\nUS influenza statistics by flu seasonvteDiseases of the respiratory systemUpper RT(including URTIs,common cold)Head\nsinuses\n\nSinusitis\nnose\n\nRhinitis\nVasomotor rhinitis\nAtrophic rhinitis\nHay fever\nNasal polyp\nRhinorrhea\nnasal septum\nNasal septum deviation\nNasal septum perforation\nNasal septal hematoma\ntonsil\n\nTonsillitis\nAdenoid hypertrophy\nPeritonsillar abscess\nNeck\npharynx\n\nPharyngitis\nStrep throat\nLaryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR)\nRetropharyngeal abscess\nlarynx\n\nCroup\nLaryngomalacia\nLaryngeal cyst\nLaryngitis\nLaryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR)\nLaryngospasm\nvocal cords\n\nLaryngopharyngeal reflux (LPR)\nVocal fold nodule\nVocal fold paresis\nVocal cord dysfunction\nepiglottis\n\nEpiglottitis\ntrachea\n\nTracheitis\nLaryngotracheal stenosis\nLower RT/lung disease(including LRTIs)Bronchial/obstructive\nacute\n\nAcute bronchitis\nchronic\n\nCOPD\nChronic bronchitis\nAcute exacerbation of COPD)\nAsthma (Status asthmaticus\nAERD\nExercise-induced\nBronchiectasis\nCystic fibrosis\nunspecified\n\nBronchitis\nBronchiolitis\nBronchiolitis obliterans\nDiffuse panbronchiolitis\nInterstitial/restrictive(fibrosis)External agents/occupationallung disease\nPneumoconiosis\nAluminosis\nAsbestosis\nBaritosis\nBauxite fibrosis\nBerylliosis\nCaplan's syndrome\nChalicosis\nCoalworker's pneumoconiosis\nSiderosis\nSilicosis\nTalcosis\nByssinosis\nHypersensitivity pneumonitis\nBagassosis\nBird fancier's lung\nFarmer's lung\nLycoperdonosis\nOther\nARDS\nCombined pulmonary fibrosis and emphysema\nPulmonary edema\nLöffler's syndrome/Eosinophilic pneumonia\nRespiratory hypersensitivity\nAllergic bronchopulmonary aspergillosis\nHamman–Rich syndrome\nIdiopathic pulmonary fibrosis\nSarcoidosis\nVaping-associated pulmonary injury\nObstructive / RestrictivePneumonia/pneumonitisBy pathogen\nViral\nBacterial\nPneumococcal\nKlebsiella\nAtypical bacterial\nMycoplasma\nLegionnaires' disease\nChlamydiae\nFungal\nPneumocystis\nParasitic\nnoninfectious\nChemical/Mendelson's syndrome\nAspiration/Lipid\nBy vector/route\nCommunity-acquired\nHealthcare-associated\nHospital-acquired\nBy distribution\nBroncho-\nLobar\nIIP\nUIP\nDIP\nBOOP-COP\nNSIP\nRB\nOther\nAtelectasis\ncirculatory\nPulmonary hypertension\nPulmonary embolism\nLung abscess\nPleural cavity/mediastinumPleural disease\nPleuritis/pleurisy\nPneumothorax/Hemopneumothorax\nPleural effusion\n\nHemothorax\nHydrothorax\nChylothorax\nEmpyema/pyothorax\nMalignant\nFibrothorax\nMediastinal disease\nMediastinitis\nMediastinal emphysema\nOther/general\nRespiratory failure\nInfluenza\nCommon cold\nSARS\nCOVID-19\nIdiopathic pulmonary haemosiderosis\nPulmonary alveolar proteinosisvteInfectious diseases – viral systemic diseasesOncovirus\nDNA virus\nHBV\nHepatocellular carcinoma\nHPV\nCervical cancer\nAnal cancer\nPenile cancer\nVulvar cancer\nVaginal cancer\nOropharyngeal cancer\nKSHV\nKaposi's sarcoma\nEBV\nNasopharyngeal carcinoma\nBurkitt's lymphoma\nHodgkin lymphoma\nFollicular dendritic cell sarcoma\nExtranodal NK/T-cell lymphoma, nasal type\nMCPyV\nMerkel-cell carcinoma\nRNA virus\nHCV\nHepatocellular carcinoma\nSplenic marginal zone lymphoma\nHTLV-I\nAdult T-cell leukemia/lymphoma\nImmune disorders\nHIV\nAIDS\nCentral nervous systemEncephalitis/meningitis\nDNA virus\nHuman polyomavirus 2\nProgressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy\nRNA virus\nMeV\nSubacute sclerosing panencephalitis\nLCV\nLymphocytic choriomeningitis\nArbovirus encephalitis\nOrthomyxoviridae (probable)\nEncephalitis lethargica\nRV\nRabies\nChandipura vesiculovirus\nHerpesviral meningitis\nRamsay Hunt syndrome type 2\nMyelitis\nPoliovirus\nPoliomyelitis\nPost-polio syndrome\nHTLV-I\nTropical spastic paraparesis\nEye\nCytomegalovirus\nCytomegalovirus retinitis\nHSV\nHerpes of the eye\nCardiovascular\nCBV\nPericarditis\nMyocarditis\nRespiratory system/acute viralnasopharyngitis/viral pneumoniaDNA virus\nEpstein–Barr virus\nEBV infection/Infectious mononucleosis\nCytomegalovirus\nRNA virus\nIV: Human coronavirus 229E/NL63/HKU1/OC43\nCommon cold\nMERS coronavirus\nMiddle East respiratory syndrome\nSARS coronavirus\nSevere acute respiratory syndrome\nSARS-CoV-2\nCOVID-19\nV, Orthomyxoviridae: Influenza virus A/B/C/D\nInfluenza/Avian influenza\nV, Paramyxoviridae: Human parainfluenza viruses\nParainfluenza\nHuman orthopneumovirus\nhMPV\nHuman digestive systemPharynx/Esophagus\nMuV\nMumps\nCytomegalovirus\nCytomegalovirus esophagitis\nGastroenteritis/diarrhea\nDNA virus\nAdenovirus\nAdenovirus infection\nRNA virus\nRotavirus (Gastroenteritis)\nNorovirus\nAstrovirus\nCoronavirus\nHepatitis\nDNA virus\nHBV (B)\nRNA virus\nCBV\nHAV (A)\nHCV (C)\nHDV (D)\nHEV (E)\nPancreatitis\nCBV\nUrogenital\nBK virus\nMuV\nMumpsPortals: Medicine VirusesInfluenza at Wikipedia's sister projects:Definitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsNews from WikinewsQuotations from WikiquoteTexts from WikisourceTextbooks from WikibooksResources from WikiversityTravel guides from WikivoyageTaxa from WikispeciesData from WikidataAuthority control databases National\nFrance\nBnF data\nGermany\nIsrael\nUnited States\nJapan\nCzech Republic\nCroatia\n2\nOther\nHistorical Dictionary of Switzerland\nNARA","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Symptoms of influenza,[5][6] with fever and cough the most common symptoms[7]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Symptoms_of_influenza.svg/300px-Symptoms_of_influenza.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Influenza virus nomenclature (for a Fujian flu virus)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Influenza_nomenclature.svg/310px-Influenza_nomenclature.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Structure of the influenza virion. The hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) proteins are shown on the surface of the particle. The viral RNAs that make up the genome are shown as red coils inside the particle and bound to ribonucleoproteins (RNP).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/3D_Influenza_virus.png/310px-3D_Influenza_virus.png"},{"image_text":"Host cell invasion and replication by the influenza virus","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Virus_Replication_large.svg/310px-Virus_Replication_large.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Antigenic shift, or reassortment, can result in novel and highly pathogenic strains of human influenza.[29]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Influenza_geneticshift.svg/220px-Influenza_geneticshift.svg.png"},{"image_text":"How the different sites of infection (shown in red) of H1N1 and H5N1 influences their transmission and lethality[29]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/H1N1_versus_H5N1_pathology.png/310px-H1N1_versus_H5N1_pathology.png"},{"image_text":"Giving an influenza vaccination","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Defense.gov_News_Photo_041028-N-9864S-021.jpg/310px-Defense.gov_News_Photo_041028-N-9864S-021.jpg"},{"image_text":"An Influenza A&B Antigen Test (bottom) showing negative results for both Influenza A and B)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/COVID-19-Antigen-with-Influenza-A-B-Rapid-Antigen-Combo.jpg/220px-COVID-19-Antigen-with-Influenza-A-B-Rapid-Antigen-Combo.jpg"},{"image_text":"X-ray of 29-year-old person with H1N1","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/X-ray_of_29-year-old_person_with_H1N1.jpg/310px-X-ray_of_29-year-old_person_with_H1N1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Influenza mortality in symptomatic cases in the US for the 2018/2019 season.[50]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/InfluenzaCaseMortality.svg/280px-InfluenzaCaseMortality.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Seasonal risk areas for influenza: November–April (blue), April–November (red), and year-round (yellow)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Influenza_Seasonal_Risk_Areas.svg/310px-Influenza_Seasonal_Risk_Areas.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The main types of influenza viruses in humans. Solid squares show the appearance of a new strain, causing recurring influenza pandemics. Broken lines indicate uncertain strain identifications.[53]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Influenza_subtypes.svg/350px-Influenza_subtypes.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The difference between the influenza mortality age distributions of the 1918 epidemic and normal epidemics. Deaths per 100,000 persons in each age group, United States, for the interpandemic years 1911–1917 (dashed line) and the pandemic year 1918 (solid line).[63]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/W_curve.png/290px-W_curve.png"},{"image_text":"Thermal imaging camera and screen, photographed in an airport terminal in Greece during the 2009 flu pandemic. Thermal imaging can detect elevated body temperature, one of the signs of swine flu.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Airport_Thermographic_Camera.jpg/220px-Airport_Thermographic_Camera.jpg"},{"image_text":"Professional examining a laboratory-grown reconstruction of the 1918 Spanish flu virus in a biosafety level 3 environment","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Influenza_virus_research.jpg/220px-Influenza_virus_research.jpg"},{"image_text":"Chinese inspectors checking airline passengers for fever, a common symptom of swine flu","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/ChineseFluInspectors.JPG/220px-ChineseFluInspectors.JPG"}]

[{"reference":"Krammer F, Smith GJ, Fouchier RA, Peiris M, Kedzierska K, Doherty PC, et al. (June 2018). \"Influenza\". Nature Reviews. Disease Primers. 4 (1): 3. doi:10.1038/s41572-018-0002-y. PMC 7097467. PMID 29955068.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7097467","url_text":"\"Influenza\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41572-018-0002-y","url_text":"10.1038/s41572-018-0002-y"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7097467","url_text":"7097467"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29955068","url_text":"29955068"}]},{"reference":"Sautto GA, Kirchenbaum GA, Ross TM (January 2018). \"Towards a universal influenza vaccine: different approaches for one goal\". Virology Journal. 15 (1): 17. doi:10.1186/s12985-017-0918-y. PMC 5785881. PMID 29370862.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5785881","url_text":"\"Towards a universal influenza vaccine: different approaches for one goal\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1186%2Fs12985-017-0918-y","url_text":"10.1186/s12985-017-0918-y"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5785881","url_text":"5785881"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29370862","url_text":"29370862"}]},{"reference":"Allen JD, Ross TM (2018). \"H3N2 influenza viruses in humans: Viral mechanisms, evolution, and evaluation\". Human Vaccines & Immunotherapeutics. 14 (8): 1840–1847. doi:10.1080/21645515.2018.1462639. PMC 6149781. PMID 29641358.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6149781","url_text":"\"H3N2 influenza viruses in humans: Viral mechanisms, evolution, and evaluation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1080%2F21645515.2018.1462639","url_text":"10.1080/21645515.2018.1462639"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6149781","url_text":"6149781"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29641358","url_text":"29641358"}]},{"reference":"Lampejo T (July 2020). \"Influenza and antiviral resistance: an overview\". European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 39 (7): 1201–1208. doi:10.1007/s10096-020-03840-9. PMC 7223162. 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ISBN 978-1501181245.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1501181245","url_text":"978-1501181245"}]},{"reference":"Mouritz AA (1921). The Flu: A Brief History of Influenza in U.S. America, Europe, Hawaii. Honolulu, Hawaii, U.S. America: Advertiser Publishing Co.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_Albert_St._Mouritz","url_text":"Mouritz AA"},{"url":"https://collections.nlm.nih.gov/bookviewer?PID=nlm:nlmuid-101283076-bk#page/3/mode/1up/","url_text":"The Flu: A Brief History of Influenza in U.S. America, Europe, Hawaii"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_states

Surface states

["1 Origin at condensed matter interfaces","1.1 Shockley states and Tamm states","1.2 Topological surface states","2 Shockley states","2.1 Surface states in metals","2.2 Surface states in semiconductors","2.3 Surface states of a three-dimensional crystal","2.4 True surface states and surface resonances","3 Tamm states","4 Extrinsic surface states","5 Experimental observation","5.1 Angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy","5.2 Scanning tunneling microscopy","6 A recent new theory","7 References"]

Electronic states at the surface of materials Surface states are electronic states found at the surface of materials. They are formed due to the sharp transition from solid material that ends with a surface and are found only at the atom layers closest to the surface. The termination of a material with a surface leads to a change of the electronic band structure from the bulk material to the vacuum. In the weakened potential at the surface, new electronic states can be formed, so called surface states. Origin at condensed matter interfaces Figure 1. Simplified one-dimensional model of a periodic crystal potential terminating at an ideal surface. At the surface, the model potential jumps abruptly to the vacuum level (solid line). The dashed line represents a more realistic picture, where the potential reaches the vacuum level over some distance. Figure 2. Real part of the type of solution to the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation that corresponds to the bulk states. These states have Bloch character in the bulk, while decaying exponentially into the vacuum. Figure 3. Real part of the type of solution to the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation that corresponds to surface states. These states decay into both the vacuum and the bulk crystal and thus represent states localized at the crystal surface. As stated by Bloch's theorem, eigenstates of the single-electron Schrödinger equation with a perfectly periodic potential, a crystal, are Bloch waves Ψ n k = e i k ⋅ r u n k ( r ) . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Psi _{n{\boldsymbol {k}}}&=\mathrm {e} ^{i{\boldsymbol {k}}\cdot {\boldsymbol {r}}}u_{n{\boldsymbol {k}}}({\boldsymbol {r}}).\end{aligned}}} Here u n k ( r ) {\displaystyle u_{n{\boldsymbol {k}}}({\boldsymbol {r}})} is a function with the same periodicity as the crystal, n is the band index and k is the wave number. The allowed wave numbers for a given potential are found by applying the usual Born–von Karman cyclic boundary conditions. The termination of a crystal, i.e. the formation of a surface, obviously causes deviation from perfect periodicity. Consequently, if the cyclic boundary conditions are abandoned in the direction normal to the surface the behavior of electrons will deviate from the behavior in the bulk and some modifications of the electronic structure has to be expected. A simplified model of the crystal potential in one dimension can be sketched as shown in Figure 1. In the crystal, the potential has the periodicity, a, of the lattice while close to the surface it has to somehow attain the value of the vacuum level. The step potential (solid line) shown in Figure 1 is an oversimplification which is mostly convenient for simple model calculations. At a real surface the potential is influenced by image charges and the formation of surface dipoles and it rather looks as indicated by the dashed line. Given the potential in Figure 1, it can be shown that the one-dimensional single-electron Schrödinger equation gives two qualitatively different types of solutions. The first type of states (see figure 2) extends into the crystal and has Bloch character there. These type of solutions correspond to bulk states which terminate in an exponentially decaying tail reaching into the vacuum. The second type of states (see figure 3) decays exponentially both into the vacuum and the bulk crystal. These type of solutions correspond to surface states with wave functions localized close to the crystal surface. The first type of solution can be obtained for both metals and semiconductors. In semiconductors though, the associated eigenenergies have to belong to one of the allowed energy bands. The second type of solution exists in forbidden energy gap of semiconductors as well as in local gaps of the projected band structure of metals. It can be shown that the energies of these states all lie within the band gap. As a consequence, in the crystal these states are characterized by an imaginary wavenumber leading to an exponential decay into the bulk. Shockley states and Tamm states In the discussion of surface states, one generally distinguishes between Shockley states and Tamm states, named after the American physicist William Shockley and the Russian physicist Igor Tamm. There is no strict physical distinction between the two types of states, but the qualitative character and the mathematical approach used in describing them is different. Historically, surface states that arise as solutions to the Schrödinger equation in the framework of the nearly free electron approximation for clean and ideal surfaces, are called Shockley states. Shockley states are thus states that arise due to the change in the electron potential associated solely with the crystal termination. This approach is suited to describe normal metals and some narrow gap semiconductors. Figure 3 shows an example of a Shockley state, derived using the nearly free electron approximation. Within the crystal, Shockley states resemble exponentially-decaying Bloch waves. Surface states that are calculated in the framework of a tight-binding model are often called Tamm states. In the tight binding approach, the electronic wave functions are usually expressed as linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO). In contrast to the nearly free electron model used to describe the Shockley states, the Tamm states are suitable to describe also transition metals and wide gap semiconductors. Qualitatively, Tamm states resemble localized atomic or molecular orbitals at the surface. Topological surface states See also: topological insulator All materials can be classified by a single number, a topological invariant; this is constructed out of the bulk electronic wave functions, which are integrated in over the Brillouin zone, in a similar way that the genus is calculated in geometric topology. In certain materials the topological invariant can be changed when certain bulk energy bands invert due to strong spin-orbital coupling. At the interface between an insulator with non-trivial topology, a so-called topological insulator, and one with a trivial topology, the interface must become metallic. More over, the surface state must have linear Dirac-like dispersion with a crossing point which is protected by time reversal symmetry. Such a state is predicted to be robust under disorder, and therefore cannot be easily localized. Shockley states Surface states in metals A simple model for the derivation of the basic properties of states at a metal surface is a semi-infinite periodic chain of identical atoms. In this model, the termination of the chain represents the surface, where the potential attains the value V0 of the vacuum in the form of a step function, figure 1. Within the crystal the potential is assumed periodic with the periodicity a of the lattice. The Shockley states are then found as solutions to the one-dimensional single electron Schrödinger equation [ − ℏ 2 2 m d 2 d z 2 + V ( z ) ] Ψ ( z ) = E Ψ ( z ) , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\left\Psi (z)&=&E\Psi (z),\end{aligned}}} with the periodic potential V ( z ) = { P δ ( z + l a ) , for z < 0 V 0 , for z > 0 , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}V(z)=\left\{{\begin{array}{cc}P\delta (z+la),&{\textrm {for}}\quad z<0\\V_{0},&{\textrm {for}}\quad z>0\end{array}}\right.,\end{aligned}}} where l is an integer, and P is the normalization factor. The solution must be obtained independently for the two domains z<0 and z>0, where at the domain boundary (z=0) the usual conditions on continuity of the wave function and its derivatives are applied. Since the potential is periodic deep inside the crystal, the electronic wave functions must be Bloch waves here. The solution in the crystal is then a linear combination of an incoming wave and a wave reflected from the surface. For z>0 the solution will be required to decrease exponentially into the vacuum Ψ ( z ) = { B u − k e − i k z + C u k e i k z , for z < 0 A exp ⁡ [ − 2 m ( V 0 − E ) z ℏ ] , for z > 0 , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Psi (z)&=&\left\{{\begin{array}{cc}Bu_{-k}e^{-ikz}+Cu_{k}e^{ikz},&{\textrm {for}}\quad z<0\\A\exp \left,&{\textrm {for}}\quad z>0\end{array}}\right.,\end{aligned}}} The wave function for a state at a metal surface is qualitatively shown in figure 2. It is an extended Bloch wave within the crystal with an exponentially decaying tail outside the surface. The consequence of the tail is a deficiency of negative charge density just inside the crystal and an increased negative charge density just outside the surface, leading to the formation of a dipole double layer. The dipole perturbs the potential at the surface leading, for example, to a change of the metal work function. Surface states in semiconductors Figure 4. Electronic band structure in the nearly free electron picture. Away from the Brillouin zone boundary the electron wave function has plane wave character and the dispersion relation is parabolic. At the Brillouin zone boundary the wave function is a standing wave composed of an incoming and a Bragg-reflected wave. This ultimately leads to the creation of a band gap. The nearly free electron approximation can be used to derive the basic properties of surface states for narrow gap semiconductors. The semi-infinite linear chain model is also useful in this case. However, now the potential along the atomic chain is assumed to vary as a cosine function V ( z ) = V [ exp ⁡ ( i 2 π z a ) + exp ⁡ ( − i 2 π z a ) ] = 2 V cos ⁡ ( 2 π z a ) , {\displaystyle {\begin{alignedat}{2}V(z)&=V\left\\&=2V\cos \left({\frac {2\pi z}{a}}\right),\\\end{alignedat}}} whereas at the surface the potential is modeled as a step function of height V0. The solutions to the Schrödinger equation must be obtained separately for the two domains z < 0 and z > 0. In the sense of the nearly free electron approximation, the solutions obtained for z < 0 will have plane wave character for wave vectors away from the Brillouin zone boundary k = ± π / a {\displaystyle k=\pm \pi /a} , where the dispersion relation will be parabolic, as shown in figure 4. At the Brillouin zone boundaries, Bragg reflection occurs resulting in a standing wave consisting of a wave with wave vector k = π / a {\displaystyle k=\pi /a} and wave vector k = − π / a {\displaystyle k=-\pi /a} . Ψ ( z ) = A e i k z + B e i [ k − ( 2 π / a ) ] z . {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Psi (z)&=Ae^{ikz}+Be^{iz}.\end{aligned}}} Here G = 2 π / a {\displaystyle G=2\pi /a} is a lattice vector of the reciprocal lattice (see figure 4). Since the solutions of interest are close to the Brillouin zone boundary, we set k ⊥ = ( π / a ) + κ {\displaystyle k_{\perp }={\bigl (}\pi /a{\bigr )}+\kappa } , where κ is a small quantity. The arbitrary constants A,B are found by substitution into the Schrödinger equation. This leads to the following eigenvalues E = ℏ 2 2 m ( π a + κ ) 2 ± | V | [ − ℏ 2 π κ m a | V | ± ( ℏ 2 π κ m a | V | ) 2 + 1 ] {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}E&={\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\left({\frac {\pi }{a}}+\kappa \right)^{2}\pm |V|\left\end{aligned}}} demonstrating the band splitting at the edges of the Brillouin zone, where the width of the forbidden gap is given by 2V. The electronic wave functions deep inside the crystal, attributed to the different bands are given by Ψ i = C e i κ z ( e i π z / a + [ − ℏ 2 π κ m a | V | ± ( ℏ 2 π κ m a | V | ) 2 + 1 ] e − i π z / a ) {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Psi _{i}&=Ce^{i\kappa z}\left(e^{i\pi z/a}+\lefte^{-i\pi z/a}\right)\end{aligned}}} Where C is a normalization constant. Near the surface at z = 0, the bulk solution has to be fitted to an exponentially decaying solution, which is compatible with the constant potential V0. Ψ 0 = D exp ⁡ [ − 2 m ℏ 2 ( V 0 − E ) z ] {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Psi _{0}&=D\exp \left\end{aligned}}} It can be shown that the matching conditions can be fulfilled for every possible energy eigenvalue which lies in the allowed band. As in the case for metals, this type of solution represents standing Bloch waves extending into the crystal which spill over into the vacuum at the surface. A qualitative plot of the wave function is shown in figure 2. If imaginary values of κ are considered, i.e. κ = - i·q for z ≤ 0 and one defines i sin ⁡ ( 2 δ ) = − i ℏ 2 π q m a V {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}i\sin(2\delta )&=-i{\frac {\hbar ^{2}\pi q}{maV}}\end{aligned}}} one obtains solutions with a decaying amplitude into the crystal Ψ i ( z ≤ 0 ) = F e q z [ exp ⁡ [ i ( π a z ± δ ) ] ± exp ⁡ [ − i ( π a z ± δ ) ] ] e ∓ i δ {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Psi _{i}(z\leq 0)&=Fe^{qz}\left\pm \exp \left\right]e^{\mp i\delta }\end{aligned}}} The energy eigenvalues are given by E = ℏ 2 2 m [ ( π a ) 2 − q 2 ] ± V 1 − ( ℏ 2 π q m a V ) 2 {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}E&={\frac {\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\left\pm V{\sqrt {1-\left({\frac {\hbar ^{2}\pi q}{maV}}\right)^{2}}}\end{aligned}}} E is real for large negative z, as required. Also in the range 0 ≤ q ≤ q m a x = m a V ℏ 2 π {\displaystyle 0\leq q\leq q_{max}={\frac {maV}{\hbar ^{2}\pi }}} all energies of the surface states fall into the forbidden gap. The complete solution is again found by matching the bulk solution to the exponentially decaying vacuum solution. The result is a state localized at the surface decaying both into the crystal and the vacuum. A qualitative plot is shown in figure 3. Surface states of a three-dimensional crystal Figure 5. Atomic like orbitals of a Pt-atom. The orbitals shown are part of the double-zeta basis set used in density functional calculations. The orbitals are indexed according to the usual quantum numbers (n,l,m). The results for surface states of a monatomic linear chain can readily be generalized to the case of a three-dimensional crystal. Because of the two-dimensional periodicity of the surface lattice, Bloch's theorem must hold for translations parallel to the surface. As a result, the surface states can be written as the product of a Bloch waves with k-values k | | = ( k x , k y ) {\displaystyle {\textbf {k}}_{||}=(k_{x},k_{y})} parallel to the surface and a function representing a one-dimensional surface state Ψ 0 ( r ) = ψ 0 ( z ) u k | | ( r | | ) e − i r | | ⋅ k | | {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\Psi _{0}({\textbf {r}})&=&\psi _{0}(z)u_{{\textbf {k}}_{||}}({\textbf {r}}_{||})e^{-i{\textbf {r}}_{||}\cdot {\textbf {k}}_{||}}\end{aligned}}} The energy of this state is increased by a term E | | {\displaystyle E_{||}} so that we have E s = E 0 + ℏ 2 k | | 2 2 m ∗ , {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}E_{s}=E_{0}+{\frac {\hbar ^{2}{\textbf {k}}_{||}^{2}}{2m^{*}}},\end{aligned}}} where m* is the effective mass of the electron. The matching conditions at the crystal surface, i.e. at z=0, have to be satisfied for each k | | {\displaystyle {\textbf {k}}_{||}} separately and for each k | | {\displaystyle {\textbf {k}}_{||}} a single, but generally different energy level for the surface state is obtained. True surface states and surface resonances A surface state is described by the energy E s {\displaystyle E_{s}} and its wave vector k | | {\displaystyle {\textbf {k}}_{||}} parallel to the surface, while a bulk state is characterized by both k | | {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} _{||}} and k ⊥ {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} _{\perp }} wave numbers. In the two-dimensional Brillouin zone of the surface, for each value of k | | {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} _{||}} therefore a rod of k ⊥ {\displaystyle \mathbf {k} _{\perp }} is extending into the three-dimensional Brillouin zone of the Bulk. Bulk energy bands that are being cut by these rods allow states that penetrate deep into the crystal. One therefore generally distinguishes between true surface states and surface resonances. True surface states are characterized by energy bands that are not degenerate with bulk energy bands. These states exist in the forbidden energy gap only and are therefore localized at the surface, similar to the picture given in figure 3. At energies where a surface and a bulk state are degenerate, the surface and the bulk state can mix, forming a surface resonance. Such a state can propagate deep into the bulk, similar to Bloch waves, while retaining an enhanced amplitude close to the surface. Tamm states Surface states that are calculated in the framework of a tight-binding model are often called Tamm states. In the tight binding approach, the electronic wave functions are usually expressed as a linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO), see figure 5. In this picture, it is easy to comprehend that the existence of a surface will give rise to surface states with energies different from the energies of the bulk states: Since the atoms residing in the topmost surface layer are missing their bonding partners on one side, their orbitals have less overlap with the orbitals of neighboring atoms. The splitting and shifting of energy levels of the atoms forming the crystal is therefore smaller at the surface than in the bulk. If a particular orbital is responsible for the chemical bonding, e.g. the sp3 hybrid in Si or Ge, it is strongly affected by the presence of the surface, bonds are broken, and the remaining lobes of the orbital stick out from the surface. They are called dangling bonds. The energy levels of such states are expected to significantly shift from the bulk values. In contrast to the nearly free electron model used to describe the Shockley states, the Tamm states are suitable to describe also transition metals and wide-bandgap semiconductors. Extrinsic surface states Surface states originating from clean and well ordered surfaces are usually called intrinsic. These states include states originating from reconstructed surfaces, where the two-dimensional translational symmetry gives rise to the band structure in the k space of the surface. Extrinsic surface states are usually defined as states not originating from a clean and well ordered surface. Surfaces that fit into the category extrinsic are: Surfaces with defects, where the translational symmetry of the surface is broken. Surfaces with adsorbates Interfaces between two materials, such as a semiconductor-oxide or semiconductor-metal interface Interfaces between solid and liquid phases. Generally, extrinsic surface states cannot easily be characterized in terms of their chemical, physical or structural properties. Experimental observation Angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy An experimental technique to measure the dispersion of surface states is angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) or angle resolved ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (ARUPS). Scanning tunneling microscopy The surface state dispersion can be measured using a scanning tunneling microscope; in these experiments, periodic modulations in the surface state density, which arise from scattering off of surface impurities or step edges, are measured by an STM tip at a given bias voltage. The wavevector versus bias (energy) of the surface state electrons can be fit to a free-electron model with effective mass and surface state onset energy. A recent new theory A naturally simple but fundamental question is how many surface states are in a band gap in a one-dimensional crystal of length N a {\displaystyle Na} ( a {\displaystyle a} is the potential period, and N {\displaystyle N} is a positive integer)? A well-accepted concept proposed by Fowler first in 1933, then written in Seitz's classic book that "in a finite one-dimensional crystal the surface states occur in pairs, one state being associated with each end of the crystal." Such a concept seemly was never doubted since then for nearly a century, as shown, for example, in. However, a recent new investigation gives an entirely different answer. The investigation tries to understand electronic states in ideal crystals of finite size based on the mathematical theory of periodic differential equations. This theory provides some fundamental new understandings of those electronic states, including surface states. The theory found that a one-dimensional finite crystal with two ends at τ {\displaystyle \tau } and N a + τ {\displaystyle Na+\tau } always has one and only one state whose energy and properties depend on τ {\displaystyle \tau } but not N {\displaystyle N} for each band gap. This state is either a band-edge state or a surface state in the band gap(see, Particle in a one-dimensional lattice, Particle in a box). Numerical calculations have confirmed such findings. Further, these behaviors have been seen in different one-dimensional systems, such as in. Therefore: The fundamental property of a surface state is that its existence and properties depend on the location of the periodicity truncation. Truncation of the lattice's periodic potential may or may not lead to a surface state in a band gap. An ideal one-dimensional crystal of finite length L = N a {\displaystyle L=Na} with two ends can have, at most, only one surface state at one end in each band gap. Further investigations extended to multi-dimensional cases found that An ideal simple three-dimensional finite crystal may have vertex-like, edge-like, surface-like, and bulk-like states. A surface state is always in a band gap is only valid for one-dimensional cases. References ^ a b Sidney G. Davison; Maria Steslicka (1992). Basic Theory of Surface States. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-851990-7. ^ a b C. Kittel (1996). Introduction to Solid State Physics. Wiley. pp. 80–150. ISBN 0-471-14286-7. ^ a b K. Oura; V.G. Lifshifts; A.A. Saranin; A. V. Zotov; M. Katayama (2003). "11". Surface Science. Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg New York. ^ a b Feng Duan; Jin Guojin (2005). "7". Condensed Matter Physics:Volume 1. World Scientific. ISBN 981-256-070-X. ^ W. Shockley (1939). "On the Surface States Associated with a Periodic Potential". Phys. Rev. 56 (4): 317–323. Bibcode:1939PhRv...56..317S. doi:10.1103/PhysRev.56.317. ^ I. Tamm (1932). "On the possible bound states of electrons on a crystal surface". Phys. Z. Sowjetunion. 1: 733. ^ Hasan, M. Z.; Kane, C. L. (2010). "Colloquium: Topological insulators". Rev. Mod. Phys. 82 (4): 3045–3067. arXiv:1002.3895. Bibcode:2010RvMP...82.3045H. doi:10.1103/revmodphys.82.3045. ISSN 0034-6861. S2CID 16066223. ^ Frederick Seitz; Henry Ehrenreich; David Turnbull (1996). Solid State Physics. Academic Press. pp. 80–150. ISBN 0-12-607729-0. ^ Oka, H.; et al. (2014). "Spin-polarized quantum confinement in nanostructures: Scanning tunneling microscopy". Rev. Mod. Phys. 86 (4): 1127. Bibcode:2014RvMP...86.1127O. doi:10.1103/RevModPhys.86.1127. Retrieved 3 September 2021. ^ Fowler, R.H. (1933). "Notes on some electronic properties of conductors and insulators". Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Containing Papers of a Mathematical and Physical Character. 141 (843): 56–71. Bibcode:1933RSPSA.141...56F. doi:10.1098/rspa.1933.0103. S2CID 122900909. ^ Seitz, F. (1940). The Modern Theory of Solids. New York, McGraw-Hill. p. 323. ^ Davison, S. D.; Stęślicka, M. (1992). Basic Theory of Surface States. Oxford, Clarendon Press. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-31232-8_3. ^ Ren, Shang Yuan (2002). "Two Types of Electronic States in One-dimensional Crystals of Finite length". Annals of Physics. 301 (1): 22–30. arXiv:cond-mat/0204211. Bibcode:2002AnPhy.301...22R. doi:10.1006/aphy.2002.6298. S2CID 14490431. ^ a b Ren, Shang Yuan (2006). Electronic States in Crystals of Finite Size: Quantum Confinement of Bloch Waves. New York, Springer. Bibcode:2006escf.book.....R. ^ a b Ren, Shang Yuan (2017). Electronic States in Crystals of Finite Size: Quantum Confinement of Bloch Waves (2 ed.). Singapore, Springer. ^ Eastham, M.S.P. (1973). The Spectral Theory of Periodic Differential Equations. Edinburgh, Scottish Academic Press. ^ Hladky-Henniona, Anne-Christine; Allan, Guy (2005). "Localized modes in a one-dimensional diatomic chain of coupled spheres" (PDF). Journal of Applied Physics. 98 (5): 054909 (1-7). Bibcode:2005JAP....98e4909H. doi:10.1063/1.2034082. ^ Ren, Shang Yuan; Chang, Yia-Chung (2007). "Theory of confinement effects in finite one-dimensional phononic crystals". Physical Review B. 75 (21): 212301(1-4). Bibcode:2007PhRvB..75u2301R. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.75.212301. ^ El Boudouti, E. H. (2007). "Two types of modes in finite size one-dimensional coaxial photonic crystals: General rules and experimental evidence" (PDF). Physical Review E. 76 (2): 026607(1-9). Bibcode:2007PhRvE..76b6607E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevE.76.026607. PMID 17930167. ^ El Boudouti, E. H.; El Hassouani, Y.; Djafari-Rouhani, B.; Aynaou, H. (2007). "Surface and confined acoustic waves in finite size 1D solid-fluid phononic crystals". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 92 (1): 1–4. Bibcode:2007JPhCS..92a2113E. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/92/1/012113. S2CID 250673169. ^ El Hassouani, Y.; El Boudouti, E. H.; Djafari-Rouhani, B.; Rais, R (2008). "Sagittal acoustic waves in finite solid-fluid superlattices: Band-gap structure, surface and confined modes, and omnidirectional reflection and selective transmission" (PDF). Physical Review B. 78 (1): 174306（1–23）. Bibcode:2008PhRvB..78q4306E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.78.174306. ^ El Boudouti, E. H.; Djafari-Rouhani, B.; Akjouj, A.; Dobrzynski, L. (2009). "Acoustic waves in solid and fluid layered materials". Surface Science Reports. 64 (1): 471–594. Bibcode:2009SurSR..64..471E. doi:10.1016/j.surfrep.2009.07.005. ^ El Hassouani, Y.; El Boudouti, E.H.; Djafari-Rouhani, B. (2013). "One-Dimensional Phononic Crystals". In Deymier, P.A. (ed.). Acoustic Metamaterials and Phononic Crystals, Springer Series in Solid-State Sciences 173. Vol. 173. Berlin, Springer-Verlag. pp. 45–93. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-31232-8_3. ISBN 978-3-642-31231-1.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"electronic states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_state"},{"link_name":"surface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface_(topology)"},{"link_name":"electronic band structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_band_structure"},{"link_name":"vacuum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BasicSurfaceStates-1"}],"text":"Surface states are electronic states found at the surface of materials. They are formed due to the sharp transition from solid material that ends with a surface and are found only at the atom layers closest to the surface. The termination of a material with a surface leads to a change of the electronic band structure from the bulk material to the vacuum. In the weakened potential at the surface, new electronic states can be formed, so called surface states.[1]","title":"Surface states"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FigPotential.PNG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solution1.PNG"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Solution2.PNG"},{"link_name":"Bloch's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloch_wave"},{"link_name":"Bloch waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloch_waves"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kittel-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kittel-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oura-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feng-4"},{"link_name":"metals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metal"},{"link_name":"semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor"},{"link_name":"eigenenergies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenenergy"},{"link_name":"forbidden energy gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gap"},{"link_name":"wavenumber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavenumber"},{"link_name":"exponential decay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_decay"}],"text":"Figure 1. Simplified one-dimensional model of a periodic crystal potential terminating at an ideal surface. At the surface, the model potential jumps abruptly to the vacuum level (solid line). The dashed line represents a more realistic picture, where the potential reaches the vacuum level over some distance.Figure 2. Real part of the type of solution to the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation that corresponds to the bulk states. These states have Bloch character in the bulk, while decaying exponentially into the vacuum.Figure 3. Real part of the type of solution to the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation that corresponds to surface states. These states decay into both the vacuum and the bulk crystal and thus represent states localized at the crystal surface.As stated by Bloch's theorem, eigenstates of the single-electron Schrödinger equation with a perfectly periodic potential, a crystal, are Bloch waves[2]Ψ\n \n n\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n e\n \n \n i\n \n k\n \n ⋅\n \n r\n \n \n \n \n u\n \n n\n \n k\n \n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\Psi _{n{\\boldsymbol {k}}}&=\\mathrm {e} ^{i{\\boldsymbol {k}}\\cdot {\\boldsymbol {r}}}u_{n{\\boldsymbol {k}}}({\\boldsymbol {r}}).\\end{aligned}}}Here \n \n \n \n \n u\n \n n\n \n k\n \n \n \n (\n \n r\n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle u_{n{\\boldsymbol {k}}}({\\boldsymbol {r}})}\n \n is a function with the same periodicity as the crystal, n is the band index and k is the wave number. The allowed wave numbers for a given potential are found by applying the usual Born–von Karman cyclic boundary conditions.[2] The termination of a crystal, i.e. the formation of a surface, obviously causes deviation from perfect periodicity. Consequently, if the cyclic boundary conditions are abandoned in the direction normal to the surface the behavior of electrons will deviate from the behavior in the bulk and some modifications of the electronic structure has to be expected.A simplified model of the crystal potential in one dimension can be sketched as shown in Figure 1.[3] In the crystal, the potential has the periodicity, a, of the lattice while close to the surface it has to somehow attain the value of the vacuum level. The step potential (solid line) shown in Figure 1 is an oversimplification which is mostly convenient for simple model calculations. At a real surface the potential is influenced by image charges and the formation of surface dipoles and it rather looks as indicated by the dashed line.Given the potential in Figure 1, it can be shown that the one-dimensional single-electron Schrödinger equation gives two qualitatively different types of solutions.[4]The first type of states (see figure 2) extends into the crystal and has Bloch character there. These type of solutions correspond to bulk states which terminate in an exponentially decaying tail reaching into the vacuum.\nThe second type of states (see figure 3) decays exponentially both into the vacuum and the bulk crystal. These type of solutions correspond to surface states with wave functions localized close to the crystal surface.The first type of solution can be obtained for both metals and semiconductors. In semiconductors though, the associated eigenenergies have to belong to one of the allowed energy bands. The second type of solution exists in forbidden energy gap of semiconductors as well as in local gaps of the projected band structure of metals. It can be shown that the energies of these states all lie within the band gap. As a consequence, in the crystal these states are characterized by an imaginary wavenumber leading to an exponential decay into the bulk.","title":"Origin at condensed matter interfaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shockley-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tamm-6"},{"link_name":"William Shockley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Shockley"},{"link_name":"Igor Tamm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igor_Tamm"},{"link_name":"Schrödinger equation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6dinger_equation"},{"link_name":"nearly free electron approximation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nearly_free_electron_model"},{"link_name":"narrow gap semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narrow_gap_semiconductors"},{"link_name":"tight-binding model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tight_binding"},{"link_name":"wave functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_function"},{"link_name":"linear combinations of atomic orbitals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_combinations_of_atomic_orbitals"},{"link_name":"transition metals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_metal"},{"link_name":"wide gap semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide_gap_semiconductors"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Oura-3"}],"sub_title":"Shockley states and Tamm states","text":"In the discussion of surface states, one generally distinguishes between Shockley states[5] and Tamm states,[6] named after the American physicist William Shockley and the Russian physicist Igor Tamm. There is no strict physical distinction between the two types of states, but the qualitative character and the mathematical approach used in describing them is different.Historically, surface states that arise as solutions to the Schrödinger equation in the framework of the nearly free electron approximation for clean and ideal surfaces, are called Shockley states. Shockley states are thus states that arise due to the change in the electron potential associated solely with the crystal termination. This approach is suited to describe normal metals and some narrow gap semiconductors. Figure 3 shows an example of a Shockley state, derived using the nearly free electron approximation. Within the crystal, Shockley states resemble exponentially-decaying Bloch waves.\nSurface states that are calculated in the framework of a tight-binding model are often called Tamm states. In the tight binding approach, the electronic wave functions are usually expressed as linear combinations of atomic orbitals (LCAO). In contrast to the nearly free electron model used to describe the Shockley states, the Tamm states are suitable to describe also transition metals and wide gap semiconductors.[3] Qualitatively, Tamm states resemble localized atomic or molecular orbitals at the surface.","title":"Origin at condensed matter interfaces"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"topological insulator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Topological_insulator"},{"link_name":"genus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genus_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"geometric topology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_topology"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hasan2010-7"}],"sub_title":"Topological surface states","text":"See also: topological insulatorAll materials can be classified by a single number, a topological invariant; this is constructed out of the bulk electronic wave functions, which are integrated in over the Brillouin zone, in a similar way that the genus is calculated in geometric topology. In certain materials the topological invariant can be changed when certain bulk energy bands invert due to strong spin-orbital coupling. At the interface between an insulator with non-trivial topology, a so-called topological insulator, and one with a trivial topology, the interface must become metallic. More over, the surface state must have linear Dirac-like dispersion with a crossing point which is protected by time reversal symmetry. Such a state is predicted to be robust under disorder, and therefore cannot be easily localized.[7]","title":"Origin at condensed matter interfaces"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Shockley states"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-BasicSurfaceStates-1"},{"link_name":"step function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Step_function"},{"link_name":"wave functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_function"},{"link_name":"Bloch waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloch_wave"},{"link_name":"charge density","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_density"},{"link_name":"double layer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_layer_(interfacial)"},{"link_name":"work function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work_function"}],"sub_title":"Surface states in metals","text":"A simple model for the derivation of the basic properties of states at a metal surface is a semi-infinite periodic chain of identical atoms.[1] In this model, the termination of the chain represents the surface, where the potential attains the value V0 of the vacuum in the form of a step function, figure 1. Within the crystal the potential is assumed periodic with the periodicity a of the lattice.\nThe Shockley states are then found as solutions to the one-dimensional single electron Schrödinger equation[\n \n −\n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 2\n m\n \n \n \n \n \n \n d\n \n 2\n \n \n \n d\n \n z\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n +\n V\n (\n z\n )\n \n ]\n \n Ψ\n (\n z\n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n E\n Ψ\n (\n z\n )\n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\left[-{\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}{\\frac {d^{2}}{dz^{2}}}+V(z)\\right]\\Psi (z)&=&E\\Psi (z),\\end{aligned}}}with the periodic potentialV\n (\n z\n )\n =\n \n {\n \n \n \n \n P\n δ\n (\n z\n +\n l\n a\n )\n ,\n \n \n \n \n for\n \n \n \n z\n <\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n V\n \n 0\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n for\n \n \n \n z\n >\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}V(z)=\\left\\{{\\begin{array}{cc}P\\delta (z+la),&{\\textrm {for}}\\quad z<0\\\\V_{0},&{\\textrm {for}}\\quad z>0\\end{array}}\\right.,\\end{aligned}}}where l is an integer, and P is the normalization factor.\nThe solution must be obtained independently for the two domains z<0 and z>0, where at the domain boundary (z=0) the usual conditions on continuity of the wave function and its derivatives are applied. Since the potential is periodic deep inside the crystal, the electronic wave functions must be Bloch waves here. The solution in the crystal is then a linear combination of an incoming wave and a wave reflected from the surface. For z>0 the solution will be required to decrease exponentially into the vacuumΨ\n (\n z\n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n {\n \n \n \n \n B\n \n u\n \n −\n k\n \n \n \n e\n \n −\n i\n k\n z\n \n \n +\n C\n \n u\n \n k\n \n \n \n e\n \n i\n k\n z\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n for\n \n \n \n z\n <\n 0\n \n \n \n \n A\n exp\n ⁡\n \n [\n \n −\n \n \n 2\n m\n (\n \n V\n \n 0\n \n \n −\n E\n )\n \n \n \n \n z\n ℏ\n \n \n \n ]\n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n for\n \n \n \n z\n >\n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\Psi (z)&=&\\left\\{{\\begin{array}{cc}Bu_{-k}e^{-ikz}+Cu_{k}e^{ikz},&{\\textrm {for}}\\quad z<0\\\\A\\exp \\left[-{\\sqrt {2m(V_{0}-E)}}{\\frac {z}{\\hbar }}\\right],&{\\textrm {for}}\\quad z>0\\end{array}}\\right.,\\end{aligned}}}The wave function for a state at a metal surface is qualitatively shown in figure 2. It is an extended Bloch wave within the crystal with an exponentially decaying tail outside the surface. The consequence of the tail is a deficiency of negative charge density just inside the crystal and an increased negative charge density just outside the surface, leading to the formation of a dipole double layer. The dipole perturbs the potential at the surface leading, for example, to a change of the metal work function.","title":"Shockley states"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BandstructureNFE.PNG"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feng-4"},{"link_name":"standing wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standing_wave"},{"link_name":"wave vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave_vector"},{"link_name":"lattice vector","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lattice_vector&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"reciprocal lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reciprocal_lattice"},{"link_name":"band splitting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Band_splitting&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Brillouin zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brillouin_zone"},{"link_name":"forbidden gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbidden_gap"},{"link_name":"eigenvalue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eigenvalue"},{"link_name":"vacuum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vacuum"}],"sub_title":"Surface states in semiconductors","text":"Figure 4. Electronic band structure in the nearly free electron picture. Away from the Brillouin zone boundary the electron wave function has plane wave character and the dispersion relation is parabolic. At the Brillouin zone boundary the wave function is a standing wave composed of an incoming and a Bragg-reflected wave. This ultimately leads to the creation of a band gap.The nearly free electron approximation can be used to derive the basic properties of surface states for narrow gap semiconductors. The semi-infinite linear chain model is also useful in this case.[4] However, now the potential along the atomic chain is assumed to vary as a cosine functionV\n (\n z\n )\n \n \n \n =\n V\n \n [\n \n exp\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n i\n \n \n \n 2\n π\n z\n \n a\n \n \n \n )\n \n +\n exp\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n −\n i\n \n \n \n 2\n π\n z\n \n a\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 2\n V\n cos\n ⁡\n \n (\n \n \n \n 2\n π\n z\n \n a\n \n \n )\n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{alignedat}{2}V(z)&=V\\left[\\exp \\left(i{\\frac {2\\pi z}{a}}\\right)+\\exp \\left(-i{\\frac {2\\pi z}{a}}\\right)\\right]\\\\&=2V\\cos \\left({\\frac {2\\pi z}{a}}\\right),\\\\\\end{alignedat}}}whereas at the surface the potential is modeled as a step function of height V0.\nThe solutions to the Schrödinger equation must be obtained separately for the two domains z < 0 and z > 0. In the sense of the nearly free electron approximation, the solutions obtained for z < 0 will have plane wave character for wave vectors away from the Brillouin zone boundary \n \n \n \n k\n =\n ±\n π\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k=\\pm \\pi /a}\n \n, where the dispersion relation will be parabolic, as shown in figure 4.\nAt the Brillouin zone boundaries, Bragg reflection occurs resulting in a standing wave consisting of a wave with wave vector \n \n \n \n k\n =\n π\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k=\\pi /a}\n \n and wave vector \n \n \n \n k\n =\n −\n π\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k=-\\pi /a}\n \n.Ψ\n (\n z\n )\n \n \n \n =\n A\n \n e\n \n i\n k\n z\n \n \n +\n B\n \n e\n \n i\n [\n k\n −\n (\n 2\n π\n \n /\n \n a\n )\n ]\n z\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\Psi (z)&=Ae^{ikz}+Be^{i[k-(2\\pi /a)]z}.\\end{aligned}}}Here \n \n \n \n G\n =\n 2\n π\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G=2\\pi /a}\n \n is a lattice vector of the reciprocal lattice (see figure 4).\nSince the solutions of interest are close to the Brillouin zone boundary, we set \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n ⊥\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n π\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n )\n \n \n +\n κ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k_{\\perp }={\\bigl (}\\pi /a{\\bigr )}+\\kappa }\n \n, where κ is a small quantity. The arbitrary constants A,B are found by substitution into the Schrödinger equation. This leads to the following eigenvaluesE\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 2\n m\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n π\n a\n \n \n +\n κ\n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n ±\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n \n [\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n π\n κ\n \n \n m\n a\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n \n \n \n ±\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n π\n κ\n \n \n m\n a\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 1\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}E&={\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\\left({\\frac {\\pi }{a}}+\\kappa \\right)^{2}\\pm |V|\\left[-{\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}\\pi \\kappa }{ma|V|}}\\pm {\\sqrt {\\left({\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}\\pi \\kappa }{ma|V|}}\\right)^{2}+1}}\\right]\\end{aligned}}}demonstrating the band splitting at the edges of the Brillouin zone, where the width of the forbidden gap is given by 2V. The electronic wave functions deep inside the crystal, attributed to the different bands are given byΨ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n C\n \n e\n \n i\n κ\n z\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n e\n \n i\n π\n z\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n +\n \n [\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n π\n κ\n \n \n m\n a\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n \n \n \n ±\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n π\n κ\n \n \n m\n a\n \n |\n \n V\n \n |\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 1\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n e\n \n −\n i\n π\n z\n \n /\n \n a\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\Psi _{i}&=Ce^{i\\kappa z}\\left(e^{i\\pi z/a}+\\left[-{\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}\\pi \\kappa }{ma|V|}}\\pm {\\sqrt {\\left({\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}\\pi \\kappa }{ma|V|}}\\right)^{2}+1}}\\right]e^{-i\\pi z/a}\\right)\\end{aligned}}}Where C is a normalization constant.\nNear the surface at z = 0,\nthe bulk solution has to be fitted to an exponentially decaying solution, which is compatible with the constant potential V0.Ψ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n D\n exp\n ⁡\n \n [\n \n −\n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n m\n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n V\n \n 0\n \n \n −\n E\n )\n \n \n z\n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\Psi _{0}&=D\\exp \\left[-{\\sqrt {{\\frac {2m}{\\hbar ^{2}}}(V_{0}-E)}}z\\right]\\end{aligned}}}It can be shown that the matching conditions can be fulfilled for every possible energy eigenvalue which lies in the allowed band. As in the case for metals, this type of solution represents standing Bloch waves extending into the crystal which spill over into the vacuum at the surface. A qualitative plot of the wave function is shown in figure 2.If imaginary values of κ are considered, i.e. κ = - i·q for z ≤ 0 and one definesi\n sin\n ⁡\n (\n 2\n δ\n )\n \n \n \n =\n −\n i\n \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n π\n q\n \n \n m\n a\n V\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}i\\sin(2\\delta )&=-i{\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}\\pi q}{maV}}\\end{aligned}}}one obtains solutions with a decaying amplitude into the crystalΨ\n \n i\n \n \n (\n z\n ≤\n 0\n )\n \n \n \n =\n F\n \n e\n \n q\n z\n \n \n \n [\n \n exp\n ⁡\n \n [\n \n i\n \n (\n \n \n \n π\n a\n \n \n z\n ±\n δ\n \n )\n \n \n ]\n \n ±\n exp\n ⁡\n \n [\n \n −\n i\n \n (\n \n \n \n π\n a\n \n \n z\n ±\n δ\n \n )\n \n \n ]\n \n \n ]\n \n \n e\n \n ∓\n i\n δ\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\Psi _{i}(z\\leq 0)&=Fe^{qz}\\left[\\exp \\left[i\\left({\\frac {\\pi }{a}}z\\pm \\delta \\right)\\right]\\pm \\exp \\left[-i\\left({\\frac {\\pi }{a}}z\\pm \\delta \\right)\\right]\\right]e^{\\mp i\\delta }\\end{aligned}}}The energy eigenvalues are given byE\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n 2\n m\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n (\n \n \n π\n a\n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n q\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ]\n \n ±\n V\n \n \n 1\n −\n \n \n (\n \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n π\n q\n \n \n m\n a\n V\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}E&={\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}}{2m}}\\left[\\left({\\frac {\\pi }{a}}\\right)^{2}-q^{2}\\right]\\pm V{\\sqrt {1-\\left({\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}\\pi q}{maV}}\\right)^{2}}}\\end{aligned}}}E is real for large negative z, as required. Also in the range \n \n \n \n 0\n ≤\n q\n ≤\n \n q\n \n m\n a\n x\n \n \n =\n \n \n \n m\n a\n V\n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n π\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0\\leq q\\leq q_{max}={\\frac {maV}{\\hbar ^{2}\\pi }}}\n \n all energies of the surface states fall into the forbidden gap. The complete solution is again found by matching the bulk solution to the exponentially decaying vacuum solution. The result is a state localized at the surface decaying both into the crystal and the vacuum. A qualitative plot is shown in figure 3.","title":"Shockley states"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orbitals.PNG"},{"link_name":"monatomic linear chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_wire"}],"sub_title":"Surface states of a three-dimensional crystal","text":"Figure 5. Atomic like orbitals of a Pt-atom. The orbitals shown are part of the double-zeta basis set used in density functional calculations. The orbitals are indexed according to the usual quantum numbers (n,l,m).The results for surface states of a monatomic linear chain can readily be generalized to the case of a three-dimensional crystal. Because of the two-dimensional periodicity of the surface lattice, Bloch's theorem must hold for translations parallel to the surface. As a result, the surface states can be written as the product of a Bloch waves with k-values \n \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n =\n (\n \n k\n \n x\n \n \n ,\n \n k\n \n y\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\textbf {k}}_{||}=(k_{x},k_{y})}\n \n parallel to the surface and a function representing a one-dimensional surface stateΨ\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n \n \n r\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n ψ\n \n 0\n \n \n (\n z\n )\n \n u\n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n r\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n )\n \n e\n \n −\n i\n \n \n \n r\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}\\Psi _{0}({\\textbf {r}})&=&\\psi _{0}(z)u_{{\\textbf {k}}_{||}}({\\textbf {r}}_{||})e^{-i{\\textbf {r}}_{||}\\cdot {\\textbf {k}}_{||}}\\end{aligned}}}The energy of this state is increased by a term \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{||}}\n \n so that we haveE\n \n s\n \n \n =\n \n E\n \n 0\n \n \n +\n \n \n \n \n ℏ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n m\n \n ∗\n \n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}E_{s}=E_{0}+{\\frac {\\hbar ^{2}{\\textbf {k}}_{||}^{2}}{2m^{*}}},\\end{aligned}}}where m* is the effective mass of the electron. The matching conditions at the crystal surface, i.e. at z=0, have to be satisfied for each \n \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\textbf {k}}_{||}}\n \n separately and for each \n \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\textbf {k}}_{||}}\n \n a single, but generally different energy level for the surface state is obtained.","title":"Shockley states"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brillouin zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brillouin_zone"},{"link_name":"energy bands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_band"},{"link_name":"forbidden energy gap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Band_gap"},{"link_name":"surface resonance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Surface_resonance&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bloch waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloch_wave"}],"sub_title":"True surface states and surface resonances","text":"A surface state is described by the energy \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{s}}\n \n and its wave vector \n \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\textbf {k}}_{||}}\n \n parallel to the surface, while a bulk state is characterized by both \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {k} _{||}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n ⊥\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {k} _{\\perp }}\n \n wave numbers. In the two-dimensional Brillouin zone of the surface, for each value of \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n \n |\n \n \n |\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {k} _{||}}\n \n therefore a rod of \n \n \n \n \n \n k\n \n \n ⊥\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {k} _{\\perp }}\n \n is extending into the three-dimensional Brillouin zone of the Bulk. Bulk energy bands that are being cut by these rods allow states that penetrate deep into the crystal. One therefore generally distinguishes between true surface states and surface resonances. True surface states are characterized by energy bands that are not degenerate with bulk energy bands. These states exist in the forbidden energy gap only and are therefore localized at the surface, similar to the picture given in figure 3. At energies where a surface and a bulk state are degenerate, the surface and the bulk state can mix, forming a surface resonance. Such a state can propagate deep into the bulk, similar to Bloch waves, while retaining an enhanced amplitude close to the surface.","title":"Shockley states"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"tight-binding model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tight_binding"},{"link_name":"linear combination of atomic orbitals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_combination_of_atomic_orbitals_molecular_orbital_method"},{"link_name":"orbital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_orbital"},{"link_name":"dangling bonds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dangling_bond"},{"link_name":"transition metals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transition_metal"},{"link_name":"wide-bandgap semiconductors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wide-bandgap_semiconductor"}],"text":"Surface states that are calculated in the framework of a tight-binding model are often called Tamm states. In the tight binding approach, the electronic wave functions are usually expressed as a linear combination of atomic orbitals (LCAO), see figure 5. In this picture, it is easy to comprehend that the existence of a surface will give rise to surface states with energies different from the energies of the bulk states: Since the atoms residing in the topmost surface layer are missing their bonding partners on one side, their orbitals have less overlap with the orbitals of neighboring atoms. The splitting and shifting of energy levels of the atoms forming the crystal is therefore smaller at the surface than in the bulk.If a particular orbital is responsible for the chemical bonding, e.g. the sp3 hybrid in Si or Ge, it is strongly affected by the presence of the surface, bonds are broken, and the remaining lobes of the orbital stick out from the surface. They are called dangling bonds. The energy levels of such states are expected to significantly shift from the bulk values.In contrast to the nearly free electron model used to describe the Shockley states, the Tamm states are suitable to describe also transition metals and wide-bandgap semiconductors.","title":"Tamm states"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"intrinsic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrinsic"},{"link_name":"Extrinsic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extrinsic"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seidel-8"}],"text":"Surface states originating from clean and well ordered surfaces are usually called intrinsic. These states include states originating from reconstructed surfaces, where the two-dimensional translational symmetry gives rise to the band structure in the k space of the surface.Extrinsic surface states are usually defined as states not originating from a clean and well ordered surface. Surfaces that fit into the category extrinsic are:[8]Surfaces with defects, where the translational symmetry of the surface is broken.\nSurfaces with adsorbates\nInterfaces between two materials, such as a semiconductor-oxide or semiconductor-metal interface\nInterfaces between solid and liquid phases.Generally, extrinsic surface states cannot easily be characterized in terms of their chemical, physical or structural properties.","title":"Extrinsic surface states"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Experimental observation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ARPES","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ARPES"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_photoelectron_spectroscopy"}],"sub_title":"Angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy","text":"An experimental technique to measure the dispersion of surface states is angle resolved photoemission spectroscopy (ARPES) or angle resolved ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy (ARUPS).","title":"Experimental observation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"scanning tunneling microscope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_microscope"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-%22Oka_2014%22-9"}],"sub_title":"Scanning tunneling microscopy","text":"The surface state dispersion can be measured using a scanning tunneling microscope; in these experiments, periodic modulations in the surface state density, which arise from scattering off of surface impurities or step edges, are measured by an STM tip at a given bias voltage. The wavevector versus bias (energy) of the surface state electrons can be fit to a free-electron model with effective mass and surface state onset energy.[9]","title":"Experimental observation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Fowler-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seitz-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davison-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ren2002-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ren2006-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ren2017-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-eastham1973-16"},{"link_name":"Particle in a one-dimensional lattice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_in_a_one-dimensional_lattice"},{"link_name":"Particle in a box","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Particle_in_a_box"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ren2006-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ren2017-15"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hladky2005-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EL2007-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ELB2007-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ELH2008-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EL2009-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ELH2013-23"}],"text":"A naturally simple but fundamental question is how many surface states are in a band gap in a one-dimensional crystal of length \n \n \n \n N\n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Na}\n \n (\n \n \n \n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle a}\n \n is the potential period, and \n \n \n \n N\n \n \n {\\displaystyle N}\n \n is a positive integer)? A well-accepted concept proposed by Fowler[10] first in 1933, then written in Seitz's classic book[11] that \"in a finite one-dimensional crystal the surface states occur in pairs, one state being associated with each end of the crystal.\" Such a concept seemly was never doubted since then for nearly a century, as shown, for example, in.[12]\nHowever, a recent new investigation[13][14][15]\ngives an entirely different answer.The investigation tries to understand electronic states in ideal crystals of finite size based on the mathematical theory of periodic differential equations.[16] This theory provides some fundamental new understandings of those electronic states, including surface states.The theory found that a one-dimensional finite crystal with two ends at \n \n \n \n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\tau }\n \n and \n \n \n \n N\n a\n +\n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle Na+\\tau }\n \n \nalways has one and only one state whose energy and properties depend on \n \n \n \n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\tau }\n \n but not \n \n \n \n N\n \n \n {\\displaystyle N}\n \n for each band gap. This state is either a band-edge state or a surface state in the band gap(see, Particle in a one-dimensional lattice, Particle in a box).\nNumerical calculations have confirmed such findings.[14][15] \nFurther, these behaviors have been seen in different one-dimensional systems, such as in.[17][18][19][20][21][22][23]Therefore:The fundamental property of a surface state is that its existence and properties depend on the location of the periodicity truncation.\nTruncation of the lattice's periodic potential may or may not lead to a surface state in a band gap.\nAn ideal one-dimensional crystal of finite length \n \n \n \n L\n =\n N\n a\n \n \n {\\displaystyle L=Na}\n \n with two ends can have, at most, only one surface state at one end in each band gap.Further investigations extended to multi-dimensional cases found thatAn ideal simple three-dimensional finite crystal may have vertex-like, edge-like, surface-like, and bulk-like states.\nA surface state is always in a band gap is only valid for one-dimensional cases.","title":"A recent new theory"}]

[{"image_text":"Figure 1. Simplified one-dimensional model of a periodic crystal potential terminating at an ideal surface. At the surface, the model potential jumps abruptly to the vacuum level (solid line). The dashed line represents a more realistic picture, where the potential reaches the vacuum level over some distance.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/FigPotential.PNG/350px-FigPotential.PNG"},{"image_text":"Figure 2. Real part of the type of solution to the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation that corresponds to the bulk states. These states have Bloch character in the bulk, while decaying exponentially into the vacuum.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Solution1.PNG/350px-Solution1.PNG"},{"image_text":"Figure 3. Real part of the type of solution to the one-dimensional Schrödinger equation that corresponds to surface states. These states decay into both the vacuum and the bulk crystal and thus represent states localized at the crystal surface.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Solution2.PNG/350px-Solution2.PNG"},{"image_text":"Figure 4. Electronic band structure in the nearly free electron picture. Away from the Brillouin zone boundary the electron wave function has plane wave character and the dispersion relation is parabolic. At the Brillouin zone boundary the wave function is a standing wave composed of an incoming and a Bragg-reflected wave. This ultimately leads to the creation of a band gap.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4a/BandstructureNFE.PNG"},{"image_text":"Figure 5. Atomic like orbitals of a Pt-atom. The orbitals shown are part of the double-zeta basis set used in density functional calculations. The orbitals are indexed according to the usual quantum numbers (n,l,m).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Orbitals.PNG/350px-Orbitals.PNG"}]

[{"reference":"Sidney G. Davison; Maria Steslicka (1992). Basic Theory of Surface States. Clarendon Press. ISBN 0-19-851990-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=rR-PUXTHXIkC","url_text":"Basic Theory of Surface States"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-851990-7","url_text":"0-19-851990-7"}]},{"reference":"C. Kittel (1996). Introduction to Solid State Physics. Wiley. pp. 80–150. ISBN 0-471-14286-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introduction_to_Solid_State_Physics","url_text":"Introduction to Solid State Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-14286-7","url_text":"0-471-14286-7"}]},{"reference":"K. Oura; V.G. Lifshifts; A.A. Saranin; A. V. Zotov; M. Katayama (2003). \"11\". Surface Science. 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Bibcode:2006escf.book.....R.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006escf.book.....R","url_text":"2006escf.book.....R"}]},{"reference":"Ren, Shang Yuan (2017). Electronic States in Crystals of Finite Size: Quantum Confinement of Bloch Waves (2 ed.). Singapore, Springer.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Eastham, M.S.P. (1973). The Spectral Theory of Periodic Differential Equations. Edinburgh, Scottish Academic Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hladky-Henniona, Anne-Christine; Allan, Guy (2005). \"Localized modes in a one-dimensional diatomic chain of coupled spheres\" (PDF). Journal of Applied Physics. 98 (5): 054909 (1-7). Bibcode:2005JAP....98e4909H. doi:10.1063/1.2034082.","urls":[{"url":"https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00124477/file/Hladky-Hennion_2005_1.2034082.pdf","url_text":"\"Localized modes in a one-dimensional diatomic chain of coupled spheres\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2005JAP....98e4909H","url_text":"2005JAP....98e4909H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.2034082","url_text":"10.1063/1.2034082"}]},{"reference":"Ren, Shang Yuan; Chang, Yia-Chung (2007). \"Theory of confinement effects in finite one-dimensional phononic crystals\". Physical Review B. 75 (21): 212301(1-4). 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PMID 17930167.","urls":[{"url":"https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00283161/file/elboudouti2007.pdf","url_text":"\"Two types of modes in finite size one-dimensional coaxial photonic crystals: General rules and experimental evidence\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007PhRvE..76b6607E","url_text":"2007PhRvE..76b6607E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevE.76.026607","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevE.76.026607"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17930167","url_text":"17930167"}]},{"reference":"El Boudouti, E. H.; El Hassouani, Y.; Djafari-Rouhani, B.; Aynaou, H. (2007). \"Surface and confined acoustic waves in finite size 1D solid-fluid phononic crystals\". Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 92 (1): 1–4. Bibcode:2007JPhCS..92a2113E. doi:10.1088/1742-6596/92/1/012113. S2CID 250673169.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F92%2F1%2F012113","url_text":"\"Surface and confined acoustic waves in finite size 1D solid-fluid phononic crystals\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007JPhCS..92a2113E","url_text":"2007JPhCS..92a2113E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1088%2F1742-6596%2F92%2F1%2F012113","url_text":"10.1088/1742-6596/92/1/012113"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:250673169","url_text":"250673169"}]},{"reference":"El Hassouani, Y.; El Boudouti, E. H.; Djafari-Rouhani, B.; Rais, R (2008). \"Sagittal acoustic waves in finite solid-fluid superlattices: Band-gap structure, surface and confined modes, and omnidirectional reflection and selective transmission\" (PDF). Physical Review B. 78 (1): 174306（1–23）. Bibcode:2008PhRvB..78q4306E. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.78.174306.","urls":[{"url":"https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00357386/file/elhassouani2008.pdf","url_text":"\"Sagittal acoustic waves in finite solid-fluid superlattices: Band-gap structure, surface and confined modes, and omnidirectional reflection and selective transmission\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2008PhRvB..78q4306E","url_text":"2008PhRvB..78q4306E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1103%2FPhysRevB.78.174306","url_text":"10.1103/PhysRevB.78.174306"}]},{"reference":"El Boudouti, E. H.; Djafari-Rouhani, B.; Akjouj, A.; Dobrzynski, L. (2009). \"Acoustic waves in solid and fluid layered materials\". Surface Science Reports. 64 (1): 471–594. Bibcode:2009SurSR..64..471E. doi:10.1016/j.surfrep.2009.07.005.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009SurSR..64..471E","url_text":"2009SurSR..64..471E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.surfrep.2009.07.005","url_text":"10.1016/j.surfrep.2009.07.005"}]},{"reference":"El Hassouani, Y.; El Boudouti, E.H.; Djafari-Rouhani, B. (2013). \"One-Dimensional Phononic Crystals\". In Deymier, P.A. (ed.). Acoustic Metamaterials and Phononic Crystals, Springer Series in Solid-State Sciences 173. Vol. 173. Berlin, Springer-Verlag. pp. 45–93. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-31232-8_3. ISBN 978-3-642-31231-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-642-31232-8_3","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-642-31232-8_3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-642-31231-1","url_text":"978-3-642-31231-1"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.3cv

Power over Ethernet

["1 Techniques","2 Standards development","2.1 Two- and four-pair Ethernet","2.2 Single-pair Ethernet","3 Uses","4 Terminology","4.1 Power sourcing equipment","4.2 Powered device","5 Power management features and integration","5.1 Integrating EEE and PoE","6 Standard implementation","6.1 Powering devices","6.2 Configuration via Ethernet layer 2 LLDP","7 Non-standard implementations","7.1 Cisco","7.2 Analog Devices","7.3 Microsemi","7.4 Passive","8 Power capacity limits","9 Pinouts","10 References","11 External links"]

System for delivering power along with data over an Ethernet cable "PoE" redirects here. For other uses, see Poe (disambiguation). "PoE++" and "4PPoE" redirect here. For the point-to-point protocol, see PPPoE. Not to be confused with Ethernet over power (HomePlug) particularly IEEE standard IEEE 1901. In this configuration, an Ethernet connection includes Power over Ethernet (PoE) (gray cable looping below), and a PoE splitter provides a separate data cable (gray, looping above) and power cable (black, also looping above) for a wireless access point (WAP). The splitter is the silver and black box in the middle between the wiring junction box (left) and the access point (right). The PoE connection eliminates the need for a nearby power outlet. In another common configuration, the access point or other connected device includes internal PoE splitting and the external splitter is not necessary. Power over Ethernet (PoE) describes any of several standards or ad hoc systems that pass electric power along with data on twisted-pair Ethernet cabling. This allows a single cable to provide both a data connection and enough electricity to power networked devices such as wireless access points (WAPs), IP cameras and VoIP phones. Techniques There are several common techniques for transmitting power over Ethernet cabling. Three of them have been standardized by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standard IEEE 802.3 since 2003. The three techniques are: alternative A, which uses the same two of the four signal pairs that 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX use for data in typical Cat 5 cabling. alternative B, which separates the data and the power conductors for 10BASE-T/100BASE-TX, making troubleshooting easier. 4PPoE, which uses all four twisted pairs in parallel, increasing the achievable power. Alternative A transmits power on the same wires as data for 10 and 100 Mbit/s Ethernet variants. This is similar to the phantom power technique commonly used for powering condenser microphones. Power is transmitted on the data conductors by applying a common voltage to each pair. Because twisted-pair Ethernet uses differential signaling, this does not interfere with data transmission. The common-mode voltage is easily extracted using the center tap of the standard Ethernet pulse transformer. For Gigabit Ethernet and faster, both alternatives A and B transmit power on wire pairs also used for data since all four pairs are used for data transmission at these speeds. 4PPoE provides power using all four pairs of a twisted-pair cable. This enables higher power for applications like pan–tilt–zoom cameras (PTZ), high-performance WAPs, or even charging laptop batteries. In addition to standardizing existing practice for spare-pair (Alternative B), common-mode data pair power (Alternative A) and 4-pair transmission (4PPoE), the IEEE PoE standards provide for signaling between the power sourcing equipment (PSE) and powered device (PD). This signaling allows the presence of a conformant device to be detected by the power source, and allows the device and source to negotiate the amount of power required or available while avoiding damage to non-compatible devices. Standards development Two- and four-pair Ethernet The original IEEE 802.3af-2003 PoE standard provides up to 15.4 W of DC power (minimum 44 V DC and 350 mA) on each port. Only 12.95 W is assured to be available at the powered device as some power dissipates in the cable. The IEEE 802.3at-2009 PoE standard, also known as PoE+ or PoE plus, provides up to 25.5 W of power for Type 2 devices. The 2009 standard prohibits a powered device from using all four pairs for power. Both of these standards have since been incorporated into the IEEE 802.3-2012 publication. The IEEE 802.3bt-2018 standard further expands the power capabilities of 802.3at. It is also known as PoE++ or 4PPoE. The standard introduces two additional power types: up to 51 W delivered power (Type 3) and up to 71.3 W delivered power (Type 4), optionally by using all four pairs for power. Each pair of twisted pairs needs to handle a current of up to 600 mA (Type 3) or 960 mA (Type 4). Additionally, support for 2.5GBASE-T, 5GBASE-T and 10GBASE-T is included. This development opens the door to new applications and expands the use of applications such as high-performance wireless access points and surveillance cameras. Single-pair Ethernet The IEEE 802.3bu-2016 amendment introduced single-pair Power over Data Lines (PoDL) for the single-pair Ethernet standards 100BASE-T1 and 1000BASE-T1 intended for automotive and industrial applications. On the two-pair or four-pair standards, the same power voltage is applied to each conductor of the pair, so that within each pair there is no differential voltage other than that representing the transmitted data. With single-pair Ethernet, power is transmitted in parallel to the data. PoDL initially defined ten power classes, ranging from 0.5 to 50 W (at PD). Subsequently, PoDL was added to the single-pair variants 10BASE-T1, 2.5GBASE-T1, 5GBASE-T1, and 10GBASE-T1 and as of 2021 includes a total of 15 power classes with additional intermediate voltage and power levels. Uses Products using PoE An IP camera powered by Power over Ethernet Avaya IP Phone 1140E with PoE support A CableFree FOR3 microwave link installed in the UAE: a full outdoor radio featuring proprietary high power over Ethernet Cisco 7906 VoIP phone with PoE Examples of devices powered by PoE include: VoIP phones IP cameras including PTZs WAPs IP TV (IPTV) decoders Network routers A mini network switch installed in distant rooms, to support a small cluster of Ethernet ports from one uplink cable. PoE power is fed into the PD (or PoE in) port. These switches may in turn power remote PoE devices using PoE pass through. Intercom and public address systems and hallway speaker amplifiers Wall clocks in rooms and hallways, with time set using Network Time Protocol (NTP) Outdoor roof mounted radios with integrated antennas, 4G/LTE, 802.11 or 802.16 based wireless CPEs (customer premises equipment) used by wireless ISPs Outdoor point to point microwave and millimeter wave radios and some Free Space Optics (FSO) units usually featuring proprietary PoE Industrial control system components including sensors, controllers, meters etc. Access control components including help-points, intercoms, entry cards, keyless entry, etc. Intelligent lighting controllers and Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Lighting fixtures Stage and Theatrical devices, such as networked audio breakout and routing boxes Remote Point Of Sale (POS) kiosks Inline Ethernet extenders PoE Splitters that output the power, often at a different voltage (e.g. 5V), to power a remote device or charge a mobile phone Terminology Power sourcing equipment Power sourcing equipment (PSE) are devices that provide (source) power on the Ethernet cable. This device may be a network switch, commonly called an endspan (IEEE 802.3af refers to it as endpoint), or an intermediary device between a non-PoE-capable switch and a PoE device, an external PoE injector, called a midspan device. Powered device A powered device (PD) is any device powered by PoE, thus consuming energy. Examples include wireless access points, VoIP phones, and IP cameras. Many powered devices have an auxiliary power connector for an optional external power supply. Depending on the design, some, none, or all of the device's power can be supplied from the auxiliary port, with the auxiliary port also sometimes acting as backup power in case PoE-supplied power fails. Power management features and integration Avaya ERS 5500 switch with 48 Power over Ethernet ports Advocates of PoE expect PoE to become a global long term DC power cabling standard and replace a multiplicity of individual AC adapters, which cannot be easily centrally managed. Critics of this approach argue that PoE is inherently less efficient than AC power due to the lower voltage, and this is made worse by the thin conductors of Ethernet. Advocates of PoE, like the Ethernet Alliance, point out that quoted losses are for worst case scenarios in terms of cable quality, length and power consumption by powered devices. In any case, where the central PoE supply replaces several dedicated AC circuits, transformers and inverters, the power loss in cabling can be justifiable. Integrating EEE and PoE The integration of PoE with the IEEE 802.3az Energy-Efficient Ethernet (EEE) standard potentially produces additional energy savings. Pre-standard integrations of EEE and PoE (such as Marvell's EEPoE outlined in a May 2011 white paper) claim to achieve a savings upwards of 3 W per link. This saving is especially significant as higher power devices come online. Standard implementation Standards-based Power over Ethernet is implemented following the specifications in IEEE 802.3af-2003 (which was later incorporated as clause 33 into IEEE 802.3-2005) or the 2009 update, IEEE 802.3at. The standards require category 5 cable or better for high power levels but allow using category 3 cable if less power is required. Power is supplied as a common-mode signal over two or more of the differential pairs of wires found in the Ethernet cables and comes from a power supply within a PoE-enabled networking device such as an Ethernet switch or can be injected into a cable run with a midspan power supply, an additional PoE power source that can be used in combination with a non-PoE switch. A phantom power technique is used to allow the powered pairs to also carry data. This permits its use not only with 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX, which use only two of the four pairs in the cable, but also with 1000BASE-T (gigabit Ethernet), 2.5GBASE-T, 5GBASE-T, and 10GBASE-T which use all four pairs for data transmission. This is possible because all versions of Ethernet over twisted pair cable specify differential data transmission over each pair with transformer coupling; the DC supply and load connections can be made to the transformer center-taps at each end. Each pair thus operates in common mode as one side of the DC supply, so two pairs are required to complete the circuit. The polarity of the DC supply may be inverted by crossover cables; the powered device must operate with either pair: spare pairs 4–5 and 7–8 or data pairs 1–2 and 3–6. Polarity is defined by the standards on spare pairs, and ambiguously implemented for data pairs, with the use of a diode bridge. Comparison of PoE parameters Property 802.3af (802.3at Type 1), PoE 802.3at Type 2, PoE+ 802.3bt Type 3, 4PPoE or PoE++ 802.3bt Type 4, 4PPoE or PoE++ Power available at PD 12.95 W 25.50 W 51 W 71.3 W Maximum power delivered by PSE 15.40 W 30.0 W 60 W 90 W Voltage range (at PSE) 44.0–57.0 V 50.0–57.0 V 50.0–57.0 V 52.0–57.0 V Voltage range (at PD) 37.0–57.0 V 42.5–57.0 V 42.5–57.0 V 41.1–57.0 V Maximum current Imax 350 mA 600 mA 600 mA per pair 960 mA per pair Maximum cable resistance per pairset 20 Ω (Category 3) 12.5 Ω (Category 5) 12.5 Ω 12.5 Ω Power management Three power class levels (1–3) negotiated by signature Four power class levels (1–4) negotiated by signature or 0.1 W steps negotiated by LLDP Six power class levels (1–6) negotiated by signature or 0.1 W steps negotiated by LLDP Eight power class levels (1–8) negotiated by signature or 0.1 W steps negotiated by LLDP Derating of maximum cable ambient operating temperature None 5 °C (9 °F) with one mode (two pairs) active 10 °C (20 °F) with more than half of bundled cables pairs at Imax 10 °C (20 °F) with temperature planning required Supported cabling Category 3 and Category 5 Category 5 Category 5 Category 5 Supported modes Mode A (endspan), Mode B (midspan) Mode A, Mode B Mode A, Mode B, 4-pair Mode 4-pair Mode Mandatory Notes: ^ Most switched-mode power supplies within the powered device will lose another 10 to 25% of the available power to heat. ^ More stringent cable specification allows assumption of more current carrying capacity and lower resistance (20.0 Ω for Category 3 versus 12.5 Ω for Category 5). Powering devices Three modes, A, B, and 4-pair are available. Mode A delivers power on the data pairs of 100BASE-TX or 10BASE-T. Mode B delivers power on the spare pairs. 4-pair delivers power on all four pairs. PoE can also be used on 1000BASE-T, 2.5GBASE-T, 5GBASE-T and 10GBASE-T Ethernet, in which case there are no spare pairs and all power is delivered using the phantom technique. Mode A has two alternate configurations (MDI and MDI-X), using the same pairs but with different polarities. In mode A, pins 1 and 2 (pair #2 in T568B wiring) form one side of the 48 V DC, and pins 3 and 6 (pair #3 in T568B) form the other side. These are the same two pairs used for data transmission in 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX, allowing the provision of both power and data over only two pairs in such networks. The free polarity allows PoE to accommodate for crossover cables, patch cables and Auto MDI-X. In mode B, pins 4–5 (pair #1 in both T568A and T568B) form one side of the DC supply and pins 7–8 (pair #4 in both T568A and T568B) provide the return; these are the "spare" pairs in 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX. Mode B, therefore, requires a 4-pair cable. The PSE, not the PD, decides whether power mode A or B shall be used. PDs that implement only mode A or mode B are disallowed by the standard. The PSE can implement mode A or B or both. A PD indicates that it is standards-compliant by placing a 25 kΩ resistor between the powered pairs. If the PSE detects a resistance that is too high or too low (including a short circuit), no power is applied. This protects devices that do not support PoE. An optional power class feature allows the PD to indicate its power requirements by changing the sense resistance at higher voltages. To retain power, the PD must use at least 5–10 mA for at least 60 ms at a time. If the PD goes more than 400 ms without meeting this requirement, the PSE will consider the device disconnected and, for safety reasons, remove power. There are two types of PSEs: endspans and midspans. Endspans (commonly called PoE switches) are Ethernet switches that include the power over Ethernet transmission circuitry. Midspans are power injectors that stand between a regular Ethernet switch and the powered device, injecting power without affecting the data. Endspans are normally used on new installations or when the switch has to be replaced for other reasons (such as moving from 10/100 Mbit/s to 1 Gbit/s), which makes it convenient to add the PoE capability. Midspans are used when there is no desire to replace and configure a new Ethernet switch, and only PoE needs to be added to the network. Stages of powering up a PoE link Stage Action Volts specified (V) 802.3af 802.3at Detection PSE detects if the PD has the correct signature resistance of 19–26.5 kΩ 2.7–10.1 Classification PSE detects resistor indicating power range (see below) 14.5–20.5 Mark 1 Signals PSE is 802.3at capable. PD presents a 0.25–4 mA load. — 7–10 Class 2 PSE outputs classification voltage again to indicate 802.3at capability — 14.5–20.5 Mark 2 Signals PSE is 802.3at capable. PD presents a 0.25–4 mA load. — 7–10 Startup Startup voltage > 42 > 42 Normal operation Supply power to device 37–57 42.5–57 IEEE 802.3at capable devices are also referred to as Type 2. An 802.3at PSE may also use LLDP communication to signal 802.3at capability. Power levels available Class Usage Classification current (mA) Power range at PD (W) Max power from PSE (W) Class description 0 Default 0–5 0.44–12.94 15.4 Classification unimplemented 1 Optional 8–13 0.44–3.84 4.00 Very Low power 2 Optional 16–21 3.84–6.49 7.00 Low power 3 Optional 25–31 6.49–12.95 15.4 Mid power 4 Valid for Type 2 (802.3at) devices,not allowed for 802.3af devices 35–45 12.95–25.50 30 High power 5 Valid for Type 3 (802.3bt) devices 36–44 & 1–4 40 (4-pair) 45 6 36-44 & 9–12 51 (4-pair) 60 7 Valid for Type 4 (802.3bt) devices 36–44 & 17–20 62 (4-pair) 75 8 36–44 & 26–30 71.3 (4-pair) 90 Class 4 can only be used by IEEE 802.3at (Type 2) devices, requiring valid Class 2 and Mark 2 currents for the power up stages. An 802.3af device presenting a class 4 current is considered non-compliant and, instead, will be treated as a Class 0 device.: 13  Configuration via Ethernet layer 2 LLDP Link Layer Discovery Protocol (LLDP) is a layer-2 Ethernet protocol for managing devices. LLDP allows an exchange of information between a PSE and a PD. This information is formatted in type–length–value (TLV) format. PoE standards define TLV structures used by PSEs and PDs to signal and negotiate available power. LLDP Power via MDI TLV IEEE 802.3-2015 TLV Header TLV information string Type  (7 bits) Length (9 bits) IEEE 802.3 OUI  (3 octets) IEEE 802.3 subtype(1 octet) MDI power support(1 octet) PSE power pair(1 octet) Power class (1 octet) Type/source priority (1 octet) PD requested power value (2 octets) PSE allocated power value (2 octets) 127 12 00-12-0F 2 b0 port class: 1=PSE; 0=PDb1 PSE MDI power supportb2 PSE MDI power stateb3 PSE pairs control abilityb7-4 reserved 1=signal pair2=spare pair 1=class 02=class 13=class 24=class 35=class 4 b7 power type: 1=Type 1; 0=Type 2b6 power type: 1=PD; 0=PSE b5-4: power sourceb3-2: reservedb0-1 power priority: 11=low;10=high;01=critical;00=unknown 0–25.5 W in 0.1 W steps 0–25.5 W in 0.1 W steps Legacy LLDP Power via MDI TLV IEEE 802.1AB-2009 TLV Header TLV information string Type  (7 bits) Length (9 bits) IEEE 802.3 OUI  (3 octets) IEEE 802.3 subtype(1 octet) MDI power support(1 octet) PSE power pair(1 octet) Power class (1 octet) 127 7 00-12-0F 2 b0 port class: 1=PSE; 0=PDb1 PSE MDI power supportb2 PSE MDI power stateb3 PSE pairs control abilityb7-4 reserved 1=signal pair2=spare pair 1=class 02=class 13=class 24=class 35=class 4 Legacy LLDP- MED Advanced Power Management: 8  TLV Header MED Header Extended power via MDI Type  (7 bits) Length (9 bits) TIA OUI  (3 octets) Extended power via MDI subtype (1 octet) Power type (2 bits) Power source (2 bits) Power priority (4 bits) Power value (2 octets) 127 7 00-12-BB 4 PSE or PD Normal or Backup conservation Critical, High, Low 0–102.3 W in 0.1 W steps The setup phases are as follows: PSE (provider) tests PD (consumer) physically using 802.3af phase class 3. PSE powers up PD. PD sends to PSE: I'm a PD, max power = X, max power requested = X. PSE sends to PD: I'm a PSE, max power allowed = X. PD may now use the amount of power as specified by the PSE. The rules for this power negotiation are: PD shall never request more power than physical 802.3af class PD shall never draw more than max power advertised by PSE PSE may deny any PD drawing more power than max allowed by PSE PSE shall not reduce power allocated to PD that is in use PSE may request reduced power, via conservation mode: 10  Non-standard implementations There are more than ten proprietary implementations. The more common ones are discussed below. Cisco Some Cisco WLAN access points and VoIP phones supported a proprietary form of PoE many years before there was an IEEE standard for delivering PoE. Cisco's original PoE implementation is not software upgradeable to the IEEE 802.3af standard. Cisco's original PoE equipment is capable of delivering up to 10 W per port. The amount of power to be delivered is negotiated between the endpoint and the Cisco switch based on a power value that was added to the Cisco proprietary Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP). CDP is also responsible for dynamically communicating the Voice VLAN value from the Cisco switch to the Cisco VoIP Phone. Under Cisco's pre-standard scheme, the PSE (switch) will send a fast link pulse (FLP) on the transmit pair. The PD (device) connects the transmit line to the receive line via a low-pass filter. The PSE gets the FLP in return. The PSE will provide a common mode current between pairs 1 and 2, resulting in 48 V DC and 6.3 W default of allocated power. The PD must then provide Ethernet link within 5 seconds to the auto-negotiation mode switch port. A later CDP message with a TLV tells the PSE its final power requirement. A discontinuation of link pulses shuts down power. In 2014, Cisco created another non-standard PoE implementation called Universal Power over Ethernet (UPOE). UPOE can use all 4 pairs, after negotiation, to supply up to 60 W. Analog Devices A proprietary high-power development called LTPoE++, using a single Cat 5e Ethernet cable, is capable of supplying varying levels at 38.7, 52.7, 70, and 90 W. Microsemi PowerDsine, acquired by Microsemi in 2007, which was then acquired by Microchip in 2018, has been selling midspan power injectors since 1999. Using Microchip's multi-PoE PSE ICs, PoE injectors and switches can support the IEEE 802.3 PoE standards and also pre-standard configurations. Several companies such as Polycom, 3Com, Lucent and Nortel used PowerDsine's older Power over LAN PoE implementation. Passive In a passive PoE system, the injector does not communicate with the powered device to negotiate its voltage or wattage requirements, but merely supplies power at all times. Common 100 Mbit/s passive applications use the pinout of 802.3af mode B (see § Pinouts) – with DC positive on pins 4 and 5 and DC negative on 7 and 8 and data on 1–2 and 3–6, but polarization may vary. Gigabit passive injectors use a transformer on the data pins to allow power and data to share the cable and are typically compatible with 802.3af Mode A. Passive midspan injectors with up to 12 ports are available. Devices needing 5 volts cannot typically use PoE at 5 V on Ethernet cable beyond short distances (about 15 feet (4.6 m)) as the voltage drop of the cable becomes too significant, so a 24 V or 48 V to 5 V DC-DC converter is required at the remote end. Passive PoE power sources are commonly used with a variety of indoor and outdoor wireless radio equipment, most commonly from Motorola (now Cambium), Ubiquiti Networks, MikroTik and others. Earlier versions of passive PoE 24 VDC power sources shipped with 802.11a, 802.11g and 802.11n based radios are commonly 100 Mbit/s only. Passive DC-to-DC injectors also exist which convert a 9 V to 36 V DC, or 36 V to 72 V DC power source to a stabilized 24 V 1 A, 48 V 0.5 A, or up to 48 V 2.0 A PoE feed with '+' on pins 4 & 5 and '−' on pins 7 & 8. These DC-to-DC PoE injectors are used in various telecom applications. Power capacity limits The ISO/IEC TR 29125 and Cenelec EN 50174-99-1 draft standards outline the cable bundle temperature rise that can be expected from the use of 4PPoE. A distinction is made between two scenarios: bundles heating up from the inside to the outside, and bundles heating up from the outside to match the ambient temperature. The second scenario largely depends on the environment and installation, whereas the first is solely influenced by the cable construction. In a standard unshielded cable, the PoE-related temperature rise increases by a factor of 5. In a shielded cable, this value drops to between 2.5 and 3, depending on the design. Pinouts 802.3af/at/bt standards A and B from the power sourcing equipment perspective (MDI-X) Pins at switch T568A color T568B color 10/100 mode B, DC on spares 10/100 mode A, mixed DC & data 1000 (1 gigabit) mode B, DC & bi-data 1000 (1 gigabit) mode A, DC & bi-data 1000 (1 gigabit) mode A+B (4PPoE), DC & bi-data Pin 1 White/green stripe White/orange stripe Rx + Rx + DC + TxRx A + TxRx A + DC + TxRx A + DC + Pin 2 Green solid Orange solid Rx − Rx − DC + TxRx A − TxRx A − DC + TxRx A − DC + Pin 3 White/orange stripe White/green stripe Tx + Tx + DC − TxRx B + TxRx B + DC − TxRx B + DC − Pin 4 Blue solid DC + Unused TxRx C + DC + TxRx C + TxRx C + DC + Pin 5 White/blue stripe DC + Unused TxRx C − DC + TxRx C − TxRx C − DC + Pin 6 Orange solid Green solid Tx − Tx − DC − TxRx B − TxRx B − DC − TxRx B − DC − Pin 7 White/brown stripe DC − Unused TxRx D + DC − TxRx D + TxRx D + DC − Pin 8 Brown solid DC − Unused TxRx D − DC − TxRx D − TxRx D − DC − Notes: ^ Only supported by 802.3bt for devices that identify as the newly added Type 3 or Type 4. References ^ 802.3af-2003, June 2003 ^ IEEE 802.3-2005, section 2, table 33-5, item 1 ^ IEEE 802.3-2005, section 2, table 33-5, item 4 ^ IEEE 802.3-2005, section 2, table 33-5, item 14 ^ IEEE 802.3-2005, section 2, clause 33.3.5.2 ^ 802.3at Amendment 3: Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) Power via the Media Dependent Interface (MDI) Enhancements, September 11, 2009 ^ "Amendment to IEEE 802.3 Standard Enhances Power Management and Increases Available Power". IEEE. Archived from the original on 2012-10-16. Retrieved 2010-06-24. ^ Clause 33.3.1 stating, "PDs that simultaneously require power from both Mode A and Mode B are specifically not allowed by this standard." ^ IEEE 802.3-2012 Standard for Ethernet, IEEE Standards Association, December 28, 2012 ^ Clause 33.3.1 stating, "A PD may indicate the ability to accept power on both pairsets from a Clause 145 PSE using TLV variable PD 4PID." ^ IEEE 802.3bt 145.1.3 System parameters ^ "IEEE P802.3bt/D1.5 Draft Standard for Ethernet – Amendment: Physical Layer and Management Parameters for DTE Power via MDI over 4-Pair" (PDF). 30 November 2015. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-04-10. Retrieved 2017-04-09. ^ "IEEE P802.3bu 1-Pair Power over Data Lines (PoDL) Task Force". 2017-03-17. Archived from the original on 2017-10-10. Retrieved 2017-10-30. ^ "Automotive power-over-Ethernet standard extends wattage range". 2017-03-13. Archived from the original on 2021-01-22. Retrieved 2021-01-16. ^ a b IEEE 802.3cg-2019 ^ IEEE 802.3ch-2020 ^ "Power over Ethernet". Commercial web page. GarrettCom. Archived from the original on August 29, 2011. Retrieved August 6, 2011. ^ Makdessian, Alec M. "The Bright New Outlook For LEDs: New Drivers, New Possibilities" (PDF). Maxim Integrated. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 December 2022. Retrieved 17 February 2024. ^ "Ethernet Extender for POE and POE Plus equipment". Archived from the original on 2015-09-30. Retrieved 2015-10-26. ^ Cisco Aironet technotes on 1000BASE-T mid-span devices, Archived 2011-08-02 at the Wayback Machine visited 18 July 2011 ^ IEEE 802.3-2008, section 2, clause 33.3.5 ^ IEEE 802.3at-2009, clause 33.3.7 ^ Dave Dwelley (Oct 26, 2003), "Banish Those "Wall Warts" With Power Over Ethernet", Electronic Design, archived from the original on 2017-11-26, retrieved 2018-07-21 ^ David Tremblay; Lennart Yseboodt (November 10, 2017), "Clarifying misperceptions about Power over Ethernet and cable losses", Cabling Installation and Maintenance, archived from the original on 2018-07-22, retrieved 2018-07-21 ^ Roman Kleinerman; Daniel Feldman (May 2011), Power over Ethernet (PoE): An Energy-Efficient Alternative (PDF), Marvell, archived (PDF) from the original on 2016-04-16, retrieved 2016-08-31 ^ a b c IEEE 802.3at-2009, clause 33.1.1c ^ Koussalya Balasubramanian; David Abramson (May 2014). "Base Line Text for IEEE 802.3 BT" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2017-04-02. Retrieved 2017-04-02. ^ https://ethernetalliance.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/04/WP_EA_Overview8023bt_FINAL.pdf ^ a b IEEE 802.3at-2009 Table 33-11 ^ a b IEEE 802.3at-2009 Table 33-18 ^ a b c d e IEEE 802.3bt Table 145-1 ^ a b IEEE 802.3at-2009 Table 33-1 ^ a b IEEE 802.3at-2009 33.1.4 Type 1 and Type 2 system parameters ^ IEEE 802.3bt 145.3.1 PD Type definitions ^ IEEE 802.3bt 145.1.3.1 Cabling requirements ^ IEEE 802.3 33.3.1 PD PI ^ Herbold, Jacob; Dwelley, Dave (27 October 2003), "Banish Those "Wall Warts" With Power Over Ethernet", Electronic Design, 51 (24): 61, archived from the original on 2005-03-20 ^ a b IEEE 802.3-2008, section 2, table 33-12 ^ a b IEEE 802.3at-2009, table 33-18 ^ "LTC4278 IEEE 802.3at PD with Synchronous No-Opto Flyback Controller and 12V Aux Support" (PDF). cds.linear.com. p. 15. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-07-13. ^ IEEE 802.3-2018, section 2, table 33-9 ^ IEEE 802.3bt, table 145-26 ^ IEEE 802.3-2008, section 2, clause 33.3.4 ^ IEEE 802.3 Clause 79.3.2 Power Via MDI TLV ^ a b c d IETF RFC 3621 ^ IEEE 802.1AB-2009 Annex F.3 Power Via MDI TLV ^ a b "LLDP / LLDP-MED Proposal for PoE Plus (2006-09-15)" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 2010-09-23. Retrieved 2010-01-10.2010-01-10 ^ "Power over Ethernet (POE) proprietary pinouts". ^ "Power over Ethernet (POE) pinout". Archived from the original on 2015-04-01. ^ "Planning for Cisco IP Telephony > Network Infrastructure Analysis". Archived from the original on 2011-07-08. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 2010-01-12 ciscopress.com ^ "Power over Ethernet on the Cisco Catalyst 6500 Series Switch" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-11-06. 2010-01-12 conticomp.com ^ "Understanding the Cisco IP Phone 10/100 Ethernet In-Line Power Detection Algorithm - Cisco Systems". Archived from the original on 2009-02-02. Retrieved 2010-01-12. 2010-01-12 cisco.com ^ "Cisco Universal Power Over Ethernet - Unleash the Power of your Network White Paper". Cisco Systems. 2014-07-11. Archived from the original on 2017-11-28. ^ "Power over Ethernet Interface Controllers". Archived from the original on 2016-07-20. Retrieved 2016-07-27. ^ PowerDsine Limited, archived from the original on 2012-07-28 ^ "5 volt power over ethernet adapters". Archived from the original on 2013-07-02. ^ "Passive Power over Ethernet equipment, AC-DC and DC-DC". Archived from the original on 2010-06-20. ^ IEEE 802.3bt-2018, clause 145.2.9 stating "A PSE shall not apply 4-pair power unless the PSE has identified the PD as Type 3 or Type 4." External links IEEE GET Program for free download of standards after registration ieee802.org: IEEE 802.3af Task Force ieee802.org: IEEE 802.3at Task Force ieee802.org: IEEE 802.3bt Task Force vteEthernet family of local area network technologiesSpeeds 10 Mbit/s 100 Mbit/s 1 Gbit/s 2.5 and 5 Gbit/s 10 Gbit/s 25 and 50 Gbit/s 40 and 100 Gbit/s 200, 400, 800 and 1600 Gbit/s General Physical layer Autonegotiation EtherType Flow control Frames Jumbos Organizations IEEE 802.3 Ethernet Alliance Media Twisted pair Coaxial First mile 10G-EPON Historic CSMA/CD StarLAN 10BROAD36 10BASE-FB 10BASE-FL 10BASE5 10BASE2 MAU FOIRL 100BaseVG LattisNet Long Reach Applications Audio Automotive Carrier Data center Energy Efficiency Industrial Metro Power Synchronous Transceivers GBIC SFP/SFP+/QSFP/QSFP+/OSFP XENPAK/X2 XFP CFP Interfaces AUI EAD MDI MII GMII XGMII XAUI Category Commons

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Poe (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poe_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"PPPoE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PPPoE"},{"link_name":"Ethernet over power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_over_power"},{"link_name":"HomePlug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HomePlug"},{"link_name":"IEEE 1901","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_1901"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ZyXEL_ZyAIR_G-1000_and_D-Link_DWL-P50_20060829_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"wireless access point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point"},{"link_name":"power outlet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_outlet"},{"link_name":"standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technical_standard"},{"link_name":"ad hoc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ad_hoc"},{"link_name":"electric power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power"},{"link_name":"twisted-pair Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_over_twisted_pair"},{"link_name":"wireless access points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point"},{"link_name":"IP cameras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_camera"},{"link_name":"VoIP phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP_phone"}],"text":"\"PoE\" redirects here. For other uses, see Poe (disambiguation).\"PoE++\" and \"4PPoE\" redirect here. For the point-to-point protocol, see PPPoE.Not to be confused with Ethernet over power (HomePlug) particularly IEEE standard IEEE 1901.In this configuration, an Ethernet connection includes Power over Ethernet (PoE) (gray cable looping below), and a PoE splitter provides a separate data cable (gray, looping above) and power cable (black, also looping above) for a wireless access point (WAP). The splitter is the silver and black box in the middle between the wiring junction box (left) and the access point (right). The PoE connection eliminates the need for a nearby power outlet. In another common configuration, the access point or other connected device includes internal PoE splitting and the external splitter is not necessary.Power over Ethernet (PoE) describes any of several standards or ad hoc systems that pass electric power along with data on twisted-pair Ethernet cabling. This allows a single cable to provide both a data connection and enough electricity to power networked devices such as wireless access points (WAPs), IP cameras and VoIP phones.","title":"Power over Ethernet"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers"},{"link_name":"IEEE 802.3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.3"},{"link_name":"signal pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balanced_line"},{"link_name":"10BASE-T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10BASE-T"},{"link_name":"100BASE-TX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100BASE-TX"},{"link_name":"Cat 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cat_5"},{"link_name":"phantom power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_power"},{"link_name":"differential signaling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_signaling"},{"link_name":"data transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_transmission"},{"link_name":"center tap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_tap"},{"link_name":"pulse transformer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_transformer"},{"link_name":"Gigabit Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabit_Ethernet"},{"link_name":"pan–tilt–zoom cameras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan%E2%80%93tilt%E2%80%93zoom_camera"},{"link_name":"laptop batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laptop_battery"}],"text":"There are several common techniques for transmitting power over Ethernet cabling. Three of them have been standardized by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) standard IEEE 802.3 since 2003.The three techniques are:alternative A, which uses the same two of the four signal pairs that 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX use for data in typical Cat 5 cabling.\nalternative B, which separates the data and the power conductors for 10BASE-T/100BASE-TX, making troubleshooting easier.\n4PPoE, which uses all four twisted pairs in parallel, increasing the achievable power.Alternative A transmits power on the same wires as data for 10 and 100 Mbit/s Ethernet variants. This is similar to the phantom power technique commonly used for powering condenser microphones. Power is transmitted on the data conductors by applying a common voltage to each pair. Because twisted-pair Ethernet uses differential signaling, this does not interfere with data transmission. The common-mode voltage is easily extracted using the center tap of the standard Ethernet pulse transformer. For Gigabit Ethernet and faster, both alternatives A and B transmit power on wire pairs also used for data since all four pairs are used for data transmission at these speeds.4PPoE provides power using all four pairs of a twisted-pair cable. This enables higher power for applications like pan–tilt–zoom cameras (PTZ), high-performance WAPs, or even charging laptop batteries.In addition to standardizing existing practice for spare-pair (Alternative B), common-mode data pair power (Alternative A) and 4-pair transmission (4PPoE), the IEEE PoE standards provide for signaling between the power sourcing equipment (PSE) and powered device (PD). This signaling allows the presence of a conformant device to be detected by the power source, and allows the device and source to negotiate the amount of power required or available while avoiding damage to non-compatible devices.","title":"Techniques"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Standards development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"DC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direct_Current"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-standards.ieee.org-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"IEEE 802.3-2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.3"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"mA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ampere"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"2.5GBASE-T, 5GBASE-T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2.5GBASE-T_and_5GBASE-T"},{"link_name":"10GBASE-T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10GBASE-T"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"wireless access points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point"}],"sub_title":"Two- and four-pair Ethernet","text":"The original IEEE 802.3af-2003[1] PoE standard provides up to 15.4 W of DC power (minimum 44 V DC and 350 mA)[2][3] on each port.[4] Only 12.95 W is assured to be available at the powered device as some power dissipates in the cable.[5]The IEEE 802.3at-2009[6] PoE standard, also known as PoE+ or PoE plus, provides up to 25.5 W of power for Type 2 devices.[7] The 2009 standard prohibits a powered device from using all four pairs for power.[8] Both of these standards have since been incorporated into the IEEE 802.3-2012 publication.[9]The IEEE 802.3bt-2018 standard further expands the power capabilities of 802.3at. It is also known as PoE++ or 4PPoE. The standard introduces two additional power types: up to 51 W delivered power (Type 3) and up to 71.3 W delivered power (Type 4), optionally by using all four pairs for power.[10] Each pair of twisted pairs needs to handle a current of up to 600 mA (Type 3) or 960 mA (Type 4).[11] Additionally, support for 2.5GBASE-T, 5GBASE-T and 10GBASE-T is included.[12] This development opens the door to new applications and expands the use of applications such as high-performance wireless access points and surveillance cameras.","title":"Standards development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"100BASE-T1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_Ethernet#100BASE-T1"},{"link_name":"1000BASE-T1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gigabit_Ethernet#1000BASE-T1"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"10BASE-T1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classic_Ethernet#10BASE-T1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-802.3cg-15"},{"link_name":"2.5GBASE-T1, 5GBASE-T1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2.5GBASE-T_and_5GBASE-T"},{"link_name":"10GBASE-T1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10_Gigabit_Ethernet#10GBASE-T1"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Power_over_Ethernet&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-802.3cg-15"}],"sub_title":"Single-pair Ethernet","text":"The IEEE 802.3bu-2016[13] amendment introduced single-pair Power over Data Lines (PoDL) for the single-pair Ethernet standards 100BASE-T1 and 1000BASE-T1 intended for automotive and industrial applications.[14] On the two-pair or four-pair standards, the same power voltage is applied to each conductor of the pair, so that within each pair there is no differential voltage other than that representing the transmitted data. With single-pair Ethernet, power is transmitted in parallel to the data. PoDL initially defined ten power classes, ranging from 0.5 to 50 W (at PD).Subsequently, PoDL was added to the single-pair variants 10BASE-T1,[15] 2.5GBASE-T1, 5GBASE-T1, and 10GBASE-T1[16] and as of 2021[update] includes a total of 15 power classes with additional intermediate voltage and power levels.[15]","title":"Standards development"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IP_camera_Ethernet_power.jpg"},{"link_name":"IP camera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_camera"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1140E.jpg"},{"link_name":"Avaya IP Phone 1140E","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avaya_IP_Phone_1140E"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CableFree-FOR3-Microwave-Link-20180410.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IP-phone_with_PoE.jpg"},{"link_name":"VoIP phone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP_phone"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PoE_enabled_devices-17"},{"link_name":"VoIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP"},{"link_name":"IP cameras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_camera"},{"link_name":"PTZs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pan%E2%80%93tilt%E2%80%93zoom_camera"},{"link_name":"WAPs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point"},{"link_name":"IP TV (IPTV) decoders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPTV"},{"link_name":"routers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Router_(computing)"},{"link_name":"network switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_switch"},{"link_name":"uplink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uplink"},{"link_name":"Intercom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercom"},{"link_name":"public address systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_address_system"},{"link_name":"Wall clocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clock"},{"link_name":"Network Time Protocol (NTP)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_Time_Protocol"},{"link_name":"point to point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point-to-point_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"Free Space Optics (FSO)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_space_optics"},{"link_name":"Industrial control system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_control_system"},{"link_name":"Access control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Access_control"},{"link_name":"Intelligent lighting controllers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lighting_control_system"},{"link_name":"Light-Emitting Diode (LED)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode"},{"link_name":"Lighting fixtures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LED_lamp"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-POE_LED_Lighting-18"},{"link_name":"Point Of Sale (POS)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_of_sale"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"mobile phone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone"}],"text":"Products using PoE\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAn IP camera powered by Power over Ethernet\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tAvaya IP Phone 1140E with PoE support\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA CableFree FOR3 microwave link installed in the UAE: a full outdoor radio featuring proprietary high power over Ethernet\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCisco 7906 VoIP phone with PoEExamples of devices powered by PoE include:[17]VoIP phones\nIP cameras including PTZs\nWAPs\nIP TV (IPTV) decoders\nNetwork routers\nA mini network switch installed in distant rooms, to support a small cluster of Ethernet ports from one uplink cable. PoE power is fed into the PD (or PoE in) port. These switches may in turn power remote PoE devices using PoE pass through.\nIntercom and public address systems and hallway speaker amplifiers\nWall clocks in rooms and hallways, with time set using Network Time Protocol (NTP)\nOutdoor roof mounted radios with integrated antennas, 4G/LTE, 802.11 or 802.16 based wireless CPEs (customer premises equipment) used by wireless ISPs\nOutdoor point to point microwave and millimeter wave radios and some Free Space Optics (FSO) units usually featuring proprietary PoE\nIndustrial control system components including sensors, controllers, meters etc.\nAccess control components including help-points, intercoms, entry cards, keyless entry, etc.\nIntelligent lighting controllers and Light-Emitting Diode (LED) Lighting fixtures[18]\nStage and Theatrical devices, such as networked audio breakout and routing boxes\nRemote Point Of Sale (POS) kiosks\nInline Ethernet extenders[19]\nPoE Splitters that output the power, often at a different voltage (e.g. 5V), to power a remote device or charge a mobile phone","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Terminology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_source_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Power sourcing equipment","text":"Power sourcing equipment (PSE) are devices that provide (source) power on the Ethernet cable. This device may be a network switch, commonly called an endspan (IEEE 802.3af refers to it as endpoint), or an intermediary device between a non-PoE-capable switch and a PoE device, an external PoE injector, called a midspan device.[20]","title":"Terminology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"wireless access points","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point"},{"link_name":"VoIP phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP_phone"},{"link_name":"IP cameras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_camera"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-802.3-2008,_33.3.5_PD_Power-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-802.3at-2009,_33.3.7_PD_Power-22"}],"sub_title":"Powered device","text":"A powered device (PD) is any device powered by PoE, thus consuming energy. Examples include wireless access points, VoIP phones, and IP cameras.Many powered devices have an auxiliary power connector for an optional external power supply. Depending on the design, some, none, or all of the device's power can be supplied from the auxiliary port,[21][22] with the auxiliary port also sometimes acting as backup power in case PoE-supplied power fails.","title":"Terminology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:5520-24-POE.JPG"},{"link_name":"Avaya ERS 5500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avaya_ERS_5500"},{"link_name":"AC adapters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AC_adapter"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Ethernet Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_Alliance"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"Avaya ERS 5500 switch with 48 Power over Ethernet portsAdvocates of PoE expect PoE to become a global long term DC power cabling standard and replace a multiplicity of individual AC adapters, which cannot be easily centrally managed.[23] Critics of this approach argue that PoE is inherently less efficient than AC power due to the lower voltage, and this is made worse by the thin conductors of Ethernet. Advocates of PoE, like the Ethernet Alliance, point out that quoted losses are for worst case scenarios in terms of cable quality, length and power consumption by powered devices.[24] In any case, where the central PoE supply replaces several dedicated AC circuits, transformers and inverters, the power loss in cabling can be justifiable.","title":"Power management features and integration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Energy-Efficient Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy-Efficient_Ethernet"},{"link_name":"Marvell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvell_Technology_Group"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-marvell1-25"}],"sub_title":"Integrating EEE and PoE","text":"The integration of PoE with the IEEE 802.3az Energy-Efficient Ethernet (EEE) standard potentially produces additional energy savings. Pre-standard integrations of EEE and PoE (such as Marvell's EEPoE outlined in a May 2011 white paper) claim to achieve a savings upwards of 3 W per link. This saving is especially significant as higher power devices come online.[25]","title":"Power management features and integration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEEE 802.3-2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.3-2005"},{"link_name":"category 5 cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_5_cable"},{"link_name":"category 3 cable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_3_cable"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33.1.1c-26"},{"link_name":"common-mode signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-mode_signal"},{"link_name":"differential pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Twisted_pair"},{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"Ethernet switch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_switch"},{"link_name":"phantom power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_power"},{"link_name":"10BASE-T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10BASE-T"},{"link_name":"100BASE-TX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/100BASE-TX"},{"link_name":"1000BASE-T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1000BASE-T"},{"link_name":"2.5GBASE-T, 5GBASE-T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2.5GBASE-T_and_5GBASE-T"},{"link_name":"10GBASE-T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10GBASE-T"},{"link_name":"differential data transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_signaling"},{"link_name":"transformer coupling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_isolator"},{"link_name":"common mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common-mode_signal"},{"link_name":"crossover cables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet_crossover_cable"},{"link_name":"diode bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_bridge"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"switched-mode power supplies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switched-mode_power_supply"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-37"}],"text":"Standards-based Power over Ethernet is implemented following the specifications in IEEE 802.3af-2003 (which was later incorporated as clause 33 into IEEE 802.3-2005) or the 2009 update, IEEE 802.3at. The standards require category 5 cable or better for high power levels but allow using category 3 cable if less power is required.[26]Power is supplied as a common-mode signal over two or more of the differential pairs of wires found in the Ethernet cables and comes from a power supply within a PoE-enabled networking device such as an Ethernet switch or can be injected into a cable run with a midspan power supply, an additional PoE power source that can be used in combination with a non-PoE switch.A phantom power technique is used to allow the powered pairs to also carry data. This permits its use not only with 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX, which use only two of the four pairs in the cable, but also with 1000BASE-T (gigabit Ethernet), 2.5GBASE-T, 5GBASE-T, and 10GBASE-T which use all four pairs for data transmission. This is possible because all versions of Ethernet over twisted pair cable specify differential data transmission over each pair with transformer coupling; the DC supply and load connections can be made to the transformer center-taps at each end. Each pair thus operates in common mode as one side of the DC supply, so two pairs are required to complete the circuit. The polarity of the DC supply may be inverted by crossover cables; the powered device must operate with either pair: spare pairs 4–5 and 7–8 or data pairs 1–2 and 3–6. Polarity is defined by the standards on spare pairs, and ambiguously implemented for data pairs, with the use of a diode bridge.Notes:^ Most switched-mode power supplies within the powered device will lose another 10 to 25% of the available power to heat.\n\n^ More stringent cable specification allows assumption of more current carrying capacity and lower resistance (20.0 Ω for Category 3 versus 12.5 Ω for Category 5).","title":"Standard implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"T568B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T568B"},{"link_name":"Auto MDI-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auto_MDI-X"},{"link_name":"T568A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T568A"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"10/100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10/100"},{"link_name":"LLDP communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Configuration_via_Ethernet_layer_2_LLDP"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-linear-LTC4278_ds-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-802.3,_section_2,_33.3.4-45"}],"sub_title":"Powering devices","text":"Three modes, A, B, and 4-pair are available. Mode A delivers power on the data pairs of 100BASE-TX or 10BASE-T. Mode B delivers power on the spare pairs. 4-pair delivers power on all four pairs. PoE can also be used on 1000BASE-T, 2.5GBASE-T, 5GBASE-T and 10GBASE-T Ethernet, in which case there are no spare pairs and all power is delivered using the phantom technique.Mode A has two alternate configurations (MDI and MDI-X), using the same pairs but with different polarities. In mode A, pins 1 and 2 (pair #2 in T568B wiring) form one side of the 48 V DC, and pins 3 and 6 (pair #3 in T568B) form the other side. These are the same two pairs used for data transmission in 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX, allowing the provision of both power and data over only two pairs in such networks. The free polarity allows PoE to accommodate for crossover cables, patch cables and Auto MDI-X.In mode B, pins 4–5 (pair #1 in both T568A and T568B) form one side of the DC supply and pins 7–8 (pair #4 in both T568A and T568B) provide the return; these are the \"spare\" pairs in 10BASE-T and 100BASE-TX. Mode B, therefore, requires a 4-pair cable.The PSE, not the PD, decides whether power mode A or B shall be used. PDs that implement only mode A or mode B are disallowed by the standard.[36] The PSE can implement mode A or B or both. A PD indicates that it is standards-compliant by placing a 25 kΩ resistor between the powered pairs. If the PSE detects a resistance that is too high or too low (including a short circuit), no power is applied. This protects devices that do not support PoE. An optional power class feature allows the PD to indicate its power requirements by changing the sense resistance at higher voltages.To retain power, the PD must use at least 5–10 mA for at least 60 ms at a time. If the PD goes more than 400 ms without meeting this requirement, the PSE will consider the device disconnected and, for safety reasons, remove power.[37]There are two types of PSEs: endspans and midspans. Endspans (commonly called PoE switches) are Ethernet switches that include the power over Ethernet transmission circuitry. Midspans are power injectors that stand between a regular Ethernet switch and the powered device, injecting power without affecting the data. Endspans are normally used on new installations or when the switch has to be replaced for other reasons (such as moving from 10/100 Mbit/s to 1 Gbit/s), which makes it convenient to add the PoE capability. Midspans are used when there is no desire to replace and configure a new Ethernet switch, and only PoE needs to be added to the network.IEEE 802.3at capable devices are also referred to as Type 2. An 802.3at PSE may also use LLDP communication to signal 802.3at capability.[40]Class 4 can only be used by IEEE 802.3at (Type 2) devices, requiring valid Class 2 and Mark 2 currents for the power up stages. An 802.3af device presenting a class 4 current is considered non-compliant and, instead, will be treated as a Class 0 device.[43]: 13","title":"Standard implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Link Layer Discovery Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Link_Layer_Discovery_Protocol"},{"link_name":"type–length–value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type%E2%80%93length%E2%80%93value"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ieee802-lldp-med-prop2006-49"}],"sub_title":"Configuration via Ethernet layer 2 LLDP","text":"Link Layer Discovery Protocol (LLDP) is a layer-2 Ethernet protocol for managing devices. LLDP allows an exchange of information between a PSE and a PD. This information is formatted in type–length–value (TLV) format. PoE standards define TLV structures used by PSEs and PDs to signal and negotiate available power.The setup phases are as follows:PSE (provider) tests PD (consumer) physically using 802.3af phase class 3.\nPSE powers up PD.\nPD sends to PSE: I'm a PD, max power = X, max power requested = X.\nPSE sends to PD: I'm a PSE, max power allowed = X.\nPD may now use the amount of power as specified by the PSE.The rules for this power negotiation are:PD shall never request more power than physical 802.3af class\nPD shall never draw more than max power advertised by PSE\nPSE may deny any PD drawing more power than max allowed by PSE\nPSE shall not reduce power allocated to PD that is in use\nPSE may request reduced power, via conservation mode[47]: 10","title":"Standard implementation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"text":"There are more than ten proprietary implementations.[48] The more common ones are discussed below.","title":"Non-standard implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VoIP phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP_phone"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pinout-51"},{"link_name":"Cisco Discovery Protocol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cisco_Discovery_Protocol"},{"link_name":"fast link pulse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fast_link_pulse"},{"link_name":"low-pass filter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-pass_filter"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ciscopress_ciscophone-52"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-conticomp_CAT6500POE_ds-53"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cisco_technote00-54"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"}],"sub_title":"Cisco","text":"Some Cisco WLAN access points and VoIP phones supported a proprietary form of PoE[49] many years before there was an IEEE standard for delivering PoE. Cisco's original PoE implementation is not software upgradeable to the IEEE 802.3af standard. Cisco's original PoE equipment is capable of delivering up to 10 W per port. The amount of power to be delivered is negotiated between the endpoint and the Cisco switch based on a power value that was added to the Cisco proprietary Cisco Discovery Protocol (CDP). CDP is also responsible for dynamically communicating the Voice VLAN value from the Cisco switch to the Cisco VoIP Phone.Under Cisco's pre-standard scheme, the PSE (switch) will send a fast link pulse (FLP) on the transmit pair. The PD (device) connects the transmit line to the receive line via a low-pass filter. The PSE gets the FLP in return. The PSE will provide a common mode current between pairs 1 and 2, resulting in 48 V DC[50] and 6.3 W[51] default of allocated power. The PD must then provide Ethernet link within 5 seconds to the auto-negotiation mode switch port. A later CDP message with a TLV tells the PSE its final power requirement. A discontinuation of link pulses shuts down power.[52]In 2014, Cisco created another non-standard PoE implementation called Universal Power over Ethernet (UPOE). UPOE can use all 4 pairs, after negotiation, to supply up to 60 W.[53]","title":"Non-standard implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-www.linear.com-56"}],"sub_title":"Analog Devices","text":"A proprietary high-power development called LTPoE++, using a single Cat 5e Ethernet cable, is capable of supplying varying levels at 38.7, 52.7, 70, and 90 W.[54]","title":"Non-standard implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PowerDsine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PowerDsine"},{"link_name":"Microsemi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsemi"},{"link_name":"Polycom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polycom"},{"link_name":"3Com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3Com"},{"link_name":"Lucent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucent"},{"link_name":"Nortel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nortel"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"}],"sub_title":"Microsemi","text":"PowerDsine, acquired by Microsemi in 2007, which was then acquired by Microchip in 2018, has been selling midspan power injectors since 1999. Using Microchip's multi-PoE PSE ICs, PoE injectors and switches can support the IEEE 802.3 PoE standards and also pre-standard configurations. Several companies such as Polycom, 3Com, Lucent and Nortel used PowerDsine's older Power over LAN PoE implementation.[55]","title":"Non-standard implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"§ Pinouts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Pinouts"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Active_5v_Splitter_manufacturer-58"},{"link_name":"unreliable source?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources"},{"link_name":"Ubiquiti Networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubiquiti_Networks"},{"link_name":"MikroTik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MikroTik"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Passive_PoE_injector_manufacturer-59"}],"sub_title":"Passive","text":"In a passive PoE system, the injector does not communicate with the powered device to negotiate its voltage or wattage requirements, but merely supplies power at all times. Common 100 Mbit/s passive applications use the pinout of 802.3af mode B (see § Pinouts) – with DC positive on pins 4 and 5 and DC negative on 7 and 8 and data on 1–2 and 3–6, but polarization may vary. Gigabit passive injectors use a transformer on the data pins to allow power and data to share the cable and are typically compatible with 802.3af Mode A. Passive midspan injectors with up to 12 ports are available.Devices needing 5 volts cannot typically use PoE at 5 V on Ethernet cable beyond short distances (about 15 feet (4.6 m)) as the voltage drop of the cable becomes too significant, so a 24 V or 48 V to 5 V DC-DC converter is required at the remote end.[56][unreliable source?]Passive PoE power sources are commonly used with a variety of indoor and outdoor wireless radio equipment, most commonly from Motorola (now Cambium), Ubiquiti Networks, MikroTik and others. Earlier versions of passive PoE 24 VDC power sources shipped with 802.11a, 802.11g and 802.11n based radios are commonly 100 Mbit/s only.Passive DC-to-DC injectors also exist which convert a 9 V to 36 V DC, or 36 V to 72 V DC power source to a stabilized 24 V 1 A, 48 V 0.5 A, or up to 48 V 2.0 A PoE feed with '+' on pins 4 & 5 and '−' on pins 7 & 8. These DC-to-DC PoE injectors are used in various telecom applications.[57]","title":"Non-standard implementations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISO/IEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO/IEC_JTC_1"},{"link_name":"Cenelec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cenelec"}],"text":"The ISO/IEC TR 29125 and Cenelec EN 50174-99-1 draft standards outline the cable bundle temperature rise that can be expected from the use of 4PPoE. A distinction is made between two scenarios:bundles heating up from the inside to the outside, and\nbundles heating up from the outside to match the ambient temperature.The second scenario largely depends on the environment and installation, whereas the first is solely influenced by the cable construction. In a standard unshielded cable, the PoE-related temperature rise increases by a factor of 5. In a shielded cable, this value drops to between 2.5 and 3, depending on the design.","title":"Power capacity limits"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Pinouts"}]

[{"image_text":"In this configuration, an Ethernet connection includes Power over Ethernet (PoE) (gray cable looping below), and a PoE splitter provides a separate data cable (gray, looping above) and power cable (black, also looping above) for a wireless access point (WAP). The splitter is the silver and black box in the middle between the wiring junction box (left) and the access point (right). The PoE connection eliminates the need for a nearby power outlet. In another common configuration, the access point or other connected device includes internal PoE splitting and the external splitter is not necessary.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/ZyXEL_ZyAIR_G-1000_and_D-Link_DWL-P50_20060829_2.jpg/300px-ZyXEL_ZyAIR_G-1000_and_D-Link_DWL-P50_20060829_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Avaya ERS 5500 switch with 48 Power over Ethernet ports","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/5520-24-POE.JPG/300px-5520-24-POE.JPG"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comau

Comau

["1 History","1.1 Foundation","1.2 Growth and expansion","2 Products, technologies and services","2.1 Body assembly","2.2 Powertrain and machining","2.3 Robotics and automation products","2.4 Electrification","2.5 Other services","3 Presence","4 Corporate structure","4.1 Key people","5 References"]

Italian multinational company This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (October 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Comau S.p.A.Company typeSubsidiaryIndustryAutomationFounded1973 (1973)HeadquartersTurin, ItalyNumber of locations20 plants, facilities and establishmentsKey peopleAlessandro Nasi (Chairman)Pietro Gorlier (CEO)ProductsIndustrial automation products, systems and servicesNumber of employees4,000 (2022)ParentStellantisWebsitewww.comau.com Comau (Consorzio Macchine Utensili) is an Italian multinational company in the automation field based in Turin, Italy. It is a part of the automaker Stellantis. The company is present in 13 countries and employs 4,000 people. Comau provides services, products and technologies for the automotive, shipping, logistics, food beverage, packaging, electrification, renewable energy and heavy industry industries. History Foundation Comau was established in 1973 as the COnsorzio MAcchine Utensili. It was formed by the same Torino-based engineers and companies that helped build the Soviet landmark VAZ (Lada) Plant in Togliatti, Russia. In 1977 the company was renamed Comau Finanziaria S.p.A. Growth and expansion In 1984, Comau Productivity Systems Inc. was formed. It started the development of commercial and industrial activities in North America. Comau Finanziaria S.p.A. gained a majority interest in Italtech S.p.A. The following year, it acquired Berto Lamet, a sheet metal die producer, and U.T.S., which specialized in product and process engineering. Berto Lamet then took over TEA, an injection molds manufacturer and, in 1990, it took over the Spanish company, Mecaner S.A., which specialized in producing sheet metal dies. In 1995, the company grew throughout South America, Europe, North America, and Asia. Comau do Brasil Ind e Com. Ltda and Comau Argentina S.A. were launched with all Comau Business Units joining the Mercosur market. In Germany, Comau Deutschland GmbH was established. The following year, a French branch was formed. That year the company officially changed its name to Comau S.p.A. In 1997, the company gained a majority interest in Geico S.p.A., a producer of painting systems within the automotive industry. Comau India Pvt. Ltd. in Pune was set up as the company's headquarters in Southeast Asia. Comau Poland Sp.z.o.o., a production plant for sheet metal dies, began operation in Tychy and, later that year, began offering maintenance services as well. In the same year, Comau Service was launched to provide full maintenance services to customers worldwide. In 1999, Comau took over the French company Sciaky S.A., a producer of body systems and welding guns, which was renamed Comau Sciaky S.A. Also that year, Comau S.p.A. gained a majority interest in Renault Automation S.A. of France, a company specializing in engineering, metal cutting, mechanical assembly and body final assembly. In the same year, Fiat S.p.A. acquired Progressive Tool and Industries Co. (PICO), a U.S. company experienced in body systems manufacturing, and was subsequently renamed Comau Pico. In the UK, the Pico Estil in Luton became Comau Estil; in South Africa, Aims in Uitenhage was renamed Comau South Africa Pty. Ltd. In 2000, Comau Automotive Equipment Colt., was opened in Shanghai, Comau Belgium N.V. was established to develop maintenance services in Northern Europe and Comau Systems Services S.L. began operations in Madrid. The next year, Comau S.p.A. acquired two companies in automotive product and process engineering and industrialization, Germann-Intec GmbH and Team Resources Romania, which became Comau România S.A. Comau Australia opens in Adelaide in 2001. In 2002, Comau Ingest Sverige AB was established in Sweden; in 2003, Comau Russia Srl and Comau (Shanghai) International Trading Co. Ltd. began operations with a focus on import-export activities. Comau Sciaky SA became the full owner of Gerbi & Sciaky, a company in France that produces electrical welding guns, changing its name to Sciaky S.A.S. in 2004. The next year, Comau Service France and Comau Sciaky and Sciaky S.A.S. were consolidated within Comau France S.A. In 2005, Comau Germann-Intec GmbH merged with Comau Deutschland GmbH. In 2007, Comau-Germann Intec GmbH was started in Germany with a focus on engineering activities. In 2013, Comau expanded its presence in China with three new sites. Comau Turkey and Comau Czech were also opened to better serve the Middle and Eastern European markets. Soon after, Comau established a new office in Munich, Germany which expanded into Mexico. Comau São Paulo and Comau Thailand are established in 2015, while in 2016, Comau opened its HUMANufacturing Innovation Center in Pontedera (Pisa), Italy. The company also opens a new location in California, United States, in 2016. Comau expands its activities in the United Kingdom in 2017, by opening a new engineering facility in North East England. In these years the Comau Academy is founded, with which the company began to organize master, technical and managerial training courses, and then with the educational platform e.DO™ Experience, Comau began to offer educational activities for learning STEM subjects, robotics, coding and soft skills based on the use of educational and open source robots and.DO™. In 2020 Comau signed the technological collaboration agreement with TIM for the digital transformation of the manufacturing industries and collaborated with FCA and the Fiat brand in the production of the new electrical Fiat 500, supported SME manufacturing companies at the MADE competence center in Milan, cooperated with the Artes 4.0 in Pisa, collaborated with the CIM 4.0 in Turin and joined the Innovation Community EIT Manufacturing. In 2021 the company joined the European Battery Alliance (Eba) and the Batteries European Partnership Association (Bepa). There it contributed to the European Technology & Innovation Platform (Etip) for batteries and collaborated with the UK Battery Industrialisation Center along with Rockwell Automation for the creation of unified robot control solutions and additional support of the Fincantieri and llika plc. to develop prototypes of robotized steel welding solutions. In 2022 Comau assisted to expand the manufacturing lines in the Brazilian state of Pernambuco to produce the new 7-seat Jeep Commander SUV. This helped to increase process optimization and control, and at the same time supported Ilika plc. in a study for an All-Solid-State Battery Technology. In June 2020 Alessandro Nasi was selected as the chairman of Comau, alongside Paolo Carmassi as CEO. In April 2022 Comau announced the appointment of Pietro Gorlier as the new CEO. Products, technologies and services AGILE 1500 Comau Robot at MADE Competence Centre in Milan. Body assembly Production of: assembly and welding systems for car bodies, frames and components; junction technologies (e.g. laser and plasma cutting, welding clamps, point welding machines, brazing applications). Powertrain and machining Analysis, development, industrialization, design and supply of technologies for mechanical processing in manufacturing sectors: integrated universal machining centers Iot (Industrial Internet of Things); flexible systems; production lines; crankshaft machines; thermal spray coating. Technologies for automotive and transport sector. Robotics and automation products In 1979 the company built the first robotic assembly line, which was supplied to the Fiat plant in Mirafiori for the production of the famous car model FIAT 131. In the late '70s and early '80s Comau started to produce the first industrial robots and launched the Robogate system in the European and world markets - an assembly system designed to carry out multiple operations at the same time with the joint use of several robots. In the second half of the 80s, as a massive development of laser technology begins, Comau started to design laser robots. In the following years robots and automation products were developed: anthropomorphic robots for different industrial applications (SCARA robotics arms, robots for special processing, hollow wrist); collaborative robots to work in close contact with humans (Racer-5-0.80 COBOT, AURA,); exoskeleton to support the upper limbs of operators to facilitate their work and reduce physical fatigue (MATE-XT); Automatic Guided Vehicle (AGV) to manage logistics more easily within the factory (Agile 1500); educational robots designed to facilitate the learning and teaching of STEM subjects, robotics, coding and enhancing soft skills (e.DO); factory automation products 4.0 (Lhyte, the hybrid laser system that combines fiber and diode laser sources, a wide range of welding pliers and the Spot Welding Machine, a special robot integrated with a point welding clamp). Electrification Comau also specializes in the development of products and automation processes for electrification, such as, mechanical machining centers, assembly systems, digital products for Industry 4.0 and integrated logistics services: production and assembly of rechargeable modules and batteries, and electric motors. Comau initiated the Flexible Battery Dismantling (Flex-BD) project to automate all battery dismantling operations. Other services Comau also specializes in the services of concept development, plant design, improvement of production processes, project management and system integration services Presence Comau's headquarters are in Turin, Italy, and the company is present in 14 countries around Europe, Asia, South America and North America – with 7 innovation centres, 5 digital hubs and 8 production plants, where over 9.000 people work. Corporate structure As part of Stellantis, Comau is managed by a board of directors and a board of statutory auditors. The board of directors oversees the company's performance both directly and through committees charged with specific advisory functions. It is supported by a body made up of members. Key people Alessandro Nasi, Chairman – in 2005 he joined the Fiat Group, following professional experiences in the banking and finance sector. He held senior roles at Fiat Powertrain Technologies and CNH Industrial, a company that produces machinery for agriculture and construction. Currently he is member of the Board of Directors of CNH Industrial, Chairman of Iveco Defence Vehicles and member of the Lego Group's advisory board. Nasi is also vice-chairman of the Board of EXOR. Pietro Gorlier, CEO. He was Chief Parts and Services Officer worldwide at Stellantis, President and CEO of MOPAR, CEO of Magneti Marelli, COO of the Region EMEA at FCA and since 2011 he has been a member of the FCA Group Executive Council (GEC). References ^ "Comau Technology for the Production of the New Fiat 500 and the Mobility of the Future". 27 November 2020. ^ "Comau History". Comau. Retrieved 4 May 2022. ^ "History". Comau.com. 5 November 2019. Archived from the original on 28 September 2019. ^ "History". Comau.com. 6 May 2018. Archived from the original on 28 September 2019. ^ Galimberti, Cinzia (5 January 2016). "Comau: dove nasce la cultura dell'automazione". Meccanica news. Retrieved 25 May 2022. ^ "TIM and COMAU collaboration aims to accelerate IoT". Automation Fair. 30 March 2021. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021. ^ "COMAU technology for the new FIAT 500 and the mobility of the future". Pronounce Media. 6 February 2021. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. ^ "COMAU TECHNOLOGIES FOR INDUSTRY 4.0 SUPPORT SME MANUFACTURING COMPANIES AT THE "MADE" COMPETENCE CENTER IN MILAN". Industry Asia Pacific. 3 April 2021. ^ "Le tecnologie innovative di Comau per la smart factory nel Competence Center CIM 4.0". 26 May 2021. ^ "Comau a Bruxelles per l'Innovation Community EIT Manufacturing". automazionenews.it. 17 April 2021. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021. ^ "Comau supporta i migliori consorzi di batterie europei ed entra nel Cda della BEPA". traderlink.it. 12 February 2021. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021. ^ "Comau, linea batterie per Uk Battery Centre". ansa.it. 8 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021. ^ "Comau: accordo con Rockwell Automation per soluzioni integrate gestione robot". ilsole24ore.com. 20 April 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021. ^ "Fincantieri e Comau collaborano per innovare i processi produttivi con soluzioni robotiche". 20 May 2021. Retrieved 15 June 2022. ^ "Comau supporta Ilika per far crescere a livelli di produzione in serie la lavorazione di batterie allo stato solido". ^ "Comau Expands Jeep Manufacturing Lines In Brazil". menafn. 11 May 2022. Retrieved 27 June 2022. ^ "Ilika and Comau successfully complete a scale-up study for All-Solid-State Battery Technology and its future production for EV manufacturers". Automation Update. 25 May 2022. Retrieved 27 June 2022. ^ "FCA prepares Comau for spin-off". Just Auto. 19 March 2021. Retrieved 2 June 2020. ^ "Stellantis: Gorlier amministratore delegato di Comau - Piemonte". Agenzia ANSA (in Italian). 2 April 2022. Retrieved 7 April 2022. ^ a b "Al servizio del cliente in ogni parte del processo produttivo". ^ "Motori Lineari e Centri di Lavoro: Soluzioni". ^ "New Comau Racer-5 COBOT". 20 March 2021. ^ "AURA Collaborative Robot". ^ "MATE-XT, nuovo esoscheletro Comau per una maggiore produttività". Robotica News. 18 April 2021. Archived from the original on 23 January 2021. ^ "Agile1500, il veicolo a guida automatica per la smart factory". 16 May 2017. ^ "Robotica educativa e Coding: e.Do Comau - Braccio Robotico Antropomorfo". www.siadsrl.net. Retrieved 5 October 2021. ^ "e.DO: compact and modular robots | Comau". Archived from the original on 26 November 2019. ^ "LHYTE". ^ "RSW Aluminum Welding Guns". ^ "Le tecnologie di Comau per lo smantellamento di batterie e RAEE". rinnovabili.it. 21 April 2022. Retrieved 27 June 2022. ^ "Comau Competencies". Comau. Retrieved 26 May 2022. ^ "Comau lancia il suo nuovo Marketplace, un'area dedicata ai suoi System Integrator, per dar loro maggiore visibilità". 16 February 2021. Retrieved 30 May 2022. ^ "Global presence in the automation sector". ^ "Leader mondiali nel campo dell'automazione industriale". ^ "Corporate Governance". Archived from the original on 2 January 2013. Retrieved 30 April 2012. ^ "New leadership named at Comau". FCA. 5 April 2021. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021. ^ "Stellantis robotics unit Comau picks Gorlier as CEO". Reuters. vteStellantisPredecessors Fiat Chrysler Automobiles Chrysler Group LLC Fiat S.p.A. PSA Group Chrysler Europe Citroën Peugeot Leadership John Elkann (chairman) Carlos Tavares (CEO) Mike Manley (head of Americas) Marques Alfa Romeo Chrysler Citroën Dodge DS Fiat Abarth Professional Jeep Lancia Maserati Opel Vauxhall Peugeot Ram Subsidiaries /joint ventures Comau FCA Bank (50%) IKAP (50%) Leapmotor (20%) Mopar PCMA Sevel Share Now Teksid (85%) Tofaş (38%) VM Motori Regional operations Argentina Australia Canada Europe India Ireland North America Poland Serbia (67%) Factorylocations Aspern Atessa Belvidere Brampton Buenos Aires Cassino Detroit Jefferson Mack Dundee Eisenach Ellesmere Port Figueruelas Gliwice Hordain Indiana Kenitra Kokomo Casting Transmission Kragujevac Luton Madrid Mangualde Turin Mirafiori Mulhouse Poissy Pomigliano d'Arco Porto Real Rüsselsheim Rennes Saltillo Sochaux Sterling Heights Szentgotthárd Toledo Complex Toledo Machining Toluca Trenton Trnava Tychy Vigo Warren Stamping Truck Assembly Windsor Related topics Chrysler World Headquarters and Technology Center Musée de l'Aventure Peugeot Stellantis Heritage Stellantis vehicles Stellantis platforms Category Commons

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"multinational company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multinational_company"},{"link_name":"automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automation"},{"link_name":"Turin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turin"},{"link_name":"Stellantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellantis"},{"link_name":"automotive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automotive"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"shipping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shipping"},{"link_name":"electrification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrification"},{"link_name":"heavy industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_industry"}],"text":"Comau (Consorzio Macchine Utensili) is an Italian multinational company in the automation field based in Turin, Italy. It is a part of the automaker Stellantis. The company is present in 13 countries and employs 4,000 people.Comau provides services, products and technologies for the automotive,[1] shipping, logistics, food beverage, packaging, electrification, renewable energy and heavy industry industries.","title":"Comau"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"VAZ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AvtoVAZ"},{"link_name":"Togliatti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Togliatti"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Foundation","text":"Comau was established in 1973 as the COnsorzio MAcchine Utensili. It was formed by the same Torino-based engineers and companies that helped build the Soviet landmark VAZ (Lada) Plant in Togliatti, Russia.[2] In 1977 the company was renamed Comau Finanziaria S.p.A.[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"South America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_America"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"STEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STEM"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"TIM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gruppo_TIM"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Fiat 500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_500_(2007)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"European Battery Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Battery_Alliance"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Rockwell Automation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rockwell_Automation"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Jeep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeep"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-KeyPeople-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"}],"sub_title":"Growth and expansion","text":"In 1984, Comau Productivity Systems Inc. was formed.It started the development of commercial and industrial activities in North America. Comau Finanziaria S.p.A. gained a majority interest in Italtech S.p.A.[citation needed]The following year, it acquired Berto Lamet, a sheet metal die producer, and U.T.S., which specialized in product and process engineering. Berto Lamet then took over TEA, an injection molds manufacturer and, in 1990, it took over the Spanish company, Mecaner S.A., which specialized in producing sheet metal dies.In 1995, the company grew throughout South America, Europe, North America, and Asia. Comau do Brasil Ind e Com. Ltda and Comau Argentina S.A. were launched with all Comau Business Units joining the Mercosur market. In Germany, Comau Deutschland GmbH was established.\nThe following year, a French branch was formed. \nThat year the company officially changed its name to Comau S.p.A.In 1997, the company gained a majority interest in Geico S.p.A., a producer of painting systems within the automotive industry. Comau India Pvt. Ltd. in Pune was set up as the company's headquarters in Southeast Asia. Comau Poland Sp.z.o.o., a production plant for sheet metal dies, began operation in Tychy and, later that year, began offering maintenance services as well. In the same year, Comau Service was launched to provide full maintenance services to customers worldwide.In 1999, Comau took over the French company Sciaky S.A., a producer of body systems and welding guns, which was renamed Comau Sciaky S.A. Also that year, Comau S.p.A. gained a majority interest in Renault Automation S.A. of France, a company specializing in engineering, metal cutting, mechanical assembly and body final assembly. In the same year, Fiat S.p.A. acquired Progressive Tool and Industries Co. (PICO), a U.S. company experienced in body systems manufacturing, and was subsequently renamed Comau Pico. In the UK, the Pico Estil in Luton became Comau Estil; in South Africa, Aims in Uitenhage was renamed Comau South Africa Pty. Ltd.In 2000, Comau Automotive Equipment Colt., was opened in Shanghai, Comau Belgium N.V. was established to develop maintenance services in Northern Europe and Comau Systems Services S.L. began operations in Madrid.The next year, Comau S.p.A. acquired two companies in automotive product and process engineering and industrialization, Germann-Intec GmbH and Team Resources Romania, which became Comau România S.A. Comau Australia opens in Adelaide in 2001.In 2002, Comau Ingest Sverige AB was established in Sweden; in 2003, Comau Russia Srl and Comau (Shanghai) International Trading Co. Ltd. began operations with a focus on import-export activities. Comau Sciaky SA became the full owner of Gerbi & Sciaky, a company in France that produces electrical welding guns, changing its name to Sciaky S.A.S. in 2004.\nThe next year, Comau Service France and Comau Sciaky and Sciaky S.A.S. were consolidated within Comau France S.A. In 2005, Comau Germann-Intec GmbH merged with Comau Deutschland GmbH.In 2007, Comau-Germann Intec GmbH was started in Germany with a focus on engineering activities.\nIn 2013, Comau expanded its presence in China with three new sites. Comau Turkey and Comau Czech were also opened to better serve the Middle and Eastern European markets. Soon after, Comau established a new office in Munich, Germany which expanded into Mexico.Comau São Paulo and Comau Thailand are established in 2015, while in 2016, Comau opened its HUMANufacturing Innovation Center in Pontedera (Pisa), Italy. The company also opens a new location in California, United States, in 2016. Comau expands its activities in the United Kingdom in 2017, by opening a new engineering facility in North East England.[4]In these years the Comau Academy is founded, with which the company began to organize master, technical and managerial training courses, and then with the educational platform e.DO™ Experience, Comau began to offer educational activities for learning STEM subjects, robotics, coding and soft skills based on the use of educational and open source robots and.DO™.[5]In 2020 Comau signed the technological collaboration agreement with TIM for the digital transformation of the manufacturing industries[6] and collaborated with FCA and the Fiat brand in the production of the new electrical Fiat 500,[7] supported SME manufacturing companies at the MADE competence center in Milan,[8] cooperated with the Artes 4.0 in Pisa, collaborated with the CIM 4.0 in Turin[9] and joined the Innovation Community EIT Manufacturing.[10]In 2021 the company joined the European Battery Alliance (Eba) and the Batteries European Partnership Association (Bepa). There it contributed to the European Technology & Innovation Platform (Etip) for batteries and[11] collaborated with the UK Battery Industrialisation Center along[12] with Rockwell Automation for the creation of unified robot control solutions and[13] additional support of the Fincantieri and llika plc. to develop prototypes of robotized steel welding solutions.[14][15]In 2022 Comau assisted to expand the manufacturing lines in the Brazilian state of Pernambuco to produce the new 7-seat Jeep Commander SUV. This helped to increase process optimization and control,[16] and at the same time supported Ilika plc. in a study for an All-Solid-State Battery Technology.[17]In June 2020 Alessandro Nasi was selected as the chairman of Comau, alongside Paolo Carmassi as CEO.[18]In April 2022 Comau announced the appointment of Pietro Gorlier as the new CEO.[19]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Comau_AGILE1500_MADE_Competence_Centre_in_Milan.jpg"}],"text":"AGILE 1500 Comau Robot at MADE Competence Centre in Milan.","title":"Products, technologies and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-assembly-20"}],"sub_title":"Body assembly","text":"Production of:assembly and welding systems for car bodies, frames and components;\njunction technologies (e.g. laser and plasma cutting, welding clamps, point welding machines, brazing applications).[20]","title":"Products, technologies and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Industrial Internet of Things","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_internet_of_things"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"sub_title":"Powertrain and machining","text":"Analysis, development, industrialization, design and supply of technologies for mechanical processing in manufacturing sectors:integrated universal machining centers Iot (Industrial Internet of Things);\nflexible systems;\nproduction lines;\ncrankshaft machines;\nthermal spray coating.Technologies for automotive and transport sector.[21]","title":"Products, technologies and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"assembly line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_line"},{"link_name":"FIAT 131","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_131"},{"link_name":"industrial robots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_robot"},{"link_name":"laser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laser"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-assembly-20"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"AGV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AGV_(train)"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"}],"sub_title":"Robotics and automation products","text":"In 1979 the company built the first robotic assembly line, which was supplied to the Fiat plant in Mirafiori for the production of the famous car model FIAT 131.In the late '70s and early '80s Comau started to produce the first industrial robots and launched the Robogate system in the European and world markets - an assembly system designed to carry out multiple operations at the same time with the joint use of several robots.In the second half of the 80s, as a massive development of laser technology begins, Comau started to design laser robots.In the following years robots and automation products were developed:anthropomorphic robots for different industrial applications (SCARA robotics arms, robots for special processing, hollow wrist);[20]\ncollaborative robots to work in close contact with humans (Racer-5-0.80 COBOT,[22] AURA,[23]);\nexoskeleton to support the upper limbs of operators to facilitate their work and reduce physical fatigue (MATE-XT);[24]\nAutomatic Guided Vehicle (AGV) to manage logistics more easily within the factory (Agile 1500);[25]\neducational robots designed to facilitate the learning and teaching of STEM subjects, robotics, coding and enhancing soft skills[26] (e.DO);[27]\nfactory automation products 4.0 (Lhyte,[28] the hybrid laser system that combines fiber and diode laser sources, a wide range of welding pliers and the Spot Welding Machine,[29] a special robot integrated with a point welding clamp).","title":"Products, technologies and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Electrification","text":"Comau also specializes in the development of products and automation processes for electrification, such as, mechanical machining centers, assembly systems, digital products for Industry 4.0 and integrated logistics services: production and assembly of rechargeable modules and batteries, and electric motors. Comau initiated the Flexible Battery Dismantling (Flex-BD) project to automate all battery dismantling operations.[30]","title":"Products, technologies and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Other services","text":"Comau also specializes in the services of concept development, plant design, improvement of production processes, project management and[31] system integration services [32]","title":"Products, technologies and services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Turin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turin"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"Comau's headquarters are in Turin, Italy, and the company is present in 14 countries around Europe, Asia, South America and North America – with 7 innovation centres, 5 digital hubs and 8 production plants,[33] where over 9.000 people work.[34]","title":"Presence"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stellantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellantis"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Governance-35"}],"text":"As part of Stellantis, Comau is managed by a board of directors and a board of statutory auditors. The board of directors oversees the company's performance both directly and through committees charged with specific advisory functions. It is supported by a body made up of members.[35]","title":"Corporate structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fiat Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_Group"},{"link_name":"CNH Industrial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CNH_Industrial"},{"link_name":"Iveco Defence Vehicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iveco"},{"link_name":"EXOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exor_(company)"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Stellantis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellantis"},{"link_name":"MOPAR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mopar"},{"link_name":"Magneti Marelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magneti_Marelli"},{"link_name":"FCA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FCA_Italy"},{"link_name":"FCA Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiat_Chrysler_Automobiles"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"sub_title":"Key people","text":"Alessandro Nasi, Chairman – in 2005 he joined the Fiat Group, following professional experiences in the banking and finance sector. He held senior roles at Fiat Powertrain Technologies and CNH Industrial, a company that produces machinery for agriculture and construction. Currently he is member of the Board of Directors of CNH Industrial, Chairman of Iveco Defence Vehicles and member of the Lego Group's advisory board. Nasi is also vice-chairman of the Board of EXOR.[36]\nPietro Gorlier, CEO. He was Chief Parts and Services Officer worldwide at Stellantis, President and CEO of MOPAR, CEO of Magneti Marelli, COO of the Region EMEA at FCA and since 2011 he has been a member of the FCA Group Executive Council (GEC).[37]","title":"Corporate structure"}]

[{"image_text":"AGILE 1500 Comau Robot at MADE Competence Centre in Milan.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Comau_AGILE1500_MADE_Competence_Centre_in_Milan.jpg/220px-Comau_AGILE1500_MADE_Competence_Centre_in_Milan.jpg"}]

[{"reference":"\"Comau Technology for the Production of the New Fiat 500 and the Mobility of the Future\". 27 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.auto-innovations.net/news/34073-comau-technology-for-the-production-of-the-new-fiat-500-and-the-mobility-of-the-future","url_text":"\"Comau Technology for the Production of the New Fiat 500 and the Mobility of the Future\""}]},{"reference":"\"Comau History\". Comau. Retrieved 4 May 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.comau.com/en/about-us/history/","url_text":"\"Comau History\""}]},{"reference":"\"History\". Comau.com. 5 November 2019. Archived from the original on 28 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.comau.com/EN/about-comau/history","url_text":"\"History\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190928174930/https://www.comau.com/EN/about-comau/history","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"History\". Comau.com. 6 May 2018. Archived from the original on 28 September 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.comau.com/EN/about-comau/history","url_text":"\"History\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190928174930/https://www.comau.com/EN/about-comau/history","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Galimberti, Cinzia (5 January 2016). \"Comau: dove nasce la cultura dell'automazione\". Meccanica news. Retrieved 25 May 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.meccanicanews.com/2016/01/05/comau-dove-nasce-la-cultura-dellautomazione/","url_text":"\"Comau: dove nasce la cultura dell'automazione\""}]},{"reference":"\"TIM and COMAU collaboration aims to accelerate IoT\". Automation Fair. 30 March 2021. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.automation-fair.com/2021/01/04/tim-and-comau-collaboration-aims-to-accelerate-iot/","url_text":"\"TIM and COMAU collaboration aims to accelerate IoT\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210107131345/https://www.automation-fair.com/2021/01/04/tim-and-comau-collaboration-aims-to-accelerate-iot/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"COMAU technology for the new FIAT 500 and the mobility of the future\". Pronounce Media. 6 February 2021. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://pronounce.media/press-release/comau-technology-for-the-new-fiat-500-and-the-mobility-of-the-future/ifm-independent-forecourt-magazine/2020-11-26/3028","url_text":"\"COMAU technology for the new FIAT 500 and the mobility of the future\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20201129151540/https://pronounce.media/press-release/comau-technology-for-the-new-fiat-500-and-the-mobility-of-the-future/ifm-independent-forecourt-magazine/2020-11-26/3028","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"COMAU TECHNOLOGIES FOR INDUSTRY 4.0 SUPPORT SME MANUFACTURING COMPANIES AT THE \"MADE\" COMPETENCE CENTER IN MILAN\". Industry Asia Pacific. 3 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://industry-asia-pacific.com/news/34688-comau-technologies-for-industry-4-0-support-sme-manufacturing-companies-at-the-%e2%80%9cmade%e2%80%9d-competence-center-in-milan","url_text":"\"COMAU TECHNOLOGIES FOR INDUSTRY 4.0 SUPPORT SME MANUFACTURING COMPANIES AT THE \"MADE\" COMPETENCE CENTER IN MILAN\""}]},{"reference":"\"Le tecnologie innovative di Comau per la smart factory nel Competence Center CIM 4.0\". 26 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thenextfactory.it/2021/05/le-tecnologie-innovative-di-comau-per-la-smart-factory-nel-competence-center-cim-4-0/","url_text":"\"Le tecnologie innovative di Comau per la smart factory nel Competence Center CIM 4.0\""}]},{"reference":"\"Comau a Bruxelles per l'Innovation Community EIT Manufacturing\". automazionenews.it. 17 April 2021. Archived from the original on 29 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.automazionenews.it/comau-a-bruxelles-per-la-presentazione-ufficiale-della-innovation-community-eit-manufacturing/","url_text":"\"Comau a Bruxelles per l'Innovation Community EIT Manufacturing\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210429085840/https://www.automazionenews.it/comau-a-bruxelles-per-la-presentazione-ufficiale-della-innovation-community-eit-manufacturing/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Comau supporta i migliori consorzi di batterie europei ed entra nel Cda della BEPA\". traderlink.it. 12 February 2021. Archived from the original on 21 April 2021. Retrieved 7 March 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210421110053/https://www.traderlink.it/notizie/ultime-news/comau-supporta-i-migliori-consorzi-di-batterie-europei-ed-entra-nel-cda-della-bepa_21043VHREN3KHRB","url_text":"\"Comau supporta i migliori consorzi di batterie europei ed entra nel Cda della BEPA\""},{"url":"https://www.traderlink.it/notizie/ultime-news/comau-supporta-i-migliori-consorzi-di-batterie-europei-ed-entra-nel-cda-della-bepa_21043VHREN3KHRB","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Comau, linea batterie per Uk Battery Centre\". ansa.it. 8 April 2021. Retrieved 27 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ansa.it/canale_motori/notizie/industria/2021/04/08/comau-linea-batterie-per-uk-battery-centre_da41cbbb-fbab-4186-843c-560f97183077.html","url_text":"\"Comau, linea batterie per Uk Battery Centre\""}]},{"reference":"\"Comau: accordo con Rockwell Automation per soluzioni integrate gestione robot\". ilsole24ore.com. 20 April 2021. Retrieved 29 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ilsole24ore.com/radiocor/nRC_20.04.2021_14.38_41310413?refresh_ce=1","url_text":"\"Comau: accordo con Rockwell Automation per soluzioni integrate gestione robot\""}]},{"reference":"\"Fincantieri e Comau collaborano per innovare i processi produttivi con soluzioni robotiche\". 20 May 2021. 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Retrieved 27 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rinnovabili.it/le-aziende-informano/le-tecnologie-di-comau-per-lo-smantellamento-di-batterie-e-raee/","url_text":"\"Le tecnologie di Comau per lo smantellamento di batterie e RAEE\""}]},{"reference":"\"Comau Competencies\". Comau. Retrieved 26 May 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.comau.com/en/competencies/consultancy-education/project-management/","url_text":"\"Comau Competencies\""}]},{"reference":"\"Comau lancia il suo nuovo Marketplace, un'area dedicata ai suoi System Integrator, per dar loro maggiore visibilità\". 16 February 2021. 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Reuters.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/technology/stellantis-robotics-unit-comau-picks-gorlier-ceo-2022-04-02/","url_text":"\"Stellantis robotics unit Comau picks Gorlier as CEO\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe_Fiesta

Fiestas de Santa Fe

["1 History","2 Fiesta highlights","3 References","4 External links"]

Festival held every autumn in Santa Fe, New Mexico, U.S. Fiestas de Santa FeZozobra and fire dancers at the Santa Fe FiestaOfficial nameFiestas de Santa FeEnglish translation: "Festival of Santa Fe"Also calledSanta Fe FiestaObserved byNew MexicoTypeLocal, Historical, Cultural, ReligiousSignificanceFirst held on September 16, 1712, to commemorate Diego de Vargas' Bloodless reconquest of Santa Fe in Nuevo MéxicoCelebrationsThe lighting of Zozobra, processions, parades, and New Mexico music performances (typically mariachi)Frequencyannual Fiestas de Santa Fe is a festival held every autumn in Santa Fe, New Mexico, usually during the second week of September. History The Hysterical Pageant of the Fiesta c. 1930–1945 On September 16, 1712, the first Fiesta council signed a proclamation declaring there should be a celebration to commemorate the anniversary of the 1692 reconquest (recolonization) of New Mexico by General Don Diego de Vargas (1643–1704). The Spanish were earlier expelled from the city by neighboring Pueblo people during the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 and spent the next 12 years in exile in El Paso del Norte (now Ciudad Juárez, Mexico). The King of Spain appointed de Vargas to lead the exiled colonists in their reoccupation of Santa Fe by surrounding the city with cannons and threatening the Pueblo Indians residing inside with death. He re-entered the city on September 14, 1692; however the war for reoccupation of New Mexico raged on until 1694. Fiesta was revamped in 1912 by a group led by the Santa Fe Chamber of Commerce and Edgar Lee Hewett. Hewett re-envisioned the Fiesta as a celebration of the history of New Mexico from prehistoric times to the annexation by the United States and rooted in the culture of the Native Americans, Hispanos and Anglos. During the twentieth century the event became increasingly commercialized. From 1925 to 1932 the Spanish Colonial Arts Society sold santos during the Fiesta, an event that spun off as its own celebration called Spanish Market. In protest to Hewett's charging of admission to the Fiesta, a group of artists and writers decide to stage their own admission-free Fiesta called "El Pasatiempo" in 1926. "El Pasatiempo" featured a Hysterical Pageant, a parody of the Fiesta historical pageant, and the burning of Zozobra, both of which later became part of the Fiesta celebration. No celebrations were held in 1917–18 during that reinvisioning, and during World War II in 1942–45. The Fiesta was again revamped following criticism of its portrayal of The Entrada. In 1977 the All Indian Pueblo Council and the state's Eight Northern Pueblos staged a boycott when a former Fiesta Council president sent a letter to the Pueblos requesting they not sell their wares during Fiesta. The Fiesta Council responded to these criticisms by emphasizing peaceful co-existence of the indigenous and Hispanic communities and their shared Catholic faith. From 2015 to 2017, silent protestors raised placards citing historical facts at odds with the narrative annually given when the re-enactors reached Santa Fe's historic Plaza to portray the retaking of the city. Extensive press coverage was key to changing The Entrada aspect of the fiesta. In addition, many local screenings of the documentary film Veiled Lightning, including two screenings at Santa Fe's New Mexico History Museum. In 2018 the Entrada was dropped from Santa Fe's Fiesta celebration. The COVID-19 pandemic prevented a public event in 2020, but they did stream some events including the burning of Zozobra. A similar streamed event occurred in 2021. In 2016, Al Hurricane Jr. had released a song titled "La Fiesta de Santa Fe". During the first full Fiesta since the pandemic, held in 2022, the bandstand featured him, and other New Mexico music performances; by musicians including Sangre Joven, Divino, The Dwyane Ortega Band, and dances from Indigenous Pueblo Dancers, Los Matachines de Bernalillo, and Popé's Dancers. Fiesta highlights The burning of Zozobra at fiesta The start of Fiestas is marked by the beginning of the Novena masses, which start during the Knighting and Coronation of Don Diego de Vargas and La Reina de Santa Fe in which a procession which takes La Conquistadora from the Cathedral Basilica to the Rosario Chapel, at Rosario Cemetery in Santa Fe. From there 9 masses are held throughout the week and at the end of the week La Conquistadora is returned from Rosario Chapel to the Cathedral Basilica that following weekend. Those masses are carried out and are made as a tribute to the promise that Don Diego de Vargas made to La Conquistadora, and is carried through until September which includes the burning of Zozobra, also known as "Old Man Gloom", a 50 ft/15.2m tall marionette that symbolizes the hardships and despair of the past year. This is followed by 3 days of celebration that includes a reenactment of Don Diego de Vargas's return to the city, a children's pet parade, the Historical/Hysterical Parade, the Fiesta Ball and Roman Catholic masses of thanksgiving. During the festival, the Santa Fe Plaza is filled with arts & crafts and food booths, and mariachis play throughout the city. Fiestas concludes with mass at the St. Francis Cathedral followed by a candlelight procession to the Cross of the Martyrs. References ^ Lewthwaite, Stephanie (2015). A contested art : modernism and mestizaje in New Mexico. Norman. ISBN 9780806148649. OCLC 904715400.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ Wilson, Chris (1997). The myth of Santa Fe : creating a modern regional tradition. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press. ISBN 058536737X. OCLC 47010655. ^ Horton, Sarah (Fall 2001). "Where is the "Mexican" in "New Mexican"? Enacting History, Enacting Dominance in the Santa Fe Fiesta". The Public Historian. 23 (4): 46. doi:10.1525/tph.2001.23.4.41. JSTOR 10.1525/tph.2001.23.4.41. ^ Chacón, Daniel J. (September 7, 2016). "On eve of Entrada, director doesn't see what all the fuss is about". Santa Fe New Mexican. Retrieved 1 November 2016. ^ Madeson, Frances (June 3, 2017). "Pueblo Revolt of 1680 Documentary Pressures Santa Fe to Stop Annual Fiesta Entrada". Indian Country Today. Retrieved February 2, 2019. ^ Cantu, Aaron (July 3, 2017). "Entrada Trouble". Santa Fe Reporter. Retrieved February 2, 2019. ^ Bennett, Megan (October 13, 2017). "Taking back the narrative". Albuquerque Journal. Retrieved February 2, 2019. ^ Last, T.S. (September 9, 2016). "Native rights groups plan protest march for Entrada". Albuquerque Journal. Retrieved February 2, 2019. ^ Last, T.S. (September 1, 2017). "Protestors plan to return for Entrada". Albuquerque Journal. Retrieved February 2, 2019. ^ Poris, Mia Rose (September 14, 2018). "Impactful film inspires 'monumental' social change". Gallup Sun. Retrieved February 2, 2019. ^ "Culture, Memory and Change". Santa Fe Reporter. August 31, 2022. Retrieved December 10, 2022. ^ Chacó, Daniel J. (November 15, 2022). "Zozobra will burn regardless of coronavirus". Santa Fe New Mexican. Retrieved December 10, 2022. ^ Silva, Claudia L. (November 15, 2022). "Celebration of Hispanic culture back in full swing". Santa Fe New Mexican. Retrieved December 10, 2022. ^ Lucero, Krystle (September 7, 2018). "FREE Entertainment on the Plaza". Santa Fe Fiesta. Retrieved December 10, 2022. External links Santa Fe Fiesta Council - Official Santa Fe Fiesta Site

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"festival","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Festival"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe, New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe,_New_Mexico"}],"text":"Fiestas de Santa Fe is a festival held every autumn in Santa Fe, New Mexico, usually during the second week of September.","title":"Fiestas de Santa Fe"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Hysterical_parade_of_the_Santa_Fe_(N._M.),_Fiesta.jpg"},{"link_name":"Don Diego de Vargas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Don_Diego_de_Vargas"},{"link_name":"Edgar Lee Hewett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Lee_Hewett"},{"link_name":"Native Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Anglos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglos"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Santa_Fe_Reporter_2022-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chac%C3%B3_2022-12"},{"link_name":"Al Hurricane Jr.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Al_Hurricane_Jr."},{"link_name":"New Mexico music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico_music"},{"link_name":"Matachines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matachines"},{"link_name":"Bernalillo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernalillo,_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Popé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Silva_2022-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"The Hysterical Pageant of the Fiesta c. 1930–1945On September 16, 1712, the first Fiesta council signed a proclamation declaring there should be a celebration to commemorate the anniversary of the 1692 reconquest (recolonization) of New Mexico by General Don Diego de Vargas (1643–1704). The Spanish were earlier expelled from the city by neighboring Pueblo people during the Pueblo Revolt of 1680 and spent the next 12 years in exile in El Paso del Norte (now Ciudad Juárez, Mexico). The King of Spain appointed de Vargas to lead the exiled colonists in their reoccupation of Santa Fe by surrounding the city with cannons and threatening the Pueblo Indians residing inside with death. He re-entered the city on September 14, 1692; however the war for reoccupation of New Mexico raged on until 1694.Fiesta was revamped in 1912 by a group led by the Santa Fe Chamber of Commerce and Edgar Lee Hewett. Hewett re-envisioned the Fiesta as a celebration of the history of New Mexico from prehistoric times to the annexation by the United States and rooted in the culture of the Native Americans, Hispanos and Anglos. During the twentieth century the event became increasingly commercialized. From 1925 to 1932 the Spanish Colonial Arts Society sold santos during the Fiesta, an event that spun off as its own celebration called Spanish Market.[1] In protest to Hewett's charging of admission to the Fiesta, a group of artists and writers decide to stage their own admission-free Fiesta called \"El Pasatiempo\" in 1926. \"El Pasatiempo\" featured a Hysterical Pageant, a parody of the Fiesta historical pageant, and the burning of Zozobra,[2] both of which later became part of the Fiesta celebration.No celebrations were held in 1917–18 during that reinvisioning, and during World War II in 1942–45.The Fiesta was again revamped following criticism of its portrayal of The Entrada. In 1977 the All Indian Pueblo Council and the state's Eight Northern Pueblos staged a boycott when a former Fiesta Council president sent a letter to the Pueblos requesting they not sell their wares during Fiesta.[3][4] The Fiesta Council responded to these criticisms by emphasizing peaceful co-existence of the indigenous and Hispanic communities and their shared Catholic faith. From 2015 to 2017, silent protestors raised placards citing historical facts at odds with the narrative annually given when the re-enactors reached Santa Fe's historic Plaza to portray the retaking of the city. Extensive press coverage was key to changing The Entrada aspect of the fiesta. In addition, many local screenings of the documentary film Veiled Lightning, including two screenings at Santa Fe's New Mexico History Museum.[5][6][7][8][9][10] In 2018 the Entrada was dropped from Santa Fe's Fiesta celebration.[11]The COVID-19 pandemic prevented a public event in 2020, but they did stream some events including the burning of Zozobra.[12] A similar streamed event occurred in 2021.In 2016, Al Hurricane Jr. had released a song titled \"La Fiesta de Santa Fe\". During the first full Fiesta since the pandemic, held in 2022, the bandstand featured him, and other New Mexico music performances; by musicians including Sangre Joven, Divino, The Dwyane Ortega Band, and dances from Indigenous Pueblo Dancers, Los Matachines de Bernalillo, and Popé's Dancers.[13][14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Santafe_zozobra.jpg"},{"link_name":"La Conquistadora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Conquistadora"},{"link_name":"Zozobra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zozobra"},{"link_name":"marionette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marionette"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholic_Archdiocese_of_Santa_Fe"},{"link_name":"Santa Fe Plaza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Fe_Plaza"},{"link_name":"mariachis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariachi"},{"link_name":"St. Francis Cathedral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathedral_Basilica_of_Saint_Francis_of_Assisi"}],"text":"The burning of Zozobra at fiestaThe start of Fiestas is marked by the beginning of the Novena masses, which start during the Knighting and Coronation of Don Diego de Vargas and La Reina de Santa Fe in which a procession which takes La Conquistadora from the Cathedral Basilica to the Rosario Chapel, at Rosario Cemetery in Santa Fe. From there 9 masses are held throughout the week and at the end of the week La Conquistadora is returned from Rosario Chapel to the Cathedral Basilica that following weekend. Those masses are carried out and are made as a tribute to the promise that Don Diego de Vargas made to La Conquistadora, and is carried through until September which includes the burning of Zozobra, also known as \"Old Man Gloom\", a 50 ft/15.2m tall marionette that symbolizes the hardships and despair of the past year. This is followed by 3 days of celebration that includes a reenactment of Don Diego de Vargas's return to the city, a children's pet parade, the Historical/Hysterical Parade, the Fiesta Ball and Roman Catholic masses of thanksgiving. During the festival, the Santa Fe Plaza is filled with arts & crafts and food booths, and mariachis play throughout the city. Fiestas concludes with mass at the St. Francis Cathedral followed by a candlelight procession to the Cross of the Martyrs.","title":"Fiesta highlights"}]

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Retrieved February 2, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.abqjournal.com/1056778/protesters-plan-to-return-for-entrada.html","url_text":"\"Protestors plan to return for Entrada\""}]},{"reference":"Poris, Mia Rose (September 14, 2018). \"Impactful film inspires 'monumental' social change\". Gallup Sun. Retrieved February 2, 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.gallupsun.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=11875:impactful-film-inspires-monumental-social-change&catid=173:features&Itemid=622","url_text":"\"Impactful film inspires 'monumental' social change\""}]},{"reference":"\"Culture, Memory and Change\". Santa Fe Reporter. August 31, 2022. Retrieved December 10, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sfreporter.com/news/coverstories/2022/08/31/culture-memory-and-change/","url_text":"\"Culture, Memory and Change\""}]},{"reference":"Chacó, Daniel J. (November 15, 2022). \"Zozobra will burn regardless of coronavirus\". Santa Fe New Mexican. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laguerre

Edmond Laguerre

["1 Works","1.1 Selection","1.2 Extensive lists","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]

French mathematician See also: Laguerre (surname) Edmond Nicolas LaguerreBorn(1834-04-09)9 April 1834Bar-le-Duc, FranceDied14 August 1886(1886-08-14) (aged 52)Bar-le-Duc, FranceKnown forLaguerre polynomials, Laguerre's method, Laguerre planeScientific careerFieldsMathematics Edmond Nicolas Laguerre (9 April 1834, Bar-le-Duc – 14 August 1886, Bar-le-Duc) was a French mathematician and a member of the Académie des sciences (1885). His main works were in the areas of geometry and complex analysis. He also investigated orthogonal polynomials (see Laguerre polynomials). Laguerre's method is a root-finding algorithm tailored to polynomials. He laid the foundations of a geometry of oriented spheres (Laguerre geometry and Laguerre plane), including the Laguerre transformation or transformation by reciprocal directions. Works Selection Notes sur la résolution des équations numériques. Paris: Gauthier-Villars. 1880. Laguerre, Edmond (1881). "Sur la transformation par directions réciproques" . Comptes rendus. 92: 71–73. Laguerre, Edmond (1882). "Transformations par semi-droites réciproques" . Nouvelles annales de mathématiques. 1: 542–556. Théorie des équations numériques, Paris: Gauthier-Villars. 1884 on Google Books Recherches sur la géométrie de direction; méthodes de transformation; anticaustiques. Gauthier-Villars. 1885. (in French) Oeuvres de Laguerre publ. sous les auspices de l'Académie des sciences par MM. Charles Hermite, Henri Poincaré, et Eugène Rouché. (Paris, 1898-1905) (reprint: New York : Chelsea publ., 1972 ISBN 0-8284-0263-9) Extensive lists More than 80 articles on Nundam.org.p See also Isotropic line q-Laguerre polynomials Big q-Laguerre polynomials Discrete Laguerre polynomials Gauss–Laguerre quadrature Laguerre-Gaussian modes Laguerre form Laguerre formula Laguerre group Laguerre's method Laguerre–Pólya class Laguerre plane Laguerre polynomials Laguerre transform Laguerre transformations Laguerre's theorem Laguerre–Forsyth invariant Laguerre–Samuelson inequality Laguerre–Voronoi diagram References (in French) "Nécrologie". In: Nouvelles annales de mathématiques, 3rd series, vol. 8 (1889), p. 494–496—Obituary ^ Colby, Frank Moore; Williams, Talcott (1918). "LAGUERRE, Edmond Nicolas". The New International Encyclopaedia. Vol. 13 (2nd ed.). pp. 468–469. External links O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Edmond Laguerre", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway France BnF data Germany Israel United States Sweden Netherlands Academics CiNii MathSciNet Mathematics Genealogy Project zbMATH People Deutsche Biographie Other IdRef

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ant_Financial

Ant Group

["1 History","1.1 Founding and expansion (2014–2020)","1.2 Attempted initial public offering (2020)","1.3 After suspension of IPO (2020–present)","2 Expansion outside Asia","3 Services","4 Structure","5 Controversies","5.1 Connection with Megvii","5.2 Sharing consumer data with Chinese government","5.3 Predatory lending","5.4 Violating various regulations","6 Related entities","6.1 Subsidiaries","6.2 International partners","7 References","8 External links"]

Chinese financial services company Ant Group Co. Ltd.Native name蚂蚁科技集团股份有限公司IndustryTechnologyFinancial servicesPayment processorPredecessor Alipay financial services (2014) Ant Financial Services Group (2014-2020) Founded16 October 2014; 9 years ago (2014-10-16) in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, ChinaFounderJack MaHeadquartersXihu District, Hangzhou, ChinaArea servedWorldwideKey people Eric Jing(executive chairman and CEO) Ni Xingjun(Chief Technology Officer) Cyril Han(Chief Financial Officer) ProductsElectronic payment processingBankingMobile paymentBrands Alipay Yu’ebao Huabei Xianghubao Revenue120,618,000,000 renminbi (2019) Operating income24,071,000,000 renminbi (2019) Net income18,072,000,000 renminbi (2019) Total assets271,558,000,000 renminbi (2019) Owner Hangzhou Alibaba Network Technology (32.65%) Hangzhou Junhan Investment (29.86%) Hangzhou Jun'ao Investment (20.66%) Number of employees~16,660SubsidiariesTianhong Asset ManagementWebsitewww.antgroup.com Ant Group (Chinese: 蚂蚁集团; pinyin: Mǎyǐ jítuán), formerly known as Ant Financial, is an affiliate company of the Chinese conglomerate Alibaba Group. The group owns the world's largest mobile (digital) payment platform Alipay, which serves over 1.3 billion users and 80 million merchants, with total payment volume (TPV) reaching CN¥118 trillion in June 2020. It is the second largest financial services corporation in the world, behind Visa. In March 2019, The Wall Street Journal reported that Ant's flagship Tianhong Yu'e Bao money-market fund was the largest in the world, with over 588 million users, or more than a third of China's population, contributing cash to it. In October 2020, Ant Group was set to raise US$34.5 billion in the world's largest IPO at the time, valuing the company at US$313 billion. On the eve of the IPO, China stopped the process from moving forward. It was reported that the Chinese Communist Party leader Xi Jinping personally scuttled the Ant IPO. On 12 April 2021, The Wall Street Journal reported that under the pressure from the Chinese government, Ant Group would be transformed into a financial holding company overseen by the People's Bank of China. History Founding and expansion (2014–2020) Alipay was rebranded as Ant Group Services on 23 October 2014, and the company changed its name to Ant Group Co., Ltd on 13 July 2020. In 2015, Ant Group raised $4.5 billion in a funding round with investors including China Investment Corp (CIC), CCB Trust, China Life, China Post Group, China Development Bank Capital and Primavera Capital Group. In 2015, the company was valued at about $45 billion. As of 26 April 2016, Ant Group had around 450 million annual active users, with Credit Suisse estimating that 58% of China's online payment transactions went through Alipay. In September 2016, Ant Group bought EyeVerify Inc. and the company was rebranded as Zoloz. By late January 2017, Ant Group had a valuation of $60 billion. On 26 January 2017, Ant Group Services Group announced a deal to acquire MoneyGram International for $880 million. In January 2018, the companies decided to terminate the deal after approval was not granted from the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States due to U.S. national security concerns. The same month, the Cyberspace Administration of China stated that Ant Group had failed to meet the country's personal data protection standards. In September 2017, Ant Group formed a joint venture with Sir Li Ka-shing's CK Hutchison Holdings to launch a digital wallet service in Hong Kong. In June 2018, the company launched a blockchain-powered cash remittance service that will allow real-time cash transfers between Hong Kong and the Philippines. On 9 June 2018, the company raised around US$14 billion, which the Times of India called "the biggest-ever single fund-raising globally by a private company". In November 2019, the company announced to be raising $1 billion for a new fund, with the aim to expand the firm's investment activities in India and Southeast Asia. According to media reports, the fund is meant to provide late-stage funding to startups. In January 2020, Ant Group applied for a digital banking license in Singapore. Attempted initial public offering (2020) In 2020, Ant Group intended to complete an initial public offering, aiming to raise $34 billion by listing. This would have been the largest such offering by any company to date, above the $29.4 billion raised by Saudi Aramco as a result of its 2019 offering. Due to Ant Group's scale—the company has approximately one billion users in China—and its operations, which include lending services, the company has attracted regulatory scrutiny in the past. The China Securities Regulatory Commission previously imposed new restrictions on money-market funds, a move attributed to the size and growth of Yu'e Bao, an Ant offering. Though the company asserts it does not function as a bank or a financial institution, Chinese banks have voiced their belief that Ant draws deposits away from them, so undermining the banking system. The People's Bank of China requested data from banks that lent through Ant in mid-2020 and the State Administration for Market Regulation informally began an investigation earlier in the year into whether Alipay and WeChat Pay, a Tencent subsidiary, had abused their size to hamper competitors. Several days before the IPO was to take place, in October 2020, the company's founder and controlling shareholder, Ma, made negative statements about Chinese regulators and the governing political party, the Chinese Communist Party. Ma criticized regulators for their focus on risk mitigation. Soon after the comments were made, Ma and other senior Ant executives were summoned to a meeting with the China Securities Regulatory Commission, the China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission, and the State Administration of Foreign Exchange as well as representatives from the country's central bank, the People’s Bank of China. Ant Group issued a statement disclosing that the Ant and government representatives discussed "Views regarding the health and stability of the financial sector". The Forbes magazine published an article that argued that China was right to stop the Ant Group’s IPO, as it was a "dangerous business model" that was going down a systematic risky path that can lead to a repeat of the same conditions that caused the 2007-2008 Global Financial Crisis. After the meeting, and two days before the IPO was set to occur, the offering was suspended by the Shanghai Stock Exchange; the Shanghai Stock Exchange referenced "major issues" as the reasoning behind the suspension. The exchange further indicated that the company no longer conformed with listing requirements. Ant subsequently suspended the Hong Kong listing. The Wall Street Journal attributed the suspension to the personal will of Xi, who had become infuriated by Ma's comments, citing "Chinese officials with knowledge of the matter", though these assertions have also been characterized as "rumors". The suspension was unexpected, surprising bankers working on the transaction, the broader financial industry, and consumers prepared to invest in the offering. It has been referred to as "abrupt" and "shocking". Ant began working to address regulator concerns in January 2021, though no public plans for an IPO have been announced as of September 2021. Jack Ma retreated from the public eye after the IPO's suspension. Some speculated that Ma had left China altogether. He did not appear in public between October 2020 and January 2021. In January 2021, he spoke in a live-streamed video. In the video, he discussed his commitment to philanthropy and improving quality of life for those in rural China. After suspension of IPO (2020–present) On 4 December 2020, Ant Group's unit and a consortium comprising Greenland Financial Holdings Group, Linklogis Hong Kong Ltd, and Beijing Co-operative Equity Investment Fund Management, have been selected to receive the digital wholesale bank (DWB) licences in Singapore. Ant Group was later ordered by the People’s Bank of China on 26 December 2020 to "rectify" its business and formulate an implementation timetable. The central bank also summoned Ant executives, saying that the Group lacked an effective governance mechanism, defied regulatory compliance requirements and engaged in regulatory arbitrage. On 15 January 2021, Ant Group announced that it will overhaul its business structure in accordance with the Chinese central bank and its financial regulators' wishes. State spokesmen announced that the Ant Group's consumer finance branch will be regulated as a financial institution, in lieu of a technology startup. In April 2021, Ant Group applied to become a financial holding company under the direction of the Peoples' Bank of China. The move separated Ant Group's consumer lending businesses, credit card-like Huabei and micro-loan provider Jiebei, from Alipay’s other financial offerings with effect from September 2021. This development dismantled the Alipay super app that serves more than 1.2 billion users. Huabei and Jiebei share approximately 500 million users. In January 2022, Ant Group launched a new investment advisory service named "Golden Choice Investment Consultants (金选投顾)" in partnership with six financial institutions – Aegon-Industrial Fund, China Southern Asset Management, Zhong Ou Asset Management, GF Fund Management, Harvest Wealth, and Caitong Securities. The service was briefly available to all Alipay users before it was taken down less than ten days later as Ant Group does not hold a fund rating license that is required before an entity can assess and publicly share information about the investment prospects of financial instruments. In April 2022, the company took over Singapore-based payments firm 2C2P to further digital payment adoption. In July 2022, Chinese authorities give a tentative green light to Ant Group to revive its initial public offering plans in both Shanghai and Hong Kong. In November 2022, Reuters reported that the People's Bank of China was readying to fine Ant Group around US$1 billion, potentially ending its two-year overhaul. Ant Group made major changes to its ownership structure and corporate governance in January 2023.: 261  That month, Ant Group announced a series of changes in shareholder voting rights, and its founder Jack Ma will no longer be the actual controller of Ant Group. Ma's voting rights were reduced from 50% to 6%.: 271  Following these changes, no single shareholder has a controlling stake in the company.: 261  The company's board also added another independent director.: 261  The Chinese government spoke positively of Ant Group's changes, including describing them as improvements in transparency and accountability.: 261  In July 2023, the Chinese government fined Ant group 7.12 billion RMB ($985 million) for violations of laws and regulations, relating to corporate governance, consumer protection and anti-money laundering requirements. In 2023, Ant Group reported a record high investment of 21.19 billion yuan ($2.92 billion) in technology research and development, mainly focused on AI technology. The company, in its 2023 sustainability report, revealed that it had received government approval to release products powered by its "Bailing" AI large language model to the public. The model has been used in various AI assistants on its Alipay platform, including a "smart healthcare manager" and "smart financial manager." Expansion outside Asia Driven by the growing numbers of Chinese tourists around the world, Ant Group has sought to expand its services into Europe and the United States. In Europe, the company had tripled the number of merchants that are accepting the Alipay app, according to the firm's head of Europe division. Partnerships exist between Alipay and various European digital wallet apps, including ePassi (Finland), Vipps (Norway), MOMO (Spain), Pagaqui (Portugal) and Bluecode (Austria). On 14 February 2019, Ant Group acquired the British international money transfer services provider WorldFirst for $700 million. In March 2019, UK's Barclaycard expanded an agreement that enabled British retailers to accept the Alipay app in their stores. By September 2020, it was reported that U.S. authorities were considering restrictions on Ant Group's payment system, with the U.S. State Department recommending that Ant Group be added to the Entity List, but subsequently withdrew plans to sanction the company. Services It operates Alipay, the world's largest mobile and online payments platform as well as Yu’e Bao, formerly the world's largest money-market fund. It also runs Zhima Credit, a third-party credit rating system. As of September 2017, Ant Group unveiled its facial recognition payment technology through its Alipay services. In September 2018, the company launched the Ant Group Technology brand for all of its technology products and services. In 2015, Alibaba and Ant Group Services Group created online-to-offline local services company Koubei as a joint venture . Ant Group also operates credit payment company Huabei, and owns a 30% stake in the online bank called MYbank. In 2015, Ant Group launched Ant Fortune, a wealth management platform. Yu’e Bao is one of the products on the platform. Ant Fortune offers hundreds of products from more than 80 Chinese fund institutions. In June 2017, Ant Fortune launched a Fortune Account (财富号) service platform that allows financial institutions to publish content and sell their financial products there. In October 2018, Ant Group launched the Xianghubao mutual protection plan that attracted 50 million people to sign on in half a year. Xianghubao and other mutual-aid companies sought to crowd-fund medical coverage while avoiding being characterized as an insurance product.: 224–225  Following the 2020-2021 Xi Jinping administration reform spree, Xianghubao and many other mutual-aid companies shut down.: 225  In September 2019, a product within the Alipay app called Ant Forest received a Champions of the Earth award, the United Nation's highest environmental honor, for turning the green activities of half a billion people into real trees planted in some of China's most arid regions. Users are encouraged to record their low-carbon footprint through daily actions, such as taking public transportation or paying utility bills online. For each move, they receive "green energy" points with which they can exchange for the real trees, which they can view in real time via satellite. In 2021, Ant Group revealed at the Digital China Summit that it has been cooperating with the People's Bank of China since 2017 to develop and test e-CNY, an official digital currency. Structure The Ant IPO prospectus shows a complex ownership structure with Hangzhou Junhan owning 29.86%, Hangzhou Junao owning 20.66%, and Alibaba itself holding 32.65%. Meanwhile, another entity named Hangzhou Yunbo controls the top two stakeholders, Hangzhou Junhan and Hangzhou Junao, as their executive and general partner. Jack Ma was Yunbo's single largest stakeholder with 34%. Three other Ant officials, Chairman Eric Jing, CEO Simon Hu and non-executive director Jiang Fang, held equal stakes in the remainder of Yunbo, with 22% each. On 7 January 2023, Ant Group announced that it was restructuring so that Jack Ma would no longer be the controlling person of the company. It added that Ma and other nine of its other major shareholders would use their voting rights independently and no longer act in concert. It additionally added that there would be a new fifth independent director on its board; it previously had eight board directors, with four of them being independent. The changes meant that Ma's share voting rights would decrease from over 50% to 6.2%. Controversies Connection with Megvii In September 2020, former Google China president and venture capitalist Kai-Fu Lee said in a public speech that Sinovation Ventures had assisted Megvii, a Beijing-based company known for providing artificial intelligence products to various businesses, in obtaining a large amount of private facial data from Ant Group to “analyze how to enter various industries.” Following Lee's speech, Ant Group denied providing Megvii facial data. Lee later said he “misspoke” on the issue. Sharing consumer data with Chinese government In January 2021, The Wall Street Journal reported that China's regulators were trying to make Ant share the troves of personal data in its payment and lifestyle app, Alipay, which is used by over a billion people. The data include consumers' spending habits, borrowing behaviors, and payment histories. According to people familiar with the issue, in the past, Jack Ma had resisted the authorities' attempts to grab the data owned by Ant. In late December 2020, China's central bank criticized Ant for its "defiance of regulatory demands" and asked the company to restructure its business. Predatory lending The Ant group had been criticized for engaging in moral hazard and predatory lending. Because the company takes only 2 percent risk for the loans it originates and others take 98 percent risk, it is incentivized to generate a larger number of riskier loans to earn fees, even from those who are unable to pay it back. Another issue was Ant’s model for determining credit scores. Instead of depending on factors like the consumer’s debt ratio or their income. The Ant group relied on a counter-intuitive measure on basing scores on the consumer’s expenditure history where buying more actually led to a higher score for the borrower, and hence encourages more spending rather than reinforcing fiscal restraint. Violating various regulations On July 7, 2023, the Ant Group was fined ¥7.123 billion ($985 million) by regulators for non-compliance with regulations in payments and financial services. The People's Bank of China, which imposed the fine, accused Ant of breaching laws related to corporate governance, payment and settlement business, consumer protection, and anti-money laundering obligations. Related entities Subsidiaries Alipay – a mobile wallet app supports make and accept payments. Huabei (Ant Credit Pay) – a virtual credit card type of product that facilitates credit payments. MYbank – a private cloud-based online bank that is also one of six state-banked financial institutions to operate the digital yuan in China. Ant Group owns a 30% stake in the subsidiary bank. Jiebei (Ant Cash Now) – a consumer loan service. Ant Fortune – a comprehensive wealth management app. Ant Insurance Services Zhima Credit – an independent credit filling and scoring service for individuals. ZOLOZ – a global biometric-based identity verification platform. WorldFirst – a global foreign exchange platform for individuals and international businesses. Shuzi Mali (Digital Horsepower Information Technology) – a software-as-a-service (SaaS) business that provides technology consultancy and software services. Sa Si Digital Technology – a SaaS that focuses on software development, technology transfer, and server integration for financial enterprises. International partners This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Ant Group" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) 2C2P (Singapore) Easypaisa (Pakistan) Paytm (India) Zomato (India) bKash (Bangladesh) Ascend Money (Thailand) KakaoPay (South Korea) GCash Inc. (Philippines) Emtek (Indonesia) Touch 'n Go eWallet (Malaysia) Cheung Kong Hutchinson (Hong Kong SAR) Vodacom (South Africa) References ^ "Alibaba affiliate Alipay rebranded Ant in new financial services push | Reuters". Reuters. 16 October 2014. Archived from the original on 19 June 2018. Retrieved 2 July 2017. ^ "Ant Financial appoints Simon Hu as CEO, part of Alibaba's executive shuffle". Reuters. 19 December 2019. Archived from the original on 20 October 2020. Retrieved 26 October 2020. ^ "Ant Group - Company Profile". www.antgroup.com. 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The group owns the world's largest mobile (digital) payment platform Alipay, which serves over 1.3 billion users and 80 million merchants, with total payment volume (TPV) reaching CN¥118 trillion in June 2020.[4][5][6] It is the second largest financial services corporation in the world, behind Visa.[7] In March 2019, The Wall Street Journal reported that Ant's flagship Tianhong Yu'e Bao money-market fund was the largest in the world, with over 588 million users, or more than a third of China's population, contributing cash to it.[8]In October 2020, Ant Group was set to raise US$34.5 billion in the world's largest IPO at the time, valuing the company at US$313 billion.[9][10][11][12] On the eve of the IPO, China stopped the process from moving forward.[13] It was reported that the Chinese Communist Party leader Xi Jinping personally scuttled the Ant IPO.[14] On 12 April 2021, The Wall Street Journal reported that under the pressure from the Chinese government, Ant Group would be 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Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EyeVerify"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj-ant-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj-ant-19"},{"link_name":"MoneyGram International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MoneyGram_International"},{"link_name":"Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Committee_on_Foreign_Investment_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"national security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_security_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj-ant-19"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Cyberspace Administration of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberspace_Administration_of_China"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Li Ka-shing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li_Ka-shing"},{"link_name":"CK Hutchison Holdings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CK_Hutchison_Holdings"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hong_Kong"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Times of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Times_of_India"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Southeast Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southeast_Asia"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"digital banking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_banking"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"}],"sub_title":"Founding and expansion (2014–2020)","text":"Alipay was rebranded as Ant Group Services on 23 October 2014, and the company changed its name to Ant Group Co., Ltd on 13 July 2020.[4][16] In 2015, Ant Group raised $4.5 billion in a funding round with investors including China Investment Corp (CIC), CCB Trust, China Life, China Post Group, China Development Bank Capital and Primavera Capital Group.[17] In 2015, the company was valued at about $45 billion.[18] As of 26 April 2016, Ant Group had around 450 million annual active users, with Credit Suisse estimating that 58% of China's online payment transactions went through Alipay.[18] In September 2016, Ant Group bought EyeVerify Inc. and the company was rebranded as Zoloz.[19][20]By late January 2017, Ant Group had a valuation of $60 billion.[19] On 26 January 2017, Ant Group Services Group announced a deal to acquire MoneyGram International for $880 million. In January 2018, the companies decided to terminate the deal after approval was not granted from the Committee on Foreign Investment in the United States due to U.S. national security concerns.[19][21][22] The same month, the Cyberspace Administration of China stated that Ant Group had failed to meet the country's personal data protection standards.[23]In September 2017, Ant Group formed a joint venture with Sir Li Ka-shing's CK Hutchison Holdings to launch a digital wallet service in Hong Kong.[24] In June 2018, the company launched a blockchain-powered cash remittance service that will allow real-time cash transfers between Hong Kong and the Philippines.[25]On 9 June 2018, the company raised around US$14 billion, which the Times of India called \"the biggest-ever single fund-raising globally by a private company\".[26][27]In November 2019, the company announced to be raising $1 billion for a new fund, with the aim to expand the firm's investment activities in India and Southeast Asia.[28] According to media reports, the fund is meant to provide late-stage funding to startups.[29]In January 2020, Ant Group applied for a digital banking license in Singapore.[30]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"initial public offering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Initial_public_offering"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt_rzhong1026-31"},{"link_name":"Saudi Aramco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saudi_Aramco"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt_rzhong1026-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ant_banks2018-32"},{"link_name":"China Securities Regulatory Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Securities_Regulatory_Commission"},{"link_name":"Yu'e Bao","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%BD%99%E9%A2%9D%E5%AE%9D"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ant_banks2018-32"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ant_banks2018-32"},{"link_name":"State Administration for Market Regulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Administration_for_Market_Regulation"},{"link_name":"WeChat Pay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WeChat_Pay"},{"link_name":"Tencent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tencent"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj_wei112-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"China Securities Regulatory Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Securities_Regulatory_Commission"},{"link_name":"China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Banking_and_Insurance_Regulatory_Commission"},{"link_name":"State Administration of Foreign Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Administration_of_Foreign_Exchange"},{"link_name":"People’s Bank of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%E2%80%99s_Bank_of_China"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Forbes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forbes"},{"link_name":"2007-2008 Global Financial Crisis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2007%E2%80%932008_financial_crisis"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt_listing-40"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt_listing-40"},{"link_name":"Wall Street Journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wall_Street_Journal"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj_wei112-35"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian_ma-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj_newrules-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian_ma-41"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-guardian_ma-41"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt_mareappears-47"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nyt_mareappears-47"}],"sub_title":"Attempted initial public offering (2020)","text":"In 2020, Ant Group intended to complete an initial public offering, aiming to raise $34 billion by listing.[31] This would have been the largest such offering by any company to date, above the $29.4 billion raised by Saudi Aramco as a result of its 2019 offering.[31]Due to Ant Group's scale—the company has approximately one billion users in China—and its operations, which include lending services, the company has attracted regulatory scrutiny in the past.[32] The China Securities Regulatory Commission previously imposed new restrictions on money-market funds, a move attributed to the size and growth of Yu'e Bao, an Ant offering.[33] Though the company asserts it does not function as a bank or a financial institution,[32] Chinese banks have voiced their belief that Ant draws deposits away from them, so undermining the banking system.[32] The People's Bank of China requested data from banks that lent through Ant in mid-2020 and the State Administration for Market Regulation informally began an investigation earlier in the year into whether Alipay and WeChat Pay, a Tencent subsidiary, had abused their size to hamper competitors.[34]Several days before the IPO was to take place, in October 2020, the company's founder and controlling shareholder, Ma, made negative statements about Chinese regulators and the governing political party, the Chinese Communist Party.[35] Ma criticized regulators for their focus on risk mitigation.[36] Soon after the comments were made, Ma and other senior Ant executives were summoned to a meeting with the China Securities Regulatory Commission, the China Banking and Insurance Regulatory Commission, and the State Administration of Foreign Exchange as well as representatives from the country's central bank, the People’s Bank of China.[citation needed] Ant Group issued a statement disclosing that the Ant and government representatives discussed \"Views regarding the health and stability of the financial sector\".[37]The Forbes magazine published an article that argued that China was right to stop the Ant Group’s IPO, as it was a \"dangerous business model\" that was going down a systematic risky path that can lead to a repeat of the same conditions that caused the 2007-2008 Global Financial Crisis.[38]After the meeting, and two days before the IPO was set to occur, the offering was suspended by the Shanghai Stock Exchange; the Shanghai Stock Exchange referenced \"major issues\" as the reasoning behind the suspension.[39] The exchange further indicated that the company no longer conformed with listing requirements.[40] Ant subsequently suspended the Hong Kong listing.[40] The Wall Street Journal attributed the suspension to the personal will of Xi, who had become infuriated by Ma's comments, citing \"Chinese officials with knowledge of the matter\",[35] though these assertions have also been characterized as \"rumors\".[41] The suspension was unexpected, surprising bankers working on the transaction,[42] the broader financial industry, and consumers prepared to invest in the offering. It has been referred to as \"abrupt\" and \"shocking\".[43][44][45] Ant began working to address regulator concerns in January 2021,[46] though no public plans for an IPO have been announced as of September 2021.Jack Ma retreated from the public eye after the IPO's suspension.[41] Some speculated that Ma had left China altogether.[41] He did not appear in public between October 2020 and January 2021. In January 2021, he spoke in a live-streamed video.[47] In the video, he discussed his commitment to philanthropy and improving quality of life for those in rural China.[47]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"People’s Bank of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%E2%80%99s_Bank_of_China"},{"link_name":"regulatory arbitrage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbitrage#Regulatory_arbitrage"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"China Southern Asset Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China_Southern_Asset_Management"},{"link_name":"Zhong Ou Asset Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhong_Ou_Asset_Management"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"2C2P","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2C2P"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"Reuters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters"},{"link_name":"People's Bank of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:Zhang2-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:Zhang2-60"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:Zhang2-60"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:Zhang2-60"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:Zhang2-60"},{"link_name":"RMB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renminbi"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"}],"sub_title":"After suspension of IPO (2020–present)","text":"On 4 December 2020, Ant Group's unit and a consortium comprising Greenland Financial Holdings Group, Linklogis Hong Kong Ltd, and Beijing Co-operative Equity Investment Fund Management, have been selected to receive the digital wholesale bank (DWB) licences in Singapore.[48] Ant Group was later ordered by the People’s Bank of China on 26 December 2020 to \"rectify\" its business and formulate an implementation timetable. The central bank also summoned Ant executives, saying that the Group lacked an effective governance mechanism, defied regulatory compliance requirements and engaged in regulatory arbitrage.[49]On 15 January 2021, Ant Group announced that it will overhaul its business structure in accordance with the Chinese central bank and its financial regulators' wishes. State spokesmen announced that the Ant Group's consumer finance branch will be regulated as a financial institution, in lieu of a technology startup.[50]In April 2021, Ant Group applied to become a financial holding company under the direction of the Peoples' Bank of China.[51] The move separated Ant Group's consumer lending businesses, credit card-like Huabei and micro-loan provider Jiebei, from Alipay’s other financial offerings with effect from September 2021.[52][53] This development dismantled the Alipay super app that serves more than 1.2 billion users. Huabei and Jiebei share approximately 500 million users.[54]In January 2022, Ant Group launched a new investment advisory service named \"Golden Choice Investment Consultants (金选投顾)\" in partnership with six financial institutions – Aegon-Industrial Fund, China Southern Asset Management, Zhong Ou Asset Management, GF Fund Management, Harvest Wealth, and Caitong Securities.[55] The service was briefly available to all Alipay users before it was taken down less than ten days later as Ant Group does not hold a fund rating license that is required before an entity can assess and publicly share information about the investment prospects of financial instruments.[56]In April 2022, the company took over Singapore-based payments firm 2C2P to further digital payment adoption.[57]In July 2022, Chinese authorities give a tentative green light to Ant Group to revive its initial public offering plans in both Shanghai and Hong Kong.[58]In November 2022, Reuters reported that the People's Bank of China was readying to fine Ant Group around US$1 billion, potentially ending its two-year overhaul.[59]Ant Group made major changes to its ownership structure and corporate governance in January 2023.[60]: 261  That month, Ant Group announced a series of changes in shareholder voting rights, and its founder Jack Ma will no longer be the actual controller of Ant Group.[61] Ma's voting rights were reduced from 50% to 6%.[60]: 271  Following these changes, no single shareholder has a controlling stake in the company.[60]: 261  The company's board also added another independent director.[60]: 261  The Chinese government spoke positively of Ant Group's changes, including describing them as improvements in transparency and accountability.[60]: 261In July 2023, the Chinese government fined Ant group 7.12 billion RMB ($985 million) for violations of laws and regulations, relating to corporate governance, consumer protection and anti-money laundering requirements.[62]In 2023, Ant Group reported a record high investment of 21.19 billion yuan ($2.92 billion) in technology research and development, mainly focused on AI technology. The company, in its 2023 sustainability report, revealed that it had received government approval to release products powered by its \"Bailing\" AI large language model to the public. The model has been used in various AI assistants on its Alipay platform, including a \"smart healthcare manager\" and \"smart financial manager.\"[63]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulze-64"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schulze-64"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Vipps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vipps"},{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norway"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Portugal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portugal"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"Barclaycard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barclaycard"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"U.S. State Department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State"},{"link_name":"Entity List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entity_List"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"}],"text":"Driven by the growing numbers of Chinese tourists around the world, Ant Group has sought to expand its services into Europe and the United States.[64] In Europe, the company had tripled the number of merchants that are accepting the Alipay app, according to the firm's head of Europe division.[64] Partnerships exist between Alipay and various European digital wallet apps, including ePassi (Finland), Vipps (Norway), MOMO (Spain), Pagaqui (Portugal) and Bluecode (Austria).[65]On 14 February 2019, Ant Group acquired the British international money transfer services provider WorldFirst for $700 million.[66]In March 2019, UK's Barclaycard expanded an agreement that enabled British retailers to accept the Alipay app in their stores.[67]By September 2020, it was reported that U.S. authorities were considering restrictions on Ant Group's payment system, with the U.S. State Department recommending that Ant Group be added to the Entity List, but subsequently withdrew plans to sanction the company.[68][69][70]","title":"Expansion outside Asia"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"Zhima Credit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhima_Credit"},{"link_name":"credit rating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Credit_rating"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Koubei-76"},{"link_name":"MYbank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MYbank&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-4"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-toknow-18"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:Zhang2-60"},{"link_name":"2020-2021 Xi Jinping administration reform spree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020%E2%80%932021_Xi_Jinping_Administration_reform_spree"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:Zhang2-60"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"People's Bank of China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/People%27s_Bank_of_China"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"text":"It operates Alipay, the world's largest mobile and online payments platform[71] as well as Yu’e Bao, formerly the world's largest money-market fund.[72] It also runs Zhima Credit, a third-party credit rating system.[73] As of September 2017, Ant Group unveiled its facial recognition payment technology through its Alipay services.[74]In September 2018, the company launched the Ant Group Technology brand for all of its technology products and services.[75]In 2015, Alibaba and Ant Group Services Group created online-to-offline local services company Koubei as a joint venture .[76] Ant Group also operates credit payment company Huabei, and owns a 30% stake in the online bank called MYbank.[4][18][77]In 2015, Ant Group launched Ant Fortune, a wealth management platform. Yu’e Bao is one of the products on the platform. Ant Fortune offers hundreds of products from more than 80 Chinese fund institutions.[78]In June 2017, Ant Fortune launched a Fortune Account (财富号) service platform that allows financial institutions to publish content and sell their financial products there.[79]In October 2018, Ant Group launched the Xianghubao mutual protection plan that attracted 50 million people to sign on in half a year.[80] Xianghubao and other mutual-aid companies sought to crowd-fund medical coverage while avoiding being characterized as an insurance product.[60]: 224–225  Following the 2020-2021 Xi Jinping administration reform spree, Xianghubao and many other mutual-aid companies shut down.[60]: 225In September 2019, a product within the Alipay app called Ant Forest received a Champions of the Earth award, the United Nation's highest environmental honor, for turning the green activities of half a billion people into real trees planted in some of China's most arid regions. Users are encouraged to record their low-carbon footprint through daily actions, such as taking public transportation or paying utility bills online. For each move, they receive \"green energy\" points with which they can exchange for the real trees, which they can view in real time via satellite.[81][82]In 2021, Ant Group revealed at the Digital China Summit that it has been cooperating with the People's Bank of China since 2017 to develop and test e-CNY, an official digital currency.[83]","title":"Services"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-85"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-85"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-85"}],"text":"The Ant IPO prospectus shows a complex ownership structure with Hangzhou Junhan owning 29.86%, Hangzhou Junao owning 20.66%, and Alibaba itself holding 32.65%. Meanwhile, another entity named Hangzhou Yunbo controls the top two stakeholders, Hangzhou Junhan and Hangzhou Junao, as their executive and general partner. Jack Ma was Yunbo's single largest stakeholder with 34%. Three other Ant officials, Chairman Eric Jing, CEO Simon Hu and non-executive director Jiang Fang, held equal stakes in the remainder of Yunbo, with 22% each.[84]On 7 January 2023, Ant Group announced that it was restructuring so that Jack Ma would no longer be the controlling person of the company.[85] It added that Ma and other nine of its other major shareholders would use their voting rights independently and no longer act in concert.[85][86] It additionally added that there would be a new fifth independent director on its board; it previously had eight board directors, with four of them being independent. The changes meant that Ma's share voting rights would decrease from over 50% to 6.2%.[85]","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Google China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_China"},{"link_name":"Kai-Fu Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kai-Fu_Lee"},{"link_name":"Sinovation Ventures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinovation_Ventures"},{"link_name":"Megvii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megvii"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"}],"sub_title":"Connection with Megvii","text":"In September 2020, former Google China president and venture capitalist Kai-Fu Lee said in a public speech that Sinovation Ventures had assisted Megvii, a Beijing-based company known for providing artificial intelligence products to various businesses, in obtaining a large amount of private facial data from Ant Group to “analyze how to enter various industries.” Following Lee's speech, Ant Group denied providing Megvii facial data. Lee later said he “misspoke” on the issue.[87][88]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wsj._WSJN1-89"}],"sub_title":"Sharing consumer data with Chinese government","text":"In January 2021, The Wall Street Journal reported that China's regulators were trying to make Ant share the troves of personal data in its payment and lifestyle app, Alipay, which is used by over a billion people. The data include consumers' spending habits, borrowing behaviors, and payment histories. According to people familiar with the issue, in the past, Jack Ma had resisted the authorities' attempts to grab the data owned by Ant. In late December 2020, China's central bank criticized Ant for its \"defiance of regulatory demands\" and asked the company to restructure its business.[89]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"moral hazard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_hazard"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"}],"sub_title":"Predatory lending","text":"The Ant group had been criticized for engaging in moral hazard and predatory lending. Because the company takes only 2 percent risk for the loans it originates and others take 98 percent risk, it is incentivized to generate a larger number of riskier loans to earn fees, even from those who are unable to pay it back.[90] Another issue was Ant’s model for determining credit scores. Instead of depending on factors like the consumer’s debt ratio or their income. The Ant group relied on a counter-intuitive measure on basing scores on the consumer’s expenditure history where buying more actually led to a higher score for the borrower, and hence encourages more spending rather than reinforcing fiscal restraint.[91]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"}],"sub_title":"Violating various regulations","text":"On July 7, 2023, the Ant Group was fined ¥7.123 billion ($985 million) by regulators for non-compliance with regulations in payments and financial services. The People's Bank of China, which imposed the fine, accused Ant of breaching laws related to corporate governance, payment and settlement business, consumer protection, and anti-money laundering obligations.[92]","title":"Controversies"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Related entities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"digital yuan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_yuan"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"Zhima Credit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sesame_Credit"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-97"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-97"}],"sub_title":"Subsidiaries","text":"Alipay – a mobile wallet app supports make and accept payments.[93]\nHuabei (Ant Credit Pay) – a virtual credit card type of product that facilitates credit payments.\nMYbank – a private cloud-based online bank that is also one of six state-banked financial institutions to operate the digital yuan in China.[94] Ant Group owns a 30% stake in the subsidiary bank.[95]\nJiebei (Ant Cash Now) – a consumer loan service.\nAnt Fortune – a comprehensive wealth management app.\nAnt Insurance Services\nZhima Credit – an independent credit filling and scoring service for individuals.\nZOLOZ – a global biometric-based identity verification platform.\nWorldFirst – a global foreign exchange platform for individuals and international businesses.[96]\nShuzi Mali (Digital Horsepower Information Technology) – a software-as-a-service (SaaS) business that provides technology consultancy and software services.[97]\nSa Si Digital Technology – a SaaS that focuses on software development, technology transfer, and server integration for financial enterprises.[97]","title":"Related entities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2C2P","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2C2P"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"link_name":"Easypaisa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easypaisa"},{"link_name":"Paytm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paytm"},{"link_name":"Zomato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zomato"},{"link_name":"bKash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BKash"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"KakaoPay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KakaoPay"},{"link_name":"GCash Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GCash"},{"link_name":"Emtek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emtek"},{"link_name":"Touch 'n Go eWallet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch_%27n_Go_eWallet"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"Vodacom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodacom"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"}],"sub_title":"International partners","text":"2C2P (Singapore)[98]\nEasypaisa (Pakistan)\nPaytm (India)\nZomato (India)\nbKash (Bangladesh) [99]\nAscend Money (Thailand)\nKakaoPay (South Korea)\nGCash Inc. (Philippines)\nEmtek (Indonesia)\nTouch 'n Go eWallet (Malaysia)\nCheung Kong Hutchinson (Hong Kong SAR)[100]\nVodacom (South Africa) [101]","title":"Related entities"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yod_coalescence

Phonological history of English consonant clusters

["1 H-cluster reductions","1.1 Reductions of /hw/","1.2 Reduction of /hl/, /hr/ and /hn/","1.3 Reduction of /hj/","2 Y-cluster reductions","2.1 Yod-dropping","2.2 Yod-coalescence","3 Other initial cluster reductions","3.1 Reduction of /wr/ and /wl/","3.2 Reduction of /kn/","3.3 Reduction of /ɡn/","3.4 S-cluster reductions","4 Final cluster reductions","4.1 NG-coalescence","4.2 G-dropping","4.3 Reduction of /mb/ and /mn/","4.4 Generalized final cluster reduction","5 Medial cluster reductions","6 Consonant insertions","6.1 Prince–prints merger","6.2 Other insertions","7 Alterations of clusters","7.1 Assimilation","7.2 Glottalization","7.3 S-cluster metathesis","7.4 Merger of /str/ and /skr/","7.5 Yod-rhotacization","8 See also","9 References"]

Sound changes This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (April 2020) History and description ofEnglish pronunciation Historical stages Old English Middle English General development In Old English In Scots Development of vowels A Close back Close front Diphthongs Great Vowel Shift Open back Pre-L Pre-R Development of consonants Single consonants Clusters Variable features Cot–caught merger Drawl Flapping H-dropping L-vocalization NG R Rhoticity T-glottalization TH WH Related topics History of English Spelling vte This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between , / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters. The phonological history of English includes various changes in the phonology of consonant clusters. H-cluster reductions See also: H-dropping The H-cluster reductions are various consonant reductions that have occurred in the history of English, involving consonant clusters beginning with /h/ that have lost the /h/ (or become reduced to /h/) in some or all dialects. Reductions of /hw/ Main article: Pronunciation of English ⟨wh⟩ The cluster /hw/ (spelled ⟨wh⟩ since Middle English) has been subject to two kinds of reduction: Reduction to /h/ before rounded vowels (due to /hw/ being perceived as a /h/ with the labialization characteristic of that environment). This occurred with the word how in the Old English period, and with who, whom and whose in Middle English (the latter words having had an unrounded vowel in Old English). Reduction to /w/, a development that has affected the speech of the great majority of English speakers, causing them to pronounce ⟨wh-⟩ the same as ⟨w-⟩ (sometimes called the wine–whine merger or glide cluster reduction). The distinction is maintained, however, in Scotland, most of Ireland, and some Southern American English. Reduction of /hl/, /hr/ and /hn/ The Old English consonant clusters /hl/, /hr/ and /hn/ were reduced to /l/, /r/, and /n/ in Middle English. For example, Old English hlāf, hring and hnutu become loaf, ring and nut in Modern English. Reduction of /hj/ In some dialects of English the cluster /hj/ is reduced to /j/, leading to pronunciations like /juːdʒ/ for huge and /ˈjuːmən/ for human, and making hew, hue, and Hugh homophones of ewe, yew, and you. This is sometimes considered a type of glide cluster reduction, but it is much less widespread than wh-reduction, and is generally stigmatized where it is found. Aside from accents with general H-dropping, in the United States this reduction is mostly found in accents of Philadelphia and New York City; it also occurs in Cork accents of Irish English. In other dialects of English, hew and yew remain distinct; however, the cluster /hj/ of hew, human, etc. is often reduced from to just (a voiceless palatal fricative). Y-cluster reductions See also: § Yod-rhotacization Y-cluster reductions are reductions of clusters ending with the palatal approximant /j/, which is the sound of ⟨y⟩ in yes, and is sometimes referred to as "yod", from the Hebrew letter yod(h), which has the sound . Many such clusters arose in dialects in which the falling diphthong /ɪu/ (the product of the merger of several Middle English vowel sequences) became the rising diphthong /juː/. (For more information, see Phonological history of English high back vowels.) They were thus often found before the vowel /uː/, as in cube /kjuːb/ – which was in some cases modified to /ʊə/ or /ʊ/ before (historical) /r/, as in cure, or weakened to /ʊ/ or /ə/ as in argument. They also occurred in words ending in -ion and -ious, such as nation and precious. This change from /ɪu/ to /juː/, which had occurred in London by the end of the 17th century, did not take place in all dialects. A few dialects, notably in Wales, as well as in some parts of northern England, New England, and the American South, still retain a (falling) /ɪu/ diphthong where standard English has /juː/ – these dialects therefore lack the clusters with /j/ and have not been subject to the reductions described here. The diphthongs /juː/ or /ɪʊ̯/ are most commonly indicated by the spellings eu, ew, uCV (where C is any consonant and V is any vowel), ue and ui, as in feud, few, mute, cue and suit, while the historical monophthong /uː/ is commonly indicated by the spellings oo and ou, as in moon and soup. Yod-dropping Yod-dropping is the elision of the /j/ from certain syllable-initial clusters of the type described above. Particular cases of yod-dropping may affect all or some of the dialects that have the relevant clusters. The change of to in these positions (as described above) produced some clusters which would have been difficult or impossible to pronounce, which led to what John Wells calls Early Yod Dropping in which the was elided in the following environments: After /ʃ, tʃ, dʒ/, for example chute /ʃuːt/, chew /tʃuː/, juice /dʒuːs/ After /j/, for example yew /juː/ (compare in some conservative dialects) After /r/, for example rude /ruːd/ After stop+/l/ clusters, for example blue /bluː/ The words you and yew in a dialect that was not subject to early yod-dropping you, yew Problems playing this file? See media help. The previously mentioned accents that did not have the → change were not subject to this process. Thus, for example, in much Welsh English pairs like chews/choose, yew/you and threw/through remain distinct: the first member of each pair has the diphthong /ɪʊ̯/, while the second member has /uː/: chews /tʃɪʊ̯z/, choose /tʃuːz/ yew /jɪʊ̯/, you /juː/ threw /θrɪʊ̯/, through /θruː/ Conversely, an initial /j/ does not appear in Welsh English before /iː/ in words such as yeast and yield. Many varieties of English have extended yod-dropping to the following environments if the /j/ is in the same syllable as the preceding consonant: After /s/, for example suit /suːt/ After /l/, for example lute /ˈluːt/ After /z/, for example Zeus /ˈzuːs/ After /θ/, for example enthuse /ɛnˈθuːz/ Yod-dropping in the above environments used to be considered nonstandard in England but now also occurs by educated RP-speakers. (The /j/ after /s/ is not normally dropped in RP in medial positions, however: compare pursuit /pəˈsjuːt/.) In General American, yod-dropping is found not only in the above environments but also after /t/, /d/ and /n/, for example tune /ˈtuːn/, dew /ˈduː/, new /ˈnuː/ The lack of yod-dropping in those contexts has occasionally been held to be a shibboleth distinguishing Canadians from Americans. However, in a survey conducted in the Golden Horseshoe area of Southern Ontario in 1994, over 80% of respondents under the age of 40 pronounced student and news without yod. The areas marked in pink show where in the United States a distinction between /ɪʊ̯/ in dew and /u/ in do may be made. General American thus undergoes yod-dropping after all alveolar consonants. A few accents of American English, such as working-class Southern American English, however, preserve the distinction in pairs like do/dew because, like in the Welsh English dialects discussed above, they retain a diphthong /ɪʊ̯/ in words in which RP has /juː/: /lut~lɪʊ̯t/, /du~dɪʊ̯/, etc. However, in words like annual, menu, volume, Matthew, continue, etc., with a syllable break before the /j/, there is no yod-dropping. The same applies accordingly to British and other accents; the yod is often dropped after initial /l/, for example, but it is not dropped in words like volume or value. (British speakers omit the /j/ in figure, but most Americans retain it.) Additionally, there is no /j/ in British pronunciations of coupon and Pulitzer, /ˈkuːpɒn/ and /ˈpʊlɪtsə/ respectively, but many American speakers keep the yod, realizing them as /ˈkjuːpɒn/ and /ˈpjuːlɪtsər/, although Pulitzer with the pew sound is widely incorrect. In New Zealand and to some extent Australian English, debut is mainly pronounced without the yod as /ˈdæebʉː/. Yod-dropping after /t/, /d/, and /n/ was also a traditional feature of Cockney speech, which continues to be the case after /n/, but now, after /t/ and /d/, yod-coalescence is now more common. Some East Anglian accents such as Norfolk dialect extend yod-dropping not only to the position after /t/, /d/ or /n/ but also to the position after nonalveolar consonants as well: pairs like beauty/booty, mute/moot, cute/coot can then be homophonous. A well-known series of British television advertisements beginning in the 1980s featured Bernard Matthews, who was from Norfolk and described his turkeys as "bootiful" (for beautiful). Such accents pronounce a /j/ in words like "use", "unit", etc. only if there is no consonant before the /j/. Homophonous pairs after j, r, ʃ, and tʃ /ɪʊ̯/ /uː/ IPA Notes brewed brood ˈbruːd brume broom ˈbruːm chews choose ˈtʃuːz chute shoot ˈʃuːt drupe droop ˈdruːp rheum room ˈruːm rude rood ˈruːd rue roo ˈruː ruse roos ˈruːz threw through ˈθruː yew you ˈjuː yule you'll ˈjuːl Homophonous pairs after l and s /ɪʊ̯/ /uː/ IPA Notes Blume bloom ˈbluːm glume gloom ˈgluːm Lewis Louis ˈluːɪs lieu loo ˈluː lieu Lou ˈluː Luke look ˈluːk With foot–goose merger. lune loon ˈluːn lute loot ˈluːt slew slough ˈsluː slue slough ˈsluː sue Sioux ˈsuː suit soot ˈsuːt With foot–goose merger. Homophonous pairs after d, n, and t /ɪʊ̯/ /uː/ IPA Notes adieu ado əˈduː dew do ˈduː Dewar doer ˈduːər due do ˈduː dune Doon ˈduːn knew nu ˈnuː new nu ˈnuː tune toon ˈtuːn Homophonous pairs after other consonants /ɪʊ̯/ /uː/ IPA Notes beaut boot ˈbuːt beauty booty ˈbuːti butte boot ˈbuːt cue coo ˈkuː cute coot ˈkuːt feud food ˈfuːd few foo ˈfuː fuel fool ˈfuːl With vile–vial merger. hew who ˈhuː hews who's ˈhuːz hews whose ˈhuːz hue who ˈhuː hues who's ˈhuːz hues whose ˈhuːz Hugh who ˈhuː Hughes who's ˈhuːz Hughes whose ˈhuːz Kew coo ˈkuː kyu coo ˈkuː mew moo ˈmuː mew moue ˈmuː mewed mood ˈmuːd muse moos ˈmuːz muse moues ˈmuːz mute moot ˈmuːt pew poo ˈpuː pule pool ˈpuːl pure poor ˈpʊə(r) Q; cue coo ˈkuː que coo ˈkuː queue coo ˈkuː Yod-coalescence Yod-coalescence is a process that fuses the clusters /dj, tj, sj, zj/ into the sibilants respectively (for the meanings of those symbols, see English phonology). The first two are examples of affrication. Unlike yod-dropping, yod-coalescence frequently occurs with clusters that would be considered to span a syllable boundary and so commonly occurs before unstressed syllables. For example, in educate, the /dj/ cluster would not usually be subject to yod-dropping in General American, as the /d/ is assigned to the previous syllable, but it commonly coalesces to . Here are a few examples of yod-coalescence universal in all English dialects: /tj/ → in most words ending -ture, such as nature /dj/ → in soldier /sj/ → in words ending with -ssure such as pressure (also in words ending with consonant+sure, consonant+sion, -tion) /zj/ → in words ending vowel+sure such as measure (also vowel+sion) In some other words, the coalesced pronunciation is common in English dialects around the world, but an older non-coalesced form still exists among some speakers of standard British English: educate (also in standard RP: ) azure (also in RP ) issue (also in RP ), the intermediate form being also common Coalescence can even occur across word boundaries, as in the colloquial "gotcha" /ˈɡɒtʃə/ (for got you /ˈɡɒtju/) and "whatcha" /ˈwɒtʃə/ (for what're you /ˈwɒtərjə/). In certain English accents, yod-coalescence also occurs in stressed syllables, as in tune and dune. That occurs in Australian, Cockney, Estuary English, Zimbabwean English, some speakers of Hiberno-English, Newfoundland English, South African English, and to a certain extent in New Zealand English, RP, many speakers in Scottish English, and even some varieties of English in Asia, like Philippine English (many speakers because of the influence by the phonology of their mother languages). That results in pronunciations such as the following: dew/due (RP: ) tune (RP: ) In certain varieties such as Australian, Ugandan, and some RP, stressed can also coalesce: resume (RP: ) assume (RP: ) That can lead to additional homophony; for instance, dew and due come to be pronounced the same as Jew. Yod-coalescence has traditionally been resisted in Received Pronunciation. It has certainly become established in words of the first group listed above (nature, soldier, pressure etc.), but it is not yet universal in those of the second group (educate etc.), and it does not generally occur in those of the third group (dew, tune etc.). Homophonous pairs /ɪu/ /juː/ IPA Notes deuce juice ˈdʒuːs dew Jew ˈdʒuː dewed Jude ˈdʒuːd dual jewel ˈdʒuːəl due Jew ˈdʒuː duel jewel ˈdʒuːəl duke juke ˈdʒuːk duly Julie ˈdʒuːli dune June ˈdʒuːn duty Judy ˈdʒuːɾi With intervocalic alveolar flapping. sue shoe ˈʃuː sue shoo ˈʃuː suit chute ˈʃuːt suit shoot ˈʃuːt 'tude chewed ˈtʃuːd See also List of yod-dropping and coalescence homophones on Wiktionary. Other initial cluster reductions Reduction of /wr/ and /wl/ Old and Middle English had an initial /wr/ cluster (note that /r/ does not denote here), hence the spelling of words like write and wrong. This was reduced to just /r/, apparently during the 17th century. An intermediate stage may have been an with lip rounding. As a result of this reduction, pairs of words like rap and wrap, rite and write, etc. are homophones in practically all varieties of Modern English. They remain distinct in the Doric dialect of Scots, where the wr- cluster is pronounced /vr/. Alexander John Ellis reported distinctions between wr and r in Cumbria and in several varieties of Scots in the nineteenth century. Old English also had a cluster /wl/, which reduced to /l/ during Middle English. For example, the word lisp derives from Old English wlisp(ian). Reduction of /kn/ Middle English initial /kn/ is reduced in modern English to /n/, making pairs like knot/not and knight/night homophones. The /kn/ cluster was spelled cn- in Old English; this changed to kn- in Middle English, and this spelling survives in Modern English, despite the loss of the /k/ sound. Cognates in other Germanic languages usually still sound the initial /k/. For example, the Old English ancestor of knee was cnēo, pronounced /kneːo̯/, and the cognate word in Modern German is Knie, pronounced /kniː/. Most dialects of English reduced the initial cluster /kn/ to /n/ relatively recently; the change seems to have taken place in educated English during the 17th century. Several German-language grammars of English from the late 17th and early 18th centuries transcribed English kn- as tn-, dn-, implying that a stage of assimilation (or perhaps debuccalization to /ʔn/) preceded that of complete reduction. The cluster is preserved in some Scots dialects, and Alexander John Ellis recorded it in parts of the Northern English counties of Cumbria and Northumberland in the late nineteenth century. Reduction of /ɡn/ The Middle English initial cluster /ɡn/ is reduced to /n/ in Modern English. Like the reduction of /kn/, this seems to have taken place during the seventeenth century. The change affected words like gnat, gnostic, gnome, etc., the spelling with gn- being retained despite the loss of the /ɡ/ sound. The cluster is preserved in some Scots dialects. The song The Gnu jokes about this silent g and other silent letters in English. In fact the g in gnu may always have been silent in English, since this loanword did not enter the language until the late 18th century. The trumpeter Kenny Wheeler wrote a composition titled Gnu High, a pun on "new high". S-cluster reductions In some types of Caribbean English, the initial clusters /sp/, /st/, and /sk/ are reduced by the loss of /s/. The following stop is then subject to regular aspiration (or devoicing of the following approximant) in its new word-initial environment. Some examples of such pronunciations are: spit → 'pit → stomach → 'tomach → spend → 'pen → (also affected by final cluster reduction) squeeze → 'queeze → According to Wells, these reductions occur only in the broadest creole. Final cluster reductions NG-coalescence NG-coalescence is a historical sound change by which the final cluster /nɡ/, pronounced (the /n/ being realized as a velar nasal by assimilation with the velar /ɡ/), came to be pronounced as just – that is, the final was dropped, but the velar quality of the nasal remained. The change took place in educated London speech around the end of the 16th century, and explains why there is no sound at the end of words like fang, sing, wrong and tongue in the standard varieties of Modern English. The change in fact applies not only at the end of a word, but generally at the end of a morpheme. If a word ending in -ng is followed by a suffix or is compounded with another word, the pronunciation normally remains. For example, in the words fangs, sings, singing, singer, wronged, wrongly, hangman, there is no sound. An exception is the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives: in the words longer/longest, stronger/strongest, younger/youngest, the is pronounced in most accents. The pronunciation with is thus possible only before a vowel; before a consonant, the only possibility is a bare . In other cases (when it is not morpheme-final), word-internal -ng- does not show the effects of coalescence, and the pronunciation is retained, as in finger and angle. This means that the words finger and singer do not rhyme in most modern varieties of English, although they did in Middle English. The process of NG-coalescence might therefore be referred to as the singer–finger split. Pronunciation of ⟨ng⟩ in the word tongue in various regional dialects of England Some accents, however, do not show the full effects of NG-coalescence as described above. In these accents, sing may be found with , and singer may rhyme with finger. This is particularly associated with English English accents in areas such as Lancashire, the West Midlands and Derbyshire, and is also present in north-east varieties of Welsh English. This includes the cities of Birmingham (see Brummie), Manchester (see Manchester dialect), Liverpool (see Scouse), Sheffield and Stoke-on-Trent (see Potteries dialect). This also occurs in a small area of Kent. As this occurs around the mining area of Kent, it might be a result of large-scale migration by miners from other more northerly coalfields to Kent in the 1920s. It is also associated with some American English accents in the New York City area. On the other hand, in some accents of the west of Scotland and Ulster, NG-coalescence is extended to morpheme-internal position, so that finger is pronounced /ˈfɪŋər/ (cf. Dutch vinger /ˈvɪŋər/), thus rhyming with singer (although the is not dropped before a stressed syllable, as in engage). It is because of NG-coalescence that /ŋ/ is now normally regarded one of the phonemes of standard English. In Middle English, the can be regarded as an allophone of /n/, occurring before velar consonants, but in Modern English, in view of minimal pairs such as pan–pang and sin–sing, that analysis no longer appears to hold. Nevertheless, some linguists (particularly generativists) do regard a word like sing as being underlyingly /sɪnɡ/, positing a rule that deletes after a nasal before a morpheme boundary, after the nasal has undergone assimilation. A problem with this view is that there are a few words in which is followed neither by a velar nor a morpheme boundary (such as gingham, dinghy, orangutan and Singapore for those speakers who pronounce them without ), and some in which the is not deleted before a morpheme boundary (longer etc., as noted above). The above-mentioned accents which lack NG-coalescence may more easily be analyzed as lacking a phoneme /ŋ/. The same may apply to those where NG-coalescence is extended to morpheme-internal position, since here a more consistent -deletion rule can be formulated. G-dropping Main article: G-dropping G-dropping is a popular name for the feature of speech whereby /n/ is used in place of the standard /ŋ/ in weak syllables. This applies especially to the -ing ending of verbs, but also in other words such as morning, nothing, ceiling, Buckingham, etc. G-dropping speakers may pronounce this syllable as or (reducing to a syllabic in some cases), while non-G-dropping speakers have /ɪŋ/ (/əŋ/ with the weak vowel merger) or /iŋ/. Relative to the great majority of modern dialects, which have NG-coalescence, G-dropping does not involve the dropping of any sound, simply the replacement of the velar nasal with the alveolar nasal. The name derives from the apparent orthographic consequence of replacing the sound written ⟨ng⟩ with that normally written ⟨n⟩. The spelling -in' is sometimes used to indicate that a speaker uses the G-dropping pronunciation, as in makin' for making. The pronunciation with /n/ rather than /ŋ/ is a long-established one. Old English verbs had a present participle in -ende and a verbal noun (gerund) form in -ing(e). These merged into a single form, written -ing, but not necessarily spoken as such – the /n/ pronunciation may be inherited from the former distinct present participle form. The /n/ variant appears to have been fashionable generally during the 18th century, with the alternative /ɪŋ/ being adopted in educated speech around the 1820s, possibly as a spelling pronunciation. Today, G-dropping is a feature of colloquial and non-standard speech of all regions, including stereotypically of Cockney, Southern American English and African American Vernacular English. Its use is highly correlated with the socioeconomic class of the speaker, with speakers of lower classes using /n/ with greater frequency. It has also been found to be more common among men than women, and less common in more formal styles of speech. The fact that the /n/ pronunciation was formerly associated with certain upper-class speech is reflected in the phrase huntin’, shootin’ and fishin’ (used in referring to country gentry who frequently engaged in such field sports). Further evidence that this pronunciation was once standard comes from old rhymes, as in this couplet from John Gay's 1732 pastoral Acis and Galatea, set to music by Handel: Shepherd, what art thou pursuing, Heedless running to thy ruin? which was presumably pronounced "shepherd, what art thou pursuin', heedless runnin' to thy ruin", although this would sound very odd in an opera today. Similarly, in the poetry of Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), -ing forms consistently rhyme with words ending in /ɪn/, as in this verse of A Ballad on the Game of Traffic, where "lining" rhymes with "fine in": But Weston has a new-cast gown On Sundays to be fine in, And, if she can but win a crown, 'Twill just new dye the lining. Reduction of /mb/ and /mn/ In later Middle English, the final cluster /mb/ was reduced to just /m/ (the plum-plumb merger). This affects words such as lamb and plumb, as well as derived forms with suffixes, such as lambs, lambing, plumbed, plumber. By analogy with words like these, certain other words ending in /m/, which had no historical /b/ sound, had a silent letter ⟨b⟩ added to their spelling by way of hypercorrection. Such words include limb and crumb. Where the final cluster /mn/ occurred, this was reduced to /m/ (the him-hymn merger), as in column, autumn, damn, solemn. (Compare French automne, where the cluster has been reduced to /n/.) Both sounds are nonetheless still pronounced before vowels in certain derivatives, such as columnar, autumnal, damnation, solemnity. Generalized final cluster reduction General reduction of final consonant clusters occurs in African American Vernacular English and Caribbean English. The new final consonant may be slightly lengthened as an effect. Examples are: test → tes' → desk → des' → hand → han' → send → sen' → left → lef' → wasp → was' → The plurals of test and desk may become tesses and desses by the same rule that gives plural messes from singular mess. Medial cluster reductions When a consonant cluster ending in a stop is followed by another consonant or cluster in the next syllable, the final stop in the first syllable is often elided. This may happen within words or across word boundaries. Examples of stops that will often be elided in this way include the in postman and the in cold cuts or band saw. Historically, similar reductions have taken place before syllabic consonants in certain words, leading to the silent ⟨t⟩ in words like castle and listen. This change took place around the 17th century. In the word often, the sound later came to be re-inserted by some speakers as a spelling pronunciation. An earlier reduction that took place in early Middle English was the change of /ts/ to /s/ (the sent-cent merger). This led to the modern sound of soft ⟨c⟩. Consonant insertions Prince–prints merger For many speakers, an epenthetic is inserted in the final cluster /ns/, making it identical or very similar to the cluster /nts/. For example, the words prince and prints have come to be homophones or nearly so. The epenthesis is a natural consequence of the transition from the nasal to the fricative ; if the raising of the soft palate (which converts a nasal to an oral sound) is completed before the release of the tongue tip (which enables a fricative sound), an intervening stop naturally results. The merger of /ns/ and /nts/ is not necessarily complete, however; the duration of the epenthetic in /ns/ has been found to be often shorter (and the longer) than in the underlying cluster /nts/. Some speakers preserve a clearer distinction, with prince having , and prints having or . The epenthesis does not occur between syllables, in words like consider. Other insertions The merger of /nz/ and /ndz/ is also possible, making bans and pens sound like bands and pends. However, this is less common than the merger of /ns/ and /nts/ described above, and in rapid speech may involve the elision of the /d/ from /ndz/ rather than epenthesis in /nz/. Epenthesis of a stop between a nasal and a fricative can also occur in other environments, for example: /nʃ/ may become /ntʃ/ (so pinscher is often pronounced like pincher) /ms/ may become /mps/ (so Samson becomes "Sampson", hamster becomes "hampster") /ŋs/ may become /ŋks/ (so Kingston becomes "kinkston") Epenthesis may also happen in the cluster /ls/, which then becomes /lts/, so else rhymes with belts. An epenthetic often intervenes in the cluster /mt/ in the word dreamt, making it rhyme with attempt. Some originally epenthetic consonants have become part of the established pronunciation of words. This applies, for instance, to the /b/ in words like thimble, grumble and scramble. For the insertion of glottal stops before certain consonants, see Glottalization below. Homophonous pairs fricative affricate IPA Notes Aaron's errands ˈɛrən(d)z With Mary-marry-merry merger. -ance -ants -ən(t)s ANSI antsy ˈæn(t)si bans bands ˈbæn(d)z Ben's bends ˈbɛn(d)z bines binds ˈbaɪn(d)z brans brands ˈbræn(d)z bunce bunts ˈbʌn(t)s Bynes binds ˈbaɪn(d)z chance chants ˈtʃæn(t)s, ˈtʃɑːn(t)s dense dents ˈdɛn(t)s dense dints ˈdɛn(t)s With pen-pin merger. -ence -ents -ən(t)s Erin's errands ˈɛrən(d)z With weak vowel merger. fines finds ˈfaɪn(d)z fens fends ˈfɛn(d)z Finns fends ˈfɪn(d)z With pen-pin merger. fins fends ˈfɪn(d)z With pen-pin merger. glans glands ˈɡlæn(d)z Hans hands ˈhæn(d)z Hans may also be pronounced /ˈhɑːnz/ or /ˈhɑːns/. Heinz hinds ˈhaɪn(d)z Heinz may also be pronounced /ˈhaɪnts/. hence hints ˈhɪn(t)s With pen-pin merger. Hines hinds ˈhaɪn(d)z inns ends ˈɪn(d)z With pen-pin merger. ins ends ˈɪn(d)z With pen-pin merger. intense intents ɪnˈtɛn(t)s Kines kinds ˈkaɪn(d)z LANs lands ˈlæn(d)z lens lends ˈlɛn(d)z men's mends ˈmɛn(d)z mince mints ˈmɪn(t)s mines minds ˈmaɪn(d)z N's; ens ends ˈɛn(d)z patience patients ˈpeɪʃən(t)s pawns ponds ˈpɑn(d)z With cot-caught merger. pens pends ˈpɛn(d)z pins pends ˈpɪn(d)z With pen-pin merger. ponce ponts ˈpɑn(t)s pons ponds ˈpɑn(d)z presence presents ˈprɛzən(t)s prince prints ˈprɪn(t)s rinse rents ˈrɪn(t)s With pen-pin merger. sans sands ˈsæn(d)z sense cents ˈsɛn(t)s sense scents ˈsɛn(t)s since cents ˈsɪn(t)s With pen-pin merger. since scents ˈsɪn(t)s With pen-pin merger. spins spends ˈspɪn(d)z With pen-pin merger. Stan's stands ˈstæn(d)z tens tends ˈtɛn(d)z tense tents ˈtɛn(t)s tense tints ˈtɪn(t)s With pen-pin merger. tins tends ˈtɪn(d)z With pen-pin merger. Vince vents ˈvɪn(t)s With pen-pin merger. wans wands ˈwɑn(d)z wens wends ˈwɛn(d)z wens winds (n.) ˈwɪn(d)z With pen-pin merger. wince Wentz ˈwɪn(t)s With pen-pin merger. whence Wentz ˈwɪn(t)s With wine-whine merger. whines winds (v.) ˈwaɪn(d)z With wine-whine merger. wines winds (v.) ˈwaɪn(d)z wins wends ˈwɪn(d)z With pen-pin merger. wins winds (n.) ˈwɪn(d)z wyns, wynns wends ˈwɪn(d)z With pen-pin merger. wyns, wynns winds (n.) ˈwɪn(d)z Alterations of clusters Assimilation In English as in other languages, assimilation of adjacent consonants is common, particularly of a nasal with a following consonant. This can occur within or between words. For example, the /n/ in encase is often pronounced (becoming a velar nasal by way of assimilation with the following velar stop /k/), and the /n/ in ten men likely becomes , assimilating with the following bilabial nasal /m/. Other cases of assimilation also occur, such as pronunciation of the /d/ in bad boy as . Voicing assimilation determines the sound of the endings -s (as in plurals, possessives and verb forms) and -ed (in verb forms): these are voiced (, ) following a voiced consonant (or vowel), but voiceless (, ) after a voiceless consonant, as in gets, knocked. Glottalization While there are many accents (such as Cockney) in which syllable-final /t/ is frequently glottalized (realized as a glottal stop, ) regardless of what follows it, the glottaling of /t/ in clusters is a feature even of standard accents, such as RP. There, may be heard for /t/ in such words and phrases as quite good, quite nice, nights. More precisely, it occurs in RP when /t/ appears in the syllable coda, is preceded by a vowel, liquid or nasal, and it is followed by another consonant except (normally) a liquid or semivowel in the same word, as in mattress. Another possibility is pre-glottalization (or glottal reinforcement), where a glottal stop is inserted before a syllable-final stop, rather than replacing it. That can happen before /p/, /t/ and /k/ or also before the affricate /tʃ/. It can occur in RP in the same environments as those mentioned above, without the final restriction so a glottal stop may appear before the /t/, as in mattress. It can also occur before a pause as in quite! spoken alone but not in quite easy. In the case of /tʃ/, pre-glottalization is common even before a vowel, as in teacher. According to Wells, this pre-glottalization originated in the 20th century (at least, it was not recorded until then). Glottalization of /t/ spread rapidly during the 20th century. S-cluster metathesis Final consonant clusters starting with /s/ sometimes undergo metathesis, meaning that the order of the consonants is switched. For example, the word ask may be pronounced like "ax", with the /k/ and the /s/ switched. This example has a long history: the Old English verb áscian also appeared as acsian, and both forms continued into Middle English, the latter, metathesizing to "ask". The form axe appears in Chaucer: "I axe, why the fyfte man Was nought housband to the Samaritan?" (Wife of Bath's Prologue, 1386), and was considered acceptable in literary English until about 1600. It persists in some dialects of rural England as well as in Ulster Scots as /ˈaks/, and in Jamaican English as /ˈaːks/, from where it has entered London English as /ˈɑːks/. S-cluster metathesis has been observed in some forms of African American Vernacular English, although it is not universal, one of the most stigmatized features of AAVE and often commented on by teachers. Examples of possible AAVE pronunciations include: ask → /ˈæks/ grasp → /ˈɡræps/ wasp → /ˈwɑps/ gasp → /ˈɡæps/ Merger of /str/ and /skr/ For some speakers of African American Vernacular English, the consonant cluster /str/ is pronounced as /skr/. For example, the word street may be pronounced as /skrit/. The form has been found to occur in Gullah and in the speech of some young African Americans born in the Southern United States. It is reported to be a highly stigmatized feature, with children who use it often being referred to speech pathologists. Yod-rhotacization Yod-rhotacization is a process that occurs for some Memphis AAVE speakers, where /j/ is rhotacized to in consonant clusters, causing pronunciations like: beautiful → cute → music → Compare yod-dropping and yod-coalescence, described above (and also the coil–curl merger, which features the reverse process, /r/ → /j/). See also Phonological history of English Phonological history of English consonants Phonological history of English fricatives and affricates H-dropping References ^ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2005-03-20. Retrieved 2005-06-14.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) ^ Gimson, A. C. (1980). An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English (3rd ed.). London: Edward Arnold Publishers. ISBN 0-7131-6287-2. ^ Ladefoged, Peter (2001). A Course in Phonetics (4th ed.). Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt College Publishers. ISBN 0-15-507319-2. ^ Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 207. ISBN 0-521-22919-7. ^ Wells (1982), p. 207. ^ Wells (1982), p. 385. ^ Mees, Inger M.; Collins, Beverley (1999). "Cardiff: A Real-time Study of Glottalisation". In Foulkes, Paul; Docherty, Gerard (eds.). Urban Voices. Arnold. p. 192. ISBN 0-340-70608-2. ^ Wells (1982), p. 206. ^ "Changes in Progress in Canadian English: Yod-dropping". CHASS.UToronto.ca. University of Toronto. Archived from the original on February 29, 2008. Retrieved March 30, 2010. Excerpts from: Chambers, J. K. (1998). "Social embedding of changes in progress". Journal of English Linguistics. 26: 5–36. doi:10.1177/007542429802600102. S2CID 144942447. ^ a b Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-016746-8. ^ Duryee, Tricia (6 November 2011). "A Nation Divided on How to Say the Word "Coupon"". All Things D. Dow Jones & Company Inc. ^ "FAQ". The Pulitzer Prizes. Columbia University. 24. How is 'Pulitzer' pronounced? The correct pronunciation is 'PULL it sir.' ^ Laurie Bauer; Paul Warren (2008). "New Zealand English: phonology". In Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd (eds.). Varieties of English 3: The Pacific and Australasia. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 60. ISBN 9783110208412. ^ Wells (1982), p. 330. ^ Wells (1982), p. 338. ^ Bauer, L.; Warren, P. (2005). "New Zealand English: Phonology". In Schneider, E. W. (ed.). A Handbook of Varieties of English: Phonology. Vol. 1. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110175325. ^ a b Why some say CHUBE and some say TOOB, retrieved 2023-05-04 ^ Wells (1982), p. 247. ^ Jespersen, O., A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, vol. 1, 12.81-82. ^ "Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between wr- and r-". www.lel.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-05-08. ^ Jespersen, O., A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, vol. 1, 12.71. ^ Vietor, Wilhelm: Elemente der Phonetik und Orthoepie des Deutschen, Englischen und Französischen, 2nd ed., Heilbronn, 1887, p. 171 ^ a b "Wir Ain Leed - Mid Northern Scots". Scots Online. Retrieved 21 March 2020. ^ "Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between kn- and n-". www.lel.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-05-08. ^ Jespersen, O., A Modern English Grammar on Historical Principles, vol. 1, 12.72. ^ The first recorded use of the word gnu in English dates back to 1777, according to Merriam-Webster's dictionary. ^ Wells (1982), p. 567. ^ Wells (1982), p. 188. ^ Bailey, George (15 December 2020). "Insertion and deletion in Northern English (ng): Interacting innovations in the life cycle of phonological processes". Journal of Linguistics. Cambridge University Press. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 189, 366. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 60–64. ^ Wells (1982), p. 262. ^ Wyld, H.C., A History of Modern Colloquial English, Blackwell 1936, cited in Wells (1982), p. 262. ^ Wells (1982), pp. 17, 19, 26. ^ a b Liberman, Anatoly (21 October 2009). "The Oddest and Dumbest English Spellings, Part 15, With a Note on Words and Things". OUP. Retrieved 28 January 2015. ^ a b c "Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE)". www.rehabmed.ualberta.ca. March 17, 2001. ^ HLW: Word Forms: Processes: English Accents ^ List of AAVE features contrasting with MUSE Archived 2006-06-22 at the Wayback Machine ^ Ebonics Notes and Discussion ^ Denham, K., Lobeck, A., Linguistics for Everyone: An Introduction, Cengage Learning 2012, p. 162. ^ Algeo, J., Butcher, C. The Origins and Development of the English Language, Cengage Learning 2013, p. 49. ^ Wells (1982), p. 95. ^ Yu, A.C.L., in The Blackwell Companion to Phonology, Wiley 2011, p. 1906. ^ Wells, J.C., "Some day my prints will come", John Wells's Phonetic Blog, 25 August 2010. ^ a b Alan Cruttenden, Gimson's Pronunciation of English, Routledge 2013, p. 99. ^ Nathan, G.S., Phonology: A Cognitive Grammar Introduction, John Benjamins Publishing 2008, pp. 77–78. ^ a b Wells (1982), p. 261. ^ Wells (1982), p. 260. ^ Online Etymology Dictionary - Ask ^ Kperogi, Farooq A. (2015). Glocal English: The Changing Face and Forms of Nigerian English in a Global World. Peter Lang. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-4331-2926-1. ^ Green, Lisa J. (2002). African American English : a linguistic introduction (1. publ., 4. print. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 122. ISBN 978-0521891387. ^ Dandy, E.B., Black Communications: Breaking Down the Barriers, African American Images, 1991, p. 44. vteHistory of English Proto-Indo-European Proto-Germanic Proto-West-Germanic Anglo-Frisian languages Old English Kentish Mercian Northumbrian West Saxon Anglo-Norman language Middle English Early Modern English Modern English Phonological historyVowels A Changes before historic /l/ Changes before historic /r/ Close back vowels Close front vowels Diphthongs Great Vowel Shift Open back vowels Trisyllabic laxing Consonants Clusters Flapping H-dropping L-vocalization Ng Rhoticity T-glottalization Th fronting stopping Wh

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"phonetic transcriptions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonetic_transcription"},{"link_name":"International Phonetic Alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet"},{"link_name":"Help:IPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA"},{"link_name":"IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters"},{"link_name":"phonological history of English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English"},{"link_name":"phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonology"},{"link_name":"consonant clusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant_clusters"}],"text":"This article contains phonetic transcriptions in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA). For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA. For the distinction between [ ], / / and ⟨ ⟩, see IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters.The phonological history of English includes various changes in the phonology of consonant clusters.","title":"Phonological history of English consonant clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"H-dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-dropping"},{"link_name":"consonant reductions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_reduction"}],"text":"See also: H-droppingThe H-cluster reductions are various consonant reductions that have occurred in the history of English, involving consonant clusters beginning with /h/ that have lost the /h/ (or become reduced to /h/) in some or all dialects.","title":"H-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"link_name":"rounded vowels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rounded_vowel"},{"link_name":"labialization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labialization"},{"link_name":"Old English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_English"},{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"link_name":"glide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glide_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_English"},{"link_name":"Ireland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_English"},{"link_name":"Southern American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_American_English"}],"sub_title":"Reductions of /hw/","text":"The cluster /hw/ (spelled ⟨wh⟩ since Middle English) has been subject to two kinds of reduction:Reduction to /h/ before rounded vowels (due to /hw/ being perceived as a /h/ with the labialization characteristic of that environment). This occurred with the word how in the Old English period, and with who, whom and whose in Middle English (the latter words having had an unrounded vowel in Old English).\nReduction to /w/, a development that has affected the speech of the great majority of English speakers, causing them to pronounce ⟨wh-⟩ the same as ⟨w-⟩ (sometimes called the wine–whine merger or glide cluster reduction). The distinction is maintained, however, in Scotland, most of Ireland, and some Southern American English.","title":"H-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Reduction of /hl/, /hr/ and /hn/","text":"The Old English consonant clusters /hl/, /hr/ and /hn/ were reduced to /l/, /r/, and /n/ in Middle English. For example, Old English hlāf, hring and hnutu become loaf, ring and nut in Modern English.","title":"H-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"homophones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophones"},{"link_name":"glide cluster reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glide_cluster_reduction"},{"link_name":"stigmatized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_stigma"},{"link_name":"H-dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-dropping"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philadelphia"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"Cork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_Cork"},{"link_name":"Irish English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_English"},{"link_name":"voiceless palatal fricative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiceless_palatal_fricative"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"sub_title":"Reduction of /hj/","text":"In some dialects of English the cluster /hj/ is reduced to /j/,[1] leading to pronunciations like /juːdʒ/ for huge and /ˈjuːmən/ for human, and making hew, hue, and Hugh homophones of ewe, yew, and you. This is sometimes considered a type of glide cluster reduction, but it is much less widespread than wh-reduction, and is generally stigmatized where it is found. Aside from accents with general H-dropping, in the United States this reduction is mostly found in accents of Philadelphia and New York City; it also occurs in Cork accents of Irish English. In other dialects of English, hew and yew remain distinct; however, the cluster /hj/ of hew, human, etc. is often reduced from [çj] to just [ç] (a voiceless palatal fricative).[2][3]","title":"H-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"§ Yod-rhotacization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Yod-rhotacization"},{"link_name":"palatal approximant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Palatal_approximant"},{"link_name":"Hebrew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet"},{"link_name":"yod(h)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yodh"},{"link_name":"Phonological history of English high back vowels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_high_back_vowels#ju"},{"link_name":"modified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English-language_vowel_changes_before_historic_/r/"},{"link_name":"Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_English"},{"link_name":"New England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England_English"},{"link_name":"American South","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_American_English"},{"link_name":"falling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falling_diphthong"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"See also: § Yod-rhotacizationY-cluster reductions are reductions of clusters ending with the palatal approximant /j/, which is the sound of ⟨y⟩ in yes, and is sometimes referred to as \"yod\", from the Hebrew letter yod(h), which has the sound [j]. Many such clusters arose in dialects in which the falling diphthong /ɪu/ (the product of the merger of several Middle English vowel sequences) became the rising diphthong /juː/. (For more information, see Phonological history of English high back vowels.) They were thus often found before the vowel /uː/, as in cube /kjuːb/ – which was in some cases modified to /ʊə/ or /ʊ/ before (historical) /r/, as in cure, or weakened to /ʊ/ or /ə/ as in argument. They also occurred in words ending in -ion and -ious, such as nation and precious.This change from /ɪu/ to /juː/, which had occurred in London by the end of the 17th century, did not take place in all dialects. A few dialects, notably in Wales, as well as in some parts of northern England, New England, and the American South, still retain a (falling) /ɪu/ diphthong where standard English has /juː/ – these dialects therefore lack the clusters with /j/ and have not been subject to the reductions described here.[4]The diphthongs /juː/ or /ɪʊ̯/ are most commonly indicated by the spellings eu, ew, uCV (where C is any consonant and V is any vowel), ue and ui, as in feud, few, mute, cue and suit, while the historical monophthong /uː/ is commonly indicated by the spellings oo and ou, as in moon and soup.","title":"Y-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"elision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elision"},{"link_name":"John Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Wells"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"The words you and yew in a dialect that was not subject to early yod-dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:En-ne-you_yew.ogg"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"},{"link_name":"Welsh English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_English"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"RP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"General American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_American"},{"link_name":"shibboleth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shibboleth"},{"link_name":"Golden Horseshoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Horseshoe"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Iw-uw_merger.svg"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ANAE-10"},{"link_name":"alveolar consonants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_consonant"},{"link_name":"American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"Southern American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_American_English"},{"link_name":"do","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/do"},{"link_name":"dew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/dew"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ANAE-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_English"},{"link_name":"Australian English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_English"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Cockney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockney"},{"link_name":"yod-coalescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Yod-coalescence"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"East Anglian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Anglian"},{"link_name":"Norfolk dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk_dialect"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Bernard Matthews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Matthews"}],"sub_title":"Yod-dropping","text":"Yod-dropping is the elision of the /j/ from certain syllable-initial clusters of the type described above. Particular cases of yod-dropping may affect all or some of the dialects that have the relevant clusters.The change of [ɪ] to [j] in these positions (as described above) produced some clusters which would have been difficult or impossible to pronounce, which led to what John Wells calls Early Yod Dropping in which the [j] was elided in the following environments:[5]After /ʃ, tʃ, dʒ/, for example chute /ʃuːt/, chew /tʃuː/, juice /dʒuːs/\nAfter /j/, for example yew /juː/ (compare [jɪʊ̯] in some conservative dialects)\nAfter /r/, for example rude /ruːd/\nAfter stop+/l/ clusters, for example blue /bluː/The words you and yew in a dialect that was not subject to early yod-dropping\n\nyou, yew[ju jɪʊ̯]\nProblems playing this file? See media help.The previously mentioned accents that did not have the [ɪ]→[j] change were not subject to this process. Thus, for example, in much Welsh English pairs like chews/choose, yew/you and threw/through remain distinct: the first member of each pair has the diphthong /ɪʊ̯/, while the second member has /uː/:[6]chews /tʃɪʊ̯z/, choose /tʃuːz/\nyew /jɪʊ̯/, you /juː/\nthrew /θrɪʊ̯/, through /θruː/Conversely, an initial /j/ does not appear in Welsh English before /iː/ in words such as yeast and yield.[7]Many varieties of English have extended yod-dropping to the following environments if the /j/ is in the same syllable as the preceding consonant:After /s/, for example suit /suːt/\nAfter /l/, for example lute /ˈluːt/\nAfter /z/, for example Zeus /ˈzuːs/\nAfter /θ/, for example enthuse /ɛnˈθuːz/Yod-dropping in the above environments used to be considered nonstandard in England but now also occurs by educated RP-speakers.[8] (The /j/ after /s/ is not normally dropped in RP in medial positions, however: compare pursuit /pəˈsjuːt/.) In General American, yod-dropping is found not only in the above environments but also after /t/, /d/ and /n/, for example tune /ˈtuːn/, dew /ˈduː/, new /ˈnuː/The lack of yod-dropping in those contexts has occasionally been held to be a shibboleth distinguishing Canadians from Americans. However, in a survey conducted in the Golden Horseshoe area of Southern Ontario in 1994, over 80% of respondents under the age of 40 pronounced student and news without yod.[9]The areas marked in pink show where in the United States a distinction between /ɪʊ̯/ in dew and /u/ in do may be made.[10]General American thus undergoes yod-dropping after all alveolar consonants. A few accents of American English, such as working-class Southern American English, however, preserve the distinction in pairs like do/dew because, like in the Welsh English dialects discussed above, they retain a diphthong /ɪʊ̯/ in words in which RP has /juː/: /lut~lɪʊ̯t/, /du~dɪʊ̯/, etc.[10]However, in words like annual, menu, volume, Matthew, continue, etc., with a syllable break before the /j/, there is no yod-dropping. The same applies accordingly to British and other accents; the yod is often dropped after initial /l/, for example, but it is not dropped in words like volume or value. (British speakers omit the /j/ in figure, but most Americans retain it.)Additionally, there is no /j/ in British pronunciations of coupon and Pulitzer, /ˈkuːpɒn/ and /ˈpʊlɪtsə/ respectively, but many American speakers keep the yod, realizing them as /ˈkjuːpɒn/ and /ˈpjuːlɪtsər/, although Pulitzer with the pew sound is widely incorrect.[11][12]In New Zealand and to some extent Australian English, debut is mainly pronounced without the yod as /ˈdæebʉː/.[13]Yod-dropping after /t/, /d/, and /n/ was also a traditional feature of Cockney speech, which continues to be the case after /n/, but now, after /t/ and /d/, yod-coalescence is now more common.[14]Some East Anglian accents such as Norfolk dialect extend yod-dropping not only to the position after /t/, /d/ or /n/ but also to the position after nonalveolar consonants as well: pairs like beauty/booty, mute/moot, cute/coot can then be homophonous.[15] A well-known series of British television advertisements beginning in the 1980s featured Bernard Matthews, who was from Norfolk and described his turkeys as \"bootiful\" (for beautiful). Such accents pronounce a /j/ in words like \"use\", \"unit\", etc. only if there is no consonant before the /j/.","title":"Y-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"fuses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fusion_(phonetics)"},{"link_name":"sibilants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sibilant"},{"link_name":"English phonology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_phonology"},{"link_name":"affrication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affrication"},{"link_name":"RP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation"},{"link_name":"gotcha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gotcha_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"/ˈɡɒtʃə/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"/ˈɡɒtju/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"/ˈwɒtʃə/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"/ˈwɒtərjə/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"Australian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_English_phonology"},{"link_name":"Cockney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockney#Cockney_speech"},{"link_name":"Estuary English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estuary_English"},{"link_name":"Zimbabwean English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zimbabwean_English"},{"link_name":"Hiberno-English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiberno-English"},{"link_name":"Newfoundland English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newfoundland_English"},{"link_name":"South African English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_African_English"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schneider-16"},{"link_name":"New Zealand English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Zealand_English_phonology"},{"link_name":"RP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"},{"link_name":"Scottish English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_English"},{"link_name":"Philippine English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_English"},{"link_name":"RP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"},{"link_name":"Received Pronunciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Received_Pronunciation"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"List of yod-dropping and coalescence homophones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Appendix:List_of_dialect-dependent_homophones#Yod-dropping_and_coalescence"},{"link_name":"Wiktionary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wiktionary"}],"sub_title":"Yod-coalescence","text":"Yod-coalescence is a process that fuses the clusters /dj, tj, sj, zj/ into the sibilants [dʒ, tʃ, ʃ, ʒ] respectively (for the meanings of those symbols, see English phonology). The first two are examples of affrication.Unlike yod-dropping, yod-coalescence frequently occurs with clusters that would be considered to span a syllable boundary and so commonly occurs before unstressed syllables. For example, in educate, the /dj/ cluster would not usually be subject to yod-dropping in General American, as the /d/ is assigned to the previous syllable, but it commonly coalesces to [dʒ]. Here are a few examples of yod-coalescence universal in all English dialects:/tj/ → [tʃ] in most words ending -ture, such as nature [ˈneɪtʃəɹ]\n/dj/ → [dʒ] in soldier [ˈsoʊldʒəɹ]\n/sj/ → [ʃ] in words ending with -ssure such as pressure [ˈpɹɛʃəɹ] (also in words ending with consonant+sure, consonant+sion, -tion)\n/zj/ → [ʒ] in words ending vowel+sure such as measure [ˈmɛʒəɹ] (also vowel+sion)In some other words, the coalesced pronunciation is common in English dialects around the world, but an older non-coalesced form still exists among some speakers of standard British English:educate [ˈɛdʒʊkeɪt] (also in standard RP: [ˈɛdjʊkeɪt])\nazure [ˈæʒɚ] (also in RP [ˈæzjə])\nissue [ˈɪʃuː] (also in RP [ˈɪsjuː]), the intermediate form [ˈɪʃjuː] being also commonCoalescence can even occur across word boundaries, as in the colloquial \"gotcha\" /ˈɡɒtʃə/ (for got you /ˈɡɒtju/) and \"whatcha\" /ˈwɒtʃə/ (for what're you /ˈwɒtərjə/).In certain English accents, yod-coalescence also occurs in stressed syllables, as in tune and dune. That occurs in Australian, Cockney, Estuary English, Zimbabwean English, some speakers of Hiberno-English, Newfoundland English, South African English, and to a certain extent[16] in New Zealand English, RP,[17] many speakers in Scottish English, and even some varieties of English in Asia, like Philippine English (many speakers because of the influence by the phonology of their mother languages). That results in pronunciations such as the following:dew/due [dʒuː] (RP: [djuː])\ntune [tʃuːn] (RP: [tjuːn])In certain varieties such as Australian, Ugandan, and some RP,[17] stressed [sj, zj] can also coalesce:resume [ɹəˈʒuːm] (RP: [ɹɪˈzjuːm])\nassume [əˈʃuːm] (RP: [əˈsjuːm])That can lead to additional homophony; for instance, dew and due come to be pronounced the same as Jew.Yod-coalescence has traditionally been resisted in Received Pronunciation. It has certainly become established in words of the first group listed above (nature, soldier, pressure etc.), but it is not yet universal in those of the second group (educate etc.), and it does not generally occur in those of the third group (dew, tune etc.).[18]See alsoList of yod-dropping and coalescence homophones on Wiktionary.","title":"Y-cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Other initial cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ɹ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_approximant"},{"link_name":"lip rounding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lip_rounding"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"homophones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Homophones"},{"link_name":"Doric dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doric_dialect_(Scotland)"},{"link_name":"Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_language"},{"link_name":"Alexander John Ellis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_John_Ellis"},{"link_name":"Cumbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbria"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"sub_title":"Reduction of /wr/ and /wl/","text":"Old and Middle English had an initial /wr/ cluster (note that /r/ does not denote [ɹ] here), hence the spelling of words like write and wrong. This was reduced to just /r/, apparently during the 17th century. An intermediate stage may have been an [r] with lip rounding.[19]As a result of this reduction, pairs of words like rap and wrap, rite and write, etc. are homophones in practically all varieties of Modern English. They remain distinct in the Doric dialect of Scots, where the wr- cluster is pronounced /vr/. Alexander John Ellis reported distinctions between wr and r in Cumbria and in several varieties of Scots in the nineteenth century.[20]Old English also had a cluster /wl/, which reduced to /l/ during Middle English. For example, the word lisp derives from Old English wlisp(ian).","title":"Other initial cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Germanic languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germanic_languages"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"debuccalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debuccalization"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_language"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scots-online.org-23"},{"link_name":"Alexander John Ellis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_John_Ellis"},{"link_name":"Cumbria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cumbria"},{"link_name":"Northumberland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northumberland"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Reduction of /kn/","text":"Middle English initial /kn/ is reduced in modern English to /n/, making pairs like knot/not and knight/night homophones.The /kn/ cluster was spelled cn- in Old English; this changed to kn- in Middle English, and this spelling survives in Modern English, despite the loss of the /k/ sound. Cognates in other Germanic languages usually still sound the initial /k/. For example, the Old English ancestor of knee was cnēo, pronounced /kneːo̯/, and the cognate word in Modern German is Knie, pronounced /kniː/.Most dialects of English reduced the initial cluster /kn/ to /n/ relatively recently; the change seems to have taken place in educated English during the 17th century.[21] Several German-language grammars of English from the late 17th and early 18th centuries transcribed English kn- as tn-, dn-, implying that a stage of assimilation (or perhaps debuccalization to /ʔn/) preceded that of complete reduction.[22]The cluster is preserved in some Scots dialects,[23] and Alexander John Ellis recorded it in parts of the Northern English counties of Cumbria and Northumberland in the late nineteenth century.[24]","title":"Other initial cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scots_language"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-scots-online.org-23"},{"link_name":"The Gnu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gnu"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"Kenny Wheeler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_Wheeler"},{"link_name":"Gnu High","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnu_High"}],"sub_title":"Reduction of /ɡn/","text":"The Middle English initial cluster /ɡn/ is reduced to /n/ in Modern English. Like the reduction of /kn/, this seems to have taken place during the seventeenth century.[25] The change affected words like gnat, gnostic, gnome, etc., the spelling with gn- being retained despite the loss of the /ɡ/ sound. The cluster is preserved in some Scots dialects.[23]The song The Gnu jokes about this silent g and other silent letters in English. In fact the g in gnu may always have been silent in English, since this loanword did not enter the language until the late 18th century.[26] The trumpeter Kenny Wheeler wrote a composition titled Gnu High, a pun on \"new high\".","title":"Other initial cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Caribbean English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_English"},{"link_name":"stop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_consonant"},{"link_name":"aspiration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)"},{"link_name":"Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Wells"},{"link_name":"creole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Creole_language"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"sub_title":"S-cluster reductions","text":"In some types of Caribbean English, the initial clusters /sp/, /st/, and /sk/ are reduced by the loss of /s/. The following stop is then subject to regular aspiration (or devoicing of the following approximant) in its new word-initial environment. Some examples of such pronunciations are:According to Wells, these reductions occur only in the broadest creole.[27]","title":"Other initial cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Final cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"velar nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_nasal"},{"link_name":"assimilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"morpheme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morpheme"},{"link_name":"suffix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suffix"},{"link_name":"comparative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparative"},{"link_name":"superlative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superlative"},{"link_name":"split","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonemic_split"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ng-coalescence.svg"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-G.Bailey-29"},{"link_name":"English English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_English"},{"link_name":"Lancashire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lancashire_dialect"},{"link_name":"West Midlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Midlands_English"},{"link_name":"Derbyshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derbyshire"},{"link_name":"Welsh English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welsh_English"},{"link_name":"Birmingham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham"},{"link_name":"Brummie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brummie_dialect"},{"link_name":"Manchester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester"},{"link_name":"Manchester dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester_dialect"},{"link_name":"Liverpool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liverpool"},{"link_name":"Scouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scouse"},{"link_name":"Sheffield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheffield"},{"link_name":"Stoke-on-Trent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoke-on-Trent"},{"link_name":"Potteries dialect","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potteries_dialect"},{"link_name":"Kent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kent"},{"link_name":"American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_English"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Ulster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster"},{"link_name":"Dutch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language"},{"link_name":"phonemes of standard English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_phonology"},{"link_name":"allophone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allophone"},{"link_name":"velar consonants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_consonant"},{"link_name":"minimal pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minimal_pair"},{"link_name":"generativists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generativist"},{"link_name":"underlyingly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Underlying_representation"},{"link_name":"Singapore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singapore"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"NG-coalescence","text":"NG-coalescence is a historical sound change by which the final cluster /nɡ/, pronounced [ŋɡ] (the /n/ being realized as a velar nasal by assimilation with the velar /ɡ/), came to be pronounced as just [ŋ] – that is, the final [ɡ] was dropped, but the velar quality of the nasal remained. The change took place in educated London speech around the end of the 16th century, and explains why there is no [ɡ] sound at the end of words like fang, sing, wrong and tongue in the standard varieties of Modern English.[28]The change in fact applies not only at the end of a word, but generally at the end of a morpheme. If a word ending in -ng is followed by a suffix or is compounded with another word, the [ŋ] pronunciation normally remains. For example, in the words fangs, sings, singing, singer, wronged, wrongly, hangman, there is no [ɡ] sound. An exception is the comparative and superlative forms of adjectives: in the words longer/longest, stronger/strongest, younger/youngest, the [ɡ] is pronounced in most accents. The pronunciation with [ɡ] is thus possible only before a vowel; before a consonant, the only possibility is a bare [ŋ].In other cases (when it is not morpheme-final), word-internal -ng- does not show the effects of coalescence, and the pronunciation [ŋɡ] is retained, as in finger and angle. This means that the words finger and singer do not rhyme in most modern varieties of English, although they did in Middle English. The process of NG-coalescence might therefore be referred to as the singer–finger split.Pronunciation of ⟨ng⟩ in the word tongue in various regional dialects of EnglandSome accents, however, do not show the full effects of NG-coalescence as described above. In these accents, sing may be found with [ŋɡ], and singer may rhyme with finger.[29] This is particularly associated with English English accents in areas such as Lancashire, the West Midlands and Derbyshire, and is also present in north-east varieties of Welsh English. This includes the cities of Birmingham (see Brummie), Manchester (see Manchester dialect), Liverpool (see Scouse), Sheffield and Stoke-on-Trent (see Potteries dialect). This also occurs in a small area of Kent. As this occurs around the mining area of Kent, it might be a result of large-scale migration by miners from other more northerly coalfields to Kent in the 1920s.It is also associated with some American English accents in the New York City area.[30]On the other hand, in some accents of the west of Scotland and Ulster, NG-coalescence is extended to morpheme-internal position, so that finger is pronounced /ˈfɪŋər/ (cf. Dutch vinger /ˈvɪŋər/), thus rhyming with singer (although the [ɡ] is not dropped before a stressed syllable, as in engage).It is because of NG-coalescence that /ŋ/ is now normally regarded one of the phonemes of standard English. In Middle English, the [ŋ] can be regarded as an allophone of /n/, occurring before velar consonants, but in Modern English, in view of minimal pairs such as pan–pang and sin–sing, that analysis no longer appears to hold. Nevertheless, some linguists (particularly generativists) do regard a word like sing as being underlyingly /sɪnɡ/, positing a rule that deletes [ɡ] after a nasal before a morpheme boundary, after the nasal has undergone assimilation. A problem with this view is that there are a few words in which [ŋ] is followed neither by a velar nor a morpheme boundary (such as gingham, dinghy, orangutan and Singapore for those speakers who pronounce them without [ɡ]), and some in which the [ɡ] is not deleted before a morpheme boundary (longer etc., as noted above).The above-mentioned accents which lack NG-coalescence may more easily be analyzed as lacking a phoneme /ŋ/. The same may apply to those where NG-coalescence is extended to morpheme-internal position, since here a more consistent [ɡ]-deletion rule can be formulated.[31]","title":"Final cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"weak syllables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English"},{"link_name":"-ing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/-ing"},{"link_name":"syllabic [n]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabic_consonant"},{"link_name":"weak vowel merger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weak_vowel_merger"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"NG-coalescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#NG-coalescence"},{"link_name":"velar nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_nasal"},{"link_name":"alveolar nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alveolar_nasal"},{"link_name":"orthographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthography"},{"link_name":"present participle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Present_participle"},{"link_name":"gerund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerund"},{"link_name":"spelling pronunciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling_pronunciation"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Cockney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockney"},{"link_name":"Southern American English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_American_English"},{"link_name":"African American Vernacular English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English"},{"link_name":"socioeconomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Socioeconomic"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"gentry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentry"},{"link_name":"field sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_sports"},{"link_name":"John Gay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Gay"},{"link_name":"Acis and Galatea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acis_and_Galatea_(Handel)"},{"link_name":"Handel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Handel"},{"link_name":"Jonathan Swift","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jonathan_Swift"}],"sub_title":"G-dropping","text":"G-dropping is a popular name for the feature of speech whereby /n/ is used in place of the standard /ŋ/ in weak syllables. This applies especially to the -ing ending of verbs, but also in other words such as morning, nothing, ceiling, Buckingham, etc. G-dropping speakers may pronounce this syllable as [ɪn] or [ən] (reducing to a syllabic [n] in some cases), while non-G-dropping speakers have /ɪŋ/ (/əŋ/ with the weak vowel merger) or /iŋ/.[32]Relative to the great majority of modern dialects, which have NG-coalescence, G-dropping does not involve the dropping of any sound, simply the replacement of the velar nasal with the alveolar nasal. The name derives from the apparent orthographic consequence of replacing the sound written ⟨ng⟩ with that normally written ⟨n⟩. The spelling -in' is sometimes used to indicate that a speaker uses the G-dropping pronunciation, as in makin' for making.The pronunciation with /n/ rather than /ŋ/ is a long-established one. Old English verbs had a present participle in -ende and a verbal noun (gerund) form in -ing(e). These merged into a single form, written -ing, but not necessarily spoken as such – the /n/ pronunciation may be inherited from the former distinct present participle form. The /n/ variant appears to have been fashionable generally during the 18th century, with the alternative /ɪŋ/ being adopted in educated speech around the 1820s, possibly as a spelling pronunciation.[33]Today, G-dropping is a feature of colloquial and non-standard speech of all regions, including stereotypically of Cockney, Southern American English and African American Vernacular English. Its use is highly correlated with the socioeconomic class of the speaker, with speakers of lower classes using /n/ with greater frequency. It has also been found to be more common among men than women, and less common in more formal styles of speech.[34]The fact that the /n/ pronunciation was formerly associated with certain upper-class speech is reflected in the phrase huntin’, shootin’ and fishin’ (used in referring to country gentry who frequently engaged in such field sports). Further evidence that this pronunciation was once standard comes from old rhymes, as in this couplet from John Gay's 1732 pastoral Acis and Galatea, set to music by Handel:Shepherd, what art thou pursuing,\nHeedless running to thy ruin?which was presumably pronounced \"shepherd, what art thou pursuin', heedless runnin' to thy ruin\", although this would sound very odd in an opera today. Similarly, in the poetry of Jonathan Swift (1667–1745), -ing forms consistently rhyme with words ending in /ɪn/, as in this verse of A Ballad on the Game of Traffic, where \"lining\" rhymes with \"fine in\":But Weston has a new-cast gown\nOn Sundays to be fine in,\nAnd, if she can but win a crown,\n'Twill just new dye the lining.","title":"Final cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hypercorrection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypercorrection"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-odd-35"}],"sub_title":"Reduction of /mb/ and /mn/","text":"In later Middle English, the final cluster /mb/ was reduced to just /m/ (the plum-plumb merger). This affects words such as lamb and plumb, as well as derived forms with suffixes, such as lambs, lambing, plumbed, plumber.By analogy with words like these, certain other words ending in /m/, which had no historical /b/ sound, had a silent letter ⟨b⟩ added to their spelling by way of hypercorrection. Such words include limb and crumb.[35]Where the final cluster /mn/ occurred, this was reduced to /m/ (the him-hymn merger), as in column, autumn, damn, solemn. (Compare French automne, where the cluster has been reduced to /n/.) Both sounds are nonetheless still pronounced before vowels in certain derivatives, such as columnar, autumnal, damnation, solemnity.","title":"Final cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"African American Vernacular English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English"},{"link_name":"Caribbean English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean_English"},{"link_name":"plurals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_plurals"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAVE-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"sub_title":"Generalized final cluster reduction","text":"General reduction of final consonant clusters occurs in African American Vernacular English and Caribbean English. The new final consonant may be slightly lengthened as an effect.Examples are:The plurals of test and desk may become tesses and desses by the same rule that gives plural messes from singular mess.[36][37][38][39]","title":"Final cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"stop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stop_consonant"},{"link_name":"elided","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elision"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"syllabic consonants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllabic_consonant"},{"link_name":"spelling pronunciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spelling_pronunciation"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"change of /ts/ to /s/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C#Later_use"},{"link_name":"soft ⟨c⟩","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_C"}],"text":"When a consonant cluster ending in a stop is followed by another consonant or cluster in the next syllable, the final stop in the first syllable is often elided. This may happen within words or across word boundaries. Examples of stops that will often be elided in this way include the [t] in postman and the [d] in cold cuts or band saw.[40]Historically, similar reductions have taken place before syllabic consonants in certain words, leading to the silent ⟨t⟩ in words like castle and listen. This change took place around the 17th century. In the word often, the [t] sound later came to be re-inserted by some speakers as a spelling pronunciation.[41]An earlier reduction that took place in early Middle English was the change of /ts/ to /s/ (the sent-cent merger). This led to the modern sound of soft ⟨c⟩.","title":"Medial cluster reductions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Consonant insertions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"epenthetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epenthetic"},{"link_name":"nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant"},{"link_name":"fricative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fricative"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Prince–prints merger","text":"For many speakers, an epenthetic [t] is inserted in the final cluster /ns/, making it identical or very similar to the cluster /nts/. For example, the words prince and prints have come to be homophones or nearly so.The epenthesis is a natural consequence of the transition from the nasal [n] to the fricative [s]; if the raising of the soft palate (which converts a nasal to an oral sound) is completed before the release of the tongue tip (which enables a fricative sound), an intervening stop [t] naturally results.[42] The merger of /ns/ and /nts/ is not necessarily complete, however; the duration of the epenthetic [t] in /ns/ has been found to be often shorter (and the [n] longer) than in the underlying cluster /nts/.[43] Some speakers preserve a clearer distinction, with prince having [ns], and prints having [nts] or [nʔs]. The epenthesis does not occur between syllables, in words like consider.[44]","title":"Consonant insertions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"elision","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elision"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gim99-45"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gim99-45"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-odd-35"},{"link_name":"Glottalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Glottalization"}],"sub_title":"Other insertions","text":"The merger of /nz/ and /ndz/ is also possible, making bans and pens sound like bands and pends. However, this is less common than the merger of /ns/ and /nts/ described above, and in rapid speech may involve the elision of the /d/ from /ndz/ rather than epenthesis in /nz/.[45]Epenthesis of a stop between a nasal and a fricative can also occur in other environments, for example:/nʃ/ may become /ntʃ/ (so pinscher is often pronounced like pincher)\n/ms/ may become /mps/ (so Samson becomes \"Sampson\", hamster becomes \"hampster\")\n/ŋs/ may become /ŋks/ (so Kingston becomes \"kinkston\")[45]Epenthesis may also happen in the cluster /ls/, which then becomes /lts/, so else rhymes with belts.An epenthetic [p] often intervenes in the cluster /mt/ in the word dreamt, making it rhyme with attempt.Some originally epenthetic consonants have become part of the established pronunciation of words. This applies, for instance, to the /b/ in words like thimble, grumble and scramble.[35]For the insertion of glottal stops before certain consonants, see Glottalization below.","title":"Consonant insertions"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Alterations of clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"assimilation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant"},{"link_name":"velar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velar_consonant"},{"link_name":"bilabial nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilabial_nasal"},{"link_name":"plurals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_plurals"},{"link_name":"possessives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_possessive"},{"link_name":"verb forms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_verbs"},{"link_name":"voiced consonant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voiced_consonant"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"Assimilation","text":"In English as in other languages, assimilation of adjacent consonants is common, particularly of a nasal with a following consonant. This can occur within or between words. For example, the /n/ in encase is often pronounced [ŋ] (becoming a velar nasal by way of assimilation with the following velar stop /k/), and the /n/ in ten men likely becomes [m], assimilating with the following bilabial nasal /m/. Other cases of assimilation also occur, such as pronunciation of the /d/ in bad boy as [b]. Voicing assimilation determines the sound of the endings -s (as in plurals, possessives and verb forms) and -ed (in verb forms): these are voiced ([z], [d]) following a voiced consonant (or vowel), but voiceless ([s], [t]) after a voiceless consonant, as in gets, knocked.[46]","title":"Alterations of clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cockney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cockney"},{"link_name":"glottalized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottalization"},{"link_name":"glottal stop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottal_stop"},{"link_name":"syllable coda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_coda"},{"link_name":"liquid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_consonant"},{"link_name":"nasal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasal_consonant"},{"link_name":"semivowel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semivowel"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-W121-47"},{"link_name":"affricate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affricate"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-W121-47"}],"sub_title":"Glottalization","text":"While there are many accents (such as Cockney) in which syllable-final /t/ is frequently glottalized (realized as a glottal stop, [ʔ]) regardless of what follows it, the glottaling of /t/ in clusters is a feature even of standard accents, such as RP. There, [ʔ] may be heard for /t/ in such words and phrases as quite good, quite nice, nights. More precisely, it occurs in RP when /t/ appears in the syllable coda, is preceded by a vowel, liquid or nasal, and it is followed by another consonant except (normally) a liquid or semivowel in the same word, as in mattress.[47]Another possibility is pre-glottalization (or glottal reinforcement), where a glottal stop is inserted before a syllable-final stop, rather than replacing it. That can happen before /p/, /t/ and /k/ or also before the affricate /tʃ/. It can occur in RP in the same environments as those mentioned above, without the final restriction so a glottal stop may appear before the /t/, as in mattress. It can also occur before a pause as in quite! spoken alone but not in quite easy. In the case of /tʃ/, pre-glottalization is common even before a vowel, as in teacher.[48]According to Wells, this pre-glottalization originated in the 20th century (at least, it was not recorded until then). Glottalization of /t/ spread rapidly during the 20th century.[47]","title":"Alterations of clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"metathesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metathesis_(linguistics)"},{"link_name":"Wife of Bath","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wife_of_Bath"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"Ulster Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulster_Scots_language"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kperogi-50"},{"link_name":"Jamaican English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jamaican_English_language"},{"link_name":"London English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multicultural_London_English"},{"link_name":"African American Vernacular English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAVE-36"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"}],"sub_title":"S-cluster metathesis","text":"Final consonant clusters starting with /s/ sometimes undergo metathesis, meaning that the order of the consonants is switched. For example, the word ask may be pronounced like \"ax\", with the /k/ and the /s/ switched.This example has a long history: the Old English verb áscian also appeared as acsian, and both forms continued into Middle English, the latter, metathesizing to \"ask\". The form axe appears in Chaucer: \"I axe, why the fyfte man Was nought housband to the Samaritan?\" (Wife of Bath's Prologue, 1386), and was considered acceptable in literary English until about 1600.[49][failed verification] It persists in some dialects of rural England as well as in Ulster Scots[50] as /ˈaks/, and in Jamaican English as /ˈaːks/, from where it has entered London English as /ˈɑːks/.S-cluster metathesis has been observed in some forms of African American Vernacular English, although it is not universal, one of the most stigmatized features of AAVE and often commented on by teachers.[36][failed verification] Examples of possible AAVE pronunciations include:","title":"Alterations of clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"African American Vernacular English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_American_Vernacular_English"},{"link_name":"consonant cluster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consonant_cluster"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Gullah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gullah_language"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"}],"sub_title":"Merger of /str/ and /skr/","text":"For some speakers of African American Vernacular English, the consonant cluster /str/ is pronounced as /skr/. For example, the word street may be pronounced as /skrit/.[51]The form has been found to occur in Gullah and in the speech of some young African Americans born in the Southern United States. It is reported to be a highly stigmatized feature, with children who use it often being referred to speech pathologists.[52]","title":"Alterations of clusters"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Memphis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memphis,_Tennessee"},{"link_name":"AAVE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AAVE"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AAVE-36"},{"link_name":"yod-dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Yod-dropping"},{"link_name":"yod-coalescence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Yod-coalescence"},{"link_name":"coil–curl merger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_diphthongs#Coil%E2%80%93curl_merger"}],"sub_title":"Yod-rhotacization","text":"Yod-rhotacization is a process that occurs for some Memphis AAVE[36] speakers, where /j/ is rhotacized to [r] in consonant clusters, causing pronunciations like:Compare yod-dropping and yod-coalescence, described above (and also the coil–curl merger, which features the reverse process, /r/ → /j/).","title":"Alterations of clusters"}]

[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/Audio-input-microphone.svg/50px-Audio-input-microphone.svg.png"},{"image_text":"The areas marked in pink show where in the United States a distinction between /ɪʊ̯/ in dew and /u/ in do may be made.[10]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Iw-uw_merger.svg/220px-Iw-uw_merger.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Pronunciation of ⟨ng⟩ in the word tongue in various regional dialects of England","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Ng-coalescence.svg/220px-Ng-coalescence.svg.png"}]

[{"title":"Phonological history of English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English"},{"title":"Phonological history of English consonants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants"},{"title":"Phonological history of English fricatives and affricates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_fricatives_and_affricates"},{"title":"H-dropping","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H-dropping"}]

[{"reference":"\"Archived copy\". Archived from the original on 2005-03-20. Retrieved 2005-06-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050320125620/http://students.csci.unt.edu/~kun/ch11.html","url_text":"\"Archived copy\""},{"url":"http://students.csci.unt.edu/~kun/ch11.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gimson, A. C. (1980). An Introduction to the Pronunciation of English (3rd ed.). London: Edward Arnold Publishers. ISBN 0-7131-6287-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._C._Gimson","url_text":"Gimson, A. C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London","url_text":"London"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7131-6287-2","url_text":"0-7131-6287-2"}]},{"reference":"Ladefoged, Peter (2001). A Course in Phonetics (4th ed.). Fort Worth, Texas: Harcourt College Publishers. ISBN 0-15-507319-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged","url_text":"Ladefoged, Peter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fort_Worth,_Texas","url_text":"Fort Worth, Texas"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-15-507319-2","url_text":"0-15-507319-2"}]},{"reference":"Wells, John C. (1982). Accents of English. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. p. 207. ISBN 0-521-22919-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_C._Wells","url_text":"Wells, John C."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press","url_text":"Cambridge University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-22919-7","url_text":"0-521-22919-7"}]},{"reference":"Mees, Inger M.; Collins, Beverley (1999). \"Cardiff: A Real-time Study of Glottalisation\". In Foulkes, Paul; Docherty, Gerard (eds.). Urban Voices. Arnold. p. 192. ISBN 0-340-70608-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-70608-2","url_text":"0-340-70608-2"}]},{"reference":"\"Changes in Progress in Canadian English: Yod-dropping\". CHASS.UToronto.ca. University of Toronto. Archived from the original on February 29, 2008. Retrieved March 30, 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080229080412/http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~chambers/changes.html","url_text":"\"Changes in Progress in Canadian English: Yod-dropping\""},{"url":"http://www.chass.utoronto.ca/~chambers/changes.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Chambers, J. K. (1998). \"Social embedding of changes in progress\". Journal of English Linguistics. 26: 5–36. doi:10.1177/007542429802600102. S2CID 144942447.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1177%2F007542429802600102","url_text":"10.1177/007542429802600102"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144942447","url_text":"144942447"}]},{"reference":"Labov, William; Ash, Sharon; Boberg, Charles (2006). The Atlas of North American English. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-016746-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Labov","url_text":"Labov, William"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter","url_text":"Mouton de Gruyter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-11-016746-8","url_text":"3-11-016746-8"}]},{"reference":"Duryee, Tricia (6 November 2011). \"A Nation Divided on How to Say the Word \"Coupon\"\". All Things D. Dow Jones & Company Inc.","urls":[{"url":"http://allthingsd.com/20111106/a-nation-divided-on-how-to-say-the-word-coupon/","url_text":"\"A Nation Divided on How to Say the Word \"Coupon\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"FAQ\". The Pulitzer Prizes. Columbia University. 24. How is 'Pulitzer' pronounced? The correct pronunciation is 'PULL it sir.'","urls":[{"url":"https://www.pulitzer.org/faq#q24","url_text":"\"FAQ\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University","url_text":"Columbia University"}]},{"reference":"Laurie Bauer; Paul Warren (2008). \"New Zealand English: phonology\". In Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd (eds.). Varieties of English 3: The Pacific and Australasia. Berlin/New York: Mouton de Gruyter. p. 60. ISBN 9783110208412.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=zNNCKcMml8MC&pg=PA60","url_text":"\"New Zealand English: phonology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110208412","url_text":"9783110208412"}]},{"reference":"Bauer, L.; Warren, P. (2005). \"New Zealand English: Phonology\". In Schneider, E. W. (ed.). A Handbook of Varieties of English: Phonology. Vol. 1. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. ISBN 9783110175325.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=mtd3a-56ysUC&pg=PA596","url_text":"\"New Zealand English: Phonology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_de_Gruyter","url_text":"Mouton de Gruyter"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9783110175325","url_text":"9783110175325"}]},{"reference":"Why some say CHUBE and some say TOOB, retrieved 2023-05-04","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RRs103ETh2Q","url_text":"Why some say CHUBE and some say TOOB"}]},{"reference":"\"Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between wr- and r-\". www.lel.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-05-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/EllisAtlas/wr.html","url_text":"\"Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between wr- and r-\""}]},{"reference":"\"Wir Ain Leed - Mid Northern Scots\". Scots Online. Retrieved 21 March 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.scots-online.org/grammar/mn_scots.php","url_text":"\"Wir Ain Leed - Mid Northern Scots\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between kn- and n-\". www.lel.ed.ac.uk. Retrieved 2022-05-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lel.ed.ac.uk/EllisAtlas/kn.html","url_text":"\"Ellis Atlas survival of distinction between kn- and n-\""}]},{"reference":"Bailey, George (15 December 2020). \"Insertion and deletion in Northern English (ng): Interacting innovations in the life cycle of phonological processes\". Journal of Linguistics. Cambridge University Press.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/journal-of-linguistics/article/abs/insertion-and-deletion-in-northern-english-ng-interacting-innovations-in-the-life-cycle-of-phonological-processes/1916323B9E65DDDAE8C272BBACEC91CA","url_text":"\"Insertion and deletion in Northern English (ng): Interacting innovations in the life cycle of phonological processes\""}]},{"reference":"Liberman, Anatoly (21 October 2009). \"The Oddest and Dumbest English Spellings, Part 15, With a Note on Words and Things\". OUP. Retrieved 28 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://blog.oup.com/2009/10/dumbest_english_spellings/","url_text":"\"The Oddest and Dumbest English Spellings, Part 15, With a Note on Words and Things\""}]},{"reference":"\"Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE)\". www.rehabmed.ualberta.ca. March 17, 2001.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rehabmed.ualberta.ca/spa/phonology/features.htm","url_text":"\"Phonological Features of African American Vernacular English (AAVE)\""}]},{"reference":"Kperogi, Farooq A. (2015). Glocal English: The Changing Face and Forms of Nigerian English in a Global World. Peter Lang. p. 208. ISBN 978-1-4331-2926-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=opRVCwAAQBAJ&q=ax+ask","url_text":"Glocal English: The Changing Face and Forms of Nigerian English in a Global World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4331-2926-1","url_text":"978-1-4331-2926-1"}]},{"reference":"Green, Lisa J. (2002). African American English : a linguistic introduction (1. publ., 4. print. ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 122. ISBN 978-0521891387.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521891387","url_text":"African American English : a linguistic introduction"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521891387/page/122","url_text":"122"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521891387","url_text":"978-0521891387"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van_Gogh_Museum

Van Gogh Museum

["1 History","1.1 Unsold works","1.2 Dedicated museum","1.3 Art thefts","2 Buildings","2.1 Rietveld building","2.2 Kurokawa wing","3 Collection","3.1 Works by Vincent van Gogh","3.2 Works by contemporaries","4 Gallery","5 Visitors","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

Coordinates: 52°21′30″N 4°52′52″E / 52.35833°N 4.88111°E / 52.35833; 4.88111National art museum in Netherlands Van Gogh MuseumMuseum at the Museumplein in 2016Interactive fullscreen mapEstablished2 June 1973 (1973-06-02)LocationPaulus Potterstraat 7Amsterdam, NetherlandsCoordinates52°21′30″N 4°52′52″E / 52.35833°N 4.88111°E / 52.35833; 4.88111TypeArt museumNational museumVisitors2.1 million (2016)2.3 million (2017)Ranked 1st nationally (2018)Ranked 24th globally (2018)Public transit accessVan Baerlestraat/MuseumpleinTram line: 2, 3, 5, 12, 16, 24Websitewww.vangoghmuseum.nl The Van Gogh Museum (Dutch pronunciation: ) is a Dutch art museum dedicated to the works of Vincent van Gogh and his contemporaries in the Museum Square in Amsterdam South, close to the Stedelijk Museum, the Rijksmuseum, and the Concertgebouw. The museum opened on 2 June 1973, and its buildings were designed by Gerrit Rietveld and Kisho Kurokawa. The museum contains the largest collection of Van Gogh's paintings and drawings in the world. In 2017, the museum had 2.3 million visitors and was the most-visited museum in the Netherlands, and the 23rd-most-visited art museum in the world. In 2023 the museum welcomed 1.7 million visitors. History Johanna van Gogh-Bonger (1925) by Isaac IsraëlsVincent van Gogh, Self-portrait with pipe, 1886, Van Gogh Museum Unsold works Upon Vincent van Gogh's death in 1890, his work not sold fell into the possession of his brother Theo. Theo died six months after Vincent, leaving the work in the possession of his widow, Johanna van Gogh-Bonger. Selling many of Vincent's paintings with the ambition of spreading knowledge of his artwork, Johanna maintained a private collection of his works. The collection was inherited by her son Vincent Willem van Gogh in 1925, eventually loaned to the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, where it was displayed for many years, and was transferred to the state-initiated Vincent van Gogh Foundation in 1962. Dedicated museum Design for a Van Gogh Museum was commissioned by the Dutch government in 1963 to Dutch architect and furniture designer Gerrit Rietveld. Rietveld died a year later, and the building was not completed until 1973, when the museum opened its doors. In 1998 and 1999, the building was renovated by the Dutch architect Martien van Goor, and an exhibition wing by the Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa was added. In late 2012, the museum was closed for renovations for six months. During this period, 75 works from the collection were shown in the H'ART Museum. On 9 September 2013, the museum unveiled a long-lost Van Gogh painting that spent years in a Norwegian attic believed to be by another painter. It is the first full-size canvas by him discovered since 1928. Sunset at Montmajour depicts trees, bushes and sky, painted with Van Gogh's familiar thick brush strokes. It can be dated to the exact day it was painted because he described it in a letter to his brother, Theo, and said he painted it the previous day 4 July 1888. Art thefts In 1991, twenty paintings were stolen from the museum, among them Van Gogh's early painting The Potato Eaters. Although the thieves escaped from the building, 35 minutes later all stolen paintings were recovered from an abandoned car. Three paintings – Wheatfield with Crows, Still Life with Bible, and Still Life with Fruit – were severely torn during the theft. Four men, including two museum guards, were convicted for the theft and given six or seven-year sentences. It is considered to be the largest art theft in the Netherlands since the Second World War. In 2002, two paintings were stolen from the museum, Congregation Leaving the Reformed Church in Nuenen and View of the Sea at Scheveningen. Two Dutchmen were convicted for the theft to four-and-a-half-year sentences, but the paintings were not immediately recovered. The museum offered a reward of €100,000 for information leading to the recovery of the paintings. The FBI Art Crime Team listed the robbery on their Top Ten Art Crimes list, and estimates the combined value of the paintings at US$30 million. In September 2016, both paintings were discovered by the Guardia di Finanza in Castellammare di Stabia, Italy in a villa belonging to the Camorra drug trafficker Raffaele Imperiale. The two artworks were found in a "relatively good state", according to the Van Gogh Museum. Buildings Kurokawa WingRietveld building The museum is situated at the Museumplein in Amsterdam-Zuid, on the Paulus Potterstraat 7, between the Stedelijk Museum and the Rijksmuseum, and consists of two buildings, the Rietveld building, designed by Gerrit Rietveld, and the Kurokawa wing, designed by Kisho Kurokawa. Museum offices are housed on Gabriël Metsustraat 8 in Amsterdam. Depending on the season, sunflowers may be enjoyed outside the entrance to the museum. Rietveld building The Rietveld building is the main structure and houses the permanent collection. It has a rectangular floor plan and is four stories high. On the ground floor are a shop, a café, and an introductory exhibition. The first floor shows the works of Van Gogh grouped chronologically. The second floor gives information about the restoration of paintings and has a space for minor temporary exhibitions. The third floor shows paintings of Van Gogh's contemporaries in relationship to the work of Van Gogh himself. Kurokawa wing The Kurokawa wing is used for major temporary exhibitions. It has an oval floor plan and is three stories high. The entrance to the Kurokawa wing is via the Atrium of the museum. Collection Works by Vincent van Gogh The Potato Eaters (1885)The Yellow House (1888) Self-portrait (1888)Sunflowers (1889)Almond Blossoms (1890) The museum houses the largest Van Gogh collection in the world, with 200 paintings, 400 drawings, and 700 letters by the artist. The main exhibition chronicles the various phases of Van Gogh's artistic life. His selected works from Nuenen (1880–1885): Avenue of Poplars in Autumn (1884) The Potato Eaters (1885) His selected works from Antwerp (1886): Skull of a Skeleton with Burning Cigarette (1886) His selected works from Paris (1886–1888): Agostina Segatori Sitting in the Café du Tambourin (1887) Wheat Field with a Lark (1887) View of Paris from Vincent's Room in the Rue Lepic (1887) His selected works from Arles (1888–1889): The Zouave (1888) Bedroom in Arles (1888) The Yellow House (1888) Sunflowers (1889) His selected works from Saint-Rémy (1889–1890): Almond Blossoms (1890) The Painter of Sunflowers, a portrayal of Vincent van Gogh painting sunflowers by Paul Gauguin, 1888 And his selected works from Auvers-sur-Oise (1890): Wheatfield with Crows (1890) The permanent collection also includes nine of the artist's self-portraits and some of his earliest paintings dating back to 1882. A newly discovered work has temporarily gone on display. Van Gogh created three unknown sketches of peasants, which were then used as a single bookmark. Stylistically, they can be dated to autumn 1881. Works by contemporaries The museum also features notable artworks by Van Gogh's contemporaries in the Impressionist and post-Impressionist movements and holds extensive exhibitions on various subjects from 19th Century art history. The museum has sculptures by Auguste Rodin and Jules Dalou, and paintings by John Russell, Émile Bernard, Maurice Denis, Kees van Dongen, Paul Gauguin, Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Odilon Redon, Georges Seurat, Paul Signac, and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec. Gallery Head of a woman Bloeiende pruimenboomgaard Courtesan after Eisen Self-portrait with pipe Zeegezicht bij Les Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer De oogst Zonnebloemen Irises The sower Wheatfield with crows Visitors Year Visitors Year Visitors 2000 1,312,000 2010 1,430,000 2001 1,276,000 2011 1,601,000 2002 1,593,000 2012 1,438,000 2003 1,342,000 2013 1,449,000 2004 1,338,000 2014 1,609,000 2005 1,417,000 2015 1,900,000 2006 1,677,000 2016 2,100,000 2007 1,560,000 2017 2,255,000 2008 1,474,000 2018 2,190,000 2009 1,451,000 2019 – The Van Gogh Museum, which is a national museum (Dutch: rijksmuseum), is a foundation (Dutch: stichting). Axel Rüger, who had been the museum director since 2006, left the museum in 2019 to become secretary and chief executive of the Royal Academy of Arts in London. Since January 2020 Emilie Gordenker is the museum's general director. Since 2000, the museum had between 1.2 and 1.9 million visitors per year. From 2010 to 2012, it was the most visited museum in the Netherlands. In 2015, the museum had 1.9 million visitors, it was the 2nd most visited museum in the Netherlands, after the Rijksmuseum, and the 31st most visited art museum in the world. The Van Gogh Museum is a member of the national Museumvereniging (Museum Association). See also Kröller-Müller Museum List of single-artist museums List of works by Vincent van Gogh References ^ a b (in Dutch) Ronald de Leeuw, "Introduction: the Van Gogh Museum as a National Museum, 1973–1994", Van Gogh Museum Journal, 1995. Retrieved 9 July 2014. ^ a b Address, accessibility, directions and parking Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Van Gogh Museum. Retrieved 9 July 2014. ^ a b Jasper Piersma, "Van Gogh Museum zit Rijks op de hielen als populairste museum" (in Dutch), Het Parool, 2016. Retrieved 3 January 2017. ^ a b c d (in Dutch) "Bezoekersrecords voor Van Gogh Museum en NEMO", AT5, 2015. Retrieved 15 January 2016. ^ a b (in Dutch) Yannick Verberckmoes, "Veel meer bezoekers voor grootste Nederlandse musea", de Volkskrant, 2015. Retrieved 16 July 2016. ^ a b Top 100 Art Museum Attendance, The Art Newspaper, 2016. Retrieved 16 July 2016. ^ Museumplein, Archived 13 August 2012 at the Wayback Machine I Amsterdam. Retrieved 17 October 2012. ^ a b Van Gogh's Van Goghs: The Van Gogh Museum, National Gallery of Art, archived from the original on 29 May 2010, retrieved 23 April 2011 ^ The Van Gogh Museum In Amsterdam Hosts Our Editor ~ The World's Largest Collection of Van Gogh's Artwork, Art Knowledge News, retrieved 23 April 2011 ^ Gerrit Thomas Rietveld, SFMOMA, archived from the original on 28 July 2010, retrieved 23 April 2011 ^ The Organization Archived 20 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Van Gogh Museum. Retrieved 30 January 2012. ^ The museum's architecture in overview Archived 15 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Van Gogh Museum. Retrieved 6 February 2012. ^ New Wing of the Van Gogh Museum, Kisho Kurokawa architect & associates, 2006, archived from the original on 2 October 2011, retrieved 23 April 2011 ^ Dan Saltzstein, "Amsterdam’s Van Gogh Museum to Close for Renovations", New York Times, 2011. Retrieved 5 February 2012. ^ Siegal, Nina (9 September 2013). "New Van Gogh Painting Unveiled in Amsterdam". NY Times. Retrieved 9 September 2013. ^ Paul L. Montgomery, "Lost and Found: Huge van Gogh Theft Fails", New York Times, 1991. Retrieved 31 January 2012. ^ (in Dutch) "Rovers Van Gogh in hoger beroep forser gestraft", Trouw, 1992. Retrieved 24 February 2012. ^ (in Dutch) "Diefstal Van Goghs grootste kunstroof in Nederland" (subscribers only), NRC Handelsblad, 1991. Retrieved 24 February 2012. ^ "Two van Gogh Works Are Stolen in Amsterdam", New York Times, 2002. Retrieved 5 February 2012. ^ Lawrence Van Gelder, "Jail for Van Gogh Thieves", New York Times, 2004. Retrieved 5 February 2012. ^ (in Dutch) "Ook bij hof veroordeling van rovers", de Volkskrant, 2005. Retrieved 5 February 2012. ^ Van Gogh Museum offers reward for information about theft of paintings Archived 10 January 2014 at the Wayback Machine (press release), Van Gogh Museum, 2003. Retrieved 5 February 2012. ^ Van Gogh Museum Robbery Archived 14 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Federal Bureau of Investigation. Retrieved 23 February 2012. ^ Martin, Guy. "Two Stolen Van Goghs Worth $112 Million Found in a Police Raid on a Mafia Don's Villa in Italy". Forbes. Retrieved 25 May 2021. ^ "Van Gogh paintings stolen from Amsterdam found in Italy". BBC News. 30 September 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2016. ^ Contact Archived 20 August 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Van Gogh Museum. Retrieved 3 February 2012. ^ The museum's architecture in overview Archived 15 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Van Gogh Museum. Retrieved 5 February 2012. ^ (in Dutch) Informatie (Dutch visitor's brochure, February 2012), Van Gogh Museum. ^ Ahmed, Shamim (10 July 2015). "Amsterdam  • Venice of the North". theindependentbd.com. The Independent. Archived from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 15 June 2022. ^ History of the collection Archived 4 June 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Van Gogh Museum. Retrieved 30 January 2012. ^ "A new Van Gogh work discovered hidden in a book". The Art Newspaper. 25 June 2021. ^ Other artists in the collection, Van Gogh Museum. Retrieved 30 January 2012. ^ a b c d Van Gogh Museum closes Van Gogh's 150th anniversary year successfully with 1.3 million visitors Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine (press release), Van Gogh Museum, 2004. Retrieved 13 July 2014. ^ a b c d e f g h i j Numbers of Visitors Archived 28 September 2011 at the Wayback Machine, Van Gogh Museum, 2012. Retrieved 19 September 2013. ^ a b Van Gogh Museum Collection visited by almost 1.5 million culture lovers from around the world Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Van Gogh Museum, 2012. Retrieved 2 January 2013. ^ a b Numbers of Visitors Archived 20 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Van Gogh Museum. Retrieved 28 June 2014. ^ a b (in Dutch) Bezoekcijfers Archived 20 October 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Van Gogh Museum. Retrieved 29 October 2015. ^ (in Dutch) Max van Rooij, "Een schitterend, alles overstralend pantser", NRC Handelsblad, 1999. Retrieved 13 July 2014. ^ a b Management Archived 14 July 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Van Gogh Museum. Retrieved 13 July 2014. ^ (in Dutch) "Duitser Axel Rüger nieuwe directeur Van Gogh Museum", de Volkskrant, 2006. Retrieved 13 July 2014. ^ Jhala, Kabir (13 February 2019). "Axel Rüger, director of Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam, appointed new chief executive of Royal Academy". theartnewspaper.com. Retrieved 21 June 2019. ^ (in Dutch) Top 55 Museumbezoek 2010 Archived 29 April 2011 at the Wayback Machine. Nederlandse Museumvereniging. Retrieved 3 February 2012. ^ (in Dutch) Top 55 Museumbezoek 2011 Archived 30 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Nederlandse Museumvereniging. Retrieved 3 February 2012. ^ (in Dutch) Top 55 Museumbezoek 2012 Archived 21 September 2013 at the Wayback Machine, Nederlandse Museumvereniging. Retrieved 19 September 2013. ^ (in Dutch) Van Gogh Museum Archived 4 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine, Museumvereniging. Retrieved 13 July 2014. External links Official website Meet Vincent Van Gogh Experience website Virtual tour of the Van Gogh Museum provided by Google Arts & Culture Media related to Van Gogh Museum at Wikimedia Commons vteVincent van GoghGeneral Biography List of works List of drawings Chronology The Letters of Vincent van Gogh Health Auberge Ravoux Death Nazi looting of artworks by Vincent van Gogh Posthumous fame Cultural depictions Lost Arles sketchbook Groups ofworks Early works (1881–82) Portraits (1881–1890) Peasant Character Studies (1881–1885) Van Gogh's family in his art (1881–1888) Sien (1882–83) Cottages (1883–1885) Water Mill at Gennep (1884) Still life paintings, Netherlands (1884–85) Old Church Tower at Nuenen (1884–85) Amsterdam (1885) Wheat Fields (1885–1890) Le Moulin de la Galette (1886) Still life paintings, Paris (1886–87) Montmartre (1886–87) Self portraits (1886–1889) Outskirts of Paris (1887) Asnières (1887) Seine (1887) Japonaiserie (1887) Sunflowers (1887–1889) Trees and Undergrowth (1887–1890) Copies by Vincent van Gogh (1887–1890) Langlois Bridge at Arles (1888) Saintes-Maries (1888) Boats du Rhône (1888) Décoration for the Yellow House (1888) The Roulin Family (1888–89) Hospital in Arles (1888–89) Flowering Orchards (1888–89) Almond Blossoms (1888–1890) Paintings of Children (1888–1890) The Wheat Field (1889) Reaper (1889) Olive Trees (1889) Wheat Fields (1889) Butterflies (1889–90) Saint-Paul Asylum, Saint-Rémy (1889–90) Auvers size 30 canvases (1890) Auvers Double-squares and Squares (1890) Lost works by Vincent van Gogh Display at Les XX, 1890 Oil paintings1882 Beach at Scheveningen in Stormy Weather Girl in White in the Woods Lying Cow A Girl in the Street, Two Coaches in the Background 1883 Cows in the Meadow Farmhouses Among Trees Bulb Fields Landscape with a Church at Twilight Landscape with Dunes Footbridge across a Ditch Marshy Landscape A Wind-Beaten Tree Farm with Stacks of Peat Farmhouses in Loosduinen near The Hague at Twilight Three Figures near a Canal with Windmill 1884 Two Rats Congregation Leaving the Reformed Church in Nuenen The Parsonage Garden at Nuenen Landscape with Pollard Willows Cart with Black Ox Cart with Red and White Ox Lane in Autumn Water Mill at Opwetten Water Mill at Kollen Village at Sunset Avenue of Poplars in Autumn Avenue of Poplars at Sunset Head of an Old Farmer's Wife in a White Hat 1885 Still Life with Straw Hat The Potato Eaters Peasant Woman Digging Peasant Woman Digging Up Potatoes Skull of a Skeleton with Burning Cigarette 1886 Vase with Red Poppies Vase with White and Red Carnations The Kingfisher 1887 Poppy Flowers Wheat Field with a Lark View of Paris from Vincent's Room in the Rue Lepic Portrait of Père Tanguy A Woman Walking in a Garden Imperial Fritillaries in a Copper Vase Agostina Segatori Sitting in the Café du Tambourin Red Cabbages and Garlic 1888 Madame Roulin and Her Baby Landscape with Snow La Mousmé The Zouave Still Life: Vase with Oleanders The Night Café The Yellow House Van Gogh's Chair Café Terrace at Night Starry Night Over the Rhône Portrait of the Artist's Mother Bedroom in Arles The Painter on the Road to Tarascon Les Alyscamps A Lane in the Public Garden at Arles Falling Autumn Leaves L'Arlésienne The Red Vineyard Memory of the Garden at Etten (Ladies of Arles) Les Arènes Interior of a Restaurant in Arles A Lane near Arles Arles: View from the Wheat Fields Sunset at Montmajour Farmhouse in Provence Orchard with Cypresses 1889 Valley with Ploughman Seen from Above View of Arles, Flowering Orchards Portrait of Doctor Rey Crab on its Back Two Crabs Irises Lilac Bush The Starry Night The Gardener Self-portrait (1889) Self-portrait without beard Self-Portrait with Bandaged Ear A Meadow in the Mountains: Le Mas de Saint-Paul A Road at Saint-Remy with Female Figure Enclosed Field with Peasant Rain Cypresses Wheat Field with Cypresses Green Wheat Field with Cypress The Diggers The Ravine of the Peyroulets Ivy View of the Asylum and Chapel of Saint-Rémy The Large Plane Trees 1890 The Siesta Road with Cypress and Star At Eternity's Gate Thatched Cottages and Houses Portrait of Dr. Gachet Doctor Gachet's Garden in Auvers Houses at Auvers White House at Night Landscape with a Carriage and a Train Girl in White The Church at Auvers Daubigny's Garden Farms near Auvers The Cows The Town Hall at Auvers Blossoming Chestnut Branches Peasant Woman Against a Background of Wheat Still Life: Vase with Pink Roses Portrait of Adeline Ravoux Plain near Auvers Wheatfield Under Thunderclouds Wheatfield with Crows Prisoners' Round (after Gustave Doré) Tree Roots Landscape at Auvers in the Rain Poppy Field Watercolours Boy Cutting Grass with a Sickle (1881) Meadows near Rijswijk and the Schenkweg (1882) The 'Laakmolen' near The Hague (1882) Church Pew with Worshippers (1882) Woman on Her Deathbed (1883) Landscape with Trees (1883) Peatery in Drenthe (1883) Landscape with Wheelbarrow (1883) Drawbridge in Nieuw-Amsterdam (1883) Breton Women (1888) Old Vineyard with Peasant Woman (1890) Drawings 87 Hackford Road (1873 or 1874) Marsh with Water Lilies (1881) Sorrow (1882) Portrait of a Man in a Top Hat (1882) Torso of Venus and a Landscape (1887) Head of a Girl (1888) Museums Van Gogh Museum Van Gogh House (Drenthe) Maison Van Gogh Kröller-Müller Museum Monastery of Saint-Paul de Mausole Portrayals Vincent van Gogh (1886 painting) Portrait of Vincent van Gogh (1887) The Painter of Sunflowers (1888 painting) Lust for Life (1934 novel) Van Gogh (1948 film) Lust for Life (1956 film) Van Gogh (1956 opera) Vincent and Theo van Gogh (1963 statue) "Vincent" (1971 song) Vincent (1987 film) Vincent & Theo (1990 film) Vincent and Me (1990 film) Dreams (1990 film) Vincent (1990 opera) Van Gogh (1991 film) Vincent in Brixton (2003 play) The Yellow House (2007 film) "Vincent and the Doctor" (2010 TV episode) Loving Vincent (2017 film) At Eternity's Gate (2018 film) Family Theo van Gogh Wil van Gogh Johanna van Gogh-Bonger Andries Bonger Theo van Gogh (film director) Anton Mauve Johannes Stricker Cataloguers Jacob Baart de la Faille (1928 and 1970; "F") Jan Hulsker (1978, revised 1989; "JH") Related The Vincent Award Van Gogh immersive experiences Authority control databases International VIAF National France BnF data Germany United States Australia Artists RKD Artists ULAN People Trove

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[vɑŋˈɣɔx mʏˌzeːjʏm]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Dutch"},{"link_name":"art museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_museum"},{"link_name":"Vincent van Gogh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh"},{"link_name":"Museum Square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museumplein"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam South","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam-Zuid"},{"link_name":"Stedelijk Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stedelijk_Museum_Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"Rijksmuseum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rijksmuseum"},{"link_name":"Concertgebouw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concertgebouw,_Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dbnl.org-1"},{"link_name":"Gerrit Rietveld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrit_Rietveld"},{"link_name":"Kisho Kurokawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kisho_Kurokawa"},{"link_name":"most-visited museum in the Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_visited_museums_in_the_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"23rd-most-visited art museum in the world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_visited_art_museums"}],"text":"National art museum in NetherlandsThe Van Gogh Museum (Dutch pronunciation: [vɑŋˈɣɔx mʏˌzeːjʏm]) is a Dutch art museum dedicated to the works of Vincent van Gogh and his contemporaries in the Museum Square in Amsterdam South, close to the Stedelijk Museum, the Rijksmuseum, and the Concertgebouw.[7] The museum opened on 2 June 1973,[1] and its buildings were designed by Gerrit Rietveld and Kisho Kurokawa.The museum contains the largest collection of Van Gogh's paintings and drawings in the world. In 2017, the museum had 2.3 million visitors and was the most-visited museum in the Netherlands, and the 23rd-most-visited art museum in the world. In 2023 the museum welcomed 1.7 million visitors.","title":"Van Gogh Museum"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WLANL_-_artanonymous_-_Portret_van_Johanna_van_Gogh-Bonger.jpg"},{"link_name":"Johanna van Gogh-Bonger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johanna_van_Gogh-Bonger"},{"link_name":"Isaac Israëls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Isra%C3%ABls"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Self-portrait_with_pipe_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"}],"text":"Johanna van Gogh-Bonger (1925) by Isaac IsraëlsVincent van Gogh, Self-portrait with pipe, 1886, Van Gogh Museum","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Vincent van Gogh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vincent_van_Gogh"},{"link_name":"Theo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theo_van_Gogh_(art_dealer)"},{"link_name":"Johanna van Gogh-Bonger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johanna_van_Gogh-Bonger"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nga-8"},{"link_name":"private collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_collection"},{"link_name":"Stedelijk Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stedelijk_Museum"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nga-8"}],"sub_title":"Unsold works","text":"Upon Vincent van Gogh's death in 1890, his work not sold fell into the possession of his brother Theo. Theo died six months after Vincent, leaving the work in the possession of his widow, Johanna van Gogh-Bonger.[8] Selling many of Vincent's paintings with the ambition of spreading knowledge of his artwork, Johanna maintained a private collection of his works. The collection was inherited by her son Vincent Willem van Gogh in 1925, eventually loaned to the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, where it was displayed for many years, and was transferred to the state-initiated Vincent van Gogh Foundation in 1962.[8]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gerrit Rietveld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrit_Rietveld"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-artnews-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Kisho Kurokawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kisho_Kurokawa"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"H'ART Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%27ART_Museum"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Sunset at Montmajour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunset_at_Montmajour"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Dedicated museum","text":"Design for a Van Gogh Museum was commissioned by the Dutch government in 1963 to Dutch architect and furniture designer Gerrit Rietveld.[9] Rietveld died a year later, and the building was not completed until 1973,[10] when the museum opened its doors.[11] In 1998 and 1999, the building was renovated by the Dutch architect Martien van Goor,[12] and an exhibition wing by the Japanese architect Kisho Kurokawa was added.[13] In late 2012, the museum was closed for renovations for six months. During this period, 75 works from the collection were shown in the H'ART Museum.[14]On 9 September 2013, the museum unveiled a long-lost Van Gogh painting that spent years in a Norwegian attic believed to be by another painter. It is the first full-size canvas by him discovered since 1928. Sunset at Montmajour depicts trees, bushes and sky, painted with Van Gogh's familiar thick brush strokes. It can be dated to the exact day it was painted because he described it in a letter to his brother, Theo, and said he painted it the previous day 4 July 1888.[15]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Potato Eaters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Potato_Eaters"},{"link_name":"Wheatfield with Crows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheatfield_with_Crows"},{"link_name":"Still Life with Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Still_life_paintings_by_Vincent_van_Gogh_(Netherlands)#Personal_items"},{"link_name":"Still Life with Fruit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Still_life_paintings_by_Vincent_van_Gogh_(Paris)#Assorted_fruit"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"art theft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_theft"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Congregation Leaving the Reformed Church in Nuenen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congregation_Leaving_the_Reformed_Church_in_Nuenen"},{"link_name":"View of the Sea at Scheveningen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View_of_the_Sea_at_Scheveningen"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"FBI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Guardia di Finanza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardia_di_Finanza"},{"link_name":"Castellammare di Stabia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castellammare_di_Stabia"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"Camorra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camorra"},{"link_name":"Raffaele Imperiale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raffaele_Imperiale"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Art thefts","text":"In 1991, twenty paintings were stolen from the museum, among them Van Gogh's early painting The Potato Eaters. Although the thieves escaped from the building, 35 minutes later all stolen paintings were recovered from an abandoned car. Three paintings – Wheatfield with Crows, Still Life with Bible, and Still Life with Fruit – were severely torn during the theft.[16] Four men, including two museum guards, were convicted for the theft and given six or seven-year sentences.[17] It is considered to be the largest art theft in the Netherlands since the Second World War.[18]In 2002, two paintings were stolen from the museum, Congregation Leaving the Reformed Church in Nuenen and View of the Sea at Scheveningen.[19] Two Dutchmen were convicted for the theft to four-and-a-half-year sentences, but the paintings were not immediately recovered.[20][21] The museum offered a reward of €100,000 for information leading to the recovery of the paintings.[22] The FBI Art Crime Team listed the robbery on their Top Ten Art Crimes list, and estimates the combined value of the paintings at US$30 million.[23] In September 2016, both paintings were discovered by the Guardia di Finanza in Castellammare di Stabia, Italy in a villa belonging to the Camorra drug trafficker Raffaele Imperiale.[24] The two artworks were found in a \"relatively good state\", according to the Van Gogh Museum.[25]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Van_Gogh_Museum_in_Amsterdam_am_Abend.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:WLANL_-_jankie_-_Trappenhuis_Van_Gogh_Museum_vanaf_de_1e_verdieping.jpg"},{"link_name":"Rietveld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrit_Rietveld"},{"link_name":"Museumplein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museumplein"},{"link_name":"Amsterdam-Zuid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amsterdam-Zuid"},{"link_name":"Stedelijk Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stedelijk_Museum"},{"link_name":"Rijksmuseum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rijksmuseum"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-location-26"},{"link_name":"Gerrit Rietveld","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerrit_Rietveld"},{"link_name":"Kisho Kurokawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kisho_Kurokawa"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"Kurokawa WingRietveld buildingThe museum is situated at the Museumplein in Amsterdam-Zuid, on the Paulus Potterstraat 7, between the Stedelijk Museum and the Rijksmuseum,[26] and consists of two buildings, the Rietveld building, designed by Gerrit Rietveld, and the Kurokawa wing, designed by Kisho Kurokawa.[27] Museum offices are housed on Gabriël Metsustraat 8 in Amsterdam. Depending on the season, sunflowers may be enjoyed outside the entrance to the museum.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"floor plan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_plan"},{"link_name":"stories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storey"},{"link_name":"café","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caf%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"restoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation-restoration"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brochure-28"}],"sub_title":"Rietveld building","text":"The Rietveld building is the main structure and houses the permanent collection. It has a rectangular floor plan and is four stories high. On the ground floor are a shop, a café, and an introductory exhibition. The first floor shows the works of Van Gogh grouped chronologically. The second floor gives information about the restoration of paintings and has a space for minor temporary exhibitions. The third floor shows paintings of Van Gogh's contemporaries in relationship to the work of Van Gogh himself.[28]","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Kurokawa wing","text":"The Kurokawa wing is used for major temporary exhibitions. It has an oval floor plan and is three stories high. The entrance to the Kurokawa wing is via the Atrium of the museum.","title":"Buildings"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Collection"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_The_potato_eaters_-_Google_Art_Project_(5776925).jpg"},{"link_name":"The Potato Eaters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Potato_Eaters"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_The_yellow_house_(%27The_street%27).jpg"},{"link_name":"The Yellow House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yellow_House"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Zelfportret_als_schilder_(1888).jpg"},{"link_name":"Self-portrait","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-portraits_by_Vincent_van_Gogh"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Sunflowers_-_VGM_F458.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sunflowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflowers_(series_of_paintings)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Almond_blossom_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"link_name":"Almond Blossoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almond_Blossoms_(Van_Gogh_series)"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Nuenen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuenen"},{"link_name":"Avenue of Poplars in Autumn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avenue_of_Poplars_in_Autumn"},{"link_name":"The Potato Eaters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Potato_Eaters"},{"link_name":"Antwerp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antwerp"},{"link_name":"Skull of a Skeleton with Burning Cigarette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skull_of_a_Skeleton_with_Burning_Cigarette"},{"link_name":"Paris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paris"},{"link_name":"Agostina Segatori Sitting in the Café du Tambourin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agostina_Segatori_Sitting_in_the_Caf%C3%A9_du_Tambourin"},{"link_name":"Wheat Field with a Lark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheat_Field_with_a_Lark"},{"link_name":"View of Paris from Vincent's Room in the Rue Lepic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/View_of_Paris_from_Vincent%27s_Room_in_the_Rue_Lepic"},{"link_name":"Arles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arles"},{"link_name":"The Zouave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Zouave"},{"link_name":"Bedroom in Arles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedroom_in_Arles"},{"link_name":"The Yellow House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Yellow_House_(painting)"},{"link_name":"Sunflowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunflowers_(series_of_paintings)"},{"link_name":"Saint-Rémy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint-R%C3%A9my-de-Provence"},{"link_name":"Almond Blossoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almond_Blossoms_(Van_Gogh_series)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paul_Gauguin_-_Vincent_van_Gogh_painting_sunflowers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Painter of Sunflowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Painter_of_Sunflowers"},{"link_name":"Paul Gauguin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Gauguin"},{"link_name":"Auvers-sur-Oise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auvers-sur-Oise"},{"link_name":"Wheatfield with Crows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheatfield_with_Crows"},{"link_name":"self-portraits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-portraits_by_Vincent_van_Gogh"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Works by Vincent van Gogh","text":"The Potato Eaters (1885)The Yellow House (1888)Self-portrait (1888)Sunflowers (1889)Almond Blossoms (1890)The museum houses the largest Van Gogh collection in the world,[29] with 200 paintings, 400 drawings, and 700 letters by the artist.[30]The main exhibition chronicles the various phases of Van Gogh's artistic life.His selected works from Nuenen (1880–1885):Avenue of Poplars in Autumn (1884)\nThe Potato Eaters (1885)His selected works from Antwerp (1886):Skull of a Skeleton with Burning Cigarette (1886)His selected works from Paris (1886–1888):Agostina Segatori Sitting in the Café du Tambourin (1887)\nWheat Field with a Lark (1887)\nView of Paris from Vincent's Room in the Rue Lepic (1887)His selected works from Arles (1888–1889):The Zouave (1888)\nBedroom in Arles (1888)\nThe Yellow House (1888)\nSunflowers (1889)His selected works from Saint-Rémy (1889–1890):Almond Blossoms (1890)The Painter of Sunflowers, a portrayal of Vincent van Gogh painting sunflowers by Paul Gauguin, 1888And his selected works from Auvers-sur-Oise (1890):Wheatfield with Crows (1890)The permanent collection also includes nine of the artist's self-portraits and some of his earliest paintings dating back to 1882.A newly discovered work has temporarily gone on display. Van Gogh created three unknown sketches of peasants, which were then used as a single bookmark. Stylistically, they can be dated to autumn 1881.[31]","title":"Collection"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Impressionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impressionism"},{"link_name":"post-Impressionist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-Impressionism"},{"link_name":"Auguste Rodin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auguste_Rodin"},{"link_name":"Jules Dalou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Dalou"},{"link_name":"John Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Russell_(Australian_artist)"},{"link_name":"Émile Bernard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89mile_Bernard_(painter)"},{"link_name":"Maurice Denis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maurice_Denis"},{"link_name":"Kees van Dongen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kees_van_Dongen"},{"link_name":"Paul Gauguin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Gauguin"},{"link_name":"Édouard Manet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89douard_Manet"},{"link_name":"Claude Monet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_Monet"},{"link_name":"Odilon Redon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odilon_Redon"},{"link_name":"Georges Seurat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georges_Seurat"},{"link_name":"Paul Signac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Signac"},{"link_name":"Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_de_Toulouse-Lautrec"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"}],"sub_title":"Works by contemporaries","text":"The museum also features notable artworks by Van Gogh's contemporaries in the Impressionist and post-Impressionist movements and holds extensive exhibitions on various subjects from 19th Century art history.The museum has sculptures by Auguste Rodin and Jules Dalou, and paintings by John Russell, Émile Bernard, Maurice Denis, Kees van Dongen, Paul Gauguin, Édouard Manet, Claude Monet, Odilon Redon, Georges Seurat, Paul Signac, and Henri de Toulouse-Lautrec.[32]","title":"Collection"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Head_of_a_woman_-_Google_Art_Project_(5753528)FXD.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Bloeiende_pruimenboomgaard-_naar_Hiroshige_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Courtesan-_after_Eisen_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Self-portrait_with_pipe_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Zeegezicht_bij_Les_Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_De_oogst_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Zonnebloemen_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Irises_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_The_sower_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vincent_van_Gogh_-_Wheatfield_with_crows_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"}],"text":"Head of a woman\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tBloeiende pruimenboomgaard\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tCourtesan after Eisen\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tSelf-portrait with pipe\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tZeegezicht bij Les Saintes-Maries-de-la-Mer\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tDe oogst\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tZonnebloemen\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tIrises\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThe sower\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tWheatfield with crows","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"national museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_museum"},{"link_name":"Dutch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_language"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_foundation#Netherlands"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-management-39"},{"link_name":"museum director","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_director"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-management-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Royal Academy of Arts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Academy_of_Arts"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Emilie Gordenker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emilie_Gordenker"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-visitors2017-4"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-visitors2003-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-visitors-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-visitors2012-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-visitors2013-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-visitors2014-37"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-visitors2017-4"},{"link_name":"2nd most visited museum in the Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_visited_museums_in_the_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"Rijksmuseum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rijksmuseum"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rankingnl-5"},{"link_name":"31st most visited art museum in the world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_most_visited_art_museums_in_the_world"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rankingworld-6"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"text":"The Van Gogh Museum, which is a national museum (Dutch: rijksmuseum),[38] is a foundation (Dutch: stichting).[39]Axel Rüger, who had been the museum director since 2006,[39][40] left the museum in 2019 to become secretary and chief executive of the Royal Academy of Arts in London.[41] Since January 2020 Emilie Gordenker is the museum's general director.Since 2000, the museum had between 1.2 and 1.9 million visitors per year.[4][33][34][35][36][37] From 2010 to 2012, it was the most visited museum in the Netherlands.[42][43][44] In 2015, the museum had 1.9 million visitors,[4] it was the 2nd most visited museum in the Netherlands, after the Rijksmuseum,[5] and the 31st most visited art museum in the world.[6]The Van Gogh Museum is a member of the national Museumvereniging (Museum Association).[45]","title":"Visitors"}]

[{"image_text":"The Painter of Sunflowers, a portrayal of Vincent van Gogh painting sunflowers by Paul Gauguin, 1888","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f6/Paul_Gauguin_-_Vincent_van_Gogh_painting_sunflowers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg/220px-Paul_Gauguin_-_Vincent_van_Gogh_painting_sunflowers_-_Google_Art_Project.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Kröller-Müller Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kr%C3%B6ller-M%C3%BCller_Museum"},{"title":"List of single-artist museums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_single-artist_museums"},{"title":"List of works by Vincent van Gogh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_works_by_Vincent_van_Gogh"}]

[{"reference":"Van Gogh's Van Goghs: The Van Gogh Museum, National Gallery of Art, archived from the original on 29 May 2010, retrieved 23 April 2011","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100529195527/http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/vgmsm.shtm","url_text":"Van Gogh's Van Goghs: The Van Gogh Museum"},{"url":"http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/vgmsm.shtm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"The Van Gogh Museum In Amsterdam Hosts Our Editor ~ The World's Largest Collection of Van Gogh's Artwork, Art Knowledge News, retrieved 23 April 2011","urls":[{"url":"http://www.artknowledgenews.com/2011_02_13_23_02_13_the_van_gogh_museum_in_amsterdam_hosts_our_editor_the_worlds_largest_collection_of_van_goghs_artwork.html","url_text":"The Van Gogh Museum In Amsterdam Hosts Our Editor ~ The World's Largest Collection of Van Gogh's Artwork"}]},{"reference":"Gerrit Thomas Rietveld, SFMOMA, archived from the original on 28 July 2010, retrieved 23 April 2011","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100728024532/http://www.sfmoma.org/artists/4283","url_text":"Gerrit Thomas Rietveld"},{"url":"http://www.sfmoma.org/artists/4283","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"New Wing of the Van Gogh Museum, Kisho Kurokawa architect & associates, 2006, archived from the original on 2 October 2011, retrieved 23 April 2011","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20111002054450/http://www.kisho.co.jp/page.php/220","url_text":"New Wing of the Van Gogh Museum"},{"url":"http://www.kisho.co.jp/page.php/220","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Siegal, Nina (9 September 2013). \"New Van Gogh Painting Unveiled in Amsterdam\". NY Times. Retrieved 9 September 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/10/arts/design/new-van-gogh-painting-discovered-in-amsterdam.html?_r=0","url_text":"\"New Van Gogh Painting Unveiled in Amsterdam\""}]},{"reference":"Martin, Guy. \"Two Stolen Van Goghs Worth $112 Million Found in a Police Raid on a Mafia Don's Villa in Italy\". Forbes. Retrieved 25 May 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.forbes.com/sites/guymartin/2016/10/01/two-stolen-van-goghs-worth-112-million-found-in-a-police-raid-on-a-mafia-dons-villa-in-italy/","url_text":"\"Two Stolen Van Goghs Worth $112 Million Found in a Police Raid on a Mafia Don's Villa in Italy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Van Gogh paintings stolen from Amsterdam found in Italy\". BBC News. 30 September 2016. Retrieved 30 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-37516164","url_text":"\"Van Gogh paintings stolen from Amsterdam found in Italy\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News","url_text":"BBC News"}]},{"reference":"Ahmed, Shamim (10 July 2015). \"Amsterdam  • Venice of the North\". theindependentbd.com. The Independent. Archived from the original on 15 June 2022. Retrieved 15 June 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220615062341/https://m.theindependentbd.com//magazine/details/7145/Amsterdam-%E2%80%93-Venice-of-the-North","url_text":"\"Amsterdam  • Venice of the North\""},{"url":"https://m.theindependentbd.com//magazine/details/7145/Amsterdam-%E2%80%93-Venice-of-the-North","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"A new Van Gogh work discovered hidden in a book\". The Art Newspaper. 25 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theartnewspaper.com/blog/van-gogh-found-tucked-into-a-novel","url_text":"\"A new Van Gogh work discovered hidden in a book\""}]},{"reference":"Jhala, Kabir (13 February 2019). \"Axel Rüger, director of Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam, appointed new chief executive of Royal Academy\". theartnewspaper.com. Retrieved 21 June 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theartnewspaper.com/news/axel-rueger-appointed-new-chief-executive-of-royal-academy","url_text":"\"Axel Rüger, director of Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam, appointed new chief executive of Royal Academy\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrobotic

Astrobotic Technology

["1 History","2 Missions","2.1 Canceled missions","2.2 Peregrine Mission One","2.3 Griffin Mission One","2.4 Griffin Mission Two","3 CubeRover","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

American space robotics company Astrobotic Technology, Inc.Company typePrivate companyIndustryAerospaceRoboticsFounded2007; 17 years ago (2007)FounderJohn P. ThorntonRed Whittaker HeadquartersPittsburgh, Pennsylvania, U.S.Key peopleJohn Thornton (CEO)Red Whittaker (Chairman)Paul C. O'Brien (Board of Directors)William Readdy (Board of Directors)Products Autonomous robots space systems space payloads robotic spacecraft telerobotics Number of employees130 (As of 2023)Websitewww.astrobotic.com Astrobotic Technology inc., commonly referred to as Astrobotic is an American private company that is developing space robotics technology for lunar and planetary missions. It was founded in 2007 by Carnegie Mellon professor Red Whittaker and his associates with the goal of winning the Google Lunar X Prize. The company is based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Their first launch occurred on January 8, 2024, as part of NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program. The launch carried the company's Peregrine lunar lander on board the first flight of the Vulcan Centaur rocket from Florida's Space Force Station LC-41. The mission was unable to reach the Moon for a soft or hard landing. On June 11, 2020, Astrobotic received a second contract for the CLPS program. NASA will pay Astrobotic US$199.5 million to take the VIPER rover to the Moon, targeting a landing in November 2024. History In 2007, the team declared its goal to be the first commercial operation to land on the Moon. That year, the company completed a running prototype of a spacecraft called Red Rover; they also renamed their concept lander from Artemis Lander to Griffin. On July 28, 2008, NASA gave money to Astrobotic for a concept study on "regolith moving methods". The next year, Astrobotic began to receive Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) funding from NASA totaling over US$795,000 to investigate prospecting for lunar resources, which eventually led to a concept called Polar Excavator. On October 15, 2010, NASA awarded a contract to Astrobotic for Innovative Lunar Demonstrations Data (ILDD) firm-fixed-price indefinite-delivery/indefinite-quantity contracts with a total value up to US$30.1 million over up to five years, and in December 2010, NASA's US$500,000 ILDD project for further Lunar Demonstrations Data was awarded to Astrobotic. Astrobotic's proposal "Technologies Enabling Exploration of Skylights, Lava Tubes, and Caves" was a Phase I selection for NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC). In April 2011, Astrobotic received a US$599,000 two-year contract to develop a scalable gravity offload device for testing rover mobility in simulated lunar gravity under NASA's Small Business Technology Transfer Program (STTR). In May 2012, David Gump left the position of President of Astrobotic and John Thornton took his place. On April 30, 2014, NASA announced that Astrobotic Technology was one of the three companies selected for the Lunar CATALYST initiative. NASA was negotiating a 3-year no-funds-exchanged Space Act Agreement (SAA) where the Griffin lander may be involved. The CATALYST agreement was extended in October 2017 for 2 years. On June 2, 2016, Astrobotic Technology announced a new design of its Griffin concept lander and named it Peregrine. Airbus Defence and Space signed a memorandum of understanding to provide engineering support for Astrobotic as it refines the lander's design. In December 2016, Astrobotic slipped their estimated launch date to 2019 and separated from the Google Lunar X Prize. On November 29, 2018, Astrobotic was declared eligible to bid on NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services to deliver science and technology payloads to the Moon. Astrobotic's successful bid drew a US$79.5 million contract to deliver payloads to Lacus Mortis. Astrobotic set an initial target of 14 payloads to launch starting in July 2021. In September 2019, Spacebit signed an agreement to deliver the first UK lunar rover Asagumo on Astrobotic's upcoming mission in 2021 and named this "Spacebit mission one". On September 25, 2019, John Thornton of Astrobotic was named CEO of the Year by the Pittsburgh Technology Council at the 23rd annual Tech50 awards ceremony. On January 24, 2021, MrBeast, a YouTuber, said that he would place a payload on the Peregrine lander: a hard drive containing large numbers of digital image files submitted by anyone who contributed US$10 via his online store. In June 2021, the maiden flight of Vulcan Centaur, carrying the first Peregrine lander as its payload, was delayed to 2022 due to payload and engine testing delays. In November 2021, Astrobotic Technology was named one of the "World's Best Employers in the Space Industry" by Everything Space, a recruitment platform specializing in the space industry. Problems with ground systems during the wet dress rehearsal on December 8, 2023, delayed the maiden flight of the Vulcan Centaur until 2024. The Peregrine lander was launched on January 8, 2024, from Florida's Space Force Station LC-41, aboard the maiden flight of Vulcan Centaur. A propellant leak prevented it from reaching the Moon for a soft or hard landing. The mission was never able to leave its original (highly elliptical) Earth orbit and it ended with a controlled reentry into the Earth's atmosphere above the Pacific Ocean on January 18, 2024. Missions Canceled missions In April 2011, Astrobotic contracted with SpaceX for a Falcon 9 launch of a lunar north pole mission for as early as December 2013. The mission was intended to launch the Griffin lander and deliver "a small rover and up to about 110 kg (240 lb) of payload to the surface of the Moon". The launch date slipped to 2015, and it was first named Polar Excavator, and then Icebreaker, that would target the lunar north pole. This expedition's rover was to be Polaris. A model of the Polaris rover was unveiled in October 2012, and the company indicated that they were still under contract to SpaceX for a Falcon 9 mission. The launch date further slipped to 2016, and Astrobotic contracted with two other GLXP teams including Team Hakuto and Team AngelicvM to share the launch expenses. The agreement was to launch the rovers of all teams on a single SpaceX Falcon 9 v1.1 which would then use the Astrobotic Griffin lander. After landing on the lunar surface, all teams would have competed against each other to achieve the specific GLXP objectives and earn the various prizes. The Griffin lander was never built, and Icebreaker mission was not launched. MoonRanger is a 13 kg (29 lb) rover being developed to carry payloads on the Moon for NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS). The US$5.6 million contract was awarded to Astrobotic and its partner Carnegie Mellon University on July 1, 2019. MoonRanger was to be launched aboard Masten Mission One, the first XL-1 lunar lander. The rover was to carry science payloads yet to be determined and developed by other providers, that will focus on scouting and creating 3D maps of a polar region for signs of water ice or lunar pits for entrances to Moon caves. The rover would operate mostly autonomously for up to one week. Masten Mission One was cancelled after Masten Space Systems went bankrupt in 2022. Thus MoonRanger lost its flight to the Moon. Peregrine Mission One Main article: Peregrine Mission One Peregrine lander model Peregrine Mission One, or the Peregrine Lunar Lander, was a lunar lander built by Astrobotic Technology, that was selected through NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS). It was launched on January 8, 2024 by United Launch Alliance (ULA) aboard a Vulcan Centaur launch vehicle. The lander carried multiple payloads, with total payload mass capacity of 90 kg. Peregrine carried a maximum payload mass of 90 kg (200 lb) during Mission One, and it was planned to land on Gruithuisen Gamma. The payload mass for the planned second mission (Mission Two) is capped at 175 kg (386 lb), and the Mission Three and later missions would carry the full payload capacity of 265 kg (584 lb). The Peregrine mission was unable to reach the Moon for a soft or hard landing. The mission was never able to leave its original (highly elliptical) Earth orbit and it ended with a controlled reentry into the Earth's atmosphere on January 18, 2024. Griffin Mission One The Griffin lander is targeted to land in a region of interest in the Moon's south polar region in November 2024. The spacecraft is expected to operate for 100 days after its landing. NASA's VIPER rover will be the main payload on the larger Griffin lander (450 kg). VIPER will investigate permanently shadowed regions of craters located in the Moon's south pole, specifically for potential deposits of water ice that could be used as resources for future crewed missions. Other commercial payloads are on board the Griffin lander, including the Lunar Codex's Polaris archive of contemporary culture as one of the commercial sub-payloads of Astrobotics' MoonBox initiative. In March 2024, Astrobotic hired several industry leaders to assist with the Griffin lander after the failure of the Peregrine lander. Griffin Mission Two it is planned to be launched in 2026. CubeRover CubeRover CubeRover is a class of planetary rovers with a standardized format meant to accelerate the pace of space exploration. The idea is equivalent to that of the successful CubeSat format, with a standardized architecture to assemble new units that will be all compatible, modular, and inexpensive. The rover class concept is being developed by Astrobotic Technology in partnership with Carnegie Mellon University, and it is partly funded by NASA awards. The principal investigator of the program is Andrew Horchler. The first derivative of a CubeRover, a spinoff rover called Iris, developed by CMU students, was planned to be deployed on the Moon on board Astrobotic's Peregrine lander, but was lost with Peregrine's reentry and never deployed. See also Spaceflight portal Exploration of Mars Exploration of the Moon Lunar rover Mars rover References ^ Foust, Jeff (January 18, 2024). 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External links Official website vteArtemis program List of missions astronauts Commercial Lunar Payload Services Exploration Ground Systems Gateway Logistics Services MissionsUncrewed Artemis 1 (2022) Peregrine Mission One (2024) IM-1 (2024) Blue Ghost M1 (2024) * IM-2 (2024) Crewed Artemis 2 (2025) Artemis 3 (2026) Artemis 4 (2028) Artemis 5 (2030) Agencies NASA Australian Space Agency Canadian Space Agency European Space Agency Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency State Space Agency of Ukraine Korea Aerospace Research Institute New Zealand Space Agency Brazilian Space Agency Saudi Space Commission Facilities Cape Canaveral Space Force Station SLC-37B SLC-40 SLC-41 SLC-46 Kennedy Space Center LC-39A LC-39B Mission Control Center SpaceX Starbase Vandenberg Space Force Base SLC-3E SLC-4E White Sands Missile Range Rockets Electron Falcon 9 Falcon Heavy Space Launch System Starship Vulcan Centaur Ariane 6 New Glenn Crewed spacecraft Human Landing System Starship Blue Moon Lunar Gateway 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Indian Chandrayaan Japanese Japanese Lunar Exploration Program South Korean Danuri Russian Luna-Glob Soviet Crewed Luna Lunokhod Zond ActivemissionsOrbiters ARTEMIS CAPSTONE Chandrayaan-2 Orbiter Chang'e 5-T1 (service module) Danuri Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter Queqiao 1 (relay satellite at L2) 2 Tiandu-1 2 ICUBE-Q Landers Chang'e 3 4 6 SLIM Rovers Yutu-2 Flybys ArgoMoon PastmissionsCrewed landings Apollo 11 12 14 15 16 17 (List of Apollo astronauts) Orbiters Apollo 8 10 Apollo Lunar Module Artemis 1 Chang'e 1 2 5 Chandrayaan-1 Chandrayaan-3 (propulsion module) Clementine Explorer 35 49 GRAIL Hiten LADEE Longjiang-2 Luna 10 11 12 14 19 22 Lunar Orbiter 1 2 3 4 5 Lunar Prospector PFS-1 PFS-2 SMART-1 SELENE (Kaguya, Okina, Ouna) Impactors LCROSS Luna 2 Moon Impact Probe Ranger 4 6 7 8 9 Landers Apollo Lunar Module ×6 Chang'e 5 Luna 9 13 16 17 20 21 23 24 Surveyor 1 3 5 6 7 Vikram (Chandrayaan-3) EagleCam IM-1 Rovers Lunar Roving Vehicle Apollo 15 16 17 Lunokhod 1 2 Yutu Pragyan (Chandrayaan-2) (Chandrayaan-3) LEV-1 LEV-2 (Sora-Q) Yidong Xiangji Sample return Apollo 11 12 14 15 16 17 Luna 16 20 24 Chang'e 5 Failed landings Beresheet Emirates Lunar Mission Hakuto-R M1 Luna 5 7 8 15 18 25 OMOTENASHI Surveyor 2 4 Vikram (Chandrayaan-2) Peregrine Mission One Flybys 4M Apollo 13 Chang'e 5-T1 Geotail Galileo ICE Longjiang-1 Luna 1 3 4 6 LunaH-Map Lunar Flashlight Lunar IceCube LunIR Mariner 10 NEA Scout Nozomi Pioneer 4 Ranger 5 STEREO TESS WMAP Wind Zond 3 5 6 7 8 PAS-22 PlannedmissionsArtemis Artemis 2 (2025) Lunar Gateway Artemis 3 (2026) Artemis 4 (2028) Artemis 5 (2029) Artemis 6 (2030) Artemis 7 (2031) Artemis 8 (2032) CLPS VIPER (Nov 2024) IM-2 (2024) Lunar Trailblazer Firefly Aerospace Blue Ghost (2024) Luna-Glob Luna 26 (2027) Luna 27 (2028) Luna 28 (2030) Luna 29 (2030s) Luna 30 (2030s) Luna 31 (2030s) CLEP Chang'e 7 (2026) Chang'e 8 (2028) Others Hakuto-R M2 (2024) DESTINY+ (2025) Beresheet 2 (2025) ispace M3 (2026) Lunar Pathfinder (2026) Cislunar Explorers (2020s) CU-E3 (2020s) MoonRanger (2020s) International Lunar Research Station (late 2020s) ProposedmissionsRobotic Lunar Polar Exploration Mission ALINA Artemis-7 Blue Moon BOLAS Garatéa-L ISOCHRON LunaNet Lunar Crater Radio Telescope McCandless Moon Diver Crewed DSE-Alpha Boeing Lunar Lander Lockheed Martin Lunar Lander Lunar Orbital Station Cancelled /concepts Altair Baden-Württemberg 1 #dearMoon project European Lunar Explorer First Lunar Outpost International Lunar Network LEO LK Lunar-A Lunar Lander Lunar Mission One Lunar Observer Lunokhod 3 MoonLITE MoonRise OrbitBeyond Project Harvest Moon Prospector Resource Prospector SELENE-2 Ukrselena XL-1 Related Colonization of the Moon Google Lunar X Prize List of lunar probes List of missions to the Moon List of artificial objects on the Moon List of species that have landed on the Moon Lunar resources Apollo 17 Moon mice Moon landing conspiracy theories Third-party evidence for Apollo Moon landings Apollo 11 anniversaries List of crewed lunar landers Missions are ordered by launch date. Crewed missions are in italics. vteLunar roversActive Yutu-2 (2019–present, on Chang'e 4) PastLunokhod Lunokhod 0 (1A)† (1969) Lunokhod 1 (1970–1971, on Luna 17) Lunokhod 2 (1973, on Luna 21) Apollo Lunar Roving Vehicle (1971, Apollo 15) LRV-2 (1972, Apollo 16) LRV-3 (1972, Apollo 17) CLEP Yutu (2013–2016, on Chang'e 3) Yidong Xiangji (2024, on Chang'e 6) Chandrayaan Pragyan† (2019, on Chandrayaan-2) Pragyan (2023, on Chandrayaan-3) Rashid Rashid† (2022–2023, on Hakuto-R Mission 1) CLPS Iris† (2024, on Peregrine Mission One) Colmena × 5† (2024, on Peregrine Mission One) JAXA Sora-Q† (2022–2023, on Hakuto-R Mission 1) LEV-1 (2024, on SLIM) LEV-2 (Sora-Q) (2024, on SLIM) Planned MoonRanger (2023) VIPER (2024) Chang'e 7 (Rashid 2) (2026) Lunar Terrain Vehicle Proposed ATHLETE Audi Lunar Quattro ×2 (PTScientists) Deep Space Systems ECA HERACLES Lunar Cruiser Luna-Grunt rover LUPEX rover Moon Diver Moon Express OrbitBeyond rover Polaris Scarab Space Exploration Vehicle Team Puli Cancelled Lunokhod 3 (1977) Resource Prospector Related Tank on the Moon (2007 documentary) List of missions to the Moon Mars rover Rover (space exploration) List of extraterrestrial rovers Missions are ordered by launch date. Sign † indicates failure en route or before intended mission data returned.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"private company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_company"},{"link_name":"space robotics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_robotics"},{"link_name":"Carnegie Mellon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Mellon_University"},{"link_name":"Red Whittaker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Whittaker"},{"link_name":"Google Lunar X Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Lunar_X_Prize"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Pittsburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pittsburgh"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA-20240107-3"},{"link_name":"Commercial Lunar Payload Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Lunar_Payload_Services"},{"link_name":"Peregrine lunar lander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peregrine_lunar_lander"},{"link_name":"Vulcan Centaur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan_Centaur"},{"link_name":"Space Force Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Space_Force_Station"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-20240107-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PhysOrg-20240114-5"},{"link_name":"VIPER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIPER_(rover)"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nasa-20220718-6"}],"text":"Astrobotic Technology inc., commonly referred to as Astrobotic[1] is an American private company that is developing space robotics technology for lunar and planetary missions. It was founded in 2007 by Carnegie Mellon professor Red Whittaker and his associates with the goal of winning the Google Lunar X Prize.[2] The company is based in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Their first launch occurred on January 8, 2024,[3] as part of NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS) program. The launch carried the company's Peregrine lunar lander on board the first flight of the Vulcan Centaur rocket from Florida's Space Force Station LC-41.[4] The mission was unable to reach the Moon for a soft or hard landing.[5]\nOn June 11, 2020, Astrobotic received a second contract for the CLPS program. NASA will pay Astrobotic US$199.5 million to take the VIPER rover to the Moon, targeting a landing in November 2024.[6]","title":"Astrobotic Technology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-msnbc20080222-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"NASA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA"},{"link_name":"regolith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regolith"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"firm-fixed-price","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-price_contract"},{"link_name":"indefinite-delivery/indefinite-quantity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indefinite_delivery/indefinite_quantity"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Institute_for_Advanced_Concepts"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Small Business Technology Transfer Program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_Business_Technology_Transfer_Program"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Lunar CATALYST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_CATALYST"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CATALYST_release-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CATALYST_page-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LCAT_20171031-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SN_June_2016-18"},{"link_name":"Airbus Defence and Space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus_Defence_and_Space"},{"link_name":"Google Lunar X Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Lunar_X_Prize"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Astro_leave_XPrize-19"},{"link_name":"Commercial Lunar Payload Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Lunar_Payload_Services"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CLPS_win-20"},{"link_name":"Lacus Mortis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacus_Mortis"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Spacebit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Spacebit&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Asagumo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Asagumo_(rover)&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"MrBeast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MrBeast"},{"link_name":"YouTuber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube"},{"link_name":"hard drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_drive"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"Vulcan Centaur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan_Centaur"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ars-20210625-29"},{"link_name":"space industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_industry"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASA-20240107-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NYT-20240107-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PhysOrg-20240114-5"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"In 2007, the team declared its goal to be the first commercial operation to land on the Moon.[7] That year, the company completed a running prototype of a spacecraft called Red Rover; they also renamed their concept lander from Artemis Lander to Griffin.[8]On July 28, 2008, NASA gave money to Astrobotic for a concept study on \"regolith moving methods\".[9] The next year, Astrobotic began to receive Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) funding from NASA totaling over US$795,000 to investigate prospecting for lunar resources,[10] which eventually led to a concept called Polar Excavator.On October 15, 2010, NASA awarded a contract to Astrobotic for Innovative Lunar Demonstrations Data (ILDD) firm-fixed-price indefinite-delivery/indefinite-quantity contracts with a total value up to US$30.1 million over up to five years, and in December 2010, NASA's US$500,000 ILDD project for further Lunar Demonstrations Data was awarded to Astrobotic.[11]Astrobotic's proposal \"Technologies Enabling Exploration of Skylights, Lava Tubes, and Caves\" was a Phase I selection for NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts (NIAC).[12] In April 2011, Astrobotic received a US$599,000 two-year contract to develop a scalable gravity offload device for testing rover mobility in simulated lunar gravity under NASA's Small Business Technology Transfer Program (STTR).[13]In May 2012, David Gump left the position of President of Astrobotic and John Thornton took his place.[14]On April 30, 2014, NASA announced that Astrobotic Technology was one of the three companies selected for the Lunar CATALYST initiative.[15] NASA was negotiating a 3-year no-funds-exchanged Space Act Agreement (SAA) where the Griffin lander may be involved.[16] The CATALYST agreement was extended in October 2017 for 2 years.[17]On June 2, 2016, Astrobotic Technology announced a new design of its Griffin concept lander and named it Peregrine.[18] Airbus Defence and Space signed a memorandum of understanding to provide engineering support for Astrobotic as it refines the lander's design. In December 2016, Astrobotic slipped their estimated launch date to 2019 and separated from the Google Lunar X Prize.[19]On November 29, 2018, Astrobotic was declared eligible to bid on NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services to deliver science and technology payloads to the Moon.[20] Astrobotic's successful bid drew a US$79.5 million contract to deliver payloads to Lacus Mortis. Astrobotic set an initial target of 14 payloads to launch starting in July 2021.[21][22]In September 2019, Spacebit signed an agreement to deliver the first UK lunar rover Asagumo on Astrobotic's upcoming mission in 2021 and named this \"Spacebit mission one\".[23][24]On September 25, 2019, John Thornton of Astrobotic was named CEO of the Year by the Pittsburgh Technology Council at the 23rd annual Tech50 awards ceremony.[25][26]On January 24, 2021, MrBeast, a YouTuber, said that he would place a payload on the Peregrine lander: a hard drive containing large numbers of digital image files submitted by anyone who contributed US$10 via his online store.[27][28]In June 2021, the maiden flight of Vulcan Centaur, carrying the first Peregrine lander as its payload, was delayed to 2022 due to payload and engine testing delays.[29]In November 2021, Astrobotic Technology was named one of the \"World's Best Employers in the Space Industry\" by Everything Space, a recruitment platform specializing in the space industry.[30]Problems with ground systems during the wet dress rehearsal on December 8, 2023, delayed the maiden flight of the Vulcan Centaur until 2024.[31]The Peregrine lander was launched on January 8, 2024, from Florida's Space Force Station LC-41, aboard the maiden flight of Vulcan Centaur.[3][4] A propellant leak prevented it from reaching the Moon for a soft or hard landing.[5] The mission was never able to leave its original (highly elliptical) Earth orbit and it ended with a controlled reentry into the Earth's atmosphere above the Pacific Ocean on January 18, 2024.[32][33]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Missions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SpaceX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9"},{"link_name":"lunar north pole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_north_pole"},{"link_name":"rover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_rover"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"lunar north pole","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_north_pole"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nasa.gov-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pbt20120529-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Hakuto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakuto"},{"link_name":"Team AngelicvM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_AngelicvM"},{"link_name":"SpaceX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaceX"},{"link_name":"Falcon 9 v1.1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falcon_9_v1.1"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-glxp20150223-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cnet20150223-42"},{"link_name":"Commercial Lunar Payload Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Lunar_Payload_Services"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MoonRanger1-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SlashGear2019-44"},{"link_name":"Masten Mission One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Masten_Mission_One"},{"link_name":"XL-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XL-1"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"water ice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_water"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-P_Biz_T_2019-46"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CMU2019-47"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CMU2019-47"}],"sub_title":"Canceled missions","text":"In April 2011, Astrobotic contracted with SpaceX for a Falcon 9 launch of a lunar north pole mission for as early as December 2013. The mission was intended to launch the Griffin lander and deliver \"a small rover and up to about 110 kg (240 lb) of payload to the surface of the Moon\".[34][35] The launch date slipped to 2015, and it was first named Polar Excavator, and then Icebreaker, that would target the lunar north pole.[36] This expedition's rover was to be Polaris.[37][38] A model of the Polaris rover was unveiled in October 2012,[39] and the company indicated that they were still under contract to SpaceX for a Falcon 9 mission.[40] The launch date further slipped to 2016, and Astrobotic contracted with two other GLXP teams including Team Hakuto and Team AngelicvM to share the launch expenses. The agreement was to launch the rovers of all teams on a single SpaceX Falcon 9 v1.1 which would then use the Astrobotic Griffin lander. After landing on the lunar surface, all teams would have competed against each other to achieve the specific GLXP objectives and earn the various prizes.[41][42] The Griffin lander was never built, and Icebreaker mission was not launched.MoonRanger is a 13 kg (29 lb) rover being developed to carry payloads on the Moon for NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS). The US$5.6 million contract was awarded to Astrobotic and its partner Carnegie Mellon University on July 1, 2019.[43][44] MoonRanger was to be launched aboard Masten Mission One, the first XL-1 lunar lander.[45] The rover was to carry science payloads yet to be determined and developed by other providers, that will focus on scouting and creating 3D maps of a polar region for signs of water ice or lunar pits for entrances to Moon caves.[46][47] The rover would operate mostly autonomously for up to one week.[47] Masten Mission One was cancelled after Masten Space Systems went bankrupt in 2022. Thus MoonRanger lost its flight to the Moon.","title":"Missions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NASA_Selects_First_Commercial_Moon_Landing_Services_for_Artemis_Program_(47974859117).jpg"},{"link_name":"Commercial Lunar Payload Services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commercial_Lunar_Payload_Services"},{"link_name":"United Launch Alliance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Launch_Alliance"},{"link_name":"Vulcan Centaur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vulcan_Centaur"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"Gruithuisen Gamma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mons_Gruithuisen_Gamma"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peregrine_Payload_User_Guide_2018-51"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peregrine_Payload_User_Guide_2018-51"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PhysOrg-20240114-5"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"}],"sub_title":"Peregrine Mission One","text":"Peregrine lander modelPeregrine Mission One, or the Peregrine Lunar Lander, was a lunar lander built by Astrobotic Technology, that was selected through NASA's Commercial Lunar Payload Services (CLPS). It was launched on January 8, 2024 by United Launch Alliance (ULA) aboard a Vulcan Centaur launch vehicle.[48] The lander carried multiple payloads, with total payload mass capacity of 90 kg.[49]Peregrine carried a maximum payload mass of 90 kg (200 lb) during Mission One,[50] and it was planned to land on Gruithuisen Gamma.[51][52] The payload mass for the planned second mission (Mission Two) is capped at 175 kg (386 lb), and the Mission Three and later missions would carry the full payload capacity of 265 kg (584 lb).[51]The Peregrine mission was unable to reach the Moon for a soft or hard landing.[5] The mission was never able to leave its original (highly elliptical) Earth orbit and it ended with a controlled reentry into the Earth's atmosphere on January 18, 2024.[53][better source needed]","title":"Missions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nasa-20220718-6"},{"link_name":"VIPER","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VIPER_(rover)"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"sub_title":"Griffin Mission One","text":"The Griffin lander is targeted to land in a region of interest in the Moon's south polar region in November 2024.[6] The spacecraft is expected to operate for 100 days after its landing. NASA's VIPER rover will be the main payload on the larger Griffin lander (450 kg).[54] VIPER will investigate permanently shadowed regions of craters located in the Moon's south pole, specifically for potential deposits of water ice that could be used as resources for future crewed missions. Other commercial payloads are on board the Griffin lander, including the Lunar Codex's Polaris archive of contemporary culture as one of the commercial sub-payloads of Astrobotics' MoonBox initiative.[55]In March 2024, Astrobotic hired several industry leaders to assist with the Griffin lander after the failure of the Peregrine lander.[56]","title":"Missions"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Griffin Mission Two","text":"it is planned to be launched in 2026.","title":"Missions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Astrobotic%27s_CubeRover_(KSC-20220630-PH-GEB01_0096).jpeg"},{"link_name":"CubeRover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeRover"},{"link_name":"planetary rovers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_rover"},{"link_name":"CubeSat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CubeSat"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SI_Campbell_2018-57"},{"link_name":"Carnegie Mellon University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnegie_Mellon_University"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SI_Campbell_2018-57"},{"link_name":"principal investigator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principal_investigator"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ars-20210625-29"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-David_2018-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-astrobotic-awarded-61"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"}],"text":"CubeRoverCubeRover is a class of planetary rovers with a standardized format meant to accelerate the pace of space exploration. The idea is equivalent to that of the successful CubeSat format, with a standardized architecture to assemble new units that will be all compatible, modular, and inexpensive.[57] The rover class concept is being developed by Astrobotic Technology in partnership with Carnegie Mellon University, and it is partly funded by NASA awards.[57] The principal investigator of the program is Andrew Horchler. The first derivative of a CubeRover, a spinoff rover called Iris, developed by CMU students, was planned to be deployed on the Moon[29] on board Astrobotic's Peregrine lander, but was lost with Peregrine's reentry and never deployed.[58][59][60][61][62]","title":"CubeRover"}]

[{"image_text":"Peregrine lander model","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/08/NASA_Selects_First_Commercial_Moon_Landing_Services_for_Artemis_Program_%2847974859117%29.jpg/220px-NASA_Selects_First_Commercial_Moon_Landing_Services_for_Artemis_Program_%2847974859117%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"CubeRover","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Astrobotic%27s_CubeRover_%28KSC-20220630-PH-GEB01_0096%29.jpeg/220px-Astrobotic%27s_CubeRover_%28KSC-20220630-PH-GEB01_0096%29.jpeg"}]

[{"title":"Spaceflight portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight"},{"title":"Exploration of Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploration_of_Mars"},{"title":"Exploration of the Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exploration_of_the_Moon"},{"title":"Lunar rover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_rover"},{"title":"Mars rover","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars_rover"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scorewriter

Scorewriter

["1 Comparison with multitrack sequencer software","2 History","3 Functionality","4 File formats","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Software used for creating sheet music This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Scorewriter" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) MuseScoreForteEncoreDifferent scorewriters A scorewriter, or music notation program is software for creating, editing and printing sheet music. A scorewriter is to music notation what a word processor is to text, in that they typically provide flexible editing and automatic layout, and produce high-quality printed results. The very first modern score manipulation program was Mockingbird, written by John Maxwell and Severo Ornstein at Xerox PARC in 1980 on a Dorado computer. It preceded MIDI so an electronic keyboard had to be modified to enable interaction (input and playback) with the program. The WYSIWYG program was envisioned as a composer's amanuensis, but as it was an experimental program it never reached beyond PARC, though it influenced commercial programs which soon followed. Most scorewriters, especially those from the 2000s, can record notes played on a MIDI keyboard (or other MIDI instruments), and play music back via MIDI or virtual instruments. Playback is especially useful for novice composers and music students, and when musicians are not available or affordable. Several free programs are widely used, such as MuseScore. The three main professional-level programs are Finale, Sibelius and Dorico. Comparison with multitrack sequencer software Multitrack sequencer software and scorewriters typically employ different methods for notation input and display. Scorewriters are based on traditional music notation, using staff lines and round note heads, which originates from European classical music. They use symbols representing durations in sound and silence, dynamics, articulations and tempo. Some also allow users to import and/or create their own symbols. Multitrack sequencer software typically uses a multitrack recorder metaphor as the main interface, with multiple tracks and track segments. Individual tracks can be edited using graphic notation in the form of a "piano roll"-guided input for the control of MIDI-based hardware and software instruments. A third approach has also emerged that combines the first two input methods into a digital audio workstation, allowing users to score parts using traditional notation, the graphic notation of the piano roll, and recording acoustic or electronic instruments in real time alongside the existing scores. With all three methods, the computer keyboard, mouse, and a MIDI musical keyboard can be used to enter music that can then be edited with traditional or piano-roll-based notation. History The rapid growth of desktop computers in the 1980s saw the creation of dozens of early scorewriters (see list of scorewriters). They were a boon to young composers, music educators and composition students, providing a much less expensive way to create scores and parts for orchestral music and other works. However, they were hard to use; and while scores were readable, they did not look like professionally engraved scores or parts. An exception was SCORE notation software. Developed in the late '80s, it was used mostly by commercial publishers, as its price put it out of the reach of most non-professional composers/copyists. During the 1990s, many of these early programs, such as the Mosaic notation program, fell into disuse, as newer programs surpassed them in ease of use and output quality. Finale and Sibelius were released, with high-quality output and a wide range of sophisticated features that made them suitable for almost all kinds of music applications. By 2000, the market was dominated by Finale (particularly in the US) and Sibelius (which had dominated the UK since 1993, and expanded worldwide after its Windows release in 1998). Inexpensive programs such as capella gained a significant share of the market in some countries. Sibelius and Finale still dominated the market as of 2012. In 2006, Sibelius was purchased by Avid. In a 2012 restructuring, Sibelius's London office was closed and the development team dismissed. In February 2013, Steinberg announced it had hired the former Sibelius team to create a new scorewriter, Dorico, which was released in October 2016. The trio of Finale, Sibelius and Dorico are today's leading professional-level programs. Functionality This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) All scorewriters allow the user to input, edit and print music notation to varying degrees of sophistication. They range from programs which can write a simple song, piano piece or guitar tab, to those that can handle the complexities of orchestral music, specialist notations (from early music to avant-garde), and high-quality music engraving. Music can usually be input using the mouse, computer keyboard, or a MIDI keyboard. A few allow input by scanning scores using musical OCR; by playing or singing into a microphone; or by using a touch screen. Most scorewriters also allow users to play the music back, using MIDI or virtual instruments such as VST instruments. The screen can show at one time both the score and, by changing the colour of keys on a virtual piano's keyboard, the notes being played. Although sequencers can also write some musical notation, they are primarily for recording and playing music. Scorewriters can typically write more complex and sophisticated notation than sequencers can. Some scorewriters allow users to customize and fine-tune the printed output to a considerable degree, as is required by publishers to produce high-quality music engraving and to suit their individual house style. A few scorewriters allow users to publish scores on the Internet, where they can be (for example) played back, transposed, and printed out, perhaps for a fee. Most scorewriters provide other musical functions such as transposing; producing separate instrumental parts from a full score; or applying musical transformations such as retrograde. Some can automatically create instrumental exercises and student worksheets. Some support plug-ins, often developed by users or other companies. Other features may include version control, change tracking, graphics import and export, Post-It-like sticky notes, etc. File formats Almost all scorewriters use their own file formats for saving files. Hence, in order to move notation between different scorewriters (or to/from other kinds of music software such as sequencers), most scorewriters can also import or export one or more standard interchange file formats, such as: Standard MIDI File is supported by almost all scorewriters. However, as this format was designed for playback (e.g. by sequencers) rather than notation, it only produces approximate results and much notational information is lost in the process. If the score is to be presented, a WAV file (rather than MIDI) may be made from the score to give a more natural and accurate rendition of the written score. MusicXML has in recent years (as of 2012) become the standard interchange format for accurate notation. Notation Interchange File Format (NIFF) is a now-obsolete file format that was supported by a few scorewriters. This Comparison of scorewriters details which score writers can import and export to PDF, text (ASCII), picture (PNG, SVG, EMF) and sound (Vorbis OGG) file formats. There are also human-readable text-based formats such as ABC notation, LilyPond, ASCII tab and NoteWorthy Composer text files. These are easily rendered as speech by screen reading software. The Score extension to MediaWiki can render, and generate an audio preview of, the first two formats. See also Comparison of scorewriters International Music Score Library Project (IMSLP) Player piano Scorereader List of music software References ^ Maxwell III, John Turner; Ornstein, Severo M. (January 1983). Mockingbird: A Composer’s Amanuensis (A "Blue and White" Xerox PARC research report). Xerox Palo Alto Research Center. CSL-83-2. ^ Maxwell III, John Turner; Ornstein, Severo M. (January 1984). "Mockingbird: A Composer's Amanuensis". Byte. Vol. 9, no. 1. McGraw Hill. ^ Ornstein, Severo M.; Maxwell III, John Turner (1980). "Mockingbird—A Musician's Amanuensis, lecture by Severo Ornstein and John Maxwell". YouTube (Extended demo / lecture). Computer History Museum. Retrieved June 19, 2024. ^ Ornstein, Severo M.; Maxwell III, John Turner (Oct 30, 1980). "DigiBarn TV: Initial Demo of the Mockingbird Composer's tool at Xerox PARC Forum (Oct 30, 1980)". YouTube (Extended demo / lecture). Dr. Bruce Damer. Retrieved June 19, 2024. ^ Cliff, Tony (1 December 2019). "Tech Reviews: Dorico Pro 3". Music Teacher Magazine. Rhinegold Publishing. Retrieved 6 June 2021. ^ Selfridge-Field, Eleanor (1997). Beyond MIDI: The Handbook of Musical Codes (1st ed.). Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. 252. ISBN 978-0262193948. ^ "Model Based Systems Engineering | Capella MBSE Tool". eclipse.dev. Retrieved 2023-10-06. ^ Richard Sussman, Michael Abene, Mike Abene (2012) Jazz Composition and Arranging in the Digital Age p. xlviii ^ Kirn, Peter (20 February 2013). "FEB 20 2013 Sibelius Core Team Now at Steinberg, Building New Notation Tool". Create Digital Music. Retrieved 17 August 2015. ^ Arblaster, Simon (20 October 2017). "Steinberg's Dorico software promises to be the most flexible scoring application there is". musicradar. Retrieved 2017-01-07. ^ "MusicXML Software". MakeMusic, Inc. 7 July 2012. Retrieved 2012-07-07. ^ Belkin, Alan (NIFF coordinator) (February 1992). "The Current Status of NIFF". Archived from the original on 2007-10-31. Retrieved 2007-11-06. Niff has now been superseded by MusicXML. External links Musical notation codes – information on most known musical notation file formats Comparison of 200 Music Fonts from Standard Notation Software List of typeset music formats, International Music Score Library Project vteScorewritersFree and open-source Gregorio Impro-Visor LilyPond Denemo Frescobaldi jEdit plugin Extension:Score MuseScore MusiXTeX Philip's Music Writer Rosegarden TuxGuitar Proprietary Aegis Sonix Capella Deluxe Music Construction Set Dorico Encore Finale Forte Guitar Pro Igor Engraver MagicScore Mozart Mus2 MusEdit Musink MusiCAD MusicEase Music Write Notion NoteWorthy Composer Overture Power Tab Editor SCORE ScoreCloud Sibelius SmartScore Defunct NoteEdit List Comparison Authority control databases: National Czech Republic

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Scorewriters can typically write more complex and sophisticated notation than sequencers can.Some scorewriters allow users to customize and fine-tune the printed output to a considerable degree, as is required by publishers to produce high-quality music engraving and to suit their individual house style.A few scorewriters allow users to publish scores on the Internet, where they can be (for example) played back, transposed, and printed out, perhaps for a fee.Most scorewriters provide other musical functions such as transposing; producing separate instrumental parts from a full score; or applying musical transformations such as retrograde. Some can automatically create instrumental exercises and student worksheets. Some support plug-ins, often developed by users or other companies. Other features may include version control, change tracking, graphics import and export, Post-It-like sticky notes, etc.","title":"Functionality"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sequencers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_sequencer"},{"link_name":"Standard MIDI File","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_MIDI_File"},{"link_name":"WAV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WAV"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"MusicXML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MusicXML"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Notation Interchange File Format","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notation_Interchange_File_Format"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Comparison of scorewriters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_scorewriters"},{"link_name":"PDF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDF"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"},{"link_name":"PNG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Network_Graphics"},{"link_name":"SVG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scalable_Vector_Graphics"},{"link_name":"Vorbis OGG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vorbis"},{"link_name":"ABC notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABC_notation"},{"link_name":"LilyPond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LilyPond"},{"link_name":"ASCII tab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII_tab"},{"link_name":"NoteWorthy Composer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NoteWorthy_Composer"},{"link_name":"Score extension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.mediawiki.org/wiki/Extension:Score"},{"link_name":"MediaWiki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MediaWiki"}],"text":"Almost all scorewriters use their own file formats for saving files. Hence, in order to move notation between different scorewriters (or to/from other kinds of music software such as sequencers), most scorewriters can also import or export one or more standard interchange file formats, such as:Standard MIDI File is supported by almost all scorewriters. However, as this format was designed for playback (e.g. by sequencers) rather than notation, it only produces approximate results and much notational information is lost in the process. If the score is to be presented, a WAV file (rather than MIDI) may be made from the score to give a more natural and accurate rendition of the written score.[citation needed]\nMusicXML has in recent years (as of 2012) become the standard interchange format for accurate notation.[11]\nNotation Interchange File Format (NIFF) is a now-obsolete file format that was supported by a few scorewriters.[12]This Comparison of scorewriters details which score writers can import and export to PDF, text (ASCII), picture (PNG, SVG, EMF) and sound (Vorbis OGG) file formats.There are also human-readable text-based formats such as ABC notation, LilyPond, ASCII tab and NoteWorthy Composer text files. These are easily rendered as speech by screen reading software. The Score extension to MediaWiki can render, and generate an audio preview of, the first two formats.","title":"File formats"}]

[]

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[{"reference":"Maxwell III, John Turner; Ornstein, Severo M. (January 1983). Mockingbird: A Composer’s Amanuensis (A \"Blue and White\" Xerox PARC research report). Xerox Palo Alto Research Center. CSL-83-2.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Maxwell III, John Turner; Ornstein, Severo M. (January 1984). \"Mockingbird: A Composer's Amanuensis\". Byte. Vol. 9, no. 1. McGraw Hill.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Ornstein, Severo M.; Maxwell III, John Turner (1980). \"Mockingbird—A Musician's Amanuensis, lecture by Severo Ornstein and John Maxwell\". YouTube (Extended demo / lecture). Computer History Museum. Retrieved June 19, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0dxaEDKoTys","url_text":"\"Mockingbird—A Musician's Amanuensis, lecture by Severo Ornstein and John Maxwell\""}]},{"reference":"Ornstein, Severo M.; Maxwell III, John Turner (Oct 30, 1980). \"DigiBarn TV: Initial Demo of the Mockingbird Composer's tool at Xerox PARC Forum (Oct 30, 1980)\". YouTube (Extended demo / lecture). Dr. Bruce Damer. Retrieved June 19, 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=znmWuPFCMBY&t=7s","url_text":"\"DigiBarn TV: Initial Demo of the Mockingbird Composer's tool at Xerox PARC Forum (Oct 30, 1980)\""}]},{"reference":"Cliff, Tony (1 December 2019). \"Tech Reviews: Dorico Pro 3\". Music Teacher Magazine. Rhinegold Publishing. Retrieved 6 June 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.musicteachermagazine.co.uk/review/article/tech-reviews-dorico-pro3","url_text":"\"Tech Reviews: Dorico Pro 3\""}]},{"reference":"Selfridge-Field, Eleanor (1997). Beyond MIDI: The Handbook of Musical Codes (1st ed.). Massachusetts: MIT Press. p. 252. ISBN 978-0262193948.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262193948","url_text":"978-0262193948"}]},{"reference":"\"Model Based Systems Engineering | Capella MBSE Tool\". eclipse.dev. Retrieved 2023-10-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://eclipse.dev/capella/","url_text":"\"Model Based Systems Engineering | Capella MBSE Tool\""}]},{"reference":"Kirn, Peter (20 February 2013). \"FEB 20 2013 Sibelius Core Team Now at Steinberg, Building New Notation Tool\". Create Digital Music. Retrieved 17 August 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://createdigitalmusic.com/2013/02/sibelius-core-team-now-at-steinberg-building-new-notation-tool/","url_text":"\"FEB 20 2013 Sibelius Core Team Now at Steinberg, Building New Notation Tool\""}]},{"reference":"Arblaster, Simon (20 October 2017). \"Steinberg's Dorico software promises to be the most flexible scoring application there is\". musicradar. Retrieved 2017-01-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.musicradar.com/news/tech/steinbergs-dorico-software-promises-to-be-the-most-flexible-scoring-application-there-is-643568","url_text":"\"Steinberg's Dorico software promises to be the most flexible scoring application there is\""}]},{"reference":"\"MusicXML Software\". MakeMusic, Inc. 7 July 2012. Retrieved 2012-07-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.makemusic.com/musicxml/community/software","url_text":"\"MusicXML Software\""}]},{"reference":"Belkin, Alan (NIFF coordinator) (February 1992). \"The Current Status of NIFF\". Archived from the original on 2007-10-31. Retrieved 2007-11-06. Niff has now been superseded by MusicXML.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071031231009/http://www.musique.umontreal.ca/personnel/Belkin/NIFF.doc.html","url_text":"\"The Current Status of NIFF\""},{"url":"http://www.musique.umontreal.ca/personnel/Belkin/NIFF.doc.html","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_code

Opcode

["1 Overview","1.1 Operands","2 Software instruction sets","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading"]

Part of a machine instruction Machine code General concepts Instruction set Opcode Illegal opcode Opcode table Operand Instructions NOP Branch Indirect branch Repeat instruction Execute instruction vte In computing, an opcode (abbreviated from operation code, also known as instruction machine code, instruction code, instruction syllable, instruction parcel or opstring) is the portion of a machine language instruction that specifies the operation to be performed. Beside the opcode itself, most instructions also specify the data they will process, in the form of operands. In addition to opcodes used in the instruction set architectures of various CPUs, which are hardware devices, they can also be used in abstract computing machines as part of their byte code specifications. Overview Specifications and format of the opcodes are laid out in the instruction set architecture (ISA) of the processor in question, which may be a general CPU or a more specialized processing unit. Opcodes for a given instruction set can be described through the use of an opcode table detailing all possible opcodes. Apart from the opcode itself, an instruction normally also has one or more specifiers for operands (i.e. data) on which the operation should act, although some operations may have implicit operands, or none at all. There are instruction sets with nearly uniform fields for opcode and operand specifiers, as well as others (the x86 architecture for instance) with a more complicated, variable-length structure. Instruction sets can be extended through the use of opcode prefixes which add a subset of new instructions made up of existing opcodes following reserved byte sequences. Operands Depending on architecture, the operands may be register values, values in the stack, other memory values, I/O ports (which may also be memory mapped), etc., specified and accessed using more or less complex addressing modes. The types of operations include arithmetic, data copying, logical operations, and program control, as well as special instructions (such as CPUID and others). Assembly language, or just assembly, is a low-level programming language, which uses mnemonic instructions and operands to represent machine code. This enhances the readability while still giving precise control over the machine instructions. Most programming is currently done using high-level programming languages, which are typically easier for humans to understand and write. These languages need to be compiled (translated into assembly language) by a system-specific compiler, or run through other compiled programs. Software instruction sets Opcodes can also be found in so-called byte codes and other representations intended for a software interpreter rather than a hardware device. These software-based instruction sets often employ slightly higher-level data types and operations than most hardware counterparts, but are nevertheless constructed along similar lines. Examples include the byte code found in Java class files which are then interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM), the byte code used in GNU Emacs for compiled Lisp code, .NET Common Intermediate Language (CIL), and many others. See also Computer programming portal Gadget (machine instruction sequence) Illegal opcode Syllable (computing) Fused operation References ^ a b Barron, David William (1978) . "2.1. Symbolic instructions". Written at University of Southampton, Southampton, UK. In Floretin, J. John (ed.). Assemblers and Loaders. Computer Monographs (3 ed.). New York, USA: Elsevier North-Holland Inc. p. 7. ISBN 0-444-19462-2. LCCN 78-19961. (xii+100 pages) ^ a b Chiba, Shigeru (2007) . "Javassist, a Java-bytecode translator toolkit". Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2016-05-27. ^ "Appendix B - Instruction Machine Codes" (PDF). MCS-4 Assembly Language Programming Manual - The INTELLEC 4 Microcomputer System Programming Manual (Preliminary ed.). Santa Clara, California, USA: Intel Corporation. December 1973. pp. B-1–B-8. MCS-030-1273-1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-01. Retrieved 2020-03-02. ^ Raphael, Howard A., ed. (November 1974). "The Functions Of A Computer: Instruction Register And Decoder" (PDF). MCS-40 User's Manual For Logic Designers. Santa Clara, California, USA: Intel Corporation. p. viii. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-03. Retrieved 2020-03-03. Each operation that the processor can perform is identified by a unique binary number known as an instruction code. ^ Jones, Douglas W. (June 1988). "A Minimal CISC". ACM SIGARCH Computer Architecture News. 16 (3). New York, USA: Association for Computing Machinery (ACM): 56–63. doi:10.1145/48675.48684. S2CID 17280173. ^ Domagała, Łukasz (2012). "7.1.4. Benchmark suite". Application of CLP to instruction modulo scheduling for VLIW processors. Gliwice, Poland: Jacek Skalmierski Computer Studio. pp. 80–83 . ISBN 978-83-62652-42-6. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2016-05-28. ^ Smotherman, Mark (2016) . "Multiple Instruction Issue". School of Computing, Clemson University. Archived from the original on 2016-05-28. Retrieved 2016-05-28. ^ Jones, Douglas W. (2016) . "A Minimal CISC". Computer Architecture On-Line Collection. Iowa City, USA: The University of Iowa, Department of Computer Science. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2016-05-28. ^ Schulman, Andrew (2005-07-01). "Finding Binary Clones with Opstrings & Function Digests". Dr. Dobb's Journal. Part I. Vol. 30, no. 7. CMP Media LLC. pp. 69–73. ISSN 1044-789X. #374. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2020-03-02; Schulman, Andrew (2005-08-01). "Finding Binary Clones with Opstrings & Function Digests". Dr. Dobb's Journal. Part II. Vol. 30, no. 8. CMP Media LLC. pp. 56–61. ISSN 1044-789X. #375. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2016-05-28; Schulman, Andrew (2005-09-01). "Finding Binary Clones with Opstrings & Function Digests". CMP Media LLC. Part III. Vol. 30, no. 9. United Business Media. pp. 64–70. ISSN 1044-789X. #376. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2016-05-28. ^ a b c d e f Hennessy, John L.; Patterson, David A.; Asanović, Krste; Bakos, Jason D.; Colwell, Robert P.; Bhattacharjee, Abhishek; Conte, Thomas M.; Duato, José; Franklin, Diana; Goldberg, David; Jouppi, Norman P.; Li, Sheng; Muralimanohar, Naveen; Peterson, Gregory D.; Pinkston, Timothy M.; Ranganathan, Parthasarathy; Wood, David A.; Young, Cliff; Zaky, Amr (2017-11-23). Computer architecture: A quantitative approach (6 ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBN 978-0-12811905-1. OCLC 983459758. ^ Mansfield, Richard (1983). "Introduction: Why Machine Language?". Machine Language For Beginners. Compute! Books (1 ed.). Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: COMPUTE! Publications, Inc., American Broadcasting Companies, Inc.; Small System Services, Inc. ISBN 0-942386-11-6. Archived from the original on 2008-02-13. Retrieved 2016-05-28. ^ "Programming Language Popularity". langpop.com. 2013-10-25. Archived from the original on 2015-04-11. Retrieved 2015-10-10. ^ Swanson, William (2001). "Introduction to Assembly Language". Swanson Technologies. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2015-10-10. ^ "bytecode Definition". PC Magazine. PC Magazine Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 2012-10-06. Retrieved 2015-10-10. Further reading Hyde, Randall (2004). Write Great Code: Thinking Low-level, Writing High-level. Vol. 1. San Francisco, California, USA: No Starch Press. p. passim. ISBN 1-59327003-8. Retrieved 2015-10-10. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help) vtex86 assembly topicsTopics Assembly language Comparison of assemblers Disassembler Instruction set Low-level programming language Machine code Microassembler x86 assembly language Assemblers A86/A386 Flat Assembler (FASM) GNU Assembler (GAS) High Level Assembly (HLA) Microsoft Macro Assembler (MASM) Netwide Assembler (NASM) Turbo Assembler (TASM) Open Watcom Assembler (WASM) Programmingissues Call stack Flags Carry flag Direction flag Interrupt flag Overflow flag Zero flag Opcode Program counter Processor register Calling conventions Instruction listings Registers

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Most programming is currently done using high-level programming languages,[12] which are typically easier for humans to understand and write.[10] These languages need to be compiled (translated into assembly language) by a system-specific compiler, or run through other compiled programs.[13]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"byte codes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte_code"},{"link_name":"Java class files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_class_file"},{"link_name":"Java Virtual Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_virtual_machine"},{"link_name":"GNU Emacs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Emacs"},{"link_name":"Lisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Common Intermediate Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Intermediate_Language"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bytecode-14"}],"text":"Opcodes can also be found in so-called byte codes and other representations intended for a software interpreter rather than a hardware device. These software-based instruction sets often employ slightly higher-level data types and operations than most hardware counterparts, but are nevertheless constructed along similar lines. Examples include the byte code found in Java class files which are then interpreted by the Java Virtual Machine (JVM), the byte code used in GNU Emacs for compiled Lisp code, .NET Common Intermediate Language (CIL), and many others.[14]","title":"Software instruction sets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Write Great Code: Thinking Low-level, Writing High-level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?isbn=1593270658"},{"link_name":"No Starch Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Starch_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1-59327003-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59327003-8"},{"link_name":"cite book","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Cite_book"},{"link_name":"help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#periodical_ignored"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:X86_assembly_topics"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:X86_assembly_topics"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:X86_assembly_topics"},{"link_name":"Assembly language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_language"},{"link_name":"Comparison of assemblers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_assemblers"},{"link_name":"Disassembler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disassembler"},{"link_name":"Instruction set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruction_set"},{"link_name":"Low-level programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-level_programming_language"},{"link_name":"Machine code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_code"},{"link_name":"Microassembler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microassembler"},{"link_name":"x86 assembly language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_assembly_language"},{"link_name":"Assemblers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_assemblers#x86_assemblers"},{"link_name":"A86/A386","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A86_(software)"},{"link_name":"Flat Assembler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FASM"},{"link_name":"GNU Assembler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Assembler"},{"link_name":"High Level Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_Level_Assembly"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Macro Assembler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Macro_Assembler"},{"link_name":"Netwide Assembler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netwide_Assembler"},{"link_name":"Turbo Assembler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbo_Assembler"},{"link_name":"Open Watcom Assembler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Watcom_Assembler"},{"link_name":"Call stack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Call_stack"},{"link_name":"Flags","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FLAGS_register"},{"link_name":"Carry flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carry_flag"},{"link_name":"Direction flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Direction_flag"},{"link_name":"Interrupt flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interrupt_flag"},{"link_name":"Overflow flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overflow_flag"},{"link_name":"Zero flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zero_flag"},{"link_name":"Opcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Program counter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Program_counter"},{"link_name":"Processor register","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Processor_register"},{"link_name":"Calling conventions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_calling_conventions"},{"link_name":"Instruction listings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86_instruction_listings"},{"link_name":"Registers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X86#x86_registers"}],"text":"Hyde, Randall (2004). Write Great Code: Thinking Low-level, Writing High-level. Vol. 1. San Francisco, California, USA: No Starch Press. p. passim. ISBN 1-59327003-8. Retrieved 2015-10-10. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help)vtex86 assembly topicsTopics\nAssembly language\nComparison of assemblers\nDisassembler\nInstruction set\nLow-level programming language\nMachine code\nMicroassembler\nx86 assembly language\nAssemblers\nA86/A386\nFlat Assembler (FASM)\nGNU Assembler (GAS)\nHigh Level Assembly (HLA)\nMicrosoft Macro Assembler (MASM)\nNetwide Assembler (NASM)\nTurbo Assembler (TASM)\nOpen Watcom Assembler (WASM)\nProgrammingissues\nCall stack\nFlags\nCarry flag\nDirection flag\nInterrupt flag\nOverflow flag\nZero flag\nOpcode\nProgram counter\nProcessor register\nCalling conventions\nInstruction listings\nRegisters","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Octicons-terminal.svg"},{"title":"Computer programming portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Computer_programming"},{"title":"Gadget (machine instruction sequence)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gadget_(machine_instruction_sequence)"},{"title":"Illegal opcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illegal_opcode"},{"title":"Syllable (computing)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllable_(computing)"},{"title":"Fused operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fused_operation"}]

[{"reference":"Barron, David William (1978) [1971, 1969]. \"2.1. Symbolic instructions\". Written at University of Southampton, Southampton, UK. In Floretin, J. John (ed.). Assemblers and Loaders. Computer Monographs (3 ed.). New York, USA: Elsevier North-Holland Inc. p. 7. ISBN 0-444-19462-2. LCCN 78-19961.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_W._Barron","url_text":"Barron, David William"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Southampton","url_text":"University of Southampton"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsevier_North-Holland_Inc.","url_text":"Elsevier North-Holland Inc."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-444-19462-2","url_text":"0-444-19462-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)","url_text":"LCCN"},{"url":"https://lccn.loc.gov/78-19961","url_text":"78-19961"}]},{"reference":"Chiba, Shigeru (2007) [1999]. \"Javassist, a Java-bytecode translator toolkit\". Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2016-05-27.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.docjar.org/html/api/javassist/bytecode/InstructionPrinter.java.html","url_text":"\"Javassist, a Java-bytecode translator toolkit\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200302185725/http://www.docjar.org/html/api/javassist/bytecode/InstructionPrinter.java.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Appendix B - Instruction Machine Codes\" (PDF). MCS-4 Assembly Language Programming Manual - The INTELLEC 4 Microcomputer System Programming Manual (Preliminary ed.). Santa Clara, California, USA: Intel Corporation. December 1973. pp. B-1–B-8. MCS-030-1273-1. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-01. Retrieved 2020-03-02.","urls":[{"url":"http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/components/intel/MCS4/MCS-4_Assembly_Language_Programming_Manual_Dec73.pdf","url_text":"\"Appendix B - Instruction Machine Codes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Corporation","url_text":"Intel Corporation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200301235541/http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/components/intel/MCS4/MCS-4_Assembly_Language_Programming_Manual_Dec73.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Raphael, Howard A., ed. (November 1974). \"The Functions Of A Computer: Instruction Register And Decoder\" (PDF). MCS-40 User's Manual For Logic Designers. Santa Clara, California, USA: Intel Corporation. p. viii. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2020-03-03. Retrieved 2020-03-03. […] Each operation that the processor can perform is identified by a unique binary number known as an instruction code. […]","urls":[{"url":"http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/components/intel/MCS40/MCS-40_Users_Manual_Nov74.pdf","url_text":"\"The Functions Of A Computer: Instruction Register And Decoder\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Corporation","url_text":"Intel Corporation"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200303024244/http://bitsavers.trailing-edge.com/components/intel/MCS40/MCS-40_Users_Manual_Nov74.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Jones, Douglas W. (June 1988). \"A Minimal CISC\". ACM SIGARCH Computer Architecture News. 16 (3). New York, USA: Association for Computing Machinery (ACM): 56–63. doi:10.1145/48675.48684. S2CID 17280173.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F48675.48684","url_text":"\"A Minimal CISC\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_for_Computing_Machinery","url_text":"Association for Computing Machinery"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F48675.48684","url_text":"10.1145/48675.48684"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17280173","url_text":"17280173"}]},{"reference":"Domagała, Łukasz (2012). \"7.1.4. Benchmark suite\". Application of CLP to instruction modulo scheduling for VLIW processors. Gliwice, Poland: Jacek Skalmierski Computer Studio. pp. 80–83 [83]. ISBN 978-83-62652-42-6. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2016-05-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=e6apNOED26kC","url_text":"\"7.1.4. 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Computer Architecture On-Line Collection. Iowa City, USA: The University of Iowa, Department of Computer Science. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2016-05-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://homepage.cs.uiowa.edu/~jones/arch/cisc/","url_text":"\"A Minimal CISC\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_University_of_Iowa","url_text":"The University of Iowa"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200302190911/http://homepage.cs.uiowa.edu/~jones/arch/cisc/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Schulman, Andrew (2005-07-01). \"Finding Binary Clones with Opstrings & Function Digests\". Dr. Dobb's Journal. Part I. Vol. 30, no. 7. CMP Media LLC. pp. 69–73. ISSN 1044-789X. #374. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2020-03-02","urls":[{"url":"http://www.drdobbs.com/finding-binary-clones-with-opstrings-fu/184406152","url_text":"\"Finding Binary Clones with Opstrings & Function Digests\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Dobb%27s_Journal","url_text":"Dr. Dobb's Journal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMP_Media_LLC","url_text":"CMP Media LLC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1044-789X","url_text":"1044-789X"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200302175401/https://www.drdobbs.com/finding-binary-clones-with-opstrings-fu/184406152","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Schulman, Andrew (2005-08-01). \"Finding Binary Clones with Opstrings & Function Digests\". Dr. Dobb's Journal. Part II. Vol. 30, no. 8. CMP Media LLC. pp. 56–61. ISSN 1044-789X. #375. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2016-05-28","urls":[{"url":"http://www.drdobbs.com/finding-binary-clones-with-opstrings-fu/184406203","url_text":"\"Finding Binary Clones with Opstrings & Function Digests\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr._Dobb%27s_Journal","url_text":"Dr. Dobb's Journal"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMP_Media_LLC","url_text":"CMP Media LLC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1044-789X","url_text":"1044-789X"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200302185255/https://www.drdobbs.com/finding-binary-clones-with-opstrings-fu/184406203","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Schulman, Andrew (2005-09-01). \"Finding Binary Clones with Opstrings & Function Digests\". CMP Media LLC. Part III. Vol. 30, no. 9. United Business Media. pp. 64–70. ISSN 1044-789X. #376. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2016-05-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.drdobbs.com/tools/finding-binary-clones-with-opstrings-fu/184406247","url_text":"\"Finding Binary Clones with Opstrings & Function Digests\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMP_Media_LLC","url_text":"CMP Media LLC"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Business_Media","url_text":"United Business Media"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1044-789X","url_text":"1044-789X"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200302185646/https://www.drdobbs.com/tools/finding-binary-clones-with-opstrings-fu/184406247?pgno=3","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hennessy, John L.; Patterson, David A.; Asanović, Krste; Bakos, Jason D.; Colwell, Robert P.; Bhattacharjee, Abhishek; Conte, Thomas M.; Duato, José; Franklin, Diana; Goldberg, David; Jouppi, Norman P.; Li, Sheng; Muralimanohar, Naveen; Peterson, Gregory D.; Pinkston, Timothy M.; Ranganathan, Parthasarathy; Wood, David A.; Young, Cliff; Zaky, Amr (2017-11-23). Computer architecture: A quantitative approach (6 ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA: Morgan Kaufmann Publishers. ISBN 978-0-12811905-1. OCLC 983459758.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krste_Asanovi%C4%87","url_text":"Asanović, Krste"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morgan_Kaufmann_Publishers","url_text":"Morgan Kaufmann Publishers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12811905-1","url_text":"978-0-12811905-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/983459758","url_text":"983459758"}]},{"reference":"Mansfield, Richard (1983). \"Introduction: Why Machine Language?\". Machine Language For Beginners. Compute! Books (1 ed.). Greensboro, North Carolina, USA: COMPUTE! Publications, Inc., American Broadcasting Companies, Inc.; Small System Services, Inc. ISBN 0-942386-11-6. Archived from the original on 2008-02-13. Retrieved 2016-05-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.atariarchives.org/mlb/introduction.php","url_text":"\"Introduction: Why Machine Language?\""},{"url":"https://www.atariarchives.org/mlb/index.php","url_text":"Machine Language For Beginners"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compute!_Books","url_text":"Compute! Books"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COMPUTE!_Publications,_Inc.","url_text":"COMPUTE! Publications, Inc."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Broadcasting_Companies,_Inc.","url_text":"American Broadcasting Companies, Inc."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Small_System_Services,_Inc.","url_text":"Small System Services, Inc."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-942386-11-6","url_text":"0-942386-11-6"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080213090055/http://www.atariarchives.org/mlb/introduction.php","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Programming Language Popularity\". langpop.com. 2013-10-25. Archived from the original on 2015-04-11. Retrieved 2015-10-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150411135441/http://langpop.com/","url_text":"\"Programming Language Popularity\""},{"url":"http://langpop.com/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Swanson, William (2001). \"Introduction to Assembly Language\". Swanson Technologies. Archived from the original on 2020-03-02. Retrieved 2015-10-10.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.swansontec.com/sprogram.htm","url_text":"\"Introduction to Assembly Language\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200302185840/https://www.swansontec.com/sprogram.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"bytecode Definition\". PC Magazine. PC Magazine Encyclopedia. Archived from the original on 2012-10-06. Retrieved 2015-10-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121006015213/http://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0%2C2542%2Ct%3Dbytecode%26i%3D39108%2C00.asp","url_text":"\"bytecode Definition\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Magazine","url_text":"PC Magazine"},{"url":"https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia_term/0,2542,t=bytecode&i=39108,00.asp","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hyde, Randall (2004). Write Great Code: Thinking Low-level, Writing High-level. Vol. 1. San Francisco, California, USA: No Starch Press. p. passim. ISBN 1-59327003-8. Retrieved 2015-10-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?isbn=1593270658","url_text":"Write Great Code: Thinking Low-level, Writing High-level"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/No_Starch_Press","url_text":"No Starch Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-59327003-8","url_text":"1-59327003-8"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-Soviet_Non-Aggression_Pact

Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact

["1 Effects","2 Breach by Soviet Union","3 See also","4 References","5 Further reading","6 External links"]

Treaty between the ROC and USSR The Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact (traditional Chinese: 中蘇互不侵犯條約; simplified Chinese: 中苏互不侵犯条约; pinyin: Zhōng-sū hù bù qīnfàn tiáoyuē) was signed in Nanjing on August 21, 1937, between the Republic of China and the Soviet Union during the Second Sino-Japanese War. The pact went into effect on the day that it was signed and was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on September 8, 1937. Polikarpov I-16 with Chinese insignia, the main fighter plane used by the Republic of China Air Force and the Soviet volunteers Effects At first, the pact led to improving relations between the Kuomintang government, led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Soviet Union. After the signing of the pact, the Soviets began sending aircraft to the Chinese national government in Operation Zet, as well as economic aid, to help stave off the Japanese invasion. Chiang hoped that was a precursor to Soviet intervention into the war, but as time passed, he soon realized that the Soviet Union was constricted in the aid that it could provide to avoid upsetting the tacit alliance with the United Kingdom, France, and later the United States, all of which favored China in the war but would back Japan against the Soviets to weaken the last two. The treaty also allowed the Soviets to focus their attention more on the West, where Nazi Germany was building up for what appeared to be war with the Soviets, especially after the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact had been signed. That contributed to the worsening relationship between China and Germany, which had already seen the end of German military assistance in China. Breach by Soviet Union Ironically, in 1937, while the pact was being signed, the Soviets brazenly breached it before and after the signing by conducting the Xinjiang War (1937) from August to October. The Soviet Army was assisting the puppet Governor Sheng Shicai in Xinjiang. The Kuomintang Muslim general Ma Hushan led the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) to resist the invasion. Before the invasion, Ma Hushan had communicated with Chiang Kai-shek and mentioned to Peter Fleming that Chiang would send help to fight the Soviets. However, the outbreak of war against Japan led Ma to face the Soviet invasion on his own. Despite resisting and killing Soviet soldiers, Ma's forces eventually succumbed to Soviet mustard gas bombardment, and he fled to India, where he took a steamer back to China. Sheng Shicai then invited Soviet forces to garrison in Turfan, right next to Gansu Province. The Republic of China government was fully aware of the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang province and of Soviet troops moving around Xinjiang and Gansu, but it was forced to mask the maneuvers to the public as "Japanese propaganda" to avoid an international incident and for continued military supplies from the Soviets. The Chinese government responded with its own military moves. Muslim general Ma Buqing then virtually controlled the Gansu corridor. He had earlier fought against the Japanese, but since the Soviet threat was great, Chiang made some arrangements regarding Ma's position. In July 1942, Chiang instructed Ma to move 30,000 troops to the Tsaidam marsh in the Qaidam Basin of Qinghai. Chiang named Ma Reclamation Commissioner, to threaten Sheng Shicai's southern flank in Xinjiang, which bordered Tsaidam. After Ma had evacuated his positions in Gansu, Kuomintang troops from central China flooded the area and infiltrated Soviet occupied Xinjiang, gradually reclaimed it, and forced Sheng Shicai to break with the Soviets. The Ili Rebellion broke out in Xinjiang when a Kuomintang Muslim officer, Liu Bin-Di, was killed while he was fighting Turkic Uyghur Rebels in November 1944. The Soviets supported the Turkic rebels against the Kuomintang, and Kuomintang forces fought back. The Kuomintang government ordered Ma Bufang several times to march his troops into Xinjiang to intimidate the Soviet puppet Sheng Shicai. That helped in providing protection for Chinese settling in Xinjiang. Ma Bufang was sent with the Muslim Cavalry to Urumqi by the Kuomintang in 1945 during the Ili Rebellion to protect it from the Uyghur army from Hi (now Ili). See also Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship Soviet Volunteer Group References ^ League of Nations Treaty Series, vol. 181, pp. 102–105. ^ Hsiao-ting Lin (2010). Modern China's Ethnic Frontiers: A Journey to the West. Taylor & Francis. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-415-58264-3. Retrieved June 28, 2010. ^ Asia, Volume 40. Asia Magazine. 1940. Retrieved June 28, 2010. ^ Lin, Hsiao-Ting (2009). "War, Leadership and Ethnopolitics: Chiang Kai-shek and China's frontiers, 1941–1945". Journal of Contemporary China. 18 (59): 201–217. doi:10.1080/10670560802575960. S2CID 154653365. ^ Nationalists, Muslim Warlords, and the “Great Northwestern Development” in Pre-Communist China ^ Human Relations Area Files, inc (1956). A regional handbook on Northwest China, Volume 1. Printed by the Human Relations Area Files. p. 74. Retrieved June 28, 2010. ^ Paul Preston; Michael Partridge; Antony Best (2000). British documents on foreign affairs: reports and papers from the Foreign Office confidential print. From 1946 through 1950. Asia, Volume 1. University Publications of America. p. 63. ISBN 1-55655-768-X. Retrieved June 28, 2010. ^ Paul Preston; Michael Partridge; Antony Best. British documents on foreign affairs: reports and papers from the Foreign Office confidential print. From 1946 through 1950. Asia, Volume 1. University Publications of America. p. 63. ISBN 1-55655-768-X. Retrieved June 28, 2010. ^ Paul Preston; Michael Partridge; Antony Best. British documents on foreign affairs: reports and papers from the Foreign Office confidential print. From 1946 through 1950. Asia, Volume 1. University Publications of America. p. 63. ISBN 1-55655-768-X. Retrieved June 28, 2010. ^ Paul Preston; Michael Partridge; Antony Best. British documents on foreign affairs: reports and papers from the Foreign Office confidential print. From 1946 through 1950. Asia, Volume 1. University Publications of America. p. 63. ISBN 1-55655-768-X. Retrieved June 28, 2010. Further reading Low, Alfred D. The Sino-Soviet Dispute: An Analysis of the Polemics.Madison, Jersey: FDU Press, 1976. Lee, Chong-Sik. Revolutionary Struggle in Manchuria: Chinese Communism and Soviet Interest, 1922 – 1945. Berkley:U of CA Press, 1983. Lawrance, Alan. China Since 1919: Revolution and Reform, A Sourcebook.New York: Routledge, 2004. Garver, John W. "Chiang Kai-shek's Quest for Soviet Entry into the Sino-Japanese War." Political Science Quarterly 102, no. 102 (1987): 295 – 316. External links Text of the treaty vteSino-Russian treatiesRussian and Qing empires Nerchinsk (1689) Bura (1727) Kyakhta (1727, 1768, 1792) Kulja (1851) Aigun (1858) Tientsin (1858) Peking (1860) Tarbagatai (1864) Livadia (1879) Saint Petersburg (1881) Moscow (1896) Peking (1898) Boxer Protocol (1901) Qiqikar (1911) Russian Empire and Republic of China Treaty of Kyakhta (1915) Soviet Union and Republic of China Sino-Soviet Treaty of Peking (1924) Khabarovsk Protocol (1929) Non-Aggression Pact (1937) Treaty of Friendship and Alliance (1945) Soviet Union and People's Republic of China Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance (1950) Border Agreement (1991) Russian Federation and People's Republic of ChinaTreaty of Good-Neighborliness and Friendly Cooperation (2001)

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The pact went into effect on the day that it was signed and was registered in League of Nations Treaty Series on September 8, 1937.[1]Polikarpov I-16 with Chinese insignia, the main fighter plane used by the Republic of China Air Force and the Soviet volunteers","title":"Sino-Soviet Non-Aggression Pact"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kuomintang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuomintang"},{"link_name":"Chiang Kai-shek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chiang_Kai-shek"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"Operation Zet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Zet"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Nazi Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet%E2%80%93Japanese_Neutrality_Pact"},{"link_name":"German military assistance in China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sino-German_cooperation"}],"text":"At first, the pact led to improving relations between the Kuomintang government, led by Chiang Kai-shek, and the Soviet Union. After the signing of the pact, the Soviets began sending aircraft to the Chinese national government in Operation Zet, as well as economic aid, to help stave off the Japanese invasion. Chiang hoped that was a precursor to Soviet intervention into the war, but as time passed, he soon realized that the Soviet Union was constricted in the aid that it could provide to avoid upsetting the tacit alliance with the United Kingdom, France, and later the United States, all of which favored China in the war but would back Japan against the Soviets to weaken the last two.[citation needed]The treaty also allowed the Soviets to focus their attention more on the West, where Nazi Germany was building up for what appeared to be war with the Soviets, especially after the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact had been signed. That contributed to the worsening relationship between China and Germany, which had already seen the end of German military assistance in China.","title":"Effects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Xinjiang War (1937)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiang_War_(1937)"},{"link_name":"Sheng Shicai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheng_Shicai"},{"link_name":"Xinjiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiang"},{"link_name":"36th Division (National Revolutionary Army)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/36th_Division_(National_Revolutionary_Army)"},{"link_name":"Peter Fleming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Fleming_(writer)"},{"link_name":"Turfan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turfan"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Ma Buqing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ma_Buqing"},{"link_name":"Gansu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gansu"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Qaidam Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qaidam_Basin"},{"link_name":"Qinghai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qinghai"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Sheng Shicai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheng_Shicai"},{"link_name":"Xinjiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiang"},{"link_name":"Ili Rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ili_Rebellion"},{"link_name":"Xinjiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xinjiang"},{"link_name":"Sheng Shicai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheng_Shicai"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"Urumqi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urumqi"},{"link_name":"Ili Rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ili_Rebellion"},{"link_name":"Ili","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ili_Kazakh_Autonomous_Prefecture"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Ironically, in 1937, while the pact was being signed, the Soviets brazenly breached it before and after the signing by conducting the Xinjiang War (1937) from August to October.The Soviet Army was assisting the puppet Governor Sheng Shicai in Xinjiang. The Kuomintang Muslim general Ma Hushan led the 36th Division (National Revolutionary Army) to resist the invasion.Before the invasion, Ma Hushan had communicated with Chiang Kai-shek and mentioned to Peter Fleming that Chiang would send help to fight the Soviets. However, the outbreak of war against Japan led Ma to face the Soviet invasion on his own. Despite resisting and killing Soviet soldiers, Ma's forces eventually succumbed to Soviet mustard gas bombardment, and he fled to India, where he took a steamer back to China.Sheng Shicai then invited Soviet forces to garrison in Turfan, right next to Gansu Province.The Republic of China government was fully aware of the Soviet invasion of Xinjiang province and of Soviet troops moving around Xinjiang and Gansu, but it was forced to mask the maneuvers to the public as \"Japanese propaganda\" to avoid an international incident and for continued military supplies from the Soviets.[2]The Chinese government responded with its own military moves. Muslim general Ma Buqing then virtually controlled the Gansu corridor.[3] He had earlier fought against the Japanese, but since the Soviet threat was great, Chiang made some arrangements regarding Ma's position. In July 1942, Chiang instructed Ma to move 30,000 troops to the Tsaidam marsh in the Qaidam Basin of Qinghai.[4][5] Chiang named Ma Reclamation Commissioner, to threaten Sheng Shicai's southern flank in Xinjiang, which bordered Tsaidam.After Ma had evacuated his positions in Gansu, Kuomintang troops from central China flooded the area and infiltrated Soviet occupied Xinjiang, gradually reclaimed it, and forced Sheng Shicai to break with the Soviets.The Ili Rebellion broke out in Xinjiang when a Kuomintang Muslim officer, Liu Bin-Di, was killed while he was fighting Turkic Uyghur Rebels in November 1944. The Soviets supported the Turkic rebels against the Kuomintang, and Kuomintang forces fought back.The Kuomintang government ordered Ma Bufang several times to march his troops into Xinjiang to intimidate the Soviet puppet Sheng Shicai. That helped in providing protection for Chinese settling in Xinjiang.[6] Ma Bufang was sent with the Muslim Cavalry to Urumqi by the Kuomintang in 1945 during the Ili Rebellion to protect it from the Uyghur army from Hi (now Ili).[7][8][9][10]","title":"Breach by Soviet Union"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Low, Alfred D. The Sino-Soviet Dispute: An Analysis of the Polemics.Madison, Jersey: FDU Press, 1976.\nLee, Chong-Sik. Revolutionary Struggle in Manchuria: Chinese Communism and Soviet Interest, 1922 – 1945. Berkley:U of CA Press, 1983.\nLawrance, Alan. China Since 1919: Revolution and Reform, A Sourcebook.New York: Routledge, 2004.\nGarver, John W. \"Chiang Kai-shek's Quest for Soviet Entry into the Sino-Japanese War.\" Political Science Quarterly 102, no. 102 (1987): 295 – 316.","title":"Further reading"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sequential_function_chart

Sequential function chart

["1 See also","2 References","3 External links"]

Sequential function chart (SFC) is a visual programming language used for programmable logic controllers (PLCs). It is one of the five languages defined by IEC 61131-3 standard. The SFC standard is defined as Preparation of function charts for control systems, and was based on GRAFCET  (itself based on binary Petri nets). It can be used to program processes that can be split into steps. Basic Batch SFC, with important elements labeled Main components of SFC are: Steps with associated actions; Transitions with associated logic conditions; Directed links between steps and transitions. Steps in an SFC diagram can be active or inactive. Actions are only executed for active steps. A step can be active for one of two motives: It is an initial step as specified by the programmer. It was activated during a scan cycle and not deactivated since. Steps are activated when all steps above it are active and the connecting transition is superable (i.e. its associated condition is true). When a transition is passed, all steps above are deactivated at once and after all steps below are activated at once. Actions associated with steps can be of several types, the most relevant ones being Continuous (N), Set (S), and Reset (R). Apart from the obvious meaning of Set and Reset, an N action ensures that its target variable is set to 1 as long as the step is active. An SFC rule states that if two steps have an N action on the same target, the variable must never be reset to 0. It is also possible to insert LD (Ladder Diagram) actions inside an SFC program (and this is the standard way, for instance, to work on integer variables). SFC is an inherently parallel programming language in that multiple control flows — Program Organization Units (POUs) in the standard's parlance — can be active at once. Non-standard extensions to the language include macroactions: i.e. actions inside a program unit that influence the state of another program unit. The most relevant such macroaction is "forcing", in which a POU can decide the active steps of another POU. See also DRAKON-chart UML activity diagram Continuous Function Chart References ^ Fernandez, J. L.; Sanz, R.; Paz, E.; Alonso, C. (19–23 May 2008). "Using hierarchical binary Petri nets to build robust mobile robot applications: RoboGraph". IEEE International Conference on Robotics and Automation, 2008. Pasadena, CA, USA. pp. 1372–1377. doi:10.1109/ROBOT.2008.4543394. ^ Lewis, R. W. (1998). Programming industrial control systems using IEC 1131-3. ISBN 978-0852969502. ^ Tom Meadowcroft, 2018 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Sequential function charts. SFC/GRAFCET free stencils for Microsoft Visio Rockwell Automation, Allen-Bradley. Sequential Function Charts CODESYS

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_learning

Cultural learning

["1 Overview","2 Examples","3 In non-human animals","4 See also","5 References","5.1 Inline","5.2 General"]

Passing on of information from one group of people or animals to another This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Cultural learning is the way a group of people or animals within a society or culture tend to learn and pass on information. Learning styles can be greatly influenced by how a culture socializes with its children and young people. Cross-cultural research in the past fifty years has primarily focused on differences between Eastern and Western cultures. Some scholars believe that cultural learning differences may be responses to the physical environment in the areas in which a culture was initially founded. These environmental differences include climate, migration patterns, war, agricultural suitability, and endemic pathogens. Cultural evolution, upon which cultural learning is built, is believed to be a product of only the past 10,000 years and to hold little connection to genetics. Overview Cultural learning allows individuals to acquire skills that they would be unable to do independently over the course of their lifetimes. Cultural learning is believed to be particularly important for humans. Humans are weaned at an early age compared to the emergence of adult dentition. The immaturity of dentition and the digestive system, the time required for growth of the brain, and the rapid skeletal growth needed for the young to reach adult height and strength mean that children have special digestive needs and are dependent on adults for a long period of time. This time of dependence also allows time for cultural learning to occur before passage into adulthood. The basis of cultural learning is based on; people create, remember, and deal with ideas. They understand and apply specific systems of symbolic meaning. Cultures have been compared to sets of control mechanisms, plans, recipes, rules, or instructions. Cultural differences have been found in academic motivation, achievement, learning style, conformity, and compliance. Cultural learning is dependent on innovation, or the ability to create new responses to the environment and the ability to communicate or imitate the behaviour of others. Animals that are able to solve problems and imitate the behaviour of others are therefore able to transmit information across generations. Cass Sunstein described in 2007 how Wikipedia moves us past the rigid limits of socialist planning that Friedrich Hayek attacked on the grounds that "no planner could possibly obtain the dispersed bits of information held by individual members of society. Hayek insisted that the knowledge of individuals, taken as a whole, is far greater than that of any commission or board, however diligent and expert." Examples An example of cultural transmission can be seen in post-World War II Japan during the American occupation of the country. There were political, economic, and social changes in Japan influenced by America. Some changes include changes to their constitution, reforms, and the consumption of media, which were influenced by American occupiers. The occupation of Japan by the Japanese turned into a strong link between nations. Over time, Japanese culture began to accept American touchstones like jazz and baseball, while Americans were introduced to Japanese cuisine and entertainment. A modern approach to cultural transmission would be that of the internet. One example would be millennials, who "are both products of their culture as well as influencers." Millennials are often the ones teaching older generations how to navigate the web. The teacher has to accommodate to the learning process of the student, in this case an older generation student, in order to transmit the information fluently and in a manner that is easier to understand. This goes hand in hand with the Communication Accommodation Theory, which "elaborates the human tendency to adjust their behaviour while interacting." The end result would be that, with the help of someone else, people are able to share their newly acquired skills among people in their culture, which was not possible before. Humans also tend to follow "communicative" ways of learning, as seen in a study by Hanna Marno, a researcher at the International School for Advanced Studies. In the study, infants followed an adult's action of pressing a button to light up a lamp based on the adult's "non-verbal (eye contact) and verbal cues." In non-human animals External videos “The cultural lives of birds”, Knowable Magazine, February 26, 2022 Enculturation can also be used to describe the raising of an animal in which the animal acquires traits and skills that would not otherwise be acquired if it were raised by another of its own species. Cultural learning is dependent on innovation, or the ability to create new responses to the environment and the ability to communicate or imitate the behavior of others. Animals that are able to solve problems and imitate the behavior of others are therefore able to transmit information across generations. A wide variety of social animals learn from other members of their group or pack. Wolves, for example, learn multiple hunting strategies from the other pack members. A large number of bird species also engage in cultural learning; such learning is critical for the survival of some species. Dolphins also pass on knowledge about tool use. See also Educational anthropology Intercultural competence Intercultural communication principles Socialization Dual inheritance theory References Inline ^ Chang, et al., 2010 ^ Chang, et al., 2010 ^ Chang, et al., 2010 ^ Van Schaik & Burkart, 2011 ^ MacDonald, 2007 ^ MacDonald, 2007 ^ "What are Different Types of Learning Styles in Education". sites.google.com. Retrieved 2018-05-31. ^ Chang, et al., 2010 ^ Lehmann, Feldman & Kaeuffer, 2010 ^ Sunstein, Cass R. (24 February 2007). "A Brave New Wikiworld". Washington Post. ^ a b "The American Occupation of Japan, 1945-1952 | Asia for Educators | Columbia University". afe.easia.columbia.edu. Retrieved 2018-10-22. ^ "Millennials: Mapping Their 'Culture Code'". Millennial Marketing. ^ "Communication Accommodation Theory". Communication Theory. ^ "Cultural transmission: The most powerful learning 'tool'". ScienceDaily. Sissa Medialab. 9 April 2015. ^ van Schaik and Judith M. Burkart, 2011 ^ Lehmann, Feldman & Kaeuffer, 2010 ^ Krützen M, Mann J, Heithaus MR, Connor RC, Bejder L, Sherwin WB (June 2005). "Cultural transmission of tool use in bottlenose dolphins". Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 102 (25): 8939–43. doi:10.1073/pnas.0500232102. PMC 1157020. PMID 15947077. General van Shaik, Carel P. & Burkart, Judith M. (2011). "Social learning and evolution: the cultural intelligence hypothesis". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 366(1567), 1008-1016 Chang, Lei; Mak, Miranda C. K.; Li, Tong; Wu, Bao Pei; Chen, Bin Bin; & Lu, Hui Jing (2011). "Cultural Adaptations to Environmental Variability: An Evolutionary Account of East–West Differences" (PDF). Educational Psychology Review, 23(1), 99-129. doi:10.1007/s10648-010-9149-0 Lehmann, L. L., Feldman, M. W., & Kaeuffer, R. R. (2010). "Cumulative cultural dynamics and the co-evolution of cultural innovation and transmission: an ESS model for panmictic and structured populations". Journal of Evolutionary Biology, 23(11), 2356-2369. doi:10.1111/j.1420-9101.2010.02096.x MacDonald, K. (2007). "Cross-cultural Comparison of Learning in Human Hunting". Human Nature, 18(4), 386-402. doi:10.1007/s12110-007-9019-8 Conrad, Phillip (2005). Window on Humanity: A Concise Introduction to Anthropology. New York: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-289028-0. "The American Occupation of Japan, 1945-1952 | Asia for Educators | Columbia University". vteCulture OutlineSciences Cultural anthropology Cultural astronomy Cultural ecology Cultural geography Cultural neuroscience Cultural studies Culturology Culture theory Subfields Bioculture Cross-cultural studies Cross-cultural communication Cross-cultural leadership Cross-cultural psychiatry Cross-cultural psychology Cultural analytics Cultural economics Cultural entomology Cultural history Cultural mapping Cultural mediation Cultural psychology Cultural values Culturomics Intercultural learning Intercultural relations Internet culture Philosophy of culture Popular culture studies Postcritique Semiotics of culture Sociology of culture Sound culture Theology of culture Transcultural nursing Types Constructed culture Dominant culture Folk culture High culture Individualistic culture Legal culture Low culture Microculture Official culture Political culture Civic Popular culture Urban Primitive culture Subculture Alternative culture list Super culture Vernacular culture Culture by location Aspects Acculturation Cultural appreciation Cultural appropriation Cultural area Cultural artifact Cultural baggage Cultural behavior Cultural bias Cultural capital Cross-cultural Cultural communication Cultural conflict Cultural cringe Cultural dissonance Cultural emphasis Cultural framework Cultural heritage Destroyed Cultural icon Cultural identity Cultural industry Cultural invention Cultural landscape Cultural learning Cultural leveling Cultural memory Cultural pluralism Cultural practice Cultural property Cultural reproduction Cultural system Cultural technology Cultural universal Cultureme Enculturation High- and low-context cultures Interculturality Manuscript culture Material culture Non-material culture Organizational culture Print culture Protoculture Relational mobility Safety culture Technoculture Trans-cultural diffusion Transculturation Visual culture Politics Colonial mentality Consumer capitalism Cross cultural sensitivity Cultural assimilation Cultural attaché Cultural backwardness Cultural Bolshevism Cultural conservatism Cultural contracts Cultural deprivation Cultural diplomacy Cultural environmentalism Cultural exception Cultural feminism Cultural genocide Cultural globalization Cultural hegemony Cultural imperialism Cultural intelligence Cultural liberalism Cultural nationalism Cultural pessimism Cultural policy Cultural racism Cultural radicalism Cultural retention Cultural Revolution Cultural rights Cultural safety Cultural silence Cultural subsidy Cultural Zionism Culture change Culture minister Culture of fear Culture war Deculturalization Dominator culture Interculturalism Monoculturalism Multiculturalism Biculturalism Multiracial democracy Pluriculturalism Polyculturalism Transculturism Religions Buddhism Christianity Catholicism Cultural Christians Protestantism Role of Christianity in civilization Eastern Orthodoxy Mormonism Cultural Hindus Islam Cultural Muslims Judaism Sikhism Related Animal culture Archaeological culture Bennett scale Cannabis culture Circuit of culture Civilization Coffee culture Cross-cultural Cultural center Cultural competence Cultural critic Cultural determinism Cultural diversity Cultural evolutionism Cultural homogenization Cultural institution Cultural jet lag Cultural lag Cultural literacy Cultural mosaic Cultural movement Cultural mulatto Cultural probe Cultural relativism Culture speculation Cultural tourism Pop-culture Cultural translation Cultural turn Cultural sensibility Culture and menstruation Culture and positive psychology Culture and social cognition Culture gap Culture hero Culture industry Culture shock Culturgen Children's culture Culturalism Cyberculture Death and culture Disability culture Deaf culture Drinking culture Drug culture Eastern culture Emotions and culture Intercultural communication Intercultural competence Languaculture Living things in culture Media culture Oppositional culture Participatory culture Permission culture Rape culture Remix culture Tea culture Transformation of culture Urban culture Welfare culture Western culture Youth culture Category Commons WikiProject Changes

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Learning styles can be greatly influenced by how a culture socializes with its children and young people. Cross-cultural research in the past fifty years has primarily focused on differences between Eastern and Western cultures. [1] Some scholars believe that cultural learning differences may be responses to the physical environment in the areas in which a culture was initially founded. [2] These environmental differences include climate, migration patterns, war, agricultural suitability, and endemic pathogens. Cultural evolution, upon which cultural learning is built, is believed to be a product of only the past 10,000 years and to hold little connection to genetics. [3]","title":"Cultural learning"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"skills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skill"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"adult dentition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adult_dentition"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"symbolic meaning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_meaning"},{"link_name":"control mechanisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_mechanisms"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Cass Sunstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cass_Sunstein"},{"link_name":"Wikipedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Hayek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Hayek"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Cultural learning allows individuals to acquire skills that they would be unable to do independently over the course of their lifetimes. [4] Cultural learning is believed to be particularly important for humans. Humans are weaned at an early age compared to the emergence of adult dentition. [5] The immaturity of dentition and the digestive system, the time required for growth of the brain, and the rapid skeletal growth needed for the young to reach adult height and strength mean that children have special digestive needs and are dependent on adults for a long period of time. [6] This time of dependence also allows time for cultural learning to occur before passage into adulthood.The basis of cultural learning is based on; people create, remember, and deal with ideas. They understand and apply specific systems of symbolic meaning. Cultures have been compared to sets of control mechanisms, plans, recipes, rules, or instructions. Cultural differences have been found in academic motivation, achievement, learning style,[7] conformity, and compliance. [8] Cultural learning is dependent on innovation, or the ability to create new responses to the environment and the ability to communicate or imitate the behaviour of others. [9] Animals that are able to solve problems and imitate the behaviour of others are therefore able to transmit information across generations.Cass Sunstein described in 2007 how Wikipedia moves us past the rigid limits of socialist planning that Friedrich Hayek attacked on the grounds that \"no planner could possibly obtain the dispersed bits of information held by individual members of society. Hayek insisted that the knowledge of individuals, taken as a whole, is far greater than that of any commission or board, however diligent and expert.\"[10]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"occupation of","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occupation_of_Japan"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-11"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:02-11"},{"link_name":"millennials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millennials"},{"link_name":"influencers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influencers"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Communication Accommodation Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_Accommodation_Theory"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"International School for Advanced Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_School_for_Advanced_Studies"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"An example of cultural transmission can be seen in post-World War II Japan during the American occupation of the country. There were political, economic, and social changes in Japan influenced by America.[11] Some changes include changes to their constitution, reforms, and the consumption of media, which were influenced by American occupiers. The occupation of Japan by the Japanese turned into a strong link between nations. Over time, Japanese culture began to accept American touchstones like jazz and baseball, while Americans were introduced to Japanese cuisine and entertainment.[11]A modern approach to cultural transmission would be that of the internet. One example would be millennials, who \"are both products of their culture as well as influencers.\"[12] Millennials are often the ones teaching older generations how to navigate the web. The teacher has to accommodate to the learning process of the student, in this case an older generation student, in order to transmit the information fluently and in a manner that is easier to understand. This goes hand in hand with the Communication Accommodation Theory, which \"elaborates the human tendency to adjust their behaviour while interacting.\"[13] The end result would be that, with the help of someone else, people are able to share their newly acquired skills among people in their culture, which was not possible before.Humans also tend to follow \"communicative\" ways of learning, as seen in a study by Hanna Marno, a researcher at the International School for Advanced Studies. In the study, infants followed an adult's action of pressing a button to light up a lamp based on the adult's \"non-verbal (eye contact) and verbal cues.\"[14]","title":"Examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"social animals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_animals"},{"link_name":"Wolves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolves"},{"link_name":"hunting strategies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting_strategies"},{"link_name":"Dolphins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dolphins"},{"link_name":"tool use","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tools"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Enculturation can also be used to describe the raising of an animal in which the animal acquires traits and skills that would not otherwise be acquired if it were raised by another of its own species. [15]Cultural learning is dependent on innovation, or the ability to create new responses to the environment and the ability to communicate or imitate the behavior of others. [16] Animals that are able to solve problems and imitate the behavior of others are therefore able to transmit information across generations. A wide variety of social animals learn from other members of their group or pack. Wolves, for example, learn multiple hunting strategies from the other pack members. A large number of bird species also engage in cultural learning; such learning is critical for the survival of some species. Dolphins also pass on knowledge about tool use.[17]","title":"In non-human animals"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_control_car

Radio-controlled car

["1 History","1.1 Early experiments","1.2 Early commercial RC car kits","1.3 Early commercial ready-to-run RC Cars","2 Toy-grade RC cars","3 Hobby-grade radio control models","3.1 Ready-to-run","3.2 Kits","3.3 Electric models","3.4 Nitro powered models","3.5 Gasoline-powered models","3.6 Accessories and upgrades","4 Principle of operation","5 Modern developments in radio-controlled racing","5.1 Telemetry in RC racing","5.2 Competitions","6 Radio-controlled racing","7 See also","8 References"]

Battery or gas-powered model cars or trucks controlled from a distance For miniature car replicas or toys, see Model car. This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (November 2015) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Some of this article's listed sources may not be reliable. Please help improve this article by looking for better, more reliable sources. Unreliable citations may be challenged and removed. (November 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article contains too many pictures for its overall length. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please improve this article by removing indiscriminate collections of images or adjusting images that are sandwiching text in accordance with the Manual of Style on use of images. (May 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Radio-controlled cars, or RC cars for short, are miniature model cars, vans, buses, trucks or buggies that can be controlled from a distance using a specialized transmitter or remote. The term "RC" has been used to mean both "remote controlled" and "radio-controlled". "Remote controlled" includes vehicles that are controlled by radio waves, infrared waves or a physical wire connection. RC cars are powered by one of three energy sources—electricity, nitro fuel or petrol. Electric RC models are powered by small but powerful electric motors and rechargeable nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd), nickel metal hydride(NiMH), or lithium polymer (LiPo) cells with the latter two being the most used. Both NiMH and LiPo have advantages and disadvantages in various RC applications where NiMH is mainly used for recreational purposes and LiPo for more demanding purposes (including racing). There are also brushed or brushless electric motors—brushless motors are more powerful, long lasting and efficient, but also much more expensive than brushed motors. Nitro powered models use glow plug engines, small internal combustion engines fuelled by a special mixture of nitromethane, methanol, and oil (in most cases a blend of castor oil and synthetic oil). These are referred to as "nitro" RC cars. Nitro fuel can be dangerous. It causes complications like cancer if ingested and blindness if in the eyes. Exceptionally large models, typically of scale 1:5, are powered by small gasoline engines, similar to string trimmer motors, which use a mix of oil and gasoline. Electric cars are generally considered easier to work with compared to fuel-driven models but can be equally complex at the higher budget and skill levels. Both electric and nitro models can be very fast, although electric is easier to upgrade and more versatile. In both of these categories, both on-road and off-road vehicles are available. Off-road models, which are built with fully functional off-road suspensions and a wide tire selection, can be used on various types of terrain. On-road cars, with a much less robust suspension, are limited to smooth, paved surfaces. There are also rally cars, which fall somewhere between on-road and off-road and can be driven on gravel, dirt or other loose surfaces. In the past decade, advances in "on-road" vehicles have made their suspension as adjustable as many full scale race cars, today. History The Academy of Model Aeronautics (AMA), recognized and documented early radio-controlled model aircraft as having been developed in the 1930s. However, radio-controlled model cars have only been documented more recently. There may have been earlier model car hobbyists, inspired by RC airplanes, tinkering with RC cars but not documented. Here are the RC car projects that have been documented. Early experiments - 1954 Design Competition RC Winner - A streamlined radio-controlled vehicle won a third prize in Ford Motor Company's 1954 Industrial Arts Awards program. David Swinder of Warren, Ohio used a large control console to demonstrate the operation of the six-foot vehicle to Al Esper, Ford's chief test driver. - 1955 Ford Motor Company RC Model Car - Automobile manufacturer studios used scale models to reduce new design development lead times and save money. Among Ford designs executed in 3/8 size were the LaTosca, a futuristic bubble-top dream car, and the Mexico, an aerodynamic reskin of the 1955 Thunderbird that was designed to top 200 mph. For these two models the designers constructed radio control systems, adapting six-volt car batteries, convertible top motors, and other full-size components from the Ford parts bins. Along with motive power, braking, and turning, the radio control system also reportedly operated the headlights, brake lights, and turn signals. - Early 1960's Bill Johnson Experimental Car - In an article in the first issue (September 1970) of ‘Pit Stop’ magazine, Bill Johnson of Burbank, California is credited with building “in the early 1960’s”, an internal combustion engine-powered, radio-controlled, 1:12th scale, model car. The date is not specific, but it seems reasonable that “the early ‘60’s” would mean the car was built around 1963 or earlier. It was described as an all metal, radio-controlled race car using an early Bonner reed radio control system. The car was composed of two sections, in the forward section the radio, power pack, two servos, and front suspension; the rear section contained the motor, rear end, rear suspension and the fuel tank. A Veco .19 engine was chosen for its ability to deliver power at any given RPM. Bill experimented with a 4:1 direct drive gear ratio and finally settled on a 6:1 ratio. Using 3+3⁄4-inch diameter rear tires, Bill achieved a 600 to 2,500 RPM range resulting in speeds from 6 miles per hour to 29 miles per hour. His independent front suspension, while not having adjustable camber, caster or other adjustments, and although on the heavy side by later standards, proved quite durable. The car tracked well in a straight line or in circles as small as 8 feet in diameter. Bill utilized a leaf spring front set-up to reduce jolts on rough surfaces. He had tried a worm drive to eliminate the jolts to the steering servo but that proved impractical. For the rear suspension Johnson also used leaf springs because of the ease of installation in the car and to facilitate the changes that he anticipated as the car design evolved. Working alone, Bill achieved a remarkable degree of success and sophistication with a model car that was a very early functioning RC car, more remarkable because it was built from scratch, since no RC car parts were yet available. - 1964 Ken Balz Experimental Car - Ken built an electric-powered, radio-controlled model car which combined a Monogram 1:8 scale Big “T” plastic model car kit with an Orbit 4-channel radio transmitter and receiver. Two “Micro Mo” motors with 485-to-1 gear reduction were used, one for steering and one to power the car. Rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries supplied the energy. Steering was proportional but required two channels, one for left turns and one for right turns. Drive was not proportional but was single speed, radio-controlled “forward-stop-reverse-stop” sequence switch. - 1965 Chuck Eckles Experimental Cars - (Chuck was erroneously called Bill Eccles in one article) Chuck's first experiment was a 1:8 scale plastic kit Monogram Jaguar E-Type, McCoy35 internal combustion, radio-controlled car with a stainless-steel chassis. His initial clutch was designed to engage and turn the engine to start it and then disengage so that the engine could idle. It would then re-engage centrifugally as the engine speed was increased. The car ran well, but the combination of a fragile plastic body, more power than needed and a complex clutch led Chuck to do a major redesign. He used a 1:11 scale Wen-Mac 1965 Mustang to make a plaster plug master for more durable vacuum-formed 0.060 butyl-acetate bodies. He developed a simplified centrifugal clutch more like current designs. Two servos were used, the forward servo being used for steering, while the rear servo for both brake and throttle. The Mustang's rear axle ratio was 12:56 with a 56-tooth gear that was as large as space and ground clearance would permit. Wheels and tires used were semi-pneumatic, 2+1⁄4-inch Veco aircraft wheels. After several experiments, the engine used was a Cox Medallion .15 with part of the throttle control used as a collector ring for exhaust and excess oil. The carburettor spray bar had been reworked to give a better idle, while an adjustable stop was installed. The top speed achieved was 35 miles per hour. Steering was rack and pinion with an independent front suspension. The overall length of this pioneering vehicle was 16+1⁄2-inch, with a height of 4+1⁄2-inch, a width of 6+1⁄4-inch and an all-up weight of 3 ½ pounds. Early commercial RC car kits Toy and hobby companies had been selling various motorized model vehicles for many years but interest in commercial production of radio-controlled model car kits began with hobbyists - - 1965 - In the July/August 1965 issue of American Modeler magazine, Walter McEntee, called the “World’s best-known writer of radio control news” published a picture of five people with transmitters racing five cars (in a slightly snowy lot) and the caption, “West Germany’s Schuco-Hegi outfit offers Porsche Carrera 904GT racing coupe kit for multi-channel operation. Car is 22.8” long on 12.6” wheel base, uses two Monoperm electric motors. Kit has ready-made plastic body, special front suspension parts and diecast wheels. These demonstration cars were said to have Metz Mecatron 10-channel superheterodyne radio receivers". - 1967 – In the March 1967 issue of Car Model magazine, an article by an experienced RC airplane hobbyist, Tom Dion of Michigan, USA, outlined how to build an RC car and announced the availability of 1:18 scale RC car and radios in component kits. Early commercial ready-to-run RC Cars - 1966 Wen-Mac/Testors Mustang - In the early 1950s, toy company Wen-Mac produced a cast aluminium, .049 gas engine powered Indy tether car, the Wen-Mac Automite. By the ‘60’s they were producing plastic, gas-powered tether cars. Then, in the November 19, 1965 issue of Life magazine, Ford Motor Company advertised an exclusive – “Only at Your Ford Dealers” - 16-inch, 1966 Poppy Red Motorized Mustang GT made by Wen-Mac. The price was $4.95. The ad showed a young boy playing with it indoors to show that it had a battery-powered electric motor. However, the ad also noted, “For racing buffs a conversion kit (gasoline engine and slicks) and remote-control throttle may also be ordered.” The conversion kit also included a pylon and spikes for attaching the pylon to an outdoor racing surface and a line to tether the car. The revolutionary advancement was the “remote control throttle” (not radio control). This consisted of a second line fed from the car, through the pylon and back to the “driver” to control the throttle of the .049 cubic inch, two-stroke gas engine. Remote control by radio was the next step.Wen-Mac/Testors 1966 Mustang 1:11 Scale Apparently that next step was being developed during late 1965 and early 1966. Wen-Mac was purchased by Testors in 1966 and, in the April 1966 issue of Car Model magazine, coverage of the February 1966 Hobby Industry Trade show in Chicago included the Testors model company announcement of a radio-controlled, electric powered version of what was apparently the same basic 16” 1966 Mustang GT. It was mistakenly called a 1:9 scale model when actually, a 16" long 1966 Mustang is 1:11 scale. It was powered by electric motors and had rechargeable nickel cadmium batteries. To operate the car, a switch on the bottom of the chassis was first set to select Low Speed or High Speed. The transmitter had 3 channels, one connected to a push button that transmitted a simple “Go or Stop” signal to the drive motors. The other two channels were very early proportional controls, activated by a single stick; pushing it right activated the right turn channel and left for the left steering channel. The innovative drive system had two transverse motors, one for the right rear wheel and one for the left. Both motors powered the car when operated in a straight line but in a turn, the inside free-wheeled, creating a form of rear differential. Three different 27mHz channels were available to allow running 3 cars at a time. The price announced in 1966 for the complete, ready to run car was $69.95, a clear indication of the high price of radio control in what was originally a $4.95 battery electric car without radio control. ElGi Ferrari 250LM 1:12 Scale Radio Controlled Car - 1966 ElGi Ferrari 250LM - Another commercially viable RC car was available by mid-1966, produced by the Italian company El-Gi (Elettronica Giocattoli) from Reggio Emilia. Their first model, an electric 1:12 Ferrari 250 LM had a radio-controlled on-off motor function with no reverse. Steering had two on-off switches, turn radius was determined by how long the operator held down the appropriate left or right switch on the transmitter. An extensive article about the car and its driving characteristics appeared in the June 1966 Italian magazine Quattroruote. Concerning viable 1:8 scale race cars, information received in an email from Mardave founder Wes Raynor: "When I started Mardave R/C Racing (in Leicester, England) in 1969/70 (not too sure which!) we claimed to be the first r/c (racing) car manufacturers in Europe. These cars were 1/8 scale, (proportional radio) I.C. engine powered cars." In the early 1970s, several commercial products were created by small firms in the US. Most of these companies began as slot car companies and with the wane in popularity of that genre moved into the R/C field. Among these were Associated Electrics, Thorp, Dynamic, Taurus, Delta, and Scorpion. These primarily were 1/8 scale nitro-powered (then called gas) aluminium flat pan cars generally powered by a .21 cubic inch engine. The bodies for these cars were vacuum formed polycarbonate (the most popular made of Lexan). The most popular engine was the K&B Veco McCoy. The primary sanctioning body for races for these cars was Remotely Operated Auto Racers (ROAR). In 1973–74, Jerobee, a company based in Washington State, created their 1/12 nitro car using a Cox .049 engine. Over 54,000 were sold "Ready to Run" W/Radio control system of which 25K were made by EK Product od Texas and the balance by JoMac when they bought the company from Rocket Research Corp. Several aftermarket companies created parts for this car including clear Lexan bodies, heat sinks, and larger fuel tanks. This scale evolved into 1/12 scale electric racing when Associated Electrics created the RC12E in 1976–77. Jerobee became Jomac and created their own electric kit called the Lightning 2000 that won the "ROAR" National Championships in 1981& 82 for 6-Cell Modified and 82 the 6-Cell Production classes. The Lightning 2000 was designed by Don McKay and Jon Congdon. By the late 1970s, interests in 1/12 scale electric racing began to grow as 1/8 scale IC racers, the sole racing category at the time, needing to race throughout the winter as an alternative to their impractical IC cars began to race 1/12 cars, therefore a winter national series was developed. As a result, the series grew into popularity as a large number of scratch-built cars started to appear in these meetings. Again, electric r/c cars were enabled by one revolutionary development, that of the NiCad rechargeable battery. Prior to the mid-1970s, batteries were either heavy lead acid or expensive throw away dry cells. In 1976, the Japanese firm Tamiya, which was renowned for their intricately detailed plastic model kits, released a series of elegant and highly detailed, but mechanically simple electric on-road car models that were sold as "suitable for radio control". Although rather expensive to purchase, the kits and radio systems sold rapidly. Tamiya soon began to produce more purpose-built remote-controlled model cars, and were the first to release off-road buggies featuring real suspension systems. It was this progression toward the off-road class that brought about much of the hobby's popularity, as it meant radio-controlled cars were no longer restricted to bitumen and smooth surfaces, but could be driven virtually anywhere. The first true Tamiya off-road vehicles were the Sand Scorcher and the Rough Rider, both released in 1979, and both based on realistic dune buggy designs. Tamiya continued to produce off-road vehicles in increasing numbers, featuring working suspensions, more powerful motors, textured off-road rubber tires and various stylized "dune buggy" bodies. They also produced trucks, such as the Toyota HiLux Pickup, that featured realistic three-speed gearboxes and leaf-spring suspension systems. All of these models were realistic, durable, easy to assemble, capable of being modified, and simple to repair. They were so popular that they could be credited with launching a boom in radio-controlled model cars in the early to mid 1980s, and provided the basis for today's radio-controlled car market. Popular Tamiya models included the Grasshopper and the Hornet dune buggies as well as the Blackfoot and Clodbuster monster truck models. The earliest Tamiya models, particularly the early off roaders, are now highly sought after by vintage R/C collectors and can fetch prices of up to US$3000 on internet auction sites if still in mint, unbuilt form. Acknowledging their continued popularity, several of the early kits have even been re-released by Tamiya during 2005–2007, with a few alterations. A British firm, Schumacher Racing, was the first to develop an adjustable ball differential in 1980, which allowed nearly infinite tuning for various track conditions. At the time the majority of on-road cars had a solid axle, while off-road cars generally had a gear-type differential. Team Associated followed suit with the introduction of the RC100 1/8 scale gas on-road car, RC12 1/12 scale on-road electric car, and RC10 1/10 scale off-road electric racing buggy in 1984 (see below). Team Losi followed with the introduction of the JRX2 in 1988. Toy-grade RC cars A collection of Taiyo Toys Co. Ltd. manufactured radio-controlled toys, sold under the Taiyo, and Tyco RC brands sold in the 1980s and 1990s. Radio controlled vehicle toy 1:24 Range Rover Sport replica developed by Rastar with hidden antenna. Toy-grade RC cars are typically manufactured with a focus on design coupled with reducing production costs. Whereas a hobby-grade car has separate electronic components that are individually replaceable if they fail, toy-grade cars are typically made with cheaper components that are harder to find as spare parts, and a single electronic circuit board is integrated into the design of the vehicle. Although hobby-grade enthusiasts may look down on toy-grade RC cars, their maintenance is much easier than that of hobby-grade models since the number of components is drastically smaller, and parts can be harvested at almost no cost from any RC toy car of a similar size. Performance is generally much less than hobby-grade cars but can be upgraded by adding hobby-grade parts. Stock toy-grade cars are equipped with weaker motors and are powered by alkaline or NiCad batteries, which means their top speed is usually only 3–7 mph (4.8–11.3 km/h). Cheaper ones lack any form of a suspension and the ones that do feature a suspension that has very primitive or rudimentary designs. Steering typically lacks proportional control (with only three positions: straight, full left, and full right) and there is typically no proportional "throttle" either, with stopped and full power usually being the only options. Most toy-grade cars are primarily marketed toward children, although some older enthusiasts enjoy tinkering with them and improving them. Many toy-grade cars also have highly detailed scale body shells, which are often adapted for use on hobby-grade vehicles to give them a more scale appearance. However, you can get hold of larger more powerful real-looking RC cars but they are not exactly "toy-grade". Many hobby-grade enthusiasts began their fascination with radio-controlled models starting with Toy-Grade models during the 'Golden Age of Toy RC' from the late 1980s—early 1990s when the companies Taiyo Kogyo Co. Ltd (Japan) and Tyco Toys (USA) dominated the market and became household names, with their products starring in TV shows, Hollywood movies, and featured under Christmas trees worldwide just as often as the leading Sega and Nintendo game consoles of that era. It was during this time that some of the most popular radio-controlled toys ever made were manufactured, beginning with the 1986 Taiyo Jet Hopper (Japan, Europe, Australia), later sold as the Tyco 9.6V Turbo Hopper (in the United States), followed by the Typhoon Hovercraft, the Fast Traxx, the Scorcher 6x6, the Bandit, and the Eliminator to name just a few. The designs for many of these toys can be traced back to only a few inventors, namely Shohei Suto (owner of now defunct Taiyo Kogyo Co. Ltd.) who was responsible for many of the early Taiyo cars such as the Jet Hopper, and who contributed together with Neil Tilbor, and Michael G. Hetman (inventors at Tyco) to the Bandit, Eliminator, Fast Traxx, Typhoon, Mutator 4WD, Scorcher, and Python. Hobby-grade radio control models On-road racing model on a carpet surface track. An RC car from the LCRC Halloween Classic A 1:8 four-wheel drive off-road racing buggy in action In past several years, hobby-grade "ready-to-run" (or "RTR") models have become readily available from major manufacturers of radio-controlled cars, attracting many hobbyists who would otherwise not have purchased a kit car. Vehicles of this type need little or no final assembly and in most cases, the bodies are shipped painted and trimmed. Safety inspection of the product to ensure correct operation is essential, as injury to operators or bystanders from disassembling vehicles is possible. A number of cars and trucks are presently available only in ready-to-run form. The growing popularity of the RTR vehicle has prompted many manufacturers to discontinue production of kit vehicles. High-spec racing vehicles are generally still available or sold only as kits, and companies like Thunder Tiger, Losi, HPI, Traxxas and Tamiya sell kit and RTR versions with the benefits of a kit version being in upgraded parts or lower costs, respectively. Hobby grade vehicles can cost much more, ranging from US$90 to over US$2000. Ready-to-run As the name suggests, are pre-assembled models ready for immediate use. They can reach varying speeds, with lower end models reaching about 30 miles per hour (48 km/h) and higher end or modified models capable of reaching upwards of 150 miles per hour (240 km/h). There are versions that run on both batteries and nitro. Kits Tamiya F103 Ferrari 412T1 RC Built Model Kit Kit vehicles are sold as a box of individual parts, and must be assembled before driving. Although they require more skill to get running than an RTR vehicle, a relatively easy kit (such as those from Tamiya) is a good way to learn more about working on RC cars. Many kits are very easily modified with a wide variety of available parts. There are also "ARTR" or Almost Ready To Run models, which come mostly assembled but require a small amount of extra work before running. Most ARTR's only require electronics that are distributed by other brands. Electric models A yellow RC Camaro SS Electrically powered models utilize mechanical speed controllers (MSC's) or electronic speed controllers (ESC's) to adjust the amount of power delivered to the electric motor. The power delivered is proportional to the amount of throttle called for by the transmitter—the more the trigger is pulled, the faster it goes. The voltage is "pulsed" using pulse-width modulation to produce varying output with smooth transitions and greater efficiency. Electronic speed controllers use solid state components that regulate the duty cycle, adjusting the power delivered to the electrical motor. In addition, most electronic speed controllers can use the electric motor as a magnetic brake, offering better control of the model than is possible with a mechanical speed control. Mechanical speed controllers use a network of resistors and switch between them by rotating a head with an electrode around a plate that has electrical contacts. Mechanical speed controllers are prone to being slow to react because they are actuated by servos, waste energy in the form of heat from the resistors, commonly become dirty and perform intermittently, and lack a dedicated braking ability. They appear only in vintage RC models, and are now essentially obsolete. Most electric cars up to recently used brushed motors but now many people are turning to brushless motors for their higher power output and because they require much less maintenance. They are rated either in relative turns or Kv. The Kv number tells how many RPM the motor will turn per volt. However, the ability of the system to put out power is dependent on the quality of the batteries used, wires and connectors supplying power. Due to their power, brushless motors are also used in bigger monster trucks and 1/8 nitro-powered buggies that have been converted to electric. High quality brushless systems can be much more powerful than nitro and can accomplish feats such as standing backflips when installed in a monster truck, most notably the HPI Savage Flux. Some 1/5 scale gas to electric conversions are in production but are uncommon due to high price. A new form of electric RC racing was introduced in an August 3, 2008 YouTube video by Wes Raynor of England, he called the new hobby 'MAGracing'. Cars are primarily 1/32 scale with some 1/24 scale. They are powered by rechargeable batteries, speed is controlled by RC. A magnet linked to the steering follows one of multiple steel wires buried just below the track surface enabling more accurate steering than is attainable with free running RC cars. An RC steering override allows cars to change lanes at specific places for following the 'racing line' and to pass a slower car. Tracks can therefore be much narrower and smaller making the system suitable for 'in home' racing. Cars can be driven back onto the track after an 'off', using reverse if necessary, so that track marshals are not required. Nitro powered models A Traxxas T-Maxx nitro-powered off-road monster truck without the body. Nitromethane nitro powered models utilize a single servo for throttle and braking control; rotation of the servo in one direction will cause the throttle on the carburettor to open, providing more air and fuel mixture to the internal combustion engine. Rotation of the servo in the other direction causes torque to be applied to a linkage and cam which causes friction with the braking material. The brake is commonly located on the driveshaft or spur gear in some cases and applies stopping power only to the driven wheels. Some models will also use an additional servo to control a transmission box, enabling the vehicle to drive in reverse. Fuel engine sizes most often range between 0.12–0.35 cubic inches (2.0–5.7 cm3). This is due to restrictions by the main sanctioning bodies for radio-controlled racing. Many "outlaw" engines are manufactured larger than these, mainly intended for vehicles which will not be used in sanctioned races and therefore do not need to comply with these regulations. Engine size is related to the class of car; 1/10 scale on and off-road vehicles usually are equipped with .12–.18 cubic inch engines, with 1/8 scale vehicles using .21–.32 cubic inch engines. There are exceptions, with many Schumacher and Thunder Tiger/Team Associated RC models being good examples of unusually large engines coming as standard equipment on certain models. An Ofna Hyper 8 Pro 1:8-scale nitro-powered racing buggy. Fuel-powered engines allow model cars to reach moderate speeds unmodified. Maximum power is generally achieved at medium to high speeds, and a slightly slower throttle response than electrically powered vehicles is to be expected due to clutching and lack of torque. Electric motors effectively produce instantaneous torque, whereas nitro engines, like full-sized gasoline engines, take time for the engine to spool up and for the clutch to engage. Nitro- (and fuel) powered cars may be refuelled and returned to action in a few seconds, as opposed to electrics which require removal of the body shell and battery fasteners to replace a discharged battery. Nitro cars are cooled some by air, some by the oil mixed in with the fuel and may be run continuously with no need to take breaks for cooling down assuming they are properly tuned. Nitro-powered cars operate like full-sized fuel vehicles more than their electric counterparts do, making use of a two stroke engine rather than an electric motor. The sound of the engine noise is a main selling points to nitro enthusiasts, even though brushless electric equivalents are generally faster and do not require special fuel. However, their exhaust contains unburned oil, which usually ends up coating the chassis. This, in turn, requires more cleaning than an electric-powered equivalent. Cleaning is usually achieved by the use of compressed air nozzles and solvents (such as denatured alcohol). Tuning a fuel-powered vehicle requires learning to maintain optimum performance and fuel economy, and to minimize engine wear and overheating, even in ready-to-run vehicles. Running a nitro-fuel motor without tuning or tuning improperly can hurt performance in rich conditions, and cause severe damage in lean conditions. Traxxas Nitro Sport Because of their ability to be driven for longer periods of time and the use of burning fuel, mechanical wear in nitro vehicles is generally greater than in electric vehicles. In addition, the increased weight of fuel-powered vehicles generally lead to higher speed collisions, causing greater damage to the collided vehicles, and a greater degree of safety concerns needs to be taken into account. Maintenance such as cleaning of the air filter and general chassis cleaning, replacement of worn clutch parts, proper after-run lubrication (necessary for storage) and maintenance of other motor-related items such as glow plug replacement makes for a more frustrating experience for first time RC users. In addition, nitro motors typically require rebuilding or replacement after 2–8 gallons (7–30 litres) of fuel run through them, due to loss of compression, which can be accelerated by poor tuning and overheating. It is also possible to seriously damage the engines by over-revving them with no load or ingestion of dirt into the carburettor. As such, nitro-powered vehicles are by nature expensive to maintain. Gasoline-powered models Gasoline-powered vehicles, also known as "fuelies" or "gassers", run on a mix of gasoline and oil. They cost much more (usually US$800–US$3000 RTR) than nitro and electric cars. They are also much bigger, usually scale 1/6 or 1/5 usually referred to as Large Scale, and therefore require much more space to run. They do not usually have as high top-end speeds (compared to nitro and some electrics) but have much power and do not require much fuel to run. Over time the cost of a gas-powered car can be less than some nitro-powered vehicles, because of the high cost of nitro fuel and buying new nitro engines to replace worn-out ones. In addition, gas-powered motors rarely if ever require tuning and have a very long lifespan. These gas-powered vehicles really pertain to the individual who is more interested in scale than imagination. These large-scale models have been popular in Europe for over a decade with brands like FG Modelsport, MCD, Elcon, N-R-P and have become popular in the US thanks to companies like HPI Racing and Losi producing affordable high-quality models locally. In Europe there are sanctioned EFRA races that compete both in on-road cars as well as off-road cars to determine National Champions as well as European Champions, in the US ROAR has yet not picked up these as official classes. Accessories and upgrades Most RC models generally require the purchase of additional accessories. For electrical vehicles, battery packs and a suitable charger are needed to power the car and are seldom included. A soldering iron and supplies are often necessary to build high-performance battery packs or install upgraded electronics with low-resistance connectors. A Li-Polymer battery with a hard case is popular for RC cars, with the most common voltages being 7.4 V, which represents a 2S battery or 11.1 V, known as a 3S battery. LiPo batteries are known to be explosive if mistreated, so some enthusiasts still use NiMH batteries instead, which are less powerful but safer. For nitro-powered vehicles, a glow plug heater and fuel are needed to start the engine, as well as 4 AA size batteries, or a rechargeable six-volt, five-cell battery pack to power the on-board electronics. Nitro vehicles also require a means of cranking the engine over, which can be achieved using a pull-start, starter box, battery operated rotostart, or by an electric drill. The Traxxas nitro rc cars come with a hand start up system, that revs the engine and starts it up. It doesn't require a pull start system. Relatively expensive model fuel, spare glow-plugs, and after-run oil are also needed. Gasoline-powered vehicles require only a receiver battery pack and a means to start the engine, usually the included pull-start. Hobby-grade vehicles almost always require 8 AA size batteries to power the transmitter, though some can use rechargeable transmitter pack or simply rechargeable AAs. A large industry of aftermarket manufacturers produce upgrade or hop-up parts for hobby-grade cars. Upgrades range from mere improvements to the longevity of R/C car parts, to all-out performance enhancements. Some hobbyists create their own upgrades for sale via classifieds and online forums. Hobbyists choose to upgrade hobby-grade cars from plastic stock parts to aluminium parts to increase strength and the steering angle of the car. Principle of operation Main article: Radio control A Traxxas Electric Rustler—A Rear Wheel Drive Stadium Truck (without body). Radio-controlled cars use a common set of components for their control and operation. All cars require a transmitter, which has the joysticks for control, or in pistol grip form, a trigger for throttle and a wheel for turning, and a receiver which sits inside the car. The receiver changes the radio signal broadcast from the transmitter into suitable electrical control signals for the other components of the control system. Most radio systems utilize amplitude modulation for the radio signal and encode the control positions with pulse-width modulation. Upgraded radio systems are available that use the more robust frequency modulation and pulse-code modulation. Recently however, 2.4 GHz frequency radios have become the standard for hobby-grade R/C cars. The radio is wired up to either electronic speed controls or servomechanisms (shortened to "servo" in common usage) which perform actions such as throttle control, braking, steering, and on some cars, engaging either forward or reverse gears. Electronic speed controls and servos are commanded by the receiver through pulse-width modulation; pulse duration sets either the amount of current that an electronic speed control allows to flow into the electric motor or sets the angle of the servo. On these models the servo is attached to at least the steering mechanism; rotation of the servo is mechanically changed into a force which steers the wheels on the model, generally through adjustable turnbuckle linkages. Servo savers are integrated into all steering linkages and some nitro throttle linkages. A servo saver is a flexible link between the servo and its linkage that protects the servo's internal gears from damage during impacts or stress. Modern developments in radio-controlled racing RC Racing car, 'Schumacher S.S.T.2000'. The image shows the car without body kit or battery pack installed to allow for a clearer view. In 1984, Associated Electrics, Inc. of Costa Mesa, California introduced the RC10 off-road electric racer; this model was a departure from 'Associated Electrics' regular line of nitromethane-powered on-road race cars. Designed as a high-grade radio-controlled car, the chassis of the RC10 buggy was manufactured from anodized, aircraft-grade aluminium alloy. The shock absorbers were machined, oil-filled and completely tuneable; they were also produced from the same aluminium alloy. Suspension control arms were manufactured from high-impact nylon, as were the three-piece wheels. Optional metal shielded ball bearings were sometimes incorporated in RC10 wheels and transmissions. The RC10 transmission contained an innovative differential featuring hardened steel rings pressed against balls—which made it almost infinitely adjustable for any track condition. The RC10 quickly became the dominant model in electric off-road racing. In 1986, Schumacher Racing Products released their CAT (Competition All Terrain) vehicle, widely considered the best four wheel drive off-road "buggy" racer of the time. The CAT went on to win the 1987 off-road world championship. This car is credited for sparking an interest in four-wheel-drive electric off-road racing. Gil Losi Jr., whose family ran the "Ranch Pit Shop R/C" racetrack in Pomona, California, turned his college studies toward engineering, primarily in the field of injection molded plastics, leading to his foundation of Team Losi. When the JRX-2, the first Team Losi buggy, was released, it initiated a rivalry with Team Associated that continues to this day. Team Losi went on to secure a number of achievements, which included the industry's first all-natural rubber tires, the first American-made four-wheel-drive racing buggy, and an entirely new class of cars, the 1/18-scale Mini-T off-road electrics. Although Losi and Associated seemed to dominate much of the American market, Traxxas, (another American company, famous for the X-Maxx and the Slash), and Kyosho (from Japan), were also making competitive two-wheel-drive off-road racing models. Although Losi and Associated were close rivals in the US, Schumacher off-road models continued to be popular amongst European hobbyists. Electric and nitro cars have come a long way in terms of power. Electric cars have gone from non-rebuildable brushed motors and NiCad batteries to brushless motors and LiPo. Nitro cars have gone from small engines to huge .36-.80 engines that are used in big monster trucks. The control systems for robotic cars have greatly evolved with the advances in internet communication systems. Attempts have been made to provide web protocol based control over robots. Telemetry in RC racing In the last few years, one-way telemetry systems have also been applied in RC racing cars to get information from the car's sensors like Engine/motor RPM Battery voltage Engine/motor temperature The telemetry system is usually integrated in car's receiver and transmitted to the controller. Competitions Radio-controlled racing 1:8 Sport On-Road IFMAR 1:8 IC Track World Championship (1977–) ROAR 1:8 On-road Fuel National Championship (1968–) EFRA 1:8 IC European Championship (1974–) Campionato Italiano Pista 1:8 (1971–) Championnat de France 1:8 piste (1975–) Deutsche Meisterschaften Verbrenner Glattbahn 1:8 (1971–) BRCA 1:8 Circuit Championship (1971–) JMRCA All-Japan 1:8 GP On-Road Championship (1978–) Campeonato de España de 1:8 Pista Gas (1980–) AARCMCC 1:8 IC On-Road National Championship (1979–) FEMCA Asia On-Road GP Championship (-) Copa Sudamericana e Copa FAMAR de 1:8 Pista Gas (2010–) Copa Sudamericana de 1:8 Pista Gas (-) Campeonato Brasileiro 1:8 Pista SARDA On-Road Gas National Championship Hong Kong On-Road GP Championship RCCA Nitro On-road Thailand Championships Euro Nitro Series  (2013—) 1:10 Electric Off-Road Include championships for stadium and short course trucks 1:10 radio-controlled off-road buggy IFMAR 1:10 Electric Off-Road World Championship (1985—) ROAR 1:10 Electric Off-Road National Championship (1984—) JMRCA All-Japan 1:10 EP Off-Road Championship (1986—) EFRA European 1:10 Off-Road Championship (1985—) BRCA 1:10 Scale Electric Off-Road Championship (1989—) Championnat de France 1:10 tout-terrain (1984—) Deutsche Meisterschaften Elektro Off-road 1:10 (1984—) AAMRCMCC 1:10 EP Off-Road National Championship (—) Campeonato de España de 1:10 Todo Terreno Eléctricos (—) FEMCA Asia 1:10 Off-Road EP Championship (—) Euro Offroad Series  (2011—) 1:8 Off-Road Also includes championships for truggies and ebuggies (electric buggies) IFMAR 1:8 IC Off-Road World Championship (1986–) EFRA European 1:8 IC Off-Road Championship (1979–) ROAR 1:8 Fuel Off–Road National Championship (1997–) FEMCA 1:8 Off-Road Championship (1986–) JMRCA All-Japan 1:8 GP Off-Road Championship (1980–) BRCA Rallycross Championship (1983–) Deutsche Meisterschaften Verbrenner Offroad 1:8 (1982–) Championnat de France 1:8 tout-terrain (1983–) Campeonato de España de 1:8 Todo Terreno Gas (1983–) Campionato Italiano Buggy 1:8 (1991–) RCCA Nitro Off-road Thailand Championships Nordic Championships – 1:8 Buggy (1986–) Copa Sudamericana e Copa FAMAR de 1:8 Todo Terreno Gas (2010–) AARCMCC 1:8 Scale IC Off-Road National Championship (1979–) Copa Sudamericana de 1:8 Todo Terreno Gas (2003-2009) Campeoes Brasileiros FEBARC – 1:8 Off Road (19??–) SARDA Off-Road Gas National Championship RCACR 1:8 Off-Road Championship Israel League 1:10 Electric Touring Car IFMAR ISTC World Championship (1998–) EFRA European 1:10 Electric Touring Cars Championship JMRCA All-Japan 1:10 Scale EP Touring Car Championship – Super Expert (2007–) JMRCA All-Japan 1:10 Scale EP Touring Car Championship – Expert (1996–2006) Deutsche Meisterschaften Elektro Glattbahn Tourenwagen 1:10 (1997–) FEMCA Asian 1:10 ISTC Championship ROAR 1:10 Scale Electric On-Road Paved Sedan National Championship (–) ROAR 1:10 Scale On-Road Carpet Sedan National Championship (–) BRCA 1:10 Scale Electric Circuit Championship (–) RCCA Thailand On-Road Championships NOMAC Nederlands Kampioenschap Electro Circuit 1:10 – Toerwagens AARCMCC 1:10 Scale Electric Touring Car Championship AMSCI Campionato Italiano 1:10 Touring Elettrico (197?–) Campeonato Brasileiro 1:10 On Road SARDA On-Road Electric National Championship China National 1:10 Touring Car Championships Euro Touring Series  (2007—) 1:12 On-Road IFMAR 1:12 Electric Track World Championship (1982–) ROAR Electric On-Road National Championship (1979–) JMRCA All-Japan 1:12 EP Racing Championship (1982–) EFRA 1:12 On-Road European Championship BRCA 1:12 Electric Circuit National Championship 1:10 200mm Nitro Touring Car Euro Offroad Series  (2011—) 1:5 Large Scale On-Road PRO 10 IFMAR PRO 10 World Championship (1992–2000) 1:10 235mm On-Road IFMAR 1:10 235mm On-Road World Championship (2000–2002) (1:6) Large Scale Off-Road EFRA European Large Scale Off-Road Championship (2010–) See also International Federation of Model Auto Racing IFMAR 1:10 Electric Off-Road World Championship 1:10 radio-controlled off-road buggy References ^ "What are remote controlled (RC) cars: The Ultimate Guide". rccararena.com. 25 December 2022. Retrieved 2022-12-25. ^ "NiMH vs. LiPo batteries - Which One Is Better? - RC Crush". www.rccrush.com. 2023-06-23. Retrieved 2023-06-30. ^ Musciano, Walter (1956). Building and Operating Model Cars (First ed.). New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company. p. 37. ^ Palmeter, David. "RCModels 1954 Ford Motor Company Concept". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 23 March 2023. ^ Farrell, Jim (1999). Ford Design Dept Concept & Show Cars 1932-1961 (First ed.). Hong Kong: World Print Ltd. pp. 226–232. ISBN 0-9672428-0-0. ^ Palmeter, David (15 April 2014). "RCModels 1955 Ford Motor Company Concept". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 23 March 2023. ^ "Earliest Documented Experimental RC Car". R/C Tech Forums. Retrieved 2023-06-30. ^ Crews, Pat; Dewey, Don (September 1970). "History of Radio Controlled Auto Racing". Pit Stop. 1 (1): 31–33, 41–42. ^ Palmeter, David. "RCModels 1960's Bill Johnson Experimental Car". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 2022-07-24. ^ Balz, Ken (October 1964). "Radio Controlled "Big" T". Rod & Custom Models. 1 (5): 74–76. ^ Palmeter, David. "RC Big T". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 2022-05-03. ^ Crews, Pat; Dewey, Don (September 1970). "History of Radio Controlled Auto Racing". Pit Stop. 1 (1): 31–33, 41–42. ^ Palmeter, David. "RCModels 1965 Bill Eccles Prototype Cars". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 2022-07-25. ^ Palmeter, David. "RCModels German Hegi Porsche 904GTS". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 18 June 2024. ^ McEntee, Howard (July 1965). "Everything Under Control: McEntee on R/C". American Modeler. 62 (4): 44. ^ Palmeter, David. "RCModels History - NAMCO". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 17 June 2024. ^ Dion, Tom (March 1967). "A Revolution in Racing: Radio Control". Car Model. 5 (8): 27-31. ^ Hunt, George (November 19, 1965). "Motorized Mustang GT". Life. Vol. 59, no. 21. p. 29. ^ Waters, Mort (April 1966). "Hottest Items from the 1966 Hobby Trade Show". Car Model. 4 (9): 68. ^ Palmeter, David. "RCModels Testors First Mustang". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 2023-02-01. ^ Massucci, Edoardo (June 1966). "Le "miniature" circoleranno?". Quattroruote. XI (6): 194. ^ Palmeter, David. "RCModels 1966 ElGi Ferrari 250 LM". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 2023-01-07. ^ "1996 Tyco Mutator - Taiyo Tyco Collectors". Retrieved 2023-01-14. ^ "1986 Taiyo Jet Hopper MK1 (Japan) - Taiyo Tyco Collectors". Retrieved 2023-01-14. ^ "The Inventors of your Childhood Toys - Taiyo Tyco Collectors". 2022-10-28. Retrieved 2023-01-14. ^ Tudor Rus (2020-11-04). "The 5 fastest RC cars you can boy today". Topspeed. Retrieved 2022-08-30. ^ Tommy (11 September 2017). "Getting Into RC Cars: Choosing the best RC car for beginner". Rccargood. Retrieved 2018-04-03. ^ "Beginner's Guide to RC Cars – Build Types: Kit, RTR or ARTR". CompetitionX. Retrieved 2022-06-22. ^ "Electronic speed controllers, ESC, Mechanical Speed Controllers, MSC, motors - Tamiya RC Classics & Moderns". www.blackholesun.fr. Retrieved 2023-08-20. ^ Wells, Tim. "What Is an ESC For RC Cars?". Clutch RC. Retrieved 2023-08-20. ^ Kloster, Kim. "MAGracing". MAGracing Forum. phpBB. Retrieved 26 August 2022. ^ "Nitro vs. Electric RC Cars - Which Is Best? - RC Crush". www.rccrush.com. 2023-07-03. Retrieved 2023-08-20. ^ "Team Associated RC10 Classic - Car Action - Review". site.petitrc.com. Retrieved 2023-08-20. ^ "The Best RC Brands - RC Roundup". rcroundup.com. Archived from the original on 2016-10-09. Retrieved 2016-10-02. ^ Ghosh, Sujoy; Ghosh, Subarna; Dayani, Meet (27 September 2018). Design of an Unlimited Range Web Browser Controlled Robot with Self-Adapting Fuzzy Logic Controller. 2018 Second International Conference on Inventive Communication and Computational Technologies (ICICCT). Coimbatore, India: IEEE. doi:10.1109/ICICCT.2018.8473125. vteRadio-controlled modelsTypes Aircraft Glider Helicopter Quadcopter Boat Car Submarine Applications Drone racing Model yachting See also Remote control vehicle Remote control animal vteRacingRunningTrack running Sprinting Middle-distance running Long-distance running Relay race Hurdling Steeplechase Road running Half marathon Marathon Ultramarathon Ekiden Off-road running Cross country running Mountain running Fell running Trail running Skyrunning Other Tower running Racewalking Backward running Snowshoe running Parkour Orienteering Foot orienteering Mountain bike orienteering Ski orienteering Trail orienteering Radio orienteering Canoe orienteering Rogaining Mountain marathon Car orienteering Bicycle racing Road bicycle racing Cyclo-cross Gravel racing Mountain bike racing Track cycling (Keirin) BMX racing Cycle speedway Animal racing Camel racing Greyhound racing Horse racing Pigeon racing Sled dog racing Swimming Open water swimming Marathon swimming Paralympic swimming Climbing Speed climbing Motor racingAuto racing Drag racing Formula racing Kart racing Off-road racing Pickup truck racing Sports car racing Stock car racing Touring car racing Truck racing Motorcycle racing Beach racing Motocross Motorcycle chariot racing Rally raid Track racing Motorboat racing Drag boat racing Hydroplane racing Jet sprint boat racing Inshore powerboat racing Offshore powerboat racing Other Air racing Radio-controlled car racing Slot car racing Street racing Board racing Longboarding Sandboarding Slalom skateboarding Street luge Winter racing Alpine skiing Cross-country skiing Snowboard cross Speed skating Sledding Multi-sport racing Adventure racing Triathlon Duathlon Aquathlon List of forms of racing

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Model car","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_car"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"cars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cars"},{"link_name":"vans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van"},{"link_name":"buses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buses"},{"link_name":"trucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trucks"},{"link_name":"buggies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buggy_(automobile)"},{"link_name":"electric motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor"},{"link_name":"nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel-cadmium"},{"link_name":"nickel metal hydride(NiMH)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nickel_metal_hydride"},{"link_name":"lithium polymer (LiPo)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium_polymer"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"glow plug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glow_plug_(model_engine)"},{"link_name":"internal combustion engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine"},{"link_name":"special mixture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glow_fuel"},{"link_name":"nitromethane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitromethane"},{"link_name":"methanol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Methanol"},{"link_name":"castor oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castor_oil"},{"link_name":"synthetic oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_oil"},{"link_name":"gasoline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline"},{"link_name":"string trimmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_trimmer"},{"link_name":"off-road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Off-road"}],"text":"For miniature car replicas or toys, see Model car.Radio-controlled cars, or RC cars for short,[1] are miniature model cars, vans, buses, trucks or buggies that can be controlled from a distance using a specialized transmitter or remote. The term \"RC\" has been used to mean both \"remote controlled\" and \"radio-controlled\". \"Remote controlled\" includes vehicles that are controlled by radio waves, infrared waves or a physical wire connection. RC cars are powered by one of three energy sources—electricity, nitro fuel or petrol. Electric RC models are powered by small but powerful electric motors and rechargeable nickel-cadmium (Ni-Cd), nickel metal hydride(NiMH), or lithium polymer (LiPo) cells with the latter two being the most used. Both NiMH and LiPo have advantages and disadvantages[2] in various RC applications where NiMH is mainly used for recreational purposes and LiPo for more demanding purposes (including racing). There are also brushed or brushless electric motors—brushless motors are more powerful, long lasting and efficient, but also much more expensive than brushed motors.Nitro powered models use glow plug engines, small internal combustion engines fuelled by a special mixture of nitromethane, methanol, and oil (in most cases a blend of castor oil and synthetic oil). These are referred to as \"nitro\" RC cars. Nitro fuel can be dangerous. It causes complications like cancer if ingested and blindness if in the eyes. Exceptionally large models, typically of scale 1:5, are powered by small gasoline engines, similar to string trimmer motors, which use a mix of oil and gasoline. Electric cars are generally considered easier to work with compared to fuel-driven models but can be equally complex at the higher budget and skill levels. Both electric and nitro models can be very fast, although electric is easier to upgrade and more versatile.In both of these categories, both on-road and off-road vehicles are available. Off-road models, which are built with fully functional off-road suspensions and a wide tire selection, can be used on various types of terrain. On-road cars, with a much less robust suspension, are limited to smooth, paved surfaces. There are also rally cars, which fall somewhere between on-road and off-road and can be driven on gravel, dirt or other loose surfaces. In the past decade, advances in \"on-road\" vehicles have made their suspension as adjustable as many full scale race cars, today.","title":"Radio-controlled car"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Academy of Model Aeronautics (AMA)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.modelaircraft.org/"}],"text":"The Academy of Model Aeronautics (AMA), recognized and documented early radio-controlled model aircraft as having been developed in the 1930s. However, radio-controlled model cars have only been documented more recently. There may have been earlier model car hobbyists, inspired by RC airplanes, tinkering with RC cars but not documented. Here are the RC car projects that have been documented.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Early experiments","text":"- 1954 Design Competition RC Winner - A streamlined radio-controlled vehicle won a third prize in Ford Motor Company's 1954 Industrial Arts Awards program. David Swinder of Warren, Ohio used a large control console to demonstrate the operation of the six-foot vehicle to Al Esper, Ford's chief test driver.[3][4]- 1955 Ford Motor Company RC Model Car - Automobile manufacturer studios used scale models to reduce new design development lead times and save money. Among Ford designs executed in 3/8 size were the LaTosca, a futuristic bubble-top dream car, and the Mexico, an aerodynamic reskin of the 1955 Thunderbird that was designed to top 200 mph. For these two models the designers constructed radio control systems, adapting six-volt car batteries, convertible top motors, and other full-size components from the Ford parts bins. Along with motive power, braking, and turning, the radio control system also reportedly operated the headlights, brake lights, and turn signals.[5][6]- Early 1960's Bill Johnson Experimental Car - In an article in the first issue (September 1970) of ‘Pit Stop’ magazine, Bill Johnson of Burbank, California is credited with building “in the early 1960’s”, an internal combustion engine-powered, radio-controlled, 1:12th scale, model car. The date is not specific, but it seems reasonable that “the early ‘60’s” would mean the car was built around 1963 or earlier.[7]It was described as an all metal, radio-controlled race car using an early Bonner reed radio control system. The car was composed of two sections, in the forward section the radio, power pack, two servos, and front suspension; the rear section contained the motor, rear end, rear suspension and the fuel tank.A Veco .19 engine was chosen for its ability to deliver power at any given RPM. Bill experimented with a 4:1 direct drive gear ratio and finally settled on a 6:1 ratio. Using 3+3⁄4-inch diameter rear tires, Bill achieved a 600 to 2,500 RPM range resulting in speeds from 6 miles per hour to 29 miles per hour.His independent front suspension, while not having adjustable camber, caster or other adjustments, and although on the heavy side by later standards, proved quite durable. The car tracked well in a straight line or in circles as small as 8 feet in diameter. Bill utilized a leaf spring front set-up to reduce jolts on rough surfaces. He had tried a worm drive to eliminate the jolts to the steering servo but that proved impractical.For the rear suspension Johnson also used leaf springs because of the ease of installation in the car and to facilitate the changes that he anticipated as the car design evolved. Working alone, Bill achieved a remarkable degree of success and sophistication with a model car that was a very early functioning RC car, more remarkable because it was built from scratch, since no RC car parts were yet available.[8][9]- 1964 Ken Balz Experimental Car - Ken built an electric-powered, radio-controlled model car which combined a Monogram 1:8 scale Big “T” plastic model car kit with an Orbit 4-channel radio transmitter and receiver. Two “Micro Mo” motors with 485-to-1 gear reduction were used, one for steering and one to power the car. Rechargeable nickel-cadmium batteries supplied the energy. Steering was proportional but required two channels, one for left turns and one for right turns. Drive was not proportional but was single speed, radio-controlled “forward-stop-reverse-stop” sequence switch.[10][11]- 1965 Chuck Eckles Experimental Cars - (Chuck was erroneously called Bill Eccles in one article) Chuck's first experiment was a 1:8 scale plastic kit Monogram Jaguar E-Type, McCoy35 internal combustion, radio-controlled car with a stainless-steel chassis. His initial clutch was designed to engage and turn the engine to start it and then disengage so that the engine could idle. It would then re-engage centrifugally as the engine speed was increased.The car ran well, but the combination of a fragile plastic body, more power than needed and a complex clutch led Chuck to do a major redesign. He used a 1:11 scale Wen-Mac 1965 Mustang to make a plaster plug master for more durable vacuum-formed 0.060 butyl-acetate bodies. He developed a simplified centrifugal clutch more like current designs. Two servos were used, the forward servo being used for steering, while the rear servo for both brake and throttle. The Mustang's rear axle ratio was 12:56 with a 56-tooth gear that was as large as space and ground clearance would permit. Wheels and tires used were semi-pneumatic, 2+1⁄4-inch Veco aircraft wheels.After several experiments, the engine used was a Cox Medallion .15 with part of the throttle control used as a collector ring for exhaust and excess oil. The carburettor spray bar had been reworked to give a better idle, while an adjustable stop was installed. The top speed achieved was 35 miles per hour.Steering was rack and pinion with an independent front suspension. The overall length of this pioneering vehicle was 16+1⁄2-inch, with a height of 4+1⁄2-inch, a width of 6+1⁄4-inch and an all-up weight of 3 ½ pounds.[12][13]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Early commercial RC car kits","text":"Toy and hobby companies had been selling various motorized model vehicles for many years but interest in commercial production of radio-controlled model car kits began with hobbyists -- 1965 - In the July/August 1965 issue of American Modeler magazine, Walter McEntee, called the “World’s best-known writer of radio control news” published a picture of five people with transmitters racing five cars (in a slightly snowy lot) and the caption, “West Germany’s Schuco-Hegi outfit offers Porsche Carrera 904GT racing coupe kit for multi-channel operation. Car is 22.8” long on 12.6” wheel base, uses two Monoperm electric motors. Kit has ready-made plastic body, special front suspension parts and diecast wheels. These demonstration cars were said to have Metz Mecatron 10-channel superheterodyne radio receivers\".[14][15]- 1967 – In the March 1967 issue of Car Model magazine, an article by an experienced RC airplane hobbyist, Tom Dion of Michigan, USA, outlined how to build an RC car and announced the availability of 1:18 scale RC car and radios in component kits.[16][17]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1966_Ford_Mustang_Motorized_Model_Car_by_Wen-Mac_1-11_Scale.jpg"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Image_Title_-_ElGi_Ferrari_250LM_Radio_Controlled_Car_IMG_5905.jpg"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Tamiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamiya_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Sand Scorcher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sand_Scorcher"},{"link_name":"Rough Rider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamiya_Rough_Rider"},{"link_name":"dune buggy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dune_buggy"},{"link_name":"Toyota HiLux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_Hilux"},{"link_name":"monster truck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monster_truck"},{"link_name":"Schumacher Racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schumacher_Racing"},{"link_name":"ball differential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ball_differential"},{"link_name":"Team Associated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Electrics"},{"link_name":"RC100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RC100"},{"link_name":"RC12","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RC12"},{"link_name":"1/10 scale off-road electric racing buggy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1:10_radio-controlled_off-road_buggy"},{"link_name":"JRX2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JRX2"}],"sub_title":"Early commercial ready-to-run RC Cars","text":"- 1966 Wen-Mac/Testors Mustang - In the early 1950s, toy company Wen-Mac produced a cast aluminium, .049 gas engine powered Indy tether car, the Wen-Mac Automite. By the ‘60’s they were producing plastic, gas-powered tether cars. Then, in the November 19, 1965 issue of Life magazine, Ford Motor Company advertised an exclusive – “Only at Your Ford Dealers” - 16-inch, 1966 Poppy Red Motorized Mustang GT made by Wen-Mac. The price was $4.95. The ad showed a young boy playing with it indoors to show that it had a battery-powered electric motor. However, the ad also noted, “For racing buffs a conversion kit (gasoline engine and slicks) and remote-control throttle may also be ordered.” The conversion kit also included a pylon and spikes for attaching the pylon to an outdoor racing surface and a line to tether the car. The revolutionary advancement was the “remote control throttle” (not radio control). This consisted of a second line fed from the car, through the pylon and back to the “driver” to control the throttle of the .049 cubic inch, two-stroke gas engine. Remote control by radio was the next step.[18]Wen-Mac/Testors 1966 Mustang 1:11 ScaleApparently that next step was being developed during late 1965 and early 1966. Wen-Mac was purchased by Testors in 1966 and, in the April 1966 issue of Car Model magazine, coverage of the February 1966 Hobby Industry Trade show in Chicago included the Testors model company announcement of a radio-controlled, electric powered version of what was apparently the same basic 16” 1966 Mustang GT. It was mistakenly called a 1:9 scale model when actually, a 16\" long 1966 Mustang is 1:11 scale.[19][20]It was powered by electric motors and had rechargeable nickel cadmium batteries. To operate the car, a switch on the bottom of the chassis was first set to select Low Speed or High Speed. The transmitter had 3 channels, one connected to a push button that transmitted a simple “Go or Stop” signal to the drive motors. The other two channels were very early proportional controls, activated by a single stick; pushing it right activated the right turn channel and left for the left steering channel. The innovative drive system had two transverse motors, one for the right rear wheel and one for the left. Both motors powered the car when operated in a straight line but in a turn, the inside free-wheeled, creating a form of rear differential. Three different 27mHz channels were available to allow running 3 cars at a time. The price announced in 1966 for the complete, ready to run car was $69.95, a clear indication of the high price of radio control in what was originally a $4.95 battery electric car without radio control.ElGi Ferrari 250LM 1:12 Scale Radio Controlled Car- 1966 ElGi Ferrari 250LM - Another commercially viable RC car was available by mid-1966, produced by the Italian company El-Gi (Elettronica Giocattoli) from Reggio Emilia. Their first model, an electric 1:12 Ferrari 250 LM had a radio-controlled on-off motor function with no reverse. Steering had two on-off switches, turn radius was determined by how long the operator held down the appropriate left or right switch on the transmitter. An extensive article about the car and its driving characteristics appeared in the June 1966 Italian magazine Quattroruote.[21][22]Concerning viable 1:8 scale race cars, information received in an email from Mardave founder Wes Raynor: \"When I started Mardave R/C Racing (in Leicester, England) in 1969/70 (not too sure which!) we claimed to be the first r/c (racing) car manufacturers in Europe. These cars were 1/8 scale, (proportional radio) I.C. engine powered cars.\"In the early 1970s, several commercial products were created by small firms in the US. Most of these companies began as slot car companies and with the wane in popularity of that genre moved into the R/C field. Among these were Associated Electrics, Thorp, Dynamic, Taurus, Delta, and Scorpion. These primarily were 1/8 scale nitro-powered (then called gas) aluminium flat pan cars generally powered by a .21 cubic inch engine. The bodies for these cars were vacuum formed polycarbonate (the most popular made of Lexan). The most popular engine was the K&B Veco McCoy. The primary sanctioning body for races for these cars was Remotely Operated Auto Racers (ROAR). In 1973–74, Jerobee, a company based in Washington State, created their 1/12 nitro car using a Cox .049 engine. Over 54,000 were sold \"Ready to Run\" W/Radio control system of which 25K were made by EK Product od Texas and the balance by JoMac when they bought the company from Rocket Research Corp. Several aftermarket companies created parts for this car including clear Lexan bodies, heat sinks, and larger fuel tanks. This scale evolved into 1/12 scale electric racing when Associated Electrics created the RC12E in 1976–77. Jerobee became Jomac and created their own electric kit called the Lightning 2000 that won the \"ROAR\" National Championships in 1981& 82 for 6-Cell Modified and 82 the 6-Cell Production classes. The Lightning 2000 was designed by Don McKay and Jon Congdon.By the late 1970s, interests in 1/12 scale electric racing began to grow as 1/8 scale IC racers, the sole racing category at the time, needing to race throughout the winter as an alternative to their impractical IC cars began to race 1/12 cars, therefore a winter national series was developed. As a result, the series grew into popularity as a large number of scratch-built cars started to appear in these meetings. Again, electric r/c cars were enabled by one revolutionary development, that of the NiCad rechargeable battery. Prior to the mid-1970s, batteries were either heavy lead acid or expensive throw away dry cells. In 1976, the Japanese firm Tamiya, which was renowned for their intricately detailed plastic model kits, released a series of elegant and highly detailed, but mechanically simple electric on-road car models that were sold as \"suitable for radio control\". Although rather expensive to purchase, the kits and radio systems sold rapidly. Tamiya soon began to produce more purpose-built remote-controlled model cars, and were the first to release off-road buggies featuring real suspension systems. It was this progression toward the off-road class that brought about much of the hobby's popularity, as it meant radio-controlled cars were no longer restricted to bitumen and smooth surfaces, but could be driven virtually anywhere. The first true Tamiya off-road vehicles were the Sand Scorcher and the Rough Rider, both released in 1979, and both based on realistic dune buggy designs. Tamiya continued to produce off-road vehicles in increasing numbers, featuring working suspensions, more powerful motors, textured off-road rubber tires and various stylized \"dune buggy\" bodies. They also produced trucks, such as the Toyota HiLux Pickup, that featured realistic three-speed gearboxes and leaf-spring suspension systems. All of these models were realistic, durable, easy to assemble, capable of being modified, and simple to repair. They were so popular that they could be credited with launching a boom in radio-controlled model cars in the early to mid 1980s, and provided the basis for today's radio-controlled car market. Popular Tamiya models included the Grasshopper and the Hornet dune buggies as well as the Blackfoot and Clodbuster monster truck models. The earliest Tamiya models, particularly the early off roaders, are now highly sought after by vintage R/C collectors and can fetch prices of up to US$3000 on internet auction sites if still in mint, unbuilt form. Acknowledging their continued popularity, several of the early kits have even been re-released by Tamiya during 2005–2007, with a few alterations.A British firm, Schumacher Racing, was the first to develop an adjustable ball differential in 1980, which allowed nearly infinite tuning for various track conditions. At the time the majority of on-road cars had a solid axle, while off-road cars generally had a gear-type differential. Team Associated followed suit with the introduction of the RC100 1/8 scale gas on-road car, RC12 1/12 scale on-road electric car, and RC10 1/10 scale off-road electric racing buggy in 1984 (see below). Team Losi followed with the introduction of the JRX2 in 1988.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Collection_of_Taiyo_and_Tyco_RC_toys_V1.1.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rastar_range_rover_sport.JPG"},{"link_name":"Range Rover Sport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Range_Rover_Sport"},{"link_name":"proportional control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proportional_control"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"text":"A collection of Taiyo Toys Co. Ltd. manufactured radio-controlled toys, sold under the Taiyo, and Tyco RC brands sold in the 1980s and 1990s.Radio controlled vehicle toy 1:24 Range Rover Sport replica developed by Rastar with hidden antenna.Toy-grade RC cars are typically manufactured with a focus on design coupled with reducing production costs. Whereas a hobby-grade car has separate electronic components that are individually replaceable if they fail, toy-grade cars are typically made with cheaper components that are harder to find as spare parts, and a single electronic circuit board is integrated into the design of the vehicle.Although hobby-grade enthusiasts may look down on toy-grade RC cars, their maintenance is much easier than that of hobby-grade models since the number of components is drastically smaller, and parts can be harvested at almost no cost from any RC toy car of a similar size. Performance is generally much less than hobby-grade cars but can be upgraded by adding hobby-grade parts. Stock toy-grade cars are equipped with weaker motors and are powered by alkaline or NiCad batteries, which means their top speed is usually only 3–7 mph (4.8–11.3 km/h). Cheaper ones lack any form of a suspension and the ones that do feature a suspension that has very primitive or rudimentary designs. Steering typically lacks proportional control (with only three positions: straight, full left, and full right) and there is typically no proportional \"throttle\" either, with stopped and full power usually being the only options.Most toy-grade cars are primarily marketed toward children, although some older enthusiasts enjoy tinkering with them and improving them. Many toy-grade cars also have highly detailed scale body shells, which are often adapted for use on hobby-grade vehicles to give them a more scale appearance. However, you can get hold of larger more powerful real-looking RC cars but they are not exactly \"toy-grade\".Many hobby-grade enthusiasts began their fascination with radio-controlled models starting with Toy-Grade models during the 'Golden Age of Toy RC' from the late 1980s—early 1990s when the companies Taiyo Kogyo Co. Ltd (Japan) and Tyco Toys (USA) dominated the market and became household names, with their products starring in TV shows, Hollywood movies,[23] and featured under Christmas trees worldwide just as often as the leading Sega and Nintendo game consoles of that era. It was during this time that some of the most popular radio-controlled toys ever made were manufactured, beginning with the 1986 Taiyo Jet Hopper[24] (Japan, Europe, Australia), later sold as the Tyco 9.6V Turbo Hopper (in the United States), followed by the Typhoon Hovercraft, the Fast Traxx, the Scorcher 6x6, the Bandit, and the Eliminator to name just a few. The designs for many of these toys can be traced back to only a few inventors, namely Shohei Suto (owner of now defunct Taiyo Kogyo Co. Ltd.) who was responsible for many of the early Taiyo cars such as the Jet Hopper, and who contributed together with Neil Tilbor, and Michael G. Hetman (inventors at Tyco) to the Bandit, Eliminator, Fast Traxx, Typhoon, Mutator 4WD, Scorcher, and Python.[25]","title":"Toy-grade RC cars"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RC_model_car_racing_in_Hrotovice,_T%C5%99eb%C3%AD%C4%8D_District.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nitro_Buggy_RC_Car.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1-8_4WD_off-road_racing_buggy.jpg"},{"link_name":"Thunder Tiger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunder_Tiger"},{"link_name":"Losi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Team_Losi"},{"link_name":"Traxxas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traxxas"},{"link_name":"Tamiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamiya_Corporation"}],"text":"On-road racing model on a carpet surface track.An RC car from the LCRC Halloween ClassicA 1:8 four-wheel drive off-road racing buggy in actionIn past several years, hobby-grade \"ready-to-run\" (or \"RTR\") models have become readily available from major manufacturers of radio-controlled cars, attracting many hobbyists who would otherwise not have purchased a kit car. Vehicles of this type need little or no final assembly and in most cases, the bodies are shipped painted and trimmed. Safety inspection of the product to ensure correct operation is essential, as injury to operators or bystanders from disassembling vehicles is possible. A number of cars and trucks are presently available only in ready-to-run form. The growing popularity of the RTR vehicle has prompted many manufacturers to discontinue production of kit vehicles. High-spec racing vehicles are generally still available or sold only as kits, and companies like Thunder Tiger, Losi, HPI, Traxxas and Tamiya sell kit and RTR versions with the benefits of a kit version being in upgraded parts or lower costs, respectively. Hobby grade vehicles can cost much more, ranging from US$90 to over US$2000.","title":"Hobby-grade radio control models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"sub_title":"Ready-to-run","text":"As the name suggests, are pre-assembled models ready for immediate use. They can reach varying speeds, with lower end models reaching about 30 miles per hour (48 km/h) and higher end or modified models capable of reaching upwards of 150 miles per hour (240 km/h).[26] There are versions that run on both batteries and nitro.","title":"Hobby-grade radio control models"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ferrari_412T1_Tamiya_1-10_RC_F103_Chassis_Model_Kit_58142_Red.jpg"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Kits","text":"Tamiya F103 Ferrari 412T1 RC Built Model KitKit vehicles are sold as a box of individual parts, and must be assembled before driving. Although they require more skill to get running than an RTR vehicle, a relatively easy kit (such as those from Tamiya) is a good way to learn more about working on RC cars. Many kits are very easily modified with a wide variety of available parts. There are also \"ARTR\" or Almost Ready To Run models, which come mostly assembled but require a small amount of extra work before running.[27] Most ARTR's only require electronics that are distributed by other brands.[28]","title":"Hobby-grade radio control models"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chevrolet_Camaro_SS_RC_Car.jpg"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"pulse-width modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation"},{"link_name":"solid state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid_state_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"duty cycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duty_cycle"},{"link_name":"magnetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic"},{"link_name":"brake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brake"},{"link_name":"resistors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resistor"},{"link_name":"electrode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrode"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"}],"sub_title":"Electric models","text":"A yellow RC Camaro SSElectrically powered models utilize mechanical speed controllers (MSC's)[29] or electronic speed controllers (ESC's)[30] to adjust the amount of power delivered to the electric motor. The power delivered is proportional to the amount of throttle called for by the transmitter—the more the trigger is pulled, the faster it goes. The voltage is \"pulsed\" using pulse-width modulation to produce varying output with smooth transitions and greater efficiency. Electronic speed controllers use solid state components that regulate the duty cycle, adjusting the power delivered to the electrical motor. In addition, most electronic speed controllers can use the electric motor as a magnetic brake, offering better control of the model than is possible with a mechanical speed control.Mechanical speed controllers use a network of resistors and switch between them by rotating a head with an electrode around a plate that has electrical contacts. Mechanical speed controllers are prone to being slow to react because they are actuated by servos, waste energy in the form of heat from the resistors, commonly become dirty and perform intermittently, and lack a dedicated braking ability. They appear only in vintage RC models, and are now essentially obsolete.Most electric cars up to recently used brushed motors but now many people are turning to brushless motors for their higher power output and because they require much less maintenance. They are rated either in relative turns or Kv. The Kv number tells how many RPM the motor will turn per volt. However, the ability of the system to put out power is dependent on the quality of the batteries used, wires and connectors supplying power. Due to their power, brushless motors are also used in bigger monster trucks and 1/8 nitro-powered buggies that have been converted to electric. High quality brushless systems can be much more powerful than nitro and can accomplish feats such as standing backflips when installed in a monster truck, most notably the HPI Savage Flux. Some 1/5 scale gas to electric conversions are in production but are uncommon due to high price.A new form of electric RC racing was introduced in an August 3, 2008 YouTube video by Wes Raynor of England, he called the new hobby 'MAGracing'. Cars are primarily 1/32 scale with some 1/24 scale. They are powered by rechargeable batteries, speed is controlled by RC. A magnet linked to the steering follows one of multiple steel wires buried just below the track surface enabling more accurate steering than is attainable with free running RC cars. An RC steering override allows cars to change lanes at specific places for following the 'racing line' and to pass a slower car. Tracks can therefore be much narrower and smaller making the system suitable for 'in home' racing. Cars can be driven back onto the track after\nan 'off', using reverse if necessary, so that track marshals are not required.\n[31]","title":"Hobby-grade radio control models"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traxxas_t-maxx.no_body.triddle.jpg"},{"link_name":"Traxxas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traxxas"},{"link_name":"Nitromethane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitromethane"},{"link_name":"throttle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throttle"},{"link_name":"carburettor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carburetor"},{"link_name":"internal combustion engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_engine"},{"link_name":"torque","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torque"},{"link_name":"driveshaft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driveshaft"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hyper8.jpg"},{"link_name":"two stroke engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two_stroke_engine"},{"link_name":"electric motor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_motor"},{"link_name":"denatured alcohol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denatured_alcohol"}],"sub_title":"Nitro powered models","text":"A Traxxas T-Maxx nitro-powered off-road monster truck without the body.Nitromethane nitro powered models utilize a single servo for throttle and braking control; rotation of the servo in one direction will cause the throttle on the carburettor to open, providing more air and fuel mixture to the internal combustion engine. Rotation of the servo in the other direction causes torque to be applied to a linkage and cam which causes friction with the braking material. The brake is commonly located on the driveshaft or spur gear in some cases and applies stopping power only to the driven wheels. Some models will also use an additional servo to control a transmission box, enabling the vehicle to drive in reverse.Fuel engine sizes most often range between 0.12–0.35 cubic inches (2.0–5.7 cm3).[32] This is due to restrictions by the main sanctioning bodies for radio-controlled racing. Many \"outlaw\" engines are manufactured larger than these, mainly intended for vehicles which will not be used in sanctioned races and therefore do not need to comply with these regulations. Engine size is related to the class of car; 1/10 scale on and off-road vehicles usually are equipped with .12–.18 cubic inch engines, with 1/8 scale vehicles using .21–.32 cubic inch engines. There are exceptions, with many Schumacher and Thunder Tiger/Team Associated RC models being good examples of unusually large engines coming as standard equipment on certain models.An Ofna Hyper 8 Pro 1:8-scale nitro-powered racing buggy.Fuel-powered engines allow model cars to reach moderate speeds unmodified. Maximum power is generally achieved at medium to high speeds, and a slightly slower throttle response than electrically powered vehicles is to be expected due to clutching and lack of torque. Electric motors effectively produce instantaneous torque, whereas nitro engines, like full-sized gasoline engines, take time for the engine to spool up and for the clutch to engage. Nitro- (and fuel) powered cars may be refuelled and returned to action in a few seconds, as opposed to electrics which require removal of the body shell and battery fasteners to replace a discharged battery. Nitro cars are cooled some by air, some by the oil mixed in with the fuel and may be run continuously with no need to take breaks for cooling down assuming they are properly tuned.Nitro-powered cars operate like full-sized fuel vehicles more than their electric counterparts do, making use of a two stroke engine rather than an electric motor. The sound of the engine noise is a main selling points to nitro enthusiasts, even though brushless electric equivalents are generally faster and do not require special fuel. However, their exhaust contains unburned oil, which usually ends up coating the chassis. This, in turn, requires more cleaning than an electric-powered equivalent. Cleaning is usually achieved by the use of compressed air nozzles and solvents (such as denatured alcohol). Tuning a fuel-powered vehicle requires learning to maintain optimum performance and fuel economy, and to minimize engine wear and overheating, even in ready-to-run vehicles. Running a nitro-fuel motor without tuning or tuning improperly can hurt performance in rich conditions, and cause severe damage in lean conditions.Traxxas Nitro SportBecause of their ability to be driven for longer periods of time and the use of burning fuel, mechanical wear in nitro vehicles is generally greater than in electric vehicles. In addition, the increased weight of fuel-powered vehicles generally lead to higher speed collisions, causing greater damage to the collided vehicles, and a greater degree of safety concerns needs to be taken into account. Maintenance such as cleaning of the air filter and general chassis cleaning, replacement of worn clutch parts, proper after-run lubrication (necessary for storage) and maintenance of other motor-related items such as glow plug replacement makes for a more frustrating experience for first time RC users. In addition, nitro motors typically require rebuilding or replacement after 2–8 gallons (7–30 litres) of fuel run through them, due to loss of compression, which can be accelerated by poor tuning and overheating. It is also possible to seriously damage the engines by over-revving them with no load or ingestion of dirt into the carburettor. As such, nitro-powered vehicles are by nature expensive to maintain.","title":"Hobby-grade radio control models"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Gasoline-powered models","text":"Gasoline-powered vehicles, also known as \"fuelies\" or \"gassers\", run on a mix of gasoline and oil. They cost much more (usually US$800–US$3000 RTR) than nitro and electric cars. They are also much bigger, usually scale 1/6 or 1/5 usually referred to as Large Scale, and therefore require much more space to run. They do not usually have as high top-end speeds (compared to nitro and some electrics) but have much power and do not require much fuel to run. Over time the cost of a gas-powered car can be less than some nitro-powered vehicles, because of the high cost of nitro fuel and buying new nitro engines to replace worn-out ones. In addition, gas-powered motors rarely if ever require tuning and have a very long lifespan. These gas-powered vehicles really pertain to the individual who is more interested in scale than imagination. These large-scale models have been popular in Europe for over a decade with brands like FG Modelsport, MCD, Elcon, N-R-P and have become popular in the US thanks to companies like HPI Racing and Losi producing affordable high-quality models locally. In Europe there are sanctioned EFRA races that compete both in on-road cars as well as off-road cars to determine National Champions as well as European Champions, in the US ROAR has yet not picked up these as official classes.","title":"Hobby-grade radio control models"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"charger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battery_charger"},{"link_name":"NiMH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NiMH"}],"sub_title":"Accessories and upgrades","text":"Most RC models generally require the purchase of additional accessories. For electrical vehicles, battery packs and a suitable charger are needed to power the car and are seldom included. A soldering iron and supplies are often necessary to build high-performance battery packs or install upgraded electronics with low-resistance connectors. A Li-Polymer battery with a hard case is popular for RC cars, with the most common voltages being 7.4 V, which represents a 2S battery or 11.1 V, known as a 3S battery.LiPo batteries are known to be explosive if mistreated, so some enthusiasts still use NiMH batteries instead, which are less powerful but safer. For nitro-powered vehicles, a glow plug heater and fuel are needed to start the engine, as well as 4 AA size batteries, or a rechargeable six-volt, five-cell battery pack to power the on-board electronics.Nitro vehicles also require a means of cranking the engine over, which can be achieved using a pull-start, starter box, battery operated rotostart, or by an electric drill. The Traxxas nitro rc cars come with a hand start up system, that revs the engine and starts it up. It doesn't require a pull start system. Relatively expensive model fuel, spare glow-plugs, and after-run oil are also needed. Gasoline-powered vehicles require only a receiver battery pack and a means to start the engine, usually the included pull-start. Hobby-grade vehicles almost always require 8 AA size batteries to power the transmitter, though some can use rechargeable transmitter pack or simply rechargeable AAs.A large industry of aftermarket manufacturers produce upgrade or hop-up parts for hobby-grade cars. Upgrades range from mere improvements to the longevity of R/C car parts, to all-out performance enhancements. Some hobbyists create their own upgrades for sale via classifieds and online forums. Hobbyists choose to upgrade hobby-grade cars from plastic stock parts to aluminium parts to increase strength and the steering angle of the car.","title":"Hobby-grade radio control models"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Traxxas_rustler.triddle.jpg"},{"link_name":"transmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter"},{"link_name":"receiver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Receiver_(radio)"},{"link_name":"radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio"},{"link_name":"amplitude modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude_modulation"},{"link_name":"pulse-width modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-width_modulation"},{"link_name":"frequency modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_modulation"},{"link_name":"pulse-code modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-code_modulation"},{"link_name":"electronic speed controls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_speed_control"},{"link_name":"servomechanisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Servomechanisms"},{"link_name":"current","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_current"}],"text":"A Traxxas Electric Rustler—A Rear Wheel Drive Stadium Truck (without body).Radio-controlled cars use a common set of components for their control and operation. All cars require a transmitter, which has the joysticks for control, or in pistol grip form, a trigger for throttle and a wheel for turning, and a receiver which sits inside the car. The receiver changes the radio signal broadcast from the transmitter into suitable electrical control signals for the other components of the control system. Most radio systems utilize amplitude modulation for the radio signal and encode the control positions with pulse-width modulation. Upgraded radio systems are available that use the more robust frequency modulation and pulse-code modulation. Recently however, 2.4 GHz frequency radios have become the standard for hobby-grade R/C cars. The radio is wired up to either electronic speed controls or servomechanisms (shortened to \"servo\" in common usage) which perform actions such as throttle control, braking, steering, and on some cars, engaging either forward or reverse gears. Electronic speed controls and servos are commanded by the receiver through pulse-width modulation; pulse duration sets either the amount of current that an electronic speed control allows to flow into the electric motor or sets the angle of the servo. On these models the servo is attached to at least the steering mechanism; rotation of the servo is mechanically changed into a force which steers the wheels on the model, generally through adjustable turnbuckle linkages. Servo savers are integrated into all steering linkages and some nitro throttle linkages. A servo saver is a flexible link between the servo and its linkage that protects the servo's internal gears from damage during impacts or stress.","title":"Principle of operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:RC_Race_Car_SST2000.jpg"},{"link_name":"Associated Electrics, Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Electrics"},{"link_name":"Costa Mesa, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Costa_Mesa,_California"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"aluminium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminum"},{"link_name":"alloy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alloy"},{"link_name":"shock absorbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shock_absorber"},{"link_name":"nylon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nylon"},{"link_name":"wheels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel"},{"link_name":"transmissions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmission_(mechanics)"},{"link_name":"differential","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_(mechanical_device)"},{"link_name":"Schumacher Racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schumacher_Racing_Products"},{"link_name":"four wheel drive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_wheel_drive"},{"link_name":"Pomona, California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pomona,_California"},{"link_name":"injection molded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injection_molded"},{"link_name":"1/18-scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1:18_scale"},{"link_name":"Traxxas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traxxas"},{"link_name":"Kyosho","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyosho"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"LiPo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithium-ion_polymer_battery"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"}],"text":"RC Racing car, 'Schumacher S.S.T.2000'. The image shows the car without body kit or battery pack installed to allow for a clearer view.In 1984, Associated Electrics, Inc. of Costa Mesa, California introduced the RC10 off-road electric racer;[33] this model was a departure from 'Associated Electrics' regular line of nitromethane-powered on-road race cars. Designed as a high-grade radio-controlled car, the chassis of the RC10 buggy was manufactured from anodized, aircraft-grade aluminium alloy. The shock absorbers were machined, oil-filled and completely tuneable; they were also produced from the same aluminium alloy. Suspension control arms were manufactured from high-impact nylon, as were the three-piece wheels.Optional metal shielded ball bearings were sometimes incorporated in RC10 wheels and transmissions. The RC10 transmission contained an innovative differential featuring hardened steel rings pressed against balls—which made it almost infinitely adjustable for any track condition. The RC10 quickly became the dominant model in electric off-road racing.In 1986, Schumacher Racing Products released their CAT (Competition All Terrain) vehicle, widely considered the best four wheel drive off-road \"buggy\" racer of the time. The CAT went on to win the 1987 off-road world championship. This car is credited for sparking an interest in four-wheel-drive electric off-road racing.Gil Losi Jr., whose family ran the \"Ranch Pit Shop R/C\" racetrack in Pomona, California, turned his college studies toward engineering, primarily in the field of injection molded plastics, leading to his foundation of Team Losi. When the JRX-2, the first Team Losi buggy, was released, it initiated a rivalry with Team Associated that continues to this day. Team Losi went on to secure a number of achievements, which included the industry's first all-natural rubber tires, the first American-made four-wheel-drive racing buggy, and an entirely new class of cars, the 1/18-scale Mini-T off-road electrics.Although Losi and Associated seemed to dominate much of the American market, Traxxas, (another American company, famous for the X-Maxx and the Slash), and Kyosho (from Japan), were also making competitive two-wheel-drive off-road racing models.[34] Although Losi and Associated were close rivals in the US, Schumacher off-road models continued to be popular amongst European hobbyists.Electric and nitro cars have come a long way in terms of power. Electric cars have gone from non-rebuildable brushed motors and NiCad batteries to brushless motors and LiPo. Nitro cars have gone from small engines to huge .36-.80 engines that are used in big monster trucks.The control systems for robotic cars have greatly evolved with the advances in internet communication systems. Attempts have been made to provide web protocol based control over robots.[35]","title":"Modern developments in radio-controlled racing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"telemetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemetry"}],"sub_title":"Telemetry in RC racing","text":"In the last few years, one-way telemetry systems have also been applied in RC racing cars to get information from the car's sensors likeEngine/motor RPM\nBattery voltage\nEngine/motor temperatureThe telemetry system is usually integrated in car's receiver and transmitted to the controller.","title":"Modern developments in radio-controlled racing"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Competitions","title":"Modern developments in radio-controlled racing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IFMAR 1:8 IC Track World Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IFMAR_1:8_IC_Track_World_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ROAR 1:8 On-road Fuel National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ROAR_1:8_On-road_Fuel_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"EFRA 1:8 IC European Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EFRA_1:8_IC_European_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Campionato Italiano Pista 1:8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campionato_Italiano_Pista_1:8&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Championnat de France 1:8 piste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Championnat_de_France_1:8_piste&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Meisterschaften Verbrenner Glattbahn 1:8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deutsche_Meisterschaften_Verbrenner_Glattbahn_1:8&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"BRCA 1:8 Circuit Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BRCA_1:8_Circuit_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"JMRCA All-Japan 1:8 GP On-Road Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JMRCA_All-Japan_1:8_GP_On-Road_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Campeonato de España de 1:8 Pista Gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campeonato_de_Espa%C3%B1a_de_1:8_Pista_Gas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"AARCMCC 1:8 IC On-Road National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AARCMCC_1:8_IC_On-Road_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"FEMCA Asia On-Road GP Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FEMCA_Asia_On-Road_GP_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Copa Sudamericana e Copa FAMAR de 1:8 Pista Gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copa_Sudamericana_e_Copa_FAMAR_de_1:8_Pista_Gas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"SARDA On-Road Gas National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SARDA_On-Road_Gas_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hong Kong On-Road GP Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hong_Kong_On-Road_GP_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"RCCA Nitro On-road Thailand Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RCCA_Nitro_On-road_Thailand_Championships&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Euro Nitro Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euro_Nitro_Series&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro_Nitro_Series"},{"link_name":"stadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stadium_truck"},{"link_name":"short course trucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_course_truck"},{"link_name":"1:10 radio-controlled off-road buggy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1:10_radio-controlled_off-road_buggy"},{"link_name":"IFMAR 1:10 Electric Off-Road World Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFMAR_1:10_Electric_Off-Road_World_Championship"},{"link_name":"ROAR 1:10 Electric Off-Road National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ROAR_1:10_Electric_Off-Road_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"JMRCA All-Japan 1:10 EP Off-Road Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JMRCA_All-Japan_1:10_EP_Off-Road_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"EFRA European 1:10 Off-Road Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EFRA_European_1:10_Off-Road_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"BRCA 1:10 Scale Electric Off-Road Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BRCA_1:10_Scale_Electric_Off-Road_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Championnat de France 1:10 tout-terrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Championnat_de_France_1:10_tout-terrain&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Meisterschaften Elektro Off-road 1:10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deutsche_Meisterschaften_Elektro_Off-road_1:10&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"AAMRCMCC 1:10 EP Off-Road National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AAMRCMCC_1:10_EP_Off-Road_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australia"},{"link_name":"Campeonato de España de 1:10 Todo Terreno Eléctricos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campeonato_de_Espa%C3%B1a_de_1:10_Todo_Terreno_El%C3%A9ctricos&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"FEMCA Asia 1:10 Off-Road EP Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FEMCA_Asia_1:10_Off-Road_EP_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Euro Offroad Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euro_Offroad_Series&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro_Offroad_Series"},{"link_name":"IFMAR 1:8 IC Off-Road World Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFMAR_1:8_IC_Off-Road_World_Championship"},{"link_name":"EFRA European 1:8 IC Off-Road Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EFRA_European_1:8_IC_Off-Road_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ROAR 1:8 Fuel Off–Road National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ROAR_1:8_Fuel_Off-Road_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"FEMCA 1:8 Off-Road Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FEMCA_1:8_Off-Road_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"JMRCA All-Japan 1:8 GP Off-Road Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JMRCA_All-Japan_1:8_GP_Off-Road_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"BRCA Rallycross Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BRCA_Rallycross_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Meisterschaften Verbrenner Offroad 1:8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deutsche_Meisterschaften_Verbrenner_Offroad_1:8&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Championnat de France 1:8 tout-terrain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Championnat_de_France_1:8_tout-terrain&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Campeonato de España de 1:8 Todo Terreno Gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campeonato_de_Espa%C3%B1a_de_1:8_Todo_Terreno_Gas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Campionato Italiano Buggy 1:8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campionato_Italiano_Buggy_1:8&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"RCCA Nitro Off-road Thailand Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RCCA_Nitro_Off-road_Thailand_Championships&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Nordic Championships – 1:8 Buggy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nordic_Championships_%E2%80%93_1:8_Buggy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Copa Sudamericana e Copa FAMAR de 1:8 Todo Terreno Gas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Copa_Sudamericana_e_Copa_FAMAR_de_1:8_Todo_Terreno_Gas&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"AARCMCC 1:8 Scale IC Off-Road National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AARCMCC_1:8_Scale_IC_Off-Road_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Campeoes Brasileiros FEBARC – 1:8 Off Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campeoes_Brasileiros_FEBARC_%E2%80%93_1:8_Off_Road&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"SARDA Off-Road Gas National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SARDA_Off-Road_Gas_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"RCACR 1:8 Off-Road Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RCACR_1:8_Off-Road_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Israel League","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Israel_League&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"IFMAR ISTC World Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IFMAR_ISTC_World_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"EFRA European 1:10 Electric Touring Cars Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EFRA_European_1:10_Electric_Touring_Cars_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"JMRCA All-Japan 1:10 Scale EP Touring Car Championship – Super Expert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JMRCA_All-Japan_1:10_Scale_EP_Touring_Car_Championship_%E2%80%93_Super_Expert&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Meisterschaften Elektro Glattbahn Tourenwagen 1:10","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deutsche_Meisterschaften_Elektro_Glattbahn_Tourenwagen_1:10&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"FEMCA Asian 1:10 ISTC Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=FEMCA_Asian_1:10_ISTC_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ROAR 1:10 Scale Electric On-Road Paved Sedan National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ROAR_1:10_Scale_Electric_On-Road_Paved_Sedan_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ROAR 1:10 Scale On-Road Carpet Sedan National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ROAR_1:10_Scale_On-Road_Carpet_Sedan_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"BRCA 1:10 Scale Electric Circuit Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BRCA_1:10_Scale_Electric_Circuit_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"RCCA Thailand On-Road Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RCCA_Thailand_On-Road_Championships&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"NOMAC Nederlands Kampioenschap Electro Circuit 1:10 – Toerwagens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=NOMAC_Nederlands_Kampioenschap_Electro_Circuit_1:10_%E2%80%93_Toerwagens&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"AARCMCC 1:10 Scale Electric Touring Car Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AARCMCC_1:10_Scale_Electric_Touring_Car_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"AMSCI Campionato Italiano 1:10 Touring Elettrico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=AMSCI_Campionato_Italiano_1:10_Touring_Elettrico&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Campeonato Brasileiro 1:10 On Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Campeonato_Brasileiro_1:10_On_Road&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"SARDA On-Road Electric National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SARDA_On-Road_Electric_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"China National 1:10 Touring Car Championships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=China_National_1:10_Touring_Car_Championships&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Euro Touring Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euro_Touring_Series&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro_Touring_Series"},{"link_name":"IFMAR 1:12 Electric Track World Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IFMAR_1:12_Electric_Track_World_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"ROAR Electric On-Road National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ROAR_Electric_On-Road_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"JMRCA All-Japan 1:12 EP Racing Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=JMRCA_All-Japan_1:12_EP_Racing_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"EFRA 1:12 On-Road European Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EFRA_1:12_On-Road_European_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"BRCA 1:12 Electric Circuit National Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BRCA_1:12_Electric_Circuit_National_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Euro Offroad Series","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Euro_Offroad_Series&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"de","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euro_Offroad_Series"},{"link_name":"IFMAR PRO 10 World Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IFMAR_PRO_10_World_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"IFMAR 1:10 235mm On-Road World Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=IFMAR_1:10_235mm_On-Road_World_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"EFRA European Large Scale Off-Road Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=EFRA_European_Large_Scale_Off-Road_Championship&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"1:8 Sport On-RoadIFMAR 1:8 IC Track World Championship (1977–)\nROAR 1:8 On-road Fuel National Championship (1968–)\nEFRA 1:8 IC European Championship (1974–)\nCampionato Italiano Pista 1:8 (1971–)\nChampionnat de France 1:8 piste (1975–)\nDeutsche Meisterschaften Verbrenner Glattbahn 1:8 (1971–)\nBRCA 1:8 Circuit Championship (1971–)\nJMRCA All-Japan 1:8 GP On-Road Championship (1978–)\nCampeonato de España de 1:8 Pista Gas (1980–)\nAARCMCC 1:8 IC On-Road National Championship (1979–)\nFEMCA Asia On-Road GP Championship (-)\nCopa Sudamericana e Copa FAMAR de 1:8 Pista Gas (2010–)\nCopa Sudamericana de 1:8 Pista Gas (-)\nCampeonato Brasileiro 1:8 Pista\nSARDA On-Road Gas National Championship\nHong Kong On-Road GP Championship\nRCCA Nitro On-road Thailand Championships\nEuro Nitro Series [de] (2013—)1:10 Electric Off-Road\nInclude championships for stadium and short course trucks1:10 radio-controlled off-road buggy\nIFMAR 1:10 Electric Off-Road World Championship (1985—)\nROAR 1:10 Electric Off-Road National Championship (1984—) \nJMRCA All-Japan 1:10 EP Off-Road Championship (1986—) \nEFRA European 1:10 Off-Road Championship (1985—) \nBRCA 1:10 Scale Electric Off-Road Championship (1989—) \nChampionnat de France 1:10 tout-terrain (1984—) \nDeutsche Meisterschaften Elektro Off-road 1:10 (1984—) \nAAMRCMCC 1:10 EP Off-Road National Championship (—) \nCampeonato de España de 1:10 Todo Terreno Eléctricos (—) \nFEMCA Asia 1:10 Off-Road EP Championship (—)\nEuro Offroad Series [de] (2011—)1:8 Off-Road\nAlso includes championships for truggies and ebuggies (electric buggies)IFMAR 1:8 IC Off-Road World Championship (1986–)\nEFRA European 1:8 IC Off-Road Championship (1979–)\nROAR 1:8 Fuel Off–Road National Championship (1997–)\nFEMCA 1:8 Off-Road Championship (1986–)\nJMRCA All-Japan 1:8 GP Off-Road Championship (1980–)\nBRCA Rallycross Championship (1983–)\nDeutsche Meisterschaften Verbrenner Offroad 1:8 (1982–)\nChampionnat de France 1:8 tout-terrain (1983–)\nCampeonato de España de 1:8 Todo Terreno Gas (1983–)\nCampionato Italiano Buggy 1:8 (1991–)\nRCCA Nitro Off-road Thailand Championships\nNordic Championships – 1:8 Buggy (1986–)\nCopa Sudamericana e Copa FAMAR de 1:8 Todo Terreno Gas (2010–)\nAARCMCC 1:8 Scale IC Off-Road National Championship (1979–)\nCopa Sudamericana de 1:8 Todo Terreno Gas (2003-2009)\nCampeoes Brasileiros FEBARC – 1:8 Off Road (19??–)\nSARDA Off-Road Gas National Championship\nRCACR 1:8 Off-Road Championship\nIsrael League1:10 Electric Touring CarIFMAR ISTC World Championship (1998–)\nEFRA European 1:10 Electric Touring Cars Championship\nJMRCA All-Japan 1:10 Scale EP Touring Car Championship – Super Expert (2007–)\nJMRCA All-Japan 1:10 Scale EP Touring Car Championship – Expert (1996–2006)\nDeutsche Meisterschaften Elektro Glattbahn Tourenwagen 1:10 (1997–)\nFEMCA Asian 1:10 ISTC Championship\nROAR 1:10 Scale Electric On-Road Paved Sedan National Championship (–)\nROAR 1:10 Scale On-Road Carpet Sedan National Championship (–)\nBRCA 1:10 Scale Electric Circuit Championship (–)\nRCCA Thailand On-Road Championships\nNOMAC Nederlands Kampioenschap Electro Circuit 1:10 – Toerwagens\nAARCMCC 1:10 Scale Electric Touring Car Championship\nAMSCI Campionato Italiano 1:10 Touring Elettrico (197?–)\nCampeonato Brasileiro 1:10 On Road\nSARDA On-Road Electric National Championship\nChina National 1:10 Touring Car Championships\nEuro Touring Series [de] (2007—)1:12 On-RoadIFMAR 1:12 Electric Track World Championship (1982–)\nROAR Electric On-Road National Championship (1979–)\nJMRCA All-Japan 1:12 EP Racing Championship (1982–)\nEFRA 1:12 On-Road European Championship\nBRCA 1:12 Electric Circuit National Championship1:10 200mm Nitro Touring CarEuro Offroad Series [de] (2011—) 1:5 Large Scale On-RoadPRO 10IFMAR PRO 10 World Championship (1992–2000)1:10 235mm On-RoadIFMAR 1:10 235mm On-Road World Championship (2000–2002)(1:6) Large Scale Off-RoadEFRA European Large Scale Off-Road Championship (2010–)","title":"Radio-controlled racing"}]

[{"image_text":"Wen-Mac/Testors 1966 Mustang 1:11 Scale","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/1966_Ford_Mustang_Motorized_Model_Car_by_Wen-Mac_1-11_Scale.jpg/220px-1966_Ford_Mustang_Motorized_Model_Car_by_Wen-Mac_1-11_Scale.jpg"},{"image_text":"ElGi Ferrari 250LM 1:12 Scale Radio Controlled Car","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Image_Title_-_ElGi_Ferrari_250LM_Radio_Controlled_Car_IMG_5905.jpg/220px-Image_Title_-_ElGi_Ferrari_250LM_Radio_Controlled_Car_IMG_5905.jpg"},{"image_text":"A collection of Taiyo Toys Co. Ltd. manufactured radio-controlled toys, sold under the Taiyo, and Tyco RC brands sold in the 1980s and 1990s.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Collection_of_Taiyo_and_Tyco_RC_toys_V1.1.jpg/220px-Collection_of_Taiyo_and_Tyco_RC_toys_V1.1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Radio controlled vehicle toy 1:24 Range Rover Sport replica developed by Rastar with hidden antenna.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Rastar_range_rover_sport.JPG/220px-Rastar_range_rover_sport.JPG"},{"image_text":"On-road racing model on a carpet surface track.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/RC_model_car_racing_in_Hrotovice%2C_T%C5%99eb%C3%AD%C4%8D_District.jpg/220px-RC_model_car_racing_in_Hrotovice%2C_T%C5%99eb%C3%AD%C4%8D_District.jpg"},{"image_text":"An RC car from the LCRC Halloween Classic","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Nitro_Buggy_RC_Car.jpg/220px-Nitro_Buggy_RC_Car.jpg"},{"image_text":"A 1:8 four-wheel drive off-road racing buggy in action","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/17/1-8_4WD_off-road_racing_buggy.jpg/220px-1-8_4WD_off-road_racing_buggy.jpg"},{"image_text":"Tamiya F103 Ferrari 412T1 RC Built Model Kit","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Ferrari_412T1_Tamiya_1-10_RC_F103_Chassis_Model_Kit_58142_Red.jpg/220px-Ferrari_412T1_Tamiya_1-10_RC_F103_Chassis_Model_Kit_58142_Red.jpg"},{"image_text":"A yellow RC Camaro SS","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Chevrolet_Camaro_SS_RC_Car.jpg/220px-Chevrolet_Camaro_SS_RC_Car.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Traxxas T-Maxx nitro-powered off-road monster truck without the body.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/9d/Traxxas_t-maxx.no_body.triddle.jpg/220px-Traxxas_t-maxx.no_body.triddle.jpg"},{"image_text":"An Ofna Hyper 8 Pro 1:8-scale nitro-powered racing buggy.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Hyper8.jpg/220px-Hyper8.jpg"},{"image_text":"Traxxas Nitro Sport"},{"image_text":"A Traxxas Electric Rustler—A Rear Wheel Drive Stadium Truck (without body).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/10/Traxxas_rustler.triddle.jpg/220px-Traxxas_rustler.triddle.jpg"},{"image_text":"RC Racing car, 'Schumacher S.S.T.2000'. The image shows the car without body kit or battery pack installed to allow for a clearer view.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7c/RC_Race_Car_SST2000.jpg/220px-RC_Race_Car_SST2000.jpg"}]

[{"title":"International Federation of Model Auto Racing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Federation_of_Model_Auto_Racing"},{"title":"IFMAR 1:10 Electric Off-Road World Championship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IFMAR_1:10_Electric_Off-Road_World_Championship"},{"title":"1:10 radio-controlled off-road buggy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1:10_radio-controlled_off-road_buggy"}]

[{"reference":"\"What are remote controlled (RC) cars: The Ultimate Guide\". rccararena.com. 25 December 2022. Retrieved 2022-12-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://rccararena.com/what-are-remote-controlled-cars/","url_text":"\"What are remote controlled (RC) cars: The Ultimate Guide\""}]},{"reference":"\"NiMH vs. LiPo batteries - Which One Is Better? - RC Crush\". www.rccrush.com. 2023-06-23. Retrieved 2023-06-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rccrush.com/nimh-vs-lipo-batteries/","url_text":"\"NiMH vs. LiPo batteries - Which One Is Better? - RC Crush\""}]},{"reference":"Musciano, Walter (1956). Building and Operating Model Cars (First ed.). New York: Funk & Wagnalls Company. p. 37.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Palmeter, David. \"RCModels 1954 Ford Motor Company Concept\". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 23 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-1954-ford-motor-company-concept/","url_text":"\"RCModels 1954 Ford Motor Company Concept\""}]},{"reference":"Farrell, Jim (1999). Ford Design Dept Concept & Show Cars 1932-1961 (First ed.). Hong Kong: World Print Ltd. pp. 226–232. ISBN 0-9672428-0-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9672428-0-0","url_text":"0-9672428-0-0"}]},{"reference":"Palmeter, David (15 April 2014). \"RCModels 1955 Ford Motor Company Concept\". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 23 March 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-1955-ford-motor-company-concept-2/","url_text":"\"RCModels 1955 Ford Motor Company Concept\""}]},{"reference":"\"Earliest Documented Experimental RC Car\". R/C Tech Forums. Retrieved 2023-06-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rctech.net/forum/vintage-forum/1103669-earliest-documented-experimental-rc-car.html","url_text":"\"Earliest Documented Experimental RC Car\""}]},{"reference":"Crews, Pat; Dewey, Don (September 1970). \"History of Radio Controlled Auto Racing\". Pit Stop. 1 (1): 31–33, 41–42.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Palmeter, David. \"RCModels 1960's Bill Johnson Experimental Car\". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 2022-07-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-1960-bill-johnson-experimental-car/","url_text":"\"RCModels 1960's Bill Johnson Experimental Car\""}]},{"reference":"Balz, Ken (October 1964). \"Radio Controlled \"Big\" T\". Rod & Custom Models. 1 (5): 74–76.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Palmeter, David. \"RC Big T\". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 2022-05-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-1964-rcm-big-t/","url_text":"\"RC Big T\""}]},{"reference":"Crews, Pat; Dewey, Don (September 1970). \"History of Radio Controlled Auto Racing\". Pit Stop. 1 (1): 31–33, 41–42.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Palmeter, David. \"RCModels 1965 Bill Eccles Prototype Cars\". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 2022-07-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-1965-bill-eccles-experimental-cars/","url_text":"\"RCModels 1965 Bill Eccles Prototype Cars\""}]},{"reference":"Palmeter, David. \"RCModels German Hegi Porsche 904GTS\". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 18 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-german-hegi-porsche-904gts/","url_text":"\"RCModels German Hegi Porsche 904GTS\""}]},{"reference":"McEntee, Howard (July 1965). \"Everything Under Control: McEntee on R/C\". American Modeler. 62 (4): 44.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Palmeter, David. \"RCModels History - NAMCO\". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 17 June 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-history/","url_text":"\"RCModels History - NAMCO\""}]},{"reference":"Dion, Tom (March 1967). \"A Revolution in Racing: Radio Control\". Car Model. 5 (8): 27-31.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hunt, George (November 19, 1965). \"Motorized Mustang GT\". Life. Vol. 59, no. 21. p. 29.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Waters, Mort (April 1966). \"Hottest Items from the 1966 Hobby Trade Show\". Car Model. 4 (9): 68.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Palmeter, David. \"RCModels Testors First Mustang\". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 2023-02-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-testors-first-mustang//","url_text":"\"RCModels Testors First Mustang\""}]},{"reference":"Massucci, Edoardo (June 1966). \"Le \"miniature\" circoleranno?\". Quattroruote. XI (6): 194.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Palmeter, David. \"RCModels 1966 ElGi Ferrari 250 LM\". Thirteen Point Seven Billion. David Palmeter. Retrieved 2023-01-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-1966-elgi-ferrari-250-lm/","url_text":"\"RCModels 1966 ElGi Ferrari 250 LM\""}]},{"reference":"\"1996 Tyco Mutator - Taiyo Tyco Collectors\". Retrieved 2023-01-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://tycocollectors.com/product/1996-tyco-mutator/","url_text":"\"1996 Tyco Mutator - Taiyo Tyco Collectors\""}]},{"reference":"\"1986 Taiyo Jet Hopper MK1 (Japan) - Taiyo Tyco Collectors\". Retrieved 2023-01-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://tycocollectors.com/product/1986-taiyo-jet-hopper-mk1/","url_text":"\"1986 Taiyo Jet Hopper MK1 (Japan) - Taiyo Tyco Collectors\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Inventors of your Childhood Toys - Taiyo Tyco Collectors\". 2022-10-28. Retrieved 2023-01-14.","urls":[{"url":"https://tycocollectors.com/the-inventors-of-your-childhood-toys/","url_text":"\"The Inventors of your Childhood Toys - Taiyo Tyco Collectors\""}]},{"reference":"Tudor Rus (2020-11-04). \"The 5 fastest RC cars you can boy today\". Topspeed. Retrieved 2022-08-30.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.topspeed.com/cars/car-news/the-5-fastest-rc-cars-you-can-buy-today-ar12873.html","url_text":"\"The 5 fastest RC cars you can boy today\""}]},{"reference":"Tommy (11 September 2017). \"Getting Into RC Cars: Choosing the best RC car for beginner\". Rccargood. Retrieved 2018-04-03.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.rccargood.com/getting-into-rc-cars/#Ready","url_text":"\"Getting Into RC Cars: Choosing the best RC car for beginner\""}]},{"reference":"\"Beginner's Guide to RC Cars – Build Types: Kit, RTR or ARTR\". CompetitionX. Retrieved 2022-06-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.competitionx.com/beginners-guide-to-rc-cars-build-types-kit-rtr-or-artr/","url_text":"\"Beginner's Guide to RC Cars – Build Types: Kit, RTR or ARTR\""}]},{"reference":"\"Electronic speed controllers, ESC, Mechanical Speed Controllers, MSC, motors - Tamiya RC Classics & Moderns\". www.blackholesun.fr. Retrieved 2023-08-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.blackholesun.fr/index.php/en/41-en/rc-tech-guides/206-electronic-speed-controllers-esc-mechanical-speed-controllers-msc-motors","url_text":"\"Electronic speed controllers, ESC, Mechanical Speed Controllers, MSC, motors - Tamiya RC Classics & Moderns\""}]},{"reference":"Wells, Tim. \"What Is an ESC For RC Cars?\". Clutch RC. Retrieved 2023-08-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://clutchrc.com/electronic-speed-control/","url_text":"\"What Is an ESC For RC Cars?\""}]},{"reference":"Kloster, Kim. \"MAGracing\". MAGracing Forum. phpBB. Retrieved 26 August 2022.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.magracingforum.com/","url_text":"\"MAGracing\""}]},{"reference":"\"Nitro vs. Electric RC Cars - Which Is Best? - RC Crush\". www.rccrush.com. 2023-07-03. Retrieved 2023-08-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rccrush.com/nitro-vs-electric-rc-cars/","url_text":"\"Nitro vs. Electric RC Cars - Which Is Best? - RC Crush\""}]},{"reference":"\"Team Associated RC10 Classic - Car Action - Review\". site.petitrc.com. Retrieved 2023-08-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://site.petitrc.com/setup/associated/setuprc10/RC10Classic_RCCA_Review/","url_text":"\"Team Associated RC10 Classic - Car Action - Review\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Best RC Brands - RC Roundup\". rcroundup.com. Archived from the original on 2016-10-09. Retrieved 2016-10-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161009084432/http://rcroundup.com/best-rc-brands/","url_text":"\"The Best RC Brands - RC Roundup\""},{"url":"http://rcroundup.com/best-rc-brands/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ghosh, Sujoy; Ghosh, Subarna; Dayani, Meet (27 September 2018). Design of an Unlimited Range Web Browser Controlled Robot with Self-Adapting Fuzzy Logic Controller. 2018 Second International Conference on Inventive Communication and Computational Technologies (ICICCT). Coimbatore, India: IEEE. doi:10.1109/ICICCT.2018.8473125.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICICCT.2018.8473125","url_text":"10.1109/ICICCT.2018.8473125"}]}]

[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Radio-controlled_car&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this article"},{"Link":"https://www.modelaircraft.org/","external_links_name":"Academy of Model Aeronautics (AMA)"},{"Link":"https://rccararena.com/what-are-remote-controlled-cars/","external_links_name":"\"What are remote controlled (RC) cars: The Ultimate Guide\""},{"Link":"https://www.rccrush.com/nimh-vs-lipo-batteries/","external_links_name":"\"NiMH vs. LiPo batteries - Which One Is Better? - RC Crush\""},{"Link":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-1954-ford-motor-company-concept/","external_links_name":"\"RCModels 1954 Ford Motor Company Concept\""},{"Link":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-1955-ford-motor-company-concept-2/","external_links_name":"\"RCModels 1955 Ford Motor Company Concept\""},{"Link":"https://www.rctech.net/forum/vintage-forum/1103669-earliest-documented-experimental-rc-car.html","external_links_name":"\"Earliest Documented Experimental RC Car\""},{"Link":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-1960-bill-johnson-experimental-car/","external_links_name":"\"RCModels 1960's Bill Johnson Experimental Car\""},{"Link":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-1964-rcm-big-t/","external_links_name":"\"RC Big T\""},{"Link":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-1965-bill-eccles-experimental-cars/","external_links_name":"\"RCModels 1965 Bill Eccles Prototype Cars\""},{"Link":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-german-hegi-porsche-904gts/","external_links_name":"\"RCModels German Hegi Porsche 904GTS\""},{"Link":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-history/","external_links_name":"\"RCModels History - NAMCO\""},{"Link":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-testors-first-mustang//","external_links_name":"\"RCModels Testors First Mustang\""},{"Link":"https://palmeter.com/rcmodels-1966-elgi-ferrari-250-lm/","external_links_name":"\"RCModels 1966 ElGi Ferrari 250 LM\""},{"Link":"https://tycocollectors.com/product/1996-tyco-mutator/","external_links_name":"\"1996 Tyco Mutator - Taiyo Tyco Collectors\""},{"Link":"https://tycocollectors.com/product/1986-taiyo-jet-hopper-mk1/","external_links_name":"\"1986 Taiyo Jet Hopper MK1 (Japan) - Taiyo Tyco Collectors\""},{"Link":"https://tycocollectors.com/the-inventors-of-your-childhood-toys/","external_links_name":"\"The Inventors of your Childhood Toys - Taiyo Tyco Collectors\""},{"Link":"https://www.topspeed.com/cars/car-news/the-5-fastest-rc-cars-you-can-buy-today-ar12873.html","external_links_name":"\"The 5 fastest RC cars you can boy today\""},{"Link":"http://www.rccargood.com/getting-into-rc-cars/#Ready","external_links_name":"\"Getting Into RC Cars: Choosing the best RC car for beginner\""},{"Link":"https://www.competitionx.com/beginners-guide-to-rc-cars-build-types-kit-rtr-or-artr/","external_links_name":"\"Beginner's Guide to RC Cars – Build Types: Kit, RTR or ARTR\""},{"Link":"https://www.blackholesun.fr/index.php/en/41-en/rc-tech-guides/206-electronic-speed-controllers-esc-mechanical-speed-controllers-msc-motors","external_links_name":"\"Electronic speed controllers, ESC, Mechanical Speed Controllers, MSC, motors - Tamiya RC Classics & Moderns\""},{"Link":"https://clutchrc.com/electronic-speed-control/","external_links_name":"\"What Is an ESC For RC Cars?\""},{"Link":"http://www.magracingforum.com/","external_links_name":"\"MAGracing\""},{"Link":"https://www.rccrush.com/nitro-vs-electric-rc-cars/","external_links_name":"\"Nitro vs. Electric RC Cars - Which Is Best? - RC Crush\""},{"Link":"https://site.petitrc.com/setup/associated/setuprc10/RC10Classic_RCCA_Review/","external_links_name":"\"Team Associated RC10 Classic - Car Action - Review\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161009084432/http://rcroundup.com/best-rc-brands/","external_links_name":"\"The Best RC Brands - RC Roundup\""},{"Link":"http://rcroundup.com/best-rc-brands/","external_links_name":"the original"},{"Link":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FICICCT.2018.8473125","external_links_name":"10.1109/ICICCT.2018.8473125"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meronomy

Meronomy

["1 Example","2 In knowledge representation","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

Type of hierarchy that deals with part–whole relationships Not to be confused with meronymy or metonymy. A meronomy or partonomy is a type of hierarchy that deals with part–whole relationships, in contrast to a taxonomy whose categorisation is based on discrete sets. Accordingly, the unit of meronomical classification is meron, while the unit of taxonomical classification is taxon. These conceptual structures are used in linguistics and computer science, with applications in biology. The part–whole relationship is sometimes referred to as HAS-A, and corresponds to object composition in object-oriented programming. The study of meronomy is known as mereology, and in linguistics a meronym is the name given to a constituent part of, a substance of, or a member of something. "X" is a meronym of "Y" if an X is a part of a Y. Example Cars have parts: engine, headlight, wheel Engines have parts: crankcase, carburetor Headlights have parts: headlight bulb, reflector Wheels have parts: rim, spokes In knowledge representation In formal terms, in the context of knowledge representation and ontologies, a meronomy is a partial order of concept types by the part–whole relation. In the classic study of parts and wholes, mereology, the three defining properties of a partial order serve as axioms. They are, respectively, that the part-of relation is Transitive – "Parts of parts are parts of the whole" (If A is part of B and B is part of C, then A is part of C); Reflexive – "Everything is part of itself" (A is part of A); and Antisymmetric – "Nothing is a part of its parts" (If A is part of B and A ≠ B, then B is not part of A). Meronomies may be represented in semantic web languages such as OWL and SKOS. In natural languages they are represented by meronyms and holonyms. See also Mereology Meronymy References ^ Object-Oriented Programming Concept ^ Glossary of WordNet Terminology Archived 2007-12-01 at the Wayback Machine ^ Glossary ^ Simple part-whole relations in OWL Ontologies External links Introduction to WordNet: An On-line Lexical Database W3C SKOS Home Page

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"meronymy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meronymy_and_holonymy"},{"link_name":"metonymy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metonymy"},{"link_name":"hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy"},{"link_name":"taxonomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxonomy"},{"link_name":"discrete sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isolated_point"},{"link_name":"classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classification"},{"link_name":"taxon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxon"},{"link_name":"linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linguistics"},{"link_name":"computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_science"},{"link_name":"biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology"},{"link_name":"object-oriented programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"mereology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mereology"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Not to be confused with meronymy or metonymy.A meronomy or partonomy is a type of hierarchy that deals with part–whole relationships, in contrast to a taxonomy whose categorisation is based on discrete sets. Accordingly, the unit of meronomical classification is meron, while the unit of taxonomical classification is taxon. These conceptual structures are used in linguistics and computer science, with applications in biology. The part–whole relationship is sometimes referred to as HAS-A, and corresponds to object composition in object-oriented programming.[1] The study of meronomy is known as mereology, and in linguistics a meronym is the name given to a constituent part of, a substance of, or a member of something. \"X\" is a meronym of \"Y\" if an X is a part of a Y.[2]","title":"Meronomy"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Cars have parts: engine, headlight, wheel\nEngines have parts: crankcase, carburetor\nHeadlights have parts: headlight bulb, reflector\nWheels have parts: rim, spokes","title":"Example"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"knowledge representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation"},{"link_name":"ontologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontologies"},{"link_name":"partial order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partially_ordered_set"},{"link_name":"relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relation_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"mereology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mereology"},{"link_name":"axioms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axioms"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Transitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_relation"},{"link_name":"Reflexive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_relation"},{"link_name":"Antisymmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisymmetric_relation"},{"link_name":"semantic web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_web"},{"link_name":"OWL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_Ontology_Language"},{"link_name":"SKOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SKOS"},{"link_name":"natural languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language"},{"link_name":"meronyms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meronymy"},{"link_name":"holonyms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holonymy"}],"text":"In formal terms, in the context of knowledge representation and ontologies, a meronomy is a partial order of concept types by the part–whole relation.[3]In the classic study of parts and wholes, mereology, the three defining properties of a partial order serve as axioms.[4] They are, respectively, that the part-of relation isTransitive – \"Parts of parts are parts of the whole\" (If A is part of B and B is part of C, then A is part of C);\nReflexive – \"Everything is part of itself\" (A is part of A); and\nAntisymmetric – \"Nothing is a part of its parts\" (If A is part of B and A ≠ B, then B is not part of A).Meronomies may be represented in semantic web languages such as OWL and SKOS. In natural languages they are represented by meronyms and holonyms.","title":"In knowledge representation"}]

[]

[{"title":"Mereology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mereology"},{"title":"Meronymy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meronymy"}]

[]

[{"Link":"http://www.javacamp.org/moreclasses/oop/oop3.html","external_links_name":"Object-Oriented Programming Concept"},{"Link":"http://wordnet.princeton.edu/gloss","external_links_name":"Glossary of WordNet Terminology"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20071201053856/http://wordnet.princeton.edu/gloss/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.jfsowa.com/ontology/gloss.htm","external_links_name":"Glossary"},{"Link":"http://www.w3.org/2001/sw/BestPractices/OEP/SimplePartWhole/","external_links_name":"Simple part-whole relations in OWL Ontologies"},{"Link":"https://academic.oup.com/ijl/article-abstract/3/4/235/923280","external_links_name":"Introduction to WordNet: An On-line Lexical Database"},{"Link":"http://www.w3.org/2004/02/skos/","external_links_name":"W3C SKOS Home Page"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_State_University_College_of_Veterinary_Medicine

Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine

["1 History","2 Facilities","3 References","4 External links"]

Coordinates: 42°00′25″N 93°37′57″W / 42.006830°N 93.632440°W / 42.006830; -93.632440Veterinary college in Ames, Iowa, US Iowa State UniversityCollege of Veterinary MedicineEstablished1879Parent institutionIowa State UniversityDeanDan GroomsLocationAmes, IowaColorsCardinal and Gold    Websitevetmed.iastate.edu Iowa State University's College of Veterinary Medicine was established in 1879, and is the oldest veterinary college in the United States. Iowa State has graduated 6,400 veterinarians and is one of the largest veterinary research facilities in the nation. History Officially formed in 1879, Iowa State College of Veterinary Medicine can trace its history back to the school's founding in 1858, when state legislator's specified that veterinary studies would be included in the subjects of instruction. Seniors of ISU's first graduating class in 1872, received instruction in veterinary science, but it was not until 1879 that degrees were offered in that subject. The ISU veterinary school was the first state veterinary college in the United States. Other private veterinary colleges all closed by the 1920s, leaving ISU as the oldest veterinary college still in operation in the United States. Originally, the degree programs offered were only two-year programs, but with expanded coursework, the program was extended to three years in 1887 and to four years by 1903 (making Iowa State the nation’s first four-year veterinary school). In 1885, veterinary classes were held in the "Sanitary Building," which was located where the current ISU Memorial Union now stands. In 1893 the veterinary department was moved to the "Old Agricultural Hall" or "Botany Hall", today known as Catt Hall. By 1912, overcrowding became an issue. With state appropriation, the "Vet Quadrangle" (currently known as Lagomarcino Hall) was built on the north side of campus. The Quadrangle consisted of four buildings connected by corridors arranged around the central courtyard. A fifth building was than constructed further north and the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory was completed in 1956. As the college continued to grow, the faculty became dissatisfied with the old name for the college, the "Division of Veterinary Medicine". In a 1933 report, the Dean of Veterinary Medicine, Charles Henry Stange commented: the advisability of changing the Division of Veterinary Medicine to "College of Veterinary Medicine" has been discussed for years ... Apparently we have a "College of Veterinary Medicine" at Iowa State in fact but not in name ... It is our earnest hope that this correction be made at an early date. To rename the college, it required making the other divisions within Iowa State college into separate colleges also. On July 4, 1959, the change was finally made and since the "Division of Veterinary Medicine" is now called the "College of Veterinary Medicine." The Quadrangle was the veterinary school's primarily buildings for 64 years until overcrowding once again became an issue. Plans were developed for a new facility on a tract of land adjacent to the Veterinary Medical Research Institute just north of Highway 30. The new facility was completed in 1976 at a cost of just over $25 million. Dedication ceremonies were held in the fall in which President Gerald Ford, among other state and national dignitaries, attended. Facilities Built in 1976, VET MED is the largest academic building at Iowa State University, with over 347,000 square-feet. A new veterinary medical center (completed 2008), built onto the south-east side of the building, adds another 218,000 square feet (20,300 m2) onto a massive veterinary medical center & teaching facility. Although it only has two floors, ISU VET MED building has more square-footage than the second tallest building in the state, the 35 floor Ruan Center in Des Moines. References ^ "ISU Veterinary Points of Pride". Iowa State University. 2009. ^ a b c d e f "ISU Veterinary History". Iowa State University. 2009. ^ "ISU Timeline 1858-1874". Iowa State University. 2009. Archived from the original on 2009-05-13. ^ "Veterinary Medicine". Fpm.iastate.edu. Retrieved 2012-10-29. ^ "Lloyd Veterinary Medical Center". Fpm.iastate.edu. Retrieved 2012-10-29. ^ "Polk/Des Moines Assessor - 020/00931-002-000 Listing". Assess.co.polk.ia.us. Retrieved 2012-10-29. External links Official website Veterinary Assistant School vteIowa State UniversityLocated in: Ames, IowaAcademics Colleges Business Design Engineering Human Sciences Liberal Arts & Sciences Veterinary Medicine Athletics Team Iowa State Cyclones Hall of Fame Men's Basketball Cross country Football Golf Track & field Wrestling Baseball Women's Basketball Cross Country Golf Gymnastics Soccer Softball Swimming & diving Track & field Volleyball Venues Hilton Coliseum Jack Trice Stadium Veenker Memorial Golf Course Cap Timm Field Ames/ISU Ice Arena Rivalries Iowa Cy-Hawk Trophy Iowa Corn Cy-Hawk Series Iowa "Big Four" Big Four Classic Iowa State–Kansas State football rivalry Iowa State–Missouri football rivalry (defunct) School Spirit Cy the Cardinal ISU Fights Marching Band Campus Buildings Campanile Reiman Gardens Iowa State Center Alumni Center Beardshear Hall Enrollment Services Center Memorial Union Morrill Hall Farm House Carver Hall Catt Hall Fick Observatory Research Ames Laboratory Ames Project Atanasoff–Berry computer CYCLONE Honeywell v. Sperry Rand Spacecraft Systems and Controls Lab StrangeSearch BugGuide VRAC Student life Iowa State Daily KURE PrISUm VEISHEA CyRide Cuffs People Notable alumni and faculty ISU Presidents John Vincent Atanasoff George Washington Carver Carrie Chapman Catt Tom Knudson Jack Trice G. Malcolm Trout Founded: 1858 vteSchools of veterinary medicine in the United States Auburn Arizona California–Davis Colorado State Cornell Cummings Florida Georgia Illinois Urbana–Champaign Iowa State Kansas State Lincoln Memorial Louisiana State Michigan State Midwestern Minnesota Mississippi State Missouri North Carolina State Ohio State Oklahoma State Oregon State Pennsylvania Purdue Tennessee–Knoxville Texas A&M Texas Tech Tuskegee Virginia–Maryland Washington State WesternU Wisconsin–Madison 42°00′25″N 93°37′57″W / 42.006830°N 93.632440°W / 42.006830; -93.632440

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Iowa State has graduated 6,400 veterinarians and is one of the largest veterinary research facilities in the nation.[1]","title":"Iowa State University College of Veterinary Medicine"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"veterinary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinary"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Seniors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senior_(education)"},{"link_name":"veterinary science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veterinary_science"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-line1874-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Memorial Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buildings_of_Iowa_State_University#Memorial_Union"},{"link_name":"Catt Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catt_Hall"},{"link_name":"Lagomarcino Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_State_University_campus_%26_buildings#L"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Dean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dean_(education)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Highway 30","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_30"},{"link_name":"Gerald Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Ford"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"}],"text":"Officially formed in 1879, Iowa State College of Veterinary Medicine can trace its history back to the school's founding in 1858, when state legislator's specified that veterinary studies would be included in the subjects of instruction.[2] Seniors of ISU's first graduating class in 1872, received instruction in veterinary science,[3] but it was not until 1879 that degrees were offered in that subject. The ISU veterinary school was the first state veterinary college in the United States. Other private veterinary colleges all closed by the 1920s, leaving ISU as the oldest veterinary college still in operation in the United States.[2]Originally, the degree programs offered were only two-year programs, but with expanded coursework, the program was extended to three years in 1887 and to four years by 1903 (making Iowa State the nation’s first four-year veterinary school).[2]In 1885, veterinary classes were held in the \"Sanitary Building,\" which was located where the current ISU Memorial Union now stands. In 1893 the veterinary department was moved to the \"Old Agricultural Hall\" or \"Botany Hall\", today known as Catt Hall.By 1912, overcrowding became an issue. With state appropriation, the \"Vet Quadrangle\" (currently known as Lagomarcino Hall) was built on the north side of campus. The Quadrangle consisted of four buildings connected by corridors arranged around the central courtyard. A fifth building was than constructed further north and the Veterinary Diagnostic Laboratory was completed in 1956.[2]As the college continued to grow, the faculty became dissatisfied with the old name for the college, the \"Division of Veterinary Medicine\". In a 1933 report, the Dean of Veterinary Medicine, Charles Henry Stange commented:the advisability of changing the Division of Veterinary Medicine to \"College of Veterinary Medicine\" has been discussed for years ... Apparently we have a \"College of Veterinary Medicine\" at Iowa State in fact but not in name ... It is our earnest hope that this correction be made at an early date.To rename the college, it required making the other divisions within Iowa State college into separate colleges also. On July 4, 1959, the change was finally made and since the \"Division of Veterinary Medicine\" is now called the \"College of Veterinary Medicine.\"[2]The Quadrangle was the veterinary school's primarily buildings for 64 years until overcrowding once again became an issue. Plans were developed for a new facility on a tract of land adjacent to the Veterinary Medical Research Institute just north of Highway 30. The new facility was completed in 1976 at a cost of just over $25 million. Dedication ceremonies were held in the fall in which President Gerald Ford, among other state and national dignitaries, attended.[2]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Iowa State University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iowa_State_University"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Ruan Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ruan_Center"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Built in 1976, VET MED is the largest academic building at Iowa State University, with over 347,000 square-feet.[4] A new veterinary medical center (completed 2008), built onto the south-east side of the building, adds another 218,000 square feet (20,300 m2) onto a massive veterinary medical center & teaching facility.[5] Although it only has two floors, ISU VET MED building has more square-footage than the second tallest building in the state, the 35 floor Ruan Center in Des Moines.[6]","title":"Facilities"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ImageX

Windows Imaging Format

["1 Design","2 Tools","2.1 ImageX","2.2 DISM","2.3 Support in other operating systems","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

File format Windows Imaging FormatFilename extension .wim, .swm, .esdInternet media type application/x-ms-wimMagic numberMSWIM\0\0\0 / WLPWM\0\0\0 for wimlib pipable variantDeveloped byMicrosoftType of formatDisk image The Windows Imaging Format (WIM) is a file-based disk image format. It was developed by Microsoft to help deploy Windows Vista and subsequent versions of the Windows operating system family, as well as Windows Fundamentals for Legacy PCs. Design Like other disk image formats, a WIM file contains a set of files and associated filesystem metadata. However, unlike sector-based formats (such as ISO or VHD), WIM is file-based: the fundamental unit of information in a WIM is a file. The primary advantages of being file-based is hardware independence and single-instance storage of a file referenced multiple times in the filesystem tree. Since the files are stored inside a single WIM file, the overhead of opening and closing many individual files is reduced. The cost of reading or writing many thousands of individual files on the local disk is negated by hardware and software-based disk caching as well as sequential reading and writing of the data. WIM files can contain multiple disk images, which are referenced either by their numerical index or by their unique name. Due to the use of single-instance storage, the more each successive disk image has in common with previous images added to the WIM file, the less new data will be added. A WIM can also be split (spanned) into multiple parts, which have the .swm extension. WIM images can be made bootable and Windows boot loader supports booting Windows from a WIM file. Windows Setup DVD in Windows Vista and later use such WIM files. In this case, BOOT.WIM contains a bootable version of Windows PE from which the installation is performed. Other setup files are held in the INSTALL.WIM. Since Windows 8.1, the size of Windows directory can be reduced by moving system files into compressed WIM images stored on a separate hidden partition (WIMBoot). Since Windows 10, system files can be compressed on the system disk (CompactOS). WIM supports three families of LZ77-based compression algorithms in ascending ratio and descending speed: XPRESS, LZX, and LZMS. The former two use Huffman encoding, while the latter uses adaptive Huffman encoding with range coding. There is also support for solid compression. Both solid compression and LZMS are introduced more recently, in WIMGAPI from Windows 8 and DISM from Windows 8.1. Tools ImageX ImageX is the command-line tool used to create, edit and deploy Windows disk images in the Windows Imaging Format. Along with the underlying Windows Imaging Interface library (WIMGAPI), it is distributed as part of the free Windows Automated Installation Kit (WAIK/OPK). Starting with Windows Vista, Windows Setup uses the WAIK API to install Windows. The first distributed prototype of ImageX was built 6.0.4007.0 (main.030212-2037). It allowed Microsoft OEM partners to experiment with the imaging technology and was developed in parallel with Longhorn alpha prototypes. It was first introduced in Milestone 4 into the Longhorn project and used in later builds of Longhorn. Build 6.0.5384.4 added significant advantages over previous versions, like read-only and read/write folder mounting capabilities, splitting to multiple image files (SWM), a WIM filter driver and the latest compression algorithms. It has been used since pre-RC (release candidates) of Windows Vista. DISM Main article: Windows Assessment and Deployment Kit Deployment Image Service and Management Tool (DISM) is a tool introduced in Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2 that can perform servicing tasks on a Windows installation image, be it an online image (i.e. the one the user is running) or an offline image within a folder or WIM file. Its features include mounting and unmounting images, querying installed device drivers in an offline image, and adding a device driver to an offline image. It is now possible to repair with DISM any image using either a Windows Installation CD or Windows Update. Before Windows Server 2012 and Windows 8, DISM had incorporated the majority of ImageX functions but not all; ImageX was still needed for image capture. However, DISM deprecated ImageX in Windows 8. Support in other operating systems Since April 30, 2012, an open-source library for handling the WIM format is available. This library can be used on Unix-like systems, as well as on Windows. Thanks to this project, Linux distributions now have their own imagex clone called wimlib-imagex, which allows mounting WIM images and managing them (read/write) like any other block-storage provider. As WIM images use somewhat common compression algorithms, they can be accessed by using file archivers like 7-Zip. For other operating systems that might not support this format, it is still possible to convert .wim images to the more commonly used ISO image using the Windows Assessment and Deployment Kit on Windows. See also Windows Preinstallation Environment System Deployment Image Windows To Go References ^ "application/x-ms-wim". Archived from the original on 2021-09-04. Retrieved 2019-03-10. ^ "WIMCAPTURE". 2018-11-24. Retrieved 2019-03-10. ^ "Windows Imaging File Format (WIM)". Microsoft. Retrieved 24 Feb 2014. ^ Windows Image File Boot (WIMBoot) Overview ^ "Compact OS, single-instancing, and image optimization". Microsoft. Retrieved 1 October 2019. ^ ": Xpress Compression Algorithm". 31 January 2023. ^ wimlib: the open source Windows Imaging (WIM) library - Compression algorithm ^ Biggers, Eric. "wimlib_compression_type". Wimlib documentation. Retrieved 2 October 2019. ^ Biggers, Eric. "WIMLIB_WRITE_FLAG_SOLID". Wimlib documentation. ^ a b c d Savill, John (29 January 2010). "Q. What's Deployment Image Servicing and Management (DISM)?". Windows IT Pro. Penton. ^ "Deployment Image Servicing and Management (DISM) Technical Reference". Microsoft. 29 February 2012. Retrieved 6 Oct 2012. ^ "What Is Deployment Image Servicing and Management?". Microsoft TechNet. Microsoft. 22 October 2009. Retrieved 14 Dec 2012. ^ "Repair a Windows Image - Technet - Microsoft". Microsoft Technet. Microsoft. 20 October 2013. ^ "What is DISM?". TechNet. Microsoft. 18 April 2014. ^ "the open-source Windows Imaging (WIM) library". Retrieved 2015-12-21. ^ "WIM to ISO or what". September 4, 2007. Retrieved October 30, 2016. External links Windows Imaging Format Whitepaper that describes the internal file structure of WIM files ImageX and WIM Image Format at Microsoft TechNet vteDisk image file formatsComparison of disc image softwareOptical discs BIN+CUE DAA IMG+CCD+SUB ISO ISZ MDF+MDS MDX NRG UIF Hard disks DMG FVD IMG ISO NDIF QCOW UDIF VDI VHD VMDK WIM Floppy disks ADF, ADZ DC42, DART DMS IMG, IMA, IMZ VFD CD-DADisc Description ProtocolConvention: Any item in this table that has the form of "A+B" or "A+B+C" indicates a disk format that spans multiple files, where A contains the bulk of the data, and B and C are sidecar files. vteMicrosoft Windows components APIs Architecture 9x NT Booting process Games Managementtools App Installer Command Prompt Control Panel Device Manager Disk Cleanup Drive Optimizer Driver Verifier DirectX Diagnostic Tool Event Viewer IExpress Management Console Netsh Performance Monitor Recovery Console Resource Monitor Settings Sysprep System Configuration System File Checker System Information System Policy Editor System Restore Task Manager Windows Error Reporting Windows Ink Windows Installer PowerShell Windows Update Windows Insider WinRE WMI Apps 3D Viewer Clock Calculator Calendar Camera Character Map Clipchamp Cortana Edge Fax and Scan Feedback Hub Get Help Magnifier Mail Maps Messaging Media Player 2022 Movies & TV Mobility Center Money Narrator Notepad OneDrive OneNote Paint Paint 3D People Phone Link Photos Quick Assist Remote Desktop Connection Snipping Tool Speech Recognition Skype Sports Start Sticky Notes Store Tips Voice Recorder Weather WordPad Xbox Shell Action Center Aero AutoPlay AutoRun ClearType Explorer Search Indexing Service IFilter Saved search Namespace Special folder Start menu Taskbar Task View Windows Spotlight Windows XP visual styles Services Service Control Manager BITS CLFS Multimedia Class Scheduler Shadow Copy Task Scheduler Error Reporting Wireless Zero Configuration File systems CDFS DFS exFAT IFS FAT NTFS Hard link links Mount Point Reparse point TxF EFS ReFS UDF Server Active Directory Domains DNS Group Policy Roaming user profiles Folder redirection Distributed Transaction Coordinator MSMQ Windows Media Services Active DRM Services IIS WSUS SharePoint Network Access Protection PWS DFS Replication Print Services for UNIX Remote Desktop Services Remote Differential Compression Remote Installation Services Windows Deployment Services System Resource Manager Hyper-V Server Core Architecture Boot Manager Console CSRSS Desktop Window Manager Portable Executable EXE DLL Enhanced Write Filter Graphics Device Interface Hardware Abstraction Layer I/O request packet Imaging Format Kernel Transaction Manager Library files Logical Disk Manager LSASS MinWin NTLDR Ntoskrnl.exe Object Manager Open XML Paper Specification Registry Resource Protection Security Account Manager Server Message Block Shadow Copy SMSS System Idle Process USER WHEA Winlogon WinUSB Security Security and Maintenance AppLocker BitLocker Credential Guard Data Execution Prevention Defender Family features Kernel Patch Protection Mandatory Integrity Control Protected Media Path User Account Control User Interface Privilege Isolation Windows Firewall Compatibility COMMAND.COM Windows Subsystem for Linux WoW64 API Active Scripting WSH VBScript JScript COM ActiveX ActiveX Document COM Structured storage DCOM OLE OLE Automation Transaction Server DirectX Native .NET Universal Windows Platform WinAPI Windows Mixed Reality Windows Runtime WinUSB Games Solitaire Collection Surf DiscontinuedGames 3D Pinball Chess Titans FreeCell Hearts InkBall Hold 'Em Purble Place Spider Solitaire Solitaire Tinker Apps ActiveMovie Anytime Upgrade Address Book Backup and Restore Cardfile CardSpace CD Player Chat Contacts Desktop Gadgets Diagnostics DriveSpace DVD Maker Easy Transfer Fax Food & Drink Groove Music Help and Support Center Health & Fitness HyperTerminal Imaging Internet Explorer Journal Make Compatible Media Center Meeting Space Messaging Messenger Mobile Device Center Movie Maker MSN Dial-up NetMeeting NTBackup Outlook Express Pay Phone Companion Photo Gallery Photo Viewer Program Manager Steps Recorder Syskey Travel WinHelp Write Others Games for Windows ScanDisk File Protection Media Control Interface MS-DOS 7 Next-Generation Secure Computing Base POSIX subsystem HPFS Interix Video for Windows Virtual DOS machine Windows on Windows Windows SideShow Windows Services for UNIX Windows System Assessment Tool Windows To Go WinFS Spun off toMicrosoft Store DVD Player File Manager Hover! Mahjong Minesweeper  Category  List

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However, unlike sector-based formats (such as ISO or VHD), WIM is file-based: the fundamental unit of information in a WIM is a file.The primary advantages of being file-based is hardware independence and single-instance storage of a file referenced multiple times in the filesystem tree. Since the files are stored inside a single WIM file, the overhead of opening and closing many individual files is reduced. The cost of reading or writing many thousands of individual files on the local disk is negated by hardware and software-based disk caching as well as sequential reading and writing of the data.WIM files can contain multiple disk images, which are referenced either by their numerical index or by their unique name. Due to the use of single-instance storage, the more each successive disk image has in common with previous images added to the WIM file, the less new data will be added. A WIM can also be split (spanned) into multiple parts, which have the .swm extension.WIM images can be made bootable and Windows boot loader supports booting Windows from a WIM file. Windows Setup DVD in Windows Vista and later use such WIM files. In this case, BOOT.WIM contains a bootable version of Windows PE from which the installation is performed. Other setup files are held in the INSTALL.WIM.Since Windows 8.1, the size of Windows directory can be reduced by moving system files into compressed WIM images stored on a separate hidden partition (WIMBoot).[4] Since Windows 10, system files can be compressed on the system disk (CompactOS).[5]WIM supports three families of LZ77-based compression algorithms in ascending ratio and descending speed: XPRESS,[6] LZX, and LZMS.[7] The former two use Huffman encoding, while the latter uses adaptive Huffman encoding with range coding.[8] There is also support for solid compression. Both solid compression and LZMS are introduced more recently, in WIMGAPI from Windows 8 and DISM from Windows 8.1.[9]","title":"Design"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Tools"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows"},{"link_name":"Windows Automated Installation Kit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Automated_Installation_Kit"},{"link_name":"Windows Vista","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Vista"},{"link_name":"OEM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OEM"},{"link_name":"Longhorn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Microsoft_codenames#Longhorn"}],"sub_title":"ImageX","text":"ImageX is the command-line tool used to create, edit and deploy Windows disk images in the Windows Imaging Format. Along with the underlying Windows Imaging Interface library (WIMGAPI), it is distributed as part of the free Windows Automated Installation Kit (WAIK/OPK). Starting with Windows Vista, Windows Setup uses the WAIK API to install Windows.The first distributed prototype of ImageX was built 6.0.4007.0 (main.030212-2037). It allowed Microsoft OEM partners to experiment with the imaging technology and was developed in parallel with Longhorn alpha prototypes. It was first introduced in Milestone 4 into the Longhorn project and used in later builds of Longhorn. Build 6.0.5384.4 added significant advantages over previous versions, like read-only and read/write folder mounting capabilities, splitting to multiple image files (SWM), a WIM filter driver and the latest compression algorithms. It has been used since pre-RC (release candidates) of Windows Vista.","title":"Tools"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DISM-WinITPro-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DISM-WinITPro-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DISM-WinITPro-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Windows Update","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Update"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DISM-WinITPro-10"},{"link_name":"deprecated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deprecated"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"DISM","text":"Deployment Image Service and Management Tool (DISM) is a tool introduced in Windows 7[10] and Windows Server 2008 R2[10] that can perform servicing tasks on a Windows installation image, be it an online image (i.e. the one the user is running) or an offline image within a folder or WIM file. Its features include mounting and unmounting images, querying installed device drivers in an offline image, and adding a device driver to an offline image.[10][11][12] It is now possible to repair with DISM any image using either a Windows Installation CD or Windows Update.[13]Before Windows Server 2012 and Windows 8, DISM had incorporated the majority of ImageX functions but not all; ImageX was still needed for image capture.[10] However, DISM deprecated ImageX in Windows 8.[14]","title":"Tools"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Unix-like","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix-like"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"file archivers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_archiver"},{"link_name":"7-Zip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7-Zip"},{"link_name":"ISO image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.iso"},{"link_name":"Windows Assessment and Deployment Kit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Assessment_and_Deployment_Kit"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"sub_title":"Support in other operating systems","text":"Since April 30, 2012, an open-source library for handling the WIM format is available. This library can be used on Unix-like systems, as well as on Windows. Thanks to this project, Linux distributions now have their own imagex clone called wimlib-imagex, which allows mounting WIM images and managing them (read/write) like any other block-storage provider.[15]As WIM images use somewhat common compression algorithms, they can be accessed by using file archivers like 7-Zip.For other operating systems that might not support this format, it is still possible to convert .wim images to the more commonly used ISO image using the Windows Assessment and Deployment Kit on Windows.[16]","title":"Tools"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadia

Vanadium(V) oxide

["1 Chemical properties","1.1 Reduction to lower oxides","1.2 Acid-base reactions","1.3 Other redox reactions","2 Preparation","3 Uses","3.1 Ferrovanadium production","3.2 Sulfuric acid production","3.3 Other oxidations","3.4 Other applications","4 Biological activity","5 References","6 Cited sources","7 Further reading","8 External links"]

Precursor to vanadium alloys and industrial catalyst Vanadium(V) oxide Names IUPAC name Divanadium pentaoxide Other names Vanadium pentoxideVanadic anhydrideDivanadium pentoxide Identifiers CAS Number 1314-62-1 Y 3D model (JSmol) Interactive image ChEBI CHEBI:30045 Y ChemSpider 14130 Y ECHA InfoCard 100.013.855 EC Number 215-239-8 KEGG C19308 N PubChem CID 14814 RTECS number YW2450000 UNII BVG363OH7A Y UN number 2862 CompTox Dashboard (EPA) DTXSID2023806 InChI InChI=1S/5O.2V YKey: GNTDGMZSJNCJKK-UHFFFAOYSA-N YInChI=1/5O.2V/rO5V2/c1-6(2)5-7(3)4Key: GNTDGMZSJNCJKK-HHIHJEONAP SMILES O=(=O)O(=O)=O Properties Chemical formula V2O5 Molar mass 181.8800 g/mol Appearance Yellow solid Density 3.35 g/cm3 Melting point 681 °C (1,258 °F; 954 K) Boiling point 1,750 °C (3,180 °F; 2,020 K) (decomposes) Solubility in water 0.7 g/L (20 °C) Magnetic susceptibility (χ) +128.0·10−6 cm3/mol Structure Crystal structure Orthorhombic Space group Pmmn, No. 59 Lattice constant a = 1151 pm, b = 355.9 pm, c = 437.1 pm Coordination geometry Distorted trigonal bipyramidal (V) Thermochemistry Heat capacity (C) 127.7 J/(mol·K) Std molarentropy (S⦵298) 131.0 J/(mol·K) Std enthalpy offormation (ΔfH⦵298) -1550.6 kJ/mol Gibbs free energy (ΔfG⦵) -1419.5 kJ/mol Hazards GHS labelling: Pictograms Signal word Danger Hazard statements H302, H332, H335, H341, H361, H372, H411 NFPA 704 (fire diamond) 4 0 0 Flash point Non-flammable Lethal dose or concentration (LD, LC): LD50 (median dose) 10 mg/kg (rat, oral)23 mg/kg (mouse, oral) LCLo (lowest published) 500 mg/m3 (cat, 23 min)70 mg/m3 (rat, 2 hr) NIOSH (US health exposure limits): PEL (Permissible) C 0.5 mg V2O5/m3 (resp) (solid) C 0.1 mg V2O5/m3 (fume) Safety data sheet (SDS) ICSC 0596 Related compounds Other anions Vanadium oxytrichloride Other cations Niobium(V) oxideTantalum(V) oxide Related vanadium oxides Vanadium(II) oxideVanadium(III) oxideVanadium(IV) oxide Except where otherwise noted, data are given for materials in their standard state (at 25 °C , 100 kPa). N verify (what is YN ?) Infobox references Chemical compound Vanadium(V) oxide (vanadia) is the inorganic compound with the formula V2O5. Commonly known as vanadium pentoxide, it is a brown/yellow solid, although when freshly precipitated from aqueous solution, its colour is deep orange. Because of its high oxidation state, it is both an amphoteric oxide and an oxidizing agent. From the industrial perspective, it is the most important compound of vanadium, being the principal precursor to alloys of vanadium and is a widely used industrial catalyst. The mineral form of this compound, shcherbinaite, is extremely rare, almost always found among fumaroles. A mineral trihydrate, V2O5·3H2O, is also known under the name of navajoite. Chemical properties Reduction to lower oxides Upon heating a mixture of vanadium(V) oxide and vanadium(III) oxide, comproportionation occurs to give vanadium(IV) oxide, as a deep-blue solid: V2O5 + V2O3 → 4 VO2 The reduction can also be effected by oxalic acid, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide. Further reduction using hydrogen or excess CO can lead to complex mixtures of oxides such as V4O7 and V5O9 before black V2O3 is reached. Acid-base reactions V2O5 is an amphoteric oxide. Unlike most transition metal oxides, it dissolves slightly in water to give a pale yellow, acidic solution. Thus V2O5 reacts with strong non-reducing acids to form solutions containing the pale yellow salts containing dioxovanadium(V) centers: V2O5 + 2 HNO3 → 2 VO2(NO3) + H2O It also reacts with strong alkali to form polyoxovanadates, which have a complex structure that depends on pH. If excess aqueous sodium hydroxide is used, the product is a colourless salt, sodium orthovanadate, Na3VO4. If acid is slowly added to a solution of Na3VO4, the colour gradually deepens through orange to red before brown hydrated V2O5 precipitates around pH 2. These solutions contain mainly the ions HVO42− and V2O74− between pH 9 and pH 13, but below pH 9 more exotic species such as V4O124− and HV10O285− (decavanadate) predominate. Upon treatment with thionyl chloride, it converts to the volatile liquid vanadium oxychloride, VOCl3: V2O5 + 3 SOCl2 → 2 VOCl3 + 3 SO2 Other redox reactions Hydrochloric acid and hydrobromic acid are oxidised to the corresponding halogen, e.g., V2O5 + 6HCl + 7H2O → 22+ + 4Cl− + Cl2 Vanadates or vanadyl compounds in acid solution are reduced by zinc amalgam through the colourful pathway: VO2+yellow → VO2+blue → V3+green → V2+purple The ions are all hydrated to varying degrees. Preparation The orange, partly hydrated form of V2O5 Precipitate of "red cake", which is hydrous V2O5 Technical grade V2O5 is produced as a black powder used for the production of vanadium metal and ferrovanadium. A vanadium ore or vanadium-rich residue is treated with sodium carbonate and an ammonium salt to produce sodium metavanadate, NaVO3. This material is then acidified to pH 2–3 using H2SO4 to yield a precipitate of "red cake" (see above). The red cake is then melted at 690 °C to produce the crude V2O5. Vanadium(V) oxide is produced when vanadium metal is heated with excess oxygen, but this product is contaminated with other, lower oxides. A more satisfactory laboratory preparation involves the decomposition of ammonium metavanadate at 500–550 °C: 2 NH4VO3 → V2O5 + 2 NH3 + H2O Uses Ferrovanadium production In terms of quantity, the dominant use for vanadium(V) oxide is in the production of ferrovanadium (see above). The oxide is heated with scrap iron and ferrosilicon, with lime added to form a calcium silicate slag. Aluminium may also be used, producing the iron-vanadium alloy along with alumina as a byproduct. Sulfuric acid production Another important use of vanadium(V) oxide is in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, an important industrial chemical with an annual worldwide production of 165 million tonnes in 2001, with an approximate value of US$8 billion. Vanadium(V) oxide serves the crucial purpose of catalysing the mildly exothermic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide by air in the contact process: 2 SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2 SO3 The discovery of this simple reaction, for which V2O5 is the most effective catalyst, allowed sulfuric acid to become the cheap commodity chemical it is today. The reaction is performed between 400 and 620 °C; below 400 °C the V2O5 is inactive as a catalyst, and above 620 °C it begins to break down. Since it is known that V2O5 can be reduced to VO2 by SO2, one likely catalytic cycle is as follows: SO2 + V2O5 → SO3 + 2VO2 followed by 2VO2 +½O2 → V2O5 It is also used as catalyst in the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NOx emissions in some power plants and diesel engines. Due to its effectiveness in converting sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide, and thereby sulfuric acid, special care must be taken with the operating temperatures and placement of a power plant's SCR unit when firing sulfur-containing fuels. Other oxidations Proposed early steps in the vanadium-catalyzed oxidation of naphthalene to phthalic anhydride, with V2O5 represented as a molecule vs its true extended structure Maleic anhydride is produced by the V2O5-catalysed oxidation of butane with air: C4H10 + 4 O2 → C2H2(CO)2O + 8 H2O Maleic anhydride is used for the production of polyester resins and alkyd resins. Phthalic anhydride is produced similarly by V2O5-catalysed oxidation of ortho-xylene or naphthalene at 350–400 °C. The equation for the vanadium oxide-catalysed oxidation of o-xylene to phthalic anhydride: C6H4(CH3)2 + 3 O2 → C6H4(CO)2O + 3 H2O The equation for the vanadium oxide-catalysed oxidation of naphthalene to phthalic anhydride: C10H8 + 4½ O2 → C6H4(CO)2O + 2CO2 + 2H2O Phthalic anhydride is a precursor to plasticisers, used for conferring pliability to polymers. A variety of other industrial compounds are produced similarly, including adipic acid, acrylic acid, oxalic acid, and anthraquinone. Other applications Due to its high coefficient of thermal resistance, vanadium(V) oxide finds use as a detector material in bolometers and microbolometer arrays for thermal imaging. It also finds application as an ethanol sensor in ppm levels (up to 0.1 ppm). Vanadium redox batteries are a type of flow battery used for energy storage, including large power facilities such as wind farms. Vanadium oxide is also used as a cathode in lithium ion batteries. Biological activity Vanadium(V) oxide exhibits very modest acute toxicity to humans, with an LD50 of about 470 mg/kg. The greater hazard is with inhalation of the dust, where the LD50 ranges from 4–11 mg/kg for a 14-day exposure. Vanadate (VO3−4), formed by hydrolysis of V2O5 at high pH, appears to inhibit enzymes that process phosphate (PO43−). However the mode of action remains elusive. References ^ a b c d Haynes, p. 4.94 ^ Haynes, p. 4.131 ^ Weast, Robert C., ed. (1981). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (62nd ed.). Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. p. B-162. ISBN 0-8493-0462-8.. ^ Shklover, V.; Haibach, T.; Ried, F.; Nesper, R.; Novak, P. (1996), "Crystal structure of the product of Mg2+ insertion into V2O5 single crystals", J. Solid State Chem., 123 (2): 317–23, Bibcode:1996JSSCh.123..317S, doi:10.1006/jssc.1996.0186. ^ Haynes, p. 5.41 ^ a b NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0653". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). ^ a b "Vanadium dust". Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). ^ a b c Bauer, Günter; Güther, Volker; Hess, Hans; Otto, Andreas; Roidl, Oskar; Roller, Heinz; Sattelberger, Siegfried (2000). "Vanadium and Vanadium Compounds". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a27_367. ISBN 3-527-30673-0. ^ Brauer, p. 1267 ^ a b c Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1984). Chemistry of the Elements. Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp. 1140, 1144. ISBN 978-0-08-022057-4.. ^ Brauer, p. 1264 ^ "The oxidation states of vanadium". RSC Education. Retrieved 2019-10-04. ^ Brauer, p. 1269 ^ "Gibbs-Wohl Naphthalene Oxidation". Comprehensive Organic Name Reactions and Reagents. 2010. pp. 1227–1229. doi:10.1002/9780470638859.conrr270. ISBN 978-0-470-63885-9. ^ Tedder, J. M.; Nechvatal, A.; Tubb, A. H., eds. (1975), Basic Organic Chemistry: Part 5, Industrial Products, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. ^ Conant, James; Blatt, Albert (1959). The Chemistry of Organic Compounds (5th ed.). New York, New York: The Macmillan Company. p. 511. ^ REDT Energy Storage. "Using VRFB for Renewable applications". Archived from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-01-21. ^ Sreejesh, M.; Shenoy, Sulakshana; Sridharan, Kishore; Kufian, D.; Arof, A. K.; Nagaraja, H. S. (2017). "Melt quenched vanadium oxide embedded in graphene oxide sheets as composite electrodes for amperometric dopamine sensing and lithium ion battery applications". Applied Surface Science. 410: 336–343. Bibcode:2017ApSS..410..336S. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.02.246. Cited sources Brauer, G. (1963). "Vanadium, Niobium, Tantalum". In Brauer, G. (ed.). Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd Ed. NY: Academic Press. Haynes, William M., ed. (2016). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (97th ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4987-5429-3. Further reading "Vanadium Pentoxide", Cobalt in Hard Metals and Cobalt Sulfate, Gallium Arsenide, Indium Phosphide and Vanadium Pentoxide (PDF), IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans 86, Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2006, pp. 227–92, ISBN 92-832-1286-X. Vaidhyanathan, B.; Balaji, K.; Rao, K. J. (1998), "Microwave-Assisted Solid-State Synthesis of Oxide Ion Conducting Stabilized Bismuth Vanadate Phases", Chem. Mater., 10 (11): 3400–4, doi:10.1021/cm980092f. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Vanadium(V) oxide. International Chemical Safety Card 0596 NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0653". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. "#0654". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH). Vanadium Pentoxide and other Inorganic Vanadium Compounds (Concise International Chemical Assessment Document 29) IPCS Environmental Health Criteria 81: Vanadium IPCS Health and Safety Guide 042: Vanadium and some vanadium salts vteVanadium compoundsVanadium(0) V(CO)6 Vanadium(II) VF2 VBr2 VCl2 VI2 VO VS VSO4 Vanadium(III) VBr3 VCl3 VF3 VI3 VN V2O3 V2(SO4)3 V2S3Organovanadium(III) compounds V(C9H11)3 Vanadium(IV) VC VO2 VOCl2 V(S2)2 VCl4 VF4Organovanadium(IV) compounds VO(C5H7O2)2 Vanadyl(IV) compounds VOSO4 Vanadium(V) V2O5 VOCl3 VOF3 VO2F VF5 VCl5 NH4VO3 VOPO4 VO+2 Vanadyl(V) compounds VO(ClO4)3 VO(NO3)3 vteOxidesMixed oxidation states Antimony tetroxide (Sb2O4) Boron suboxide (B12O2) Carbon suboxide (C3O2) Chlorine perchlorate (Cl2O4) Chloryl perchlorate (Cl2O6) Cobalt(II,III) oxide (Co3O4) Dichlorine pentoxide (Cl2O5) Iron(II,III) oxide (Fe3O4) Lead(II,IV) oxide (Pb3O4) Manganese(II,III) oxide (Mn3O4) Mellitic anhydride (C12O9) Praseodymium(III,IV) oxide (Pr6O11) Silver(I,III) oxide (Ag2O2) Terbium(III,IV) oxide (Tb4O7) Tribromine octoxide (Br3O8) Triuranium octoxide (U3O8) +1 oxidation state Aluminium(I) oxide (Al2O) Copper(I) oxide (Cu2O) Caesium monoxide (Cs2O) Dicarbon monoxide (C2O) Dichlorine monoxide (Cl2O) Gallium(I) oxide (Ga2O) Iodine(I) oxide (I2O) Lithium oxide (Li2O) Mercury(I) oxide (Hg2O) Nitrous oxide (N2O) Potassium oxide (K2O) Rubidium oxide (Rb2O) Silver oxide (Ag2O) Thallium(I) oxide (Tl2O) Sodium oxide (Na2O) Water (hydrogen oxide) (H2O) +2 oxidation state Aluminium(II) oxide (AlO) Barium oxide (BaO) Berkelium monoxide (BkO) Beryllium oxide (BeO) Bromine monoxide (BrO) Cadmium oxide (CdO) Calcium oxide (CaO) Carbon monoxide (CO) Chlorine monoxide (ClO) Chromium(II) oxide (CrO) Cobalt(II) oxide (CoO) Copper(II) oxide (CuO) Dinitrogen dioxide (N2O2) Europium(II) oxide (EuO) Germanium monoxide (GeO) Iron(II) oxide (FeO) Iodine monoxide (IO) Lead(II) oxide (PbO) Magnesium oxide (MgO) Manganese(II) oxide (MnO) Mercury(II) oxide (HgO) Nickel(II) oxide (NiO) Nitric oxide (NO) Palladium(II) oxide (PdO) Phosphorus monoxide (PO) Polonium monoxide (PoO) Protactinium monoxide (PaO) Radium oxide (RaO) Silicon monoxide (SiO) Strontium oxide (SrO) Sulfur monoxide (SO) Disulfur dioxide (S2O2) Thorium monoxide (ThO) Tin(II) oxide (SnO) Titanium(II) oxide (TiO) Vanadium(II) oxide (VO) Yttrium(II) oxide (YO) Zinc oxide (ZnO) +3 oxidation state Actinium(III) oxide (Ac2O3) Aluminium oxide (Al2O3) Americium(III) oxide (Am2O3) Antimony trioxide (Sb2O3) Arsenic trioxide (As2O3) Berkelium(III) oxide (Bk2O3) Bismuth(III) oxide (Bi2O3) Boron trioxide (B2O3) Caesium sesquioxide (Cs2O3) Californium(III) oxide (Cf2O3) Cerium(III) oxide (Ce2O3) Chromium(III) oxide (Cr2O3) Cobalt(III) oxide (Co2O3) Dinitrogen trioxide (N2O3) Dysprosium(III) oxide (Dy2O3) Einsteinium(III) oxide (Es2O3) Erbium(III) oxide (Er2O3) Europium(III) oxide (Eu2O3) Gadolinium(III) oxide (Gd2O3) Gallium(III) oxide (Ga2O3) Gold(III) oxide (Au2O3) Holmium(III) oxide (Ho2O3) Indium(III) oxide (In2O3) Iron(III) oxide (Fe2O3) Lanthanum oxide (La2O3) Lutetium(III) oxide (Lu2O3) Manganese(III) oxide (Mn2O3) Neodymium(III) oxide (Nd2O3) Nickel(III) oxide (Ni2O3) Phosphorus trioxide (P4O6) Praseodymium(III) oxide (Pr2O3) Promethium(III) oxide (Pm2O3) Rhodium(III) oxide (Rh2O3) Samarium(III) oxide (Sm2O3) Scandium oxide (Sc2O3) Terbium(III) oxide (Tb2O3) Thallium(III) oxide (Tl2O3) Thulium(III) oxide (Tm2O3) Titanium(III) oxide (Ti2O3) Tungsten(III) oxide (W2O3) Vanadium(III) oxide (V2O3) Ytterbium(III) oxide (Yb2O3) Yttrium(III) oxide (Y2O3) +4 oxidation state Americium dioxide (AmO2) Berkelium(IV) oxide (BkO2) Bromine dioxide (BrO2) Californium dioxide (CfO2) Carbon dioxide (CO2) Carbon trioxide (CO3) Cerium(IV) oxide (CeO2) Chlorine dioxide (ClO2) Chromium(IV) oxide (CrO2) Curium(IV) oxide (CmO2) Dinitrogen tetroxide (N2O4) Germanium dioxide (GeO2) Iodine dioxide (IO2) Hafnium(IV) oxide (HfO2) Lead dioxide (PbO2) Manganese dioxide (MnO2) Neptunium(IV) oxide (NpO2) Nitrogen dioxide (NO2) Osmium dioxide (OsO2) Plutonium(IV) oxide (PuO2) Polonium dioxide (PoO2) Praseodymium(IV) oxide (PrO2) Protactinium(IV) oxide (PaO2) Rhodium(IV) oxide (RhO2) Ruthenium(IV) oxide (RuO2) Selenium dioxide (SeO2) Silicon dioxide (SiO2) Sulfur dioxide (SO2) Technetium(IV) oxide (TcO2) Tellurium dioxide (TeO2) Terbium(IV) oxide (TbO2) Thorium dioxide (ThO2) Tin dioxide (SnO2) Titanium dioxide (TiO2) Tungsten(IV) oxide (WO2) Uranium dioxide (UO2) Vanadium(IV) oxide (VO2) Zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) +5 oxidation state Antimony pentoxide (Sb2O5) Arsenic pentoxide (As2O5) Bismuth pentoxide (Bi2O5) Dinitrogen pentoxide (N2O5) Niobium pentoxide (Nb2O5) Phosphorus pentoxide (P2O5) Protactinium(V) oxide (Pa2O5) Tantalum pentoxide (Ta2O5) Vanadium(V) oxide (V2O5) +6 oxidation state Chromium trioxide (CrO3) Molybdenum trioxide (MoO3) Polonium trioxide (PoO3) Rhenium trioxide (ReO3) Selenium trioxide (SeO3) Sulfur trioxide (SO3) Tellurium trioxide (TeO3) Tungsten trioxide (WO3) Uranium trioxide (UO3) Xenon trioxide (XeO3) +7 oxidation state Dichlorine heptoxide (Cl2O7) Manganese heptoxide (Mn2O7) Rhenium(VII) oxide (Re2O7) Technetium(VII) oxide (Tc2O7) +8 oxidation state Iridium tetroxide (IrO4) Osmium tetroxide (OsO4) Ruthenium tetroxide (RuO4) Xenon tetroxide (XeO4) Hassium tetroxide (HsO4) Related Oxocarbon Suboxide Oxyanion Ozonide Peroxide Superoxide Oxypnictide Oxides are sorted by oxidation state. Category:Oxides

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inorganic compound","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inorganic_compound"},{"link_name":"formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_formula"},{"link_name":"V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium"},{"link_name":"O","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"oxidation state","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidation_state"},{"link_name":"amphoteric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphoteric"},{"link_name":"oxidizing agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox"},{"link_name":"vanadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ullmann-8"},{"link_name":"fumaroles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fumaroles"},{"link_name":"trihydrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrate"}],"text":"Chemical compoundVanadium(V) oxide (vanadia) is the inorganic compound with the formula V2O5. Commonly known as vanadium pentoxide, it is a brown/yellow solid, although when freshly precipitated from aqueous solution, its colour is deep orange. Because of its high oxidation state, it is both an amphoteric oxide and an oxidizing agent. From the industrial perspective, it is the most important compound of vanadium, being the principal precursor to alloys of vanadium and is a widely used industrial catalyst.[8]The mineral form of this compound, shcherbinaite, is extremely rare, almost always found among fumaroles. A mineral trihydrate, V2O5·3H2O, is also known under the name of navajoite.","title":"Vanadium(V) oxide"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Chemical properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vanadium(III) oxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium(III)_oxide"},{"link_name":"comproportionation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comproportionation"},{"link_name":"vanadium(IV) oxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium(IV)_oxide"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"oxalic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxalic_acid"},{"link_name":"carbon monoxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxide"},{"link_name":"sulfur dioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide"},{"link_name":"hydrogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen"}],"sub_title":"Reduction to lower oxides","text":"Upon heating a mixture of vanadium(V) oxide and vanadium(III) oxide, comproportionation occurs to give vanadium(IV) oxide, as a deep-blue solid:[9]V2O5 + V2O3 → 4 VO2The reduction can also be effected by oxalic acid, carbon monoxide, and sulfur dioxide. Further reduction using hydrogen or excess CO can lead to complex mixtures of oxides such as V4O7 and V5O9 before black V2O3 is reached.","title":"Chemical properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"amphoteric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphoteric"},{"link_name":"dissolves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solubility"},{"link_name":"dioxovanadium(V)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pervanadyl"},{"link_name":"alkali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali"},{"link_name":"polyoxovanadates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyoxometalate"},{"link_name":"pH","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PH"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-G&E-10"},{"link_name":"sodium hydroxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_hydroxide"},{"link_name":"salt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)"},{"link_name":"sodium orthovanadate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_orthovanadate"},{"link_name":"decavanadate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decavanadate"},{"link_name":"thionyl chloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thionyl_chloride"},{"link_name":"vanadium oxychloride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium_oxychloride"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Acid-base reactions","text":"V2O5 is an amphoteric oxide. Unlike most transition metal oxides, it dissolves slightly in water to give a pale yellow, acidic solution. Thus V2O5 reacts with strong non-reducing acids to form solutions containing the pale yellow salts containing dioxovanadium(V) centers:V2O5 + 2 HNO3 → 2 VO2(NO3) + H2OIt also reacts with strong alkali to form polyoxovanadates, which have a complex structure that depends on pH.[10] If excess aqueous sodium hydroxide is used, the product is a colourless salt, sodium orthovanadate, Na3VO4. If acid is slowly added to a solution of Na3VO4, the colour gradually deepens through orange to red before brown hydrated V2O5 precipitates around pH 2. These solutions contain mainly the ions HVO42− and V2O74− between pH 9 and pH 13, but below pH 9 more exotic species such as V4O124− and HV10O285− (decavanadate) predominate.Upon treatment with thionyl chloride, it converts to the volatile liquid vanadium oxychloride, VOCl3:[11]V2O5 + 3 SOCl2 → 2 VOCl3 + 3 SO2","title":"Chemical properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hydrochloric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid"},{"link_name":"hydrobromic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrobromic_acid"},{"link_name":"halogen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halogen"},{"link_name":"Vanadates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadate"},{"link_name":"vanadyl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadyl_ion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vanadium_oxidation_states.jpg"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"sub_title":"Other redox reactions","text":"Hydrochloric acid and hydrobromic acid are oxidised to the corresponding halogen, e.g.,V2O5 + 6HCl + 7H2O → 2[VO(H2O)5]2+ + 4Cl− + Cl2Vanadates or vanadyl compounds in acid solution are reduced by zinc amalgam through the colourful pathway:VO2+yellow → VO2+blue → V3+green → V2+purple[12]The ions are all hydrated to varying degrees.","title":"Chemical properties"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:V2O5powder.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:V2O5_hydrous.jpg"},{"link_name":"vanadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium"},{"link_name":"ferrovanadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrovanadium"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-G&E-10"},{"link_name":"sodium carbonate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_carbonate"},{"link_name":"ammonium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium"},{"link_name":"sodium metavanadate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sodium_metavanadate"},{"link_name":"H2SO4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid"},{"link_name":"above","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Chemical_properties"},{"link_name":"vanadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium"},{"link_name":"oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxygen"},{"link_name":"ammonium metavanadate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammonium_metavanadate"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"The orange, partly hydrated form of V2O5Precipitate of \"red cake\", which is hydrous V2O5Technical grade V2O5 is produced as a black powder used for the production of vanadium metal and ferrovanadium.[10] A vanadium ore or vanadium-rich residue is treated with sodium carbonate and an ammonium salt to produce sodium metavanadate, NaVO3. This material is then acidified to pH 2–3 using H2SO4 to yield a precipitate of \"red cake\" (see above). The red cake is then melted at 690 °C to produce the crude V2O5.Vanadium(V) oxide is produced when vanadium metal is heated with excess oxygen, but this product is contaminated with other, lower oxides. A more satisfactory laboratory preparation involves the decomposition of ammonium metavanadate at 500–550 °C:[13]2 NH4VO3 → V2O5 + 2 NH3 + H2O","title":"Preparation"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ferrovanadium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrovanadium"},{"link_name":"above","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Preparation"},{"link_name":"iron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron"},{"link_name":"ferrosilicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrosilicon"},{"link_name":"lime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lime_(material)"},{"link_name":"calcium silicate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcium_silicate"},{"link_name":"slag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slag"},{"link_name":"Aluminium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminium"},{"link_name":"alumina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alumina"}],"sub_title":"Ferrovanadium production","text":"In terms of quantity, the dominant use for vanadium(V) oxide is in the production of ferrovanadium (see above). The oxide is heated with scrap iron and ferrosilicon, with lime added to form a calcium silicate slag. Aluminium may also be used, producing the iron-vanadium alloy along with alumina as a byproduct.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sulfuric acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfuric_acid"},{"link_name":"catalysing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalyst"},{"link_name":"exothermic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exothermic_reaction"},{"link_name":"oxidation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redox"},{"link_name":"sulfur trioxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur_trioxide"},{"link_name":"contact process","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contact_process"},{"link_name":"selective catalytic reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selective_catalytic_reduction"},{"link_name":"NOx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrogen_oxide#NOx"},{"link_name":"power plants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_plant"}],"sub_title":"Sulfuric acid production","text":"Another important use of vanadium(V) oxide is in the manufacture of sulfuric acid, an important industrial chemical with an annual worldwide production of 165 million tonnes in 2001, with an approximate value of US$8 billion. Vanadium(V) oxide serves the crucial purpose of catalysing the mildly exothermic oxidation of sulfur dioxide to sulfur trioxide by air in the contact process:2 SO2 + O2 ⇌ 2 SO3The discovery of this simple reaction, for which V2O5 is the most effective catalyst, allowed sulfuric acid to become the cheap commodity chemical it is today. The reaction is performed between 400 and 620 °C; below 400 °C the V2O5 is inactive as a catalyst, and above 620 °C it begins to break down. Since it is known that V2O5 can be reduced to VO2 by SO2, one likely catalytic cycle is as follows:SO2 + V2O5 → SO3 + 2VO2followed by2VO2 +½O2 → V2O5It is also used as catalyst in the selective catalytic reduction (SCR) of NOx emissions in some power plants and diesel engines. Due to its effectiveness in converting sulfur dioxide into sulfur trioxide, and thereby sulfuric acid, special care must be taken with the operating temperatures and placement of a power plant's SCR unit when firing sulfur-containing fuels.","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:V2O5OxNaphth.svg"},{"link_name":"phthalic anhydride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phthalic_anhydride"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Maleic anhydride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maleic_anhydride"},{"link_name":"polyester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyester"},{"link_name":"alkyd resins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkyd#Manufacture"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Phthalic anhydride","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phthalic_anhydride"},{"link_name":"ortho-xylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ortho-xylene"},{"link_name":"naphthalene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naphthalene"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"plasticisers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasticiser"},{"link_name":"adipic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adipic_acid"},{"link_name":"acrylic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acrylic_acid"},{"link_name":"oxalic acid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxalic_acid"},{"link_name":"anthraquinone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthraquinone"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ullmann-8"}],"sub_title":"Other oxidations","text":"Proposed early steps in the vanadium-catalyzed oxidation of naphthalene to phthalic anhydride, with V2O5 represented as a molecule vs its true extended structure[14]Maleic anhydride is produced by the V2O5-catalysed oxidation of butane with air:C4H10 + 4 O2 → C2H2(CO)2O + 8 H2OMaleic anhydride is used for the production of polyester resins and alkyd resins.[15]Phthalic anhydride is produced similarly by V2O5-catalysed oxidation of ortho-xylene or naphthalene at 350–400 °C. The equation for the vanadium oxide-catalysed oxidation of o-xylene to phthalic anhydride:C6H4(CH3)2 + 3 O2 → C6H4(CO)2O + 3 H2OThe equation for the vanadium oxide-catalysed oxidation of naphthalene to phthalic anhydride:[16]C10H8 + 4½ O2 → C6H4(CO)2O + 2CO2 + 2H2OPhthalic anhydride is a precursor to plasticisers, used for conferring pliability to polymers.A variety of other industrial compounds are produced similarly, including adipic acid, acrylic acid, oxalic acid, and anthraquinone.[8]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"thermal resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_resistance"},{"link_name":"bolometers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bolometer"},{"link_name":"microbolometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbolometer"},{"link_name":"thermal imaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_imaging"},{"link_name":"Vanadium redox batteries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanadium_redox_battery"},{"link_name":"flow battery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flow_battery"},{"link_name":"energy storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_storage"},{"link_name":"wind farms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_farm"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"sub_title":"Other applications","text":"Due to its high coefficient of thermal resistance, vanadium(V) oxide finds use as a detector material in bolometers and microbolometer arrays for thermal imaging. It also finds application as an ethanol sensor in ppm levels (up to 0.1 ppm).Vanadium redox batteries are a type of flow battery used for energy storage, including large power facilities such as wind farms.[17] Vanadium oxide is also used as a cathode in lithium ion batteries.[18]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:V2o5label.jpg"},{"link_name":"LD50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LD50"},{"link_name":"LD50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LD50"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ullmann-8"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-G&E-10"},{"link_name":"better source needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS"}],"text":"Vanadium(V) oxide exhibits very modest acute toxicity to humans, with an LD50 of about 470 mg/kg. The greater hazard is with inhalation of the dust, where the LD50 ranges from 4–11 mg/kg for a 14-day exposure.[8] Vanadate (VO3−4), formed by hydrolysis of V2O5 at high pH, appears to inhibit enzymes that process phosphate (PO43−). However the mode of action remains elusive.[10][better source needed]","title":"Biological activity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics"},{"link_name":"CRC Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4987-5429-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4987-5429-3"}],"text":"Brauer, G. (1963). \"Vanadium, Niobium, Tantalum\". In Brauer, G. (ed.). Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd Ed. NY: Academic Press.\nHaynes, William M., ed. (2016). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (97th ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4987-5429-3.","title":"Cited sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cobalt in Hard Metals and Cobalt Sulfate, Gallium Arsenide, Indium Phosphide and Vanadium Pentoxide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol86/mono86-10.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"92-832-1286-X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-832-1286-X"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1021/cm980092f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1021%2Fcm980092f"}],"text":"\"Vanadium Pentoxide\", Cobalt in Hard Metals and Cobalt Sulfate, Gallium Arsenide, Indium Phosphide and Vanadium Pentoxide (PDF), IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans 86, Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2006, pp. 227–92, ISBN 92-832-1286-X.\nVaidhyanathan, B.; Balaji, K.; Rao, K. J. (1998), \"Microwave-Assisted Solid-State Synthesis of Oxide Ion Conducting Stabilized Bismuth Vanadate Phases\", Chem. Mater., 10 (11): 3400–4, doi:10.1021/cm980092f.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/80px-NFPA_704.svg.png"},{"image_text":"VO2+yellow → VO2+blue → V3+green → V2+purple[12]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Vanadium_oxidation_states.jpg/300px-Vanadium_oxidation_states.jpg"},{"image_text":"The orange, partly hydrated form of V2O5","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/V2O5powder.jpg/140px-V2O5powder.jpg"},{"image_text":"Precipitate of \"red cake\", which is hydrous V2O5","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/V2O5_hydrous.jpg/140px-V2O5_hydrous.jpg"},{"image_text":"Proposed early steps in the vanadium-catalyzed oxidation of naphthalene to phthalic anhydride, with V2O5 represented as a molecule vs its true extended structure[14]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/V2O5OxNaphth.svg/464px-V2O5OxNaphth.svg.png"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/V2o5label.jpg/220px-V2o5label.jpg"}]

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Solid State Chem., 123 (2): 317–23, Bibcode:1996JSSCh.123..317S, doi:10.1006/jssc.1996.0186","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996JSSCh.123..317S","url_text":"1996JSSCh.123..317S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1006%2Fjssc.1996.0186","url_text":"10.1006/jssc.1996.0186"}]},{"reference":"NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. \"#0653\". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0653.html","url_text":"\"#0653\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health","url_text":"National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health"}]},{"reference":"\"Vanadium dust\". Immediately Dangerous to Life or Health Concentrations (IDLH). National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/idlh/vandust.html","url_text":"\"Vanadium dust\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health","url_text":"National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health"}]},{"reference":"Bauer, Günter; Güther, Volker; Hess, Hans; Otto, Andreas; Roidl, Oskar; Roller, Heinz; Sattelberger, Siegfried (2000). \"Vanadium and Vanadium Compounds\". Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry. doi:10.1002/14356007.a27_367. ISBN 3-527-30673-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F14356007.a27_367","url_text":"10.1002/14356007.a27_367"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-527-30673-0","url_text":"3-527-30673-0"}]},{"reference":"Greenwood, Norman N.; Earnshaw, Alan (1984). Chemistry of the Elements. Oxford: Pergamon Press. pp. 1140, 1144. ISBN 978-0-08-022057-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norman_Greenwood","url_text":"Greenwood, Norman N."},{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OezvAAAAMAAJ","url_text":"Chemistry of the Elements"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pergamon_Press","url_text":"Pergamon Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-022057-4","url_text":"978-0-08-022057-4"}]},{"reference":"\"The oxidation states of vanadium\". RSC Education. Retrieved 2019-10-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://edu.rsc.org/resources/the-oxidation-states-of-vanadium/2003.article","url_text":"\"The oxidation states of vanadium\""}]},{"reference":"\"Gibbs-Wohl Naphthalene Oxidation\". Comprehensive Organic Name Reactions and Reagents. 2010. pp. 1227–1229. doi:10.1002/9780470638859.conrr270. ISBN 978-0-470-63885-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9780470638859.conrr270","url_text":"10.1002/9780470638859.conrr270"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-63885-9","url_text":"978-0-470-63885-9"}]},{"reference":"Tedder, J. M.; Nechvatal, A.; Tubb, A. H., eds. (1975), Basic Organic Chemistry: Part 5, Industrial Products, Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons","urls":[]},{"reference":"Conant, James; Blatt, Albert (1959). The Chemistry of Organic Compounds (5th ed.). New York, New York: The Macmillan Company. p. 511.","urls":[]},{"reference":"REDT Energy Storage. \"Using VRFB for Renewable applications\". Archived from the original on 2014-02-01. Retrieved 2014-01-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140201171818/http://www.redtenergy.com/applications/renewable-energy","url_text":"\"Using VRFB for Renewable applications\""},{"url":"http://www.redtenergy.com/applications/renewable-energy","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Sreejesh, M.; Shenoy, Sulakshana; Sridharan, Kishore; Kufian, D.; Arof, A. K.; Nagaraja, H. S. (2017). \"Melt quenched vanadium oxide embedded in graphene oxide sheets as composite electrodes for amperometric dopamine sensing and lithium ion battery applications\". Applied Surface Science. 410: 336–343. Bibcode:2017ApSS..410..336S. doi:10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.02.246.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017ApSS..410..336S","url_text":"2017ApSS..410..336S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.apsusc.2017.02.246","url_text":"10.1016/j.apsusc.2017.02.246"}]},{"reference":"Brauer, G. (1963). \"Vanadium, Niobium, Tantalum\". In Brauer, G. (ed.). Handbook of Preparative Inorganic Chemistry, 2nd Ed. NY: Academic Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Haynes, William M., ed. (2016). CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics (97th ed.). CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4987-5429-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Handbook_of_Chemistry_and_Physics","url_text":"CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Press","url_text":"CRC Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4987-5429-3","url_text":"978-1-4987-5429-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Vanadium Pentoxide\", Cobalt in Hard Metals and Cobalt Sulfate, Gallium Arsenide, Indium Phosphide and Vanadium Pentoxide (PDF), IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans 86, Lyon, France: International Agency for Research on Cancer, 2006, pp. 227–92, ISBN 92-832-1286-X","urls":[{"url":"http://monographs.iarc.fr/ENG/Monographs/vol86/mono86-10.pdf","url_text":"Cobalt in Hard Metals and Cobalt Sulfate, Gallium Arsenide, Indium Phosphide and Vanadium Pentoxide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-832-1286-X","url_text":"92-832-1286-X"}]},{"reference":"Vaidhyanathan, B.; Balaji, K.; Rao, K. J. (1998), \"Microwave-Assisted Solid-State Synthesis of Oxide Ion Conducting Stabilized Bismuth Vanadate Phases\", Chem. Mater., 10 (11): 3400–4, doi:10.1021/cm980092f","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fcm980092f","url_text":"10.1021/cm980092f"}]},{"reference":"NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. \"#0653\". National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0653.html","url_text":"\"#0653\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health","url_text":"National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health"}]},{"reference":"NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. \"#0654\". 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society

Royal Astronomical Society

["1 History","2 Publications","3 Membership","3.1 Fellows","3.2 Friends","4 Meetings","5 Library","6 Education","7 Associated groups","8 Presidents","9 Awards and prizes","10 Other activities","11 See also","12 References","13 External links"]

British learned society and charity This article is about the British organisation. For the Canadian organisation, see Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. For the New Zealand organisation, see Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand. For other organisations, see List of astronomical societies. Royal Astronomical SocietyEntrance to the Royal Astronomical Society at Burlington House, LondonAbbreviationRASFormation10 March 1820; 204 years ago (1820-03-10)TypeNGO, learned societyLegal statusRegistered charityPurposeTo promote the sciences of astronomy & geophysicsProfessional titleFellow of the Royal Astronomical Society (FRAS)HeadquartersBurlington HouseLocationPiccadilly, LondonCoordinates51°30′32″N 0°8′22″W / 51.50889°N 0.13944°W / 51.50889; -0.13944PatronKing Charles IIIPresidentMike LockwoodExecutive DirectorPhilip DiamondWebsitewww.ras.ac.ukFormerly calledAstronomical Society of London (1820–31) The Royal Astronomical Society (RAS) is a learned society and charity that encourages and promotes the study of astronomy, solar-system science, geophysics and closely related branches of science. Its headquarters are in Burlington House, on Piccadilly in London. The society has over 4,000 members, known as fellows, most of whom are professional researchers or postgraduate students. Around a quarter of Fellows live outside the UK. The society holds monthly scientific meetings in London, and the annual National Astronomy Meeting at varying locations in the British Isles. The RAS publishes the scientific journals Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Geophysical Journal International and RAS Techniques and Instruments, along with the trade magazine Astronomy & Geophysics. The RAS maintains an astronomy research library, engages in public outreach and advises the UK government on astronomy education. The society recognises achievement in astronomy and geophysics by issuing annual awards and prizes, with its highest award being the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. The RAS is the UK adhering organisation to the International Astronomical Union and a member of the UK Science Council. History This section needs expansion. You can help by adding to it. (April 2024) The society was founded in 1820 as the Astronomical Society of London to support astronomical research. At that time, most members were 'gentleman astronomers' rather than professionals. It became the Royal Astronomical Society in 1831 on receiving a Royal Charter from William IV. Between 1835 and 1916 women were not allowed to become fellows, but Anne Sheepshanks, Lady Margaret Lindsay Huggins, Agnes Clerke, Annie Jump Cannon and Williamina Fleming were made honorary members. In 1886 Isis Pogson was the first woman to attempt election as a fellow of the RAS, being nominated (unsuccessfully) by her father and two other fellows. All fellows had been male up to this time and her nomination was withdrawn when lawyers claimed that under the provisions of the society's royal charter, fellows were only referred to as he and as such had to be men. A Supplemental Charter in 1915 opened up fellowship to women. On 14 January 1916, Mary Adela Blagg, Ella K Church, A Grace Cook, Irene Elizabeth Toye Warner and Fiammetta Wilson were the first five women to be elected to Fellowship. Publications Main category: Royal Astronomical Society academic journals One of the major activities of the RAS is publishing refereed journals. It publishes three primary research journals: the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for topics in astronomy; the Geophysical Journal International for topics in geophysics (in association with the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft); and RAS Techniques & Instruments for research methods in those disciplines. The society also publishes a trade magazine for members, Astronomy & Geophysics. The history of journals published by the RAS (with abbreviations used by the Astrophysics Data System) is: Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society (MmRAS): 1822–1977 Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (MNRAS): 1827–present Geophysical Supplement to Monthly Notices (MNRAS): 1922–1957 Geophysical Journal (GeoJ): 1958–1988 Geophysical Journal International (GeoJI): 1989–present (volume numbering continues from GeoJ) Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society (QJRAS): 1960–1996 Astronomy & Geophysics (A&G): 1997–present (volume numbering continues from QJRAS) RAS Techniques & Instruments (RASTI): 2021–present Membership Fellows Full members of the RAS are styled Fellows, and may use the post-nominal letters FRAS. Fellowship is open to anyone over the age of 18 who is considered acceptable to the society. As a result of the society's foundation in a time before there were many professional astronomers, no formal qualifications are required. However, around three quarters of fellows are professional astronomers or geophysicists. The society acts as the professional body for astronomers and geophysicists in the UK and fellows may apply for the Science Council's Chartered Scientist status through the society. The fellowship passed 3,000 in 2003. Friends In 2009 an initiative was launched for those with an interest in astronomy and geophysics but without professional qualifications or specialist knowledge in the subject. Such people may join the Friends of the RAS, which offers popular talks, visits and social events. Meetings See also: National Astronomy Meeting The Society organises an extensive programme of meetings: The biggest RAS meeting each year is the National Astronomy Meeting, a major conference of professional astronomers. It is held over 4–5 days each spring or early summer, usually at a university campus in the United Kingdom. Hundreds of astronomers attend each year. More frequent smaller 'highlight' meetings feature lectures about research topics in astronomy and geophysics, often given by winners of the society's awards. They are normally held in Burlington House in London on the afternoon of the second Friday of each month from October to May. The talks are intended to be accessible to a broad audience of astronomers and geophysicists, and are free for anyone to attend (not just members of the society). Formal reports of the meetings are published in The Observatory magazine. Specialist discussion meetings are held on the same day as each highlight meeting. These are aimed at professional scientists in a particular research field, and allow several speakers to present new results or reviews of scientific fields. Usually two discussion meetings on different topics (one in astronomy and one in geophysics) take place simultaneously at different locations within Burlington House, prior to the day's highlight meeting. They are free for members of the society, but charge a small entry fee for non-members. The RAS holds a regular programme of public lectures aimed at a general, non-specialist, audience. These are mostly held on Tuesdays once a month, with the same talk given twice: once at lunchtime and once in the early evening. The venues have varied, but are usually in Burlington House or another nearby location in central London. The lectures are free, though some popular sessions require booking in advance. The society occasionally hosts or sponsors meetings in other parts of the United Kingdom, often in collaboration with other scientific societies and universities. Library The Royal Astronomical Society at the University of London History Day, 2016. The Royal Astronomical Society has a more comprehensive collection of books and journals in astronomy and geophysics than the libraries of most universities and research institutions. The library receives some 300 current periodicals in astronomy and geophysics and contains more than 10,000 books from popular level to conference proceedings. Its collection of astronomical rare books is second only to that of the Royal Observatory in Edinburgh in the UK. The RAS library is a major resource not just for the society but also the wider community of astronomers, geophysicists, and historians. Education The society promotes astronomy to members of the general public through its outreach pages for students, teachers, the public and media researchers. The RAS has an advisory role in relation to UK public examinations, such as GCSEs and A Levels. Associated groups The RAS sponsors topical groups, many of them in interdisciplinary areas where the group is jointly sponsored by another learned society or professional body: The Astrobiology Society of Britain (with the NASA Astrobiology Institute) The Astroparticle Physics Group (with the Institute of Physics) The Astrophysical Chemistry Group (with the Royal Society of Chemistry) The British Geophysical Association (with the Geological Society of London) The Magnetosphere Ionosphere and Solar-Terrestrial group (generally known by the acronym MIST) The UK Planetary Forum The UK Solar Physics group Presidents Main article: President of the Royal Astronomical Society The first person to hold the title of President of the Royal Astronomical Society was William Herschel, though he never chaired a meeting, and since then the post has been held by many distinguished astronomers. The post has generally had a term of office of two years, but some holders resigned after one year e.g. due to poor health. Francis Baily and George Airy were elected a record four times each. Baily's eight years in the role are a record (Airy served for seven). Since 1876 no one has served for more than two years in total. The current president is Mike Lockwood, who began his term in May 2024 and will serve for two years. Awards and prizes The Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society awarded to Asaph Hall The highest award of the Royal Astronomical Society is its Gold Medal, which can be awarded for any purpose but most frequently recognises extraordinary lifetime achievement. Among the recipients best known to the general public are Albert Einstein in 1926, and Stephen Hawking in 1985. Other awards are for particular topics in astronomy or geophysics research, which include the Eddington Medal, the Herschel Medal, the Chapman Medal and the Price Medal. Beyond research, there are specific awards for school teaching (Patrick Moore Medal), public outreach (Annie Maunder Medal), instrumentation (Jackson-Gwilt Medal) and history of science (Agnes Mary Clerke Medal). Lectureships include the Harold Jeffreys Lectureship in geophysics, the George Darwin Lectureship in astronomy, and the Gerald Whitrow Lectureship in cosmology. Each year, the society grants a handful of free memberships for life (termed honorary fellowship) to prominent researchers resident outside the UK. Other activities The council room at the RAS The society occupies premises at Burlington House, London, where a library and meeting rooms are available to fellows and other interested parties. The society represents the interests of astronomy and geophysics to UK national and regional, and European government and related bodies, and maintains a press office, through which it keeps the media and the public at large informed of developments in these sciences. The society allocates grants to worthy causes in astronomy and geophysics, and assists in the management of the Paneth Trust. See also National Astronomy Week (NAW) List of astronomical societies List of geoscience organizations References ^ "Philip Diamond to be new RAS Executive Director". Retrieved 29 December 2019. ^ a b c "The aims of the Society". ras.ac.uk. Royal Astronomical Society. Retrieved 12 November 2018. ^ "Meeting of January 14, 1916". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 76 (3): 195. 1916. Bibcode:1916MNRAS..76..195.. doi:10.1093/mnras/76.3.195. Retrieved 2024-03-28. ^ Bailey, Mandy (2016). "Women and the RAS: 100 years of Fellowship". Astronomy & Geophysics. 57 (1): 1.19–1.21. doi:10.1093/astrogeo/atw037. ISSN 1366-8781. ^ "ADS Bibliographic Codes: Journal Abbreviations". Astrophysics Data System. Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Retrieved 12 June 2023. ^ Tayler, Roger (October 1977). "Editorial: Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society". Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society. 181 (1): i. Retrieved 21 December 2012. ^ Rowden, Pam (12 October 2021). "New RAS journal invites submissions and reviewers". ras.ac.uk. The Royal Astronomical Society. Retrieved 23 May 2022. ^ a b "RAS Meetings". Royal Astronomical Society. Retrieved 14 September 2018. ^ "RAS Public Lectures". Royal Astronomical Society. Retrieved 14 September 2018. ^ "RAS Library home page". Retrieved 14 September 2018. ^ Tonkin, Sam (10 May 2024). "Space scientist becomes new RAS president". Royal Astronomical Society. Retrieved 11 May 2024. ^ "Winners of the 2015 awards, medals and prizes - full details". 9 January 2015. Retrieved 9 January 2015. ^ "Awards, Medals and Prizes". www.ras.org.uk. Royal Astronomical Society. Retrieved 14 September 2018. ^ "Honorary Fellowship (A)". The Royal Astronomical Society. Retrieved 2023-02-26. ^ RAS Website "Grants for Studies in Astronomy and Geophysics" External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Royal Astronomical Society. Wikisource has original works on the topic: Royal Astronomical Society The Royal Astronomical Society vteRoyal Astronomical SocietyMembers Fellow of the Royal Astronomical Society President of the Royal Astronomical Society (Current: Mike Edmunds) PublicationsCurrent Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (1827–present) Geophysical Journal International (1989–present) Astronomy & Geophysics (1997–present) RAS Techniques & Instruments (2022–present) Former Memoirs (1822–1977) Geophysical Supplement (1922–1957) Geophysical Journal (1958–1988) Occasional Notes (1938–1960) Quarterly Journal (1960–1996) AwardsGold Medal Gold Medal (Recipients) Astronomy Eddington Medal Herschel Medal Jackson-Gwilt Medal George Darwin Lectureship Gerald Whitrow Lectureship Michael Penston Prize Geophysics Chapman Medal Price Medal Harold Jeffreys Lectureship James Dungey Lectureship Keith Runcorn Prize Both Patrick Moore Medal Annie Maunder Medal Anges Mary Clerke Medal Fowler Award Winton Award Group achievement Award Service Award Honorary Fellowship Related bodies Astrobiology Society of Britain Astroparticle Physics Group Astrophysical Chemistry Group British Astronomical Association British Geophysical Association European Astronomical Society International Astronomical Union Magnetosphere Ionosphere and Solar-Terrestrial physics group Science Council The Observatory UK Planetary Forum UK Solar Physics group See also Burlington House National Astronomy Meeting vteScience and technology in the United KingdomEconomy of the United KingdomOfficialbodies andpersonnel Chief Scientific Adviser to the Ministry of Defence Council for Science and Technology Defence Science and Technology Laboratory Food and Environment Research Agency Government Office for Science Chief Scientific Adviser Innovate UK Intellectual Property Office List of UK government scientific research institutes Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology Science and Technology Select Committee Scientific Advisory Group for Emergencies UK Research and Innovation Arts and Humanities Biotechnology and Biological Sciences Economic and Social Engineering and Physical Sciences Medical Natural Environment Science and Technology Facilities UK Space Agency Industrysectors Aerospace British space programme Automotive Computers Nuclear technology Pharmaceutical Renewable energy Telecommunications Non-governmentalbodiesEducationand museums Science museums National Museum of Science and Industry National Space Centre Universities List Golden triangle Russell Group Societies andprofessionalbodies British Computer Society British Mass Spectrometry Society British Science Association British Society for the Philosophy of Science Engineering Council Geological Society of London Institute of Physics Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine Royal Academy of Engineering Royal Aeronautical Society Royal Astronomical Society Royal Entomological Society Royal Geographical Society Royal Institution Christmas Lectures Royal Society The Association for Science Education Royal Society of Chemistry Science Council Royal Society of Biology North of England Institute of Mining and Mechanical Engineers Other Campaign for Science and Engineering EngineeringUK Science Media Centre Wellcome Trust People Engineers Inventors Nobel laureates Science writers Scientists Technology writers Places Burlington House East London Tech City M4 corridor Science parks Silicon Fen Silicon Glen Silicon Gorge Sites of Special Scientific Interest Other Innovations and discoveries Science and technology awards Science and technology magazines JANET National Science Week Category Commons Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Norway France BnF data Germany Israel United States Czech Republic 2 Academics CiNii Other IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Royal Astronomical Society of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Astronomical_Society_of_New_Zealand"},{"link_name":"List of astronomical societies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_societies"},{"link_name":"learned society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learned_society"},{"link_name":"charity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charitable_organisation"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"solar-system science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_science"},{"link_name":"geophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysics"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RASabout-2"},{"link_name":"Burlington House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burlington_House"},{"link_name":"Piccadilly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piccadilly"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RASabout-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-RASabout-2"},{"link_name":"National Astronomy Meeting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Astronomy_Meeting"},{"link_name":"British Isles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isles"},{"link_name":"scientific journals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_journal"},{"link_name":"Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"Geophysical Journal International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysical_Journal_International"},{"link_name":"trade magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_magazine"},{"link_name":"Astronomy & Geophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_%26_Geophysics"},{"link_name":"research library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_library"},{"link_name":"Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_Medal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"International Astronomical Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union"},{"link_name":"Science Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Council"}],"text":"This article is about the British organisation. For the Canadian organisation, see Royal Astronomical Society of Canada. For the New Zealand organisation, see Royal Astronomical Society of New Zealand. For other organisations, see List of astronomical societies.The Royal Astronomical Society (RAS) is a learned society and charity that encourages and promotes the study of astronomy, solar-system science, geophysics and closely related branches of science.[2] Its headquarters are in Burlington House, on Piccadilly in London. The society has over 4,000 members, known as fellows, most of whom are professional researchers or postgraduate students.[2] Around a quarter of Fellows live outside the UK.[2]The society holds monthly scientific meetings in London, and the annual National Astronomy Meeting at varying locations in the British Isles. The RAS publishes the scientific journals Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society, Geophysical Journal International and RAS Techniques and Instruments, along with the trade magazine Astronomy & Geophysics.The RAS maintains an astronomy research library, engages in public outreach and advises the UK government on astronomy education. The society recognises achievement in astronomy and geophysics by issuing annual awards and prizes, with its highest award being the Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society. The RAS is the UK adhering organisation to the International Astronomical Union and a member of the UK Science Council.","title":"Royal Astronomical Society"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"astronomical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"gentleman astronomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gentleman_scientist"},{"link_name":"Royal Charter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Charter"},{"link_name":"William IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Anne Sheepshanks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne_Sheepshanks"},{"link_name":"Agnes Clerke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnes_Mary_Clerke"},{"link_name":"Annie Jump Cannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon"},{"link_name":"Williamina Fleming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Williamina_Fleming"},{"link_name":"Isis Pogson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isis_Pogson"},{"link_name":"Mary Adela Blagg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Adela_Blagg"},{"link_name":"A Grace Cook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._Grace_Cook"},{"link_name":"Fiammetta Wilson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiammetta_Wilson"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"The society was founded in 1820 as the Astronomical Society of London to support astronomical research. At that time, most members were 'gentleman astronomers' rather than professionals. It became the Royal Astronomical Society in 1831 on receiving a Royal Charter from William IV.Between 1835 and 1916 women were not allowed to become fellows, but Anne Sheepshanks, Lady Margaret Lindsay Huggins, Agnes Clerke, Annie Jump Cannon and Williamina Fleming were made honorary members. In 1886 Isis Pogson was the first woman to attempt election as a fellow of the RAS, being nominated (unsuccessfully) by her father and two other fellows. All fellows had been male up to this time and her nomination was withdrawn when lawyers claimed that under the provisions of the society's royal charter, fellows were only referred to as he and as such had to be men. A Supplemental Charter in 1915 opened up fellowship to women. On 14 January 1916, Mary Adela Blagg, Ella K Church, A Grace Cook, Irene Elizabeth Toye Warner and Fiammetta Wilson were the first five women to be elected to Fellowship.[3][4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Royal Astronomical Society academic journals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Royal_Astronomical_Society_academic_journals"},{"link_name":"Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"Geophysical Journal International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysical_Journal_International"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_Geophysical_Society"},{"link_name":"RAS Techniques & Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RAS_Techniques_%26_Instruments&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"trade magazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trade_magazine"},{"link_name":"Astronomy & Geophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_%26_Geophysics"},{"link_name":"Astrophysics Data System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrophysics_Data_System"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-memoirs_discontinued-6"},{"link_name":"Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monthly_Notices_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"Geophysical Journal International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysical_Journal_International"},{"link_name":"Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quarterly_Journal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"Astronomy & Geophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy_%26_Geophysics"},{"link_name":"RAS Techniques & Instruments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RAS_Techniques_%26_Instruments&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Main category: Royal Astronomical Society academic journalsOne of the major activities of the RAS is publishing refereed journals. It publishes three primary research journals: the Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society for topics in astronomy; the Geophysical Journal International for topics in geophysics (in association with the Deutsche Geophysikalische Gesellschaft); and RAS Techniques & Instruments for research methods in those disciplines. The society also publishes a trade magazine for members, Astronomy & Geophysics.The history of journals published by the RAS (with abbreviations used by the Astrophysics Data System[5]) is:Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society (MmRAS): 1822–1977[6]\nMonthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society (MNRAS): 1827–present\nGeophysical Supplement to Monthly Notices (MNRAS): 1922–1957\nGeophysical Journal (GeoJ): 1958–1988\nGeophysical Journal International (GeoJI): 1989–present (volume numbering continues from GeoJ)\nQuarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society (QJRAS): 1960–1996\nAstronomy & Geophysics (A&G): 1997–present (volume numbering continues from QJRAS)\nRAS Techniques & Instruments (RASTI): 2021–present[7]","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Membership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"post-nominal letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post-nominal_letters"},{"link_name":"FRAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"astronomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomers"},{"link_name":"geophysicists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysicists"},{"link_name":"professional body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professional_body"},{"link_name":"astronomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomers"},{"link_name":"geophysicists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysicists"},{"link_name":"Science Council's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_Council"},{"link_name":"Chartered Scientist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartered_scientist"}],"sub_title":"Fellows","text":"Full members of the RAS are styled Fellows, and may use the post-nominal letters FRAS. Fellowship is open to anyone over the age of 18 who is considered acceptable to the society. As a result of the society's foundation in a time before there were many professional astronomers, no formal qualifications are required. However, around three quarters of fellows are professional astronomers or geophysicists. The society acts as the professional body for astronomers and geophysicists in the UK and fellows may apply for the Science Council's Chartered Scientist status through the society. The fellowship passed 3,000 in 2003.","title":"Membership"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Friends","text":"In 2009 an initiative was launched for those with an interest in astronomy and geophysics but without professional qualifications or specialist knowledge in the subject. Such people may join the Friends of the RAS, which offers popular talks, visits and social events.","title":"Membership"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Astronomy Meeting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Astronomy_Meeting"},{"link_name":"National Astronomy Meeting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Astronomy_Meeting"},{"link_name":"the society's awards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Awards"},{"link_name":"Burlington House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burlington_House"},{"link_name":"The Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Observatory_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-meetings-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-meetings-8"},{"link_name":"public lectures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_lecture"},{"link_name":"Burlington House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burlington_House"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"See also: National Astronomy MeetingThe Society organises an extensive programme of meetings:The biggest RAS meeting each year is the National Astronomy Meeting, a major conference of professional astronomers. It is held over 4–5 days each spring or early summer, usually at a university campus in the United Kingdom. Hundreds of astronomers attend each year.More frequent smaller 'highlight' meetings feature lectures about research topics in astronomy and geophysics, often given by winners of the society's awards. They are normally held in Burlington House in London on the afternoon of the second Friday of each month from October to May. The talks are intended to be accessible to a broad audience of astronomers and geophysicists, and are free for anyone to attend (not just members of the society). Formal reports of the meetings are published in The Observatory magazine.[8]Specialist discussion meetings are held on the same day as each highlight meeting. These are aimed at professional scientists in a particular research field, and allow several speakers to present new results or reviews of scientific fields. Usually two discussion meetings on different topics (one in astronomy and one in geophysics) take place simultaneously at different locations within Burlington House, prior to the day's highlight meeting. They are free for members of the society, but charge a small entry fee for non-members.[8]The RAS holds a regular programme of public lectures aimed at a general, non-specialist, audience. These are mostly held on Tuesdays once a month, with the same talk given twice: once at lunchtime and once in the early evening. The venues have varied, but are usually in Burlington House or another nearby location in central London. The lectures are free, though some popular sessions require booking in advance.[9]The society occasionally hosts or sponsors meetings in other parts of the United Kingdom, often in collaboration with other scientific societies and universities.","title":"Meetings"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Royal_Astronomical_Society_at_History_Day_2016.jpg"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"The Royal Astronomical Society at the University of London History Day, 2016.The Royal Astronomical Society has a more comprehensive collection of books and journals in astronomy and geophysics than the libraries of most universities and research institutions. The library receives some 300 current periodicals in astronomy and geophysics and contains more than 10,000 books from popular level to conference proceedings. Its collection of astronomical rare books is second only to that of the Royal Observatory in Edinburgh in the UK. The RAS library is a major resource not just for the society but also the wider community of astronomers, geophysicists, and historians.[10]","title":"Library"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"public examinations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Public_examination&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"GCSEs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GCSE"},{"link_name":"A Levels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Level_(UK)"}],"text":"The society promotes astronomy to members of the general public through its outreach pages for students, teachers, the public and media researchers. The RAS has an advisory role in relation to UK public examinations, such as GCSEs and A Levels.","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Astrobiology Society of Britain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrobiology_Society_of_Britain"},{"link_name":"NASA Astrobiology Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NASA_Astrobiology_Institute"},{"link_name":"Institute of Physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Physics"},{"link_name":"Royal Society of Chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Chemistry"},{"link_name":"British Geophysical Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Geophysical_Association"},{"link_name":"Geological Society of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geological_Society_of_London"}],"text":"The RAS sponsors topical groups, many of them in interdisciplinary areas where the group is jointly sponsored by another learned society or professional body:The Astrobiology Society of Britain (with the NASA Astrobiology Institute)\nThe Astroparticle Physics Group (with the Institute of Physics)\nThe Astrophysical Chemistry Group (with the Royal Society of Chemistry)\nThe British Geophysical Association (with the Geological Society of London)\nThe Magnetosphere Ionosphere and Solar-Terrestrial group (generally known by the acronym MIST)\nThe UK Planetary Forum\nThe UK Solar Physics group","title":"Associated groups"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"William Herschel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Herschel"},{"link_name":"term of office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_of_office"},{"link_name":"Francis Baily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis_Baily"},{"link_name":"George Airy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Airy"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"The first person to hold the title of President of the Royal Astronomical Society was William Herschel, though he never chaired a meeting, and since then the post has been held by many distinguished astronomers. The post has generally had a term of office of two years, but some holders resigned after one year e.g. due to poor health. Francis Baily and George Airy were elected a record four times each. Baily's eight years in the role are a record (Airy served for seven). Since 1876 no one has served for more than two years in total.The current president is Mike Lockwood, who began his term in May 2024 and will serve for two years.[11]","title":"Presidents"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Asaph_Hall_Gold_Medal.jpg"},{"link_name":"Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_Medal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"Asaph Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asaph_Hall"},{"link_name":"Gold Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gold_Medal_of_the_Royal_Astronomical_Society"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-winners_2015-12"},{"link_name":"Albert Einstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_Einstein"},{"link_name":"Stephen Hawking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Hawking"},{"link_name":"Eddington Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eddington_Medal"},{"link_name":"Herschel Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herschel_Medal"},{"link_name":"Chapman Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chapman_Medal"},{"link_name":"Price Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_Medal"},{"link_name":"public outreach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_outreach"},{"link_name":"Jackson-Gwilt Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jackson-Gwilt_Medal"},{"link_name":"history of science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science"},{"link_name":"Harold Jeffreys Lectureship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Jeffreys_Lectureship"},{"link_name":"geophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geophysics"},{"link_name":"George Darwin Lectureship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Darwin_Lectureship"},{"link_name":"astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"Gerald Whitrow Lectureship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerald_Whitrow_Lectureship"},{"link_name":"cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmology"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"The Gold Medal of the Royal Astronomical Society awarded to Asaph HallThe highest award of the Royal Astronomical Society is its Gold Medal, which can be awarded for any purpose but most frequently recognises extraordinary lifetime achievement.[12] Among the recipients best known to the general public are Albert Einstein in 1926, and Stephen Hawking in 1985.Other awards are for particular topics in astronomy or geophysics research, which include the Eddington Medal, the Herschel Medal, the Chapman Medal and the Price Medal. Beyond research, there are specific awards for school teaching (Patrick Moore Medal), public outreach (Annie Maunder Medal), instrumentation (Jackson-Gwilt Medal) and history of science (Agnes Mary Clerke Medal). Lectureships include the Harold Jeffreys Lectureship in geophysics, the George Darwin Lectureship in astronomy, and the Gerald Whitrow Lectureship in cosmology.[13] Each year, the society grants a handful of free memberships for life (termed honorary fellowship) to prominent researchers resident outside the UK.[14]","title":"Awards and prizes"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Royal_Astronomical_Society_-_Council_Room.jpg"},{"link_name":"Burlington House","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burlington_House"},{"link_name":"Paneth Trust","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Paneth_Trust&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"The council room at the RASThe society occupies premises at Burlington House, London, where a library and meeting rooms are available to fellows and other interested parties. The society represents the interests of astronomy and geophysics to UK national and regional, and European government and related bodies, and maintains a press office, through which it keeps the media and the public at large informed of developments in these sciences. The society allocates grants to worthy causes in astronomy and geophysics, and assists in the management of the Paneth Trust.[15]","title":"Other activities"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenFlow

OpenFlow

["1 Description","2 History","2.1 Development","2.2 Security concerns","3 References","4 External links"]

Computer network protocol for software-defined networking OpenFlow is a communications protocol that gives access to the forwarding plane of a network switch or router over the network. Description OpenFlow enables network controllers to determine the path of network packets across a network of switches. The controllers are distinct from the switches. This separation of the control from the forwarding allows for more sophisticated traffic management than is feasible using access control lists (ACLs) and routing protocols. Also, OpenFlow allows switches from different vendors — often each with their own proprietary interfaces and scripting languages — to be managed remotely using a single, open protocol. The protocol's inventors consider OpenFlow an enabler of software-defined networking (SDN). OpenFlow allows remote administration of a layer 3 switch's packet forwarding tables, by adding, modifying and removing packet matching rules and actions. This way, routing decisions can be made periodically or ad hoc by the controller and translated into rules and actions with a configurable lifespan, which are then deployed to a switch's flow table, leaving the actual forwarding of matched packets to the switch at wire speed for the duration of those rules. Packets which are unmatched by the switch can be forwarded to the controller. The controller can then decide to modify existing flow table rules on one or more switches or to deploy new rules, to prevent a structural flow of traffic between switch and controller. It could even decide to forward the traffic itself, provided that it has told the switch to forward entire packets instead of just their header. The OpenFlow protocol is layered on top of the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and prescribes the use of Transport Layer Security (TLS). Controllers should listen on TCP port 6653 for switches that want to set up a connection. Earlier versions of the OpenFlow protocol unofficially used port 6633. Some network control plane implementations use the protocol to manage the network forwarding elements. OpenFlow is mainly used between the switch and controller on a secure channel. History The Open Networking Foundation (ONF), a user-led organization dedicated to promotion and adoption of software-defined networking (SDN), manages the OpenFlow standard. ONF defines OpenFlow as the first standard communications interface defined between the control and forwarding layers of an SDN architecture. OpenFlow allows direct access to and manipulation of the forwarding plane of network devices such as switches and routers, both physical and virtual (hypervisor-based). It is the absence of an open interface to the forwarding plane that has led to the characterization of today's networking devices as monolithic, closed, and mainframe-like. A protocol like OpenFlow is needed to move network control out of proprietary network switches and into control software that's open source and locally managed. A number of network switch and router vendors announced intent to support or are shipping supported switches for OpenFlow, including Alcatel-Lucent, Big Switch Networks, Brocade Communications, and Radisys. Development Version 1.1 of the OpenFlow protocol was released on 28 February 2011, and new development of the standard was managed by the ONF. In December 2011, the ONF board approved OpenFlow version 1.2 and published it in February 2012. The current version of OpenFlow is 1.5.1. However, version 1.6 has been available since September 2016, but accessible only to ONF's members. In May 2011, Marvell and Larch Networks announced the availability of an OpenFlow-enabled, fully featured switching solution based on Marvell's networking control stack and the Prestera family of packet processors. Indiana University in May 2011 launched a SDN Interoperability Lab in conjunction with the ONF to test how well different vendors' software-defined networking and OpenFlow products work together. In June 2012, Infoblox released LINC, an open-source OpenFlow version 1.2 and 1.3 compliant software switch. In February 2012, Big Switch Networks released Project Floodlight, an Apache-licensed open-source software OpenFlow Controller, and announced its OpenFlow-based SDN Suite in November of that year, which contains a commercial controller, and virtual switching and tap monitoring applications. In February 2012, HP said it is supporting the standard on 16 of its Ethernet switch products. In April 2012, Google's Urs Hölzle described how the company's internal network had been completely re-designed over the previous two years to run under OpenFlow with substantial efficiency improvement. In January 2013, NEC unveiled a virtual switch for Microsoft's Windows Server 2012 Hyper-V hypervisor, which is designed to bring OpenFlow-based software-defined networking and network virtualisation to those Microsoft environments. Security concerns Covert communications Denial of service Man-in-the middle attack Potential single point of attack and failure Programming and Communication Channel Issues (w.r.t. security) - OpenFlow Deployment Experience References ^ McKeown, Nick; et al. (April 2008). "OpenFlow: Enabling innovation in campus networks". ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review. 38 (2): 69–74. doi:10.1145/1355734.1355746. S2CID 1153326. Retrieved 2 November 2009. ^ "OpenFlow Switch Errata v1.0.2-rc1" (PDF). Open Networking Foundation. 4 October 2013. ^ "Service Name and Transport Protocol Port Number Registry". IANA. ^ Koponen, Teemu; et al. (4 October 2010). "Onix: A Distributed Control Platform for Large-scale Production Networks". USENIX. Retrieved 1 October 2010. ^ McKeown, Nick; et al. (April 2008). "OpenFlow: Enabling innovation in campus networks". ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review. 38 (2): 69–74. doi:10.1145/1355734.1355746. S2CID 1153326. Retrieved 2 November 2009. ^ Greene, Kate (March–April 2009). "TR10: Software-Defined Networking". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 7 October 2011. ^ "Open Networking Foundation: SDN Defined". Open Networking Foundation. 23 March 2013. ^ "Software-Defined Networking (SDN): The New Norm for Networks". Open Networking Foundation. ^ Solomon, Howard (11 December 2013). "Alcatel Now Supports OpenFlow, OpenStack on Switches". IT World Canada. ^ Metz, Cade (26 March 2013). "You Can't Have Google's Pluto Switch, But You Can Have This". Wired. ^ Radda, Pavel (22 March 2011). "Brocade Leads OpenFlow Adoption to Accelerate Network Virtualization and Cloud Application Development". Reuters. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 29 November 2011. ^ "FlowEngine:Intelligent Flow Management". Radisys. 20 February 2016. Archived from the original on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016. ^ "Open Networking Foundation Press Release". Open Networking Foundation. 20 March 2011. Archived from the original on 26 March 2011. ^ "OpenFlow v1.2" (PDF). Open Networking Foundation. ^ "OpenFlow v1.5.1" (PDF). Open Networking Foundation. ^ "Marvell Introduces OpenFlow-enabled Switches". Marvell. 10 May 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2015. ^ "OpenFlow – Innovate in Your Network". Larch Networks. 6 May 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2015. ^ "SDN Interoperability Lab - InCNTRE". IU.edu. 5 June 2012. Archived from the original on 5 June 2012. ^ "Project Floodlight". www.openflowhub.org. ^ Cole, Bernard (2 February 2012). "Big Switch releases open source controller for OpenFlow". EE Times. Retrieved 2 February 2012. ^ Kerner, Sean Michael (13 November 2012). "Big Switch Emerges with Commercial SDN Portfolio". Enterprise Networking Planet. ^ Neagle, Colin (2 February 2012). "HP takes giant first step into OpenFlow: HP is announcing its first effort to support OpenFlow standard on its Ethernet switches". Network World. Archived from the original on 13 May 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2013. ^ Levy, Steven (17 April 2012). "Going With the Flow: Google's Secret Switch to the Next Wave of Networking". Wired. Retrieved 17 April 2012. ^ Duffy, Jim (22 January 2013). "NEC rolls out OpenFlow for Microsoft Hyper-V: NEC virtual switch adds IPv6 support to SDN controller". Network World. Archived from the original on 3 April 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2013. ^ a b "OpenFlow protocol has a switch authentication vulnerability". The Register. ^ "OpenFlow Vulnerability Assessment" (PDF). Indiana.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2014. ^ "OpenFlow security: Does OpenFlow secure software-defined networks?". TechTarget. ^ Natarajan, Sriram; et al. (2013). "A Software defined Cloud-Gateway automation system using OpenFlow". 2013 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Cloud Networking (Cloud Net). pp. 219–226. doi:10.1109/CloudNet.2013.6710582. ISBN 978-1-4799-0568-3. S2CID 16248079. {{cite book}}: |work= ignored (help) External links Official website

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2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windows_Server_2012"},{"link_name":"Hyper-V","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyper-V"},{"link_name":"hypervisor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypervisor"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NW_NEC_PF1000-24"}],"sub_title":"Development","text":"Version 1.1 of the OpenFlow protocol was released on 28 February 2011, and new development of the standard was managed by the ONF.[13] In December 2011, the ONF board approved OpenFlow version 1.2 and published it in February 2012.[14] The current version of OpenFlow is 1.5.1.[15] However, version 1.6 has been available since September 2016, but accessible only to ONF's members.In May 2011, Marvell and Larch Networks announced the availability of an OpenFlow-enabled, fully featured switching solution based on Marvell's networking control stack and the Prestera family of packet processors.[16][17]Indiana University in May 2011 launched a SDN Interoperability Lab in conjunction with the ONF to test how well different vendors' software-defined networking and OpenFlow products work together.[18]In June 2012, Infoblox released LINC, an open-source OpenFlow version 1.2 and 1.3 compliant software switch.[19]In February 2012, Big Switch Networks released Project Floodlight, an Apache-licensed open-source software OpenFlow Controller,[20] and announced its OpenFlow-based SDN Suite in November of that year, which contains a commercial controller, and virtual switching and tap monitoring applications.[21]In February 2012, HP said it is supporting the standard on 16 of its Ethernet switch products.[22]In April 2012, Google's Urs Hölzle described how the company's internal network had been completely re-designed over the previous two years to run under OpenFlow with substantial efficiency improvement.[23]In January 2013, NEC unveiled a virtual switch for Microsoft's Windows Server 2012 Hyper-V hypervisor, which is designed to bring OpenFlow-based software-defined networking and network virtualisation to those Microsoft environments.[24]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reg-2018-05-10-25"},{"link_name":"Denial of service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial-of-service_attack"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-reg-2018-05-10-25"},{"link_name":"Man-in-the middle attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man-in-the-middle_attack"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Security concerns","text":"Covert communications[25]\nDenial of service[25]\nMan-in-the middle attack\nPotential single point of attack and failure[26][27]\nProgramming and Communication Channel Issues (w.r.t. security) - OpenFlow Deployment Experience [28]","title":"History"}]

[]

[{"reference":"McKeown, Nick; et al. (April 2008). \"OpenFlow: Enabling innovation in campus networks\". ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review. 38 (2): 69–74. doi:10.1145/1355734.1355746. S2CID 1153326. Retrieved 2 November 2009.","urls":[{"url":"http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1355734.1355746","url_text":"\"OpenFlow: Enabling innovation in campus networks\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACM_SIGCOMM_Computer_Communication_Review","url_text":"ACM SIGCOMM Computer Communication Review"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1145%2F1355734.1355746","url_text":"10.1145/1355734.1355746"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1153326","url_text":"1153326"}]},{"reference":"\"OpenFlow Switch Errata v1.0.2-rc1\" (PDF). Open Networking Foundation. 4 October 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://opennetworking.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/openflow-spec-v1.0.2.pdf","url_text":"\"OpenFlow Switch Errata v1.0.2-rc1\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Networking_Foundation","url_text":"Open Networking Foundation"}]},{"reference":"\"Service Name and Transport Protocol Port Number Registry\". IANA.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iana.org/assignments/service-names-port-numbers/service-names-port-numbers.txt","url_text":"\"Service Name and Transport Protocol Port Number Registry\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IANA","url_text":"IANA"}]},{"reference":"Koponen, Teemu; et al. (4 October 2010). \"Onix: A Distributed Control Platform for Large-scale Production Networks\". USENIX. 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Open Networking Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.opennetworking.org/sdn-resources/sdn-library/whitepapers","url_text":"\"Software-Defined Networking (SDN): The New Norm for Networks\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Networking_Foundation","url_text":"Open Networking Foundation"}]},{"reference":"Solomon, Howard (11 December 2013). \"Alcatel Now Supports OpenFlow, OpenStack on Switches\". IT World Canada.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.itworldcanada.com/article/alcatel-now-supports-openflow-openstack-on-switches/87485","url_text":"\"Alcatel Now Supports OpenFlow, OpenStack on Switches\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT_World_Canada","url_text":"IT World Canada"}]},{"reference":"Metz, Cade (26 March 2013). \"You Can't Have Google's Pluto Switch, But You Can Have This\". Wired.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wired.com/2013/03/big-switch-indigo-switch-light/","url_text":"\"You Can't Have Google's Pluto Switch, But You Can Have This\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)","url_text":"Wired"}]},{"reference":"Radda, Pavel (22 March 2011). \"Brocade Leads OpenFlow Adoption to Accelerate Network Virtualization and Cloud Application Development\". Reuters. Archived from the original on 4 November 2013. Retrieved 29 November 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131104080457/http://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/22/idUS38007+22-Mar-2011+MW20110322","url_text":"\"Brocade Leads OpenFlow Adoption to Accelerate Network Virtualization and Cloud Application Development\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reuters","url_text":"Reuters"},{"url":"https://www.reuters.com/article/2011/03/22/idUS38007+22-Mar-2011+MW20110322","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"FlowEngine:Intelligent Flow Management\". Radisys. 20 February 2016. Archived from the original on 16 April 2016. Retrieved 11 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160416234047/http://www.radisys.com/flowengine/solutions/intelligent-flow-management","url_text":"\"FlowEngine:Intelligent Flow Management\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radisys","url_text":"Radisys"},{"url":"http://www.radisys.com/flowengine/solutions/intelligent-flow-management","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Open Networking Foundation Press Release\". Open Networking Foundation. 20 March 2011. Archived from the original on 26 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110326024026/http://www.opennetworkingfoundation.org/?p=7","url_text":"\"Open Networking Foundation Press Release\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Networking_Foundation","url_text":"Open Networking Foundation"},{"url":"http://www.opennetworkingfoundation.org/?p=7","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"OpenFlow v1.2\" (PDF). Open Networking Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.opennetworking.org/images/stories/downloads/sdn-resources/onf-specifications/openflow/openflow-spec-v1.2.pdf","url_text":"\"OpenFlow v1.2\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Networking_Foundation","url_text":"Open Networking Foundation"}]},{"reference":"\"OpenFlow v1.5.1\" (PDF). Open Networking Foundation.","urls":[{"url":"https://opennetworking.org/wp-content/uploads/2014/10/openflow-switch-v1.5.1.pdf","url_text":"\"OpenFlow v1.5.1\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Networking_Foundation","url_text":"Open Networking Foundation"}]},{"reference":"\"Marvell Introduces OpenFlow-enabled Switches\". Marvell. 10 May 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.marvell.com/company/news/pressDetail.do?releaseID=1538","url_text":"\"Marvell Introduces OpenFlow-enabled Switches\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marvell_Technology_Group","url_text":"Marvell"}]},{"reference":"\"OpenFlow – Innovate in Your Network\". Larch Networks. 6 May 2011. Retrieved 28 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://larch-networks.com/news/2","url_text":"\"OpenFlow – Innovate in Your Network\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larch_Networks","url_text":"Larch Networks"}]},{"reference":"\"SDN Interoperability Lab - InCNTRE\". IU.edu. 5 June 2012. 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Retrieved 28 April 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130513123028/http://www.networkworld.com/news/2012/020212-hp-openflow-255641.html?page=1","url_text":"\"HP takes giant first step into OpenFlow: HP is announcing its first effort to support OpenFlow standard on its Ethernet switches\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_World","url_text":"Network World"},{"url":"http://www.networkworld.com/news/2012/020212-hp-openflow-255641.html?page=1","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Levy, Steven (17 April 2012). \"Going With the Flow: Google's Secret Switch to the Next Wave of Networking\". Wired. Retrieved 17 April 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_Levy","url_text":"Levy, Steven"},{"url":"https://www.wired.com/wiredenterprise/2012/04/going-with-the-flow-google","url_text":"\"Going With the Flow: Google's Secret Switch to the Next Wave of Networking\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_(magazine)","url_text":"Wired"}]},{"reference":"Duffy, Jim (22 January 2013). \"NEC rolls out OpenFlow for Microsoft Hyper-V: NEC virtual switch adds IPv6 support to SDN controller\". Network World. Archived from the original on 3 April 2013. Retrieved 28 April 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130403025856/http://www.networkworld.com/news/2013/012213-nec-openflow-266024.html","url_text":"\"NEC rolls out OpenFlow for Microsoft Hyper-V: NEC virtual switch adds IPv6 support to SDN controller\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_World","url_text":"Network World"},{"url":"http://www.networkworld.com/news/2013/012213-nec-openflow-266024.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"OpenFlow protocol has a switch authentication vulnerability\". The Register.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.co.uk/2018/05/10/openflow_switch_auth_vulnerability/","url_text":"\"OpenFlow protocol has a switch authentication vulnerability\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Register","url_text":"The Register"}]},{"reference":"\"OpenFlow Vulnerability Assessment\" (PDF). Indiana.edu. Archived from the original (PDF) on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 23 June 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304065247/http://homes.soic.indiana.edu/ktbenton/research/openflow_vulnerability_assessment.pdf","url_text":"\"OpenFlow Vulnerability Assessment\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indiana.edu","url_text":"Indiana.edu"},{"url":"http://homes.soic.indiana.edu/ktbenton/research/openflow_vulnerability_assessment.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"OpenFlow security: Does OpenFlow secure software-defined networks?\". TechTarget.","urls":[{"url":"http://searchsecurity.techtarget.com/answer/OpenFlow-security-Does-OpenFlow-secure-software-defined-networks","url_text":"\"OpenFlow security: Does OpenFlow secure software-defined networks?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TechTarget","url_text":"TechTarget"}]},{"reference":"Natarajan, Sriram; et al. (2013). \"A Software defined Cloud-Gateway automation system using OpenFlow\". 2013 IEEE 2nd International Conference on Cloud Networking (Cloud Net). pp. 219–226. doi:10.1109/CloudNet.2013.6710582. ISBN 978-1-4799-0568-3. S2CID 16248079.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1109%2FCloudNet.2013.6710582","url_text":"10.1109/CloudNet.2013.6710582"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4799-0568-3","url_text":"978-1-4799-0568-3"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16248079","url_text":"16248079"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michiel_de_Vaan

Michiel de Vaan

["1 Books","2 References","3 External links"]

Dutch linguist (born 1973) This article includes a list of references, related reading, or external links, but its sources remain unclear because it lacks inline citations. Please help improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (September 2013) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Michiel de VaanBorn1973Son en Breugel, North BrabantAcademic backgroundEducationLeiden UniversityAcademic workInstitutionsLeiden UniversityUniversity of Lausanne Michiel Arnoud Cor de Vaan (Dutch: ; born 1973) is a Dutch linguist and Indo-Europeanist. He taught comparative Indo-European linguistics, historical linguistics and dialectology at the University of Leiden until 2014, when he moved to the University of Lausanne in Switzerland. De Vaan had been at the University of Leiden since 1991, first as a student and later as a teacher. He has published extensively on Limburgian, Dutch, Germanic, Albanian, Indo-Iranian and Indo-European linguistics and philology. He has published more than 100 papers, has written several books and has edited conference proceedings and a handbook of Indo-European. He wrote the etymological dictionary of Latin and other Italic languages as a contributor to the Leiden-based Indo-European Etymological Dictionary project. Books with Javier Martínez: Introducción al avéstico. Madrid: Ediciones Clásicas, 2001. 140 pp. English translation: Introduction to Avestan. Leiden / Boston: Brill, 2014. The Avestan Vowels. Amsterdam/Atlanta: Rodopi, 2003. 710 pp. (as editor): Germanic Tone Accents: Proceedings of the First International Workshop on Franconian Tone Accents, Leiden, 13-14 June 2003 (= Zeitschrift für Dialektologie und Linguistik 131). Stuttgart: Franz Steiner Verlag, 2006. Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages. Brill. 2008. ISBN 9789004167971. with Alexander Lubotsky: Van Sanskriet tot Spijkerschrift. Breinbrekers uit alle talen. Amsterdam: Amsterdam University Press, 2010. (as reviser/editor): Robert S.P. Beekes, Comparative Indo-European Linguistics: An Introduction, 2nd edn. Revised and corrected by Michiel de Vaan. Amsterdam / Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 2011. with Rolf H. Bremmer Jr: Sporen van het Fries en de Friezen in Noord-Holland (2012, It Beaken : Tijdschrift van de Fryske Akademy, nr. 74). The Dawn of Dutch: Language contact in the western Low Countries before 1200. John Benjamins, 2017. 613 pp. References ^ "Afscheidsconferentie Michiel de Vaan (Dutch)". Archived from the original on 2016-08-09. Retrieved 2016-05-25. External links Personal website at Lausanne University Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway France BnF data Germany Israel Belgium United States Czech Republic Australia Netherlands Poland Academics CiNii Other IdRef

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CAN_in_Automation

CAN in Automation

["1 External links"]

Organization "CiA" redirects here. For other uses, see CIA (disambiguation). CAN in Automation (CiA)391 is the international users' and manufacturers' organization that develops and supports CAN-based higher-layer protocols. About 650 (2018) companies from all over the world have joined the non-profit organization. CAN specifications are developed within CiA interest groups (IG) in cooperation with employees of the member companies. The following IGs have been established: IG CANopen, IG CANopen FD, IG profiles, IG layer 1/2, IG safety/security, IG J1939. The interest groups manage their related special interest groups (SIG). These special interest groups (SIG) develop for example dedicated CiA specifications and recommendations (e.g. device and applications profiles for CANopen and CANopen FD). CiA representatives support many international standardization activities (ISO, IEC, CEN, Cenelec, and SAE), dealing with CAN. Moreover, CiA publishes the technical magazine CAN Newsletter (downloadable PDF-file) as well as the CAN Newsletter Online. External links Website of CiA CAN Newsletter Online This article about a scientific organization is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scilab

Scilab

["1 Introduction","2 Syntax","3 Toolboxes","4 History","5 Scilab Cloud App & Scilab Cloud API","6 See also","7 References","7.1 Further reading","8 External links"]

Open-source numerical computation software This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Scilab" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (April 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) ScilabScreenshot of Scilab 6.1Developer(s)Dassault SystèmesStable release2024.1.0  / 23 May 2024; 22 days ago (23 May 2024) Repositorygitlab.com/scilab/scilab Written inScilab, C, C++, Java, FortranOperating systemBSDs (e.g., FreeBSD), Linux, macOS, WindowsAvailable inEnglish, German, Spanish, French, Italian, Japanese, Portuguese (Brazil), Russian, Ukrainian, Chinese, Czech, PolishTypeTechnical computingLicenseGPLv2, previously CeCILLWebsitewww.scilab.org Scilab is a free and open-source, cross-platform numerical computational package and a high-level, numerically oriented programming language. It can be used for signal processing, statistical analysis, image enhancement, fluid dynamics simulations, numerical optimization, and modeling, simulation of explicit and implicit dynamical systems and (if the corresponding toolbox is installed) symbolic manipulations. Scilab is one of the two major open-source alternatives to MATLAB, the other one being GNU Octave. Scilab puts less emphasis on syntactic compatibility with MATLAB than Octave does, but it is similar enough that some authors suggest that it is easy to transfer skills between the two systems. Introduction Scilab is a high-level, numerically oriented programming language. The language provides an interpreted programming environment, with matrices as the main data type. By using matrix-based computation, dynamic typing, and automatic memory management, many numerical problems may be expressed in a reduced number of code lines, as compared to similar solutions using traditional languages, such as Fortran, C, or C++. This allows users to rapidly construct models for a range of mathematical problems. While the language provides simple matrix operations such as multiplication, the Scilab package also provides a library of high-level operations such as correlation and complex multidimensional arithmetic. Scilab also includes a free package called Xcos for modeling and simulation of explicit and implicit dynamical systems, including both continuous and discrete sub-systems. Xcos is the open source equivalent to Simulink from the MathWorks. As the syntax of Scilab is similar to MATLAB, Scilab includes a source code translator for assisting the conversion of code from MATLAB to Scilab. Scilab is available free of cost under an open source license. Due to the open source nature of the software, some user contributions have been integrated into the main program. Syntax Scilab syntax is largely based on the MATLAB language. The simplest way to execute Scilab code is to type it in at the prompt, --> , in the graphical command window. In this way, Scilab can be used as an interactive mathematical shell. Hello World! in Scilab: disp('Hello World'); Plotting a 3D surface function: // A simple plot of z = f(x,y) t='; z=sin(t)*cos(t'); plot3d(t,t',z) Toolboxes Scilab has many contributed toolboxes for different tasks, such as Scilab Image Processing Toolbox (SIP) and its variants (such as SIVP) Scilab Wavelet Toolbox Scilab Java and .NET Module Scilab Remote Access Module More are available on ATOMS Portal or the Scilab forge. History Scilab was created in 1990 by researchers from INRIA and École nationale des ponts et chaussées (ENPC). It was initially named Ψlab (Psilab). The Scilab Consortium was formed in May 2003 to broaden contributions and promote Scilab as worldwide reference software in academia and industry. In July 2008, in order to improve the technology transfer, the Scilab Consortium joined the Digiteo Foundation. Scilab 5.1, the first release compiled for Mac, was available in early 2009, and supported Mac OS X 10.5, a.k.a. Leopard. Thus, OSX 10.4, Tiger, was never supported except by porting from sources. Linux and Windows builds had been released since the beginning, with Solaris support dropped with version 3.1.1, and HP-UX dropped with version 4.1.2 after spotty support. In June 2010, the Consortium announced the creation of Scilab Enterprises. Scilab Enterprises develops and markets, directly or through an international network of affiliated services providers, a comprehensive set of services for Scilab users. Scilab Enterprises also develops and maintains the Scilab software. The ultimate goal of Scilab Enterprises is to help make the use of Scilab more effective and easy. In February 2017 Scilab 6.0.0 was released which leveraged the latest C++ standards and lifted memory allocation limitations. Since July 2012, Scilab is developed and published by Scilab Enterprises and in early 2017 Scilab Enterprises was acquired by Virtual Prototyping pioneer ESI Group Since 2019 and Scilab 6.0.2, the University of Technology of Compiègne provides resources to build and maintain the macOS version. Since mid 2022 the Scilab team is part of Dassault Systèmes. Scilab Cloud App & Scilab Cloud API Since 2016 Scilab can be embedded in a browser and be called via an interface written in Scilab or an API. This new deployment method has the notable advantages of masking code & data as well as providing large computational power. These features have not been included in the open source version of Scilab and are still proprietary developments. See also SageMath List of numerical-analysis software Comparison of numerical-analysis software SimulationX References ^ "Scilab 2024.1.0". Retrieved 23 May 2024. ^ Holopainen, Timo (2000). "Modelling and simulation of multitechnological machine systems" (PDF). ^ Guenther, Raidl (May 1998). "An improved genetic algorithm for the multiconstrained 0-1 knapsack problem". 1998 IEEE International Conference on Evolutionary Computation Proceedings. IEEE World Congress on Computational Intelligence (Cat. No.98TH8360). pp. 207–211. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.20.6454. doi:10.1109/ICEC.1998.699502. ISBN 978-0-7803-4869-1. S2CID 2337792. ^ Philippe., Roux (2016-03-29). Scilab: I. Fundamentals, from theory to practice. Paris, France. ISBN 978-2-8227-0293-5. OCLC 1003630046.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (link) ^ a b Thomas Trappenberg (2010). Fundamentals of Computational Neuroscience. Oxford University Press. p. 361. ISBN 978-0-19-956841-3. ^ A Muhammad; V Zalizniak (2011). Practical Scientific Computing. Woodhead Publishing. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-85709-226-7. ^ Bernard A. Megrey; Erlend Moksness (2008). Computers in Fisheries Research. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 345. ISBN 978-1-4020-8636-6. ^ Raul Raymond Kapuno (2008). Programming for Chemical Engineers Using C, C++, and MATLAB. Jones & Bartlett Publishers. p. 365. ISBN 978-1-934015-09-4. ^ Russell L. Herman (2013). A Course in Mathematical Methods for Physicists. CRC Press. p. 42. ISBN 978-1-4665-8467-9. ^ Alain Vande Wouwer; Philippe Saucez; Carlos Vilas (2014). Simulation of ODE/PDE Models with MATLAB, OCTAVE and SCILAB: Scientific and Engineering Applications. Springer. pp. 114–115. ISBN 978-3-319-06790-2. ^ Mark A. Haidekker (2013). Linear Feedback Controls: The Essentials. Newnes. p. 3. ISBN 978-0-12-405513-1. ^ "META2.3.1.1.html META2.3.1.1". ^ "SCILAB Consortium launched". 2003. ^ "SCILAB Enterprises announced". 2010. Archived from the original on 2010-06-20. ^ "ESI Group: Acquisition of Scilab Enterprises, Publisher of Scilab Open Source Analytical Computational Software". Archived from the original on 2017-08-24. Retrieved 2017-08-24. ^ "Scilab Cloud". Scilab.io. Retrieved 2017-10-08. Further reading Stephen L. Campbell; Jean-Philippe Chancelier; Ramine Nikoukhah (2006). Modeling and Simulation in Scilab/Scicos. New York: Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-27802-5. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Scilab. Scilab website vteNumerical-analysis softwareFree Advanced Simulation Library ADMB Chapel Euler FreeFem++ FreeMat Genius Gmsh GNU Octave gretl Julia Jupyter (Julia, Python, R; IPython) MFEM OpenFOAM Python R SageMath Salome ScicosLab Scilab X10 Weka Discontinued Fortress Proprietary DADiSP FEATool Multiphysics GAUSS LabVIEW Maple Mathcad Mathematica MATLAB Speakeasy VisSim Comparison vteDassault SystèmesPeople Bernard Charlès Charles Edelstenne Brands CATIA SOLIDWORKS Accelrys DELMIA GEOVIA SIMULIA EXALEAD 3DVIA NETVIBES Scilab Products Abaqus ACIS Dymola Virtools Related Dassault Group Spatial Corp Authority control databases: National Germany Czech Republic

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The language provides an interpreted programming environment, with matrices as the main data type. By using matrix-based computation, dynamic typing, and automatic memory management, many numerical problems may be expressed in a reduced number of code lines, as compared to similar solutions using traditional languages, such as Fortran, C, or C++. This allows users to rapidly construct models for a range of mathematical problems. While the language provides simple matrix operations such as multiplication, the Scilab package also provides a library of high-level operations such as correlation and complex multidimensional arithmetic.Scilab also includes a free package called Xcos for modeling and simulation of explicit and implicit dynamical systems, including both continuous and discrete sub-systems. Xcos is the open source equivalent to Simulink from the MathWorks.As the syntax of Scilab is similar to MATLAB, Scilab includes a source code translator for assisting the conversion of code from MATLAB to Scilab. Scilab is available free of cost under an open source license. Due to the open source nature of the software, some user contributions have been integrated into the main program.","title":"Introduction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"prompt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command-line_interface"},{"link_name":"shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_line_interpreter"},{"link_name":"Hello World!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hello_World!"}],"text":"Scilab syntax is largely based on the MATLAB language. The simplest way to execute Scilab code is to type it in at the prompt, --> , in the graphical command window. In this way, Scilab can be used as an interactive mathematical shell.Hello World! in Scilab:disp('Hello World');Plotting a 3D surface function:// A simple plot of z = f(x,y)\nt=[0:0.3:2*%pi]';\nz=sin(t)*cos(t');\nplot3d(t,t',z)","title":"Syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Scilab Image Processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scilab_Image_Processing"}],"text":"Scilab has many contributed toolboxes for different tasks, such asScilab Image Processing Toolbox (SIP) and its variants (such as SIVP)\nScilab Wavelet Toolbox\nScilab Java and .NET Module\nScilab Remote Access ModuleMore are available on ATOMS Portal or the Scilab forge.","title":"Toolboxes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"INRIA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institut_National_de_Recherche_en_Informatique_et_en_Automatique"},{"link_name":"École nationale des ponts et chaussées","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89cole_nationale_des_ponts_et_chauss%C3%A9es"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Mac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacOS"},{"link_name":"Mac OS X 10.5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X_10.5"},{"link_name":"Leopard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X_Leopard"},{"link_name":"Tiger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_OS_X_Tiger"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"Solaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oracle_Solaris"},{"link_name":"HP-UX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HP-UX"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"ESI Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESI_Group"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"University of Technology of Compiègne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.utc.fr/en/"}],"text":"Scilab was created in 1990 by researchers from INRIA and École nationale des ponts et chaussées (ENPC). It was initially named Ψlab[12] (Psilab). The Scilab Consortium was formed in May 2003 to broaden contributions and promote Scilab as worldwide reference software in academia and industry.[13] In July 2008, in order to improve the technology transfer, the Scilab Consortium joined the Digiteo Foundation.Scilab 5.1, the first release compiled for Mac, was available in early 2009, and supported Mac OS X 10.5, a.k.a. Leopard. Thus, OSX 10.4, Tiger, was never supported except by porting from sources. Linux and Windows builds had been released since the beginning, with Solaris support dropped with version 3.1.1, and HP-UX dropped with version 4.1.2 after spotty support.In June 2010, the Consortium announced the creation of Scilab Enterprises.[14] Scilab Enterprises develops and markets, directly or through an international network of affiliated services providers, a comprehensive set of services for Scilab users. Scilab Enterprises also develops and maintains the Scilab software. The ultimate goal of Scilab Enterprises is to help make the use of Scilab more effective and easy.In February 2017 Scilab 6.0.0 was released which leveraged the latest C++ standards and lifted memory allocation limitations.Since July 2012, Scilab is developed and published by Scilab Enterprises and in early 2017 Scilab Enterprises was acquired by Virtual Prototyping pioneer ESI Group[15]Since 2019 and Scilab 6.0.2, the University of Technology of Compiègne provides resources to build and maintain the macOS version.\nSince mid 2022 the Scilab team is part of Dassault Systèmes.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"Since 2016 Scilab can be embedded in a browser and be called via an interface written in Scilab or an API.This new deployment method has the notable advantages of masking code & data as well as providing large computational power.[16]These features have not been included in the open source version of Scilab and are still proprietary developments.","title":"Scilab Cloud App & Scilab Cloud API"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Sky_Resort

Big Sky Resort

["1 Resort history","2 Activities","2.1 Terrain aspects - skiing","3 Lift system","3.1 Real Estate Lifts","3.2 Lone Peak Tram","4 References","5 External links"]

Coordinates: 45°15′0″N 111°25′0″W / 45.25000°N 111.41667°W / 45.25000; -111.41667Ski resort in Montana, United States Big SkyBig Sky Resort in 2006Big SkyLocation in MontanaShow map of MontanaBig SkyBig Sky (the United States)Show map of the United StatesLocationBig Sky,Madison County,Montana United StatesNearest major cityBozeman - 50 mi (80 km)Coordinates45°15′0″N 111°25′0″W / 45.25000°N 111.41667°W / 45.25000; -111.41667StatusOperatingOwnerBoyne ResortsVertical4,350 ft (1,326 m)totalTop elevation11,166 ft (3,403 m)Base elevation6,800 ft (2,073 m)Lone Moose7,500 ft (2,286 m)Mountain VillageSkiable area5,800 acres (23.5 km2)Trails250+ - 15% beginner - 25% intermediate - 60% advancedLongest run6 miles (10 km)Lift system36 liftsSnowmakingYes, 10%Websitebigskyresort.com Big Sky Resort is a ski resort in the western United States, located in southwestern Montana in Madison County. An hour south of Bozeman via U.S. Highway 191 in Big Sky, Montana. Opened in late 1973, Big Sky Resort has more than 5,800 acres (9.1 sq mi; 23.5 km2) of terrain and a vertical drop of 4,350 feet (1,330 m). In July 2013, Big Sky Resort acquired 200 acres (0.8 km2) on Spirit Mountain, which were previously owned by Spanish Peaks, a private club. In October of the same year, Big Sky Resort acquired the terrain and facilities of Moonlight Basin, a neighboring resort that shared the northern exposure of Lone Mountain. Big Sky Resort also offers meeting space for conferences, weddings, and corporate retreats. Resort history The resort was founded by Montana native Chet Huntley, the retired co-anchorman of The Huntley–Brinkley Report of NBC News. Big Sky opened in December 1973, with its main base area at an elevation of 7,510 ft (2,290 m) above sea level, on the eastern face of the 11,167-foot (3,404 m) Lone Mountain, the sixty-seventh highest mountain in Montana, and the seventh-highest mountain in the state outside of the Beartooth Range. The first three lifts installed included a gondola and two chairlifts. The enclosed gondola carried four skiers per cabin, and climbed 1,525 feet (465 m) to an elevation of 9,040 ft (2,755 m). The nearby Lone Peak triple chairlift provided the lift-served maximum of 9,800 ft (2,985 m), unloading at the bowl 1,366 ft (416 m) beneath Lone Mountain's summit, providing a vertical drop of just under 2,300 ft (700 m), and the Explorer double chair served novice terrain just above the base. The fourth lift was the Andesite double, which climbed the north face of adjacent Andesite Mountain to 8,700 ft (2,650 m); it was renamed Ram's Horn in 1978, and replaced with the Ramcharger high speed quad in 1990. Boyne Resorts purchased the resort in 1976, following Huntley's death from cancer in March 1974, and the decision of owner Chrysler Corporation to divest its real estate development assets. Lone Peak, the top of the resort mountain The resort grew steadily over the following decades, adding lifts and more than tripling the terrain available for skiing and snowboarding. The fifth lift, a second chairlift on Andesite Mountain, was installed in the summer of 1979. The Mad Wolf double climbed Andesite's eastern face and lowered Big Sky's minimum elevation 540 ft (165 m) to 6,970 ft (2,125 m). This increased the area's vertical drop to over 2,800 ft (855 m). The Mad Wolf lift was replaced with the Thunder Wolf high speed quad in 1994. Two lifts were added in the 1980s, Gondola Two was installed in parallel to the first gondola, and the Challenger double chair served upper-elevation expert terrain on the north edge of the ski area. A tow was later added above this lift. Gondola Two was replaced with a Doppelmayr high speed quad, Swift Current 4, in 1997. The eighth lift at Big Sky was the Southern Comfort on the south side of Andesite Mountain, a Heron-Poma triple chairlift acquired from Copper Mountain in Colorado, installed in 1990 and upgraded to a high speed quad for the 2004-2005 ski season. In the fall of 1995, Big Sky installed the Lone Peak Tram to provide access to expert terrain from the 11,166-foot (3,403 m) Lone Mountain summit. The Shedhorn double chair was also part of this expansion, installed in 1995 on the lower south face of Lone Mountain. The tram increased Big Sky's vertical drop to 4,180 ft (1,275 m). The minimum elevation was lowered further in the fall of 1999, with the addition of a used triple chairlift from Keystone Resort in Colorado, starting at a base elevation of 6,800 ft (2,075 m) at Lone Moose Meadows. This increased the ski area's total vertical drop to 4,350 ft (1,330 m), with the maximum continuous vertical drop increased to 4,100 ft (1,250 m) from the top of the tram to the main base area. In 1990 the Shoshone Condominium Hotel and the Yellowstone Conference Center were built. In April 2000, Boyne Resorts announced that an estimated $400 million in improvements would take place over the next ten years to the Mountain Village and the ski area. Later in 2000, the $54 million Summit Hotel was completed. In late 2007, the $25 million Village Center Complex was opened. In 2007, Big Sky expanded the skiing opportunities on the south face of Lone Peak with the reinstallation of the original Southern Comfort triple chairlift as the Dakota chairlift on the south side of Lone Peak, providing access to the accompanying out-of-bounds sidecountry, Dakota Territory. Gondola One was retired in the summer of 2008, dismantled due to the rising cost of repairs. Big Sky's neighbor on its north boundary, Moonlight Basin, merged with Big Sky Resort in October 2013. In 2016, Big Sky Resort installed two new Doppelmayr chairlifts as part of BigSky2025, a 10-year, $150-million project. The Lone Peak triple chairlift in the bowl was replaced with Powder Seeker, a six-seat high-speed chairlift with heated seats and bubble covers. The same summer, the Challenger double chairlift, which had suffered a mechanical failure, was replaced by a triple chairlift with a conveyor load. In 2018, as part of the Big Sky 2025 plan, Doppelmayr built North America's first ever high speed eight pack in the form of the Ramcharger 8, which replaced an existing Doppelmayr high speed quad from the base area to the summit of Andesite Mountain and has many of the same features as Powder Seeker. Billed as "the most technologically advanced lift ever built," it opened on December 15, 2018. The original high speed quad was reinstalled on Lone Peak, where it replaced the Shedhorn double chairlift. Activities Winter activities include skiing and snowboarding, seven terrain parks, zip-line, and snowshoeing. Summer attractions include zip-lines, archery, tennis, hiking, and mountain biking trails on the mountain. Golf and horseback riding are available near the Meadow Village at an elevation of 6,300 feet (1,920 m), between the ski area and US-191. Terrain aspects - skiing Big Sky's main summit (Lone Peak) sits at an elevation of 11,166 feet. All of the resorts terrain faces all four points on a compass, with most of the terrain either facing north, or east. North: 37% West: 2% East: 36% South: 25% Lift system Inside the Swift Current 6 lift at the resort, a six-person lift with bubble covers Big Sky has one of the largest chairlift fleets of any ski area North America. Comprising 31 chairlifts, the resort has ten detachable lifts, with five of those lifts having blue bubbles. There are also many fixed grip chairlifts as well. Name Type Builder Built Notes Lone Peak Tram Tram Garaventa 2023 Holds 75 people, and has two black and blue cabins. One&Only Gondola Gondola Doppelmayr 2024 Under Construction - Will have a mid-station. Explorer Gondola 2025 Madison 8 Detachable 8 2024 Under Construction - Replaces the Six Shooter chairlift. Ramcharger 8 2018 Has heated seats. Swift Current 6 Detachable 6 2021 Powder Seeker 6 2016 Lewis & Clark Detachable Quad 2005 One of three lifts built when the area was called "Spanish Peaks". Southern Comfort 4 2004 Shedhorn 4 2018 Relocated from Ramcharger. Thunderwolf 4 1993 Oldest High-Speed Quad at the mountain. Iron Horse 4 Fixed Grip Quad Garaventa CTEC 1994 Derringer 4 Doppelmayr 2003 Lone Tree 4 2004 Dakota 3 Triple Heron-Poma 2007 Relocated from Swift Current Sacajawea 3 Doppelmayr 2005 One of three lifts built when the area was called "Spanish Peaks". Challenger 3 2016 Has a Chairkit loading conveyor. Lone Moose 3 Yan / Doppelmayr 1999 Relocated from Keystone Colorado, and rebuilt with Doppelymar equipment. Pony Express 3 Garaventa CTEC 1995 Explorer 2 Double Heron-Poma 1973 Headwaters 2 Yan 2005 Relocated from Kirkwood California. Bear Back Poma Poma 1993 Blue highlight indicates chairlifts with blue bubbles. Real Estate Lifts These lifts are marked on the trail map with a Purple highlight, and are operated privately. In total, there are 10 lifts in this category. Name Type Builder Built Notes Cabin 3 Triple Doppelmayr 2005 One of three lifts built when the area was called "Spanish Peaks". Highlands 3 2019 Jayhawk 3 2019 Has a mid-station, and loads in both directions. Cascade 3 CTEC 2002 White Otter 2 Double Doppelmayr 1999 Stagecoach Skytrac 2017 Little Thunder 2 Riblet 2006 Relocated from Brighton, Utah. Tweener Poma Doppelmar CTEC 2005 Homer 2005 Lone Peak Tram Lone Peak Tram, January 2018 The Lone Peak Tram is an aerial tramway that transports guests to the summit of Lone Mountain at 11,166 ft (3,403 m). The original tram was constructed in the fall of 1995, with 15 passenger cabins climbing 1,420 ft (433 m) over a distance of 2,828 ft (862 m) from the summit of Powder Seeker. It provided access to the most difficult terrain at Big Sky Resort, including former Moonlight Basin terrain. Construction was completed by the high-altitude construction firm Matrix, based in Alaska. Beginning in the summer 2012 season, Big Sky introduced daily summer tram rides to take visitors to the top of Lone Peak, called the Lone Peak Expedition. Starting in the 2021/2022 season, access to the tram required the purchase of a tram pass pack, individual day passes between $20-$80 USD, a Gold season pass for unlimited access, or a Double Black season pass for 10 days. In early 2022, it was announced that the tram would be replaced by a new tram, starting near the base of Powder Seeker and adjacent to the top station of the future Explorer Gondola. The new tram was constructed and opened for the 2023-2024 season, and features 75 seat cabins. References Montana portal ^ a b c d e "Mountain Stats and Info". Archived from the original on 2016-10-18. Retrieved 2016-11-02. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m "Big Sky Resort History". Retrieved 2 May 2017. ^ "Conferences". Retrieved 6 June 2015. ^ "Big Sky". Spokane Daily Chronicle. (advertisement). October 2, 1973. p. 21. ^ a b Young, Larry (December 26, 1975). "Big Sky ski area is 'growing up'". The Spokesman-Review. p. 49. ^ "Ex-newscaster Chet Huntley dies". Spokane Daily Chronicle. Associated Press. March 20, 1974. p. 1. ^ "BIG SKY RESORT TO INSTALL FIRST EIGHT-SEATER LIFT IN NORTH AMERICA". Retrieved 25 October 2018. ^ a b "Activities and Things to Do". Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 6 June 2015. ^ Best Ski Resorts, ZRankings. "ZRankings Topographical Survey - Terrain". ZRankings. ZRankings. Retrieved 28 October 2015. ^ "Big Sky, MT". ^ "Lone Peak Tram". Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2013. ^ "Big Sky's New Tram Policy Aims to Control Crowds, But It Will Cost You". Ski Magazine. Ski Magazine. Retrieved 25 February 2022. ^ "Big Sky's Ambitious Gondola and Tram Aim to Alleviate Base Area Crowds and Improve Lone Peak Access". Ski Magazine. Ski Magazine. Retrieved 25 February 2022. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Big Sky Resort. Wikivoyage has a travel guide for Big Sky. BigSkyResort.com — official site vteSki areas in MontanaAlpine areas Bear Paw Big Sky Blacktail Mtn. Bridger Bowl Discovery Great Divide Lookout Pass Lost Trail Powder Mtn. Maverick Mtn. Montana Snowbowl Moonlight Basin Red Lodge Showdown Teton Pass Turner Mtn. Whitefish Mtn. Yellowstone Club Cross country areas Bohart Ranch Lone Mountain Ranch Cat skiing Great Northern Powder Guides Defunct ski areas Bear Canyon (Bozeman) Beef Trail (Butte) Jack Creek (Ennis) Lionhead (West Yellowstone) Marshall Mtn. (Missoula) Shangri-La (Red Lodge) Sundance (Red Lodge) Willow Creek Authority control databases International VIAF National United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ski resort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ski_resort"},{"link_name":"western United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_United_States"},{"link_name":"Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montana"},{"link_name":"Madison County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madison_County,_Montana"},{"link_name":"Bozeman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bozeman,_Montana"},{"link_name":"U.S. Highway 191","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_191"},{"link_name":"Big Sky, Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Sky,_Montana"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bsr_stats-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Moonlight Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonlight_Basin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-conferences-3"}],"text":"Ski resort in Montana, United StatesBig Sky Resort is a ski resort in the western United States, located in southwestern Montana in Madison County. An hour south of Bozeman via U.S. Highway 191 in Big Sky, Montana.Opened in late 1973, Big Sky Resort has more than 5,800 acres (9.1 sq mi; 23.5 km2) of terrain and a vertical drop of 4,350 feet (1,330 m).[1] In July 2013, Big Sky Resort acquired 200 acres (0.8 km2) on Spirit Mountain, which were previously owned by Spanish Peaks, a private club.[2] In October of the same year, Big Sky Resort acquired the terrain and facilities of Moonlight Basin, a neighboring resort that shared the northern exposure of Lone Mountain.[2]Big Sky Resort also offers meeting space for conferences, weddings, and corporate retreats.[3]","title":"Big Sky Resort"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chet Huntley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chet_Huntley"},{"link_name":"co-anchorman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/News_presenter"},{"link_name":"The Huntley–Brinkley Report","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Huntley%E2%80%93Brinkley_Report"},{"link_name":"NBC News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NBC_News"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bigsk-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bssaigrp-5"},{"link_name":"elevation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elevation"},{"link_name":"sea level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_level"},{"link_name":"Beartooth Range","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beartooth_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"gondola","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gondola_lift"},{"link_name":"chairlifts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chairlift"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bssaigrp-5"},{"link_name":"high speed quad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detachable_chairlift"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Boyne Resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyne_Resorts"},{"link_name":"cancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cancer"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-exnews-6"},{"link_name":"Chrysler Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Corporation"},{"link_name":"real estate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_estate"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lone_Peak,_Big_Sky,_Montana.jpg"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"tow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ski_tow"},{"link_name":"Heron-Poma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Heron-Poma&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Copper Mountain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copper_Mountain_(Colorado)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Keystone Resort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keystone_Resort"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Boyne Resorts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyne_Resorts"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Moonlight Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonlight_Basin"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-2"},{"link_name":"Doppelmayr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doppelmayr_Garaventa_Group"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ramcharger_8-7"}],"text":"The resort was founded by Montana native Chet Huntley, the retired co-anchorman of The Huntley–Brinkley Report of NBC News.[4][5] Big Sky opened in December 1973, with its main base area at an elevation of 7,510 ft (2,290 m) above sea level, on the eastern face of the 11,167-foot (3,404 m) Lone Mountain, the sixty-seventh highest mountain in Montana, and the seventh-highest mountain in the state outside of the Beartooth Range.[2]The first three lifts installed included a gondola and two chairlifts.[5] The enclosed gondola carried four skiers per cabin, and climbed 1,525 feet (465 m) to an elevation of 9,040 ft (2,755 m). The nearby Lone Peak triple chairlift provided the lift-served maximum of 9,800 ft (2,985 m), unloading at the bowl 1,366 ft (416 m) beneath Lone Mountain's summit, providing a vertical drop of just under 2,300 ft (700 m), and the Explorer double chair served novice terrain just above the base. The fourth lift was the Andesite double, which climbed the north face of adjacent Andesite Mountain to 8,700 ft (2,650 m); it was renamed Ram's Horn in 1978, and replaced with the Ramcharger high speed quad in 1990.[2]Boyne Resorts purchased the resort in 1976, following Huntley's death from cancer in March 1974,[6] and the decision of owner Chrysler Corporation to divest its real estate development assets.[2]Lone Peak, the top of the resort mountainThe resort grew steadily over the following decades, adding lifts and more than tripling the terrain available for skiing and snowboarding. The fifth lift, a second chairlift on Andesite Mountain, was installed in the summer of 1979. The Mad Wolf double climbed Andesite's eastern face and lowered Big Sky's minimum elevation 540 ft (165 m) to 6,970 ft (2,125 m). This increased the area's vertical drop to over 2,800 ft (855 m). The Mad Wolf lift was replaced with the Thunder Wolf high speed quad in 1994.[2]Two lifts were added in the 1980s, Gondola Two was installed in parallel to the first gondola, and the Challenger double chair served upper-elevation expert terrain on the north edge of the ski area. A tow was later added above this lift. Gondola Two was replaced with a Doppelmayr high speed quad, Swift Current 4, in 1997. The eighth lift at Big Sky was the Southern Comfort on the south side of Andesite Mountain, a Heron-Poma triple chairlift acquired from Copper Mountain in Colorado, installed in 1990 and upgraded to a high speed quad for the 2004-2005 ski season.[2]In the fall of 1995, Big Sky installed the Lone Peak Tram to provide access to expert terrain from the 11,166-foot (3,403 m) Lone Mountain summit. The Shedhorn double chair was also part of this expansion, installed in 1995 on the lower south face of Lone Mountain.[2]The tram increased Big Sky's vertical drop to 4,180 ft (1,275 m). The minimum elevation was lowered further in the fall of 1999, with the addition of a used triple chairlift from Keystone Resort in Colorado, starting at a base elevation of 6,800 ft (2,075 m) at Lone Moose Meadows. This increased the ski area's total vertical drop to 4,350 ft (1,330 m), with the maximum continuous vertical drop increased to 4,100 ft (1,250 m) from the top of the tram to the main base area.[2]In 1990 the Shoshone Condominium Hotel and the Yellowstone Conference Center were built.[2]In April 2000, Boyne Resorts announced that an estimated $400 million in improvements would take place over the next ten years to the Mountain Village and the ski area. Later in 2000, the $54 million Summit Hotel was completed. In late 2007, the $25 million Village Center Complex was opened.[2]In 2007, Big Sky expanded the skiing opportunities on the south face of Lone Peak with the reinstallation of the original Southern Comfort triple chairlift as the Dakota chairlift on the south side of Lone Peak, providing access to the accompanying out-of-bounds sidecountry, Dakota Territory. Gondola One was retired in the summer of 2008, dismantled due to the rising cost of repairs.[2]Big Sky's neighbor on its north boundary, Moonlight Basin, merged with Big Sky Resort in October 2013.[2]In 2016, Big Sky Resort installed two new Doppelmayr chairlifts as part of BigSky2025, a 10-year, $150-million project. The Lone Peak triple chairlift in the bowl was replaced with Powder Seeker, a six-seat high-speed chairlift with heated seats and bubble covers. The same summer, the Challenger double chairlift, which had suffered a mechanical failure, was replaced by a triple chairlift with a conveyor load.In 2018, as part of the Big Sky 2025 plan, Doppelmayr built North America's first ever high speed eight pack in the form of the Ramcharger 8, which replaced an existing Doppelmayr high speed quad from the base area to the summit of Andesite Mountain and has many of the same features as Powder Seeker. Billed as \"the most technologically advanced lift ever built,\" it opened on December 15, 2018. The original high speed quad was reinstalled on Lone Peak, where it replaced the Shedhorn double chairlift.[7]","title":"Resort history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"zip-line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zip-line"},{"link_name":"snowshoeing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowshoeing"},{"link_name":"archery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archery"},{"link_name":"tennis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tennis"},{"link_name":"hiking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hiking"},{"link_name":"mountain biking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_biking"},{"link_name":"Golf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golf"},{"link_name":"horseback riding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horseback_riding"},{"link_name":"US-191","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Route_191"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-activities-8"}],"text":"Winter activities include skiing and snowboarding, seven terrain parks, zip-line, and snowshoeing. Summer attractions include zip-lines, archery, tennis, hiking, and mountain biking trails on the mountain. Golf and horseback riding are available near the Meadow Village at an elevation of 6,300 feet (1,920 m), between the ski area and US-191.[8]","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"sub_title":"Terrain aspects - skiing","text":"Big Sky's main summit (Lone Peak) sits at an elevation of 11,166 feet.[9] All of the resorts terrain faces all four points on a compass, with most of the terrain either facing north, or east.North: 37%\nWest: 2%\nEast: 36%\nSouth: 25%","title":"Activities"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Swift_Current_6_Lift_at_Big_Sky_Resort.jpg"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"detachable lifts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detachable_chairlift"}],"text":"Inside the Swift Current 6 lift at the resort, a six-person lift with bubble coversBig Sky has one of the largest chairlift fleets of any ski area North America. Comprising 31 chairlifts,[10] the resort has ten detachable lifts, with five of those lifts having blue bubbles. There are also many fixed grip chairlifts as well.Blue highlight indicates chairlifts with blue bubbles.","title":"Lift system"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Real Estate Lifts","text":"These lifts are marked on the trail map with a Purple highlight, and are operated privately. In total, there are 10 lifts in this category.","title":"Lift system"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lone_Peak_Tram,_January_2018.jpg"},{"link_name":"aerial tramway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerial_tramway"},{"link_name":"Moonlight Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moonlight_Basin"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tram-11"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-activities-8"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Lone Peak Tram","text":"Lone Peak Tram, January 2018The Lone Peak Tram is an aerial tramway that transports guests to the summit of Lone Mountain at 11,166 ft (3,403 m). The original tram was constructed in the fall of 1995, with 15 passenger cabins climbing 1,420 ft (433 m) over a distance of 2,828 ft (862 m) from the summit of Powder Seeker. It provided access to the most difficult terrain at Big Sky Resort, including former Moonlight Basin terrain. Construction was completed by the high-altitude construction firm Matrix, based in Alaska.[11]\nBeginning in the summer 2012 season, Big Sky introduced daily summer tram rides to take visitors to the top of Lone Peak, called the Lone Peak Expedition.[8] Starting in the 2021/2022 season, access to the tram required the purchase of a tram pass pack, individual day passes between $20-$80 USD, a Gold season pass for unlimited access, or a Double Black season pass for 10 days.[12]\nIn early 2022, it was announced that the tram would be replaced by a new tram, starting near the base of Powder Seeker and adjacent to the top station of the future Explorer Gondola.[13] The new tram was constructed and opened for the 2023-2024 season, and features 75 seat cabins.","title":"Lift system"}]

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[{"reference":"\"Mountain Stats and Info\". Archived from the original on 2016-10-18. Retrieved 2016-11-02.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161018204658/https://bigskyresort.com/the-mountain/winter-mountain-stats-and-info","url_text":"\"Mountain Stats and Info\""},{"url":"https://bigskyresort.com/the-mountain/winter-mountain-stats-and-info","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Big Sky Resort History\". Retrieved 2 May 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://bigskyresort.com/corporate/big-sky-history","url_text":"\"Big Sky Resort History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Conferences\". Retrieved 6 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://bigskyresort.com/meetings-and-groups/conferences","url_text":"\"Conferences\""}]},{"reference":"\"Big Sky\". Spokane Daily Chronicle. (advertisement). October 2, 1973. p. 21.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=iKdYAAAAIBAJ&sjid=nfgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=3453%2C417280","url_text":"\"Big Sky\""}]},{"reference":"Young, Larry (December 26, 1975). \"Big Sky ski area is 'growing up'\". The Spokesman-Review. p. 49.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=F_BLAAAAIBAJ&sjid=c-0DAAAAIBAJ&pg=7237%2C3765780","url_text":"\"Big Sky ski area is 'growing up'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Ex-newscaster Chet Huntley dies\". Spokane Daily Chronicle. Associated Press. March 20, 1974. p. 1.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=r5JYAAAAIBAJ&sjid=efgDAAAAIBAJ&pg=4461%2C1015893","url_text":"\"Ex-newscaster Chet Huntley dies\""}]},{"reference":"\"BIG SKY RESORT TO INSTALL FIRST EIGHT-SEATER LIFT IN NORTH AMERICA\". Retrieved 25 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://bigskyresort.com/press-releases/big-sky-resort-to-install-first-eight-seater-lift-in-north-america","url_text":"\"BIG SKY RESORT TO INSTALL FIRST EIGHT-SEATER LIFT IN NORTH AMERICA\""}]},{"reference":"\"Activities and Things to Do\". Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 6 June 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150610220442/http://bigskyresort.com/things-to-do/activities","url_text":"\"Activities and Things to Do\""},{"url":"http://bigskyresort.com/things-to-do/activities","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Best Ski Resorts, ZRankings. \"ZRankings Topographical Survey - Terrain\". ZRankings. ZRankings. Retrieved 28 October 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://zrankings.com/resort/show?id=21-big-sky-resort","url_text":"\"ZRankings Topographical Survey - Terrain\""}]},{"reference":"\"Big Sky, MT\".","urls":[{"url":"https://liftblog.com/big-sky-resort-mt/","url_text":"\"Big Sky, MT\""}]},{"reference":"\"Lone Peak Tram\". Archived from the original on 5 November 2013. Retrieved 18 November 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131105041511/http://www.bigskyresort.com/the-mountain/lone-peak-tram","url_text":"\"Lone Peak Tram\""},{"url":"http://bigskyresort.com/the-mountain/lone-peak-tram","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Big Sky's New Tram Policy Aims to Control Crowds, But It Will Cost You\". Ski Magazine. Ski Magazine. Retrieved 25 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.skimag.com/ski-resort-life/big-skys-new-tram-policy/","url_text":"\"Big Sky's New Tram Policy Aims to Control Crowds, But It Will Cost You\""}]},{"reference":"\"Big Sky's Ambitious Gondola and Tram Aim to Alleviate Base Area Crowds and Improve Lone Peak Access\". Ski Magazine. Ski Magazine. Retrieved 25 February 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.skimag.com/news/big-skys-ambitious-plan-aims-to-alleviate-base-area-crowds-and-improve-lone-peak-access/","url_text":"\"Big Sky's Ambitious Gondola and Tram Aim to Alleviate Base Area Crowds and Improve Lone Peak Access\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyrian_astronomy

History of astronomy

["1 Early history","1.1 Prehistoric Europe","2 Ancient times","2.1 Mesopotamia","2.2 India","2.3 Greece and Hellenistic world","2.4 Ptolemaic system","2.5 Egypt","2.6 China","2.7 Mesoamerica","3 Middle Ages","3.1 Middle East","3.2 India","3.3 Western Europe","4 Renaissance and Early Modern Europe","4.1 Copernican Revolution","4.2 Completing the Solar System","4.3 Stellar astronomy","5 Modern astronomy","5.1 19th century","5.2 20th century","6 See also","7 References","7.1 Citations","7.2 Works cited","8 Further reading","9 External links"]

This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (August 2023) The Northern Hemisphere page from Johann Bayer's 1661 edition of Uranometria - the first atlas to have star charts covering the entire celestial sphere Southern Hemisphere Astronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, cosmological, calendrical, and astrological beliefs and practices of prehistory: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with public and governmental astronomy. It was not completely separated in Europe (see astrology and astronomy) during the Copernican Revolution starting in 1543. In some cultures, astronomical data was used for astrological prognostication. Early history Sunset at the equinox from the prehistoric site of Pizzo Vento at Fondachelli Fantina, Sicily Early cultures identified celestial objects with gods and spirits. They related these objects (and their movements) to phenomena such as rain, drought, seasons, and tides. It is generally believed that the first astronomers were priests, and that they understood celestial objects and events to be manifestations of the divine, hence early astronomy's connection to what is now called astrology. A 32,500-year-old carved ivory mammoth tusk could contain the oldest known star chart (resembling the constellation Orion). It has also been suggested that drawings on the wall of the Lascaux caves in France dating from 33,000 to 10,000 years ago could be a graphical representation of the Pleiades, the Summer Triangle, and the Northern Crown. Ancient structures with possibly astronomical alignments (such as Stonehenge) probably fulfilled astronomical, religious, and social functions. Calendars of the world have often been set by observations of the Sun and Moon (marking the day, month and year), and were important to agricultural societies, in which the harvest depended on planting at the correct time of year, and for which the nearly full moon was the only lighting for night-time travel into city markets. The common modern calendar is based on the Roman calendar. Although originally a lunar calendar, it broke the traditional link of the month to the phases of the Moon and divided the year into twelve almost-equal months, that mostly alternated between thirty and thirty-one days. Julius Caesar instigated calendar reform in 46 BCE and introduced what is now called the Julian calendar, based upon the 365 1⁄4 day year length originally proposed by the 4th century BCE Greek astronomer Callippus. Prehistoric Europe Main article: Archaeoastronomy Since 1990 our understanding of prehistoric Europeans has been radically changed by discoveries of ancient astronomical artifacts throughout Europe. The artifacts demonstrate that Neolithic and Bronze Age Europeans had a sophisticated knowledge of mathematics and astronomy. Among the discoveries are: Paleolithic archaeologist Alexander Marshack put forward a theory in 1972 that bone sticks from locations like Africa and Europe from possibly as long ago as 35,000 BCE could be marked in ways that tracked the Moon's phases, an interpretation that has met with criticism. The Warren Field calendar in the Dee River valley of Scotland's Aberdeenshire. First excavated in 2004 but only in 2013 revealed as a find of huge significance, it is to date the oldest known calendar, created around 8000 BC and predating all other calendars by some 5,000 years. The calendar takes the form of an early Mesolithic monument containing a series of 12 pits which appear to help the observer track lunar months by mimicking the phases of the Moon. It also aligns to sunrise at the winter solstice, thus coordinating the solar year with the lunar cycles. The monument had been maintained and periodically reshaped, perhaps up to hundreds of times, in response to shifting solar/lunar cycles, over the course of 6,000 years, until the calendar fell out of use around 4,000 years ago. Goseck circle is located in Germany and belongs to the linear pottery culture. First discovered in 1991, its significance was only clear after results from archaeological digs became available in 2004. The site is one of hundreds of similar circular enclosures built in a region encompassing Austria, Germany, and the Czech Republic during a 200-year period starting shortly after 5000 BC. The Nebra sky disk, Germany, 1800 - 1600 BC The Nebra sky disc is a Bronze Age bronze disc that was buried in Germany, not far from the Goseck circle, around 1600 BC. It measures about 30 cm diameter with a mass of 2.2 kg and displays a blue-green patina (from oxidization) inlaid with gold symbols. Found by archeological thieves in 1999 and recovered in Switzerland in 2002, it was soon recognized as a spectacular discovery, among the most important of the 20th century. Investigations revealed that the object had been in use around 400 years before burial (2000 BC), but that its use had been forgotten by the time of burial. The inlaid gold depicted the full moon, a crescent moon about 4 or 5 days old, and the Pleiades star cluster in a specific arrangement forming the earliest known depiction of celestial phenomena. Twelve lunar months pass in 354 days, requiring a calendar to insert a leap month every two or three years in order to keep synchronized with the solar year's seasons (making it lunisolar). The earliest known descriptions of this coordination were recorded by the Babylonians in 6th or 7th centuries BC, over one thousand years later. Those descriptions verified ancient knowledge of the Nebra sky disc's celestial depiction as the precise arrangement needed to judge when to insert the intercalary month into a lunisolar calendar, making it an astronomical clock for regulating such a calendar a thousand or more years before any other known method. The Kokino site, discovered in 2001, sits atop an extinct volcanic cone at an elevation of 1,013 metres (3,323 ft), occupying about 0.5 hectares overlooking the surrounding countryside in North Macedonia. A Bronze Age astronomical observatory was constructed there around 1900 BC and continuously served the nearby community that lived there until about 700 BC. The central space was used to observe the rising of the Sun and full moon. Three markings locate sunrise at the summer and winter solstices and at the two equinoxes. Four more give the minimum and maximum declinations of the full moon: in summer, and in winter. Two measure the lengths of lunar months. Together, they reconcile solar and lunar cycles in marking the 235 lunations that occur during 19 solar years, regulating a lunar calendar. On a platform separate from the central space, at lower elevation, four stone seats (thrones) were made in north–south alignment, together with a trench marker cut in the eastern wall. This marker allows the rising Sun's light to fall on only the second throne, at midsummer (about July 31). It was used for ritual ceremony linking the ruler to the local sun god, and also marked the end of the growing season and time for harvest. Calendrical functions of the Berlin Gold Hat c. 1000 BC Golden hats of Germany, France and Switzerland dating from 1400 to 800 BC are associated with the Bronze Age Urnfield culture. The Golden hats are decorated with a spiral motif of the Sun and the Moon. They were probably a kind of calendar used to calibrate between the lunar and solar calendars. Modern scholarship has demonstrated that the ornamentation of the gold leaf cones of the Schifferstadt type, to which the Berlin Gold Hat example belongs, represent systematic sequences in terms of number and types of ornaments per band. A detailed study of the Berlin example, which is the only fully preserved one, showed that the symbols probably represent a lunisolar calendar. The object would have permitted the determination of dates or periods in both lunar and solar calendars. Ancient times Mesopotamia Main article: Babylonian astronomy Further information: Babylonian astrology and Babylonian calendar Babylonian tablet in the British Museum recording Halley's comet in 164 BC The origins of astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, the "land between the rivers" Tigris and Euphrates, where the ancient kingdoms of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia were located. A form of writing known as cuneiform emerged among the Sumerians around 3500–3000 BC. Our knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect, via the earliest Babylonian star catalogues dating from about 1200 BC. The fact that many star names appear in Sumerian suggests a continuity reaching into the Early Bronze Age. Astral theology, which gave planetary gods an important role in Mesopotamian mythology and religion, began with the Sumerians. They also used a sexagesimal (base 60) place-value number system, which simplified the task of recording very large and very small numbers. The modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 degrees, or an hour into 60 minutes, began with the Sumerians. For more information, see the articles on Babylonian numerals and mathematics. Classical sources frequently use the term Chaldeans for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were, in reality, priest-scribes specializing in astrology and other forms of divination. The first evidence of recognition that astronomical phenomena are periodic and of the application of mathematics to their prediction is Babylonian. Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of cuneiform tablets known as the Enūma Anu Enlil. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of the Enūma Anu Enlil, the Venus tablet of Ammi-saduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. The MUL.APIN, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences. A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of Nabonassar (747–733 BC). The systematic records of ominous phenomena in Babylonian astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year cycle of lunar eclipses, for example. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy later used Nabonassar's reign to fix the beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time. The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took place during the time of the Seleucid Empire (323–60 BC). In the 3rd century BC, astronomers began to use "goal-year texts" to predict the motions of the planets. These texts compiled records of past observations to find repeating occurrences of ominous phenomena for each planet. About the same time, or shortly afterwards, astronomers created mathematical models that allowed them to predict these phenomena directly, without consulting records. A notable Babylonian astronomer from this time was Seleucus of Seleucia, who was a supporter of the heliocentric model. Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in Islamic astronomy, in Central Asia, and in Western Europe. India Main article: Indian astronomy Further information: History of science § Indian astronomy See also: Hindu astrologyAstronomy in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the period of Indus Valley Civilisation during 3rd millennium BCE, when it was used to create calendars. As the Indus Valley civilization did not leave behind written documents, the oldest extant Indian astronomical text is the Vedanga Jyotisha, dating from the Vedic period. The Vedanga Jyotisha is attributed to Lagadha and has an internal date of approximately 1350 BC, and describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual. It is available in two recensions, one belonging to the Rig Veda, and the other to the Yajur Veda. According to the Vedanga Jyotisha, in a yuga or "era", there are 5 solar years, 67 lunar sidereal cycles, 1,830 days, 1,835 sidereal days and 62 synodic months. During the 6th century, astronomy was influenced by the Greek and Byzantine astronomical traditions. Aryabhata (476–550), in his magnum opus Aryabhatiya (499), propounded a computational system based on a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. He accurately calculated many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets, times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon. Early followers of Aryabhata's model included Varāhamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhāskara II. Astronomy was advanced during the Shunga Empire and many star catalogues were produced during this time. The Shunga period is known as the "Golden age of astronomy in India". It saw the development of calculations for the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses. Indian astronomers by the 6th century believed that comets were celestial bodies that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers Varahamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer Bhattotpala listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were. Greece and Hellenistic world Main article: Ancient Greek astronomy The Antikythera Mechanism was an analog computer from 150 to 100 BC designed to calculate the positions of astronomical objects. The Ancient Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis. A different approach to celestial phenomena was taken by natural philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. They were less concerned with developing mathematical predictive models than with developing an explanation of the reasons for the motions of the Cosmos. In his Timaeus, Plato described the universe as a spherical body divided into circles carrying the planets and governed according to harmonic intervals by a world soul. Aristotle, drawing on the mathematical model of Eudoxus, proposed that the universe was made of a complex system of concentric spheres, whose circular motions combined to carry the planets around the Earth. This basic cosmological model prevailed, in various forms, until the 16th century. In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system, although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea survive. Eratosthenes estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy (see also: history of geodesy). Greek geometrical astronomy developed away from the model of concentric spheres to employ more complex models in which an eccentric circle would carry around a smaller circle, called an epicycle which in turn carried around a planet. The first such model is attributed to Apollonius of Perga and further developments in it were carried out in the 2nd century BC by Hipparchus of Nicea. Hipparchus made a number of other contributions, including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed our modern system of apparent magnitudes. The Antikythera mechanism, an ancient Greek astronomical observational device for calculating the movements of the Sun and the Moon, possibly the planets, dates from about 150–100 BC, and was the first ancestor of an astronomical computer. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete. The device became famous for its use of a differential gear, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a replica. Ptolemaic system Main article: Ptolemaic system Depending on the historian's viewpoint, the acme or corruption of Classical physical astronomy is seen with Ptolemy, a Greco-Roman astronomer from Alexandria of Egypt, who wrote the classic comprehensive presentation of geocentric astronomy, the Megale Syntaxis (Great Synthesis), better known by its Arabic title Almagest, which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the Renaissance. In his Planetary Hypotheses, Ptolemy ventured into the realm of cosmology, developing a physical model of his geometric system, in a universe many times smaller than the more realistic conception of Aristarchus of Samos four centuries earlier. Egypt Main article: Egyptian astronomy Segment of the astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb (circa 1479–1458 BCE), depicting constellations, protective deities, and twenty-four segmented wheels for the hours of the day and the months of the year The precise orientation of the Egyptian pyramids affords a lasting demonstration of the high degree of technical skill in watching the heavens attained in the 3rd millennium BC. It has been shown the Pyramids were aligned towards the pole star, which, because of the precession of the equinoxes, was at that time Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco. Evaluation of the site of the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic, has shown that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter Sun. The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year. The Egyptians also found the position of Sirius (the dog star) who they believed was Anubis, their Jackal headed god, moving through the heavens. Its position was critical to their civilisation as when it rose heliacal in the east before sunrise it foretold the flooding of the Nile. It is also the origin of the phrase 'dog days of summer'. Astronomy played a considerable part in religious matters for fixing the dates of festivals and determining the hours of the night. The titles of several temple books are preserved recording the movements and phases of the Sun, Moon and stars. The rising of Sirius (Egyptian: Sopdet, Greek: Sothis) at the beginning of the inundation was a particularly important point to fix in the yearly calendar. Writing in the Roman era, Clement of Alexandria gives some idea of the importance of astronomical observations to the sacred rites: And after the Singer advances the Astrologer (ὡροσκόπος), with a horologium (ὡρολόγιον) in his hand, and a palm (φοίνιξ), the symbols of astrology. He must know by heart the Hermetic astrological books, which are four in number. Of these, one is about the arrangement of the fixed stars that are visible; one on the positions of the Sun and Moon and five planets; one on the conjunctions and phases of the Sun and Moon; and one concerns their risings. The Astrologer's instruments (horologium and palm) are a plumb line and sighting instrument. They have been identified with two inscribed objects in the Berlin Museum; a short handle from which a plumb line was hung, and a palm branch with a sight-slit in the broader end. The latter was held close to the eye, the former in the other hand, perhaps at arm's length. The "Hermetic" books which Clement refers to are the Egyptian theological texts, which probably have nothing to do with Hellenistic Hermetism. From the tables of stars on the ceiling of the tombs of Rameses VI and Rameses IX it seems that for fixing the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the Astrologer in such a position that the line of observation of the pole star passed over the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each hour was determined by a fixed star culminating or nearly culminating in it, and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as in the centre, on the left eye, on the right shoulder, etc. According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the north axis was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was the usual one for astronomical observations. In careful hands it might give results of a high degree of accuracy. China Main article: Chinese astronomy See also: Book of Silk, Chinese astrology, and Timeline of Chinese astronomy Printed star map of Su Song (1020–1101) showing the south polar projection The astronomy of East Asia began in China. Solar term was completed in Warring States period. The knowledge of Chinese astronomy was introduced into East Asia. Astronomy in China has a long history. Detailed records of astronomical observations were kept from about the 6th century BC, until the introduction of Western astronomy and the telescope in the 17th century. Chinese astronomers were able to precisely predict eclipses. Much of early Chinese astronomy was for the purpose of timekeeping. The Chinese used a lunisolar calendar, but because the cycles of the Sun and the Moon are different, astronomers often prepared new calendars and made observations for that purpose. Astrological divination was also an important part of astronomy. Astronomers took careful note of "guest stars" (Chinese: 客星; pinyin: kèxīng; lit.: 'guest star') which suddenly appeared among the fixed stars. They were the first to record a supernova, in the Astrological Annals of the Houhanshu in 185 AD. Also, the supernova that created the Crab Nebula in 1054 is an example of a "guest star" observed by Chinese astronomers, although it was not recorded by their European contemporaries. Ancient astronomical records of phenomena like supernovae and comets are sometimes used in modern astronomical studies. The world's first star catalogue was made by Gan De, a Chinese astronomer, in the 4th century BC. Mesoamerica Main articles: Maya astronomy, Maya calendar, and Aztec calendar "El Caracol" observatory temple at Chichen Itza, Mexico Maya astronomical codices include detailed tables for calculating phases of the Moon, the recurrence of eclipses, and the appearance and disappearance of Venus as morning and evening star. The Maya based their calendrics in the carefully calculated cycles of the Pleiades, the Sun, the Moon, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, and also they had a precise description of the eclipses as depicted in the Dresden Codex, as well as the ecliptic or zodiac, and the Milky Way was crucial in their Cosmology. A number of important Maya structures are believed to have been oriented toward the extreme risings and settings of Venus. To the ancient Maya, Venus was the patron of war and many recorded battles are believed to have been timed to the motions of this planet. Mars is also mentioned in preserved astronomical codices and early mythology. Although the Maya calendar was not tied to the Sun, John Teeple has proposed that the Maya calculated the solar year to somewhat greater accuracy than the Gregorian calendar. Both astronomy and an intricate numerological scheme for the measurement of time were vitally important components of Maya religion. The Maya believed that the Earth was the center of all things, and that the stars, moons, and planets were gods. They believed that their movements were the gods traveling between the Earth and other celestial destinations. Many key events in Maya culture were timed around celestial events, in the belief that certain gods would be present. Middle Ages Middle East Main article: Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world See also: Maragheh observatory, Ulugh Beg Observatory, and Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din Arabic astrolabe from 1079 to 1080 AD The Arabic and the Persian world under Islam had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from Greek astronomy and Indian astronomy and Persian astronomy were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area. An important contribution by Islamic astronomers was their emphasis on observational astronomy. This led to the emergence of the first astronomical observatories in the Muslim world by the early 9th century. Zij star catalogues were produced at these observatories. In the 9th century, Persian astrologer Albumasar was thought to be one of the greatest astrologer at that time. His practical manuals for training astrologers profoundly influenced Muslim intellectual history and, through translations, that of western Europe and Byzantium In the 10th century, Albumasar's "Introduction" was one of the most important sources for the recovery of Aristotle for medieval European scholars. Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes, brightness, and colour and drawings for each constellation in his Book of Fixed Stars. He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of "A Little Cloud" now known as the Andromeda Galaxy. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic constellation. This "cloud" was apparently commonly known to the Isfahan astronomers, very probably before 905 AD. The first recorded mention of the Large Magellanic Cloud was also given by al-Sufi. In 1006, Ali ibn Ridwan observed SN 1006, the brightest supernova in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star. In the late 10th century, a huge observatory was built near Tehran, Iran, by the astronomer Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi who observed a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which allowed him to calculate the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the Sun. He noted that measurements by earlier (Indian, then Greek) astronomers had found higher values for this angle, possible evidence that the axial tilt is not constant but was in fact decreasing. In 11th-century Persia, Omar Khayyám compiled many tables and performed a reformation of the calendar that was more accurate than the Julian and came close to the Gregorian. Other Muslim advances in astronomy included the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of the universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Arzachel, the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir's belief that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth, and the introduction of empirical testing by Ibn al-Shatir, who produced the first model of lunar motion which matched physical observations. Natural philosophy (particularly Aristotelian physics) was separated from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, by Ibn al-Shatir in the 14th century, and Qushji in the 15th century. India Main article: Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics Historical Jantar Mantar observatory in Jaipur, IndiaBhāskara II (1114–1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhantasiromani which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the Sun to 9 decimal places. The Buddhist University of Nalanda at the time offered formal courses in astronomical studies. Other important astronomers from India include Madhava of Sangamagrama, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeshtadeva, who were members of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics from the 14th century to the 16th century. Nilakantha Somayaji, in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya, developed his own computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics who followed him accepted his planetary model. Western Europe Further information: Science in the Middle Ages 9th-century diagram of the positions of the seven planets on 18 March 816, from the Leiden Aratea After the significant contributions of Greek scholars to the development of astronomy, it entered a relatively static era in Western Europe from the Roman era through the 12th century. This lack of progress has led some astronomers to assert that nothing happened in Western European astronomy during the Middle Ages. Recent investigations, however, have revealed a more complex picture of the study and teaching of astronomy in the period from the 4th to the 16th centuries. Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. The advanced astronomical treatises of classical antiquity were written in Greek, and with the decline of knowledge of that language, only simplified summaries and practical texts were available for study. The most influential writers to pass on this ancient tradition in Latin were Macrobius, Pliny, Martianus Capella, and Calcidius. In the 6th century Bishop Gregory of Tours noted that he had learned his astronomy from reading Martianus Capella, and went on to employ this rudimentary astronomy to describe a method by which monks could determine the time of prayer at night by watching the stars. In the 7th century the English monk Bede of Jarrow published an influential text, On the Reckoning of Time, providing churchmen with the practical astronomical knowledge needed to compute the proper date of Easter using a procedure called the computus. This text remained an important element of the education of clergy from the 7th century until well after the rise of the Universities in the 12th century. The range of surviving ancient Roman writings on astronomy and the teachings of Bede and his followers began to be studied in earnest during the revival of learning sponsored by the emperor Charlemagne. By the 9th century rudimentary techniques for calculating the position of the planets were circulating in Western Europe; medieval scholars recognized their flaws, but texts describing these techniques continued to be copied, reflecting an interest in the motions of the planets and in their astrological significance. Building on this astronomical background, in the 10th century European scholars such as Gerbert of Aurillac began to travel to Spain and Sicily to seek out learning which they had heard existed in the Arabic-speaking world. There they first encountered various practical astronomical techniques concerning the calendar and timekeeping, most notably those dealing with the astrolabe. Soon scholars such as Hermann of Reichenau were writing texts in Latin on the uses and construction of the astrolabe and others, such as Walcher of Malvern, were using the astrolabe to observe the time of eclipses in order to test the validity of computistical tables. By the 12th century, scholars were traveling to Spain and Sicily to seek out more advanced astronomical and astrological texts, which they translated into Latin from Arabic and Greek to further enrich the astronomical knowledge of Western Europe. The arrival of these new texts coincided with the rise of the universities in medieval Europe, in which they soon found a home. Reflecting the introduction of astronomy into the universities, John of Sacrobosco wrote a series of influential introductory astronomy textbooks: the Sphere, a Computus, a text on the Quadrant, and another on Calculation. In the 14th century, Nicole Oresme, later bishop of Liseux, showed that neither the scriptural texts nor the physical arguments advanced against the movement of the Earth were demonstrative and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the Earth moves, and not the heavens. However, he concluded "everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the earth: For God hath established the world which shall not be moved." In the 15th century, Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa suggested in some of his scientific writings that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun. Renaissance and Early Modern Europe Copernican Revolution See also: Astronomia nova and Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae During the renaissance period, astronomy began to undergo a revolution in thought known as the Copernican Revolution, which gets the name from the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who proposed a heliocentric system, in which the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth. His De revolutionibus orbium coelestium was published in 1543. While in the long term this was a very controversial claim, in the very beginning it only brought minor controversy. The theory became the dominant view because many figures, most notably Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton championed and improved upon the work. Other figures also aided this new model despite not believing the overall theory, like Tycho Brahe, with his well-known observations. Brahe, a Danish noble, was an essential astronomer in this period. He came on the astronomical scene with the publication of De nova stella, in which he disproved conventional wisdom on the supernova SN 1572 (As bright as Venus at its peak, SN 1572 later became invisible to the naked eye, disproving the Aristotelian doctrine of the immutability of the heavens.) He also created the Tychonic system, where the Sun and Moon and the stars revolve around the Earth, but the other five planets revolve around the Sun. This system blended the mathematical benefits of the Copernican system with the "physical benefits" of the Ptolemaic system. This was one of the systems people believed in when they did not accept heliocentrism, but could no longer accept the Ptolemaic system. He is most known for his highly accurate observations of the stars and the Solar System. Later he moved to Prague and continued his work. In Prague he was at work on the Rudolphine Tables, that were not finished until after his death. The Rudolphine Tables was a star map designed to be more accurate than either the Alfonsine tables, made in the 1300s, and the Prutenic Tables, which were inaccurate. He was assisted at this time by his assistant Johannes Kepler, who would later use his observations to finish Brahe's works and for his theories as well. After the death of Brahe, Kepler was deemed his successor and was given the job of completing Brahe's uncompleted works, like the Rudolphine Tables. He completed the Rudolphine Tables in 1624, although it was not published for several years. Like many other figures of this era, he was subject to religious and political troubles, like the Thirty Years' War, which led to chaos that almost destroyed some of his works. Kepler was, however, the first to attempt to derive mathematical predictions of celestial motions from assumed physical causes. He discovered the three Kepler's laws of planetary motion that now carry his name, those laws being as follows: The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci. A line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time. The square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit. With these laws, he managed to improve upon the existing heliocentric model. The first two were published in 1609. Kepler's contributions improved upon the overall system, giving it more credibility because it adequately explained events and could cause more reliable predictions. Before this, the Copernican model was just as unreliable as the Ptolemaic model. This improvement came because Kepler realized the orbits were not perfect circles, but ellipses.Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) crafted his own telescope and discovered that the Moon had craters, that Jupiter had moons, that the Sun had spots, and that Venus had phases like the Moon. Portrait by Justus Sustermans. Galileo Galilei was among the first to use a telescope to observe the sky, and after constructing a 20x refractor telescope. He discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter in 1610, which are now collectively known as the Galilean moons, in his honor. This discovery was the first known observation of satellites orbiting another planet. He also found that the Moon had craters and observed, and correctly explained sunspots, and that Venus exhibited a full set of phases resembling lunar phases. Galileo argued that these facts demonstrated incompatibility with the Ptolemaic model, which could not explain the phenomenon and would even contradict it. With the moons it demonstrated that the Earth does not have to have everything orbiting it and that other parts of the Solar System could orbit another object, such as the Earth orbiting the Sun. In the Ptolemaic system the celestial bodies were supposed to be perfect so such objects should not have craters or sunspots. The phases of Venus could only happen in the event that Venus' orbit is inside Earth's orbit, which could not happen if the Earth was the center. He, as the most famous example, had to face challenges from church officials, more specifically the Roman Inquisition. They accused him of heresy because these beliefs went against the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and were challenging the Catholic church's authority when it was at its weakest. While he was able to avoid punishment for a little while he was eventually tried and pled guilty to heresy in 1633. Although this came at some expense, his book was banned, and he was put under house arrest until he died in 1642.Plate with figures illustrating articles on astronomy, from the 1728 Cyclopædia Sir Isaac Newton developed further ties between physics and astronomy through his law of universal gravitation. Realizing that the same force that attracts objects to the surface of the Earth held the Moon in orbit around the Earth, Newton was able to explain – in one theoretical framework – all known gravitational phenomena. In his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, he derived Kepler's laws from first principles. Those first principles are as follows: In an inertial frame of reference, an object either remains at rest or continues to move at constant velocity, unless acted upon by a force. In an inertial reference frame, the vector sum of the forces F on an object is equal to the mass m of that object multiplied by the acceleration a of the object: F = ma. (It is assumed here that the mass m is constant) When one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body. Thus while Kepler explained how the planets moved, Newton accurately managed to explain why the planets moved the way they do. Newton's theoretical developments laid many of the foundations of modern physics. Completing the Solar System Outside of England, Newton's theory took some time to become established. Descartes' theory of vortices held sway in France, and Huygens, Leibniz and Cassini accepted only parts of Newton's system, preferring their own philosophies. Voltaire published a popular account in 1738. In 1748, the French Academy of Sciences offered a reward for solving the perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn which was eventually solved by Euler and Lagrange. Laplace completed the theory of the planets, publishing from 1798 to 1825. The early origins of the solar nebular model of planetary formation had begun. Edmond Halley succeeded Flamsteed as Astronomer Royal in England and succeeded in predicting the return of the comet that bears his name in 1758. Sir William Herschel found the first new planet, Uranus, to be observed in modern times in 1781. The gap between the planets Mars and Jupiter disclosed by the Titius–Bode law was filled by the discovery of the asteroids Ceres and Pallas in 1801 and 1802 with many more following. At first, astronomical thought in America was based on Aristotelian philosophy, but interest in the new astronomy began to appear in Almanacs as early as 1659. Stellar astronomy Cosmic pluralism is the name given to the idea that the stars are distant suns, perhaps with their own planetary systems. Ideas in this direction were expressed in antiquity, by Anaxagoras and by Aristarchus of Samos, but did not find mainstream acceptance. The first astronomer of the European Renaissance to suggest that the stars were distant suns was Giordano Bruno in his De l'infinito universo et mondi (1584). This idea, together with a belief in intelligent extraterrestrial life, was among the charges brought against him by the Inquisition. The idea became mainstream in the later 17th century, especially following the publication of Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds by Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle (1686), and by the early 18th century it was the default working assumptions in stellar astronomy. The Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star Algol in 1667. Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby "fixed" stars, demonstrating that they had changed positions since the time of the ancient Greek astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus. William Herschel was the first astronomer to attempt to determine the distribution of stars in the sky. During the 1780s, he established a series of gauges in 600 directions and counted the stars observed along each line of sight. From this he deduced that the number of stars steadily increased toward one side of the sky, in the direction of the Milky Way core. His son John Herschel repeated this study in the southern hemisphere and found a corresponding increase in the same direction. In addition to his other accomplishments, William Herschel is noted for his discovery that some stars do not merely lie along the same line of sight, but are physical companions that form binary star systems. Modern astronomy Further information: Astronomy and Observational astronomy Further information: Physical cosmology § History of study 19th century Mars surface map of Giovanni Schiaparelli Pre-photography, data recording of astronomical data was limited by the human eye. In 1840, John W. Draper, a chemist, created the earliest known astronomical photograph of the Moon. And by the late 19th century thousands of photographic plates of images of planets, stars, and galaxies were created. Most photography had lower quantum efficiency (i.e. captured less of the incident photons) than human eyes but had the advantage of long integration times (100 ms for the human eye compared to hours for photos). This vastly increased the data available to astronomers, which led to the rise of human computers, famously the Harvard Computers, to track and analyze the data. Scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: X-rays, gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet radiation, and infrared radiation. This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of infrared astronomy, radio astronomy, x-ray astronomy and finally gamma-ray astronomy. With the advent of spectroscopy it was proven that other stars were similar to the Sun, but with a range of temperatures, masses and sizes. The science of stellar spectroscopy was pioneered by Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi. By comparing the spectra of stars such as Sirius to the Sun, they found differences in the strength and number of their absorption lines—the dark lines in stellar spectra caused by the atmosphere's absorption of specific frequencies. In 1865, Secchi began classifying stars into spectral types. The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow spectral line with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India. The first direct measurement of the distance to a star (61 Cygni at 11.4 light-years) was made in 1838 by Friedrich Bessel using the parallax technique. Parallax measurements demonstrated the vast separation of the stars in the heavens. Observation of double stars gained increasing importance during the 19th century. In 1834, Friedrich Bessel observed changes in the proper motion of the star Sirius and inferred a hidden companion. Edward Pickering discovered the first spectroscopic binary in 1899 when he observed the periodic splitting of the spectral lines of the star Mizar in a 104-day period. Detailed observations of many binary star systems were collected by astronomers such as Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve and S. W. Burnham, allowing the masses of stars to be determined from the computation of orbital elements. The first solution to the problem of deriving an orbit of binary stars from telescope observations was made by Felix Savary in 1827. In 1847, Maria Mitchell discovered a comet using a telescope. 20th century The Hubble Space Telescope With the accumulation of large sets of astronomical data, teams like the Harvard Computers rose in prominence which led to many female astronomers, previously relegated as assistants to male astronomers, gaining recognition in the field. The United States Naval Observatory (USNO) and other astronomy research institutions hired human "computers", who performed the tedious calculations while scientists performed research requiring more background knowledge. A number of discoveries in this period were originally noted by the women "computers" and reported to their supervisors. Henrietta Swan Leavitt discovered the cepheid variable star period-luminosity relation which she further developed into a method of measuring distance outside of the Solar System. A veteran of the Harvard Computers, Annie J. Cannon developed the modern version of the stellar classification scheme in during the early 1900s (O B A F G K M, based on color and temperature), manually classifying more stars in a lifetime than anyone else (around 350,000). The twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars. Karl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a star and, hence, its temperature, could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude. The development of the photoelectric photometer allowed precise measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals. In 1921 Albert A. Michelson made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an interferometer on the Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory. Comparison of CMB (Cosmic microwave background) results from satellites COBE, WMAP and Planck documenting a progress in 1989–2013 Important theoretical work on the physical structure of stars occurred during the first decades of the twentieth century. In 1913, the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram was developed, propelling the astrophysical study of stars. In Potsdam in 1906, the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung published the first plots of color versus luminosity for these stars. These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars, which he named the Main Sequence. At Princeton University, Henry Norris Russell plotted the spectral types of these stars against their absolute magnitude, and found that dwarf stars followed a distinct relationship. This allowed the real brightness of a dwarf star to be predicted with reasonable accuracy. Successful models were developed to explain the interiors of stars and stellar evolution. Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin first proposed that stars were made primarily of hydrogen and helium in her 1925 doctoral thesis. The spectra of stars were further understood through advances in quantum physics. This allowed the chemical composition of the stellar atmosphere to be determined. As evolutionary models of stars were developed during the 1930s, Bengt Strömgren introduced the term Hertzsprung–Russell diagram to denote a luminosity-spectral class diagram. A refined scheme for stellar classification was published in 1943 by William Wilson Morgan and Philip Childs Keenan. Map of the Milky Way Galaxy, with the constellations that cross the galactic plane in each direction and the known prominent components annotated including main arms, spurs, bar, nucleus/bulge, notable nebulae and globular clusters The existence of our galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of "external" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us. The "Great Debate" between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, in the 1920s, concerned the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the universe. With the advent of quantum physics, spectroscopy was further refined. The Sun was found to be part of a galaxy made up of more than 1010 stars (10 billion stars). The existence of other galaxies, one of the matters of the great debate, was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy, and many others at large distances and receding, moving away from our galaxy. Physical cosmology, a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot Big Bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the redshifts of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble's law and cosmological abundances of elements. 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The Legacy of Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–137. ISBN 0-19-814946-8. Rochberg, Francesca (2004). The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture. Cambridge University Press. Stephenson, Bruce (1994). Kepler's Physical Astronomy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03652-7. Further reading Aaboe, Asger (2001). Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-95136-9. Berry, Arthur (1898). A Brief History of Astronomy – via Internet Archive. Dreyer, J. L. E. (1953) . History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler (2nd ed.). Dover Publications. Eastwood, Bruce (2002). The Revival of Planetary Astronomy in Carolingian and Post-Carolingian Europe. Variorum Collected Studies Series. Vol. CS 279. Ashgate. ISBN 0-86078-868-7. Hodson, F. R., ed. (1974). The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World: A Joint Symposium of the Royal Society and the British Academy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-725944-8. Hoskin, Michael (2003). The History of Astronomy: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280306-9. Magli, Giulio (2004). "On the possible discovery of precessional effects in ancient astronomy". arXiv:physics/0407108. Neugebauer, Otto (1969) . The Exact Sciences in Antiquity (2 ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-22332-2. Pannekoek, Anton (1989). A History of Astronomy. Dover Publications. Walker, Christopher, ed. (1996). Astronomy before the telescope. British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-1746-3. External links Media related to History of astronomy at Wikimedia Commons Astronomy & Empire, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Simon Schaffer, Kristen Lippincott & Allan Chapman (In Our Time, May 4, 2006) Bibliothèque numérique de l'Observatoire de Paris (Digital library of the Paris Observatory) Caelum Antiquum: Ancient Astronomy and Astrology Resources on LacusCurtius Mesoamerican Archaeoastronomy: A Review of Contemporary Understandings of Prehispanic Astronomical Knowledge UNESCO-IAU Portal to the Heritage of Astronomy vteAstronomy Outline History Timeline Astronomer Astronomical symbols Astronomical object Glossary Astronomy byManner Amateur Observational Sidewalk Space telescope Celestial subject Galactic / Extragalactic Local system Solar EM methods Radio Submillimetre Infrared (Far-infrared) Visible-light (optical) Ultraviolet X-ray History Gamma-ray Other methods Neutrino Cosmic rays Gravitational radiation High-energy Radar Spherical Multi-messenger Culture Australian Aboriginal Babylonian Chinese Egyptian Greek Hebrew Indian Inuit Maya Medieval Islamic Persian Serbian folk Tibetan Opticaltelescopes List Category Extremely large telescope Extremely Large Telescope Gran Telescopio Canarias Hale Telescope Hubble Space Telescope Keck Observatory Large Binocular Telescope Southern African Large Telescope Very Large Telescope Related Archaeoastronomy Astrobiology Astrochemistry Astroinformatics Astrophysics Astrology and astronomy Astrometry Astronomers Monument Astroparticle physics Binoculars Constellation IAU Photometry Planetarium Planetary geology Physical cosmology Quantum cosmology List of astronomers French Medieval Islamic Russian Women Telescope X-ray telescope history lists Zodiac Category Commons vteHistory of scienceBackground Theories and sociology Historiography Pseudoscience History and philosophy of science By era Ancient world Classical Antiquity Medieval European Renaissance Scientific Revolution Age of Enlightenment Romanticism By culture African Argentine Brazilian Byzantine French Chinese Indian Medieval Islamic Japanese Korean Mexican Russian Spanish Natural sciences Astronomy Biology Chemistry Earth science Physics Mathematics Algebra Calculus Combinatorics Geometry Logic Probability Statistics Trigonometry Social sciences Anthropology Archaeology Economics History Political science Psychology Sociology Technology Agricultural science Computer science Materials science Engineering Medicine Human medicine Veterinary medicine Anatomy Neuroscience Neurology and neurosurgery Nutrition Pathology Pharmacy Timelines Portal Category vteHistory of physics (timeline)Classical physics Astronomy timeline Electromagnetism timeline Electrical engineering Field theory Maxwell's equations Fluid mechanics timeline Aerodynamics Gravitational theory timeline Material science timeline Metamaterials Mechanics timeline Variational principles Optics Spectroscopy Thermodynamics timeline Energy Entropy Perpetual motion Modern physics Computational physics timeline Condensed matter timeline Superconductivity Cosmology timeline Big Bang theory General relativity tests Geophysics Nuclear physics Fission Fusion Power Weapons Quantum mechanics timeline Atoms Molecules Quantum field theory Subatomic physics timeline Special relativity timeline Lorentz transformations tests Recent developments Quantum information timeline Loop quantum gravity Nanotechnology String theory On specific discoveries Cosmic microwave background Graphene Gravitational waves Subatomic particles timeline Higgs boson Neutron Speed of light By periods Copernican Revolution Golden age of physics Golden age of cosmology Medieval Islamic world Astronomy Noisy intermediate-scale quantum era By groups Harvard Computers The Martians Oxford Calculators Via Panisperna boys Women in physics Scientific disputes Bohr–Einstein Chandrasekhar–Eddington Galileo affair Leibniz–Newton Joule–von Mayer Shapley–Curtis Relativity priority Special relativity General relativity Transfermium Wars Category Portals: Radio Science Technology

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_(84132277).jpg"},{"link_name":"Northern Hemisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Hemisphere"},{"link_name":"Johann Bayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Bayer"},{"link_name":"Uranometria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranometria"},{"link_name":"atlas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas"},{"link_name":"star charts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_chart"},{"link_name":"celestial sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_sphere"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_(84132460).jpg"},{"link_name":"Southern Hemisphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Hemisphere"},{"link_name":"Astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"natural sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_science"},{"link_name":"antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_history"},{"link_name":"religious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion"},{"link_name":"mythological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythological"},{"link_name":"cosmological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeoastronomy#Myth_and_cosmology"},{"link_name":"calendrical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeoastronomy#The_use_of_calendars"},{"link_name":"astrological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology"},{"link_name":"prehistory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prehistory"},{"link_name":"astrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology"},{"link_name":"astrology and astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology_and_astronomy"}],"text":"The Northern Hemisphere page from Johann Bayer's 1661 edition of Uranometria - the first atlas to have star charts covering the entire celestial sphereSouthern HemisphereAstronomy is the oldest of the natural sciences, dating back to antiquity, with its origins in the religious, mythological, cosmological, calendrical, and astrological beliefs and practices of prehistory: vestiges of these are still found in astrology, a discipline long interwoven with public and governmental astronomy. It was not completely separated in Europe (see astrology and astronomy) during the Copernican Revolution starting in 1543. In some cultures, astronomical data was used for astrological prognostication.","title":"History of astronomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Equinozio_da_Pizzo_Vento,tramonto_fondachelli_fantina,_sicilia.JPG"},{"link_name":"equinox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equinox"},{"link_name":"Fondachelli Fantina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fondachelli-Fantina"},{"link_name":"Sicily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sicily"},{"link_name":"cultures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture"},{"link_name":"gods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mythology"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"rain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rain"},{"link_name":"drought","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drought"},{"link_name":"seasons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Season"},{"link_name":"tides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tide"},{"link_name":"priests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Priest"},{"link_name":"celestial objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_object"},{"link_name":"divine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divinity"},{"link_name":"astrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology"},{"link_name":"mammoth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammoth"},{"link_name":"constellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation"},{"link_name":"Orion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orion_(constellation)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Lascaux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lascaux"},{"link_name":"Pleiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiades"},{"link_name":"Summer Triangle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Summer_Triangle"},{"link_name":"Northern Crown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Crown"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"astronomical alignments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeoastronomy#Alignments"},{"link_name":"Stonehenge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stonehenge"},{"link_name":"religious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion"},{"link_name":"social functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_function"},{"link_name":"Calendars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar"},{"link_name":"day","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Day"},{"link_name":"month","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Month"},{"link_name":"year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Year"},{"link_name":"agricultural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"common modern calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_calendar"},{"link_name":"Roman calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_calendar"},{"link_name":"lunar calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_calendar"},{"link_name":"Julius Caesar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julius_Caesar"},{"link_name":"calendar reform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar_reform"},{"link_name":"BCE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCE"},{"link_name":"Julian calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_calendar"},{"link_name":"365 1⁄4 day year length","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_year"},{"link_name":"BCE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BCE"},{"link_name":"Callippus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callippus"}],"text":"Sunset at the equinox from the prehistoric site of Pizzo Vento at Fondachelli Fantina, SicilyEarly cultures identified celestial objects with gods and spirits.[1] They related these objects (and their movements) to phenomena such as rain, drought, seasons, and tides. It is generally believed that the first astronomers were priests, and that they understood celestial objects and events to be manifestations of the divine, hence early astronomy's connection to what is now called astrology. A 32,500-year-old carved ivory mammoth tusk could contain the oldest known star chart (resembling the constellation Orion).[2] It has also been suggested that drawings on the wall of the Lascaux caves in France dating from 33,000 to 10,000 years ago could be a graphical representation of the Pleiades, the Summer Triangle, and the Northern Crown.[3][4] Ancient structures with possibly astronomical alignments (such as Stonehenge) probably fulfilled astronomical, religious, and social functions.Calendars of the world have often been set by observations of the Sun and Moon (marking the day, month and year), and were important to agricultural societies, in which the harvest depended on planting at the correct time of year, and for which the nearly full moon was the only lighting for night-time travel into city markets.[5]The common modern calendar is based on the Roman calendar. Although originally a lunar calendar, it broke the traditional link of the month to the phases of the Moon and divided the year into twelve almost-equal months, that mostly alternated between thirty and thirty-one days. Julius Caesar instigated calendar reform in 46 BCE and introduced what is now called the Julian calendar, based upon the 365 1⁄4 day year length originally proposed by the 4th century BCE Greek astronomer Callippus.","title":"Early history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"Alexander Marshack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Marshack"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Warren Field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren_Field"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Aberdeenshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aberdeenshire"},{"link_name":"excavated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Excavation_(archaeology)"},{"link_name":"Mesolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesolithic"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Goseck circle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goseck_circle"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"linear pottery culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_pottery_culture"},{"link_name":"circular enclosures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circular_enclosure"},{"link_name":"Austria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Austria"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Germany"},{"link_name":"Czech Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Republic"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nebra_disc_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nebra sky disk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebra_sky_disk"},{"link_name":"Nebra sky disc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebra_sky_disk"},{"link_name":"Bronze Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"Pleiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiades"},{"link_name":"lunisolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar_calendar"},{"link_name":"intercalary month","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercalation_(timekeeping)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Kokino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kokino"},{"link_name":"volcanic cone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Volcanic_cone"},{"link_name":"North Macedonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Macedonia"},{"link_name":"Bronze Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze_Age_Balkans"},{"link_name":"astronomical observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory"},{"link_name":"lunations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunation"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Berlin_Gold_hat_calendar.jpg"},{"link_name":"Berlin Gold Hat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Gold_Hat"},{"link_name":"Golden hats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_hat"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/France"},{"link_name":"Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Switzerland"},{"link_name":"Urnfield culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urnfield_culture"},{"link_name":"motif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motif_(visual_arts)"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar"},{"link_name":"calibrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calibrate"},{"link_name":"lunar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_calendar"},{"link_name":"solar calendars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_calendar"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"scholarship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholarship"},{"link_name":"Schifferstadt type","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Hat_of_Schifferstadt"},{"link_name":"Berlin Gold Hat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berlin_Gold_Hat"},{"link_name":"lunisolar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunisolar"},{"link_name":"lunar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_calendar"},{"link_name":"solar calendars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_calendar"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-L2-19"}],"sub_title":"Prehistoric Europe","text":"Since 1990 our understanding of prehistoric Europeans has been radically changed by discoveries of ancient astronomical artifacts throughout Europe. The artifacts demonstrate that Neolithic and Bronze Age Europeans had a sophisticated knowledge of mathematics and astronomy.Among the discoveries are:Paleolithic archaeologist Alexander Marshack put forward a theory in 1972 that bone sticks from locations like Africa and Europe from possibly as long ago as 35,000 BCE could be marked in ways that tracked the Moon's phases,[6][page needed] an interpretation that has met with criticism.[7]\nThe Warren Field calendar in the Dee River valley of Scotland's Aberdeenshire. First excavated in 2004 but only in 2013 revealed as a find of huge significance, it is to date the oldest known calendar, created around 8000 BC and predating all other calendars by some 5,000 years. The calendar takes the form of an early Mesolithic monument containing a series of 12 pits which appear to help the observer track lunar months by mimicking the phases of the Moon. It also aligns to sunrise at the winter solstice, thus coordinating the solar year with the lunar cycles. The monument had been maintained and periodically reshaped, perhaps up to hundreds of times, in response to shifting solar/lunar cycles, over the course of 6,000 years, until the calendar fell out of use around 4,000 years ago.[8][9][10][11]\nGoseck circle is located in Germany and belongs to the linear pottery culture. First discovered in 1991, its significance was only clear after results from archaeological digs became available in 2004. The site is one of hundreds of similar circular enclosures built in a region encompassing Austria, Germany, and the Czech Republic during a 200-year period starting shortly after 5000 BC.[12]The Nebra sky disk, Germany, 1800 - 1600 BCThe Nebra sky disc is a Bronze Age bronze disc that was buried in Germany, not far from the Goseck circle, around 1600 BC. It measures about 30 cm diameter with a mass of 2.2 kg and displays a blue-green patina (from oxidization) inlaid with gold symbols. Found by archeological thieves in 1999 and recovered in Switzerland in 2002, it was soon recognized as a spectacular discovery, among the most important of the 20th century.[13][14] Investigations revealed that the object had been in use around 400 years before burial (2000 BC), but that its use had been forgotten by the time of burial. The inlaid gold depicted the full moon, a crescent moon about 4 or 5 days old, and the Pleiades star cluster in a specific arrangement forming the earliest known depiction of celestial phenomena. Twelve lunar months pass in 354 days, requiring a calendar to insert a leap month every two or three years in order to keep synchronized with the solar year's seasons (making it lunisolar). The earliest known descriptions of this coordination were recorded by the Babylonians in 6th or 7th centuries BC, over one thousand years later. Those descriptions verified ancient knowledge of the Nebra sky disc's celestial depiction as the precise arrangement needed to judge when to insert the intercalary month into a lunisolar calendar, making it an astronomical clock for regulating such a calendar a thousand or more years before any other known method.[15]\nThe Kokino site, discovered in 2001, sits atop an extinct volcanic cone at an elevation of 1,013 metres (3,323 ft), occupying about 0.5 hectares overlooking the surrounding countryside in North Macedonia. A Bronze Age astronomical observatory was constructed there around 1900 BC and continuously served the nearby community that lived there until about 700 BC. The central space was used to observe the rising of the Sun and full moon. Three markings locate sunrise at the summer and winter solstices and at the two equinoxes. Four more give the minimum and maximum declinations of the full moon: in summer, and in winter. Two measure the lengths of lunar months. Together, they reconcile solar and lunar cycles in marking the 235 lunations that occur during 19 solar years, regulating a lunar calendar. On a platform separate from the central space, at lower elevation, four stone seats (thrones) were made in north–south alignment, together with a trench marker cut in the eastern wall. This marker allows the rising Sun's light to fall on only the second throne, at midsummer (about July 31). It was used for ritual ceremony linking the ruler to the local sun god, and also marked the end of the growing season and time for harvest.[16]Calendrical functions of the Berlin Gold Hat c. 1000 BCGolden hats of Germany, France and Switzerland dating from 1400 to 800 BC are associated with the Bronze Age Urnfield culture. The Golden hats are decorated with a spiral motif of the Sun and the Moon. They were probably a kind of calendar used to calibrate between the lunar and solar calendars.[17][18] Modern scholarship has demonstrated that the ornamentation of the gold leaf cones of the Schifferstadt type, to which the Berlin Gold Hat example belongs, represent systematic sequences in terms of number and types of ornaments per band. A detailed study of the Berlin example, which is the only fully preserved one, showed that the symbols probably represent a lunisolar calendar. The object would have permitted the determination of dates or periods in both lunar and solar calendars.[19]","title":"Early history"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Ancient times"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Babylonian astrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_astrology"},{"link_name":"Babylonian calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_calendar"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg"},{"link_name":"British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"},{"link_name":"Halley's comet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_comet"},{"link_name":"Mesopotamia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamia"},{"link_name":"Tigris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tigris"},{"link_name":"Euphrates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euphrates"},{"link_name":"Sumer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer"},{"link_name":"Assyria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria"},{"link_name":"Babylonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonia"},{"link_name":"cuneiform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform"},{"link_name":"Astral theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astral_theology"},{"link_name":"Mesopotamian mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamian_mythology"},{"link_name":"religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesopotamian_religion"},{"link_name":"Sumerians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sumer"},{"link_name":"sexagesimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexagesimal"},{"link_name":"degrees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Degree_(angle)"},{"link_name":"Babylonian numerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_numerals"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_mathematics"},{"link_name":"Chaldeans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Chaldean"},{"link_name":"astrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrology"},{"link_name":"divination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divination"},{"link_name":"Old Babylonian period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Babylonian_dynasty"},{"link_name":"cuneiform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuneiform"},{"link_name":"Enūma Anu Enlil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/En%C5%ABma_Anu_Enlil"},{"link_name":"Venus tablet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus_tablet_of_Ammisaduqa"},{"link_name":"Ammi-saduqa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ammi-saduqa"},{"link_name":"MUL.APIN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MUL.APIN"},{"link_name":"heliacal risings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliacal_rising"},{"link_name":"water clock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_clock"},{"link_name":"gnomon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gnomon"},{"link_name":"intercalations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intercalation_(timekeeping)"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Nabonassar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabonassar"},{"link_name":"Babylonian astronomical diaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_astronomical_diaries"},{"link_name":"lunar eclipses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy"},{"link_name":"Seleucid Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucid_Empire"},{"link_name":"Seleucus of Seleucia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seleucus_of_Seleucia"},{"link_name":"heliocentric model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrism"},{"link_name":"Greek and Hellenistic astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_astronomy"},{"link_name":"Indian astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_astronomy"},{"link_name":"Islamic astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamic_astronomy"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-dp1998-21"}],"sub_title":"Mesopotamia","text":"Further information: Babylonian astrology and Babylonian calendarBabylonian tablet in the British Museum recording Halley's comet in 164 BCThe origins of astronomy can be found in Mesopotamia, the \"land between the rivers\" Tigris and Euphrates, where the ancient kingdoms of Sumer, Assyria, and Babylonia were located. A form of writing known as cuneiform emerged among the Sumerians around 3500–3000 BC. Our knowledge of Sumerian astronomy is indirect, via the earliest Babylonian star catalogues dating from about 1200 BC. The fact that many star names appear in Sumerian suggests a continuity reaching into the Early Bronze Age. Astral theology, which gave planetary gods an important role in Mesopotamian mythology and religion, began with the Sumerians. They also used a sexagesimal (base 60) place-value number system, which simplified the task of recording very large and very small numbers. The modern practice of dividing a circle into 360 degrees, or an hour into 60 minutes, began with the Sumerians. For more information, see the articles on Babylonian numerals and mathematics.Classical sources frequently use the term Chaldeans for the astronomers of Mesopotamia, who were, in reality, priest-scribes specializing in astrology and other forms of divination.The first evidence of recognition that astronomical phenomena are periodic and of the application of mathematics to their prediction is Babylonian. Tablets dating back to the Old Babylonian period document the application of mathematics to the variation in the length of daylight over a solar year. Centuries of Babylonian observations of celestial phenomena are recorded in the series of cuneiform tablets known as the Enūma Anu Enlil. The oldest significant astronomical text that we possess is Tablet 63 of the Enūma Anu Enlil, the Venus tablet of Ammi-saduqa, which lists the first and last visible risings of Venus over a period of about 21 years and is the earliest evidence that the phenomena of a planet were recognized as periodic. The MUL.APIN, contains catalogues of stars and constellations as well as schemes for predicting heliacal risings and the settings of the planets, lengths of daylight measured by a water clock, gnomon, shadows, and intercalations. The Babylonian GU text arranges stars in 'strings' that lie along declination circles and thus measure right-ascensions or time-intervals, and also employs the stars of the zenith, which are also separated by given right-ascensional differences.[20]A significant increase in the quality and frequency of Babylonian observations appeared during the reign of Nabonassar (747–733 BC). The systematic records of ominous phenomena in Babylonian astronomical diaries that began at this time allowed for the discovery of a repeating 18-year cycle of lunar eclipses, for example. The Greek astronomer Ptolemy later used Nabonassar's reign to fix the beginning of an era, since he felt that the earliest usable observations began at this time.The last stages in the development of Babylonian astronomy took place during the time of the Seleucid Empire (323–60 BC). In the 3rd century BC, astronomers began to use \"goal-year texts\" to predict the motions of the planets. These texts compiled records of past observations to find repeating occurrences of ominous phenomena for each planet. About the same time, or shortly afterwards, astronomers created mathematical models that allowed them to predict these phenomena directly, without consulting records. A notable Babylonian astronomer from this time was Seleucus of Seleucia, who was a supporter of the heliocentric model.Babylonian astronomy was the basis for much of what was done in Greek and Hellenistic astronomy, in classical Indian astronomy, in Sassanian Iran, in Byzantium, in Syria, in Islamic astronomy, in Central Asia, and in Western Europe.[21]","title":"Ancient times"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of science § Indian astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science#Indian_astronomy"},{"link_name":"Hindu astrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_astrology"},{"link_name":"Indus Valley Civilisation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indus_Valley_Civilisation"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bely-22"},{"link_name":"Vedanga Jyotisha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedanga_Jyotisha"},{"link_name":"Vedic period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedic_period"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cosmic-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bely-22"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Aryabhata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhata"},{"link_name":"Aryabhatiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aryabhatiya"},{"link_name":"spinning on its axis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth%27s_rotation"},{"link_name":"solar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_eclipse"},{"link_name":"lunar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_eclipse"},{"link_name":"eclipses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclipse"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Joseph-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"page needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"Varāhamihira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Var%C4%81hamihira"},{"link_name":"Brahmagupta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahmagupta"},{"link_name":"Bhāskara II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C4%81skara_II"},{"link_name":"Shunga Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shunga_Empire"},{"link_name":"star catalogues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_catalogue"},{"link_name":"according to whom?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"conjunctions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_conjunction"},{"link_name":"Varahamihira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varahamihira"},{"link_name":"Bhattotpala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhattotpala"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"India","text":"Further information: History of science § Indian astronomySee also: Hindu astrologyAstronomy in the Indian subcontinent dates back to the period of Indus Valley Civilisation during 3rd millennium BCE, when it was used to create calendars.[22] As the Indus Valley civilization did not leave behind written documents, the oldest extant Indian astronomical text is the Vedanga Jyotisha, dating from the Vedic period.[23] The Vedanga Jyotisha is attributed to Lagadha and has an internal date of approximately 1350 BC, and describes rules for tracking the motions of the Sun and the Moon for the purposes of ritual. It is available in two recensions, one belonging to the Rig Veda, and the other to the Yajur Veda. According to the Vedanga Jyotisha, in a yuga or \"era\", there are 5 solar years, 67 lunar sidereal cycles, 1,830 days, 1,835 sidereal days and 62 synodic months. During the 6th century, astronomy was influenced by the Greek and Byzantine astronomical traditions.[22][24][25]Aryabhata (476–550), in his magnum opus Aryabhatiya (499), propounded a computational system based on a planetary model in which the Earth was taken to be spinning on its axis and the periods of the planets were given with respect to the Sun. He accurately calculated many astronomical constants, such as the periods of the planets, times of the solar and lunar eclipses, and the instantaneous motion of the Moon.[26][27][page needed] Early followers of Aryabhata's model included Varāhamihira, Brahmagupta, and Bhāskara II.Astronomy was advanced during the Shunga Empire and many star catalogues were produced during this time. The Shunga period is known[according to whom?] as the \"Golden age of astronomy in India\".\nIt saw the development of calculations for the motions and places of various planets, their rising and setting, conjunctions, and the calculation of eclipses.Indian astronomers by the 6th century believed that comets were celestial bodies that re-appeared periodically. This was the view expressed in the 6th century by the astronomers Varahamihira and Bhadrabahu, and the 10th-century astronomer Bhattotpala listed the names and estimated periods of certain comets, but it is unfortunately not known how these figures were calculated or how accurate they were.[28]","title":"Ancient times"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Antikythera Mechanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_Mechanism"},{"link_name":"analog computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analog_computer"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greeks"},{"link_name":"Eudoxus of Cnidus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eudoxus_of_Cnidus"},{"link_name":"Callippus of Cyzicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callippus_of_Cyzicus"},{"link_name":"Heraclides Ponticus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraclides_Ponticus"},{"link_name":"Plato","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plato"},{"link_name":"Aristotle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"world soul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anima_mundi"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"spheres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_spheres"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"Aristarchus of Samos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos"},{"link_name":"heliocentric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentric"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Eratosthenes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eratosthenes"},{"link_name":"circumference of the Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circumference_of_the_Earth"},{"link_name":"history of geodesy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_geodesy"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"eccentric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deferent"},{"link_name":"epicycle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epicycle"},{"link_name":"Apollonius of Perga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apollonius_of_Perga"},{"link_name":"Hipparchus of Nicea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hipparchus"},{"link_name":"precession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precession"},{"link_name":"apparent magnitudes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_magnitude"},{"link_name":"Antikythera mechanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera_mechanism"},{"link_name":"ancient Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer"},{"link_name":"Antikythera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antikythera"},{"link_name":"Kythera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kythera"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"differential gear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_gear"},{"link_name":"National Archaeological Museum of Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum_of_Athens"}],"sub_title":"Greece and Hellenistic world","text":"The Antikythera Mechanism was an analog computer from 150 to 100 BC designed to calculate the positions of astronomical objects.The Ancient Greeks developed astronomy, which they treated as a branch of mathematics, to a highly sophisticated level. The first geometrical, three-dimensional models to explain the apparent motion of the planets were developed in the 4th century BC by Eudoxus of Cnidus and Callippus of Cyzicus. Their models were based on nested homocentric spheres centered upon the Earth. Their younger contemporary Heraclides Ponticus proposed that the Earth rotates around its axis.A different approach to celestial phenomena was taken by natural philosophers such as Plato and Aristotle. They were less concerned with developing mathematical predictive models than with developing an explanation of the reasons for the motions of the Cosmos. In his Timaeus, Plato described the universe as a spherical body divided into circles carrying the planets and governed according to harmonic intervals by a world soul.[29] Aristotle, drawing on the mathematical model of Eudoxus, proposed that the universe was made of a complex system of concentric spheres, whose circular motions combined to carry the planets around the Earth.[30] This basic cosmological model prevailed, in various forms, until the 16th century.In the 3rd century BC Aristarchus of Samos was the first to suggest a heliocentric system, although only fragmentary descriptions of his idea survive.[31] Eratosthenes estimated the circumference of the Earth with great accuracy (see also: history of geodesy).[32]Greek geometrical astronomy developed away from the model of concentric spheres to employ more complex models in which an eccentric circle would carry around a smaller circle, called an epicycle which in turn carried around a planet. The first such model is attributed to Apollonius of Perga and further developments in it were carried out in the 2nd century BC by Hipparchus of Nicea. Hipparchus made a number of other contributions, including the first measurement of precession and the compilation of the first star catalog in which he proposed our modern system of apparent magnitudes.The Antikythera mechanism, an ancient Greek astronomical observational device for calculating the movements of the Sun and the Moon, possibly the planets, dates from about 150–100 BC, and was the first ancestor of an astronomical computer. It was discovered in an ancient shipwreck off the Greek island of Antikythera, between Kythera and Crete. The device became famous for its use of a differential gear, previously believed to have been invented in the 16th century, and the miniaturization and complexity of its parts, comparable to a clock made in the 18th century. The original mechanism is displayed in the Bronze collection of the National Archaeological Museum of Athens, accompanied by a replica.","title":"Ancient times"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"dubious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement"},{"link_name":"discuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:History_of_astronomy#Dubious"},{"link_name":"Ptolemy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ptolemy"},{"link_name":"Almagest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almagest"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Aristarchus of Samos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos"}],"sub_title":"Ptolemaic system","text":"Depending on the historian's viewpoint, the acme or corruption[citation needed][dubious – discuss] of Classical physical astronomy is seen with Ptolemy, a Greco-Roman astronomer from Alexandria of Egypt, who wrote the classic comprehensive presentation of geocentric astronomy, the Megale Syntaxis (Great Synthesis), better known by its Arabic title Almagest, which had a lasting effect on astronomy up to the Renaissance. In his Planetary Hypotheses, Ptolemy ventured into the realm of cosmology, developing a physical model of his geometric system, in a universe many times smaller than the more realistic conception of Aristarchus of Samos four centuries earlier.","title":"Ancient times"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Senenmut-Grab.JPG"},{"link_name":"astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_ceiling_of_Senenmut%27s_Tomb"},{"link_name":"Egyptian pyramids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_pyramids"},{"link_name":"pole star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_star"},{"link_name":"precession of the equinoxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precession_of_the_equinoxes"},{"link_name":"Thuban","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thuban"},{"link_name":"Draco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Draco_(constellation)"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Amun-Re","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amun-Re"},{"link_name":"Karnak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnak"},{"link_name":"obliquity of the ecliptic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obliquity_of_the_ecliptic"},{"link_name":"midwinter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winter_solstice"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"religious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious"},{"link_name":"night","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Night"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star"},{"link_name":"Sirius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius"},{"link_name":"Egyptian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_language"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek"},{"link_name":"Roman era","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_era"},{"link_name":"Clement of Alexandria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clement_of_Alexandria"},{"link_name":"astrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_astronomy"},{"link_name":"Hermetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermetism"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"plumb line","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumb_line"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"Berlin Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egyptian_Museum_of_Berlin"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic"},{"link_name":"Hermetism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermetism"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Rameses VI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rameses_VI"},{"link_name":"Rameses IX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rameses_IX"},{"link_name":"pole star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pole_star"},{"link_name":"culminating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culmination"},{"link_name":"north","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North"}],"sub_title":"Egypt","text":"Segment of the astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb (circa 1479–1458 BCE), depicting constellations, protective deities, and twenty-four segmented wheels for the hours of the day and the months of the yearThe precise orientation of the Egyptian pyramids affords a lasting demonstration of the high degree of technical skill in watching the heavens attained in the 3rd millennium BC. It has been shown the Pyramids were aligned towards the pole star, which, because of the precession of the equinoxes, was at that time Thuban, a faint star in the constellation of Draco.[33] Evaluation of the site of the temple of Amun-Re at Karnak, taking into account the change over time of the obliquity of the ecliptic, has shown that the Great Temple was aligned on the rising of the midwinter Sun.[34] The length of the corridor down which sunlight would travel would have limited illumination at other times of the year. The Egyptians also found the position of Sirius (the dog star) who they believed was Anubis, their Jackal headed god, moving through the heavens. Its position was critical to their civilisation as when it rose heliacal in the east before sunrise it foretold the flooding of the Nile. It is also the origin of the phrase 'dog days of summer'.[35]Astronomy played a considerable part in religious matters for fixing the dates of festivals and determining the hours of the night. The titles of several temple books are preserved recording the movements and phases of the Sun, Moon and stars. The rising of Sirius (Egyptian: Sopdet, Greek: Sothis) at the beginning of the inundation was a particularly important point to fix in the yearly calendar.Writing in the Roman era, Clement of Alexandria gives some idea of the importance of astronomical observations to the sacred rites:And after the Singer advances the Astrologer (ὡροσκόπος), with a horologium (ὡρολόγιον) in his hand, and a palm (φοίνιξ), the symbols of astrology. He must know by heart the Hermetic astrological books, which are four in number. Of these, one is about the arrangement of the fixed stars that are visible; one on the positions of the Sun and Moon and five planets; one on the conjunctions and phases of the Sun and Moon; and one concerns their risings.[36]The Astrologer's instruments (horologium and palm) are a plumb line and sighting instrument[clarification needed]. They have been identified with two inscribed objects in the Berlin Museum; a short handle from which a plumb line was hung, and a palm branch with a sight-slit in the broader end. The latter was held close to the eye, the former in the other hand, perhaps at arm's length. The \"Hermetic\" books which Clement refers to are the Egyptian theological texts, which probably have nothing to do with Hellenistic Hermetism.[37]From the tables of stars on the ceiling of the tombs of Rameses VI and Rameses IX it seems that for fixing the hours of the night a man seated on the ground faced the Astrologer in such a position that the line of observation of the pole star passed over the middle of his head. On the different days of the year each hour was determined by a fixed star culminating or nearly culminating in it, and the position of these stars at the time is given in the tables as in the centre, on the left eye, on the right shoulder, etc. According to the texts, in founding or rebuilding temples the north axis was determined by the same apparatus, and we may conclude that it was the usual one for astronomical observations. In careful hands it might give results of a high degree of accuracy.","title":"Ancient times"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Book of Silk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Silk"},{"link_name":"Chinese astrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_astrology"},{"link_name":"Timeline of Chinese astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Chinese_astronomy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG"},{"link_name":"Printed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_typography_in_East_Asia"},{"link_name":"Su Song","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_Song"},{"link_name":"East Asia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asia"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Solar term","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_term"},{"link_name":"Warring States period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warring_States_period"},{"link_name":"\"guest stars\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guest_star_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_language"},{"link_name":"pinyin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pinyin"},{"link_name":"lit.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Literal_translation"},{"link_name":"fixed stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed_star"},{"link_name":"Crab Nebula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crab_Nebula"},{"link_name":"star catalogue","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_catalogue"},{"link_name":"Gan De","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gan_De"},{"link_name":"Chinese astronomer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Chinese_astronomers"}],"sub_title":"China","text":"See also: Book of Silk, Chinese astrology, and Timeline of Chinese astronomyPrinted star map of Su Song (1020–1101) showing the south polar projectionThe astronomy of East Asia began in China. Solar term was completed in Warring States period. The knowledge of Chinese astronomy was introduced into East Asia.Astronomy in China has a long history. Detailed records of astronomical observations were kept from about the 6th century BC, until the introduction of Western astronomy and the telescope in the 17th century. Chinese astronomers were able to precisely predict eclipses.Much of early Chinese astronomy was for the purpose of timekeeping. The Chinese used a lunisolar calendar, but because the cycles of the Sun and the Moon are different, astronomers often prepared new calendars and made observations for that purpose.Astrological divination was also an important part of astronomy. Astronomers took careful note of \"guest stars\" (Chinese: 客星; pinyin: kèxīng; lit.: 'guest star') which suddenly appeared among the fixed stars. They were the first to record a supernova, in the Astrological Annals of the Houhanshu in 185 AD. Also, the supernova that created the Crab Nebula in 1054 is an example of a \"guest star\" observed by Chinese astronomers, although it was not recorded by their European contemporaries. Ancient astronomical records of phenomena like supernovae and comets are sometimes used in modern astronomical studies.The world's first star catalogue was made by Gan De, a Chinese astronomer, in the 4th century BC.","title":"Ancient times"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Chichen_Itza_Observatory_2_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Chichen Itza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chichen_Itza"},{"link_name":"Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexico"},{"link_name":"Maya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_civilization"},{"link_name":"codices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_codices"},{"link_name":"phases of the Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_phases"},{"link_name":"Venus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus"},{"link_name":"evening star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus#Observability"},{"link_name":"calendrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_calendar"},{"link_name":"Pleiades","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleiades"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"Moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"Venus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venus"},{"link_name":"Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter"},{"link_name":"Saturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn"},{"link_name":"Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars"},{"link_name":"Dresden Codex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dresden_Codex"},{"link_name":"Milky Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars"},{"link_name":"mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_mythology"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Maya calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_calendar"},{"link_name":"John Teeple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_E._Teeple"},{"link_name":"solar year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_year"},{"link_name":"Gregorian calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_calendar"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Maya religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya_civilization#Religion"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"sub_title":"Mesoamerica","text":"\"El Caracol\" observatory temple at Chichen Itza, MexicoMaya astronomical codices include detailed tables for calculating phases of the Moon, the recurrence of eclipses, and the appearance and disappearance of Venus as morning and evening star. The Maya based their calendrics in the carefully calculated cycles of the Pleiades, the Sun, the Moon, Venus, Jupiter, Saturn, Mars, and also they had a precise description of the eclipses as depicted in the Dresden Codex, as well as the ecliptic or zodiac, and the Milky Way was crucial in their Cosmology.[38] A number of important Maya structures are believed to have been oriented toward the extreme risings and settings of Venus. To the ancient Maya, Venus was the patron of war and many recorded battles are believed to have been timed to the motions of this planet. Mars is also mentioned in preserved astronomical codices and early mythology.[39]Although the Maya calendar was not tied to the Sun, John Teeple has proposed that the Maya calculated the solar year to somewhat greater accuracy than the Gregorian calendar.[40] Both astronomy and an intricate numerological scheme for the measurement of time were vitally important components of Maya religion.The Maya believed that the Earth was the center of all things, and that the stars, moons, and planets were gods. They believed that their movements were the gods traveling between the Earth and other celestial destinations. Many key events in Maya culture were timed around celestial events, in the belief that certain gods would be present.[41]","title":"Ancient times"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Middle Ages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Maragheh observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maragheh_observatory"},{"link_name":"Ulugh Beg Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulugh_Beg_Observatory"},{"link_name":"Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-Din","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople_observatory_of_Taqi_ad-Din"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Astolabio_di_ahmad_ibn_muhammad_al-naqqash,_ottone_inciso,_saragozza,_1079-1080.JPG"},{"link_name":"astrolabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe"},{"link_name":"Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"Greek astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_astronomy"},{"link_name":"Indian astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_astronomy"},{"link_name":"observational astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_astronomy"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"observatories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observatory"},{"link_name":"Muslim world","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim_world"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Micheau-992-3-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Zij","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zij"},{"link_name":"Albumasar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albumasar"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Sufi"},{"link_name":"stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star"},{"link_name":"magnitudes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apparent_magnitude"},{"link_name":"colour","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colour"},{"link_name":"Book of Fixed Stars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_of_Fixed_Stars"},{"link_name":"Andromeda Galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy"},{"link_name":"constellation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation"},{"link_name":"Isfahan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isfahan_(city)"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NSOG-47"},{"link_name":"Large Magellanic Cloud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_Magellanic_Cloud"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obspm-48"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-obspm2-49"},{"link_name":"Ali ibn Ridwan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ridwan"},{"link_name":"SN 1006","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_1006"},{"link_name":"supernova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supernova"},{"link_name":"Tehran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehran"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abu-Mahmud_al-Khujandi"},{"link_name":"meridian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meridian_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"transits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_transit"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"},{"link_name":"Omar Khayyám","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omar_Khayy%C3%A1m"},{"link_name":"calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar"},{"link_name":"Julian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Calendar"},{"link_name":"Gregorian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregorian_calendar"},{"link_name":"Ptolemaic model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geocentric_model"},{"link_name":"astrolabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe"},{"link_name":"Arzachel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arzachel"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ja%27far_Muhammad_ibn_M%C5%ABs%C4%81_ibn_Sh%C4%81kir"},{"link_name":"heavenly bodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_object"},{"link_name":"celestial spheres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_sphere"},{"link_name":"physical laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_law"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Ibn al-Shatir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Shatir"},{"link_name":"lunar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moon"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Natural philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy"},{"link_name":"Aristotelian physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelian_physics"},{"link_name":"Ibn al-Haytham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ragep-56"}],"sub_title":"Middle East","text":"See also: Maragheh observatory, Ulugh Beg Observatory, and Constantinople observatory of Taqi ad-DinArabic astrolabe from 1079 to 1080 ADThe Arabic and the Persian world under Islam had become highly cultured, and many important works of knowledge from Greek astronomy and Indian astronomy and Persian astronomy were translated into Arabic, used and stored in libraries throughout the area. An important contribution by Islamic astronomers was their emphasis on observational astronomy.[42] This led to the emergence of the first astronomical observatories in the Muslim world by the early 9th century.[43][44] Zij star catalogues were produced at these observatories.In the 9th century, Persian astrologer Albumasar was thought to be one of the greatest astrologer at that time. His practical manuals for training astrologers profoundly influenced Muslim intellectual history and, through translations, that of western Europe and Byzantium In the 10th century,[45] Albumasar's \"Introduction\" was one of the most important sources for the recovery of Aristotle for medieval European scholars.[46] Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi (Azophi) carried out observations on the stars and described their positions, magnitudes, brightness, and colour and drawings for each constellation in his Book of Fixed Stars. He also gave the first descriptions and pictures of \"A Little Cloud\" now known as the Andromeda Galaxy. He mentions it as lying before the mouth of a Big Fish, an Arabic constellation. This \"cloud\" was apparently commonly known to the Isfahan astronomers, very probably before 905 AD.[47] The first recorded mention of the Large Magellanic Cloud was also given by al-Sufi.[48][49] In 1006, Ali ibn Ridwan observed SN 1006, the brightest supernova in recorded history, and left a detailed description of the temporary star.In the late 10th century, a huge observatory was built near Tehran, Iran, by the astronomer Abu-Mahmud al-Khujandi who observed a series of meridian transits of the Sun, which allowed him to calculate the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the Sun. He noted that measurements by earlier (Indian, then Greek) astronomers had found higher values for this angle, possible evidence that the axial tilt is not constant but was in fact decreasing.[50][51] In 11th-century Persia, Omar Khayyám compiled many tables and performed a reformation of the calendar that was more accurate than the Julian and came close to the Gregorian.Other Muslim advances in astronomy included the collection and correction of previous astronomical data, resolving significant problems in the Ptolemaic model, the development of the universal latitude-independent astrolabe by Arzachel,[52] the invention of numerous other astronomical instruments, Ja'far Muhammad ibn Mūsā ibn Shākir's belief that the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres were subject to the same physical laws as Earth,[53] and the introduction of empirical testing by Ibn al-Shatir, who produced the first model of lunar motion which matched physical observations.[54]Natural philosophy (particularly Aristotelian physics) was separated from astronomy by Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) in the 11th century, by Ibn al-Shatir in the 14th century,[55] and Qushji in the 15th century.[56]","title":"Middle Ages"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg"},{"link_name":"Jantar Mantar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jantar_Mantar_(Jaipur)"},{"link_name":"Jaipur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jaipur"},{"link_name":"Bhāskara II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bh%C4%81skara_II"},{"link_name":"Nalanda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nalanda"},{"link_name":"Madhava of Sangamagrama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madhava_of_Sangamagrama"},{"link_name":"Nilakantha Somayaji","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilakantha_Somayaji"},{"link_name":"Jyeshtadeva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jyeshtadeva"},{"link_name":"Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics"},{"link_name":"heliocentric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heliocentrism"},{"link_name":"Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars"},{"link_name":"Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter"},{"link_name":"Saturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun"},{"link_name":"Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earth"},{"link_name":"Tychonic system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tychonic_system"},{"link_name":"Tycho Brahe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe"},{"link_name":"latitudinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latitude"},{"link_name":"Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerala_school_of_astronomy_and_mathematics"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Joseph408-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:6-58"}],"sub_title":"India","text":"Historical Jantar Mantar observatory in Jaipur, IndiaBhāskara II (1114–1185) was the head of the astronomical observatory at Ujjain, continuing the mathematical tradition of Brahmagupta. He wrote the Siddhantasiromani which consists of two parts: Goladhyaya (sphere) and Grahaganita (mathematics of the planets). He also calculated the time taken for the Earth to orbit the Sun to 9 decimal places. The Buddhist University of Nalanda at the time offered formal courses in astronomical studies.Other important astronomers from India include Madhava of Sangamagrama, Nilakantha Somayaji and Jyeshtadeva, who were members of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics from the 14th century to the 16th century. Nilakantha Somayaji, in his Aryabhatiyabhasya, a commentary on Aryabhata's Aryabhatiya, developed his own computational system for a partially heliocentric planetary model, in which Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth, similar to the Tychonic system later proposed by Tycho Brahe in the late 16th century. Nilakantha's system, however, was mathematically more efficient than the Tychonic system, due to correctly taking into account the equation of the centre and latitudinal motion of Mercury and Venus. Most astronomers of the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics who followed him accepted his planetary model.[57][58]","title":"Middle Ages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Science in the Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_in_the_Middle_Ages"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aratea_93v.jpg"},{"link_name":"seven planets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_planet"},{"link_name":"Leiden Aratea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leiden_Aratea"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Western Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Europe"},{"link_name":"classical antiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_antiquity"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_language"},{"link_name":"Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin"},{"link_name":"Macrobius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Macrobius"},{"link_name":"Pliny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Martianus Capella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martianus_Capella"},{"link_name":"Calcidius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcidius"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Gregory of Tours","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gregory_of_Tours"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Bede of Jarrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bede_of_Jarrow"},{"link_name":"On the Reckoning of Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_temporum_ratione"},{"link_name":"Easter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Easter"},{"link_name":"computus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computus"},{"link_name":"Universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medieval_university#Origins"},{"link_name":"12th century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"revival of learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Charlemagne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlemagne"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Gerbert of Aurillac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerbert_of_Aurillac"},{"link_name":"astrolabe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrolabe"},{"link_name":"Hermann of Reichenau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_of_Reichenau"},{"link_name":"Walcher of Malvern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walcher_of_Malvern"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"},{"link_name":"translated into Latin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latin_translations_of_the_12th_century"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"John of Sacrobosco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_de_Sacrobosco"},{"link_name":"Sphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_sphaera_mundi"},{"link_name":"Quadrant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrant_(instrument)"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Nicole Oresme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole_Oresme"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Nicholas of Cusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicholas_of_Cusa"}],"sub_title":"Western Europe","text":"Further information: Science in the Middle Ages9th-century diagram of the positions of the seven planets on 18 March 816, from the Leiden ArateaAfter the significant contributions of Greek scholars to the development of astronomy, it entered a relatively static era in Western Europe from the Roman era through the 12th century. This lack of progress has led some astronomers to assert that nothing happened in Western European astronomy during the Middle Ages.[59] Recent investigations, however, have revealed a more complex picture of the study and teaching of astronomy in the period from the 4th to the 16th centuries.[60]Western Europe entered the Middle Ages with great difficulties that affected the continent's intellectual production. The advanced astronomical treatises of classical antiquity were written in Greek, and with the decline of knowledge of that language, only simplified summaries and practical texts were available for study. The most influential writers to pass on this ancient tradition in Latin were Macrobius, Pliny, Martianus Capella, and Calcidius.[61] In the 6th century Bishop Gregory of Tours noted that he had learned his astronomy from reading Martianus Capella, and went on to employ this rudimentary astronomy to describe a method by which monks could determine the time of prayer at night by watching the stars.[62]In the 7th century the English monk Bede of Jarrow published an influential text, On the Reckoning of Time, providing churchmen with the practical astronomical knowledge needed to compute the proper date of Easter using a procedure called the computus. This text remained an important element of the education of clergy from the 7th century until well after the rise of the Universities in the 12th century.[63]The range of surviving ancient Roman writings on astronomy and the teachings of Bede and his followers began to be studied in earnest during the revival of learning sponsored by the emperor Charlemagne.[64] By the 9th century rudimentary techniques for calculating the position of the planets were circulating in Western Europe; medieval scholars recognized their flaws, but texts describing these techniques continued to be copied, reflecting an interest in the motions of the planets and in their astrological significance.[65]Building on this astronomical background, in the 10th century European scholars such as Gerbert of Aurillac began to travel to Spain and Sicily to seek out learning which they had heard existed in the Arabic-speaking world. There they first encountered various practical astronomical techniques concerning the calendar and timekeeping, most notably those dealing with the astrolabe. Soon scholars such as Hermann of Reichenau were writing texts in Latin on the uses and construction of the astrolabe and others, such as Walcher of Malvern, were using the astrolabe to observe the time of eclipses in order to test the validity of computistical tables.[66]By the 12th century, scholars were traveling to Spain and Sicily to seek out more advanced astronomical and astrological texts, which they translated into Latin from Arabic and Greek to further enrich the astronomical knowledge of Western Europe. The arrival of these new texts coincided with the rise of the universities in medieval Europe, in which they soon found a home.[67] Reflecting the introduction of astronomy into the universities, John of Sacrobosco wrote a series of influential introductory astronomy textbooks: the Sphere, a Computus, a text on the Quadrant, and another on Calculation.[68]In the 14th century, Nicole Oresme, later bishop of Liseux, showed that neither the scriptural texts nor the physical arguments advanced against the movement of the Earth were demonstrative and adduced the argument of simplicity for the theory that the Earth moves, and not the heavens. However, he concluded \"everyone maintains, and I think myself, that the heavens do move and not the earth: For God hath established the world which shall not be moved.\"[69] In the 15th century, Cardinal Nicholas of Cusa suggested in some of his scientific writings that the Earth revolved around the Sun, and that each star is itself a distant sun.","title":"Middle Ages"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Renaissance and Early Modern Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Astronomia nova","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomia_nova"},{"link_name":"Epitome Astronomiae Copernicanae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epitome_Astronomiae_Copernicanae"},{"link_name":"Copernican Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copernican_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Nicolaus Copernicus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolaus_Copernicus"},{"link_name":"De revolutionibus orbium coelestium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_revolutionibus_orbium_coelestium"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-70"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-70"},{"link_name":"Galileo Galilei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei"},{"link_name":"Johannes Kepler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Kepler"},{"link_name":"Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"Tycho Brahe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_Brahe"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-71"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-71"},{"link_name":"SN 1572","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SN_1572"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-71"},{"link_name":"Aristotelian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotle"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:11-72"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ruiz-73"},{"link_name":"Tychonic system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tychonic_system"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Westman,_Robert_S_1975_p._322-74"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Westman,_Robert_S_1975_p._322-74"},{"link_name":"Rudolphine Tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rudolphine_Tables"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-75"},{"link_name":"Alfonsine tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfonsine_tables"},{"link_name":"Prutenic Tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prutenic_Tables"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-75"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-75"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-75"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-75"},{"link_name":"Thirty Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Kepler's laws of planetary motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler%27s_laws_of_planetary_motion"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg"},{"link_name":"Galileo Galilei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei"},{"link_name":"Justus Sustermans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Justus_Sustermans"},{"link_name":"Galileo Galilei","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galileo_Galilei"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"},{"link_name":"Galilean moons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galilean_moons"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-78"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-78"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-79"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:4-79"},{"link_name":"Solar System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solar_System"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-78"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"Roman Inquisition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Inquisition"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-81"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-81"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:5-81"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Table_of_Astronomy,_Cyclopaedia,_Volume_1,_p_164.jpg"},{"link_name":"Cyclopædia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclop%C3%A6dia,_or_an_Universal_Dictionary_of_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Sir Isaac Newton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Isaac_Newton"},{"link_name":"law of universal gravitation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newton%27s_law_of_universal_gravitation"},{"link_name":"Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophi%C3%A6_Naturalis_Principia_Mathematica"},{"link_name":"inertial frame of reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inertial_frame_of_reference"},{"link_name":"velocity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Velocity"},{"link_name":"force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force"},{"link_name":"vector sum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_sum"},{"link_name":"mass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass"},{"link_name":"acceleration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acceleration"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"}],"sub_title":"Copernican Revolution","text":"See also: Astronomia nova and Epitome Astronomiae CopernicanaeDuring the renaissance period, astronomy began to undergo a revolution in thought known as the Copernican Revolution, which gets the name from the astronomer Nicolaus Copernicus, who proposed a heliocentric system, in which the planets revolved around the Sun and not the Earth. His De revolutionibus orbium coelestium was published in 1543.[70] While in the long term this was a very controversial claim, in the very beginning it only brought minor controversy.[70] The theory became the dominant view because many figures, most notably Galileo Galilei, Johannes Kepler and Isaac Newton championed and improved upon the work. Other figures also aided this new model despite not believing the overall theory, like Tycho Brahe, with his well-known observations.[71]Brahe, a Danish noble, was an essential astronomer in this period.[71] He came on the astronomical scene with the publication of De nova stella, in which he disproved conventional wisdom on the supernova SN 1572[71] (As bright as Venus at its peak, SN 1572 later became invisible to the naked eye, disproving the Aristotelian doctrine of the immutability of the heavens.)[72][73] He also created the Tychonic system, where the Sun and Moon and the stars revolve around the Earth, but the other five planets revolve around the Sun. This system blended the mathematical benefits of the Copernican system with the \"physical benefits\" of the Ptolemaic system.[74] This was one of the systems people believed in when they did not accept heliocentrism, but could no longer accept the Ptolemaic system.[74] He is most known for his highly accurate observations of the stars and the Solar System. Later he moved to Prague and continued his work. In Prague he was at work on the Rudolphine Tables, that were not finished until after his death.[75] The Rudolphine Tables was a star map designed to be more accurate than either the Alfonsine tables, made in the 1300s, and the Prutenic Tables, which were inaccurate.[75] He was assisted at this time by his assistant Johannes Kepler, who would later use his observations to finish Brahe's works and for his theories as well.[75]After the death of Brahe, Kepler was deemed his successor and was given the job of completing Brahe's uncompleted works, like the Rudolphine Tables.[75] He completed the Rudolphine Tables in 1624, although it was not published for several years.[75] Like many other figures of this era, he was subject to religious and political troubles, like the Thirty Years' War, which led to chaos that almost destroyed some of his works. Kepler was, however, the first to attempt to derive mathematical predictions of celestial motions from assumed physical causes. He discovered the three Kepler's laws of planetary motion that now carry his name, those laws being as follows:The orbit of a planet is an ellipse with the Sun at one of the two foci.\nA line segment joining a planet and the Sun sweeps out equal areas during equal intervals of time.\nThe square of the orbital period of a planet is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its orbit.[76]With these laws, he managed to improve upon the existing heliocentric model. The first two were published in 1609. Kepler's contributions improved upon the overall system, giving it more credibility because it adequately explained events and could cause more reliable predictions. Before this, the Copernican model was just as unreliable as the Ptolemaic model. This improvement came because Kepler realized the orbits were not perfect circles, but ellipses.Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) crafted his own telescope and discovered that the Moon had craters, that Jupiter had moons, that the Sun had spots, and that Venus had phases like the Moon. Portrait by Justus Sustermans.Galileo Galilei was among the first to use a telescope to observe the sky, and after constructing a 20x refractor telescope.[77] He discovered the four largest moons of Jupiter in 1610, which are now collectively known as the Galilean moons, in his honor.[78] This discovery was the first known observation of satellites orbiting another planet.[78] He also found that the Moon had craters and observed, and correctly explained sunspots, and that Venus exhibited a full set of phases resembling lunar phases.[79] Galileo argued that these facts demonstrated incompatibility with the Ptolemaic model, which could not explain the phenomenon and would even contradict it.[79] With the moons it demonstrated that the Earth does not have to have everything orbiting it and that other parts of the Solar System could orbit another object, such as the Earth orbiting the Sun.[78] In the Ptolemaic system the celestial bodies were supposed to be perfect so such objects should not have craters or sunspots.[80] The phases of Venus could only happen in the event that Venus' orbit is inside Earth's orbit, which could not happen if the Earth was the center. He, as the most famous example, had to face challenges from church officials, more specifically the Roman Inquisition.[81] They accused him of heresy because these beliefs went against the teachings of the Roman Catholic Church and were challenging the Catholic church's authority when it was at its weakest.[81] While he was able to avoid punishment for a little while he was eventually tried and pled guilty to heresy in 1633.[81] Although this came at some expense, his book was banned, and he was put under house arrest until he died in 1642.[82]Plate with figures illustrating articles on astronomy, from the 1728 CyclopædiaSir Isaac Newton developed further ties between physics and astronomy through his law of universal gravitation. Realizing that the same force that attracts objects to the surface of the Earth held the Moon in orbit around the Earth, Newton was able to explain – in one theoretical framework – all known gravitational phenomena. In his Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica, he derived Kepler's laws from first principles. Those first principles are as follows:In an inertial frame of reference, an object either remains at rest or continues to move at constant velocity, unless acted upon by a force.\nIn an inertial reference frame, the vector sum of the forces F on an object is equal to the mass m of that object multiplied by the acceleration a of the object: F = ma. (It is assumed here that the mass m is constant)\nWhen one body exerts a force on a second body, the second body simultaneously exerts a force equal in magnitude and opposite in direction on the first body.[83]Thus while Kepler explained how the planets moved, Newton accurately managed to explain why the planets moved the way they do. Newton's theoretical developments laid many of the foundations of modern physics.","title":"Renaissance and Early Modern Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Descartes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes"},{"link_name":"theory of vortices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Descartes%27_vortex_theory"},{"link_name":"Huygens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christiaan_Huygens"},{"link_name":"Leibniz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz"},{"link_name":"Cassini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_Cassini"},{"link_name":"Voltaire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voltaire"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"French Academy of Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Academy_of_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Euler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler"},{"link_name":"Lagrange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lagrange"},{"link_name":"Laplace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Laplace"},{"link_name":"solar nebular model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebular_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"Edmond Halley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmond_Halley"},{"link_name":"Flamsteed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Flamsteed"},{"link_name":"Astronomer Royal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomer_Royal"},{"link_name":"comet that bears his name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halley%27s_comet"},{"link_name":"Sir William Herschel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Herschel"},{"link_name":"Uranus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uranus"},{"link_name":"Titius–Bode law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Titius%E2%80%93Bode_law"},{"link_name":"asteroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid"},{"link_name":"Ceres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)"},{"link_name":"Pallas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2_Pallas"},{"link_name":"astronomical thought in America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_American_Astronomy"},{"link_name":"Aristotelian philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristotelian_philosophy"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Almanacs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Almanacs"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"}],"sub_title":"Completing the Solar System","text":"Outside of England, Newton's theory took some time to become established. Descartes' theory of vortices held sway in France, and Huygens, Leibniz and Cassini accepted only parts of Newton's system, preferring their own philosophies. Voltaire published a popular account in 1738.[84] In 1748, the French Academy of Sciences offered a reward for solving the perturbations of Jupiter and Saturn which was eventually solved by Euler and Lagrange. Laplace completed the theory of the planets, publishing from 1798 to 1825. The early origins of the solar nebular model of planetary formation had begun.Edmond Halley succeeded Flamsteed as Astronomer Royal in England and succeeded in predicting the return of the comet that bears his name in 1758. Sir William Herschel found the first new planet, Uranus, to be observed in modern times in 1781. The gap between the planets Mars and Jupiter disclosed by the Titius–Bode law was filled by the discovery of the asteroids Ceres and Pallas in 1801 and 1802 with many more following.At first, astronomical thought in America was based on Aristotelian philosophy,[85] but interest in the new astronomy began to appear in Almanacs as early as 1659.[86]","title":"Renaissance and Early Modern Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cosmic pluralism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_pluralism"},{"link_name":"Anaxagoras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anaxagoras"},{"link_name":"Aristarchus of Samos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristarchus_of_Samos"},{"link_name":"Giordano Bruno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giordano_Bruno"},{"link_name":"Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conversations_on_the_Plurality_of_Worlds"},{"link_name":"Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Le_Bovier_de_Fontenelle"},{"link_name":"Geminiano Montanari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geminiano_Montanari"},{"link_name":"Algol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algol"},{"link_name":"proper motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_motion"},{"link_name":"Greek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"William Herschel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Herschel"},{"link_name":"core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_Center"},{"link_name":"John Herschel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Herschel"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Magill1992-88"}],"sub_title":"Stellar astronomy","text":"Cosmic pluralism is the name given to the idea that the stars are distant suns, perhaps with their own planetary systems.\nIdeas in this direction were expressed in antiquity, by Anaxagoras and by Aristarchus of Samos, but did not find mainstream acceptance. The first astronomer of the European Renaissance to suggest that the stars were distant suns was Giordano Bruno in his De l'infinito universo et mondi (1584). This idea, together with a belief in intelligent extraterrestrial life, was among the charges brought against him by the Inquisition.\nThe idea became mainstream in the later 17th century, especially following the publication of Conversations on the Plurality of Worlds by Bernard Le Bovier de Fontenelle (1686), and by the early 18th century it was the default working assumptions in stellar astronomy.The Italian astronomer Geminiano Montanari recorded observing variations in luminosity of the star Algol in 1667. Edmond Halley published the first measurements of the proper motion of a pair of nearby \"fixed\" stars, demonstrating that they had changed positions since the time of the ancient Greek astronomers Ptolemy and Hipparchus. William Herschel was the first astronomer to attempt to determine the distribution of stars in the sky. During the 1780s, he established a series of gauges in 600 directions and counted the stars observed along each line of sight. From this he deduced that the number of stars steadily increased toward one side of the sky, in the direction of the Milky Way core. His son John Herschel repeated this study in the southern hemisphere and found a corresponding increase in the same direction.[87] In addition to his other accomplishments, William Herschel is noted for his discovery that some stars do not merely lie along the same line of sight, but are physical companions that form binary star systems.[88]","title":"Renaissance and Early Modern Europe"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomy"},{"link_name":"Observational astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observational_astronomy"},{"link_name":"Physical cosmology § History of study","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmology#History_of_study"}],"text":"Further information: Astronomy and Observational astronomyFurther information: Physical cosmology § History of study","title":"Modern astronomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png"},{"link_name":"Mars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mars"},{"link_name":"Giovanni Schiaparelli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_Schiaparelli"},{"link_name":"John W. Draper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_W._Draper"},{"link_name":"human computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_computers"},{"link_name":"Harvard Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Computers"},{"link_name":"X-rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray"},{"link_name":"gamma rays","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_ray"},{"link_name":"radio waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave"},{"link_name":"microwaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microwave"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation"},{"link_name":"infrared radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_radiation"},{"link_name":"infrared astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infrared_astronomy"},{"link_name":"radio astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_astronomy"},{"link_name":"x-ray astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/X-ray_astronomy"},{"link_name":"gamma-ray astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma-ray_astronomy"},{"link_name":"spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopy"},{"link_name":"temperatures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"masses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mass"},{"link_name":"stellar spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astronomical_spectroscopy"},{"link_name":"Joseph von Fraunhofer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_von_Fraunhofer"},{"link_name":"Angelo Secchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelo_Secchi"},{"link_name":"Sirius","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sirius"},{"link_name":"absorption lines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_line"},{"link_name":"spectral types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_classification"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"61 Cygni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/61_Cygni"},{"link_name":"light-years","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-years"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Bessel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Bessel"},{"link_name":"parallax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallax"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Edward Pickering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Charles_Pickering"},{"link_name":"spectroscopic binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopic_binary"},{"link_name":"Mizar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mizar_(star)"},{"link_name":"Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Georg_Wilhelm_von_Struve"},{"link_name":"S. W. Burnham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sherburne_Wesley_Burnham"},{"link_name":"orbital elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbital_elements"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"Maria Mitchell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Mitchell"}],"sub_title":"19th century","text":"Mars surface map of Giovanni SchiaparelliPre-photography, data recording of astronomical data was limited by the human eye. In 1840, John W. Draper, a chemist, created the earliest known astronomical photograph of the Moon. And by the late 19th century thousands of photographic plates of images of planets, stars, and galaxies were created. Most photography had lower quantum efficiency (i.e. captured less of the incident photons) than human eyes but had the advantage of long integration times (100 ms for the human eye compared to hours for photos). This vastly increased the data available to astronomers, which led to the rise of human computers, famously the Harvard Computers, to track and analyze the data.Scientists began discovering forms of light which were invisible to the naked eye: X-rays, gamma rays, radio waves, microwaves, ultraviolet radiation, and infrared radiation. This had a major impact on astronomy, spawning the fields of infrared astronomy, radio astronomy, x-ray astronomy and finally gamma-ray astronomy. With the advent of spectroscopy it was proven that other stars were similar to the Sun, but with a range of temperatures, masses and sizes.The science of stellar spectroscopy was pioneered by Joseph von Fraunhofer and Angelo Secchi. By comparing the spectra of stars such as Sirius to the Sun, they found differences in the strength and number of their absorption lines—the dark lines in stellar spectra caused by the atmosphere's absorption of specific frequencies. In 1865, Secchi began classifying stars into spectral types.[89] The first evidence of helium was observed on August 18, 1868, as a bright yellow spectral line with a wavelength of 587.49 nanometers in the spectrum of the chromosphere of the Sun. The line was detected by French astronomer Jules Janssen during a total solar eclipse in Guntur, India.The first direct measurement of the distance to a star (61 Cygni at 11.4 light-years) was made in 1838 by Friedrich Bessel using the parallax technique. Parallax measurements demonstrated the vast separation of the stars in the heavens.[citation needed] Observation of double stars gained increasing importance during the 19th century. In 1834, Friedrich Bessel observed changes in the proper motion of the star Sirius and inferred a hidden companion. Edward Pickering discovered the first spectroscopic binary in 1899 when he observed the periodic splitting of the spectral lines of the star Mizar in a 104-day period. Detailed observations of many binary star systems were collected by astronomers such as Friedrich Georg Wilhelm von Struve and S. W. Burnham, allowing the masses of stars to be determined from the computation of orbital elements. The first solution to the problem of deriving an orbit of binary stars from telescope observations was made by Felix Savary in 1827.[90]\nIn 1847, Maria Mitchell discovered a comet using a telescope.","title":"Modern astronomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hubble_01_Cropped.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hubble Space Telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope"},{"link_name":"Harvard Computers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Computers"},{"link_name":"United States Naval Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Naval_Observatory"},{"link_name":"human \"computers\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_computer"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"Henrietta Swan Leavitt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrietta_Swan_Leavitt"},{"link_name":"cepheid variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cepheid_variable"},{"link_name":"period-luminosity relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Period-luminosity_relation"},{"link_name":"Annie J. Cannon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Jump_Cannon"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HubenyMihalas2014-92"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"Karl Schwarzschild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Schwarzschild"},{"link_name":"visual magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_magnitude"},{"link_name":"photographic magnitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic_magnitude"},{"link_name":"photoelectric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photoelectric_effect"},{"link_name":"photometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photometer"},{"link_name":"Albert A. Michelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson"},{"link_name":"interferometer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interferometer"},{"link_name":"Hooker telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Wilson_Observatory#100-inch_Hooker_telescope"},{"link_name":"Mount Wilson Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount_Wilson_Observatory"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg"},{"link_name":"CMB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMB"},{"link_name":"COBE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Background_Explorer"},{"link_name":"WMAP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WMAP"},{"link_name":"Planck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planck_(spacecraft)"},{"link_name":"Hertzsprung-Russell diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertzsprung-Russell_diagram"},{"link_name":"Potsdam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potsdam"},{"link_name":"Ejnar Hertzsprung","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ejnar_Hertzsprung"},{"link_name":"luminosity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminosity"},{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"Henry Norris Russell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Norris_Russell"},{"link_name":"models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_model"},{"link_name":"Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cecilia_Payne-Gaposchkin"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"quantum physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_mechanics"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-new_cosmos-96"},{"link_name":"Bengt Strömgren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengt_Str%C3%B6mgren"},{"link_name":"stellar classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stellar_classification"},{"link_name":"William Wilson Morgan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Wilson_Morgan"},{"link_name":"Philip Childs Keenan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Childs_Keenan"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Milky_way_map.png"},{"link_name":"Milky Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way"},{"link_name":"constellations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellations"},{"link_name":"galactic plane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_plane"},{"link_name":"main arms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiral_arm"},{"link_name":"nucleus/bulge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galactic_Center"},{"link_name":"nebulae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebulae"},{"link_name":"globular clusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globular_clusters"},{"link_name":"galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy"},{"link_name":"Milky Way","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Milky_Way"},{"link_name":"universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe"},{"link_name":"Great Debate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Debate_(astronomy)"},{"link_name":"Harlow Shapley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlow_Shapley"},{"link_name":"Heber Curtis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heber_Curtis"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"quantum physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantum_physics"},{"link_name":"spectroscopy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectroscopy"},{"link_name":"galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy"},{"link_name":"the great debate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_great_debate"},{"link_name":"Edwin Hubble","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edwin_Hubble"},{"link_name":"Andromeda nebula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andromeda_Galaxy"},{"link_name":"Physical cosmology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_cosmology"},{"link_name":"Big Bang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang"},{"link_name":"redshifts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redshift"},{"link_name":"cosmic microwave background radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_microwave_background_radiation"},{"link_name":"Hubble's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubble%27s_law"},{"link_name":"cosmological abundances of elements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang_nucleosynthesis"}],"sub_title":"20th century","text":"The Hubble Space TelescopeWith the accumulation of large sets of astronomical data, teams like the Harvard Computers rose in prominence which led to many female astronomers, previously relegated as assistants to male astronomers, gaining recognition in the field. The United States Naval Observatory (USNO) and other astronomy research institutions hired human \"computers\", who performed the tedious calculations while scientists performed research requiring more background knowledge.[91] A number of discoveries in this period were originally noted by the women \"computers\" and reported to their supervisors. Henrietta Swan Leavitt discovered the cepheid variable star period-luminosity relation which she further developed into a method of measuring distance outside of the Solar System.A veteran of the Harvard Computers, Annie J. Cannon developed the modern version of the stellar classification scheme in during the early 1900s (O B A F G K M, based on color and temperature), manually classifying more stars in a lifetime than anyone else (around 350,000).[92][93]\nThe twentieth century saw increasingly rapid advances in the scientific study of stars.\nKarl Schwarzschild discovered that the color of a star and, hence, its temperature, could be determined by comparing the visual magnitude against the photographic magnitude. The development of the photoelectric photometer allowed precise measurements of magnitude at multiple wavelength intervals. In 1921 Albert A. Michelson made the first measurements of a stellar diameter using an interferometer on the Hooker telescope at Mount Wilson Observatory.[94]Comparison of CMB (Cosmic microwave background) results from satellites COBE, WMAP and Planck documenting a progress in 1989–2013Important theoretical work on the physical structure of stars occurred during the first decades of the twentieth century. In 1913, the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram was developed, propelling the astrophysical study of stars.\nIn Potsdam in 1906, the Danish astronomer Ejnar Hertzsprung published the first plots of color versus luminosity for these stars. These plots showed a prominent and continuous sequence of stars, which he named the Main Sequence.\nAt Princeton University, Henry Norris Russell plotted the spectral types of these stars against their absolute magnitude, and found that dwarf stars followed a distinct relationship. This allowed the real brightness of a dwarf star to be predicted with reasonable accuracy.\nSuccessful models were developed to explain the interiors of stars and stellar evolution. Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin first proposed that stars were made primarily of hydrogen and helium in her 1925 doctoral thesis.[95] The spectra of stars were further understood through advances in quantum physics. This allowed the chemical composition of the stellar atmosphere to be determined.[96]\nAs evolutionary models of stars were developed during the 1930s, Bengt Strömgren introduced the term Hertzsprung–Russell diagram to denote a luminosity-spectral class diagram.\nA refined scheme for stellar classification was published in 1943 by William Wilson Morgan and Philip Childs Keenan.Map of the Milky Way Galaxy, with the constellations that cross the galactic plane in each direction and the known prominent components annotated including main arms, spurs, bar, nucleus/bulge, notable nebulae and globular clustersThe existence of our galaxy, the Milky Way, as a separate group of stars was only proven in the 20th century, along with the existence of \"external\" galaxies, and soon after, the expansion of the universe seen in the recession of most galaxies from us. The \"Great Debate\" between Harlow Shapley and Heber Curtis, in the 1920s, concerned the nature of the Milky Way, spiral nebulae, and the dimensions of the universe.[97]With the advent of quantum physics, spectroscopy was further refined.The Sun was found to be part of a galaxy made up of more than 1010 stars (10 billion stars). The existence of other galaxies, one of the matters of the great debate, was settled by Edwin Hubble, who identified the Andromeda nebula as a different galaxy, and many others at large distances and receding, moving away from our galaxy.Physical cosmology, a discipline that has a large intersection with astronomy, made huge advances during the 20th century, with the model of the hot Big Bang heavily supported by the evidence provided by astronomy and physics, such as the redshifts of very distant galaxies and radio sources, the cosmic microwave background radiation, Hubble's law and cosmological abundances of elements.","title":"Modern astronomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aaboe, Asger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asger_Aaboe"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-387-95136-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-95136-9"},{"link_name":"A Brief History of Astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/shorthistoryofas025511mbp"},{"link_name":"Internet Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive"},{"link_name":"Dreyer, J. L. E.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._L._E._Dreyer"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-86078-868-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-868-7"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-725944-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-725944-8"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-19-280306-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280306-9"},{"link_name":"arXiv","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"physics/0407108","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//arxiv.org/abs/physics/0407108"},{"link_name":"Neugebauer, Otto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_E._Neugebauer"},{"link_name":"Dover Publications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dover_Publications"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-486-22332-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-22332-2"},{"link_name":"Pannekoek, Anton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Pannekoek"},{"link_name":"ISBN missing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7141-1746-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7141-1746-3"}],"text":"Aaboe, Asger (2001). Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-95136-9.\nBerry, Arthur (1898). A Brief History of Astronomy – via Internet Archive.\nDreyer, J. L. E. (1953) [1906]. History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler (2nd ed.). Dover Publications.\nEastwood, Bruce (2002). The Revival of Planetary Astronomy in Carolingian and Post-Carolingian Europe. Variorum Collected Studies Series. Vol. CS 279. Ashgate. ISBN 0-86078-868-7.\nHodson, F. R., ed. (1974). The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World: A Joint Symposium of the Royal Society and the British Academy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-725944-8.\nHoskin, Michael (2003). The History of Astronomy: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280306-9.\nMagli, Giulio (2004). \"On the possible discovery of precessional effects in ancient astronomy\". arXiv:physics/0407108.\nNeugebauer, Otto (1969) [1957]. The Exact Sciences in Antiquity (2 ed.). Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-22332-2.\nPannekoek, Anton (1989). A History of Astronomy. Dover Publications.[ISBN missing]\nWalker, Christopher, ed. (1996). Astronomy before the telescope. British Museum Press. ISBN 0-7141-1746-3.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"The Northern Hemisphere page from Johann Bayer's 1661 edition of Uranometria - the first atlas to have star charts covering the entire celestial sphere","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132277%29.jpg/300px-Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132277%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Southern Hemisphere","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ee/Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132460%29.jpg/300px-Ioannis_Bayeri_Rhainani_Vranometria_1661_%2884132460%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Sunset at the equinox from the prehistoric site of Pizzo Vento at Fondachelli Fantina, Sicily","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Equinozio_da_Pizzo_Vento%2Ctramonto_fondachelli_fantina%2C_sicilia.JPG/220px-Equinozio_da_Pizzo_Vento%2Ctramonto_fondachelli_fantina%2C_sicilia.JPG"},{"image_text":"The Nebra sky disk, Germany, 1800 - 1600 BC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Nebra_disc_1.jpg/220px-Nebra_disc_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Calendrical functions of the Berlin Gold Hat c. 1000 BC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Berlin_Gold_hat_calendar.jpg/220px-Berlin_Gold_hat_calendar.jpg"},{"image_text":"Babylonian tablet in the British Museum recording Halley's comet in 164 BC","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg/170px-Babylonian_tablet_recording_Halley%27s_comet.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Antikythera Mechanism was an analog computer from 150 to 100 BC designed to calculate the positions of astronomical objects.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg/220px-NAMA_Machine_d%27Anticyth%C3%A8re_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Segment of the astronomical ceiling of Senenmut's Tomb (circa 1479–1458 BCE), depicting constellations, protective deities, and twenty-four segmented wheels for the hours of the day and the months of the year","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Senenmut-Grab.JPG/220px-Senenmut-Grab.JPG"},{"image_text":"Printed star map of Su Song (1020–1101) showing the south polar projection","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG/220px-Su_Song_Star_Map_2.JPG"},{"image_text":"\"El Caracol\" observatory temple at Chichen Itza, Mexico","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Chichen_Itza_Observatory_2_1.jpg/220px-Chichen_Itza_Observatory_2_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Arabic astrolabe from 1079 to 1080 AD","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d0/Astolabio_di_ahmad_ibn_muhammad_al-naqqash%2C_ottone_inciso%2C_saragozza%2C_1079-1080.JPG/220px-Astolabio_di_ahmad_ibn_muhammad_al-naqqash%2C_ottone_inciso%2C_saragozza%2C_1079-1080.JPG"},{"image_text":"Historical Jantar Mantar observatory in Jaipur, India","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg/220px-Jantar_Mantar_at_Jaipur.jpg"},{"image_text":"9th-century diagram of the positions of the seven planets on 18 March 816, from the Leiden Aratea","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Aratea_93v.jpg/220px-Aratea_93v.jpg"},{"image_text":"Galileo Galilei (1564–1642) crafted his own telescope and discovered that the Moon had craters, that Jupiter had moons, that the Sun had spots, and that Venus had phases like the Moon. Portrait by Justus Sustermans.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg/220px-Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg"},{"image_text":"Plate with figures illustrating articles on astronomy, from the 1728 Cyclopædia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3d/Table_of_Astronomy%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_1%2C_p_164.jpg/220px-Table_of_Astronomy%2C_Cyclopaedia%2C_Volume_1%2C_p_164.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mars surface map of Giovanni Schiaparelli","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png/220px-Karte_Mars_Schiaparelli_MKL1888.png"},{"image_text":"The Hubble Space Telescope","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1a/Hubble_01_Cropped.jpg/220px-Hubble_01_Cropped.jpg"},{"image_text":"Comparison of CMB (Cosmic microwave background) results from satellites COBE, WMAP and Planck documenting a progress in 1989–2013","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg/220px-PIA16874-CobeWmapPlanckComparison-20130321.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of the Milky Way Galaxy, with the constellations that cross the galactic plane in each direction and the known prominent components annotated including main arms, spurs, bar, nucleus/bulge, notable nebulae and globular clusters","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Milky_way_map.png/310px-Milky_way_map.png"}]

[{"title":"Age of the universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Age_of_the_universe"},{"title":"Anthropic principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropic_principle"},{"title":"Astrotheology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrotheology"},{"title":"Expansion of the universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_of_the_universe"},{"title":"Hebrew astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hebrew_astronomy"},{"title":"History of astrology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_astrology"},{"title":"History of Mars observation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Mars_observation"},{"title":"History of supernova observation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_supernova_observation"},{"title":"History of the telescope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_telescope"},{"title":"Letters on Sunspots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Letters_on_Sunspots"},{"title":"List of astronomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomers"},{"title":"List of French astronomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_French_astronomers"},{"title":"List of Hungarian astronomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hungarian_astronomers"},{"title":"List of Russian astronomers and astrophysicists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Russian_astronomers_and_astrophysicists"},{"title":"List of Slovenian astronomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Slovenian_astronomers"},{"title":"List of women astronomers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_women_astronomers"},{"title":"List of astronomical instrument makers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_instrument_makers"},{"title":"List of astronomical observatories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_astronomical_observatories"},{"title":"Patronage in astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronage_in_astronomy"},{"title":"Society for the History of Astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_the_History_of_Astronomy"},{"title":"Timeline of astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_astronomy"},{"title":"Timeline of Solar System astronomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_Solar_System_astronomy"},{"title":"Worship of heavenly bodies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worship_of_heavenly_bodies"}]

[{"reference":"Krupp, Edwin C. (2003), Echoes of the Ancient Skies: The Astronomy of Lost Civilizations, Astronomy Series, Courier Dover Publications, pp. 62–72, ISBN 0-486-42882-6","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7rMAJ87WTF0C&pg=PA70","url_text":"Echoes of the Ancient Skies: The Astronomy of Lost Civilizations"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-42882-6","url_text":"0-486-42882-6"}]},{"reference":"Whitehouse, David (January 21, 2003). \"'Oldest star chart' found\". BBC. Retrieved 2009-09-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/2679675.stm","url_text":"\"'Oldest star chart' found\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC","url_text":"BBC"}]},{"reference":"Lucentini, Jack. \"Dr. Michael A. Rappenglueck sees maps of the night sky, and images of shamanistic ritual teeming with cosmological meaning\". space. Retrieved 2009-09-29.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.space.com/scienceastronomy/planetearth/cave_paintings_000810.html","url_text":"\"Dr. Michael A. Rappenglueck sees maps of the night sky, and images of shamanistic ritual teeming with cosmological meaning\""}]},{"reference":"\"BBC News – SCI/TECH – Ice Age star map discovered\". news.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved 13 April 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/871930.stm","url_text":"\"BBC News – SCI/TECH – Ice Age star map discovered\""}]},{"reference":"Nilsson, Martin P. (1920), Primitive Time-Reckoning. A Study in the Origins and Development of the Art of Counting Time among the Primitive and Early Culture Peoples, Skrifter utgivna av Humanistiska Vetenskapssamfundet i Lund, vol. 1, Lund: C. W. K. Gleerup, OCLC 458893999","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_P._Nilsson","url_text":"Nilsson, Martin P."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/458893999","url_text":"458893999"}]},{"reference":"Marshak, Alexander (1972). The Roots of Civilization: the cognitive beginnings of man's first art, symbol, and notation. Littlehampton Book Services Ltd. ISBN 978-0297994497.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0297994497","url_text":"978-0297994497"}]},{"reference":"Davidson, Iain (1993). \"The Roots of Civilization: The Cognitive Beginnings of Man's First Art, Symbol and Notation\". American Anthropologist. 95 (4). American Anthropologistd: 1027–1028. doi:10.1525/aa.1993.95.4.02a00350.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1525%2Faa.1993.95.4.02a00350","url_text":"10.1525/aa.1993.95.4.02a00350"}]},{"reference":"\"The Beginning of Time?\". University of Birmingham. 2013.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.birmingham.ac.uk/research/our/news/items/beginning-of-time.aspx","url_text":"\"The Beginning of Time?\""}]},{"reference":"\"'World's oldest calendar' discovered in Scottish field\". BBC News. 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-scotland-north-east-orkney-shetland-23286928","url_text":"\"'World's oldest calendar' discovered in Scottish field\""}]},{"reference":"\"World's Oldest Calendar Discovered in U.K.\" Roff Smith, National Geographic. July 15, 2013. Archived from the original on July 18, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130718061637/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/07/130715-worlds-oldest-calendar-lunar-cycle-pits-mesolithic-scotland","url_text":"\"World's Oldest Calendar Discovered in U.K.\""},{"url":"http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2013/07/130715-worlds-oldest-calendar-lunar-cycle-pits-mesolithic-scotland/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"V. Gaffney; et al. (2013), \"Time and a Place: A luni-solar 'time-reckoner' from 8th millennium BC Scotland\", Internet Archaeology (34), doi:10.11141/ia.34.1, retrieved 7 Oct 2014","urls":[{"url":"http://intarch.ac.uk/journal/issue34/gaffney_index.html","url_text":"\"Time and a Place: A luni-solar 'time-reckoner' from 8th millennium BC Scotland\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.11141%2Fia.34.1","url_text":"10.11141/ia.34.1"}]},{"reference":"\"Sonnenobservatorium Goseck\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sonnenobservatorium-goseck.info/","url_text":"\"Sonnenobservatorium Goseck\""}]},{"reference":"The Nebra Sky Disc, Landesamt für Denkmalpflege und Archäologie Sachsen-Anhalt / Landesmuseum für Vorgeschichte, retrieved 15 October 2014","urls":[{"url":"http://www.lda-lsa.de/en/nebra_sky_disc/","url_text":"The Nebra Sky Disc"}]},{"reference":"Nebra Sky Disc, UNESCO: Memory of the World, retrieved 15 October 2014","urls":[{"url":"http://www.unesco.org/new/en/communication-and-information/flagship-project-activities/memory-of-the-world/register/full-list-of-registered-heritage/registered-heritage-page-6/nebra-sky-disc/","url_text":"Nebra Sky Disc"}]},{"reference":"The Sky Disc of Nebra: Bronze Age Sky Disc Deciphered, Deutsche Welle, 2002, retrieved 15 October 2014","urls":[{"url":"http://www.bibliotecapleyades.net/arqueologia/nebra_disk.htm","url_text":"The Sky Disc of Nebra: Bronze Age Sky Disc Deciphered"}]},{"reference":"\"Archaeo-astronomical Site Kokino\", UNESCO World Heritage, 2009, retrieved 27 October 2014","urls":[{"url":"https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/5413/","url_text":"\"Archaeo-astronomical Site Kokino\""}]},{"reference":"Douglas Price, T. (2013). \"Europe Before Rome: A Site-by-Site Tour of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages\". T. Douglas Price, Oxford University Press. p. 262. ISBN 978-0-19-991470-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=h0BIkXNZJZsC&pg=PA262","url_text":"\"Europe Before Rome: A Site-by-Site Tour of the Stone, Bronze, and Iron Ages\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-991470-8","url_text":"978-0-19-991470-8"}]},{"reference":"Stray, Geoff (2007). \"The Mayan and Other Ancient Calendars\". Geoff Stray, Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 14. ISBN 9780802716347.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=GdlzA3yUlTUC&pg=PA14","url_text":"\"The Mayan and Other Ancient Calendars\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780802716347","url_text":"9780802716347"}]},{"reference":"Pierre-Yves Bely; Carol Christian; Jean-René Roy (2010). A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy. Cambridge University Press. p. 197. ISBN 978-0-521-18066-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PbLPel3zRdEC&pg=PA197","url_text":"A Question and Answer Guide to Astronomy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-18066-5","url_text":"978-0-521-18066-5"}]},{"reference":"Subbarayappa, B. V. (14 September 1989). \"Indian astronomy: An historical perspective\". In Biswas, S. K.; Mallik, D. C. V.; Vishveshwara, C. V. (eds.). Cosmic Perspectives. Cambridge University Press. pp. 25–40. ISBN 978-0-521-34354-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=PFTGKi8fjvoC&pg=FA25","url_text":"\"Indian astronomy: An historical perspective\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._V._Vishveshwara","url_text":"Vishveshwara, C. V."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34354-1","url_text":"978-0-521-34354-1"}]},{"reference":"Kak, Subhash (1995). \"The Astronomy of the Age of Geometric Altars\". Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society. 36: 385–395. Bibcode:1995QJRAS..36..385K.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995QJRAS..36..385K","url_text":"1995QJRAS..36..385K"}]},{"reference":"Kelley, David H.; Milone, Eugene F. (2011). Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy. Springer. p. 293. ISBN 9781441976246.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ILBuYcGASxcC&pg=PA293","url_text":"Exploring Ancient Skies: A Survey of Ancient and Cultural Astronomy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781441976246","url_text":"9781441976246"}]},{"reference":"\"dog days | Etymology, origin and meaning of phrase dog days by etymonline\". www.etymonline.com. Retrieved 2023-11-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.etymonline.com/word/dog%20days","url_text":"\"dog days | Etymology, origin and meaning of phrase dog days by etymonline\""}]},{"reference":"\"How Does Ancient Mayan Astronomy Portray the Sun, Moon and Planets?\". ThoughtCo. Retrieved 2022-03-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.thoughtco.com/ancient-maya-astronomy-2136314","url_text":"\"How Does Ancient Mayan Astronomy Portray the Sun, Moon and Planets?\""}]},{"reference":"Ute Ballay (November 1990), \"The Astronomical Manuscripts of Naṣīr al-Dīn Ṭūsī\", Arabica, 37 (3), Brill Publishers: 389–392 [389], doi:10.1163/157005890X00050, JSTOR 4057148","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabica_(journal)","url_text":"Arabica"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brill_Publishers","url_text":"Brill Publishers"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1163%2F157005890X00050","url_text":"10.1163/157005890X00050"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/4057148","url_text":"4057148"}]},{"reference":"Micheau, Francoise, The Scientific Institutions in the Medieval Near East, pp. 992–3","urls":[]},{"reference":"Nas, Peter J (1993), Urban Symbolism, Brill Academic Publishers, p. 350, ISBN 90-04-09855-0","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/90-04-09855-0","url_text":"90-04-09855-0"}]},{"reference":"Pingree, David (1970). \"Abū Ma'shar al-Balkhī, Ja'far ibn Muḥammad\". Dictionary of Scientific Biography. Vol. 1. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. pp. 32–39. ISBN 0-684-10114-9.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-2830900030.html","url_text":"\"Abū Ma'shar al-Balkhī, Ja'far ibn Muḥammad\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dictionary_of_Scientific_Biography","url_text":"Dictionary of Scientific Biography"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Scribner%27s_Sons","url_text":"Charles Scribner's Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-10114-9","url_text":"0-684-10114-9"}]},{"reference":"Kepple, George Robert; Sanner, Glen W. 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University of California. Archived from the original on 2005-03-18. Retrieved 2013-02-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050318221903/http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/Phase2/Payne-Gaposchkin,[email protected]","url_text":"\"\" Payne-Gaposchkin, Cecilia Helena.\" CWP\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California","url_text":"University of California"},{"url":"http://cwp.library.ucla.edu/Phase2/Payne-Gaposchkin,[email protected]","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Unsöld, Albrecht (2001). The New Cosmos (5th ed.). New York: Springer. pp. 180–185, 215–216. ISBN 978-3-540-67877-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-67877-9","url_text":"978-3-540-67877-9"}]},{"reference":"Weaver, H. F. \"Robert Julius Trumpler\". US National Academy of Sciences. Archived from the original on December 24, 2013. 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Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-40899-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olaf_Pedersen","url_text":"Pedersen, Olaf"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-40899-7","url_text":"0-521-40899-7"}]},{"reference":"Pingree, David (1998). \"Legacies in Astronomy and Celestial Omens\". In Dalley, Stephanie (ed.). The Legacy of Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. pp. 125–137. ISBN 0-19-814946-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Pingree","url_text":"Pingree, David"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephanie_Dalley","url_text":"Dalley, Stephanie"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-814946-8","url_text":"0-19-814946-8"}]},{"reference":"Rochberg, Francesca (2004). The Heavenly Writing: Divination, Horoscopy, and Astronomy in Mesopotamian Culture. Cambridge University Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Stephenson, Bruce (1994). Kepler's Physical Astronomy. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03652-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University_Press","url_text":"Princeton University Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-691-03652-7","url_text":"0-691-03652-7"}]},{"reference":"Aaboe, Asger (2001). Episodes from the Early History of Astronomy. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 0-387-95136-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asger_Aaboe","url_text":"Aaboe, Asger"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-95136-9","url_text":"0-387-95136-9"}]},{"reference":"Berry, Arthur (1898). A Brief History of Astronomy – via Internet Archive.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/shorthistoryofas025511mbp","url_text":"A Brief History of Astronomy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive","url_text":"Internet Archive"}]},{"reference":"Dreyer, J. L. E. (1953) [1906]. History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler (2nd ed.). Dover Publications.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._L._E._Dreyer","url_text":"Dreyer, J. L. E."}]},{"reference":"Eastwood, Bruce (2002). The Revival of Planetary Astronomy in Carolingian and Post-Carolingian Europe. Variorum Collected Studies Series. Vol. CS 279. Ashgate. ISBN 0-86078-868-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86078-868-7","url_text":"0-86078-868-7"}]},{"reference":"Hodson, F. R., ed. (1974). The Place of Astronomy in the Ancient World: A Joint Symposium of the Royal Society and the British Academy. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-725944-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-725944-8","url_text":"0-19-725944-8"}]},{"reference":"Hoskin, Michael (2003). The History of Astronomy: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-280306-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-280306-9","url_text":"0-19-280306-9"}]},{"reference":"Magli, Giulio (2004). \"On the possible discovery of precessional effects in ancient astronomy\". arXiv:physics/0407108.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)","url_text":"arXiv"},{"url":"https://arxiv.org/abs/physics/0407108","url_text":"physics/0407108"}]},{"reference":"Neugebauer, Otto (1969) [1957]. The Exact Sciences in Antiquity (2 ed.). Dover Publications. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudanian_savanna

Sudanian savanna

["1 Etymology","2 Physiographic province","3 Ecoregions","4 Geography","5 Climate","6 Flora","7 Fauna","8 Land use","9 History","9.1 Middle Ages","9.2 Slave trade","9.3 Modern","10 See also","11 References"]

African region south of the Sahel This article is about the bioregion to the south of the Sahel. For the two neighboring countries in North-eastern Africa, see Sudan and South Sudan. Sudan bioregionبِلَادُ السُّوْدَانThroughout the Sudan region's savanna grasslands, kob are found migrating along freshwater bodiesExtension of the western and eastern ecoregions comprising the Sudan bioregion and divided by the Mandara mountainsEcologyRealmAfrotropicalBiomeTropical savannaBordersSahelSuddNorthern Acacia–Commiphoraforest–savanna mosaics (Victoria Basin, Mandara Plateau, Northern Congolian, Guinean)Animalselephant, cheetah, giraffe, lion, buffalo, kobGeographyArea2,550,451 km2 (984,735 sq mi)RiversWhite Nile, Niger and ChariClimate typeTropical savanna (Aw)ConservationConservation statusCritical/endangeredGlobal 200priorityProtected18.1% The Sudanian savanna or Sudan region is a broad belt of tropical savanna that runs east and west across the African continent, from the Ethiopian Highlands in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. It represents the central bioregion within the broader tropical savanna biome of the Afrotropical realm. The Sahel acacia savanna, a belt of drier grasslands, lies to the north, forming a transition zone between the Sudanian savanna and the Sahara Desert phytochorion. To the Sudan's south, the more humid forest-savanna mosaic forms a transition zone between the Sudanian savanna and the Guineo-Congolian forests that lie nearer the equator. Etymology The name Sudan derives from Arabic بلاد السودان (bilād as-sūdān) 'Land of the Blacks', referring to Africa south of the Sahel. Physiographic province The Sudanian savanna is one of the three distinct physiographic provinces of the larger African Massive division. Physiography divides this province into three distinct physiographic sections, the Niger Basin, the Lake Chad Basin, and the Middle Nile Basin. Ecoregions The World Wide Fund for Nature divides the Sudanian savanna bioregion into two ecoregions, separated by the Mandara Plateau: The East Sudanian savanna in East and Central Africa extends westwards from the western lowlands of Ethiopia to the Mandara Mountains. The West Sudanian savanna in West Africa runs from eastern Nigeria to The Gambia West Coast. Geography The area is predominantly a plateau with river valleys of the White Nile, Chad and Niger. It extends over 5,000 km (3,100 mi) in a band several hundred kilometers wide across Africa. It stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in Senegal, through southern Mali (known as French Sudan when it was a French colony), Burkina Faso, southern Niger, northern Ghana, northern Nigeria, southern Chad, Central African Republic, southern Sudan and South Sudan to the Ethiopian Highlands. Climate Average annual temperatures range from 23 to 29 °C (73 to 84 °F). Average temperatures in the coldest months are above 20 °C (68 °F) and above 30 °C (86 °F) in the hottest months. Daily temperatures fluctuate by up to 10–15 °C (18–27 °F). The summer monsoon brings rain from the equator. Annual precipitation ranges from 100–200 mm (3.9–7.9 in) in the north to 1,500–2,000 mm (59–79 in) in the south. During the dry winter season (Köppen Aw), the Harmattan northeasterly wind is bringing hot and dry air from the Sahara. Flora Sudanian savanna vegetation in Burkina Faso Sudanian savanna with bunchgrass tufts of Andropogon gayanus, Pama Reserve, Burkina Faso. The Sudanian savanna is characterized by the coexistence of trees and grasses. Dominant tree species are often belonging to the Combretaceae and Caesalpinioideae; some Acacia species are also important. The dominant grass species are usually Andropogoneae, especially the genera Andropogon and Hyparrhenia, on shallow soils also Loudetia and Aristida. Much of the Sudanian savanna region is used in the form of parklands, where useful trees, such as shea, baobab, locust-bean tree and others are spared from cutting, while sorghum, maize, millet or other crops are cultivated beneath. Fauna Many large mammals are native to the Sudanian savanna, including African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), northern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), giant eland (Taurotragus derbianus derbianus), roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer brachyceros), lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus) cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), and African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). Most large mammals are now very limited in range and numbers. Land use The Sudanian savanna is used by both pastoralists and farmers. Cattle are predominantly the livestock kept, but in some areas, sheep and goats are also kept. The main crops grown are sorghum and millet which are suited to the low levels of rainfall. With increasing levels of drought since the 1970s, pastoralists have needed to move southwards to search for grazing areas and have come into conflict with more settled agriculturalists. History According to some modern historians, of all the regions of Africa, western Sudan "is the one that has seen the longest development of agriculture, of markets and long-distance trade, and of complex political systems." It is also the first region "south of the Sahara where African Islam took root and flowered." Middle Ages Its medieval history is marked by the caravan trade. The sultanates of eastern Sudan were Darfur, Bagirmi, Sennar and Wadai. In central Sudan, Kanem–Bornu Empire and the Hausa Kingdoms. To the west were Wagadou, Manden, Songhay and the Mossi. Later, the Fula people spread to a wide area. During the European colonial period, French Sudan and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan were created in the territories that now form the states of Mali, and Sudan and South Sudan, respectively. Slave trade Early on in the first millennium, many people from the Sudan were used as "a steady steam of slaves for the Mediterranean world" in the Saharan slave trade. With the arrival of the Portuguese in the fifteenth century, "people were directed to the Atlantic slave trade," totaling over a thousand years for the Saharan and four centuries for the Atlantic trades. As a result, slavery critically shaped the institutions and systems of the Sudan. The Portuguese first arrived at Senegambia and found that slavery was "well established" in the region, used to "feed the courts of coastal kings as it was used in the medieval empires of the interior." Between the process of capture, enslavement, and "incorporation into a new community, the slave had neither rights nor any social identity." As a result, the identity of people who were enslaved "came from membership in a corporate group, usually based on kinship." Modern During the period of European colonization, French Sudan was created in the area that would become Mali and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was formed in what would become the present Sudanese and South Sudanese states. See also Neolithic Subpluvial — ancient Green Sahara Sub-Saharan Africa Jews of Bilad el-Sudan References ^ "East Sudanian savanna | DOPA Explorer". dopa-explorer.jrc.ec.europa.eu. ^ Dinerstein, Eric ; Olson, David; Joshi, Anup; et al. (2017-04-05). "An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545, Supplemental material 2 table S1b. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869. ^ International Association for the History of Religions (1959), Numen, Leiden: EJ Brill, p. 131, West Africa may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the west, to the Cameroons in the east; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the Bilad as-Sūdan, 'Land of the Blacks', by the Arabs. ^ a b "East Sudanian savanna". World Wide Fund for Nature. Retrieved 1 November 2016. ^ "West Sudanian savanna". World Wide Fund for Nature. Retrieved 1 November 2016. ^ Alain Atangana; Damase Khasa; Scott Chang; Ann Degrande (2013). Tropical Agroforestry. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 11. ISBN 978-94-007-7723-1. ^ "West Sudanian savanna". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund. ^ Jayalaxshmi Mistry; Andrea Beradi (2014). World Savannas: Ecology and Human Use. Routledge. pp. 124–127. ISBN 978-1-317-88013-4. ^ Klein, Martin A. (1998). Slavery and Colonial Rule in French West Africa. Cambridge University Press. p. 1. ^ Encyclopaedia of Islam IX. pp. 752, 758. ^ Encyclopedia of African History and Culture, volume II. New York: Facts on File, 2005. p. 211. ISBN 0-8160-5270-0. ^ Gale. New Encyclopedia of Africa, volume 4. Farmington Hills. pp. 752, 758. ISBN 978-0-684-31458-7. ^ Klein 1998, p. 1-2. vteRegions of AfricaCentral Guinea region Gulf of Guinea Cape Lopez Mayombe Igboland Mbaise Pool Malebo Congo Basin Chad Basin Cameroonian Highlands forests East Sudanian savanna Congolian rainforests Ouaddaï highlands Ennedi Plateau East African Great Lakes Albertine Rift East African Rift Great Rift Valley Gregory Rift Rift Valley lakes Virunga Mountains Kavirondo Zanj East African montane forests Eastern Arc Mountains Serengeti Horn of Africa Afar Triangle Al-Habash Barbaria Danakil Alps Danakil Desert Ethiopian Highlands Dahlak Archipelago Hanish Islands Gulf of Aden Gulf of Tadjoura Red Sea Indian Ocean islands Comoro Islands Lamu Archipelago Madagascar Central Highlands Northern Highlands Zanzibar Archipelago Swahili coast North Eastern Desert Maghreb Ancient Libya Atlas Mountains Barbary Coast Gibraltar Arc Ifriqiya Nile Valley Nile Delta Bashmur Cataracts of the Nile Darfur Lower Egypt Lower Nubia Middle Egypt Nile Delta Nuba Mountains Nubia The Sudans Upper Egypt Tibesti Mountains Western Sahara South Rhodesia North South Thembuland Succulent Karoo Nama Karoo Bushveld Maputaland Highveld Fynbos Indian Ocean coastal belt Albany thickets Cape Floristic Region Skeleton Coast Kalahari Desert Okavango Delta Cape Peninsula False Bay West Pepper Coast Gold Coast Slave Coast Ivory Coast Cape Palmas Cape Mesurado Guinea region Guinean Forests of West Africa Upper Guinean forests Lower Guinean forests Guinean forest-savanna mosaic Guinea Highlands Gulf of Guinea Dahomey Gap Niger Basin Niger Delta Inner Niger Delta West Sudanian savanna Yorubaland Macro-regions Aethiopia Afromontane Arab world Commonwealth realm Equatorial Africa Françafrique Greater Middle East Guineo-Congolian region Islands of Africa List of countries where Arabic is an official language Mediterranean Basin MENASA Middle East Middle East and North Africa Miombo woodlands Mittelafrika Negroland Northeast Africa Portuguese-speaking African countries Sahara Sahel Southeast Africa Sub-Saharan Africa Sudan (region) Sudanian savanna Tropical Africa Zambezian region

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For the two neighboring countries in North-eastern Africa, see Sudan and South Sudan.The Sudanian savanna or Sudan region is a broad belt of tropical savanna that runs east and west across the African continent, from the Ethiopian Highlands in the east to the Atlantic Ocean in the west. It represents the central bioregion within the broader tropical savanna biome of the Afrotropical realm. The Sahel acacia savanna, a belt of drier grasslands, lies to the north, forming a transition zone between the Sudanian savanna and the Sahara Desert phytochorion. To the Sudan's south, the more humid forest-savanna mosaic forms a transition zone between the Sudanian savanna and the Guineo-Congolian forests that lie nearer the equator.","title":"Sudanian savanna"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Arabic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arabic_language"},{"link_name":"Blacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_people"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The name Sudan derives from Arabic بلاد السودان (bilād as-sūdān) 'Land of the Blacks', referring to Africa south of the Sahel.[3]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"the three","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_physiographic_regions#African_massive"},{"link_name":"physiographic provinces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiographic_province"},{"link_name":"Niger Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_River"},{"link_name":"Lake Chad Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Chad_Basin"},{"link_name":"Middle Nile Basin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Nile_Basin"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWFeast-4"}],"text":"The Sudanian savanna is one of the three distinct physiographic provinces of the larger African Massive division. Physiography divides this province into three distinct physiographic sections, the Niger Basin, the Lake Chad Basin, and the Middle Nile Basin.[4]","title":"Physiographic province"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"World Wide Fund for Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Fund_for_Nature"},{"link_name":"ecoregions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecoregion"},{"link_name":"Mandara Plateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandara_Plateau_mosaic"},{"link_name":"East Sudanian savanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Sudanian_savanna"},{"link_name":"East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Africa"},{"link_name":"Central Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Africa"},{"link_name":"western lowlands of Ethiopia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gambela_Region"},{"link_name":"Mandara Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mandara_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WWFeast-4"},{"link_name":"West Sudanian savanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Sudanian_savanna"},{"link_name":"West Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa"},{"link_name":"eastern Nigeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adamawa_State"},{"link_name":"The Gambia West Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Coast_Division_(The_Gambia)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"The World Wide Fund for Nature divides the Sudanian savanna bioregion into two ecoregions, separated by the Mandara Plateau:The East Sudanian savanna in East and Central Africa extends westwards from the western lowlands of Ethiopia to the Mandara Mountains.[4]\nThe West Sudanian savanna in West Africa runs from eastern Nigeria to The Gambia West Coast.[5]","title":"Ecoregions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"plateau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plateau"},{"link_name":"river valleys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/River_valleys"},{"link_name":"White Nile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Nile"},{"link_name":"Chad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad_Basin"},{"link_name":"Niger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger_(river)"},{"link_name":"Senegal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegal"},{"link_name":"Mali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali"},{"link_name":"French Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Sudan"},{"link_name":"French colony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_French_possessions_and_colonies"},{"link_name":"Burkina Faso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Faso"},{"link_name":"Niger","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niger"},{"link_name":"Ghana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghana"},{"link_name":"Nigeria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nigeria"},{"link_name":"Chad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad"},{"link_name":"Central African Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_African_Republic"},{"link_name":"Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan"},{"link_name":"South Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Sudan"},{"link_name":"Ethiopian Highlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethiopian_Highlands"}],"text":"The area is predominantly a plateau with river valleys of the White Nile, Chad and Niger. It extends over 5,000 km (3,100 mi) in a band several hundred kilometers wide across Africa. It stretches from the Atlantic Ocean in Senegal, through southern Mali (known as French Sudan when it was a French colony), Burkina Faso, southern Niger, northern Ghana, northern Nigeria, southern Chad, Central African Republic, southern Sudan and South Sudan to the Ethiopian Highlands.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"monsoon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_monsoon"},{"link_name":"Köppen Aw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification#Aw:_Tropical_savanna_climate_with_dry_winters"},{"link_name":"Harmattan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmattan"}],"text":"Average annual temperatures range from 23 to 29 °C (73 to 84 °F). Average temperatures in the coldest months are above 20 °C (68 °F) and above 30 °C (86 °F) in the hottest months. Daily temperatures fluctuate by up to 10–15 °C (18–27 °F). The summer monsoon brings rain from the equator. Annual precipitation ranges from 100–200 mm (3.9–7.9 in) in the north to 1,500–2,000 mm (59–79 in) in the south. During the dry winter season (Köppen Aw), the Harmattan northeasterly wind is bringing hot and dry air from the Sahara.","title":"Climate"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Pic_de_Nahouri_MS4263.jpg"},{"link_name":"vegetation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetation"},{"link_name":"Burkina Faso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Faso"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ms_744_obs_natiabouani_02.jpg"},{"link_name":"Andropogon gayanus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andropogon_gayanus"},{"link_name":"Pama Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pama_Reserve"},{"link_name":"Burkina Faso","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burkina_Faso"},{"link_name":"Combretaceae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combretaceae"},{"link_name":"Caesalpinioideae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caesalpinioideae"},{"link_name":"Acacia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acacia"},{"link_name":"Andropogoneae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andropogoneae"},{"link_name":"Andropogon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andropogon"},{"link_name":"Hyparrhenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyparrhenia"},{"link_name":"Loudetia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loudetia"},{"link_name":"Aristida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aristida"},{"link_name":"shea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shea_tree"},{"link_name":"baobab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adansonia_digitata"},{"link_name":"locust-bean tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parkia_biglobosa"},{"link_name":"sorghum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorghum"},{"link_name":"maize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize"},{"link_name":"millet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Sudanian savanna vegetation in Burkina FasoSudanian savanna with bunchgrass tufts of Andropogon gayanus, Pama Reserve, Burkina Faso.The Sudanian savanna is characterized by the coexistence of trees and grasses. Dominant tree species are often belonging to the Combretaceae and Caesalpinioideae; some Acacia species are also important. The dominant grass species are usually Andropogoneae, especially the genera Andropogon and Hyparrhenia, on shallow soils also Loudetia and Aristida. Much of the Sudanian savanna region is used in the form of parklands, where useful trees, such as shea, baobab, locust-bean tree and others are spared from cutting, while sorghum, maize, millet or other crops are cultivated beneath.[6]","title":"Flora"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"African bush elephant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_bush_elephant"},{"link_name":"northern giraffe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_giraffe"},{"link_name":"giant eland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_eland"},{"link_name":"roan antelope","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roan_antelope"},{"link_name":"African buffalo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_buffalo"},{"link_name":"lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lion"},{"link_name":"leopard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopard"},{"link_name":"cheetah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cheetah"},{"link_name":"African wild dog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_wild_dog"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wwf-7"}],"text":"Many large mammals are native to the Sudanian savanna, including African bush elephant (Loxodonta africana), northern giraffe (Giraffa camelopardalis), giant eland (Taurotragus derbianus derbianus), roan antelope (Hippotragus equinus), African buffalo (Syncerus caffer brachyceros), lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus) cheetah (Acinonyx jubatus), and African wild dog (Lycaon pictus). Most large mammals are now very limited in range and numbers.[7]","title":"Fauna"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sorghum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorghum"},{"link_name":"millet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Millet"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jayalaxshmi-8"}],"text":"The Sudanian savanna is used by both pastoralists and farmers. Cattle are predominantly the livestock kept, but in some areas, sheep and goats are also kept. The main crops grown are sorghum and millet which are suited to the low levels of rainfall. With increasing levels of drought since the 1970s, pastoralists have needed to move southwards to search for grazing areas and have come into conflict with more settled agriculturalists.[8]","title":"Land use"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"According to some modern historians, of all the regions of Africa, western Sudan \"is the one that has seen the longest development of agriculture, of markets and long-distance trade, and of complex political systems.\" It is also the first region \"south of the Sahara where African Islam took root and flowered.\"[9]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"caravan trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"sultanates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate"},{"link_name":"Darfur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_Darfur"},{"link_name":"Bagirmi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_Bagirmi"},{"link_name":"Sennar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sennar"},{"link_name":"Wadai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wadai_Sultanate"},{"link_name":"Kanem–Bornu Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire"},{"link_name":"Hausa Kingdoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hausa_Kingdoms"},{"link_name":"Wagadou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wagadou"},{"link_name":"Manden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mand%C3%A9_peoples"},{"link_name":"Songhay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Songhai_Empire"},{"link_name":"Mossi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mossi_people"},{"link_name":"Fula people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fula_people"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"French Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Sudan"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Egyptian Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan"},{"link_name":"Mali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mali"},{"link_name":"Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudan"},{"link_name":"South Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Sudan"}],"sub_title":"Middle Ages","text":"Its medieval history is marked by the caravan trade.[10] The sultanates of eastern Sudan were Darfur, Bagirmi, Sennar and Wadai. In central Sudan, Kanem–Bornu Empire and the Hausa Kingdoms. To the west were Wagadou, Manden, Songhay and the Mossi. Later, the Fula people spread to a wide area.[11][12] During the European colonial period, French Sudan and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan were created in the territories that now form the states of Mali, and Sudan and South Sudan, respectively.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"first millennium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_millennium"},{"link_name":"Saharan slave trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saharan_slave_trade"},{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_Empire"},{"link_name":"Atlantic slave trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade"},{"link_name":"Senegambia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Senegambia"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Slave trade","text":"Early on in the first millennium, many people from the Sudan were used as \"a steady steam of slaves for the Mediterranean world\" in the Saharan slave trade. With the arrival of the Portuguese in the fifteenth century, \"people were directed to the Atlantic slave trade,\" totaling over a thousand years for the Saharan and four centuries for the Atlantic trades. As a result, slavery critically shaped the institutions and systems of the Sudan. The Portuguese first arrived at Senegambia and found that slavery was \"well established\" in the region, used to \"feed the courts of coastal kings as it was used in the medieval empires of the interior.\" Between the process of capture, enslavement, and \"incorporation into a new community, the slave had neither rights nor any social identity.\" As a result, the identity of people who were enslaved \"came from membership in a corporate group, usually based on kinship.\"[13]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"period of European colonization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scramble_for_Africa"},{"link_name":"French Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Sudan"},{"link_name":"Anglo-Egyptian Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Sudan"}],"sub_title":"Modern","text":"During the period of European colonization, French Sudan was created in the area that would become Mali and Anglo-Egyptian Sudan was formed in what would become the present Sudanese and South Sudanese states.","title":"History"}]

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[{"title":"Neolithic Subpluvial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neolithic_Subpluvial"},{"title":"Sub-Saharan Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa"},{"title":"Jews of Bilad el-Sudan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jews_of_Bilad_el-Sudan"}]

[{"reference":"\"East Sudanian savanna | DOPA Explorer\". dopa-explorer.jrc.ec.europa.eu.","urls":[{"url":"https://dopa-explorer.jrc.ec.europa.eu/ecoregion/30705","url_text":"\"East Sudanian savanna | DOPA Explorer\""}]},{"reference":"Dinerstein, Eric [in German]; Olson, David; Joshi, Anup; et al. (2017-04-05). \"An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm\". BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545, Supplemental material 2 table S1b. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.","urls":[{"url":"https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Dinerstein","url_text":"Dinerstein, Eric"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5451287","url_text":"\"An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BioScience","url_text":"BioScience"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fbiosci%2Fbix014","url_text":"10.1093/biosci/bix014"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0006-3568","url_text":"0006-3568"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMC_(identifier)","url_text":"PMC"},{"url":"https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5451287","url_text":"5451287"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28608869","url_text":"28608869"}]},{"reference":"International Association for the History of Religions (1959), Numen, Leiden: EJ Brill, p. 131, West Africa may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the west, to the Cameroons in the east; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the Bilad as-Sūdan, 'Land of the Blacks', by the Arabs","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"East Sudanian savanna\". World Wide Fund for Nature. Retrieved 1 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0705","url_text":"\"East Sudanian savanna\""}]},{"reference":"\"West Sudanian savanna\". World Wide Fund for Nature. Retrieved 1 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0722","url_text":"\"West Sudanian savanna\""}]},{"reference":"Alain Atangana; Damase Khasa; Scott Chang; Ann Degrande (2013). Tropical Agroforestry. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 11. ISBN 978-94-007-7723-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=7lvFBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA11","url_text":"Tropical Agroforestry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-94-007-7723-1","url_text":"978-94-007-7723-1"}]},{"reference":"\"West Sudanian savanna\". Terrestrial Ecoregions. World Wildlife Fund.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0722","url_text":"\"West Sudanian savanna\""}]},{"reference":"Jayalaxshmi Mistry; Andrea Beradi (2014). World Savannas: Ecology and Human Use. Routledge. pp. 124–127. ISBN 978-1-317-88013-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=A0qDBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA124","url_text":"World Savannas: Ecology and Human Use"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-88013-4","url_text":"978-1-317-88013-4"}]},{"reference":"Encyclopaedia of Islam IX. pp. 752, 758.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Encyclopedia of African History and Culture, volume II. New York: Facts on File, 2005. p. 211. ISBN 0-8160-5270-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8160-5270-0","url_text":"0-8160-5270-0"}]},{"reference":"Gale. New Encyclopedia of Africa, volume 4. Farmington Hills. pp. 752, 758. ISBN 978-0-684-31458-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-684-31458-7","url_text":"978-0-684-31458-7"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior

United States Department of the Interior

["1 History","1.1 Formation of the department","1.2 Controversies","2 American Indians","3 Operating units","4 Awards","5 Regions","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links"]

Coordinates: 38°53′40″N 77°02′33″W / 38.89444°N 77.04250°W / 38.89444; -77.04250Department of the US federal government "USDOI" redirects here. For the precursor to the FBI, see United States Division of Investigation. For the statement, see United States Declaration of Independence. United States Department of the InteriorSeal of the U.S. Department of the InteriorFlag of the U.S. Department of the InteriorMain Interior BuildingAgency overviewFormedMarch 3, 1849; 175 years ago (1849-03-03)TypeDepartmentJurisdictionU.S. federal governmentHeadquartersMain Interior Building1849 C Street NWWashington, D.C., U.S.2024038°53′40″N 77°02′33″W / 38.89444°N 77.04250°W / 38.89444; -77.04250Employees67,026 (2022)Annual budget$17.6 billion (2022)Agency executivesDeb Haaland, SecretaryLaura Daniel-Davis, Acting Deputy SecretaryWebsitewww.doi.gov The United States Department of the Interior (DOI) is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the management and conservation of most federal lands and natural resources. It also administers programs relating to Native Americans, Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, territorial affairs, and insular areas of the United States, as well as programs related to historic preservation. About 75% of federal public land is managed by the department, with most of the remainder managed by the Department of Agriculture's Forest Service. The department was created on March 3, 1849. It is headquartered at the Main Interior Building, located at 1849 C Street NW in Washington, D.C. The department is headed by the secretary of the interior, who reports directly to the president of the United States and is a member of the president's Cabinet. The current secretary is Deb Haaland. As of mid-2004, the department managed 507 million acres (2,050,000 km2) of surface land, or about one-fifth of the land in the United States. It manages 476 dams and 348 reservoirs through the Bureau of Reclamation, 429 national parks, monuments, historical sites, etc. through the National Park Service, and 544 national wildlife refuges through the Fish and Wildlife Service. Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the interior ministries of other nations, which are usually responsible for police matters and internal security. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily and the Department of Justice secondarily. The Department of the Interior has often been humorously called "the Department of Everything Else" because of its broad range of responsibilities. History Formation of the department A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, but those duties were placed in the Department of State. The idea of a separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by presidents from James Madison to James Polk. The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the proposal new steam as the responsibilities of the federal government grew. Polk's secretary of the treasury, Robert J. Walker, became a vocal champion of creating the new department. In 1849, Walker stated in his annual report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. He noted that the United States General Land Office had little to do with the Treasury and also highlighted the Indian Affairs office, part of the Department of War, and the Patent Office, part of the Department of State. Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be brought together in a new Department of the Interior. A bill authorizing its creation of the department passed the House of Representatives on February 15, 1849, and spent just over two weeks in the Senate. The department was established on March 3, 1849 (9 Stat. 395), the eve of President Zachary Taylor's inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill. The first secretary of the interior was Thomas Ewing. Several of the domestic concerns the department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other departments. For example, the Department of Interior was responsible for water pollution control prior to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency. Other agencies became separate departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture, which later became the Department of Agriculture. However, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain the responsibilities of the Department of the Interior. Controversies Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall was implicated in the Teapot Dome scandal of 1921. He was convicted of bribery in 1929, and served one year in prison, for his part in the controversy. A major factor in the scandal was a transfer of certain oil leases from the jurisdiction of the Department of the Navy to that of the Department of the Interior, at Fall's behest. Secretary of the Interior James G. Watt faced criticism for his alleged hostility to environmentalism, for his support of the development and use of federal lands by foresting, ranching, and other commercial interests, and for banning the Beach Boys from playing a 1983 Independence Day concert on the National Mall out of concerns of attracting "an undesirable element". His 1983 resignation was prompted by a speech in which he said about his staff: "I have a black, a woman, two Jews and a cripple. And we have talent." Under the Administration of President George W. Bush, the Interior Department's maintenance backlog climbed from $5 billion to $8.7 billion, despite Bush's campaign pledges to eliminate it completely. Of the agency under Bush's leadership, Interior Department Inspector General Earl Devaney has cited a "culture of fear" and of "ethical failure." Devaney has also said, "Simply stated, short of a crime, anything goes at the highest levels of the Department of Interior." American Indians Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with American Indians, while others are handled by the Office of Special Trustee. The current acting assistant secretary for Indian affairs is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin. The department has been the subject of disputes over proper accounting for American Indian Trusts set up to track the income and distribution of monies that are generated by the trust and specific American Indian lands, which the government leases for fees to companies that extract oil, timber, minerals, and other resources. Several cases have sought an accounting of such funds from departments within the Interior and Treasury (such as the Minerals Management Service), in what has been a 15-year-old lawsuit. Some American Indian nations have also sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US. In 2010 Congress passed the Claims Settlement Act of 2010 (Public Law 111-291), which provided $3.4 billion for the settlement of the Cobell v. Salazar class-action trust case and four American Indian water rights cases. On March 16, 2021, Deb Haaland, serving at that time as a member of Congress for New Mexico, took the oath of office as secretary, becoming the first American Indian to lead an executive department, and the third woman to lead the department. Operating units The hierarchy of the U.S. Department of the Interior Assistant Secretary for Policy, Management, and Budget Deputy Assistant Secretary for Policy and International AffairsLogo of the National Invasive Species Council Office of Environmental Policy and Compliance Office of International Affairs Office of Native Hawaiian Relations Office of Restoration and Damage Assessment Office of Policy Analysis National Invasive Species Council Deputy Assistant Secretary for Budget, Finance, Performance and AcquisitionOffice of Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization Deputy Director, Michelle E. Warren, leading an awards ceremony in Washington, D.C. Office of Budget Office of Financial Management Office of Planning and Performance Management Business Integration Office Office of Acquisition and Property Management Office of Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization Deputy Assistant Secretary for Human Capital and Diversity Office of Human Resources Office of Occupational Safety and Health Office of Strategic Employee and Organizational Development Office of Civil Rights Deputy Assistant Secretary for Technology, Information and Business Services Office of Collaborative Action and Dispute Resolution Appraisal and Valuation Services Office Interior Business Center Office of Hearings and Appeals Office of Facilities and Administrative Services Office of the Chief Information Officer Deputy Assistant Secretary for Public Safety, Resources Protection and Emergency Services (DAS-PRE) Office of Emergency Management (OEM) Office of Law Enforcement and Security (OLES) Office of Wildland Fire Office of Aviation Services (OAS) Interagency Borderlands Coordinator Deputy Assistant Secretary for Natural Resources Revenue Management Office of Natural Resources Revenue Assistant Secretary for Fish, Wildlife, and ParksDeputy Assistant Secretary for Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Michael Bean (third from left), at the dedication of San Antonio Missions UNESCO World Heritage Site Eastern entry station to Yosemite National Park National Park Service Fish and Wildlife Service personnel in Texas United States Fish and Wildlife Service Assistant Secretary for Indian Affairs Deputy Assistant Secretary for Management Office of the Chief Financial Officer (OCFO) Office of the Chief Information Officer (OCIO) Office of Human Capital Management (OHCM) Office of Planning and Policy Analysis (OPPA) Office of Facilities, Environmental and Cultural Resources (OFECR) Deputy Assistant Secretary for Policy and Economic Development Office of Indian Energy and Economic Development (IEED) Office of Indian Gaming (OIG) Office of Self-Governance (OSG) A Bureau of Indian Affairs firefighter at the La Jolla Indian Reservation Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA) Office of Indian Services (OIS) Office of Field Operations (OFO) Office of Justice Services (OJS) Office of Trust Services (OTS) 2016 map of Bureau of Indian Education schools Bureau of Indian Education (BIE) Office of External Affairs Office of Congressional and Legislative Affairs (OCLA) Office of Public Affairs (OPA) Office of Federal Acknowledgment (OFA) Office of Regulatory Management (ORM) Assistant Secretary for Land and Minerals Management A Bureau of Land Management Wilderness Study Area in northern Alaska Bureau of Land Management Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement Assistant Secretary for Water and Science United States Geological Survey Bureau of Reclamation Central Utah Project Completion Act Office Assistant Secretary for Insular and International Affairs Office of Insular Affairs Office of International Affairs Ocean, Great Lakes and Coastal Activities Program Office Solicitor Office of the Solicitor (SOL) Office of the Inspector General (OIG) Office of General Counsel Assistant Inspector General for Investigations Office of Investigations Assistant Inspector General for Audits, Inspections, and Evaluations Office of Audits, Inspections, and Evaluations Assistant Inspector General for Management Office of Management Associate Inspector General for External Affairs Associate Inspector General for Whistleblower Protection Strategy Management Office Associate Inspector General for Communications Chief Information Officer Special Trustee for American Indians Federal Executive Boards Interior Museum National Indian Gaming Commission (NIGC) Awards DOI Convocation Honor Award is the most prestigious recognition that can be granted by the department. The following awards are presented at the Honor Awards Convocation: Safety and Health Award of Excellence & Aviation Safety Award Distinguished Service Award Citizen's Award for Bravery Valor Award Regions In 2018, DOI established 12 organizational regions to be used across the department. These superseded the previous 49 regions used across 8 agencies. See also United States portalPolitics portal America's Great Outdoors Initiative Environmental policy of the United States USA.gov References ^ "Staffing" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on May 25, 2022. Retrieved May 25, 2022. ^ "Departmental Overview" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on May 16, 2022. Retrieved May 25, 2022. ^ GAO, "Federal Land Management: Observations on a Possible Move of the Forest Service into the Department of the Interior" Archived July 3, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, February 11, 2009 ^ "History" Archived August 14, 2015, at the Wayback Machine, National Park Service web page. Retrieved May 20, 2010. ^ "U.S. Department of the Inteior: The Department of Everything Else". National Park Service. Archived from the original on June 17, 2021. Retrieved February 24, 2023. ^ "Robert J Walker Secretary of the Treasury 1845-1849". Treasury Department. Archived from the original on October 3, 2022. Retrieved October 3, 2022. ^ "History of the Department of the Interior". www.doi.gov. July 1, 2015. Archived from the original on March 17, 2022. Retrieved February 24, 2023. ^ Elkins, Chuck (October 2013). "Transcript of "Behind the Scenes at the Creation of the EPA" Video" (PDF). EPA Alumni Association. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 12, 2019. Retrieved August 20, 2018. ^ 556. James G Watt, US Secretary of the Interior., "Simpson's Contemporary Quotations" (1988) via bartleby.com and Wayback Machine. ^ "RMOA – Document". Archived from the original on January 8, 2009. Retrieved October 29, 2008. ^ Cart, Julie. "Bush legacy leaves uphill climb for U.S. parks", Los Angeles Times, January 25, 2009. ^ Curtis, Mary C., "Obama Hails Passage of Settlement for Native Americans, Black Farmers" Archived February 1, 2011, at the Wayback Machine, The Huffington Post, November 30, 2010. Accessed December 1, 2011. ^ Warren, James, "A Victory for Native Americans?" Archived February 27, 2017, at the Wayback Machine, The Atlantic, 7 June 2010. ^ Chavez, Aliyah (March 16, 2021). "Deb Haaland swearing in details announced". Indian Country Today. Archived from the original on March 17, 2021. Retrieved March 17, 2021. ^ "Department of Interior Awards & Recognition". Department of Interior. September 12, 2019. Archived from the original on May 22, 2021. Retrieved June 19, 2021. ^ "Unified Interior Regional Boundaries". www.doi.gov. February 22, 2018. Archived from the original on August 21, 2021. Retrieved January 29, 2023. Further reading Black, Megan. The Global Interior: Mineral Frontiers and American Power. Harvard University Press, 2018. Utley, Robert M. and Barry Mackintosh; The Department of Everything Else: Highlights of Interior History; Dept. of the Interior, Washington, D.C.; 1989 External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to United States Department of the Interior. U.S. Department of the Interior records are archived at the American Heritage Center, University of Wyoming. Official website Department of the Interior on USAspending.gov Department of the Interior in the Federal Register Works by United States Department of the Interior at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks) The Department of Everything Else: Highlights of Interior History Archived December 23, 2005, at the Wayback Machine "Sex, Drug Use and Graft cited in Interior Department", The New York Times, September 10, 2008 vteUnited States Department of the Interior Headquarters: Main Interior Building Deb Haaland, Secretary of the Interior Laura Daniel-Davis, Acting Deputy Secretary of the Interior Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau of Indian Education Bureau of Land Management Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement Bureau of Reclamation Bureau of Trust Funds Administration National Indian Gaming Commission National Park Service Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement United States Fish and Wildlife Service United States Geological Survey Office of the Assistant Secretary for Insular and International Affairs Office of the Solicitor Office of Natural Resources Revenue Central Utah Project Completion Act Office Indian Arts and Crafts Board National Invasive Species Council vteUnited States government agencies involved in environmental science Environmental Protection Agency Global Change Research Program National Aeronautics and Space Administration National Science Foundation Smithsonian Institution Department of the Interior Bureau of Indian Affairs Bureau of Land Management Bureau of Ocean Energy Management Bureau of Reclamation National Park Service United States Fish and Wildlife Service United States Geological Survey Office of the Assistant Secretary for Insular and International Affairs Office of Surface Mining, Reclamation, and Enforcement Department of Commerce National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration Geodetic Survey Marine Fisheries Service Ocean Service Oceanic and Atmospheric Research Weather Service Department of Energy Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy Office of Environmental Management Office of Science National Laboratories and Technology Centers Department of Agriculture Agricultural Research Service Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service Farm Service Agency Food and Nutrition Service Foreign Agricultural Service Natural Resources Conservation Service (National Water and Climate Center) Rural Utilities Service Forest Service Department of Homeland Security Science and Technology Directorate United States Coast Guard Department of Health and Human Services Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry Centers for Disease Control and Prevention National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences Department of Defense Air Force Research Laboratory Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency Joint Typhoon Warning Center Office of Naval Research Combat Capabilities Development Command Executive Office of the President Climate Policy Office Clean Energy Innovation and Implementation U.S. Special Presidential Envoy for Climate Council on Environmental Quality Defunct Environmental Science Services Administration United States Fish Commission United States Coast and Geodetic Survey White House Office of Energy and Climate Change Policy vteFederal executive departments of the United States of AmericaCurrent Agriculture Commerce Defense Education Energy Health and Human Services Homeland Security Housing and Urban Development Interior Justice Labor State Transportation Treasury Veterans Affairs Former Air Force Army Commerce and Labor Health, Education, and Welfare Navy Post Office War Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF National Norway France BnF data Germany Israel United States Japan Australia Greece Korea 2 Croatia Poland Portugal Academics CiNii Artists ULAN People Trove Other RISM IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States Division of Investigation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Bureau_of_Investigation"},{"link_name":"United States Declaration of Independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Declaration_of_Independence"},{"link_name":"executive department","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_federal_executive_departments"},{"link_name":"U.S. federal government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_government_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"federal lands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_lands"},{"link_name":"natural resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resources"},{"link_name":"Native Americans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Alaska Natives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Natives"},{"link_name":"Native Hawaiians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native_Hawaiians"},{"link_name":"insular areas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_area"},{"link_name":"Department of Agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture"},{"link_name":"Forest Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Forest_Service"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Main Interior Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Main_Interior_Building"},{"link_name":"NW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest,_Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"secretary of the interior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior"},{"link_name":"president of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/President_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Deb Haaland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deb_Haaland"},{"link_name":"reservoirs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reservoir_(water)"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Reclamation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Reclamation"},{"link_name":"national parks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_park"},{"link_name":"National Park Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Park_Service"},{"link_name":"wildlife refuges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wildlife_refuge"},{"link_name":"Fish and Wildlife Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_and_Wildlife_Service"},{"link_name":"interior ministries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_ministry"},{"link_name":"Department of Homeland Security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Homeland_Security"},{"link_name":"Department of Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Justice"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Department of the US federal government\"USDOI\" redirects here. For the precursor to the FBI, see United States Division of Investigation. For the statement, see United States Declaration of Independence.The United States Department of the Interior (DOI) is an executive department of the U.S. federal government responsible for the management and conservation of most federal lands and natural resources. It also administers programs relating to Native Americans, Alaska Natives, Native Hawaiians, territorial affairs, and insular areas of the United States, as well as programs related to historic preservation. About 75% of federal public land is managed by the department, with most of the remainder managed by the Department of Agriculture's Forest Service.[3] The department was created on March 3, 1849. It is headquartered at the Main Interior Building, located at 1849 C Street NW in Washington, D.C.The department is headed by the secretary of the interior, who reports directly to the president of the United States and is a member of the president's Cabinet. The current secretary is Deb Haaland.As of mid-2004, the department managed 507 million acres (2,050,000 km2) of surface land, or about one-fifth of the land in the United States. It manages 476 dams and 348 reservoirs through the Bureau of Reclamation, 429 national parks, monuments, historical sites, etc. through the National Park Service, and 544 national wildlife refuges through the Fish and Wildlife Service.Despite its name, the Department of the Interior has a different role from that of the interior ministries of other nations, which are usually responsible for police matters and internal security. In the United States, national security and immigration functions are performed by the Department of Homeland Security primarily and the Department of Justice secondarily. The Department of the Interior has often been humorously called \"the Department of Everything Else\" because of its broad range of responsibilities.[4]","title":"United States Department of the Interior"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"1st United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1st_United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"Department of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State"},{"link_name":"James Madison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Madison"},{"link_name":"James Polk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Polk"},{"link_name":"Mexican–American War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican%E2%80%93American_War"},{"link_name":"secretary of the treasury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Treasury"},{"link_name":"Robert J. Walker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_J._Walker"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"United States General Land Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_General_Land_Office"},{"link_name":"Indian Affairs office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs"},{"link_name":"Department of War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_War"},{"link_name":"Patent Office","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Patent_and_Trademark_Office"},{"link_name":"Department of State","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_State"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"House of Representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"Senate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate"},{"link_name":"Stat.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Statutes_at_Large"},{"link_name":"395","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//legislink.org/us/stat-9-395"},{"link_name":"Zachary Taylor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zachary_Taylor"},{"link_name":"Democrats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"patronage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patronage"},{"link_name":"Whig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whig_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"secretary of the interior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Secretary_of_the_Interior"},{"link_name":"Thomas Ewing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Ewing"},{"link_name":"Environmental Protection Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_Protection_Agency"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Agriculture"},{"link_name":"Department of Agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture"}],"sub_title":"Formation of the department","text":"A department for domestic concern was first considered by the 1st United States Congress in 1789, but those duties were placed in the Department of State. The idea of a separate domestic department continued to percolate for a half-century and was supported by presidents from James Madison to James Polk. The 1846–48 Mexican–American War gave the proposal new steam as the responsibilities of the federal government grew. Polk's secretary of the treasury, Robert J. Walker, became a vocal champion of creating the new department.[5][6][7]In 1849, Walker stated in his annual report that several federal offices were placed in departments with which they had little to do. He noted that the United States General Land Office had little to do with the Treasury and also highlighted the Indian Affairs office, part of the Department of War, and the Patent Office, part of the Department of State. Walker argued that these and other bureaus should be brought together in a new Department of the Interior.[citation needed] A bill authorizing its creation of the department passed the House of Representatives on February 15, 1849, and spent just over two weeks in the Senate. The department was established on March 3, 1849 (9 Stat. 395), the eve of President Zachary Taylor's inauguration, when the Senate voted 31 to 25 to create the department. Its passage was delayed by Democrats in Congress who were reluctant to create more patronage posts for the incoming Whig administration to fill. The first secretary of the interior was Thomas Ewing.Several of the domestic concerns the department originally dealt with were gradually transferred to other departments. For example, the Department of Interior was responsible for water pollution control prior to the creation of the Environmental Protection Agency.[8] Other agencies became separate departments, such as the Bureau of Agriculture, which later became the Department of Agriculture. However, land and natural resource management, American Indian affairs, wildlife conservation, and territorial affairs remain the responsibilities of the Department of the Interior.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Albert B. Fall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albert_B._Fall"},{"link_name":"Teapot Dome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teapot_Dome"},{"link_name":"Department of the Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Navy"},{"link_name":"James G. Watt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_G._Watt"},{"link_name":"the Beach Boys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Beach_Boys"},{"link_name":"National Mall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Mall"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-bart-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"George W. Bush","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_W._Bush"},{"link_name":"Earl Devaney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Earl_Devaney"},{"link_name":"culture of fear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_fear"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lat012409-11"}],"sub_title":"Controversies","text":"Secretary of the Interior Albert B. Fall was implicated in the Teapot Dome scandal of 1921. He was convicted of bribery in 1929, and served one year in prison, for his part in the controversy. A major factor in the scandal was a transfer of certain oil leases from the jurisdiction of the Department of the Navy to that of the Department of the Interior, at Fall's behest.Secretary of the Interior James G. Watt faced criticism for his alleged hostility to environmentalism, for his support of the development and use of federal lands by foresting, ranching, and other commercial interests, and for banning the Beach Boys from playing a 1983 Independence Day concert on the National Mall out of concerns of attracting \"an undesirable element\". His 1983 resignation was prompted by a speech in which he said about his staff: \"I have a black, a woman, two Jews and a cripple. And we have talent.\"[9][10]Under the Administration of President George W. Bush, the Interior Department's maintenance backlog climbed from $5 billion to $8.7 billion, despite Bush's campaign pledges to eliminate it completely. Of the agency under Bush's leadership, Interior Department Inspector General Earl Devaney has cited a \"culture of fear\" and of \"ethical failure.\" Devaney has also said, \"Simply stated, short of a crime, anything goes at the highest levels of the Department of Interior.\"[11]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bureau of Indian Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs"},{"link_name":"Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oneida_Nation_of_Wisconsin"},{"link_name":"Cobell v. Salazar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobell_v._Salazar"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Warren-13"},{"link_name":"Deb Haaland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deb_Haaland"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"Within the Interior Department, the Bureau of Indian Affairs handles some federal relations with American Indians, while others are handled by the Office of Special Trustee. The current acting assistant secretary for Indian affairs is Lawrence S. Roberts, an enrolled member of the Oneida Tribe in Wisconsin.The department has been the subject of disputes over proper accounting for American Indian Trusts set up to track the income and distribution of monies that are generated by the trust and specific American Indian lands, which the government leases for fees to companies that extract oil, timber, minerals, and other resources. Several cases have sought an accounting of such funds from departments within the Interior and Treasury (such as the Minerals Management Service), in what has been a 15-year-old lawsuit. Some American Indian nations have also sued the government over water-rights issues and their treaties with the US. In 2010 Congress passed the Claims Settlement Act of 2010 (Public Law 111-291), which provided $3.4 billion for the settlement of the Cobell v. Salazar class-action trust case and four American Indian water rights cases.[12][13]On March 16, 2021, Deb Haaland, serving at that time as a member of Congress for New Mexico, took the oath of office as secretary, becoming the first American Indian to lead an executive department, and the third woman to lead the department.[14]","title":"American Indians"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Department_of_interior.jpg"},{"link_name":"hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hierarchy"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vertical_NISC_Logo_(13592513375).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:20170621-DM-LSC-0288_(35453021775).jpg"},{"link_name":"Office of Emergency Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Emergency_Management"},{"link_name":"Assistant Secretary for Fish, Wildlife, and Parks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assistant_Secretary_for_Fish_and_Wildlife_and_Parks"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:San_Antonio_Missions_WHS_dedication_ceremony_(22234797786).jpg"},{"link_name":"San Antonio Missions UNESCO World Heritage Site","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Antonio_Missions_(World_Heritage_Site)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tioga_Pass_entry_station.jpg"},{"link_name":"Yosemite National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yosemite_National_Park"},{"link_name":"National Park Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Park_Service"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sean_Edwards_(40680590754).png"},{"link_name":"United States Fish and Wildlife Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Fish_and_Wildlife_Service"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:FEMA_-_33490_-_Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs_firefighter_in_California.jpg"},{"link_name":"La Jolla Indian Reservation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/La_Jolla_Band_of_Luiseno_Indians#Reservation"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Indian Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Figure_1-_Locations_of_Bureau_of_Indian_Education_Schools_by_Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs_Region_(26179452402).jpg"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Indian Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Education"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Central_Arctic_Management_Area_WSA_(14938300660).jpg"},{"link_name":"Wilderness Study Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilderness_Study_Area"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Land Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Land_Management"},{"link_name":"Office of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Surface_Mining_Reclamation_and_Enforcement"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Ocean Energy Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Ocean_Energy_Management"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Safety_and_Environmental_Enforcement"},{"link_name":"United States Geological Survey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Geological_Survey"},{"link_name":"Bureau of Reclamation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bureau_of_Reclamation"},{"link_name":"Office of Insular Affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_Insular_Affairs"},{"link_name":"Office of the Inspector General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Inspector_General"},{"link_name":"Federal Executive Boards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Executive_Boards"},{"link_name":"Interior Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interior_Museum"},{"link_name":"National Indian Gaming Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Indian_Gaming_Commission"}],"text":"The hierarchy of the U.S. Department of the InteriorAssistant Secretary for Policy, Management, and Budget\nDeputy Assistant Secretary for Policy and International AffairsLogo of the National Invasive Species Council\nOffice of Environmental Policy and Compliance\nOffice of International Affairs\nOffice of Native Hawaiian Relations\nOffice of Restoration and Damage Assessment\nOffice of Policy Analysis\nNational Invasive Species Council\nDeputy Assistant Secretary for Budget, Finance, Performance and AcquisitionOffice of Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization Deputy Director, Michelle E. Warren, leading an awards ceremony in Washington, D.C.\nOffice of Budget\nOffice of Financial Management\nOffice of Planning and Performance Management\nBusiness Integration Office [administers the Financial and Business Management System (FBMS)]\nOffice of Acquisition and Property Management\nOffice of Small and Disadvantaged Business Utilization\nDeputy Assistant Secretary for Human Capital and Diversity\nOffice of Human Resources\nOffice of Occupational Safety and Health\nOffice of Strategic Employee and Organizational Development\nOffice of Civil Rights\nDeputy Assistant Secretary for Technology, Information and Business Services\nOffice of Collaborative Action and Dispute Resolution\nAppraisal and Valuation Services Office\nInterior Business Center\nOffice of Hearings and Appeals\nOffice of Facilities and Administrative Services\nOffice of the Chief Information Officer\nDeputy Assistant Secretary for Public Safety, Resources Protection and Emergency Services (DAS-PRE)\nOffice of Emergency Management (OEM)\nOffice of Law Enforcement and Security (OLES)\nOffice of Wildland Fire\nOffice of Aviation Services (OAS)\nInteragency Borderlands Coordinator\nDeputy Assistant Secretary for Natural Resources Revenue Management\nOffice of Natural Resources Revenue\nAssistant Secretary for Fish, Wildlife, and ParksDeputy Assistant Secretary for Fish, Wildlife and Parks, Michael Bean (third from left), at the dedication of San Antonio Missions UNESCO World Heritage Site\nEastern entry station to Yosemite National Park National Park Service\nFish and Wildlife Service personnel in Texas United States Fish and Wildlife Service\nAssistant Secretary for Indian Affairs\nDeputy Assistant Secretary for Management\nOffice of the Chief Financial Officer (OCFO)\nOffice of the Chief Information Officer (OCIO)\nOffice of Human Capital Management (OHCM)\nOffice of Planning and Policy Analysis (OPPA)\nOffice of Facilities, Environmental and Cultural Resources (OFECR)\nDeputy Assistant Secretary for Policy and Economic Development\nOffice of Indian Energy and Economic Development (IEED)\nOffice of Indian Gaming (OIG)\nOffice of Self-Governance (OSG)\nA Bureau of Indian Affairs firefighter at the La Jolla Indian Reservation Bureau of Indian Affairs (BIA)\nOffice of Indian Services (OIS)\nOffice of Field Operations (OFO)\nOffice of Justice Services (OJS)\nOffice of Trust Services (OTS)\n2016 map of Bureau of Indian Education schools Bureau of Indian Education (BIE)\nOffice of External Affairs\nOffice of Congressional and Legislative Affairs (OCLA)\nOffice of Public Affairs (OPA)\nOffice of Federal Acknowledgment (OFA)\nOffice of Regulatory Management (ORM)\nAssistant Secretary for Land and Minerals Management\nA Bureau of Land Management Wilderness Study Area in northern Alaska Bureau of Land Management\nOffice of Surface Mining Reclamation and Enforcement\nBureau of Ocean Energy Management\nBureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement\nAssistant Secretary for Water and Science\nUnited States Geological Survey\nBureau of Reclamation\nCentral Utah Project Completion Act Office\nAssistant Secretary for Insular and International Affairs\nOffice of Insular Affairs\nOffice of International Affairs\nOcean, Great Lakes and Coastal Activities Program Office\nSolicitor\nOffice of the Solicitor (SOL)\nOffice of the Inspector General (OIG)\nOffice of General Counsel\nAssistant Inspector General for Investigations\nOffice of Investigations\nAssistant Inspector General for Audits, Inspections, and Evaluations\nOffice of Audits, Inspections, and Evaluations\nAssistant Inspector General for Management\nOffice of Management\nAssociate Inspector General for External Affairs\nAssociate Inspector General for Whistleblower Protection\nStrategy Management Office\nAssociate Inspector General for Communications\nChief Information Officer\nSpecial Trustee for American Indians\nFederal Executive Boards\nInterior Museum\nNational Indian Gaming Commission (NIGC)","title":"Operating units"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"text":"DOI Convocation Honor Award is the most prestigious recognition that can be granted by the department.The following awards are presented at the Honor Awards Convocation:[15]Safety and Health Award of Excellence & Aviation Safety Award\nDistinguished Service Award\nCitizen's Award for Bravery\nValor Award","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"In 2018, DOI established 12 organizational regions to be used across the department. These superseded the previous 49 regions used across 8 agencies.[16]","title":"Regions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Global Interior: Mineral Frontiers and American Power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Global_Interior"}],"text":"Black, Megan. The Global Interior: Mineral Frontiers and American Power. Harvard University Press, 2018.\nUtley, Robert M. and Barry Mackintosh; The Department of Everything Else: Highlights of Interior History; Dept. of the Interior, Washington, D.C.; 1989","title":"Further reading"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speedwell_Ironworks

Speedwell Ironworks

["1 History","2 Telegraph","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

Coordinates: 40°48′50.976″N 74°28′49.7568″W / 40.81416000°N 74.480488000°W / 40.81416000; -74.480488000 United States historic placeThe Factory, Speedwell VillageU.S. National Register of Historic PlacesU.S. National Historic Landmark The Factory House, birthplace of the Morse electric telegraph, pictured in 2006Show map of Morris County, New JerseyShow map of New JerseyShow map of the United StatesLocation333 Speedwell Avenue, Morristown, New JerseyCoordinates40°48′50.976″N 74°28′49.7568″W / 40.81416000°N 74.480488000°W / 40.81416000; -74.480488000Built1837NRHP reference No.74001186Significant datesAdded to NRHPSeptember 13, 1974Designated NHLMay 30, 1974 Speedwell Ironworks was an ironworks in Speedwell Village, on Speedwell Avenue (part of U.S. Route 202), just north of downtown Morristown, in Morris County, New Jersey, United States. At this site Alfred Vail and Samuel Morse first demonstrated their electric telegraph. Speedwell Ironworks also provided most of the machinery for the SS Savannah, the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean. The site is still open to the public, and has seven buildings on display. The site, now named Historical Speedwell, is a historic site of the Morris County Park Commission. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1974. History Situated at a natural gorge of the Whippany River, several hydraulic powered forges existed, predating the establishment of the ironworks by Stephen Vail and two business partners. Vail became sole owner of the works in 1815 and expanded it, producing a variety of agricultural and industrial machinery. The ironworks innovated the first durable iron tire for railroad locomotives in January 1836. With changing industrial trends and a decline in the flow of the Whippany River, the ironworks were shut down in 1873, its equipment being sold to ironworks in Brooklyn and Coatbridge, Scotland. The remains of the Ironworks buildings burned in 1908, and the property is now a public park. Speedwell Park, a public park situated on Stephen Vail's former Ironworks, 2016 Stephen Vail also bought an adjacent 40-acre (16 ha) lot to which he eventually retreated in 1844 for an active retirement. The Vail Homestead or Speedwell Village, as it is sometimes known, is the site of Historic Speedwell, a National Historic Landmark, part of the Morris County Park Commission. The site is set up as an open-air 19th century estate, complete with residential buildings, a granary and two carriage houses. The site is currently open to the public, with 19th century ironworking materials and historical artifacts about communication on exhibit. Today, the site is maintained as a public park and museum by the Morris County Park Commission. It includes nine buildings furnished to depict life at Speedwell during the early 19th century. The Vail House, a historic house museum restored to 1840s period style, possesses some original family furniture and Vail memorabilia. The Wheel House houses an operational 24-foot (7.3 m) overshot waterwheel. The Homestead Carriage House houses an exhibit on the SS Savannah, the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean, with an engine built at the Speedwell Ironworks, and an exhibit about the history of the ironworks. The Ford Cottage is a 19th-century saltbox cottage, the Moses Estey House is an 18th-century Georgian mansion, and the early 19th century L'Hommedieu-Gwinnup House houses changing exhibits and education space. On exhibit in the factory buildings are 19th century ironworking materials and historical artifacts of communication. Speedwell Village was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1974, preserving seven buildings. The designation was made in recognition of the role the facility and its proprietors the Vails played in the development of the telegraph. Telegraph The old factory building on the grounds of the ironworks was constructed by Stephen Vail for hobby purposes upon his retirement. It is the site of the first public demonstration of the Morse electromagnetic telegraph on January 11, 1838. Although Morse and Alfred Vail had conducted most of the research and development in the ironworks facilities, they chose the factory house for demonstration. Without the repeater, the range of the telegraph was limited to two miles (3 km). The inventors had pulled two miles (3 km) of wires inside the factory house for the demonstration. The first public transmission was witnessed by a mostly local crowd. See also National Register of Historic Places listings in Morris County, New Jersey List of National Historic Landmarks in New Jersey List of museums in New Jersey Electric Telegraph References ^ a b "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. July 9, 2010. ^ a b c d "The Factory, Speedwell Village". National Historic Landmark summary listing. National Park Service. Retrieved October 20, 2007. ^ a b James W. Sheire (January 20, 1974). "National Register of Historic Places Inventory-Nomination: The Factory - The Speedwell Village / The Factory" (pdf). National Park Service. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) and Accompanying one photo, exterior, undated (32 KB) ^ "Historic Speedwell | Morris County Parks". www.morrisparks.net. ^ "Speedwell Park". www.townofmorristown.org. ^ a b "Historic Speedwell". Morris Parks. Morris Parks. Retrieved March 11, 2019. External links Media related to Speedwell Ironworks at Wikimedia Commons Morris County Park Commission site for Historic Speedwell at the Wayback Machine (archived 2012-03-07) American Memory by the Library of Congress Traveler's photos of Historic Speedwell Some historic photos of the Speedwell Factories and Speedwell Village from The North Jersey History and Genealogy Center/Morristown & Morris Township Public Library Morris Tourism Bureau Historic Speedwell Morris Parks Official Webpage for Historic Speedwell Historic factory building vteU.S. National Register of Historic Places in New JerseyTopics Contributing property Keeper of the Register Historic district History of the National Register of Historic Places National Park Service Property types Lists by county Atlantic Bergen Burlington Camden Cape May Cumberland Essex Gloucester Hudson Hunterdon Mercer Middlesex Monmouth Morris Ocean Passaic Salem Somerset Sussex Union Warren Other lists Bridges National Historic Landmarks National Natural Landmarks Category NRHP Portal New Jersey Portal vteNational Register of Historic Places in Morris County, New JerseyLandmarks Craftsman Farms Thomas Nast Home Speedwell Village Factory Districts Ayres' Farm Blackwell Street Historic District Boonton Historic District Boonton Ironworks Historic District Bottle Hill Historic District Brookside Historic District Combs Hollow Historic District Fairmount Historic District German Valley Historic District Hanover Village Historic District Ledgewood Historic District Madison Civic Commercial District Mendham Historic District Middle Valley Historic District Morris Canal Morristown District Mott Hollow Mount Arlington Historic District Mount Olive Village Historic District Mount Tabor Historic District Mountain Lakes Historic District New Vernon Historic District Normandy Park Historic District Pottersville Village Historic District Pruddentown Historic District Ralston Historic District Alfred T. Ringling Manor St. Mary's Church Historic District Schooley's Mountain Historic District Silver Lake Historic District Split Rock Furnace Tempe Wick Road–Washington Corners Historic District Washington Valley Historic District Places ofworship The Church in the Glen Community of St John Baptist First Congregational Church First Presbyterian Church of Hanover First Reformed Church of Pompton Plains Friends Meetinghouse Rev. John Hancock House, Cider Mill and Cemetery Methodist Episcopal Church Methodist Episcopal Church of Hibernia Mount Freedom Presbyterian Church Mount Hope Miners' Church Our Lady of Mercy Chapel Parsonage of the Montville Reformed Dutch Church Rockaway Valley Methodist Church Whippany Burying Yard Houses Anthony–Corwin Farm Martin Berry House Boisaubin Manor David S. Bower House Bowers-Livingston-Osborn House Bowlsby-Degelleke House Boyle/Hudspeth-Benson House Dr. Jabez Campfield House Lewis Carey Farmhouse Stephen Cary House George Chamberlain House Dr. Lewis Condict House Stephen Condit House Ellis Cook House General Nathan Cooper Mansion Craft–Clausen House Cutler Homestead Davenport–Demarest House Decker-Kincaid Homestead James Dixon Farm Henry Doremus House Dusenberry House Flock-Stephens Farmstead Samuel Ford, Jr.'s, Hammock Farm Ford-Faesch House Fordville Fredericks House Gibbons Mansion William Gibbons Stable and Farm Glynallen Grimes Homestead Hartley Farms Benjamin Howell Homestead Joseph Jackson House Jenkins-Mead House Peter Kemble House King Store and Homestead Lindenwold Effingham Low House Merchiston Farm Miller-Rinehard Farmstead Miller-Kingsland House Timothy Mills House Jacob Wise Neighbor House Leonard Neighbor Farmstead Oak Dell Johannes Parlaman House Rarick-Kellihan House Joseph W. Revere House Silas Riggs House Sayre House Seward Mansion Sharpenstine Farmstead Bridget Smith House John Smith House Spring Brook House Stephens Homestead David Thompson House Thorne and Eddy Estates Trimmer-Dufford Farmstead Tuttle House David Tuttle Cooperage James Van Duyne Farmhouse Martin Van Duyne House Simon Van Duyne House Van Duyne–Jacobus House Vanness – Linen House Nicholas Vreeland Outkitchen Whippany Farm Buildings Acorn Hall Alnwick Hall Baker Building Boonton Public Library Cary Station Chester House Inn Nathan Cooper Gristmill Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad Station Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad Station Delaware, Lackawanna and Western Railroad Station John Dod House and Tavern Flocktown Schoolhouse Glanville Blacksmith Shop Illumination Gas Plant of the New Jersey State Asylum for the Insane at Morris Plains Lafayette School Lake Hopatcong Yacht Club Little Red Schoolhouse Madison Masonic Lodge Madison Public Library and the James Building Madison Station Millington Schoolhouse Millington Station Montville Schoolhouse Morris County Courthouse Morris Plains Station Morristown School Mount Kemble Home Mount Vernon School New York Susquehanna & Western Railroad Station Palace Theatre Pompton Plains Railroad Station Slater's Mill Washington Valley Schoolhouse Willow Hall Sites Beverwyck Site Morristown National Historical Park Structures Arch Bridge from the Boonton Ironworks Morristown and Erie Railroad Whippany Water Tank United States Army Steam Locomotive No. 4039 See also: National Register of Historic Places listings in Morris County, New Jersey and List of National Historic Landmarks in New Jersey

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At this site Alfred Vail and Samuel Morse first demonstrated their electric telegraph.[3] Speedwell Ironworks also provided most of the machinery for the SS Savannah, the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean. The site is still open to the public, and has seven buildings on display. The site, now named Historical Speedwell, is a historic site of the Morris County Park Commission.[4] It was designated a National Historic Landmark in 1974.[2]","title":"Speedwell Ironworks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gorge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorge"},{"link_name":"Whippany River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whippany_River"},{"link_name":"Stephen Vail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Vail"},{"link_name":"Brooklyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brooklyn"},{"link_name":"Coatbridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coatbridge"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Speedwell_Park.jpg"},{"link_name":"National Historic Landmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark"},{"link_name":"Morris County Park Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morris_County_Park_Commission"},{"link_name":"granary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Granary"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Historic_Speedwell-6"},{"link_name":"SS Savannah","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SS_Savannah"},{"link_name":"saltbox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saltbox"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Historic_Speedwell-6"},{"link_name":"National Historic Landmark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Historic_Landmark"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nhlsum-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nrhpinv2-3"},{"link_name":"telegraph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegraph"}],"text":"Situated at a natural gorge of the Whippany River, several hydraulic powered forges existed, predating the establishment of the ironworks by Stephen Vail and two business partners. Vail became sole owner of the works in 1815 and expanded it, producing a variety of agricultural and industrial machinery. The ironworks innovated the first durable iron tire for railroad locomotives in January 1836. With changing industrial trends and a decline in the flow of the Whippany River, the ironworks were shut down in 1873, its equipment being sold to ironworks in Brooklyn and Coatbridge, Scotland. The remains of the Ironworks buildings burned in 1908, and the property is now a public park.[5]Speedwell Park, a public park situated on Stephen Vail's former Ironworks, 2016Stephen Vail also bought an adjacent 40-acre (16 ha) lot to which he eventually retreated in 1844 for an active retirement. The Vail Homestead or Speedwell Village, as it is sometimes known, is the site of Historic Speedwell, a National Historic Landmark, part of the Morris County Park Commission. The site is set up as an open-air 19th century estate, complete with residential buildings, a granary and two carriage houses. The site is currently open to the public, with 19th century ironworking materials and historical artifacts about communication on exhibit.[6]Today, the site is maintained as a public park and museum by the Morris County Park Commission. It includes nine buildings furnished to depict life at Speedwell during the early 19th century. The Vail House, a historic house museum restored to 1840s period style, possesses some original family furniture and Vail memorabilia. The Wheel House houses an operational 24-foot (7.3 m) overshot waterwheel. The Homestead Carriage House houses an exhibit on the SS Savannah, the first steamship to cross the Atlantic Ocean, with an engine built at the Speedwell Ironworks, and an exhibit about the history of the ironworks. The Ford Cottage is a 19th-century saltbox cottage, the Moses Estey House is an 18th-century Georgian mansion, and the early 19th century L'Hommedieu-Gwinnup House houses changing exhibits and education space. On exhibit in the factory buildings are 19th century ironworking materials and historical artifacts of communication.[6]Speedwell Village was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1974, preserving seven buildings.[2][3] The designation was made in recognition of the role the facility and its proprietors the Vails played in the development of the telegraph.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"repeater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Repeater"}],"text":"The old factory building on the grounds of the ironworks was constructed by Stephen Vail for hobby purposes upon his retirement. It is the site of the first public demonstration of the Morse electromagnetic telegraph on January 11, 1838. Although Morse and Alfred Vail had conducted most of the research and development in the ironworks facilities, they chose the factory house for demonstration. Without the repeater, the range of the telegraph was limited to two miles (3 km). The inventors had pulled two miles (3 km) of wires inside the factory house for the demonstration. The first public transmission was witnessed by a mostly local crowd.","title":"Telegraph"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions

Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society

["1 Current publication","2 Origins and history","2.1 Origins","2.2 Eighteenth century","2.3 Nineteenth century","2.4 Twentieth century","3 Famous and notable contributors","4 Public domain and access","5 Literary references","6 See also","7 References","8 Further reading","9 External links"]

Scientific journal published by the Royal Society "Transactions of the Royal Society" redirects here. For other uses, see Transactions of the Royal Society (disambiguation). Academic journalPhilosophical TransactionsFirst volume title pageDisciplineMultidisciplinary scienceLanguageEnglishPublication detailsHistory6 March 1665;359 years ago (1665-03-06)PublisherThe Royal SocietyStandard abbreviationsISO 4 (alt) · Bluebook (alt1 · alt2)NLM (alt) · MathSciNet (alt )ISO 4Phil. Trans. R. Soc.IndexingCODEN (alt · alt2) · JSTOR (alt) · LCCN (alt)MIAR · NLM (alt) · ScopusISSN0261-0523 (print)2053-9223 (web)JSTORphiltran1665167OCLC no.1697286Links Journal homepage Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society is a scientific journal published by the Royal Society. In its earliest days, it was a private venture of the Royal Society's secretary. It was established in 1665, making it the second journal in the world exclusively devoted to science, after the Journal des sçavans, and therefore also the world's longest-running scientific journal. It became an official society publication in 1752. The use of the word philosophical in the title refers to natural philosophy, which was the equivalent of what would now be generally called science. Current publication In 1887 the journal expanded and divided into two separate publications, one serving the physical sciences (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences) and the other focusing on the life sciences (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences). Both journals now publish themed issues and issues resulting from papers presented at the scientific meetings of the Royal Society. Primary research articles are published in the sister journals Proceedings of the Royal Society, Biology Letters, Journal of the Royal Society Interface, Interface Focus, Open Biology and Royal Society Open Science. Origins and history Origins This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Henry Oldenburg, founding editor and publisher The first issue, published in London on 6 March 1665, was edited and published by the Royal Society's first secretary, Henry Oldenburg, four-and-a-half years after the society was founded. The full title of the journal, as given by Oldenburg, was "Philosophical Transactions, Giving some Accompt of the present Undertakings, Studies, and Labours of the Ingenious in many considerable parts of the World". The society's council minutes dated 1 March 1664 (in the Old Style calendar; equivalent to 11 March 1665 in the modern New Style calendar) ordered that "the Philosophical Transactions, to be composed by Mr Oldenburg, be printed the first Monday of every month, if he have sufficient matter for it, and that that tract be licensed by the Council of this Society, being first revised by some Members of the same". Oldenburg published the journal at his own personal expense and seems to have entered into an agreement with the society's council allowing him to keep any resulting profits. He was to be disappointed, however, since the journal performed poorly from a financial point of view during his lifetime, just about covering the rent on his house in Piccadilly. Oldenburg put out 136 issues of the Transactions before his death in 1677. The familiar functions of the scientific journal—registration (date stamping and provenance), certification (peer review), dissemination, and archiving—were introduced at inception by Philosophical Transactions. The beginnings of these ideas can be traced in a series of letters from Oldenburg to Robert Boyle: "We must be very careful as well of regist'ring the person and time of any new matter, as the matter itselfe, whereby the honor of the invention will be reliably preserved to all posterity" (registration and archiving) "...all ingenious men will thereby be incouraged to impact their knowledge and discoverys" (dissemination) The council minutes of 1 March 1665 made provisions for the tract to be revised by members of the council of the Royal Society, providing the framework for peer review to eventually develop, becoming fully systematic as a process by the 1830s. The printed journal replaced much of Oldenburg's letter-writing to correspondents, at least on scientific matters, and as such can be seen as a labour-saving device. Oldenburg also described his journal as "one of these philosophical commonplace books", indicating his intention to produce a collective notebook between scientists. Over the years the form of the contributions to the journal evolved as part of the changing expectations for persuasive scientific claims and the changing roles of scientists with respect to publication. Issue 1 contained such articles as: an account of the improvement of optic glasses; the first report on the Great Red Spot of Jupiter; a prediction on the motion of a recent comet (probably an Oort cloud object); a review of Robert Boyle's Experimental History of Cold; Robert Boyle's own report of a deformed calf; "A report of a peculiar lead-ore from Germany, and the use thereof"; "Of an Hungarian Bolus, of the Same Effect with the Bolus Armenus"; "Of the New American Whale-Fishing about the Bermudas", and "A Narrative Concerning the Success of Pendulum-Watches at Sea for the Longitudes". The final article of the issue concerned "The Character, Lately Published beyond the Seas, of an Eminent Person, not Long Since Dead at Tholouse, Where He Was a Councellor of Parliament". The eminent person in question was Pierre de Fermat, although the issue failed to mention his last theorem. In the first year of the journal, also the formula for determining the year of the Julian Period, given its character involving three four-digit numbers, was published by Jacques de Billy. Oldenburg referred to himself as the "compiler" and sometimes "Author" of the Transactions, and always claimed that the journal was entirely his sole enterprise—although with the society's imprimatur and containing reports on experiments carried out and initially communicated by of many of its Fellows, many readers saw the journal as an official organ of the society. It has been argued that Oldenburg benefitted from this ambiguity, retaining both real and perceived independence (giving the publication an air of authenticity) and the prospect of monetary gain, while simultaneously enjoying the credibility afforded by the association. The society also enjoyed the benefits of ambiguity: it was able to communicate advances in natural philosophy, undertaken largely in its own name, without the worry that it was directly responsible for its content. In the aftermath of the Interregnum, the potential for censorship was very real. Certainly the tone of the early volumes was set by Oldenburg, who often related things he was told by his contacts, translated letters and manuscripts from other languages, and reviewed books, always being sure to indicate the provenance of his material and even to use this to impress the reader. By reporting ongoing and often unfinished scientific work that may otherwise have not been reported, the journal had a central function of being a scientific news service. At the time of Philosophical Transactions' foundation, print was heavily regulated, and there was no such thing as a free press. In fact, the first English newspaper, The London Gazette (which was an official organ of government and therefore seen as sanitized), did not appear until after Philosophical Transactions in the same year. Oldenburg's compulsive letter writing to foreign correspondents led to him being suspected of being a spy for the Dutch and interned in the Tower of London in 1667. A rival took the opportunity to publish a pirate issue of Philosophical Transactions, with the pretense of it being Issue 27. Oldenburg repudiated the issue by publishing the real 27 upon his release. Upon Oldenburg's death, following a brief hiatus, the position of Editor was passed down through successive secretaries of the society as an unofficial responsibility and at their own expense. Robert Hooke changed the name of the journal to Philosophical Collections in 1679—a name that remained until 1682, when it changed back. The position of editor was sometimes held jointly and included William Musgrave (Nos 167 to 178) and Robert Plot (Nos 144 to 178). Eighteenth century Hans Sloane by Stephen Slaughter, 1736 By the mid-eighteenth century, the most notable editors, besides Oldenburg, were Hans Sloane, James Jurin and Cromwell Mortimer. In virtually all cases the journal was edited by the serving secretary of the society (and occasionally by both secretaries working in tandem). These editor-secretaries carried the financial burden of publishing the Philosophical Transactions. By the early 1750s, the Philosophical Transactions had come under attack, most prominently by John Hill, an actor, apothecary, and naturalist. Hill published three works in two years, ridiculing the Royal Society and the Philosophical Transactions. The society was quick to point out that it was not officially responsible for the journal. Yet, in 1752 the society took over the Philosophical Transactions. The journal would henceforth be published "for the sole use and benefit of this Society"; it would be financially carried by the members' subscriptions; and it would be edited by the Committee of Papers. After the takeover of the journal by the Royal Society, management decisions including negotiating with printers and booksellers, were still the task of one of the secretaries—but editorial control was exercised through the Committee of Papers. The committee mostly based its judgements on which papers to publish and which to decline on the 300 to 500-word abstracts of papers read during its weekly meetings. But the members could, if they desired, consult the original paper in full. Once the decision to print had been taken, the paper appeared in the volume for that year. It would feature the author's name, the name of the Fellow who had communicated the paper to the society, and the date on which it was read. The Royal Society covered paper, engraving and printing costs. The society found the journal to be a money-losing proposition: it cost, on average, upwards of £300 annually to produce, of which they seldom recouped more than £150. Because two-fifths of the copies were distributed for free to the journal's natural market, sales were generally slow, and although back issues sold out gradually it would usually be ten years or more before there were fewer than 100 left of any given print run. In 1787, Caroline Herschel became the first woman published in the journal and the only one in the 18th century. Poster at Publishing 350 Exhibit, 2015. During the presidency of Joseph Banks the work of the Committee of Papers continued fairly efficiently, with the President himself in frequent attendance. There was a number of ways in which the president and secretaries could bypass or subvert the Royal Society's publishing procedures. Papers could be prevented from reaching the committee by not allowing them to be read in the first place. Also—though papers were rarely subjected to formal review—there is evidence of editorial intervention, with Banks himself or a trusted deputy proposing cuts or emendations to particular contributions. Publishing in the Philosophical Transactions carried a high degree of prestige and Banks himself attributed an attempt to unseat him, relatively early in his presidency, to the envy of authors whose papers had been rejected from the journal. Nineteenth century Transactions continued steadily through the turn of the century and into the 1820s. In the late 1820s and early 1830s, a movement to reform the Royal Society rose. The reformers felt that the scientific character of the society had been undermined by the admission of too many gentleman dilettantes under Banks. In proposing a more limited membership, to protect the society's reputation, they also argued for systematic, expert evaluation of papers for Transactions by named referees. Sectional Committees, each with responsibility for a particular group of disciplines, were initially set up in the 1830s to adjudicate the award of George IV's Royal Medals. But individual members of these committees were soon put to work reporting on and evaluating papers submitted to the Royal Society. These evaluations began to be used as the basis of recommendations to the Committee of Papers, who would then rubber-stamp decisions made by the Sectional Committees. Despite its flaws—it was inconsistent in its application and not free of abuses—this system remained at the heart of the society's procedures for publishing until 1847 when the Sectional Committees were dissolved. However, the practice of sending most papers out for review remained. During the 1850s, the cost of the Transactions to the society was increasing again (and would keep doing so for the rest of the century); illustrations were always the largest expense. Illustrations had been a natural and essential aspect of the scientific periodical since the later seventeenth century. Engravings (cut into metal plates) were used for detailed illustrations, particularly where realism was required; while wood cuts (and, from the early nineteenth century, wood-engravings) were used for diagrams, as they could be easily combined with letterpress. By the mid-1850s, the Philosophical Transactions was seen as a drain on the society's finances and the treasurer, Edward Sabine, urged the Committee of Papers to restrict the length and number of papers published in the journal. In 1852, for example, the amount expended on the Transactions was £1094, but only £276 of this was offset by sales income. Sabine felt this was more than the society could comfortably sustain. The print run of the journal was 1000 copies. Around 500 of these went to the fellowship, in return for their membership dues, and since authors now received up to 150 off-prints for free, to circulate through their personal networks, the demand for the Transactions through the book trade must have been limited. The concerns with cost eventually led to a change in the printer in 1877 from Taylor & Francis to Harrison & Sons—the latter was a larger commercial printer, able to offer the society a more financially viable contract, although it was less experienced in printing scientific works. Sir George Stokes While expenditure was a worry for the treasurer, as secretary (from 1854), George Gabriel Stokes was preoccupied with the actual content of the Transactions and his extensive correspondence with authors over his thirty-one-year term. He took up most of his time beyond his duties as Lucasian Professor at Cambridge. Stokes was paramount in establishing a more formalized refereeing process at the Royal Society. It was not until Stokes' presidency ended in 1890 that his influence over the journal diminished. The introduction of fixed terms for society officers precluded subsequent editors from taking on Stokes' mantle and meant that the society operated its editorial practices more collectively than it had done since the mechanisms for it were established in 1752. By the mid-nineteenth century, getting a paper published in the Transactions still relied on the paper first being read by a Fellow. Many papers were sent immediately for printing in abstract form in Proceedings of the Royal Society. But those which were being considered for printing in full in Transactions were usually sent to two referees for comment before the final decision was made by the Committee of Papers. During Stokes' time, authors were given the opportunity to discuss their paper at length with him before, during and after its official submission to the Committee of Papers. In 1887, the Transactions split into series "A" and "B", dealing with the physical and biological sciences respectively. In 1897, the model of collective responsibility for the editing of the Transactions was emphasized by the re-establishment of the Sectional Committees. The six sectional committees covered mathematics, botany, zoology, physiology, geology, and (together) chemistry and physics, and were composed of Fellows of the society with relevant expertise. The Sectional Committees took on the task of managing the refereeing process after papers had been read before the society. Referees were usually Fellows, except in a small number of cases where the topic was beyond the knowledge of the fellowship (or at least, of those willing to referee). The Sectional Committees communicated referee reports to authors; and sent reports to the Committee of Papers for final sanction. The Sectional Committees were intended to reduce the burden on the secretaries and Council. Consequently, the secretary in the 1890s, Arthur Rucker, no longer coordinated the refereeing of papers, nor did he generally correspond extensively with authors about their papers as Stokes had done. However, he continued to be the first port of call for authors submitting papers. Twentieth century Authors were increasingly expected to submit manuscripts in a standardized format and style. From 1896, they were encouraged to submit typed papers on foolscap-folio-sized paper to lighten the work of getting papers ready for printing and to reduce the chance of error in the process. A publishable paper now had to present its information in an appropriate manner, as well as being of remarkable scientific interest. For a brief period between 1907 and 1914, authors were under even more pressure to conform to the society's expectations, due to a decision to discuss cost estimates of candidate papers alongside referees' reports. The committees could require authors to reduce the number of illustrations or tables or, indeed, the overall length of the paper, as a condition of acceptance. It was hoped that this policy would reduce the still-rising costs of production, which had reached £1747 in 1906; but the effect appears to have been negligible, and the cost estimates ceased to be routine practice after 1914. It was only after the Second World War that the society's concerns about the cost of its journals were finally allayed. There had been a one-off surplus in 1932, but it was only from 1948 that the Transactions began regularly to end the year in surplus. That year, despite a three-fold increase in production costs (it was a bumper year for papers), there was a surplus of almost £400. Part of the post-war financial success of the Transactions was due to the rising subscriptions received, and a growing number of subscriptions from British and international institutions, including universities, industry, and government; this was at the same time as private subscriptions, outside of fellows, were non-existent. By the early 1970s, institutional subscription was the main channel of income from publication sales for the society. From 1970 to 1971, 43,760 copies of Transactions were sold, of which casual purchasers accounted for only 2070 copies. All of the society's publications now had a substantial international circulation; in 1973, for example, just 11% of institutional subscriptions were from the United Kingdom; 50% were from the United States. Contributions, however, were still mostly from British authors: 69% of Royal Society authors were from the United Kingdom in 1974. A Publications Policy Committee suggested that more overseas scientists could be encouraged to submit papers if the requirement to have papers communicated by Fellows was dropped. This did not happen until 1990. There was also a suggestion to create a "C" journal for molecular sciences to attract more authors in that area, but the idea never materialized. The conclusion in 1973 was a general appeal to encourage more British scientists (whether Fellows or not) to publish papers with the society and to pass on the message to their overseas colleagues; by the early 2000s, the proportion of non-UK authors had risen to around a half; and by 2017 it had passed 80%. As the twentieth century came to a close, the editing of the Transactions and the society's other journals became more professional with the employment of a growing in-house staff of editors, designers and marketers. In 1968 there were about eleven staff in the Publishing Section; by 1990, the number had risen to twenty-two. The editorial processes were also transformed. In 1968 the Sectional Committees had been abolished (again). Instead, the secretaries, Harrie Massey (physicist) and Bernard Katz (physiologist), were each assigned a group of Fellows to act as associate editors for each series ("A" and "B") of the Transactions. The role of the Committee of Papers was abolished in 1989 and since 1990 two Fellows (rather than the secretaries) have acted as the editors with assistance from associate editors. The editors serve on the Publishing Board, established in 1997 to monitor publishing and report to the council. In the 1990s, as these changes to the publishing and editorial teams were implemented, the Publishing Section acquired its first computer for administration; the Transactions were first published online in 1997. Famous and notable contributors Over the centuries, many important scientific discoveries have been published in the Philosophical Transactions. Famous contributing authors include: Isaac Newton His first paper New Theory about Light and Colours, (1672) can be seen as the beginning of his public scientific career. Anton van Leeuwenhoek Leeuwenhoek's 1677 paper, the famous 'letter on the protozoa', gives the first detailed description of protists and bacteria living in a range of environments, sent by the author in a Dutch letter of the 9 Octob. 1676 concerning little animals by him observed in rain-well-sea and snow water; as also in water wherein pepper had lain infused. Benjamin Franklin The American statesman was the sole or co-author of 19 papers in Philosophical Transactions, including an experiment on the calming effects of oil on water (of great significance to current scientific fields including surface chemistry and physics, and self-assembly) carried out on a Clapham Common pond. But it was his "Philadelphia Experiment", A Letter of Benjamin Franklin, Esq; to Mr. Peter Collinson, F. R. S. concerning an Electrical Kite – recognized as one of the most famous scientific experiments of all time – and published in Phil. Trans in 1753, that secured his reputation. He later founded the American Philosophical Society in Philadelphia, closely modelled on the Royal Society. William Roy Between 1747 and 1755, William Roy organised and carried out an innovative Military Survey of Scotland. He then gained military rank, and throughout his career promoted extending this to a survey triangulation of the whole of Britain. In the 1780s Major General William Roy measured the distance between the Greenwich and Paris observatories, promoting a method of triangulation and instruments designed and built by Jesse Ramsden. This work led to much more accurate records of longitudes for both the British and French – remarkable during a century of near-constant warfare between the two nations. The work was written up in three papers in Philosophical Transactions, culminating in a 1790 publication, An Account of the Trigonometrical Operation, Whereby the Distance between the Meridians of the Royal Observatories of Greenwich and Paris Has Been Determined (with Isaac Dalby). While, like most English maps at the time, the prime meridian is centred on St Paul's cathedral (a system the vestiges of which can be found in the naming of the British road network), Roy's figure showing the triangulation of major distances between England and France takes Greenwich as the prime meridian. While this had been suggested before, notably by Edmund Halley in 1710, this was one of the first major works to take Greenwich as prime meridian, anticipating its status as the universal prime meridian. Roy's work in Philosophical Transactions led to the Ordnance Survey of Great Britain. Caroline Herschel The first paper by a woman in the journal, An account of a new comet appeared in 1787. Caroline Herschel was paid a salary of £50 per annum by the King to work with her brother William Herschel as an astronomer – unusual at a time when most who worked in astronomy or science did so without pay, regardless of gender Mary Somerville On the Magnetizing Power of the More Refrangible Solar Rays was one of two papers submitted to Philosophical Transactions by the Scottish polymath, translator of Laplace and friend of J. M. W. Turner. In it, she communicates her finding that the ultraviolet components of the electromagnetic spectrum could magnetize a steel needle. While subsequent experiments were not able to reproduce this finding, leading Somerville to retract her claim (exactly in accordance with what would be expected of a scientist today), her reputation was secured. In some ways, her hypothesis remarkably prescient: the photoelectric effect is more likely to occur when metals are irradiated by light at the violet end of the spectrum. Charles Darwin Darwin's only paper in Philosophical Transactions, the snappily titled Observations on the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, and of Other Parts of Lochaber in Scotland, with an Attempt to Prove That They Are of Marine Origin (1837) describes parallel lines cut horizontally across the hillsides of Glen Roy, and proposes that they had marine origins as had similar features he had seen at Coquimbo in Chile while on the Beagle expedition. In 1840 the lines were explained by French geologist Louis Agassiz as due to a lake formed in an ice age. After many years of argument, Darwin conceded in 1862 that his paper was "one long gigantic blunder". In his autobiography, Darwin claims, "This paper was a great failure, and I am ashamed of it." Michael Faraday Publishing over 40 papers in the journal, Faraday rose from a fairly humble background to become a world-famous and highly respected scientist. His final paper in the journal, which was given as the Bakerian Lecture in 1857, Experimental Relations of Gold (and Other Metals) to Light, introduced the idea of metal particles that were smaller than the wavelength of light – colloidal sols or what would now be called nanoparticles. James Clerk Maxwell In On the Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field (1865) Maxwell described how electricity and magnetism could travel as a wave and inferred from the velocity given by the wave equation, and by known experimental determinations of the speed of light, that light was an electromagnetic wave. Kathleen Lonsdale Lonsdale's work carried out at the Royal Institution led to 17 papers in Royal Society journals, two of which were in Philosophical Transactions. Like many notable figures in the 'new sciences' of structural and cell biology, and also the new physics (which included Paul Dirac), she published the bulk of her work in the more regular Proceedings of the Royal Society. Her 1947 paper, Divergent-Beam X-Ray Photography of Crystals, built on earlier work to show how this nuanced technique could reveal information about the purity and degree of 'perfection' of a crystal. Dorothy Hodgkin Dorothy Crowfoot Hodgkin's record of publishing in Royal Society journals spanned 50 years, beginning in 1938. Out of 20 papers, only two were published in Philosophical Transactions, the first in 1940, when she was still called Dorothy Crowfoot and was working with JD Bernal. The second, in 1988, was her final publication in a Royal Society journal. Hodgkin used advanced techniques to crystallize proteins, allowing their structures to be elucidated by X-ray crystallography, including Vitamin B-12 and insulin Alan Turing Turing's 1952 paper, On the Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis, gave a chemical and physical basis for many of the patterns and forms found in nature, a year before the structure of DNA was reported by Watson and Crick, who published their initial findings in Nature and subsequently published an expanded version in Proceedings of the Royal Society A, another of the Royal Society's journals. In his paper, Turing coins the term morphogen, which is now used in the sciences of developmental biology and epigenetics, to denote a chemical species that modulates the growth of a species. Stephen Hawking A 1983 paper The Cosmological Constant was actually Hawking's seventh in a Royal Society journal, but his first in Philosophical Transactions (all the others appeared in Proceedings). The paper was first presented at a themed meeting at the Royal Society, providing a model for the journal's content that continues to this day (unlike Proceedings, which publishes new research on any scientific subject, divided along the physical and life sciences, Philosophical Transactions is now always themed and roughly half of the time taken from open 'discussion' meetings at the society's headquarters in London, which are free to attend). The meeting in this instance also featured papers given by future Astronomer Royal and President of the Royal Society Martin Rees, then-recent Nobel Laureate Steven Weinberg, future winners of Royal Society premier medals Chris Llewellyn Smith and John Ellis, and Michael Faraday Prize winner and popular science author John D Barrow. Public domain and access In July 2011 programmer Greg Maxwell released through The Pirate Bay the nearly 19,000 articles that had been published before 1923 and were therefore in the public domain in the United States, to support Aaron Swartz in his case. The articles had been digitized for the Royal Society by JSTOR for a cost of less than US$100,000 and public access to them was restricted through a paywall. In August 2011, users uploaded over 18,500 articles to the collections of the Internet Archive. The collection received 50,000 views per month by November 2011. In October of the same year, the Royal Society released for free the full text of all its articles prior to 1941 but denied that this decision had been influenced by Maxwell's actions. In 2017, the Royal Society launched a completely re-digitised version of the complete journal archive back to 1665 in high resolution and with enhanced metadata. All the out of copyright material is completely free to access without a login. Literary references The protagonist of Nathaniel Hawthorne's "The Birthmark" alludes to the older editions of the Philosophical Transactions, comparing them to the occult writings of earlier natural philosophers: Hardly less curious and imaginative were the early volumes of the Transactions of the Royal Society, in which the members, knowing little of the limits of natural possibility, were continually recording wonders or proposing methods whereby wonders might be wrought.— Nathaniel Hawthorne, "The Birthmark" The journal is also mentioned by the narrator in Chapter 6 of The Time Machine by H. G. Wells Had I been a literary man I might, perhaps, have moralised upon the futility of all ambition. But as it was, the thing that struck me with keenest force was the enormous waste of labour to which this sombre wilderness of rotting paper testified. At the time I will confess that I thought chiefly of the Philosophical Transactions and my own seventeen papers upon physical optics.— H. G. Wells, the Time Machine (1895) See also Journal des sçavans: the first academic journal (started two months earlier than the present one), although it is not the longest-running journal because publication was interrupted for 24 years (between 1792 and 1816); it published some science, but also contained subject matter from other fields of learning, and its main content type was book reviews. References ^ a b Kronick, David (1962). A History of Scientific and Technical Periodicals: the Origins and Development of the Scientific and Technological Press. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press. ^ a b c d "Publishing the Philosophical Transactions: the economic, social and cultural history of a learned journal, 1665–2015". Royal Society. ^ Oldenburg, H. (1665). "Epistle Dedicatory". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 1: 0. doi:10.1098/rstl.1665.0001. S2CID 186211404. ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o "Philosophical Transactions: 350 years of publishing at the Royal Society (1665–2015)" (PDF). ^ David Banks. "The use of modality in the early academic article. The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions, 1665-1700" (PDF). UCM. Retrieved 26 March 2016. ^ "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London – History". Royal Society Publishing. Retrieved 6 February 2010. ^ Philosophical Transactions: Giving Some Accompt of the present Undertakings, Studies, and Labours in Many Considerable Parts of the World . Vol. 1. 6 March 1665 – via Wikisource. ^ Bluhm, R. K. (1960). "Henry Oldenburg, F.R.S. (c. 1615–1677)". Notes and Records of the Royal Society. 15: 183–97. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1960.0018. S2CID 143757108. ^ Royal Society Archives ^ Notebooks, Virtuosi and Early-Modern Science – Richard Yeo ^ "Table of Contents". Philosophical Transactions. Royal Society Publishing. Retrieved 15 March 2015. ^ A. J. Turner, 'Plot, Robert (bap. 1640, d. 1696)', Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, Oxford University Press, 2004 ^ Chambers, Neil (2006). The Scientific Correspondence of Joseph Banks. London: Pickering & Chatto. ^ a b c Hall, Marie (1984). All Scientists Now: The Royal Society in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ^ "Publishing 2017 – The Year in Review". The Royal Society. Retrieved 26 July 2018. ^ Newton, I. (1671). "A Letter of Mr. Isaac Newton, Professor of the Mathematicks in the University of Cambridge; Containing His New Theory about Light and Colors: Sent by the Author to the Publisher from Cambridge, Febr. 6. 1671/72; in Order to be Communicated to the R. Society". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 6 (69–80): 3075–3087. Bibcode:1671RSPT....6.3075N. doi:10.1098/rstl.1671.0072. ^ Leeuwenhoek, A. (1677). "Observation, communicated to the publisher by Mr. Antony van Leewenhoeck, in a Dutch letter of the 9 Octob. 1676 here English'd: concerning little animals by him observed in rain-well-sea and snow water; as also in water wherein pepper had lain infused. In a Letter from Mr. Anton van Leeuwenhoek". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 12 (133): 821–831. doi:10.1098/rstl.1677.0003. ^ "Roy Military Survey of Scotland, 1747-1755". National Library of Scotland. Retrieved 14 January 2018. ^ Herschel, C. (1787). "An Account of a New Comet. In a Letter from Miss Caroline Herschel to Charles Blagden, M. D. Sec. R. S." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 77: 1–3. Bibcode:1787RSPT...77....1H. doi:10.1098/rstl.1787.0001. ^ Somerville, M. (1826). "On the Magnetizing Power of the More Refrangible Solar Rays". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 116: 132–139. doi:10.1098/rstl.1826.0014. ^ Darwin, C. (1839). "Observations on the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, and of Other Parts of Lochaber in Scotland, with an Attempt to Prove That They Are of Marine Origin". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 129: 39–81. Bibcode:1839RSPT..129...39D. doi:10.1098/rstl.1839.0005. ^ Faraday, M. (1857). "The Bakerian Lecture: Experimental Relations of Gold (and Other Metals) to Light". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 147: 145–181. Bibcode:1857RSPT..147..145F. doi:10.1098/rstl.1857.0011. ^ Maxwell, J. C. (1865). "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 155: 459–512. Bibcode:1865RSPT..155..459M. doi:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008. S2CID 186207827. ^ Lonsdale, K. (1947). "Divergent-Beam X-Ray Photography of Crystals". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 240 (817): 219–250. Bibcode:1947RSPTA.240..219L. doi:10.1098/rsta.1947.0002. ^ Hodgkin, D. C.; Kamper, J.; Lindsey, J.; MacKay, M.; Pickworth, J.; Robertson, J. H.; Shoemaker, C. B.; White, J. G.; Prosen, R. J.; Trueblood, K. N. (1957). "The Structure of Vitamin BFormula I. An Outline of the Crystallographic Investigation of Vitamin BFormula". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 242 (1229): 228. Bibcode:1957RSPSA.242..228H. doi:10.1098/rspa.1957.0174. S2CID 93391328. ^ Hodgkin, D. C. (1974). "The Bakerian Lecture, 1972: Insulin, its Chemistry and Biochemistry". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 338 (1614): 251–275. Bibcode:1974RSPSA.338..251H. doi:10.1098/rspa.1974.0085. ^ Turing, A. M. (1952). "The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 237 (641): 37–64. Bibcode:1952RSPTB.237...37T. doi:10.1098/rstb.1952.0012. ^ Hawking, S. W. (1983). "The Cosmological Constant ". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 310 (1512): 303–310. Bibcode:1983RSPTA.310..303H. doi:10.1098/rsta.1983.0092. S2CID 122814030. ^ a b Van Noorden, Richard Royal Society frees up journal archive Archived 16 January 2013 at the Wayback Machine, 26 October 2011 ^ Murphy, y Samantha Guerilla Activist' Releases 18,000 Scientific Papers Archived 17 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine, 22 July 2011 ^ "Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London : Free Texts : Free Download, Borrow and Streaming : Internet Archive". ^ "About page, "philosophicaltransactions"". ^ "Science in the Making". ^ "The Time Machine". Project Gutenberg. ^ Banks, David (March 2009). "Starting science in the vernacular. Notes on some early issues of the Philosophical Transactions and the Journal des Sçavans, 1665–1700". ASp. La Revue du GERAS. 55. Groupe d'Étude et de Recherche en Anglais de Spécialité. Retrieved 29 January 2015. ^ Banks, David (2010). "The beginnings of vernacular scientific discourse: genres and linguistic features in some early issues of the Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions". E-rea. 8 (1). doi:10.4000/erea.1334. ^ "Special Collections | The Dibner Library of the History of Science and Technology". Retrieved 17 April 2010. Further reading Fyfe, Aileen; Moxham, Noah; McDougall-Waters, Julie; Mørk Røstvik, Camilla (2022). A History of Scientific Journals: Publishing at the Royal Society, 1665–2015. UCL Press. doi:10.14324/111.9781800082328. hdl:2164/20277. ISBN 978-1-800-08232-8. S2CID 252484153. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Philos. Trans. Royal Soc.. Wikisource has original text related to this article: Philos. Trans. Royal Soc. Official website ''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, vol. 1–177 (1665–1886), and index of vol. 1–70 (1665–1780) in Biodiversity Heritage Library (BHL) Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society at the HathiTrust Digital Library List of freely accessible online archives that have the Transactions, Online Books Page, University of Pennsylvania Henry Oldenburg's copy of vol I & II of Philosophical Transactions, manuscript note on a flyleaf, a receipt signed by the Royal Society's printer: "Rec. October 18th 1669 from Mr Oldenburgh Eighteen shillings for this voll: of Transactions by me John Martyn". Authority control databases International VIAF 2 National France BnF data Germany Poland Other IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Transactions of the Royal Society (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"scientific journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_journal"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scarecrow_Press-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-publishing-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-publishing-2"},{"link_name":"Journal des sçavans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_des_s%C3%A7avans"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-publishing-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"link_name":"natural philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_philosophy"}],"text":"\"Transactions of the Royal Society\" redirects here. For other uses, see Transactions of the Royal Society (disambiguation).Academic journalPhilosophical Transactions of the Royal Society is a scientific journal published by the Royal Society. In its earliest days, it was a private venture of the Royal Society's secretary.[1][2] It was established in 1665,[3] making it the second journal in the world exclusively devoted to science,[2] after the Journal des sçavans, and therefore also the world's longest-running scientific journal.[2] It became an official society publication in 1752.[4] The use of the word philosophical in the title refers to natural philosophy, which was the equivalent of what would now be generally called science.","title":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"physical sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_sciences"},{"link_name":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_A:_Mathematical,_Physical_and_Engineering_Sciences"},{"link_name":"life sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_sciences"},{"link_name":"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions_of_the_Royal_Society_B:_Biological_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"research articles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_article"},{"link_name":"Proceedings of the Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"Biology Letters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_Letters"},{"link_name":"Journal of the Royal Society Interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_the_Royal_Society_Interface"},{"link_name":"Interface Focus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interface_Focus"},{"link_name":"Open Biology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Biology"},{"link_name":"Royal Society Open Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society_Open_Science"}],"text":"In 1887 the journal expanded and divided into two separate publications, one serving the physical sciences (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences) and the other focusing on the life sciences (Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences). Both journals now publish themed issues and issues resulting from papers presented at the scientific meetings of the Royal Society. Primary research articles are published in the sister journals Proceedings of the Royal Society, Biology Letters, Journal of the Royal Society Interface, Interface Focus, Open Biology and Royal Society Open Science.","title":"Current publication"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Origins and history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Henry_Oldenburg.jpg"},{"link_name":"Henry Oldenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Oldenburg"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"Henry Oldenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Oldenburg"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-history-6"},{"link_name":"sic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sic"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Old Style calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates"},{"link_name":"New Style calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_Style_and_New_Style_dates"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bluhm-8"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"link_name":"peer review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholarly_peer_review"},{"link_name":"Robert Boyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyle"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Great Red Spot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Red_Spot"},{"link_name":"Jupiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter_(planet)"},{"link_name":"Oort cloud object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oort_cloud_object"},{"link_name":"Robert Boyle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Boyle"},{"link_name":"Pierre de Fermat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_de_Fermat"},{"link_name":"last theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermat%27s_Last_Theorem"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Julian Period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Julian_Period"},{"link_name":"Jacques de Billy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques_de_Billy"},{"link_name":"imprimatur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imprimatur"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Scarecrow_Press-1"},{"link_name":"Interregnum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Interregnum"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-publishing-2"},{"link_name":"The London Gazette","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_London_Gazette"},{"link_name":"Tower of London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tower_of_London"},{"link_name":"Robert Hooke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Hooke"},{"link_name":"William Musgrave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Musgrave"},{"link_name":"Robert Plot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Plot"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ODNB-12"}],"sub_title":"Origins","text":"Henry Oldenburg, founding editor and publisherThe first issue, published in London on 6 March 1665,[5] was edited and published by the Royal Society's first secretary, Henry Oldenburg, four-and-a-half years after the society was founded.[6] The full title of the journal, as given by Oldenburg, was \"Philosophical Transactions, Giving some Accompt [sic] of the present Undertakings, Studies, and Labours of the Ingenious in many considerable parts of the World\".[7] The society's council minutes dated 1 March 1664 (in the Old Style calendar; equivalent to 11 March 1665 in the modern New Style calendar) ordered that \"the Philosophical Transactions, to be composed by Mr Oldenburg, be printed the first Monday of every month, if he have sufficient matter for it, and that that tract be licensed by the Council of this Society, being first revised by some Members of the same\". Oldenburg published the journal at his own personal expense and seems to have entered into an agreement with the society's council allowing him to keep any resulting profits. He was to be disappointed, however, since the journal performed poorly from a financial point of view during his lifetime, just about covering the rent on his house in Piccadilly.[8] Oldenburg put out 136 issues of the Transactions before his death in 1677.[4]The familiar functions of the scientific journal—registration (date stamping and provenance), certification (peer review), dissemination, and archiving—were introduced at inception by Philosophical Transactions. The beginnings of these ideas can be traced in a series of letters from Oldenburg to Robert Boyle:[9][24 November 1664] \"We must be very careful as well of regist'ring the person and time of any new matter, as the matter itselfe, whereby the honor of the invention will be reliably preserved to all posterity\" (registration and archiving)\n[3 December 1664] \"...all ingenious men will thereby be incouraged to impact their knowledge and discoverys\" (dissemination)\nThe council minutes of 1 March 1665 made provisions for the tract to be revised by members of the council of the Royal Society, providing the framework for peer review to eventually develop, becoming fully systematic as a process by the 1830s.The printed journal replaced much of Oldenburg's letter-writing to correspondents, at least on scientific matters, and as such can be seen as a labour-saving device. Oldenburg also described his journal as \"one of these philosophical commonplace books\", indicating his intention to produce a collective notebook between scientists.[10] Over the years the form of the contributions to the journal evolved as part of the changing expectations for persuasive scientific claims and the changing roles of scientists with respect to publication.Issue 1 contained such articles as: an account of the improvement of optic glasses; the first report on the Great Red Spot of Jupiter; a prediction on the motion of a recent comet (probably an Oort cloud object); a review of Robert Boyle's Experimental History of Cold; Robert Boyle's own report of a deformed calf; \"A report of a peculiar lead-ore from Germany, and the use thereof\"; \"Of an Hungarian Bolus, of the Same Effect with the Bolus Armenus\"; \"Of the New American Whale-Fishing about the Bermudas\", and \"A Narrative Concerning the Success of Pendulum-Watches at Sea for the Longitudes\". The final article of the issue concerned \"The Character, Lately Published beyond the Seas, of an Eminent Person, not Long Since Dead at Tholouse, Where He Was a Councellor of Parliament\". The eminent person in question was Pierre de Fermat, although the issue failed to mention his last theorem.[11] In the first year of the journal, also the formula for determining the year of the Julian Period, given its character involving three four-digit numbers, was published by Jacques de Billy.Oldenburg referred to himself as the \"compiler\" and sometimes \"Author\" of the Transactions, and always claimed that the journal was entirely his sole enterprise—although with the society's imprimatur and containing reports on experiments carried out and initially communicated by of many of its Fellows, many readers saw the journal as an official organ of the society.[1] It has been argued that Oldenburg benefitted from this ambiguity, retaining both real and perceived independence (giving the publication an air of authenticity) and the prospect of monetary gain, while simultaneously enjoying the credibility afforded by the association. The society also enjoyed the benefits of ambiguity: it was able to communicate advances in natural philosophy, undertaken largely in its own name, without the worry that it was directly responsible for its content. In the aftermath of the Interregnum, the potential for censorship was very real. Certainly the tone of the early volumes was set by Oldenburg, who often related things he was told by his contacts, translated letters and manuscripts from other languages, and reviewed books, always being sure to indicate the provenance of his material and even to use this to impress the reader.[2]By reporting ongoing and often unfinished scientific work that may otherwise have not been reported, the journal had a central function of being a scientific news service. At the time of Philosophical Transactions' foundation, print was heavily regulated, and there was no such thing as a free press. In fact, the first English newspaper, The London Gazette (which was an official organ of government and therefore seen as sanitized), did not appear until after Philosophical Transactions in the same year.Oldenburg's compulsive letter writing to foreign correspondents led to him being suspected of being a spy for the Dutch and interned in the Tower of London in 1667. A rival took the opportunity to publish a pirate issue of Philosophical Transactions, with the pretense of it being Issue 27. Oldenburg repudiated the issue by publishing the real 27 upon his release.Upon Oldenburg's death, following a brief hiatus, the position of Editor was passed down through successive secretaries of the society as an unofficial responsibility and at their own expense. Robert Hooke changed the name of the journal to Philosophical Collections in 1679—a name that remained until 1682, when it changed back. The position of editor was sometimes held jointly and included William Musgrave (Nos 167 to 178) and Robert Plot (Nos 144 to 178).[12]","title":"Origins and history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hans_Sloane_by_Stephen_Slaughter,_1736,_National_Portrait_Gallery,_London.JPG"},{"link_name":"Hans Sloane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Sloane"},{"link_name":"Stephen Slaughter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_Slaughter"},{"link_name":"Hans Sloane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Sloane"},{"link_name":"James Jurin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Jurin"},{"link_name":"Cromwell Mortimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cromwell_Mortimer"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"link_name":"John Hill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Hill_(botanist)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"link_name":"engraving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engraving"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:First-5-women.JPG"},{"link_name":"Caroline Herschel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caroline_Herschel"},{"link_name":"Joseph Banks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Banks"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"sub_title":"Eighteenth century","text":"Hans Sloane by Stephen Slaughter, 1736By the mid-eighteenth century, the most notable editors, besides Oldenburg, were Hans Sloane, James Jurin and Cromwell Mortimer.[4] In virtually all cases the journal was edited by the serving secretary of the society (and occasionally by both secretaries working in tandem). These editor-secretaries carried the financial burden of publishing the Philosophical Transactions. By the early 1750s, the Philosophical Transactions had come under attack, most prominently by John Hill, an actor, apothecary, and naturalist. Hill published three works in two years, ridiculing the Royal Society and the Philosophical Transactions. The society was quick to point out that it was not officially responsible for the journal. Yet, in 1752 the society took over the Philosophical Transactions. The journal would henceforth be published \"for the sole use and benefit of this Society\"; it would be financially carried by the members' subscriptions; and it would be edited by the Committee of Papers.[4]After the takeover of the journal by the Royal Society, management decisions including negotiating with printers and booksellers, were still the task of one of the secretaries—but editorial control was exercised through the Committee of Papers. The committee mostly based its judgements on which papers to publish and which to decline on the 300 to 500-word abstracts of papers read during its weekly meetings. But the members could, if they desired, consult the original paper in full.[4] Once the decision to print had been taken, the paper appeared in the volume for that year. It would feature the author's name, the name of the Fellow who had communicated the paper to the society, and the date on which it was read. The Royal Society covered paper, engraving and printing costs.[4] The society found the journal to be a money-losing proposition: it cost, on average, upwards of £300 annually to produce, of which they seldom recouped more than £150. Because two-fifths of the copies were distributed for free to the journal's natural market, sales were generally slow, and although back issues sold out gradually it would usually be ten years or more before there were fewer than 100 left of any given print run.[4]In 1787, Caroline Herschel became the first woman published in the journal and the only one in the 18th century. Poster at Publishing 350 Exhibit, 2015.During the presidency of Joseph Banks the work of the Committee of Papers continued fairly efficiently, with the President himself in frequent attendance. There was a number of ways in which the president and secretaries could bypass or subvert the Royal Society's publishing procedures. Papers could be prevented from reaching the committee by not allowing them to be read in the first place. Also—though papers were rarely subjected to formal review—there is evidence of editorial intervention, with Banks himself or a trusted deputy proposing cuts or emendations to particular contributions. Publishing in the Philosophical Transactions carried a high degree of prestige and Banks himself attributed an attempt to unseat him, relatively early in his presidency, to the envy of authors whose papers had been rejected from the journal.[4][13]","title":"Origins and history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"gentleman dilettantes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall-14"},{"link_name":"George IV's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_IV_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Royal Medals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Medal"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall-14"},{"link_name":"scientific periodical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_periodical"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"link_name":"Edward Sabine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward_Sabine"},{"link_name":"Taylor & Francis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis"},{"link_name":"Harrison & Sons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrison_%26_Sons"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ggstokes.jpg"},{"link_name":"George Stokes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet"},{"link_name":"George Gabriel Stokes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Gabriel_Stokes"},{"link_name":"Lucasian Professor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lucasian_Professor"},{"link_name":"Cambridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cambridge"},{"link_name":"presidency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Society#President"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hall-14"},{"link_name":"Proceedings of the Royal Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proceedings_of_the_Royal_Society"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"botany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botany"},{"link_name":"zoology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoology"},{"link_name":"physiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology"},{"link_name":"chemistry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemistry"},{"link_name":"physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physics"},{"link_name":"Arthur Rucker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_William_Rucker"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"}],"sub_title":"Nineteenth century","text":"Transactions continued steadily through the turn of the century and into the 1820s. In the late 1820s and early 1830s, a movement to reform the Royal Society rose. The reformers felt that the scientific character of the society had been undermined by the admission of too many gentleman dilettantes under Banks. In proposing a more limited membership, to protect the society's reputation, they also argued for systematic, expert evaluation of papers for Transactions by named referees.[14]Sectional Committees, each with responsibility for a particular group of disciplines, were initially set up in the 1830s to adjudicate the award of George IV's Royal Medals. But individual members of these committees were soon put to work reporting on and evaluating papers submitted to the Royal Society. These evaluations began to be used as the basis of recommendations to the Committee of Papers, who would then rubber-stamp decisions made by the Sectional Committees. Despite its flaws—it was inconsistent in its application and not free of abuses—this system remained at the heart of the society's procedures for publishing until 1847 when the Sectional Committees were dissolved. However, the practice of sending most papers out for review remained.[14]During the 1850s, the cost of the Transactions to the society was increasing again (and would keep doing so for the rest of the century); illustrations were always the largest expense. Illustrations had been a natural and essential aspect of the scientific periodical since the later seventeenth century. Engravings (cut into metal plates) were used for detailed illustrations, particularly where realism was required; while wood cuts (and, from the early nineteenth century, wood-engravings) were used for diagrams, as they could be easily combined with letterpress.[4]By the mid-1850s, the Philosophical Transactions was seen as a drain on the society's finances and the treasurer, Edward Sabine, urged the Committee of Papers to restrict the length and number of papers published in the journal. In 1852, for example, the amount expended on the Transactions was £1094, but only £276 of this was offset by sales income. Sabine felt this was more than the society could comfortably sustain. The print run of the journal was 1000 copies. Around 500 of these went to the fellowship, in return for their membership dues, and since authors now received up to 150 off-prints for free, to circulate through their personal networks, the demand for the Transactions through the book trade must have been limited. The concerns with cost eventually led to a change in the printer in 1877 from Taylor & Francis to Harrison & Sons—the latter was a larger commercial printer, able to offer the society a more financially viable contract, although it was less experienced in printing scientific works.[4]Sir George StokesWhile expenditure was a worry for the treasurer, as secretary (from 1854), George Gabriel Stokes was preoccupied with the actual content of the Transactions and his extensive correspondence with authors over his thirty-one-year term. He took up most of his time beyond his duties as Lucasian Professor at Cambridge. Stokes was paramount in establishing a more formalized refereeing process at the Royal Society. It was not until Stokes' presidency ended in 1890 that his influence over the journal diminished. The introduction of fixed terms for society officers precluded subsequent editors from taking on Stokes' mantle and meant that the society operated its editorial practices more collectively than it had done since the mechanisms for it were established in 1752.[14]By the mid-nineteenth century, getting a paper published in the Transactions still relied on the paper first being read by a Fellow. Many papers were sent immediately for printing in abstract form in Proceedings of the Royal Society. But those which were being considered for printing in full in Transactions were usually sent to two referees for comment before the final decision was made by the Committee of Papers. During Stokes' time, authors were given the opportunity to discuss their paper at length with him before, during and after its official submission to the Committee of Papers.[4]In 1887, the Transactions split into series \"A\" and \"B\", dealing with the physical and biological sciences respectively. In 1897, the model of collective responsibility for the editing of the Transactions was emphasized by the re-establishment of the Sectional Committees. The six sectional committees covered mathematics, botany, zoology, physiology, geology, and (together) chemistry and physics, and were composed of Fellows of the society with relevant expertise. The Sectional Committees took on the task of managing the refereeing process after papers had been read before the society. Referees were usually Fellows, except in a small number of cases where the topic was beyond the knowledge of the fellowship (or at least, of those willing to referee). The Sectional Committees communicated referee reports to authors; and sent reports to the Committee of Papers for final sanction. The Sectional Committees were intended to reduce the burden on the secretaries and Council. Consequently, the secretary in the 1890s, Arthur Rucker, no longer coordinated the refereeing of papers, nor did he generally correspond extensively with authors about their papers as Stokes had done. However, he continued to be the first port of call for authors submitting papers.[4]","title":"Origins and history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"foolscap-folio-sized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foolscap_folio"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"link_name":"Second World War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_World_War"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Harrie Massey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harrie_Massey"},{"link_name":"Bernard Katz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bernard_Katz"},{"link_name":"associate editors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associate_editor"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pt350-4"}],"sub_title":"Twentieth century","text":"Authors were increasingly expected to submit manuscripts in a standardized format and style. From 1896, they were encouraged to submit typed papers on foolscap-folio-sized paper to lighten the work of getting papers ready for printing and to reduce the chance of error in the process. A publishable paper now had to present its information in an appropriate manner, as well as being of remarkable scientific interest. For a brief period between 1907 and 1914, authors were under even more pressure to conform to the society's expectations, due to a decision to discuss cost estimates of candidate papers alongside referees' reports. The committees could require authors to reduce the number of illustrations or tables or, indeed, the overall length of the paper, as a condition of acceptance. It was hoped that this policy would reduce the still-rising costs of production, which had reached £1747 in 1906; but the effect appears to have been negligible, and the cost estimates ceased to be routine practice after 1914.[4]It was only after the Second World War that the society's concerns about the cost of its journals were finally allayed. There had been a one-off surplus in 1932, but it was only from 1948 that the Transactions began regularly to end the year in surplus. That year, despite a three-fold increase in production costs (it was a bumper year for papers), there was a surplus of almost £400. Part of the post-war financial success of the Transactions was due to the rising subscriptions received, and a growing number of subscriptions from British and international institutions, including universities, industry, and government; this was at the same time as private subscriptions, outside of fellows, were non-existent. By the early 1970s, institutional subscription was the main channel of income from publication sales for the society. From 1970 to 1971, 43,760 copies of Transactions were sold, of which casual purchasers accounted for only 2070 copies.[4]All of the society's publications now had a substantial international circulation; in 1973, for example, just 11% of institutional subscriptions were from the United Kingdom; 50% were from the United States. Contributions, however, were still mostly from British authors: 69% of Royal Society authors were from the United Kingdom in 1974. A Publications Policy Committee suggested that more overseas scientists could be encouraged to submit papers if the requirement to have papers communicated by Fellows was dropped. This did not happen until 1990. There was also a suggestion to create a \"C\" journal for molecular sciences to attract more authors in that area, but the idea never materialized. The conclusion in 1973 was a general appeal to encourage more British scientists (whether Fellows or not) to publish papers with the society and to pass on the message to their overseas colleagues; by the early 2000s, the proportion of non-UK authors had risen to around a half; and by 2017 it had passed 80%.[15]As the twentieth century came to a close, the editing of the Transactions and the society's other journals became more professional with the employment of a growing in-house staff of editors, designers and marketers. In 1968 there were about eleven staff in the Publishing Section; by 1990, the number had risen to twenty-two. The editorial processes were also transformed. In 1968 the Sectional Committees had been abolished (again). Instead, the secretaries, Harrie Massey (physicist) and Bernard Katz (physiologist), were each assigned a group of Fellows to act as associate editors for each series (\"A\" and \"B\") of the Transactions. The role of the Committee of Papers was abolished in 1989 and since 1990 two Fellows (rather than the secretaries) have acted as the editors with assistance from associate editors. The editors serve on the Publishing Board, established in 1997 to monitor publishing and report to the council. In the 1990s, as these changes to the publishing and editorial teams were implemented, the Publishing Section acquired its first computer for administration; the Transactions were first published online in 1997.[4]","title":"Origins and history"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Over the centuries, many important scientific discoveries have been published in the Philosophical Transactions. Famous contributing authors include:","title":"Famous and notable contributors"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Pirate Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Pirate_Bay"},{"link_name":"public domain in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Aaron Swartz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aaron_Swartz"},{"link_name":"case","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_v._Swartz"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanNoordenOct2001-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MurphyJuly2011-30"},{"link_name":"collections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lists_of_Internet_Archive%27s_collections&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Internet Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Archive"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-VanNoordenOct2001-29"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"}],"text":"In July 2011 programmer Greg Maxwell released through The Pirate Bay the nearly 19,000 articles that had been published before 1923 and were therefore in the public domain in the United States, to support Aaron Swartz in his case. The articles had been digitized for the Royal Society by JSTOR for a cost of less than US$100,000 and public access to them was restricted through a paywall.[29][30]In August 2011, users uploaded over 18,500 articles to the collections of the Internet Archive.[31] The collection received 50,000 views per month by November 2011.[32]In October of the same year, the Royal Society released for free the full text of all its articles prior to 1941 but denied that this decision had been influenced by Maxwell's actions.[29]In 2017, the Royal Society launched a completely re-digitised version of the complete journal archive back to 1665 in high resolution and with enhanced metadata. All the out of copyright material is completely free to access without a login.[33]","title":"Public domain and access"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Nathaniel Hawthorne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nathaniel_Hawthorne"},{"link_name":"\"The Birthmark\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Birth-Mark"},{"link_name":"The Time Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Time_Machine"},{"link_name":"H. G. Wells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H._G._Wells"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"}],"text":"The protagonist of Nathaniel Hawthorne's \"The Birthmark\" alludes to the older editions of the Philosophical Transactions, comparing them to the occult writings of earlier natural philosophers:Hardly less curious and imaginative were the early volumes of the Transactions of the Royal Society, in which the members, knowing little of the limits of natural possibility, were continually recording wonders or proposing methods whereby wonders might be wrought.— Nathaniel Hawthorne, \"The Birthmark\"The journal is also mentioned by the narrator in Chapter 6 of The Time Machine by H. G. Wells[34]Had I been a literary man I might, perhaps, have moralised upon the futility of all ambition. But as it was, the thing that struck me with keenest force was the enormous waste of labour to which this sombre wilderness of rotting paper testified. At the time I will confess that I thought chiefly of the Philosophical Transactions and my own seventeen papers upon physical optics.— H. G. Wells, the Time Machine (1895)","title":"Literary references"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fyfe, Aileen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aileen_Fyfe"},{"link_name":"A History of Scientific Journals: Publishing at the Royal Society, 1665–2015","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//library.oapen.org/handle/20.500.12657/58947"},{"link_name":"UCL Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UCL_Press"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.14324/111.9781800082328","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.14324%2F111.9781800082328"},{"link_name":"hdl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2164/20277","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hdl.handle.net/2164%2F20277"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-800-08232-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-800-08232-8"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"252484153","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:252484153"}],"text":"Fyfe, Aileen; Moxham, Noah; McDougall-Waters, Julie; Mørk Røstvik, Camilla (2022). A History of Scientific Journals: Publishing at the Royal Society, 1665–2015. UCL Press. doi:10.14324/111.9781800082328. hdl:2164/20277. ISBN 978-1-800-08232-8. S2CID 252484153.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Henry Oldenburg, founding editor and publisher","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Henry_Oldenburg.jpg/220px-Henry_Oldenburg.jpg"},{"image_text":"Hans Sloane by Stephen Slaughter, 1736","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Hans_Sloane_by_Stephen_Slaughter%2C_1736%2C_National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London.JPG/220px-Hans_Sloane_by_Stephen_Slaughter%2C_1736%2C_National_Portrait_Gallery%2C_London.JPG"},{"image_text":"In 1787, Caroline Herschel became the first woman published in the journal and the only one in the 18th century. Poster at Publishing 350 Exhibit, 2015.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/First-5-women.JPG/220px-First-5-women.JPG"},{"image_text":"Sir George Stokes","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Ggstokes.jpg/220px-Ggstokes.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Journal des sçavans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_des_s%C3%A7avans"},{"title":"book reviews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_review"},{"title":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ASP2009-35"},{"title":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Banks2010-36"},{"title":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}]

[{"reference":"Kronick, David (1962). A History of Scientific and Technical Periodicals: the Origins and Development of the Scientific and Technological Press. Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Publishing the Philosophical Transactions: the economic, social and cultural history of a learned journal, 1665–2015\". Royal Society.","urls":[{"url":"https://arts.st-andrews.ac.uk/philosophicaltransactions/","url_text":"\"Publishing the Philosophical Transactions: the economic, social and cultural history of a learned journal, 1665–2015\""}]},{"reference":"Oldenburg, H. (1665). \"Epistle Dedicatory\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 1: 0. doi:10.1098/rstl.1665.0001. S2CID 186211404.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1665.0001","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1665.0001"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186211404","url_text":"186211404"}]},{"reference":"\"Philosophical Transactions: 350 years of publishing at the Royal Society (1665–2015)\" (PDF).","urls":[{"url":"https://royalsociety.org/-/media/journals/publishing/publishing-350-exhibition-catalogue.pdf","url_text":"\"Philosophical Transactions: 350 years of publishing at the Royal Society (1665–2015)\""}]},{"reference":"David Banks. \"The use of modality in the early academic article. The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions, 1665-1700\" (PDF). UCM. Retrieved 26 March 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ucm.es/data/cont/docs/759-2014-09-16-EMEL14-BOOK_OF_ABSTRACTS.pdf","url_text":"\"The use of modality in the early academic article. The Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions, 1665-1700\""}]},{"reference":"\"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London – History\". Royal Society Publishing. Retrieved 6 February 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/","url_text":"\"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London – History\""}]},{"reference":"Philosophical Transactions: Giving Some Accompt of the present Undertakings, Studies, and Labours in Many Considerable Parts of the World . Vol. 1. 6 March 1665 – via Wikisource.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Philosophical_Transactions/Volume_1/Title_Page","url_text":"Philosophical Transactions: Giving Some Accompt of the present Undertakings, Studies, and Labours in Many Considerable Parts of the World"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikisource","url_text":"Wikisource"}]},{"reference":"Bluhm, R. K. (1960). \"Henry Oldenburg, F.R.S. (c. 1615–1677)\". Notes and Records of the Royal Society. 15: 183–97. doi:10.1098/rsnr.1960.0018. S2CID 143757108.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Notes_and_Records_of_the_Royal_Society","url_text":"Notes and Records of the Royal Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsnr.1960.0018","url_text":"10.1098/rsnr.1960.0018"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:143757108","url_text":"143757108"}]},{"reference":"\"Table of Contents\". Philosophical Transactions. Royal Society Publishing. Retrieved 15 March 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://rstl.royalsocietypublishing.org/content/1/1-22.toc","url_text":"\"Table of Contents\""}]},{"reference":"Chambers, Neil (2006). The Scientific Correspondence of Joseph Banks. London: Pickering & Chatto.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hall, Marie (1984). All Scientists Now: The Royal Society in the Nineteenth Century. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Publishing 2017 – The Year in Review\". The Royal Society. Retrieved 26 July 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://blogs.royalsociety.org/publishing/2017-the-year-in-review/","url_text":"\"Publishing 2017 – The Year in Review\""}]},{"reference":"Newton, I. (1671). \"A Letter of Mr. Isaac Newton, Professor of the Mathematicks in the University of Cambridge; Containing His New Theory about Light and Colors: Sent by the Author to the Publisher from Cambridge, Febr. 6. 1671/72; in Order to be Communicated to the R. Society\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 6 (69–80): 3075–3087. Bibcode:1671RSPT....6.3075N. doi:10.1098/rstl.1671.0072.","urls":[{"url":"https://zenodo.org/record/1432118","url_text":"\"A Letter of Mr. Isaac Newton, Professor of the Mathematicks in the University of Cambridge; Containing His New Theory about Light and Colors: Sent by the Author to the Publisher from Cambridge, Febr. 6. 1671/72; in Order to be Communicated to the R. Society\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1671RSPT....6.3075N","url_text":"1671RSPT....6.3075N"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1671.0072","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1671.0072"}]},{"reference":"Leeuwenhoek, A. (1677). \"Observation, communicated to the publisher by Mr. Antony van Leewenhoeck, in a Dutch letter of the 9 Octob. 1676 here English'd: concerning little animals by him observed in rain-well-sea and snow water; as also in water wherein pepper had lain infused. In a Letter from Mr. Anton van Leeuwenhoek\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 12 (133): 821–831. doi:10.1098/rstl.1677.0003.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1677.0003","url_text":"\"Observation, communicated to the publisher by Mr. Antony van Leewenhoeck, in a Dutch letter of the 9 Octob. 1676 here English'd: concerning little animals by him observed in rain-well-sea and snow water; as also in water wherein pepper had lain infused. In a Letter from Mr. Anton van Leeuwenhoek\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1677.0003","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1677.0003"}]},{"reference":"\"Roy Military Survey of Scotland, 1747-1755\". National Library of Scotland. Retrieved 14 January 2018.","urls":[{"url":"http://maps.nls.uk/roy/background.html","url_text":"\"Roy Military Survey of Scotland, 1747-1755\""}]},{"reference":"Herschel, C. (1787). \"An Account of a New Comet. In a Letter from Miss Caroline Herschel to Charles Blagden, M. D. Sec. R. S.\" Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 77: 1–3. Bibcode:1787RSPT...77....1H. doi:10.1098/rstl.1787.0001.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1787.0001","url_text":"\"An Account of a New Comet. In a Letter from Miss Caroline Herschel to Charles Blagden, M. D. Sec. R. S.\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1787RSPT...77....1H","url_text":"1787RSPT...77....1H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1787.0001","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1787.0001"}]},{"reference":"Somerville, M. (1826). \"On the Magnetizing Power of the More Refrangible Solar Rays\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 116: 132–139. doi:10.1098/rstl.1826.0014.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1826.0014","url_text":"\"On the Magnetizing Power of the More Refrangible Solar Rays\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1826.0014","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1826.0014"}]},{"reference":"Darwin, C. (1839). \"Observations on the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, and of Other Parts of Lochaber in Scotland, with an Attempt to Prove That They Are of Marine Origin\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 129: 39–81. Bibcode:1839RSPT..129...39D. doi:10.1098/rstl.1839.0005.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1839.0005","url_text":"\"Observations on the Parallel Roads of Glen Roy, and of Other Parts of Lochaber in Scotland, with an Attempt to Prove That They Are of Marine Origin\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1839RSPT..129...39D","url_text":"1839RSPT..129...39D"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1839.0005","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1839.0005"}]},{"reference":"Faraday, M. (1857). \"The Bakerian Lecture: Experimental Relations of Gold (and Other Metals) to Light\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 147: 145–181. Bibcode:1857RSPT..147..145F. doi:10.1098/rstl.1857.0011.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1857.0011","url_text":"\"The Bakerian Lecture: Experimental Relations of Gold (and Other Metals) to Light\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1857RSPT..147..145F","url_text":"1857RSPT..147..145F"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1857.0011","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1857.0011"}]},{"reference":"Maxwell, J. C. (1865). \"A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 155: 459–512. Bibcode:1865RSPT..155..459M. doi:10.1098/rstl.1865.0008. S2CID 186207827.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1865RSPT..155..459M","url_text":"1865RSPT..155..459M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1865.0008","url_text":"10.1098/rstl.1865.0008"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186207827","url_text":"186207827"}]},{"reference":"Lonsdale, K. (1947). \"Divergent-Beam X-Ray Photography of Crystals\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 240 (817): 219–250. Bibcode:1947RSPTA.240..219L. doi:10.1098/rsta.1947.0002.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.1947.0002","url_text":"\"Divergent-Beam X-Ray Photography of Crystals\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1947RSPTA.240..219L","url_text":"1947RSPTA.240..219L"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.1947.0002","url_text":"10.1098/rsta.1947.0002"}]},{"reference":"Hodgkin, D. C.; Kamper, J.; Lindsey, J.; MacKay, M.; Pickworth, J.; Robertson, J. H.; Shoemaker, C. B.; White, J. G.; Prosen, R. J.; Trueblood, K. N. (1957). \"The Structure of Vitamin BFormula I. An Outline of the Crystallographic Investigation of Vitamin BFormula\". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 242 (1229): 228. Bibcode:1957RSPSA.242..228H. doi:10.1098/rspa.1957.0174. S2CID 93391328.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1957RSPSA.242..228H","url_text":"1957RSPSA.242..228H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1957.0174","url_text":"10.1098/rspa.1957.0174"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:93391328","url_text":"93391328"}]},{"reference":"Hodgkin, D. C. (1974). \"The Bakerian Lecture, 1972: Insulin, its Chemistry and Biochemistry\". Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 338 (1614): 251–275. Bibcode:1974RSPSA.338..251H. doi:10.1098/rspa.1974.0085.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1974.0085","url_text":"\"The Bakerian Lecture, 1972: Insulin, its Chemistry and Biochemistry\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1974RSPSA.338..251H","url_text":"1974RSPSA.338..251H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspa.1974.0085","url_text":"10.1098/rspa.1974.0085"}]},{"reference":"Turing, A. M. (1952). \"The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 237 (641): 37–64. Bibcode:1952RSPTB.237...37T. doi:10.1098/rstb.1952.0012.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing","url_text":"Turing, A. M."},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1952.0012","url_text":"\"The Chemical Basis of Morphogenesis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1952RSPTB.237...37T","url_text":"1952RSPTB.237...37T"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstb.1952.0012","url_text":"10.1098/rstb.1952.0012"}]},{"reference":"Hawking, S. W. (1983). \"The Cosmological Constant [and Discussion]\". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 310 (1512): 303–310. Bibcode:1983RSPTA.310..303H. doi:10.1098/rsta.1983.0092. S2CID 122814030.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1983RSPTA.310..303H","url_text":"1983RSPTA.310..303H"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frsta.1983.0092","url_text":"10.1098/rsta.1983.0092"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:122814030","url_text":"122814030"}]},{"reference":"\"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London : Free Texts : Free Download, Borrow and Streaming : Internet Archive\".","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/philosophicaltransactions","url_text":"\"Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London : Free Texts : Free Download, Borrow and Streaming : Internet Archive\""}]},{"reference":"\"About page, \"philosophicaltransactions\"\".","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/philosophicaltransactions&tab=about","url_text":"\"About page, \"philosophicaltransactions\"\""}]},{"reference":"\"Science in the Making\".","urls":[{"url":"https://makingscience.royalsociety.org/s/rs/page/welcome","url_text":"\"Science in the Making\""}]},{"reference":"\"The Time Machine\". Project Gutenberg.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gutenberg.org/files/35/35-h/35-h.htm","url_text":"\"The Time Machine\""}]},{"reference":"Banks, David (March 2009). \"Starting science in the vernacular. Notes on some early issues of the Philosophical Transactions and the Journal des Sçavans, 1665–1700\". ASp. La Revue du GERAS. 55. Groupe d'Étude et de Recherche en Anglais de Spécialité. Retrieved 29 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://asp.revues.org/213","url_text":"\"Starting science in the vernacular. Notes on some early issues of the Philosophical Transactions and the Journal des Sçavans, 1665–1700\""}]},{"reference":"Banks, David (2010). \"The beginnings of vernacular scientific discourse: genres and linguistic features in some early issues of the Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions\". E-rea. 8 (1). doi:10.4000/erea.1334.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4000%2Ferea.1334","url_text":"\"The beginnings of vernacular scientific discourse: genres and linguistic features in some early issues of the Journal des Sçavans and the Philosophical Transactions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.4000%2Ferea.1334","url_text":"10.4000/erea.1334"}]},{"reference":"\"Special Collections | The Dibner Library of the History of Science and Technology\". Retrieved 17 April 2010.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sil.si.edu/libraries/Dibner/newacq_2000.htm","url_text":"\"Special Collections | The Dibner Library of the History of Science and Technology\""}]},{"reference":"Fyfe, Aileen; Moxham, Noah; McDougall-Waters, Julie; Mørk Røstvik, Camilla (2022). A History of Scientific Journals: Publishing at the Royal Society, 1665–2015. UCL Press. doi:10.14324/111.9781800082328. hdl:2164/20277. ISBN 978-1-800-08232-8. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sachdev%E2%80%93Ye%E2%80%93Kitaev_model

Sachdev–Ye–Kitaev model

["1 Model","2 See also","3 References"]

Solvable physics model In condensed matter physics and black hole physics, the Sachdev–Ye–Kitaev (SYK) model is an exactly solvable model initially proposed by Subir Sachdev and Jinwu Ye, and later modified by Alexei Kitaev to the present commonly used form. The model is believed to bring insights into the understanding of strongly correlated materials and it also has a close relation with the discrete model of AdS/CFT. Many condensed matter systems, such as quantum dot coupled to topological superconducting wires, graphene flake with irregular boundary, and kagome optical lattice with impurities, are proposed to be modeled by it. Some variants of the model are amenable to digital quantum simulation, with pioneering experiments implemented in nuclear magnetic resonance. Model Let n {\displaystyle n} be an integer and m {\displaystyle m} an even integer such that 2 ≤ m ≤ n {\displaystyle 2\leq m\leq n} , and consider a set of Majorana fermions ψ 1 , … , ψ n {\displaystyle \psi _{1},\dotsc ,\psi _{n}} which are fermion operators satisfying conditions: Hermitian ψ i † = ψ i {\displaystyle \psi _{i}^{\dagger }=\psi _{i}} ; Clifford relation { ψ i , ψ j } = 2 δ i j {\displaystyle \{\psi _{i},\psi _{j}\}=2\delta _{ij}} . Let J i 1 i 2 ⋯ i m {\displaystyle J_{i_{1}i_{2}\cdots i_{m}}} be random variables whose expectations satisfy: E ( J i 1 i 2 ⋯ i m ) = 0 {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (J_{i_{1}i_{2}\cdots i_{m}})=0} ; E ( J i 1 i 2 ⋯ i m 2 ) = 1 {\displaystyle \mathbf {E} (J_{i_{1}i_{2}\cdots i_{m}}^{2})=1} . Then the SYK model is defined as H S Y K = i m / 2 ∑ 1 ≤ i 1 < ⋯ < i m ≤ n J i 1 i 2 ⋯ i m ψ i 1 ψ i 2 ⋯ ψ i m {\displaystyle H_{\rm {SYK}}=i^{m/2}\sum _{1\leq i_{1}<\cdots <i_{m}\leq n}J_{i_{1}i_{2}\cdots i_{m}}\psi _{i_{1}}\psi _{i_{2}}\cdots \psi _{i_{m}}} . Note that sometimes an extra normalization factor is included. The most famous model is when m = 4 {\displaystyle m=4} : H S Y K = − 1 4 ! ∑ i 1 , … , i 4 = 1 n J i 1 i 2 i 3 i 4 ψ i 1 ψ i 2 ψ i 3 ψ i 4 {\displaystyle H_{\rm {SYK}}=-{\frac {1}{4!}}\sum _{i_{1},\dotsc ,i_{4}=1}^{n}J_{i_{1}i_{2}i_{3}i_{4}}\psi _{i_{1}}\psi _{i_{2}}\psi _{i_{3}}\psi _{i_{4}}} , where the factor 1 / 4 ! {\displaystyle 1/4!} is included to coincide with the most popular form. See also Non-Fermi liquid References ^ Sachdev, Subir; Ye, Jinwu (1993-05-24). "Gapless spin-fluid ground state in a random quantum Heisenberg magnet". Physical Review Letters. 70 (21): 3339–3342. arXiv:cond-mat/9212030. Bibcode:1993PhRvL..70.3339S. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.70.3339. PMID 10053843. S2CID 1103248. ^ "Alexei Kitaev, Caltech & KITP, A simple model of quantum holography (part 1)". online.kitp.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 2019-11-02. ^ "Alexei Kitaev, Caltech, A simple model of quantum holography (part 2)". online.kitp.ucsb.edu. Retrieved 2019-11-02. ^ Chew, Aaron; Essin, Andrew; Alicea, Jason (2017-09-29). "Approximating the Sachdev-Ye-Kitaev model with Majorana wires". Phys. Rev. B. 96 (12): 121119. arXiv:1703.06890. Bibcode:2017PhRvB..96l1119C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevB.96.121119. S2CID 119222270. ^ Chen, Anffany; Ilan, R.; Juan, F.; Pikulin, D.I.; Franz, M. (2018-06-18). "Quantum Holography in a Graphene Flake with an Irregular Boundary". Phys. Rev. Lett. 121 (3): 036403. arXiv:1802.00802. Bibcode:2018PhRvL.121c6403C. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.121.036403. PMID 30085787. S2CID 51940526. ^ Wei, Chenan; Sedrakyan, Tigran (2021-01-29). "Optical lattice platform for the Sachdev-Ye-Kitaev model". Phys. Rev. A. 103 (1): 013323. arXiv:2005.07640. Bibcode:2021PhRvA.103a3323W. doi:10.1103/PhysRevA.103.013323. S2CID 234363891. ^ García-Álvarez, L.; Egusquiza, I.L.; Lamata, L.; del Campo, A.; Sonner, J.; Solano, E. (2017). "Digital Quantum Simulation of Minimal AdS/CFT". Physical Review Letters. 119 (4): 040501. arXiv:1607.08560. Bibcode:2017PhRvL.119d0501G. doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.119.040501. PMID 29341740. S2CID 5144368. ^ Luo, Z.; You, Y.-Z.; Li, J.; Jian, C.-M.; Lu, D.; Xu, C.; Zeng, B.; Laflamme, R. (2019). "Quantum simulation of the non-fermi-liquid state of Sachdev-Ye-Kitaev model". npj Quantum Information. 5: 53. arXiv:1712.06458. Bibcode:2019npjQI...5...53L. doi:10.1038/s41534-019-0166-7. S2CID 195344916.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"condensed matter physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Condensed_matter_physics"},{"link_name":"black hole physics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_hole"},{"link_name":"Subir Sachdev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subir_Sachdev"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Alexei Kitaev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexei_Kitaev"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"AdS/CFT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AdS/CFT_correspondence"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"nuclear magnetic resonance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"In condensed matter physics and black hole physics, the Sachdev–Ye–Kitaev (SYK) model is an exactly solvable model initially proposed by Subir Sachdev and Jinwu Ye,[1] and later modified by Alexei Kitaev to the present commonly used form.[2][3] The model is believed to bring insights into the understanding of strongly correlated materials and it also has a close relation with the discrete model of AdS/CFT. Many condensed matter systems, such as quantum dot coupled to topological superconducting wires,[4] graphene flake with irregular boundary,[5] and kagome optical lattice with impurities,[6] are proposed to be modeled by it. Some variants of the model are amenable to digital quantum simulation,[7] with pioneering experiments implemented in nuclear magnetic resonance.[8]","title":"Sachdev–Ye–Kitaev model"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Majorana fermions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majorana_fermion"}],"text":"Let \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n be an integer and \n \n \n \n m\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m}\n \n an even integer such that \n \n \n \n 2\n ≤\n m\n ≤\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 2\\leq m\\leq n}\n \n, and consider a set of Majorana fermions \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n ψ\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi _{1},\\dotsc ,\\psi _{n}}\n \n which are fermion operators satisfying conditions:Hermitian \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n i\n \n \n †\n \n \n =\n \n ψ\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\psi _{i}^{\\dagger }=\\psi _{i}}\n \n;\nClifford relation \n \n \n \n {\n \n ψ\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n ψ\n \n j\n \n \n }\n =\n 2\n \n δ\n \n i\n j\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\{\\psi _{i},\\psi _{j}\\}=2\\delta _{ij}}\n \n.Let \n \n \n \n \n J\n \n \n i\n \n 1\n \n \n \n i\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋯\n \n i\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle J_{i_{1}i_{2}\\cdots i_{m}}}\n \n be random variables whose expectations satisfy:E\n \n (\n \n J\n \n \n i\n \n 1\n \n \n \n i\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋯\n \n i\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n )\n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {E} (J_{i_{1}i_{2}\\cdots i_{m}})=0}\n \n;\n\n \n \n \n \n E\n \n (\n \n J\n \n \n i\n \n 1\n \n \n \n i\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋯\n \n i\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n )\n =\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\mathbf {E} (J_{i_{1}i_{2}\\cdots i_{m}}^{2})=1}\n \n.Then the SYK model is defined asH\n \n \n S\n Y\n K\n \n \n \n =\n \n i\n \n m\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ∑\n \n 1\n ≤\n \n i\n \n 1\n \n \n <\n ⋯\n <\n \n i\n \n m\n \n \n ≤\n n\n \n \n \n J\n \n \n i\n \n 1\n \n \n \n i\n \n 2\n \n \n ⋯\n \n i\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n \n i\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n \n i\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n ⋯\n \n ψ\n \n \n i\n \n m\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{\\rm {SYK}}=i^{m/2}\\sum _{1\\leq i_{1}<\\cdots <i_{m}\\leq n}J_{i_{1}i_{2}\\cdots i_{m}}\\psi _{i_{1}}\\psi _{i_{2}}\\cdots \\psi _{i_{m}}}\n \n.Note that sometimes an extra normalization factor is included.The most famous model is when \n \n \n \n m\n =\n 4\n \n \n {\\displaystyle m=4}\n \n:H\n \n \n S\n Y\n K\n \n \n \n =\n −\n \n \n 1\n \n 4\n !\n \n \n \n \n ∑\n \n \n i\n \n 1\n \n \n ,\n …\n ,\n \n i\n \n 4\n \n \n =\n 1\n \n \n n\n \n \n \n J\n \n \n i\n \n 1\n \n \n \n i\n \n 2\n \n \n \n i\n \n 3\n \n \n \n i\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n \n i\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n \n i\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n \n i\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n ψ\n \n \n i\n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle H_{\\rm {SYK}}=-{\\frac {1}{4!}}\\sum _{i_{1},\\dotsc ,i_{4}=1}^{n}J_{i_{1}i_{2}i_{3}i_{4}}\\psi _{i_{1}}\\psi _{i_{2}}\\psi _{i_{3}}\\psi _{i_{4}}}\n \n,where the factor \n \n \n \n 1\n \n /\n \n 4\n !\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1/4!}\n \n is included to coincide with the most popular form.","title":"Model"}]

[]

[{"title":"Non-Fermi liquid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi_liquid_theory#Non-Fermi_liquids"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Science_Fiction_Association_Award

BSFA Award

["1 BSFA Award categories","2 BSFA Award winners","3 Notes","4 See also","5 References","6 External resources"]

British science fiction awards BSFA AwardsAwarded forAwarded each year to the best Novel, Short fiction, Audio fiction, Collection, Artwork and work of Non-Fiction published in the previous calendar year as voted for by the members of the British Science Fiction Association.CountryUKPresented byBritish Science Fiction AssociationFirst awarded1970Websitebsfa.co.uk/awards The BSFA Awards are literary awards presented annually since 1970 by the British Science Fiction Association (BSFA) to honour works in the genre of science fiction. Nominees and winners are chosen based on a vote of BSFA members. More recently, members of the Eastercon convention have also been eligible to vote. BSFA Award categories The award originally included only a category for novels. A category for artists was added in 1979 and for short works in 1980. A category for younger readers was added in 2021. The artists category became artwork in 1986, and a category for related non-fiction was added in 2002. A number of new awards were created in 2023. A media category was awarded for 1978 to 1991. The ceremonies are named after the year that the eligible works were published, despite the awards being given out in the next year. The current standard award categories are: BSFA Award for Best Novel (from 1969) BSFA Award for Best Shorter Fiction (from 2023) BSFA Award for Best Short Fiction (from 1980) BSFA Award for Best Collection (from 2023) BSFA Award for Best Fiction for Younger Readers (from 2021) BSFA Award for Best Translated Short Fiction (from 2023) BSFA Award for Best Artwork (from 1979) BSFA Award for Best Original Audio Fiction (from 2023) BSFA Award for Best Non-Fiction (from 2001) BSFA Award for Best Short Non-Fiction (from 2023) Previous categories: BSFA Award for Best Media (1978 to 1991) BSFA Award winners Year Category Work Author(s) 1969 Novel Stand on Zanzibar John Brunner 1970 Novel The Jagged Orbit John Brunner 1971 Collection The Moment of Eclipse Brian W. Aldiss 1972 No award — insufficient votes. 1973 Novel Rendezvous with Rama Arthur C. Clarke Special Award Billion Year Spree Brian W. Aldiss 1974 Novel Inverted World Christopher Priest 1975 Novel Orbitsville Bob Shaw 1976 Novel Brontomek! Michael G. Coney Special Award A Pictorial History of Science Fiction David Kyle 1977 Novel The Jonah Kit Ian Watson 1978 Novel A Scanner Darkly Philip K. Dick Collection Deathbird Stories Harlan Ellison Media The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy (original radio series) Douglas Adams 1979 Novel The Unlimited Dream Company J. G. Ballard Short "Palely Loitering" Christopher Priest (F&SF) Media The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy Artist Jim Burns 1980 Novel Timescape Gregory Benford Short "The Brave Little Toaster" Thomas M. Disch (F&SF) Media The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy second radio series Douglas Adams Artist Peter Jones 1981 Novel The Shadow of the Torturer Gene Wolfe Short "Mythago Wood" Robert Holdstock (F&SF) Media Time Bandits film Artist Bruce Pennington 1982 Novel Helliconia Spring Brian W. Aldiss Short "Kitemaster" Keith Roberts (Interzone 1) Media Blade Runner film Artist Tim White 1983 Novel Tik-Tok John Sladek Short "After-Images" Malcolm Edwards (Interzone 4) Media Android film Artist Bruce Pennington 1984 Novel Mythago Wood Robert Holdstock Short "The Unconquered Country" Geoff Ryman (Interzone 7) Media The Company of Wolves film Artist Jim Burns 1985 Novel Helliconia Winter Brian W. Aldiss Short "Cube Root" David Langford (Interzone 11) Media Brazil film Artist Jim Burns 1986 Novel The Ragged Astronauts Bob Shaw Short "Kaeti and the Hangman" Keith Roberts (in collection Kaeti & Company) Media Aliens film Artist The Clocktower Girl by Keith Roberts 1987 Novel Grainne Keith Roberts Short "Love Sickness" Geoff Ryman (Interzone 20/21) Media Star Cops television series Artwork Cover of Worldcon Programme Book Jim Burns 1988 Novel Lavondyss Robert Holdstock Short "Dark Night in Toyland" Bob Shaw (Interzone 26) Media Who Framed Roger Rabbit film Artwork Cover of Lavondyss Alan Lee 1989 Novel Pyramids Terry Pratchett Short "In Translation" Lisa Tuttle (Zenith) Media Red Dwarf television series Artwork Cover of Other Edens III Jim Burns 1990 Novel Take Back Plenty Colin Greenland Short "The Original Doctor Shade" Kim Newman (Interzone 36) Media Twin Peaks television series Artist Covers of The Difference Engine and Interzone 40 Ian Miller 1991 Novel The Fall of Hyperion Dan Simmons Short "Bad Timing" Molly Brown (Interzone 54) Media Terminator 2: Judgment Day film Artwork Cover of Interzone 45 Mark Harrison 1992 Novel Red Mars Kim Stanley Robinson Short "Innocents" Ian McDonald (New Worlds 2) Artwork Cover of Hearts, Hands and Voices Jim Burns 1993 Novel Aztec Century Christopher Evans Short "The Ragthorn" Robert Holdstock and Garry Kilworth (Interzone 74) Artwork Cover for Red Dust by Paul J. McAuley Jim Burns Special Award The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction ed. John Clute and Peter Nicholls 1994 Novel Feersum Endjinn Iain M. Banks Short "The Double Felix" Paul di Filippo (Interzone 87) Artist Cover for Interzone 79 Jim Burns 1995 Novel The Time Ships Stephen Baxter Short "The Hunger and Ecstasy of Vampires" Brian Stableford (shorter version, Interzone 91/92) Artist cover for Seasons of Plenty Jim Burns 1996 Novel Excession Iain M. Banks Short "A Crab Must Try" Barrington J. Bayley (Interzone 103) Artist cover for Ancient Shores Jim Burns 1997 Novel The Sparrow Mary Doria Russell Short "War Birds" Stephen Baxter (Interzone 126) Artist 'The Black Blood of the Dead' cover Interzone 116 SMS 1998 Novel The Extremes Christopher Priest Short "La Cenerentola" Gwyneth Jones (Interzone 136) Artwork 'Lord Prestimion' (cover, Interzone 138) Jim Burns 1999 Novel The Sky Road Ken MacLeod Short "Hunting the Slarque" Eric Brown (Interzone 141) Artwork Darwinia (cover of Darwinia, Robert Charles Wilson) Jim Burns 2000 Novel Ash: A Secret History Mary Gentle Short "The Suspect Genome" Peter F. Hamilton (Interzone 156) Artwork Hideaway (Cover, Interzone 157) Dominic Harman 2001 Novel Chasm City Alastair Reynolds Short Story "Children of Winter" Eric Brown (Interzone 163) Artwork cover of Omegatropic Colin Odell Non-fiction Omegatropic Stephen Baxter 2002 Novel The Separation Christopher Priest Short Fiction Coraline Neil Gaiman Artwork cover, Interzone 179 Dominic Harman Related Publication Introduction to Maps: The Uncollected John Sladek David Langford 2003 Novel Felaheen Jon Courtenay Grimwood Short Fiction The Wolves in the Walls Neil Gaiman & Dave McKean Artwork cover, The True Knowledge of Ken MacLeod Colin Odell Non-fiction Reading Science Fiction Farah Mendlesohn 2004 Novel River of Gods Ian McDonald Short Fiction Mayflower II Stephen Baxter Artwork cover, Newton's Wake (US Edition) Stephan Martinière 2005 Novel Air Geoff Ryman Short Fiction Magic for Beginners Kelly Link Artwork cover, Interzone 200 Pawel Lewandowski Non-fiction Award Soundings: Reviews 1992-1996 Gary K. Wolfe 2006 Novel End of the World Blues Jon Courtenay Grimwood Short Fiction The Djinn's Wife (Asimov's Science Fiction, July 2006) Ian McDonald Artwork Angelbot, cover of Time Pieces Christopher "Fangorn" Baker 2007 Novel Brasyl Ian McDonald Short Fiction Lighting Out Ken MacLeod (disLocations) Artwork Cracked World, cover of disLocations Andy Bigwood 2008 Novel The Night Sessions Ken MacLeod Short Fiction Exhalation Ted Chiang Artwork cover of Subterfuge Andy Bigwood Non-fiction Rhetorics of Fantasy Farah Mendlesohn 2009 Novel The City & the City China Miéville Short Fiction The Beloved Time of Their Lives Ian Watson and Roberto Quaglia Artwork cover of Desolation Road Stephan Martinière Non-fiction Mutant Popcorn Nick Lowe 2010 Novel The Dervish House Ian McDonald Short Fiction The Ship Maker Aliette de Bodard Artwork cover of Zoo City Joey Hi-Fi Non-Fiction Blogging the Hugos: Decline Paul Kincaid 2011 Novel The Islanders Christopher Priest Short Fiction The Copenhagen Interpretation Paul Cornell Artwork cover of The Noise Revealed Dominic Harman Non-Fiction The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction 3rd edition John Clute, Peter Nicholls, David Langford and Graham Sleight 2012 Novel Jack Glass Adam Roberts Short Fiction Adrift on the Sea of Rains Ian Sales Artwork cover of Jack Glass Blacksheep Non-Fiction The World SF Blog chief editor Lavie Tidhar 2013 Novels (tie) Ancillary Justice Ann Leckie Ack-Ack Macaque Gareth L. Powell Short Fiction Spin Nina Allan Artwork cover of Dream London Joey Hi-Fi Non-Fiction Wonderbook Jeff VanderMeer 2014 Novel Ancillary Sword Ann Leckie Short Fiction The Honey Trap Ruth E. J. Booth, La Femme Artwork The Wasp Factory after Iain Banks Tessa Farmer Non-Fiction Science Fiction and Fantasy Writers and the First World War Edward James 2015 Novel House of Shattered Wings Aliette de Bodard Short Fiction Three Cups of Grief, by Starlight Aliette de Bodard Artwork cover of Pelquin's Comet Jim Burns Non-Fiction Rave and Let Die: the SF and Fantasy of 2014 Adam Roberts 2016 Novel Europe in Winter Dave Hutchinson Short Fiction Liberty Bird Jaine Fenn Artwork cover of Central Station Sarah Anne Langton Non-Fiction 100 African Writers of SFF Geoff Ryman 2017 Novel The Rift Nina Allan Short Fiction The Enclave Anne Charnock Artwork (tie) Cover of The Ion Raider Jim Burns Waiting on a Bright Moon Victo Ngai Non-Fiction Iain M. Banks (University of Illinois Press) Paul Kincaid 2018 Novel Embers of War Gareth L Powell Short Fiction Time Was Ian McDonald Artwork In the Vanishers’ Palace: Dragon I and II Likhain Non-Fiction On motherhood and erasure: people-shaped holes, hollow characters and the illusion of impossible adventures Aliette de Bodard 2019 Novel Children of Ruin Adrian Tchaikovsky Short Fiction This Is How You Lose the Time War Amal El-Mohtar & Max Gladstone Artwork Cover of Wourism and Other Stories (Luna Press) Chris "Fangorn" Baker Non-Fiction The Pleasant Profession of Robert A. Heinlein Farah Mendlesohn 2020 Novel The City We Became N. K. Jemisin Short Fiction Infinite Tea in the Demara Cafe Ida Keogh Artwork Shipbuilding over the Clyde Iain Clark Non-Fiction It's the End of the World: But What Are We Really Afraid Of Adam Roberts 2021 Novel Shards of Earth Adrian Tchaikovsky Short Fiction Fireheart Tiger Aliette de Bodard Best Fiction for Younger Readers Iron Widow Xiran Jay Zhao Artwork Glasgow Green Woman Iain Clark Non-Fiction Worlds Apart: Worldbuilding in Fantasy and Science Fiction edited by Francesca T. Barbini 2022 Novel City of Last Chances Adrian Tchaikovsky Short Fiction Of Charms, Ghosts and Grievances Aliette de Bodard Best Fiction for Younger Readers Unraveller Frances Hardinge Artwork Cover of The Red Scholar's Wake (Gollancz) Alyssa Winans Non-Fiction Terry Pratchett: A Life with Footnotes Rob Wilkins 2023 Novel The Green Man’s Quarry Juliet E. McKenna Shorter Fiction And Put Away Childish Things Adrian Tchaikovsky Short Fiction How to Raise a Kraken in Your Bathtub P. Djèlí Clark Collection The Best of British Science Fiction 2022 Donna Scott Best Fiction for Younger Readers The Library of Broken Worlds Alaya Dawn Johnson Long Non-Fiction A Traveller in Time: The Critical Practice of Maureen Kincaid Speller Nina Allan Short Non-Fiction Project Management Lessons from Rogue One Fiona Moore Translated Short Fiction Vanishing Tracks in the Sand Jana Bianchi Artwork Cover of The Surviving Sky (Titan) Leo Nickolls Original Audio Fiction The Dex Legacy Emily Inkpen Notes See also Hugo Award Nebula Award Locus Award References ^ Matrix issue 53 (June/July 1984) p1 ^ Matrix issue 59 (June/July 1985) pp4-6 ^ Matrix issue 63 (April/May 1986) p1 ^ Matrix issue 70 (June/July 1987) p4 ^ Matrix issue 76 (June/July 1988) p7 ^ Matrix issue 82 (June/July 1989) p7 ^ Matrix issue 88 (June/July 1990) p7 ^ Matrix issue 94 (June/July 1991) p9 ^ Matrix issue 100 (June/July 1992) pp9-10 ^ Matrix issue 106 (June/July 1993) p3 ^ Matrix issue 111 (April/May 1994) p21 ^ Matrix issue 114 (April/May 1995) p3 ^ Matrix issue 122 (November/December 1996) p7 ^ Matrix issue 125 (May/June 1997) p6 ^ Matrix issue 131 (May/June 1998) p3 ^ Matrix issue 137 (May/June 1999) p11 ^ Matrix issue 144 (July/August 2000) p15 ^ Matrix issue 149 (May/June 2001) p17 ^ Matrix issue 155 (May/June 2002) p20 ^ Matrix issue 162 (July/August 2003) p4 ^ Matrix issue 167 (May/June 2004) p4 ^ Matrix issue 179 (June/July 2006) p5 ^ Matrix issue 184 (2007) p5 ^ "BSFA Award 2010 - Winners". Archived from the original on 2011-05-13. Retrieved 2011-04-28. "BSFA Award 2010 - Winners", accessed on 4 May 2011 ^ http://www.worldswithoutend.com/blog.asp?view=plink&id=832 "2011 BSFA Award winners announced", accessed on 9 April 2012 ^ http://www.bsfa.co.uk/bsfa-award-winners-announced Archived 2018-11-06 at the Wayback Machine "BSFA Award winners announced", accessed on 23 April 2014 ^ http://www.bsfa.co.uk/the-bsfa-awards-2014-winners-announced/ Archived 2017-02-20 at the Wayback Machine "The BSFA Awards 2014 Winners Announced", accessed on 10 April 2015 ^ https://bsfa.co.uk/bsfa-awards-2016-winners-announced/ "BSFA Awards 2016 Winners Announced", accessed on 21 September 2019 ^ https://bsfa.co.uk/bsfa-awards-2018-announced/ "BSFA Awards 2018 Announced", accessed on 21 September 2019 ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5RO2uB3E-U0 "BSFA 2019 Awards Announcement", accessed on 17 May 2020 ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Alt55nkjXGI "BSFA 2020 Awards Announcement", accessed on 4 April 2021 ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZT4IPV-b2WE "BSFA 2021 Awards Announcement", accessed on 25 April 2022 ^ "2021 BFSA Award Winners Announced". Starburst Magazine. 2022-04-16. Retrieved 2022-05-13. ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oa7AP81YTu8 "BSFA 2022 Awards Announcement", accessed on 8 April 2023 ^ https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k0evJAMutRs "BSFA 2023 Awards Announcement", accessed on 1 April 2024 External resources BSFA website List of all winning and nominated novels vteScience fictionOutline Authors Definitions Anthropological Hard Scientific romance Soft Golden Age History New Wave Timeline Subgenres Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic Comedy Sitcoms Feminist Grimdark Inner space Mecha Anime and manga Mundane Space warfare Military Space opera Space Western Parallel universes Isekai Science fantasy Dying Earth Planetary romance Superhero Sword and planet Social Climate fiction Christian Libertarian Utopian and dystopian Tech noir Spy-Fi Techno-thriller Tokusatsu Kaiju Underwater Cyberpunk derivatives Cyberpunk Japanese Biopunk Dieselpunk Nanopunk Solarpunk Steampunk Culture Conventions Fandom Fanzines Libraries and museums ISFDB Science Fiction Museum Studies Women in SF Worldcon Region Australian Bengali Brazilian Canadian Chilean Chinese Croatian Czech Estonian French Hungarian Japanese Norwegian Polish Romanian Russian Serbian Spanish Yugoslav AwardsCinematic Jules Verne Saturn Literary, art,and audio Astounding Aurealis BSFA Campbell Memorial Chesley Clarke Crook Deutscher Dick Ditmar Endeavor FantLab Galaxy Gaughan Geffen Golden Duck Grand Master Grand Prix Harland Heinlein Ignotus Kitschies Lambda Laßwitz Locus Nautilus Nebula Nommo Norton Parsec Prometheus Rhysling SFERA Sidewise Skylark Sturgeon Sunburst Tähtivaeltaja TBD Tiptree Tour-Apollo Translation Urania Vogel Writers and Illustrators of the Future Zajdel Multimedia Aurora Chandler Dragon Hugo Seiun Spectrum MediaFilm Film history Films Indian Japanese Anime Tokusatsu Literature Comics Magazines Novels Publishers Short stories Stage Opera Theatre Television List of TV shows Australasian British Canadian European Japanese Anime Live-action U.S. ThemesArchitectural Colonization Dyson sphere Matrioshka brain Space stations and habitats Stellar engine Terraforming Biological Biological warfare Energy being Evolution Extraterrestrials List Gender Genetic engineering Invisibility Nanotechnology Organ transplantation Parasites Prosthetics Sex and sexuality Symbiosis Physical Ansible Black holes Extrasolar planets Force field Hyperspace Inertialess Multiverse Parallel universes Portable hole Space travel Stargate Stars Teleportation Time travel (Viewer) Warp drive Wormhole Psychological Group mind Mind uploading Psionics Simulated consciousness Social Africanfuturism Afrofuturism Alien invasion Alien language Ancient astronauts Black Evil corporation First contact Frankenstein complex Galactic empire LGBT Message from space Transhumanism Uplift Xenoarchaeology Technological Artificial intelligence AI takeover Astroengineering Holography Robots and Cyborgs Self-replicating machines Simulated reality Spacecraft Tachyons Weapons Related Alternate history Fantasy Fictional astronauts Fictional technology Future history Horror Magic realism Museum of Science Fiction Rubber science Science and technology studies Sense of wonder Speculative fiction Supernatural Technology and society Weird Category Portal

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"British Science Fiction Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Science_Fiction_Association"},{"link_name":"science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Eastercon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastercon"}],"text":"The BSFA Awards are literary awards presented annually since 1970 by the British Science Fiction Association (BSFA) to honour works in the genre of science fiction. Nominees and winners are chosen based on a vote of BSFA members. More recently, members of the Eastercon convention have also been eligible to vote.","title":"BSFA Award"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BSFA Award for Best Novel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSFA_Award_for_Best_Novel"},{"link_name":"BSFA Award for Best Shorter Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BSFA_Award_for_Best_Shorter_Fiction&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"BSFA Award for Best Short Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BSFA_Award_for_Best_Short_Fiction&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"BSFA Award for Best Collection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BSFA_Award_for_Best_Collection&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"BSFA Award for Best Fiction for Younger Readers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BSFA_Award_for_Best_Fiction_for_Younger_Readers&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"BSFA Award for Best Translated Short Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BSFA_Award_for_Best_Translated_Short_Fiction&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"BSFA Award for Best Artwork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSFA_Award_for_Best_Artwork"},{"link_name":"BSFA Award for Best Original Audio Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BSFA_Award_for_Best_Original_Audio_Fiction&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"BSFA Award for Best Non-Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSFA_Award_for_Best_Non-Fiction"},{"link_name":"BSFA Award for Best Short Non-Fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=BSFA_Award_for_Best_Short_Non-Fiction&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"BSFA Award for Best Media","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSFA_Award_for_Best_Media"}],"text":"The award originally included only a category for novels. A category for artists was added in 1979 and for short works in 1980. A category for younger readers was added in 2021. The artists category became artwork in 1986, and a category for related non-fiction was added in 2002. A number of new awards were created in 2023. A media category was awarded for 1978 to 1991. The ceremonies are named after the year that the eligible works were published, despite the awards being given out in the next year. The current standard award categories are:BSFA Award for Best Novel (from 1969)\nBSFA Award for Best Shorter Fiction (from 2023)\nBSFA Award for Best Short Fiction (from 1980)\nBSFA Award for Best Collection (from 2023)\nBSFA Award for Best Fiction for Younger Readers (from 2021)\nBSFA Award for Best Translated Short Fiction (from 2023)\nBSFA Award for Best Artwork (from 1979)\nBSFA Award for Best Original Audio Fiction (from 2023)\nBSFA Award for Best Non-Fiction (from 2001)\nBSFA Award for Best Short Non-Fiction (from 2023)Previous categories:BSFA Award for Best Media (1978 to 1991)","title":"BSFA Award categories"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"BSFA Award winners"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"BSFA website","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.bsfa.co.uk"},{"link_name":"List of all winning and nominated novels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.worldswithoutend.com/books_bsfa_index.asp"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Science fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Outline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Authors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science-fiction_authors"},{"link_name":"Definitions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Definitions_of_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Anthropological","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anthropological_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Hard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hard_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Scientific romance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_romance"},{"link_name":"Soft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soft_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Golden Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Age_of_Science_Fiction"},{"link_name":"History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"New Wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Wave_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Timeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Apocalyptic and post-apocalyptic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apocalyptic_and_post-apocalyptic_fiction"},{"link_name":"Comedy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_comedy"},{"link_name":"Sitcoms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_science_fiction_sitcoms"},{"link_name":"Feminist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feminist_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Grimdark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grimdark"},{"link_name":"Inner space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inner_space_(science_fiction)"},{"link_name":"Mecha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecha"},{"link_name":"Anime and manga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mecha_anime_and_manga"},{"link_name":"Mundane","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mundane_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Space warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_warfare_in_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Space opera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_opera"},{"link_name":"Space Western","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Western"},{"link_name":"Parallel universes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_universes_in_fiction"},{"link_name":"Isekai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isekai"},{"link_name":"Science fantasy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fantasy"},{"link_name":"Dying Earth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dying_Earth_(genre)"},{"link_name":"Planetary romance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_romance"},{"link_name":"Superhero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superhero_fiction"},{"link_name":"Sword and planet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sword_and_planet"},{"link_name":"Social","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Climate fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_fiction"},{"link_name":"Christian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christian_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Libertarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libertarian_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Utopian and dystopian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utopian_and_dystopian_fiction"},{"link_name":"Tech noir","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tech_noir"},{"link_name":"Spy-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spy-Fi_(subgenre)"},{"link_name":"Techno-thriller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-thriller"},{"link_name":"Tokusatsu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tokusatsu"},{"link_name":"Kaiju","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaiju"},{"link_name":"Underwater","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_underwater_science_fiction_works"},{"link_name":"Cyberpunk derivatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberpunk_derivatives"},{"link_name":"Cyberpunk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyberpunk"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_cyberpunk"},{"link_name":"Biopunk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biopunk"},{"link_name":"Dieselpunk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieselpunk"},{"link_name":"Nanopunk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanopunk"},{"link_name":"Solarpunk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solarpunk"},{"link_name":"Steampunk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steampunk"},{"link_name":"Conventions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_convention"},{"link_name":"Fandom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_fandom"},{"link_name":"Fanzines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science-fiction_fanzine"},{"link_name":"Libraries and museums","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_libraries_and_museums"},{"link_name":"ISFDB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Speculative_Fiction_Database"},{"link_name":"Science Fiction Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMP_Museum#Science_Fiction_Museum"},{"link_name":"Studies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_studies"},{"link_name":"Women in SF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Women_in_speculative_fiction"},{"link_name":"Worldcon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worldcon"},{"link_name":"Australian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Bengali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bengali_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Brazilian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brazilian_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Canadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Chilean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chilean_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Croatian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Czech","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_science_fiction_and_fantasy"},{"link_name":"Estonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estonian_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Hungarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hungarian_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Norwegian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norwegian_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Polish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science_fiction_and_fantasy_in_Poland"},{"link_name":"Romanian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanian_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Russian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_science_fiction_and_fantasy"},{"link_name":"Serbian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serbian_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Yugoslav","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yugoslav_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Jules Verne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jules_Verne_Awards"},{"link_name":"Saturn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn_Award"},{"link_name":"Astounding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astounding_Award_for_Best_New_Writer"},{"link_name":"Aurealis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aurealis_Award"},{"link_name":"BSFA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Campbell Memorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_W._Campbell_Memorial_Award_for_Best_Science_Fiction_Novel"},{"link_name":"Chesley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chesley_Awards"},{"link_name":"Clarke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur_C._Clarke_Award"},{"link_name":"Crook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compton_Crook_Award"},{"link_name":"Deutscher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutscher_Science_Fiction_Preis"},{"link_name":"Dick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_K._Dick_Award"},{"link_name":"Ditmar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ditmar_Award"},{"link_name":"Endeavor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Endeavour_Award"},{"link_name":"FantLab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FantLab%27s_Book_of_the_Year_Award"},{"link_name":"Galaxy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galaxy_Award_(China)"},{"link_name":"Gaughan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack_Gaughan_Award"},{"link_name":"Geffen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geffen_Award"},{"link_name":"Golden Duck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Duck_Award"},{"link_name":"Grand Master","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Damon_Knight_Memorial_Grand_Master_Award"},{"link_name":"Grand 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being","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_being"},{"link_name":"Evolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evolution_in_fiction"},{"link_name":"Extraterrestrials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extraterrestrials_in_fiction"},{"link_name":"List","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lists_of_fictional_extraterrestrials"},{"link_name":"Gender","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gender_in_speculative_fiction"},{"link_name":"Genetic engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetic_engineering_in_science_fiction"},{"link_name":"Invisibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Invisibility_in_fiction"},{"link_name":"Nanotechnology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology_in_fiction"},{"link_name":"Organ 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noir\nSpy-Fi\nTechno-thriller\nTokusatsu\nKaiju\nUnderwater\nCyberpunk derivatives\nCyberpunk\nJapanese\nBiopunk\nDieselpunk\nNanopunk\nSolarpunk\nSteampunk\nCulture\nConventions\nFandom\nFanzines\nLibraries and museums\nISFDB\nScience Fiction Museum\nStudies\nWomen in SF\nWorldcon\nRegion\nAustralian\nBengali\nBrazilian\nCanadian\nChilean\nChinese\nCroatian\nCzech\nEstonian\nFrench\nHungarian\nJapanese\nNorwegian\nPolish\nRomanian\nRussian\nSerbian\nSpanish\nYugoslav\nAwardsCinematic\nJules Verne\nSaturn\nLiterary, art,and audio\nAstounding\nAurealis\nBSFA\nCampbell Memorial\nChesley\nClarke\nCrook\nDeutscher\nDick\nDitmar\nEndeavor\nFantLab\nGalaxy\nGaughan\nGeffen\nGolden Duck\nGrand Master\nGrand Prix\nHarland\nHeinlein\nIgnotus\nKitschies\nLambda\nLaßwitz\nLocus\nNautilus\nNebula\nNommo\nNorton\nParsec\nPrometheus\nRhysling\nSFERA\nSidewise\nSkylark\nSturgeon\nSunburst\nTähtivaeltaja\nTBD\nTiptree\nTour-Apollo\nTranslation\nUrania\nVogel\nWriters and Illustrators of the Future\nZajdel\nMultimedia\nAurora\nChandler\nDragon\nHugo\nSeiun\nSpectrum\nMediaFilm\nFilm history\nFilms\nIndian\nJapanese\nAnime\nTokusatsu\nLiterature\nComics\nMagazines\nNovels\nPublishers\nShort stories\nStage\nOpera\nTheatre\nTelevision\nList of TV shows\nAustralasian\nBritish\nCanadian\nEuropean\nJapanese\nAnime\nLive-action\nU.S.\nThemesArchitectural\nColonization\nDyson sphere\nMatrioshka brain\nSpace stations and habitats\nStellar engine\nTerraforming\nBiological\nBiological warfare\nEnergy being\nEvolution\nExtraterrestrials\nList\nGender\nGenetic engineering\nInvisibility\nNanotechnology\nOrgan transplantation\nParasites\nProsthetics\nSex and sexuality\nSymbiosis\nPhysical\nAnsible\nBlack holes\nExtrasolar planets\nForce field\nHyperspace\nInertialess\nMultiverse\nParallel universes\nPortable hole\nSpace travel\nStargate\nStars\nTeleportation\nTime travel (Viewer)\nWarp drive\nWormhole\nPsychological\nGroup mind\nMind uploading\nPsionics\nSimulated consciousness\nSocial\nAfricanfuturism\nAfrofuturism\nAlien invasion\nAlien language\nAncient astronauts\nBlack\nEvil corporation\nFirst contact\nFrankenstein complex\nGalactic empire\nLGBT\nMessage from space\nTranshumanism\nUplift\nXenoarchaeology\nTechnological\nArtificial intelligence\nAI takeover\nAstroengineering\nHolography\nRobots and Cyborgs\nSelf-replicating machines\nSimulated reality\nSpacecraft\nTachyons\nWeapons\nRelated\nAlternate history\nFantasy\nFictional astronauts\nFictional technology\nFuture history\nHorror\nMagic realism\nMuseum of Science Fiction\nRubber science\nScience and technology studies\nSense of wonder\nSpeculative fiction\nSupernatural\nTechnology and society\nWeird\n Category Portal","title":"External resources"}]

[]

[{"title":"Hugo Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Award"},{"title":"Nebula Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nebula_Award"},{"title":"Locus Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Locus_Award"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Louis_Godet

Frédéric Louis Godet

["1 Biography","2 Theology","3 Awards","4 Works","4.1 Translated in English","4.2 In French","5 Notes and references","5.1 Citations","5.2 Sources"]

Frédéric Louis GodetBorn25 October 1812 Neuchâtel Died29 October 1900  (aged 88)Neuchâtel  Frédéric Louis Godet (25 October 1812, Neuchâtel – 29 October 1900, Neuchâtel) was a Swiss Protestant theologian. Biography Godet was born on 25 October 1812 in Neuchâtel. His father, Paul-Henri, who was a lawyer, died early. His mother, Eusébie née Gallot, a pious, strong and intelligent pastor's daughter, who founded a girls' school, devoted herself to his early training. He conducted preparatory studies in Neuchâtel, and then studied theology in Berlin and Bonn. There, he came into contact with the leading theologians of the day, like Hengstenberg, Tholuck, Nitzsh, Steffens, Neander and Schleiermacher. Of these, Neander exerted the greatest influence on him. Important spiritual influences came from Otto von Gerlach and Baron von Kottwitz, ensuring an emphasis on piety rather than mere intellectualism. Nikolaus von Zinzendorf and Johannes Gossner also helped him overcome a spiritual crisis and come to a wholehearted commitment and faith in God's grace. Upon graduation in 1836, he returned to Neuchâtel, where he was ordained to the ministry and became pastor of two small parishes. In 1838, however, he returned to Berlin in order to succeed his mother as tutor for the crown prince, Frederick William of Prussia. The prince was a receptive pupil for the clergyman, who taught him fear of God, and Godet remained a close friend of the Emperor to be for the rest of the latter's life. When he left Berlin, in 1844, he received a lifetime pension from the Prussian royal family, and was appointed chaplain to the Prince Royal of Prussia William I. He retained the position until 1844, when he once again returned to his home town, where he became deacon of the churches of Val-de-Ruz (1844-1850) He devoted himself with great energy to the practical works of the churches, organizing Sabbath schools and other agencies. The same year he married Caroline Vautravers. In 1850, he was appointed professor of theology at Neuchâtel, having charge of New Testament Criticism and Exegesis, and later also of Old Testament Introduction. From 1851 to 1866 he also held a pastorate in Neuchâtel, and he tirelessly set up religious agencies and philanthropic associations. By 1873, the Church of Neuchâtel had lost both its freedom and its orthodoxy, as the state passed a law that made every citizen a member of the church by virtue of his birth, and ministers were declared eligible for office apart from subscription to any creed. In response, Godet became one of the founders of the free Evangelical Church of Neuchâtel, and professor in its theological faculty. He retired in 1887, and was succeeded as professor by his son George. Afterward, he continued to publish. Godet did much to interpret German theological thought to French–speaking Protestants, and the English translations of his works made him influential in international NT scholarship. Godet died on 29 October 1900 in Neuchâtel. Another son of his, Philippe Godet, became a professor of French literature at University of Neuchâtel and published his biography in 1913. Theology A set of Godet's Bible commentaries in Swedish. Godet was the author of some of the most noteworthy commentaries of the time, which have been translated into many languages and are still in print, as well as numerous articles. His Commentary on the Gospel of John, which continues the line of interpretation of Christoph Ernst Luthardt, ranks as the most prominent of his works. Throughout his works, he defends the authenticity and reliability of the New Testament, and particularly the gospels. Godet was himself not a textual critic. With regards to the debate between the traditional Byzantine (Greco-Latin) text and Alexandrian critical text, Godet considerately and contextually examined longer readings in the textus receptus, but expressed his hope for a "decisive discovery of a document of the Greek text anterior to the period when the beginning of alterations can be established." Godet did believe some "received readings" might be "corrections," but also wrote; "there are cases where in my opinion the Greco-Latin text is certainly preferable to the so-called neutral text of B and א, and in general to the reading of all the others, there are also cases, and in considerable numbers, where the texts called ante-Syrian by Hort and Westcott are decidely inferior, when weighed in the balance of context, to the Byzantine readings." At the end of his Introduction to his commentary on John's Gospel, he made the appeal: "I merely ask of the reader an impartial and attentive study of the context in every particular case. All I wish by these reflections is, to keep open the question which there is an apparent wish to close." Godet was critical of what he considered "learned ignorance" and prejudiced favouring of "Alexandrine" readings. Rejecting the Calvinist position on predestination, Godet has often been appealed to by Arminian theologians. In Christology, he held the modernist kenotic theory of Wolfgang Friedrich Gess, according to which incarnation meant, not the assumption of two distinct states by one subject, but the voluntary reduction of a divine subject to the human state. His work contributed to changing the ways of approaching the kenotic motif among New Testament scholars. Regarding atonement, he affirmed a reconciliation of God to man as well as man to God, but was regarded by some as thinking that Christ's sufferings met the divine claims in relation to sin not by satisfying and compensating but by revealing and recognising them, thereby expressing the Moral influence theory of atonement and the Governmental theory of atonement. But compare the first page of the preface to the book of Romans. In his The Six Days of Creation, he argued, following Hugh Miller, for an old earth. In addition, he was an ardent defender of orthodox evangelical Christianity against supporters of liberal Protestantism such as Ferdinand Buisson. Awards Doctor "honoris causa" from University of Basel and University of Edinburgh. Works Translated in English Godet, Frédéric (1879). Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction. Vol. 1. 3 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. Godet, Frédéric (1879). Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction. Vol. 2. 3 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. Godet, Frédéric (1879). Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction. Vol. 3. 3 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. Godet, Frédéric (1883). Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Vol. 1. 2 volumes. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. Godet, Frédéric (1883). Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Vol. 2. 2 volumes. New York: Funk & Wagnalls. Godet, Frédéric (1889). A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke. Vol. 1. 2 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. Godet, Frédéric (1889). A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke. Vol. 2. 2 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. Godet, Frédéric (1889). Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians. Vol. 1. 2 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. Godet, Frédéric (1889). Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians. Vol. 2. 2 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark. Godet, Frédéric (1889). Studies on the Epistles of St. Paul. New York: Hodder and Stoughton. Godet, Frédéric (1873). Studies on the New Testament. London: Hodder and Stoughton. Godet, Frédéric (1882). Studies of Creation and Life. Boston: Congregational Publishing Society. Containing The Six Days of Creation Godet, Frédéric (1895). Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith. Edinburgh: T&T Clark. In French Godet, Frédéric (1849). Trois dialogues sur la loi ecclésiastique (in French). : . Godet, Frédéric (1859). Histoire de la Réformation et du Refuge : dans le Pays de Neuchâtel (in French). Neuchatel: Librairie L. Meyer et Comp. Godet, Frédéric (1872). Commentaires sur l'Évangile de saint Luc (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Librairie Sandoz et Fischbacher. Godet, Frédéric (1872). Commentaires sur l'Évangile de saint Luc (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Librairie Sandoz et Fischbacher. Godet, Frédéric (1876). Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Librairie Sandoz et Fischbacher. Godet, Frédéric (1865). Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Librairie française et étrangère. Godet, Frédéric (1877). Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean (in French). Vol. 3. Paris: Librairie Sandoz et Fischbacher. Godet, Frédéric (1883). Commentaires sur l'épître aux Romains (in French). Vol. 1. Neuchatel: Librairie J. Sandoz. Godet, Frédéric (1890). Commentaires sur l'épître aux Romains (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Librairie Grassart. Godet, Frédéric; Gretillat, Augustin; Monvert, Charles; de Coulon, Paul; Bovet, Félix (1898). La Bible annotée : Ancien Testament (in French). Neuchâtel: Attinger Frères. Godet, Frédéric (2006). Introduction au NT : les évangiles synoptiques (in French). Vol. 1. : ThéoTeX. Godet, Frédéric (2006). Introduction au Nouveau Testament : les Épîtres de Paul (in French). Vol. 2. : ThéoTeX. Godet, Frédéric (2008). Commentaires sur la première épître aux Corinthiens (in French). : ThéoTeX. Godet, Frédéric (2010). Études Bibliques (in French). : ThéoTeX. Notes and references Citations ^ a b c d e f g h i j Hammann 2005. ^ a b c d e Montan 1914. ^ a b c Salmond 1885. ^ Stoddard 1913. ^ "Godet, Frédéric Louis" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 171, 172. ^ Godet, Frédéric Nordisk familjebok, 1908. ^ Godet, Frederic Louis (1886). Commentary on the Gospel of John With an Historical and Critical Introduction Volume 1. Funk & Wagnalls. p. 329. ^ Godet, Frederic Louis (1886). Commentary on the Gospel of John With an Historical and Critical Introduction Volume 1. Funk & Wagnalls. p. 237. ^ Godet, Frederic Louis (1876). Commentary on John. Clark. ^ Steven Kyle Reader: The Meaning of Foreknowledge in Romans 8:29 and Its Ecclesiastical Implications Thesis at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, May 2015. ^ Donald G. Dawe: The Form of a Servant: A Historical Analysis of the Kenotic Motif p. 24, 134. Eugene, OR, 2011. ^ David Fergusson (Ed.): The Blackwell Companion to Nineteenth-Century Theology p. 262f., 269. John Wiley & Sons 2010. ^ David Brown: Divine Humanity: Kenosis Explored and Defended p. 69-75. London, 2011. Sources Montan, Gustaf (1914). "Frédéric Godet. Hans lif och personlighet". Bibelforskaren. Tidskrift för skrifttolkning och praktisk kristendom (in Swedish). 13. Salmond, S.D.F. (1885). "Fréderic Godet" (PDF). The Expositor. 3. 13 (6). Stoddard, Jane T. (1913). "A Swiss Fénelon: Dr. Godet and the Emperor Frederick" (PDF). The Expositor. 8. 5 (5). Hammann, Gottfried (2005). "Frédéric Godet". Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse (in French). London: Smith, Elder & Co. Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway France BnF data Catalonia Germany Italy Israel United States Japan Australia Greece Netherlands Vatican Academics CiNii People Deutsche Biographie Trove Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland SNAC IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Neuchâtel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel"},{"link_name":"Swiss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swiss_people"},{"link_name":"Protestant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant"}],"text":"Frédéric Louis Godet (25 October 1812, Neuchâtel – 29 October 1900, Neuchâtel) was a Swiss Protestant theologian.","title":"Frédéric Louis Godet"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Neuchâtel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neuch%C3%A2tel"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammann2005-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammann2005-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontan1914-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammann2005-1"},{"link_name":"Hengstenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst_Wilhelm_Hengstenberg"},{"link_name":"Tholuck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Tholuck"},{"link_name":"Nitzsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_August_Berthold_Nitzsch"},{"link_name":"Neander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Neander"},{"link_name":"Schleiermacher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friedrich_Schleiermacher"},{"link_name":"Otto von Gerlach","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Otto_von_Gerlach"},{"link_name":"Baron von Kottwitz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Ernst_von_Kottwitz"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalmond1885-3"},{"link_name":"Nikolaus von Zinzendorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaus_von_Zinzendorf"},{"link_name":"Johannes Gossner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johannes_Gossner"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontan1914-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammann2005-1"},{"link_name":"Frederick William of Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_III,_German_Emperor"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontan1914-2"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStoddard1913-4"},{"link_name":"Prussia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prussia"},{"link_name":"William I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_I,_German_Emperor"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammann2005-1"},{"link_name":"Val-de-Ruz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Val-de-Ruz"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammann2005-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontan1914-2"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammann2005-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMontan1914-2"},{"link_name":"Evangelical Church of Neuchâtel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Evangelical_Church_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalmond1885-3"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammann2005-1"},{"link_name":"University of Neuchâtel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Neuch%C3%A2tel"}],"text":"Godet was born on 25 October 1812 in Neuchâtel.[1] His father, Paul-Henri,[1] who was a lawyer, died early. His mother, Eusébie née Gallot, a pious, strong and intelligent pastor's daughter, who founded a girls' school, devoted herself to his early training.[2]He conducted preparatory studies in Neuchâtel, and then studied theology in Berlin and Bonn.[1] There, he came into contact with the leading theologians of the day, like Hengstenberg, Tholuck, Nitzsh, Steffens, Neander and Schleiermacher. Of these, Neander exerted the greatest influence on him. Important spiritual influences came from Otto von Gerlach and Baron von Kottwitz, ensuring an emphasis on piety rather than mere intellectualism.[3] Nikolaus von Zinzendorf and Johannes Gossner also helped him overcome a spiritual crisis and come to a wholehearted commitment and faith in God's grace.[2]Upon graduation in 1836, he returned to Neuchâtel, where he was ordained to the ministry and became pastor of two small parishes.[1] In 1838, however, he returned to Berlin in order to succeed his mother as tutor for the crown prince, Frederick William of Prussia. The prince was a receptive pupil for the clergyman, who taught him fear of God, and Godet remained a close friend of the Emperor to be for the rest of the latter's life.[2][4] When he left Berlin, in 1844, he received a lifetime pension from the Prussian royal family, and was appointed chaplain to the Prince Royal of Prussia William I.[1]He retained the position until 1844, when he once again returned to his home town, where he became deacon of the churches of Val-de-Ruz (1844-1850)[1] He devoted himself with great energy to the practical works of the churches, organizing Sabbath schools and other agencies. The same year he married Caroline Vautravers.[2] In 1850, he was appointed professor of theology at Neuchâtel, having charge of New Testament Criticism and Exegesis, and later also of Old Testament Introduction.[1] From 1851 to 1866 he also held a pastorate in Neuchâtel, and he tirelessly set up religious agencies and philanthropic associations.[2]By 1873, the Church of Neuchâtel had lost both its freedom and its orthodoxy, as the state passed a law that made every citizen a member of the church by virtue of his birth, and ministers were declared eligible for office apart from subscription to any creed. In response, Godet became one of the founders of the free Evangelical Church of Neuchâtel, and professor in its theological faculty.[3]He retired in 1887, and was succeeded as professor by his son George. Afterward, he continued to publish. Godet did much to interpret German theological thought to French–speaking Protestants, and the English translations of his works made him influential in international NT scholarship.[1] Godet died on 29 October 1900 in Neuchâtel. Another son of his, Philippe Godet, became a professor of French literature at University of Neuchâtel and published his biography in 1913.","title":"Biography"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Godet_bibelkommentar.JPG"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Christoph Ernst Luthardt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christoph_Ernst_Luthardt"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"textual critic.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textual_criticism"},{"link_name":"textus receptus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Textus_Receptus"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"predestination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predestination"},{"link_name":"Arminian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arminian"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Christology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christology"},{"link_name":"kenotic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenosis"},{"link_name":"Wolfgang Friedrich Gess","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolfgang_Friedrich_Gess"},{"link_name":"incarnation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incarnation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Moral influence theory of atonement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moral_influence_theory_of_atonement"},{"link_name":"Governmental theory of atonement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governmental_theory_of_atonement"},{"link_name":"Hugh Miller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh_Miller"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalmond1885-3"},{"link_name":"evangelical Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evangelical_christianity"},{"link_name":"liberal Protestantism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liberal_Protestantism"},{"link_name":"Ferdinand Buisson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferdinand_Buisson"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammann2005-1"}],"text":"A set of Godet's Bible commentaries in Swedish.Godet was the author of some of the most noteworthy commentaries of the time,[5] which have been translated into many languages and are still in print, as well as numerous articles. His Commentary on the Gospel of John, which continues the line of interpretation of Christoph Ernst Luthardt, ranks as the most prominent of his works. Throughout his works, he defends the authenticity and reliability of the New Testament, and particularly the gospels.[6]Godet was himself not a textual critic. With regards to the debate between the traditional Byzantine (Greco-Latin) text and Alexandrian critical text, Godet considerately and contextually examined longer readings in the textus receptus, but expressed his hope for a \"decisive [...] discovery of a document of the Greek text anterior to the period when the beginning of alterations can be established.\" Godet did believe some \"received readings\" might be \"corrections,\"[7] but also wrote; \"there are cases where in my opinion the Greco-Latin text is certainly preferable to the so-called neutral text of B and א, and in general to the reading of all the others, there are also cases, and in considerable numbers, where the texts called ante-Syrian by Hort and Westcott are decidely inferior, when weighed in the balance of context, to the Byzantine readings.\"[8] At the end of his Introduction to his commentary on John's Gospel, he made the appeal: \"I merely ask of the reader an impartial and attentive study of the context in every particular case. All I wish by these reflections is, to keep open the question which there is an apparent wish to close.\" Godet was critical of what he considered \"learned ignorance\" and prejudiced favouring of \"Alexandrine\" readings.[9]Rejecting the Calvinist position on predestination, Godet has often been appealed to by Arminian theologians.[10] In Christology, he held the modernist kenotic theory of Wolfgang Friedrich Gess, according to which incarnation meant, not the assumption of two distinct states by one subject, but the voluntary reduction of a divine subject to the human state. His work contributed to changing the ways of approaching the kenotic motif among New Testament scholars.[11][12][13] Regarding atonement, he affirmed a reconciliation of God to man as well as man to God, but was regarded by some as thinking that Christ's sufferings met the divine claims in relation to sin not by satisfying and compensating but by revealing and recognising them, thereby expressing the Moral influence theory of atonement and the Governmental theory of atonement. But compare the first page of the preface to the book of Romans.In his The Six Days of Creation, he argued, following Hugh Miller, for an old earth.[3]In addition, he was an ardent defender of orthodox evangelical Christianity against supporters of liberal Protestantism such as Ferdinand Buisson.[1]","title":"Theology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Doctor \"honoris causa\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_honoris_causa"},{"link_name":"University of Basel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Basel"},{"link_name":"Edinburgh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edinburgh"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHammann2005-1"}],"text":"Doctor \"honoris causa\" from University of Basel and University of Edinburgh.[1]","title":"Awards"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentaryo011886gode"},{"link_name":"Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentaryongos02godeuoft"},{"link_name":"Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentaryongos03godeuoft"},{"link_name":"Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentaryonstpa00godeuoft"},{"link_name":"Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentaryonstpa00godeuoft"},{"link_name":"A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentaryongosp01godeuoft"},{"link_name":"A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentaryongosp02godeuoft"},{"link_name":"Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentaryonstpa01godeuoft"},{"link_name":"Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentaryonstpa02godeuoft"},{"link_name":"Studies on the Epistles of St. Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/studiesonepistle00gode"},{"link_name":"Studies on the New Testament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/studiesonnewtest00gode"},{"link_name":"Studies of Creation and Life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/studiesofcreatio00gode/page/n5/mode/2up"},{"link_name":"Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=4v0rAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR3"}],"sub_title":"Translated in English","text":"Godet, Frédéric (1879). Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction. Vol. 1. 3 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.\nGodet, Frédéric (1879). Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction. Vol. 2. 3 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.\nGodet, Frédéric (1879). Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction. Vol. 3. 3 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.\nGodet, Frédéric (1883). Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Vol. 1. 2 volumes. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.\nGodet, Frédéric (1883). Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Vol. 2. 2 volumes. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.\nGodet, Frédéric (1889). A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke. Vol. 1. 2 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.\nGodet, Frédéric (1889). A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke. Vol. 2. 2 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.\nGodet, Frédéric (1889). Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians. Vol. 1. 2 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.\nGodet, Frédéric (1889). Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians. Vol. 2. 2 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.\nGodet, Frédéric (1889). Studies on the Epistles of St. Paul. New York: Hodder and Stoughton.\nGodet, Frédéric (1873). Studies on the New Testament. London: Hodder and Stoughton.\nGodet, Frédéric (1882). Studies of Creation and Life. Boston: Congregational Publishing Society. Containing The Six Days of Creation\nGodet, Frédéric (1895). Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trois dialogues sur la loi ecclésiastique","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/troisdialoguess00godegoog/"},{"link_name":"Histoire de la Réformation et du Refuge : dans le Pays de Neuchâtel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/histoiredelarfo00godegoog"},{"link_name":"Commentaires sur l'Évangile de saint Luc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentairesurl05godegoog/"},{"link_name":"Commentaires sur l'Évangile de saint Luc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentairesurl06godegoog"},{"link_name":"Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentairesurl01godegoog"},{"link_name":"Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentairejohn02godeuoft"},{"link_name":"Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentairesurl00godegoog"},{"link_name":"Commentaires sur l'épître aux Romains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentairesrom01godeuoft/"},{"link_name":"Commentaires sur l'épître aux Romains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/commentairesrom02godeuoft/"},{"link_name":"Gretillat, Augustin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Gretillat"},{"link_name":"La Bible annotée : Ancien Testament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//theotex.org/ba/ba.html"},{"link_name":"Introduction au NT : les évangiles synoptiques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//theotex.org/perl/theotex_pgsvg.pl?bk=godet_synoptiques"},{"link_name":"Introduction au Nouveau Testament : les Épîtres de Paul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//theotex.org/perl/theotex_pgsvg.pl?bk=godet_epitres_paul"},{"link_name":"Commentaires sur la première épître aux Corinthiens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//theotex.org/perl/theotex_pgsvg.pl?bk=godet_1corinthiens"},{"link_name":"Études Bibliques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//theotex.org/perl/theotex_pgsvg.pl?bk=godet_etudes_bibliques"}],"sub_title":"In French","text":"Godet, Frédéric (1849). Trois dialogues sur la loi ecclésiastique (in French). [Neuchatel]: [Wolfrath].\nGodet, Frédéric (1859). Histoire de la Réformation et du Refuge : dans le Pays de Neuchâtel (in French). Neuchatel: Librairie L. Meyer et Comp.\nGodet, Frédéric (1872). Commentaires sur l'Évangile de saint Luc (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Librairie Sandoz et Fischbacher.\nGodet, Frédéric (1872). Commentaires sur l'Évangile de saint Luc (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Librairie Sandoz et Fischbacher.\nGodet, Frédéric (1876). Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Librairie Sandoz et Fischbacher.\nGodet, Frédéric (1865). Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Librairie française et étrangère.\nGodet, Frédéric (1877). Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean (in French). Vol. 3. Paris: Librairie Sandoz et Fischbacher.\nGodet, Frédéric (1883). Commentaires sur l'épître aux Romains (in French). Vol. 1. Neuchatel: Librairie J. Sandoz.\nGodet, Frédéric (1890). Commentaires sur l'épître aux Romains (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Librairie Grassart.\nGodet, Frédéric; Gretillat, Augustin; Monvert, Charles; de Coulon, Paul; Bovet, Félix (1898). La Bible annotée : Ancien Testament (in French). Neuchâtel: Attinger Frères.\nGodet, Frédéric (2006). Introduction au NT : les évangiles synoptiques (in French). Vol. 1. [Paris]: ThéoTeX.\nGodet, Frédéric (2006). Introduction au Nouveau Testament : les Épîtres de Paul (in French). Vol. 2. [Paris]: ThéoTeX.\nGodet, Frédéric (2008). Commentaires sur la première épître aux Corinthiens (in French). [Paris]: ThéoTeX.\nGodet, Frédéric (2010). Études Bibliques (in French). [Paris]: ThéoTeX.","title":"Works"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notes and references"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammann2005_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammann2005_1-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammann2005_1-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammann2005_1-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammann2005_1-4"},{"link_name":"f","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammann2005_1-5"},{"link_name":"g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammann2005_1-6"},{"link_name":"h","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammann2005_1-7"},{"link_name":"i","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammann2005_1-8"},{"link_name":"j","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHammann2005_1-9"},{"link_name":"Hammann 2005","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFHammann2005"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontan1914_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontan1914_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontan1914_2-2"},{"link_name":"d","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontan1914_2-3"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMontan1914_2-4"},{"link_name":"Montan 1914","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFMontan1914"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalmond1885_3-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalmond1885_3-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalmond1885_3-2"},{"link_name":"Salmond 1885","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFSalmond1885"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStoddard1913_4-0"},{"link_name":"Stoddard 1913","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFStoddard1913"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-5"},{"link_name":"\"Godet, Frédéric Louis\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Godet,_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Louis"},{"link_name":"Encyclopædia Britannica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"Godet, Frédéric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//runeberg.org/nfbi/0724.html"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-10"},{"link_name":"The Meaning of Foreknowledge in Romans 8:29 and Its Ecclesiastical Implications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//digital.library.sbts.edu/handle/10392/4965"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"The Form of a Servant: A Historical Analysis of the Kenotic Motif","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=JyxNAwAAQBAJ&q=godet&pg=PA24"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"The Blackwell Companion to Nineteenth-Century Theology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=Z0JzJQYYi20C&q=Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric+Godet"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Divine Humanity: Kenosis Explored and Defended","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=P7AJ03SuBWMC&dq=frederic+godet+gess&pg=PA69"}],"sub_title":"Citations","text":"^ a b c d e f g h i j Hammann 2005.\n\n^ a b c d e Montan 1914.\n\n^ a b c Salmond 1885.\n\n^ Stoddard 1913.\n\n^ \"Godet, Frédéric Louis\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 171, 172.\n\n^ Godet, Frédéric Nordisk familjebok, 1908.\n\n^ Godet, Frederic Louis (1886). Commentary on the Gospel of John With an Historical and Critical Introduction Volume 1. Funk & Wagnalls. p. 329.\n\n^ Godet, Frederic Louis (1886). Commentary on the Gospel of John With an Historical and Critical Introduction Volume 1. Funk & Wagnalls. p. 237.\n\n^ Godet, Frederic Louis (1876). Commentary on John. Clark.\n\n^ Steven Kyle Reader: The Meaning of Foreknowledge in Romans 8:29 and Its Ecclesiastical Implications Thesis at the Southern Baptist Theological Seminary, May 2015.\n\n^ Donald G. Dawe: The Form of a Servant: A Historical Analysis of the Kenotic Motif p. 24, 134. Eugene, OR, 2011.\n\n^ David Fergusson (Ed.): The Blackwell Companion to Nineteenth-Century Theology p. 262f., 269. John Wiley & Sons 2010.\n\n^ David Brown: Divine Humanity: Kenosis Explored and Defended p. 69-75. London, 2011.","title":"Notes and references"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Frédéric Godet. Hans lif och personlighet\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//runeberg.org/bibelfor/1914/0015.html"},{"link_name":"\"Fréderic Godet\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/expositor/series3/02-455.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"A Swiss Fénelon: Dr. Godet and the Emperor Frederick\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/expositor/series8/05-385.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Frédéric Godet\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/f/F11134.php"},{"link_name":"Authority control databases","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Authority_control"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q116788#identifiers"},{"link_name":"FAST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//id.worldcat.org/fast/118010/"},{"link_name":"ISNI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//isni.org/isni/0000000108788646"},{"link_name":"VIAF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//viaf.org/viaf/22877616"},{"link_name":"WorldCat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJjMDWJGxP9XhY7wb4xbh3"},{"link_name":"Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/98047877"},{"link_name":"France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb10353861v"},{"link_name":"BnF data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb10353861v"},{"link_name":"Catalonia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058511323506706"},{"link_name":"Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//d-nb.info/gnd/115708685"},{"link_name":"Italy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//opac.sbn.it/nome/CUBV077576"},{"link_name":"Israel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007275268105171"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.loc.gov/authorities/n83175916"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00550577"},{"link_name":"Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35134121"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//data.nlg.gr/resource/authority/record171227"},{"link_name":"Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068845073"},{"link_name":"Vatican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/157648"},{"link_name":"CiNii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA06820889?l=en"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Biographie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd115708685.html?language=en"},{"link_name":"Trove","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//trove.nla.gov.au/people/837038"},{"link_name":"Historical Dictionary of Switzerland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hls-dhs-dss.ch/fr/articles/011134"},{"link_name":"SNAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w64n19fj"},{"link_name":"IdRef","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.idref.fr/075930730"}],"sub_title":"Sources","text":"Montan, Gustaf (1914). \"Frédéric Godet. Hans lif och personlighet\". Bibelforskaren. Tidskrift för skrifttolkning och praktisk kristendom (in Swedish). 13.\nSalmond, S.D.F. (1885). \"Fréderic Godet\" (PDF). The Expositor. 3. 13 (6).\nStoddard, Jane T. (1913). \"A Swiss Fénelon: Dr. Godet and the Emperor Frederick\" (PDF). The Expositor. 8. 5 (5).\nHammann, Gottfried (2005). \"Frédéric Godet\". Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse (in French). London: Smith, Elder & Co.Authority control databases International\nFAST\nISNI\nVIAF\nWorldCat\nNational\nNorway\nFrance\nBnF data\nCatalonia\nGermany\nItaly\nIsrael\nUnited States\nJapan\nAustralia\nGreece\nNetherlands\nVatican\nAcademics\nCiNii\nPeople\nDeutsche Biographie\nTrove\nOther\nHistorical Dictionary of Switzerland\nSNAC\nIdRef","title":"Notes and references"}]

[{"image_text":"A set of Godet's Bible commentaries in Swedish.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Godet_bibelkommentar.JPG/180px-Godet_bibelkommentar.JPG"}]

[{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1879). Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction. Vol. 1. 3 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentaryo011886gode","url_text":"Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1879). Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction. Vol. 2. 3 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentaryongos02godeuoft","url_text":"Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1879). Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction. Vol. 3. 3 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentaryongos03godeuoft","url_text":"Commentary on the Gospel of John: with an historical and critical introduction"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1883). Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Vol. 1. 2 volumes. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentaryonstpa00godeuoft","url_text":"Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1883). Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans. Vol. 2. 2 volumes. New York: Funk & Wagnalls.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentaryonstpa00godeuoft","url_text":"Commentary on St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1889). A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke. Vol. 1. 2 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentaryongosp01godeuoft","url_text":"A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1889). A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke. Vol. 2. 2 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentaryongosp02godeuoft","url_text":"A Commentary on the Gospel of St. Luke"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1889). Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians. Vol. 1. 2 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentaryonstpa01godeuoft","url_text":"Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1889). Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians. Vol. 2. 2 volumes. Edinburgh: T. & T. Clark.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentaryonstpa02godeuoft","url_text":"Commentary on St. Paul's First Epistle to the Corinthians"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1889). Studies on the Epistles of St. Paul. New York: Hodder and Stoughton.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/studiesonepistle00gode","url_text":"Studies on the Epistles of St. Paul"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1873). Studies on the New Testament. London: Hodder and Stoughton.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/studiesonnewtest00gode","url_text":"Studies on the New Testament"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1882). Studies of Creation and Life. Boston: Congregational Publishing Society.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/studiesofcreatio00gode/page/n5/mode/2up","url_text":"Studies of Creation and Life"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1895). Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith. Edinburgh: T&T Clark.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=4v0rAAAAYAAJ&pg=PR3","url_text":"Lectures in Defence of the Christian Faith"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1849). Trois dialogues sur la loi ecclésiastique (in French). [Neuchatel]: [Wolfrath].","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/troisdialoguess00godegoog/","url_text":"Trois dialogues sur la loi ecclésiastique"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1859). Histoire de la Réformation et du Refuge : dans le Pays de Neuchâtel (in French). Neuchatel: Librairie L. Meyer et Comp.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/histoiredelarfo00godegoog","url_text":"Histoire de la Réformation et du Refuge : dans le Pays de Neuchâtel"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1872). Commentaires sur l'Évangile de saint Luc (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Librairie Sandoz et Fischbacher.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentairesurl05godegoog/","url_text":"Commentaires sur l'Évangile de saint Luc"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1872). Commentaires sur l'Évangile de saint Luc (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Librairie Sandoz et Fischbacher.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentairesurl06godegoog","url_text":"Commentaires sur l'Évangile de saint Luc"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1876). Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean (in French). Vol. 1. Paris: Librairie Sandoz et Fischbacher.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentairesurl01godegoog","url_text":"Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1865). Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Librairie française et étrangère.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentairejohn02godeuoft","url_text":"Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1877). Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean (in French). Vol. 3. Paris: Librairie Sandoz et Fischbacher.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentairesurl00godegoog","url_text":"Commentaire sur l'évangile de Saint Jean"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1883). Commentaires sur l'épître aux Romains (in French). Vol. 1. Neuchatel: Librairie J. Sandoz.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentairesrom01godeuoft/","url_text":"Commentaires sur l'épître aux Romains"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (1890). Commentaires sur l'épître aux Romains (in French). Vol. 2. Paris: Librairie Grassart.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/commentairesrom02godeuoft/","url_text":"Commentaires sur l'épître aux Romains"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric; Gretillat, Augustin; Monvert, Charles; de Coulon, Paul; Bovet, Félix (1898). La Bible annotée : Ancien Testament (in French). Neuchâtel: Attinger Frères.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augustin_Gretillat","url_text":"Gretillat, Augustin"},{"url":"https://theotex.org/ba/ba.html","url_text":"La Bible annotée : Ancien Testament"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (2006). Introduction au NT : les évangiles synoptiques (in French). Vol. 1. [Paris]: ThéoTeX.","urls":[{"url":"https://theotex.org/perl/theotex_pgsvg.pl?bk=godet_synoptiques","url_text":"Introduction au NT : les évangiles synoptiques"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (2006). Introduction au Nouveau Testament : les Épîtres de Paul (in French). Vol. 2. [Paris]: ThéoTeX.","urls":[{"url":"https://theotex.org/perl/theotex_pgsvg.pl?bk=godet_epitres_paul","url_text":"Introduction au Nouveau Testament : les Épîtres de Paul"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (2008). Commentaires sur la première épître aux Corinthiens (in French). [Paris]: ThéoTeX.","urls":[{"url":"https://theotex.org/perl/theotex_pgsvg.pl?bk=godet_1corinthiens","url_text":"Commentaires sur la première épître aux Corinthiens"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frédéric (2010). Études Bibliques (in French). [Paris]: ThéoTeX.","urls":[{"url":"https://theotex.org/perl/theotex_pgsvg.pl?bk=godet_etudes_bibliques","url_text":"Études Bibliques"}]},{"reference":"\"Godet, Frédéric Louis\" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 171, 172.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Godet,_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Louis","url_text":"\"Godet, Frédéric Louis\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition","url_text":"Encyclopædia Britannica"}]},{"reference":"Godet, Frederic Louis (1886). Commentary on the Gospel of John With an Historical and Critical Introduction Volume 1. Funk & Wagnalls. p. 329.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Godet, Frederic Louis (1886). Commentary on the Gospel of John With an Historical and Critical Introduction Volume 1. Funk & Wagnalls. p. 237.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Godet, Frederic Louis (1876). Commentary on John. Clark.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Montan, Gustaf (1914). \"Frédéric Godet. Hans lif och personlighet\". Bibelforskaren. Tidskrift för skrifttolkning och praktisk kristendom (in Swedish). 13.","urls":[{"url":"https://runeberg.org/bibelfor/1914/0015.html","url_text":"\"Frédéric Godet. Hans lif och personlighet\""}]},{"reference":"Salmond, S.D.F. (1885). \"Fréderic Godet\" (PDF). The Expositor. 3. 13 (6).","urls":[{"url":"http://www.biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/expositor/series3/02-455.pdf","url_text":"\"Fréderic Godet\""}]},{"reference":"Stoddard, Jane T. (1913). \"A Swiss Fénelon: Dr. Godet and the Emperor Frederick\" (PDF). The Expositor. 8. 5 (5).","urls":[{"url":"http://biblicalstudies.org.uk/pdf/expositor/series8/05-385.pdf","url_text":"\"A Swiss Fénelon: Dr. Godet and the Emperor Frederick\""}]},{"reference":"Hammann, Gottfried (2005). \"Frédéric Godet\". Dictionnaire historique de la Suisse (in French). London: Smith, Elder & Co.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.hls-dhs-dss.ch/textes/f/F11134.php","url_text":"\"Frédéric Godet\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Ricans

Puerto Ricans

["1 Overview","2 Number of Puerto Ricans","2.1 Population (1765–1897)","2.2 Current population and its self-identified racial makeup (2020)","3 Ancestry and Genetics","3.1 Ethnogenesis","4 Self-identified race","4.1 White","4.2 Black","4.3 Indigenous","4.4 Asian","4.5 Other","4.6 Modern identity","5 Emigration","6 Language","7 Religion","8 Political and international status","8.1 Decolonization and status referendums","9 See also","10 Notes","11 References","12 Further reading","13 External links"]

People from Puerto Rico or who identify culturally as Puerto Rican This article is about the broad category of people from Puerto Rico. For stateside people of Puerto Rican origin, see Stateside Puerto Ricans. Ethnic group Puerto Ricans Puertorriqueños Boricuas · Borinqueños · Borincanos · Puertorros (Spanish)Flag of Puerto RicoTotal populationPuerto Ricans: ~9 million Diaspora: ~6 millionRegions with significant populations Puerto Rico (2022)3,075,871 United States (2022)5,905,178 U.S. Virgin Islands (2020)7,759 Dominican Republic (2015)6,083 Canada (2016)3,405 Mexico (2000)1,970 Venezuela (2001)528 Netherlands (2019)241LanguagesSpanishEnglishSpanglishReligionCatholicismProtestantismRelated ethnic groupsEuropeansAfricansAmerindiansChineseCorsicanCriollosFrenchGermanIrishItalianJewishMalteseMestizosMulattosSpanishPortuguese Part of a series onPuerto Ricans By region or country United States Chicago Hawaii Holyoke New York City Philadelphia Subgroups African Chinese French Corsican German Irish Italian Jewish Spanish Taíno Culture Art Cinema Cuisine Dance Education Flag Language Literature Music Politics Sports Television Religion Roman Catholicism Protestantism Judaism Islam History Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 Jones–Shafroth Act Language Spanish (Castilian) Vocabulary Puerto Rico portalvte Puerto Ricans (Spanish: Puertorriqueños), most commonly known as Boricuas, but also occasionally referred to as Borinqueños, Borincanos, or Puertorros, are an ethnic group native to the Caribbean archipelago of Puerto Rico, and a nation identified with the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico through ancestry, culture, or history. Puerto Ricans are predominately a tri-racial, Spanish-speaking, Christian society, descending in varying degrees from Indigenous Taíno natives, Southwestern European colonists, and West and Central African slaves, freedmen, and free Blacks. As citizens of a U.S. territory, Puerto Ricans have automatic birthright American citizenship, and are considerably influenced by American culture. The population of Puerto Ricans is between 9 and 10 million worldwide, with the overwhelming majority residing in Puerto Rico and mainland United States. Overview Main article: Demographics of Puerto Rico The culture held in common by most Puerto Ricans is referred to as a Western culture largely derived from the traditions of Spain, and more specifically Andalusia and the Canary Islands. Puerto Rico has also received immigration from other parts of Spain such as Catalonia as well as from other European countries such as France, Ireland, Italy and Germany. Puerto Rico has also been influenced by African culture, with many Puerto Ricans partially descended from Africans, though Afro-Puerto Ricans of unmixed African descent are only a significant minority. Also present in today's Puerto Ricans are traces (about 10-15%) of the aboriginal Taino natives that inhabited the island at the time European colonizers arrived in 1493. Recent studies in population genetics have concluded that Puerto Rican gene pool is on average predominantly European, with a significant Sub-Saharan African, North African Guanche, and Indigenous American substrate, the latter two originating in the aboriginal people of the Canary Islands and Puerto Rico's pre-Columbian Taíno inhabitants, respectively. The population of Puerto Ricans and descendants is estimated to be between 8 and 10 million worldwide, with most living on the islands of Puerto Rico and in the United States mainland. Within the United States, Puerto Ricans are present in all states of the Union, and the states with the largest populations of Puerto Ricans relative to the national population of Puerto Ricans in the United States at large are the states of New York, Florida, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, with large populations also in Massachusetts, Connecticut, California, Illinois, and Texas. For 2009, the American Community Survey estimates give a total of 3,859,026 Puerto Ricans classified as "Native" Puerto Ricans. It also gives a total of 3,644,515 (91.9%) of the population being born in Puerto Rico and 201,310 (5.1%) born in the United States. The total population born outside Puerto Rico is 322,773 (8.1%). Of the 108,262 who were foreign born outside the United States (2.7% of Puerto Ricans), 92.9% were born in Latin America, 3.8% in Europe, 2.7% in Asia, 0.2% in Northern America, and 0.1% in Africa and Oceania each. Number of Puerto Ricans Population (1765–1897) The populations during Spanish rule of Puerto Rico were: Ethnic composition of Puerto Rico 1765 - 1897 1765 Population Percent 1802 Population Percent 1897 Population Percent Other (incl: African, Mulatto, Indigenous)1 22,274 49.6% White 78,281 48.0% White 573,187 64.3% White 17,572 39.2% African 16,414 10.0% African 75,824 8.6% African2 5,037 11.2% Mulatto 55,164 33.8% Mixed 241,900 27.1% - - - Other African2 13,333 8.2% - - - - - - - - - - - - Puerto Rico 44,833 100.0% Puerto Rico 163,192 100.0% Puerto Rico 890,911 100.0% 1765 Census. (First census) 1802 Census. 1897 Census ^1 Indigenous: Taino people, Also Arawak people.^2 : Slave population. Current population and its self-identified racial makeup (2020) (2020 Census) Self-identified racial and ethnic composition in Puerto Rico - 2020 Census Ethnicity White (560,592)   17.1% Black or African American (228,711)   7.0% Asian (4,001)   0.1% Two or more races (1,635,791)   49.8% American Indian (17,870)   0.5% Native Hawaiian and Other Pacific Islander (593)   0.0% Other races (838,316)   25.5% Total:3,285,874   100.0% Ancestry and Genetics This article is written like a personal reflection, personal essay, or argumentative essay that states a Wikipedia editor's personal feelings or presents an original argument about a topic. Please help improve it by rewriting it in an encyclopedic style. (October 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Crowd gathering on a street in Puerto Rico in 1939, photographed by Robert Yarnall Richie The original inhabitants of Puerto Rico are the Taíno, who called the island Borikén or Borinquen; however, as in other parts of the Americas, the native people soon diminished in number after the arrival of Spanish settlers. Besides miscegenation, the negative impact on the numbers of Amerindian people, especially in Puerto Rico, was almost entirely the result of Old World diseases that the Amerindians had no natural/bodily defenses against, including measles, chicken pox, mumps, influenza, and even the common cold. In fact, it was estimated that the majority of all the Amerindian inhabitants of the New World died out due to contact and contamination with those Old World diseases, while those that survived were further reduced through deaths by warfare with Spanish colonizers and settlers. Thousands of Spanish settlers also immigrated to Puerto Rico from the Canary Islands during the 18th and 19th centuries, so many so that whole Puerto Rican villages and towns were founded by Canarian immigrants, and their descendants would later form a majority of the population on the island. In 1791, the slaves in Saint-Domingue (Haiti), revolted against their French masters. Many of the French escaped to Puerto Rico via what is now the Dominican Republic and settled in the west coast of the island, especially in Mayagüez. Some Puerto Ricans are of British heritage, most notably Scottish people and English people who came to reside there in the 17th and 18th centuries. When Spain revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 with the intention of attracting non-Spanish Europeans to settle in the island, thousands of Corsicans (though the island was French since 1768 the population spoke an Italian dialect similar to Tuscan Italian) during the 19th century immigrated to Puerto Rico, along with German immigrants as well as Irish immigrants who were affected by the Great Famine of the 1840s, immigrated to Puerto Rico. They were followed by smaller waves from other European countries and China. During the early 20th century Jews began to settle in Puerto Rico. The first large group of Jews to settle in Puerto Rico were European refugees fleeing German–occupied Europe in the 1930s and 1940s. The second influx of Jews to the island came in the 1950s, when thousands of Cuban Jews fled Cuba after Fidel Castro came to power. Ethnogenesis The native Taino population began to dwindle, with the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, through disease and intermarriage. Many Spaniard men took Taino and West African wives and in the first centuries of the Spanish colonial period the island was overwhelmingly racially mixed. "By 1530 there were 14 native women married to Spaniards, not to mention Spaniards with concubines." Under Spanish rule, mass immigration shifted the ethnic make-up of the island, as a result of the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. Puerto Rico went from being two-thirds black and mulatto in the beginning of the 19th century, to being nearly 80% white by the middle of the 20th century. This was compounded by more flexible attitudes to race under Spanish rule, as epitomized by the Regla del Sacar. Under Spanish rule, Puerto Rico had laws such as Regla del Sacar or Gracias al Sacar, which allowed persons of mixed ancestry to pay a fee to be classified as white, which was the opposite of "one-drop rule" in US society after the American Civil War. Two men sit by the side of a road with the ocean behind them in Puerto Rico. Studies have shown that the racial ancestry mixture of the average Puerto Rican (regardless of racial self-identity) is about 64% European, 21% African, and 15% Native Taino, with European ancestry strongest on the west side of the island and West African ancestry strongest on the east side, and the levels of Taino ancestry (which, according to some research, ranges from about 5%-35%) generally highest in the southwest of the island. A study of a sample of 96 healthy self-identified White Puerto Ricans and self-identified Black Puerto Ricans in the U.S. showed that, although all carried a contribution from all 3 ancestral populations (European, African, and Amerindian), the proportions showed significant variation. Depending on individuals, although often correlating with their self-identified race, African ancestry ranged from less than 10% to over 50%, while European ancestry ranged from under 20% to over 80%. Amerindian ancestry showed less fluctuation, generally hovering between 5% and 20% irrespective of self-identified race. The majority of the European ancestry in Puerto Ricans comes from southern Spain, more specifically the Canary Islands, this is also true for many Dominicans and Cubans. Canarians are of partial Guanche ancestry, a North African Berber ethnic group who were the original inhabitants before Spanish conquest. This means that by extension, many Puerto Ricans have miniscule amounts of North African blood through the indigenous Guanches of the Canary Islands. Self-identified race White Ramón Power y Giralt was a Puerto Rican military officer and politician. Main articles: White Puerto Ricans and Spanish settlement of Puerto Rico In the 1899 census, taken the year Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the United States following its invasion and annexation in the Spanish–American War, 61.8% of the people were identified as White. In the 2020 United States Census the total of Puerto Ricans that self-identified as White was 17.1% or 560,592 out of the 3,285,874 people living in Puerto Rico, down from 75.8% in the 2010 Census, reflecting a change in perceptions of race in Puerto Rico. For every United States census until 2010, most Puerto Ricans self identified as "white". The European ancestry of Puerto Ricans comes primarily from one source: Spaniards (including Canarians, Catalans, Castilians, Galicians, Asturians, Andalusians, and Basques). The Canarian cultural influence in Puerto Rico is one of the most important components in which many villages were founded from these immigrants, which started from 1493 to 1890 and beyond. Many Spaniards, especially Canarians, chose Puerto Rico because of its Hispanic ties and relative proximity in comparison with other former Spanish colonies. They searched for security and stability in an environment similar to that of the Canary Islands and Puerto Rico was the most suitable. This began as a temporary exile which became a permanent relocation and the last significant wave of Spanish or European migration to Puerto Rico. Other sources of European populations are Corsicans, French, Italians, Portuguese (especially Azoreans), Greeks, Germans, Irish, Scots, Maltese, Dutch, English, and Danes. Black Main article: Afro-Puerto Ricans In the 2020 United States Census, 7.0% of people self-identified as Black. Africans were brought by Spanish Conquistadors. The vast majority of the Africans who were brought to Puerto Rico did so as a result of the slave trade taking place from many groups in the African continent, but particularly the West Africans, the Yoruba, the Igbo, and the Kongo people. Indigenous Main articles: Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Mestizo, and Taino people Indigenous people make up the third largest racial identity among Puerto Ricans, comprising 0.5% of the population. Although this self-identification may be ethno-political in nature since unmixed Tainos no longer exist as a discrete genetic population. Native American admixture in Puerto Ricans ranges between about 5% and 35%, with around 15% being the approximate average. Puerto Rico's self-identified indigenous population therefore consist mostly of indigenous-identified persons (oftentimes with predominant Indigenous ancestry, but not always) from within the genetically mestizo population of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, even when most other Puerto Ricans of their exact same mixture would identify either as mixed-race or even as white. Asian Main articles: Asian Puerto Ricans, Chinese immigration to Puerto Rico, and Indo-Caribbean For its 2020 census, the U.S. Census Bureau listed the following groups to constitute "Asian": Asian Indian, Bangladeshi, Bhutanese, Cambodian, Chinese, Filipino, Hmong, Indonesian, Japanese, Korean, Laotian, Malaysian, Nepalese, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Taiwanese, Thai, Vietnamese, and Other Asian. Though, the largest groups come from China and India. These groups represented 0.1% of the population. Other José Campeche is the first known Puerto Rican visual artist. Main articles: Mulatto and Multiracial People of "Some other race alone" or "Two or more races" constituted 75.3% of the population in the 2020 Census. Although the average Puerto Rican is of mixed-race, few actually identified as multiracial ("two or more races") in the 2010 census; only 3.3% did so. They more often identified with their predominant heritage or phenotype. However, in the 2020 census, the amount of Puerto Ricans identifying as multiracial went up to 49.8% and an additional 25.5% identified as "some other race", showing a marked change in the way Puerto Ricans view themselves. This may show that Puerto Ricans are now more open to embracing all sides of their mixed-race heritage and do not view themselves as part of the standard race dynamic in the United States hence the high number of people identifying as "some other race", a similar phenomenon went on in the mainland United States with the overall US Hispanic/Latino population. Most have significant ancestry from two or more of the founding source populations of Spaniards, Africans, and Tainos, although Spanish ancestry is predominant in a majority of the population. Small amounts of Puerto Ricans may have additional ancestries from other parts of the world. Similar to many other Latin American ethnic groups, Puerto Ricans are multi-generationally mixed race, though most are European dominant in ancestry, Puerto Ricans who are "evenly mixed" can accurately be described "Mulatto", "Quadroon", or Tri-racial very similar to mixed populations in Cuba and Dominican Republic. According to the National Geographic Genographic Project, "the average Puerto Rican individual carries 12% Native American, 65% West Eurasian (Mediterranean, Northern European and/or Middle Eastern) and 20% Sub-Saharan African DNA." In genetic terms, even many of those of pure Spanish origin would have North and, in some cases, West African ancestry brought from founder populations, particularly in the Canary Islands. Along with European, West African, and Taino, many Puerto Ricans have small amounts of North African blood due to settlers from Canary Islands, the Spanish province where most Puerto Ricans draw their European ancestry from, being of partial North African blood. Very few self-identified Black Puerto Ricans are of unmixed African ancestry, while a genetically unmixed Amerindian population in Puerto Rico is technically extinct despite a minuscule segment of self-identified Amerindian Puerto Ricans due to a minor Amerindian component in their ancestral mixture. Research data shows that 60% of Puerto Ricans carry maternal lineages of Native American origin and the typical Puerto Rican has between 5% and 15% Native American admixture. Modern identity Main article: Culture of Puerto Rico "A Puerto Rican family lives here" sign on a wall in San Juan The Puerto Rico of today has come to form some of its own social customs, cultural matrix, historically rooted traditions, and its own unique pronunciation, vocabulary, and idiomatic expressions within the Spanish language, known as Puerto Rican Spanish. Even after the attempted assimilation of Puerto Rico into the United States in the early 20th century, the majority of the people of Puerto Rico feel pride in their Puerto Rican nationality, regardless of the individual's particular racial, ethnic, political, or economic background. Many Puerto Ricans are consciously aware of the rich contribution of all cultures represented on the island. This diversity can be seen in the everyday lifestyle of many Puerto Ricans such as the profound Latin, African, and Taíno influences regarding food, music, dance, and architecture. Emigration See also: Stateside Puerto Ricans During the Spanish colonial period, there was significant migration from Puerto Rico to Santo Domingo (DR), Cuba, the Virgin Islands, and Venezuela, and vice versa, because migration between neighboring colonies especially under the same European power, was common. Nearly all Puerto Ricans who migrated to these areas during these times, assimilated and intermixed with the local populations. In the early days of US rule, from 1900 to the 1940s, the Puerto Rican economy was small and undeveloped, it relied heavily on agriculture. At this time, Puerto Rican migration waves were mainly to Dominican Republic, the Virgin Islands, and US cities such as Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Miami, New Orleans, and most importantly metropolitan area surrounding New York City and North Jersey. Over 5,000 Puerto Ricans migrated to Hawaii from 1900 to 1901. Puerto Rican migration to the US northeast started as early as the 1890s; however, it was a very, very small flow at the time. During the 1940s, Puerto Rican desire for independence slowly started to decline while desire for statehood and dependence on the US started rise, due to this more Puerto Ricans started to look at the US more favorably and take full advantage of their US citizenship, huge flows of Puerto Ricans started to arrive in the United States, particularly industrial cities in the Northeast and Midwest, coinciding with a strong decline in Puerto Ricans migrating to other countries and even other areas in the US like Baltimore, New Orleans, and Hawaii. From 1940 to 1960, the stateside Puerto Rican population rose from 69,967 to 892,513. In the modern day, there are about 5.9 million Puerto Ricans in the US mainland. Large concentrations can be found in the Northeast region and in Florida, in the metropolitan areas of New York, Orlando, Philadelphia, Miami, Chicago, Tampa, and Boston, among others. Though, over 95% of Puerto Ricans living outside of Puerto Rico, live in the United States (US states), there is a significant and growing number of Puerto Ricans, mainly from Puerto Rico itself but to a lesser degree stateside Puerto Ricans as well, living outside the 50 States and the US territory of Puerto Rico. Puerto Rican populations in other countries are very small, not large enough to have dominance over certain neighborhoods and cities like in Florida and the US Northeast. Unsurprisingly, Puerto Rico's neighbors have the biggest Puerto Rican communities outside Puerto Rico and the US mainland, to the west Dominican Republic with as high as 20,000 Puerto Ricans according to some sources, and to the east US Virgin Islands with 7,759, 8.9% of the territory's population, second highest percentage of any US state or territory, after Puerto Rico (95.5%) and before Connecticut (8.0%). There are small numbers of Puerto Ricans in other countries like Canada, Spain, Mexico, United Kingdom, and other countries in Europe and the Caribbean/Latin America. Due to Puerto Rico being a US territory, the vast majority of Puerto Ricans leaving the island go to the mainland United States, comprising Puerto Ricans of all income brackets and lifestyles. However, majority of the small number of Puerto Ricans living outside of the United States, including outside of Puerto Rico and other territories, are usually financially well-off and entrepreneurial, owning homes and businesses in the countries they choose to settle in. Statistical counts of Puerto Rican populations in other countries usually only center on ethnic Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico. Non-Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico and later moving to target country usually wouldn't be included in a Puerto Rican population count, especially if they have ancestry of at least one parent born in target country, for example people of Dominican, Cuban, or Mexican etc ancestry born in Puerto Rico and later returning to their ancestral country- wouldn't be counted in a Puerto Rican population count, but likely rather counted as a "returning emigrant". Similarly, Puerto Ricans born in the mainland United States would be counted under an "American" statistic, so the Puerto Rican populations abroad may be slightly larger as some may be stateside-born and counted as "American" rather than "Puerto Rican" on local government statistics on immigrants. Language Spanish and English are the official languages of the entire Commonwealth. A 1902 English-only language law was abolished on April 5, 1991. Then on January 28, 1993, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico approved Law Number 1 again making Spanish and English the official languages of Puerto Rico. All official business of the U.S. District Court for the District of Puerto Rico is conducted in English. The official languages of the executive branch of government of Puerto Rico are Spanish and English, with Spanish being the primary language. English is the primary language of less than 10% of the population. Puerto Rican Spanish is the dominant language of business, education and daily life on the island. The US Census Bureau's 2015 update provides the following: 94.1% of adults speak Spanish, 5.8% speak only English and little to no Spanish, 78.3% do not speak English "very well", 15.8% are fully bilingual in both English and Spanish, 0.1% speak other languages. Public school instruction in Puerto Rico is conducted almost entirely in Spanish. There have been pilot programs in about a dozen of the over 1,400 public schools aimed at conducting instruction in English only. Objections from teaching staff are common, perhaps because many of them are not fully fluent in English. English is taught as a second language and is a compulsory subject from elementary levels to high school. Home to a sizeable deaf community, the actual numbers are unknown due to unavailable source data. A 1986 estimate places the Puerto Rican deaf population to be between 8,000 and 40,000. Due to ongoing colonization from the US mainland, the larger American Sign Language (ASL) is supplanting the local Puerto Rican Sign Language (PRSL, also known as LSPR: Lenguaje de Señas Puertorriqueño). Although assumed to be a dialect or variant of ASL, it is currently unknown the degree of mutual intelligibility between Puerto Rican Sign Language nor whether it is even a Francosign language like ASL. Indeed, there is a hesitancy amongst Puerto Rican Deaf to even mention LSPR after heavy handed oralist education of English, Spanish, and Signed English. Today, there is much contact between ASL, PRSL, and Signed Spanish. The Spanish of Puerto Rico has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax that differentiate it from the Spanish spoken elsewhere. While the Spanish spoken in all Iberian, Mediterranean and Atlantic Spanish Maritime Provinces was brought to the island over the centuries, the most profound regional influence on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico has been from that spoken in the present-day Canary Islands. The Spanish of Puerto Rico also includes occasional Taíno words, typically in the context of vegetation, natural phenomena or primitive musical instruments. Similarly, words attributed to primarily West African languages were adopted in the contexts of foods, music or dances. Religion There are many religious beliefs represented in the island. Religious breakdown in Puerto Rico (as of 2006) is given in the table on the right. Religion Adherents % of Population Christian 3,752,544 97.00% Non-religious/other 76,598 1.98% Spiritist 27,080 0.70% Muslim 5,029 0.13% Hindu 3,482 0.09% Jewish 2,708 0.07% Buddhist 1,161 0.03% The majority of Puerto Ricans in the island are Christians. Spiritists have a large secondary following. Muslims, Hindus, Jews, and Buddhists all have a small presence as well. Roman Catholicism has been the main Christian denomination among Puerto Ricans since the arrival of the Spanish in the 15th century, but the presence of Protestant, Mormon, Pentecostal, and Jehovah's Witnesses denominations has increased under U.S. sovereignty, making modern Puerto Rico an inter-denominational, multi-religious community. The Afro-Caribbean religion Santería is also practiced. In 1998, a news report stated that "Puerto Rico no longer predominantly Catholic". Pollster Pablo Ramos wrote that the population was 38% Roman Catholic, 28% Pentecostal, and 18% were members of independent churches. However, an Associated Press article in March 2014 stated that "more than 70 percent of identify themselves as Catholic". The CIA World Factbook reports that 85% of the population of Puerto Rico identifies as Roman Catholic, while 15% identify as Protestant and Other. Political and international status Part of a series onPuerto Ricans By region or country United States Chicago Hawaii Holyoke New York City Philadelphia Subgroups African Chinese French Corsican German Irish Italian Jewish Spanish Taíno Culture Art Cinema Cuisine Dance Education Flag Language Literature Music Politics Sports Television Religion Roman Catholicism Protestantism Judaism Islam History Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 Jones–Shafroth Act Language Spanish (Castilian) Vocabulary Puerto Rico portalvte Puerto Ricans became citizens of the United States as a result of the passage of the Jones–Shafroth Act of 1917. Since this law was the result of Congressional legislation, and not the result of an amendment to the United States Constitution, the current U.S. citizenship of Puerto Ricans can be revoked by Congress, as they are statutory citizens, not 14th Amendment citizens. The Jones Act established that Puerto Ricans born prior to 1899 were considered naturalized citizens of Puerto Rico, and anyone born after 1898 were U.S. citizens, unless the Puerto Rican expressed his/her intentions to remain a Spanish subject. Since 1948, it was decided by Congress that all Puerto Ricans, whether born within the United States or in Puerto Rico, were naturally born United States citizens. Puerto Ricans and other U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico cannot vote in presidential elections as that is a right reserved by the U.S. Constitution to admitted states and the District of Columbia through the Electoral College system. Nevertheless, both the Democratic Party and Republican Party, while not fielding candidates for public office in Puerto Rico, provide the islands with state-sized voting delegations at their presidential nominating conventions. Delegate selection processes frequently have resulted in presidential primaries being held in Puerto Rico. U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico do not elect U.S. representatives or senators. However, Puerto Rico is represented in the House of Representatives by an elected representative commonly known as the Resident Commissioner, who has the same duties and obligations as a representative, with the exception of being able to cast votes on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor. The Resident Commissioner is elected by Puerto Ricans to a four-year term and does serve on congressional committee. Puerto Ricans residing in the U.S. states have all rights and privileges of other U.S. citizens living in the states. As statutory U.S. citizens, Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico may enlist in the U.S. military and have been included in the compulsory draft when it has been in effect. Puerto Ricans have fully participated in all U.S. wars and military conflicts since 1898, including World War I, World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, the War in Afghanistan, and the Iraq War. Since 2007, the Puerto Rico State Department has developed a protocol to issue certificates of Puerto Rican citizenship to Puerto Ricans. In order to be eligible, applicants must have been born in Puerto Rico; born outside of Puerto Rico to a Puerto Rican-born parent; or be an American citizen with at least one year residence in Puerto Rico. The citizenship is internationally recognized by Spain, which considers Puerto Rico to be an Ibero-American nation. Therefore, Puerto Rican citizens have the ability to apply for Spanish citizenship after only two years residency in Spain (instead of the standard 10 years). Decolonization and status referendums Since 1953, the UN has been considering the political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving "independence" or "decolonization." In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a "colonial relationship" existed between the US and Puerto Rico. The UN's Special Committee has referred often to Puerto Rico as a nation in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity. Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self-determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self-determination and independence. ... allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty". Puerto Rico has held four referendums to determine whether to retain its status as a territory or to switch to some other status such as statehood. The fourth, the Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012 occurred on November 6, 2012. The result a 54% majority of the ballots cast against the continuation of the island's territorial political status, and in favor of a new status. Of votes for new status, a 61.1% majority chose statehood. This was by far the most successful referendum for statehood advocates. In all earlier referendum, votes for statehood were matched almost equally by votes for remaining an American territory, with the remainder for independence. Support for U.S. statehood has risen in each successive popular referendum. The fifth Puerto Rican status referendum of 2017, was held on June 11, 2017, and offered three options: "Statehood", "Independence/Free Association", and "Current Territorial Status." With 23% of registered voters casting ballots, 97% voted for statehood. Benefits of statehood would include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited. Even with the Puerto Ricans' vote for statehood, action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution. See also United States portal Demographics of Puerto Rico Hispanics Criollo people History of Puerto Rico History of Puerto Ricans History of women in Puerto Rico List of Puerto Rican Presidential Citizens Medal recipients List of Puerto Rican Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients List of Puerto Ricans List of Stateside Puerto Ricans Military history of Puerto Rico Nuyoricans Puerto Rican citizenship Puerto Rican migration to New York Puerto Rican status referendum, 2017 Puerto Ricans in the United States Notes ^ The term Boricua is gender-neutral, whereas the terms Puertorriqueño, Borinqueño, Borincano, and Puertorro are male-specific when ending in «o» and female-specific when ending in «a». ^ The term Puertorro -a is used popularly, spontaneously, and politely to refer to Puerto Ricans or Puerto Rico. It is occasionally mistaken for a pejorative, but the term is not considered offensive by Puerto Ricans. 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Retrieved March 29, 2012. ^ Puerto Ricans favor statehood for first time Archived November 3, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, CNN, November 7, 2012 ^ Robles, Frances (June 11, 2017). "23% of Puerto Ricans Vote in Referendum, 97% of Them for Statehood". New York Times. New York. Archived from the original on August 13, 2017. Retrieved August 12, 2017. ^ a b Coto, Danica (February 3, 2017). "Puerto Rico gov approves referendum in quest for statehood". Washington Post. DC. Archived from the original on February 4, 2017. Retrieved February 17, 2017. Further reading "Adiós, Borinquen querida": The Puerto Rican Diaspora, Its History, and Contributions, by Edna Acosta-Belen, et al. (Albany, New York: Center for Latino, Latin American, and Caribbean Studies, SUNY-Albany, 2000) Boricua Hawaiiana: Puerto Ricans of Hawaii—Reflections of the Past and Mirrors of the Future, by Blase Camacho Souza (Honolulu: Puerto Rican Heritage Society of Hawaii, 1982) Boricua Literature: A Literary History of the Puerto Rican Diaspora, by Lisa Sénchez González (New York: New York University Press, 2001) Boricua Pop: Puerto Ricans and the Latinization of American Culture, by Frances Negrón-Muntaner (New York: New York University Press, 2004) Yo soy Boricua in "United States of Banana", by Giannina Braschi (AmazonCrossing, 2011) Boricuas: Influential Puerto Rican Writings, by Roberto Santiago (New York: One World, 1995) Boricuas in Gotham: Puerto Ricans in the Making of Modern New York City, edited by Gabriel Haslip-Viera, Angelo Falcón and Félix Matos Rodríguez (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2004) Taino-tribe.org, PR Taíno DNA study External links Media related to Puerto Rican people at Wikimedia Commons vte Puerto RicansAfrican African Asian Chinese European French Corsican German Irish Italian Spanish Other Dominican Jewish Taíno Portal:Puerto RicoDemographics of Puerto RicoCultural diversity in Puerto RicoStateside Puerto Ricans vteHispanic and Latino Americans Index Hispanic and Latino Latino Demographics North American Floridanos Californio Nuevomexicano Tejano Creoles of Louisiana Isleño Mexican Chicano Caribbean Cuban Dominican Puerto Rican Nuyorican Central American Costa Rican Guatemalan Honduran Nicaraguan Panamanian Salvadoran South American Argentine Bolivian Brazilian Chilean Colombian Ecuadorian Paraguayan Peruvian Uruguayan Venezuelan European Spanish Asturian Basque Catalan Canarian Galician Portuguese Ethnic groups Asian Black White Religious groups Christians Jews Muslims By region Texas Houston New Jersey Utah California San Francisco San Diego Arizona New Mexico Washington, D.C. Colorado Nevada Florida Maryland Massachusetts New York Oregon (Portland) Other Stereotypes in the United States In politics Women in journalism In the United States Congress Category Authority control databases International FAST National France 2 BnF data 2 Israel United States Czech Republic

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stateside Puerto Ricans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateside_Puerto_Ricans"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"Boricuas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico#Etymology"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-note1-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-note-14"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"ethnic group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_group"},{"link_name":"Caribbean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caribbean"},{"link_name":"archipelago of Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"nation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nation"},{"link_name":"Commonwealth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commonwealth"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"ancestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genetics"},{"link_name":"culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"tri-racial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiracial_people"},{"link_name":"Spanish-speaking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanophone"},{"link_name":"Christian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christianity"},{"link_name":"Indigenous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"Taíno natives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno"},{"link_name":"Southwestern European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Europe"},{"link_name":"colonists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_colonization_of_the_Americas"},{"link_name":"West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa"},{"link_name":"Central African","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Africa"},{"link_name":"slaves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade"},{"link_name":"freedmen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freedman"},{"link_name":"free Blacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Negro"},{"link_name":"U.S. territory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Territories_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"birthright American citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birthright_citizenship_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"American culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"mainland United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateside_Puerto_Ricans"}],"text":"People from Puerto Rico or who identify culturally as Puerto RicanThis article is about the broad category of people from Puerto Rico. For stateside people of Puerto Rican origin, see Stateside Puerto Ricans.Ethnic groupPuerto Ricans (Spanish: Puertorriqueños), most commonly known as Boricuas, but also occasionally referred to as Borinqueños, Borincanos,[a][12] or Puertorros,[b][13] are an ethnic group native to the Caribbean archipelago of Puerto Rico, and a nation identified with the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico through ancestry, culture, or history. Puerto Ricans are predominately a tri-racial, Spanish-speaking, Christian society, descending in varying degrees from Indigenous Taíno natives, Southwestern European colonists, and West and Central African slaves, freedmen, and free Blacks. As citizens of a U.S. territory, Puerto Ricans have automatic birthright American citizenship, and are considerably influenced by American culture. The population of Puerto Ricans is between 9 and 10 million worldwide, with the overwhelming majority residing in Puerto Rico and mainland United States.","title":"Puerto Ricans"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Western culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_culture"},{"link_name":"Spain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Andalusia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusia"},{"link_name":"Canary Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands"},{"link_name":"African culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Culture_of_Africa"},{"link_name":"Afro-Puerto Ricans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afro-Puerto_Rican"},{"link_name":"Taino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taino"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Guanche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanches"},{"link_name":"Taíno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-archive.org1-18"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(state)"},{"link_name":"Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Florida"},{"link_name":"New Jersey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Jersey"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"Connecticut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecticut"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"Illinois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinois"},{"link_name":"Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2010_Census-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"American Community Survey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Community_Survey"},{"link_name":"Northern America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_America"},{"link_name":"Oceania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oceania"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-U.S_ACS_Puerto_Rico_2008-25"}],"text":"The culture held in common by most Puerto Ricans is referred to as a Western culture largely derived from the traditions of Spain, and more specifically Andalusia and the Canary Islands. Puerto Rico has also received immigration from other parts of Spain such as Catalonia as well as from other European countries such as France, Ireland, Italy and Germany. Puerto Rico has also been influenced by African culture, with many Puerto Ricans partially descended from Africans, though Afro-Puerto Ricans of unmixed African descent are only a significant minority. Also present in today's Puerto Ricans are traces (about 10-15%) of the aboriginal Taino natives that inhabited the island at the time European colonizers arrived in 1493.[14][15] Recent studies in population genetics have concluded that Puerto Rican gene pool is on average predominantly European, with a significant Sub-Saharan African, North African Guanche, and Indigenous American substrate, the latter two originating in the aboriginal people of the Canary Islands and Puerto Rico's pre-Columbian Taíno inhabitants, respectively.[16][17][18][19]The population of Puerto Ricans and descendants is estimated to be between 8 and 10 million worldwide, with most living on the islands of Puerto Rico and in the United States mainland. Within the United States, Puerto Ricans are present in all states of the Union, and the states with the largest populations of Puerto Ricans relative to the national population of Puerto Ricans in the United States at large are the states of New York, Florida, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania, with large populations also in Massachusetts, Connecticut, California, Illinois, and Texas.[20][21]For 2009,[22] the American Community Survey estimates give a total of 3,859,026 Puerto Ricans classified as \"Native\" Puerto Ricans. It also gives a total of 3,644,515 (91.9%) of the population being born in Puerto Rico and 201,310 (5.1%) born in the United States. The total population born outside Puerto Rico is 322,773 (8.1%). Of the 108,262 who were foreign born outside the United States (2.7% of Puerto Ricans), 92.9% were born in Latin America, 3.8% in Europe, 2.7% in Asia, 0.2% in Northern America, and 0.1% in Africa and Oceania each.[23]","title":"Overview"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Number of Puerto Ricans"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Population (1765–1897)","text":"The populations during Spanish rule of Puerto Rico were:","title":"Number of Puerto Ricans"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Current population and its self-identified racial makeup (2020)","title":"Number of Puerto Ricans"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Crowd_gathering_on_a_street,_Puerto_Rico_(8364101673).jpg"},{"link_name":"Taíno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno_people"},{"link_name":"Borikén or Borinquen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico#Etymology"},{"link_name":"miscegenation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miscegenation"},{"link_name":"measles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measles"},{"link_name":"chicken pox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken_pox"},{"link_name":"mumps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumps"},{"link_name":"influenza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Influenza"},{"link_name":"common cold","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_cold"},{"link_name":"Canary Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Haiti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haiti"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_immigration_to_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Dominican Republic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominican_Republic"},{"link_name":"Mayagüez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayag%C3%BCez,_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"British","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_people"},{"link_name":"Scottish people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_people"},{"link_name":"English people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_people"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Royal Decree of Graces of 1815","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Decree_of_Graces_of_1815"},{"link_name":"Corsicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsicans"},{"link_name":"German immigrants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_immigration_to_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Irish immigrants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_immigration_to_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Great Famine of the 1840s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewish_immigration_to_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sephardi_Jews"},{"link_name":"refugees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refugee"},{"link_name":"German–occupied Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%E2%80%93occupied_Europe"},{"link_name":"Cuban Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Cuba"},{"link_name":"Cuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuba"},{"link_name":"Fidel Castro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fidel_Castro"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JVL-32"}],"text":"Crowd gathering on a street in Puerto Rico in 1939, photographed by Robert Yarnall RichieThe original inhabitants of Puerto Rico are the Taíno, who called the island Borikén or Borinquen; however, as in other parts of the Americas, the native people soon diminished in number after the arrival of Spanish settlers. Besides miscegenation, the negative impact on the numbers of Amerindian people, especially in Puerto Rico, was almost entirely the result of Old World diseases that the Amerindians had no natural/bodily defenses against, including measles, chicken pox, mumps, influenza, and even the common cold. In fact, it was estimated that the majority of all the Amerindian inhabitants of the New World died out due to contact and contamination with those Old World diseases, while those that survived were further reduced through deaths by warfare with Spanish colonizers and settlers.Thousands of Spanish settlers also immigrated to Puerto Rico from the Canary Islands during the 18th and 19th centuries, so many so that whole Puerto Rican villages and towns were founded by Canarian immigrants, and their descendants would later form a majority of the population on the island.[citation needed]In 1791, the slaves in Saint-Domingue (Haiti), revolted against their French masters. Many of the French escaped to Puerto Rico via what is now the Dominican Republic and settled in the west coast of the island, especially in Mayagüez. Some Puerto Ricans are of British heritage, most notably Scottish people and English people who came to reside there in the 17th and 18th centuries.[citation needed]When Spain revived the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815 with the intention of attracting non-Spanish Europeans to settle in the island, thousands of Corsicans (though the island was French since 1768 the population spoke an Italian dialect similar to Tuscan Italian) during the 19th century immigrated to Puerto Rico, along with German immigrants as well as Irish immigrants who were affected by the Great Famine of the 1840s, immigrated to Puerto Rico. They were followed by smaller waves from other European countries and China.[citation needed]During the early 20th century Jews began to settle in Puerto Rico. The first large group of Jews to settle in Puerto Rico were European refugees fleeing German–occupied Europe in the 1930s and 1940s. The second influx of Jews to the island came in the 1950s, when thousands of Cuban Jews fled Cuba after Fidel Castro came to power.[30]","title":"Ancestry and Genetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kacike.org-33"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-El_Jibaro-34"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Puerto_Rico's_History_on_race-35"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mona.uwi.edu-36"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Gracias al Sacar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gracias_al_Sacar&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"one-drop rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-drop_rule"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-41"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Waiting_by_the_side_of_the_road_in_Puerto_Rico.jpg"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Via-45"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-genographic.nationalgeographic.com-47"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Latino_populations:_a_unique_opport-48"},{"link_name":"Canary Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islands"},{"link_name":"Guanche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guanches"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"}],"sub_title":"Ethnogenesis","text":"The native Taino population began to dwindle, with the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century, through disease and intermarriage.[31] Many Spaniard men took Taino and West African wives and in the first centuries of the Spanish colonial period the island was overwhelmingly racially mixed. \"By 1530 there were 14 native women married to Spaniards, not to mention Spaniards with concubines.\"[32] Under Spanish rule, mass immigration shifted the ethnic make-up of the island, as a result of the Royal Decree of Graces of 1815. Puerto Rico went from being two-thirds black and mulatto in the beginning of the 19th century, to being nearly 80% white by the middle of the 20th century. This was compounded by more flexible attitudes to race under Spanish rule, as epitomized by the Regla del Sacar.[33][34][35][36][37] Under Spanish rule, Puerto Rico had laws such as Regla del Sacar or Gracias al Sacar, which allowed persons of mixed ancestry to pay a fee to be classified as white,[38] which was the opposite of \"one-drop rule\" in US society after the American Civil War.[39][40]Two men sit by the side of a road with the ocean behind them in Puerto Rico.Studies have shown that the racial ancestry mixture of the average Puerto Rican (regardless of racial self-identity) is about 64% European, 21% African, and 15% Native Taino, with European ancestry strongest on the west side of the island and West African ancestry strongest on the east side, and the levels of Taino ancestry (which, according to some research, ranges from about 5%-35%) generally highest in the southwest of the island.[41][42][43]A study of a sample of 96 healthy self-identified White Puerto Ricans and self-identified Black Puerto Ricans in the U.S. showed that, although all carried a contribution from all 3 ancestral populations (European, African, and Amerindian), the proportions showed significant variation. Depending on individuals, although often correlating with their self-identified race, African ancestry ranged from less than 10% to over 50%, while European ancestry ranged from under 20% to over 80%. Amerindian ancestry showed less fluctuation, generally hovering between 5% and 20% irrespective of self-identified race.[44][45][46]The majority of the European ancestry in Puerto Ricans comes from southern Spain, more specifically the Canary Islands, this is also true for many Dominicans and Cubans. Canarians are of partial Guanche ancestry, a North African Berber ethnic group who were the original inhabitants before Spanish conquest. This means that by extension, many Puerto Ricans have miniscule amounts of North African blood through the indigenous Guanches of the Canary Islands.[47][48]","title":"Ancestry and Genetics"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Self-identified race"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ram%C3%B3n_Power_y_Giralt.png"},{"link_name":"Ramón Power y Giralt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ram%C3%B3n_Power_y_Giralt"},{"link_name":"1899 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1899_Puerto_Rico_Census"},{"link_name":"Spanish–American War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish%E2%80%93American_War"},{"link_name":"White","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_people"},{"link_name":"2020 United States Census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_Census"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-data.census.gov-30"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Puerto_Rico's_History_on_race-35"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2010.census.gov-51"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CIA_World_Factbook-53"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Puerto_Rico's_History_on_race-35"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mona.uwi.edu_2-54"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_ethnic_groups"},{"link_name":"Spaniards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_people"},{"link_name":"Canarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canarian_people"},{"link_name":"Catalans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catalan_people"},{"link_name":"Castilians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castilian_people"},{"link_name":"Galicians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galician_people"},{"link_name":"Asturians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asturian_people"},{"link_name":"Andalusians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andalusian_people"},{"link_name":"Basques","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque_people"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Corsicans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corsican_immigration_to_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"French","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_immigration_to_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Italians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Puerto_Ricans"},{"link_name":"Portuguese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portuguese_people"},{"link_name":"Greeks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_people"},{"link_name":"Germans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German_immigration_to_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Irish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irish_immigration_to_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Scots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottish_people"},{"link_name":"Maltese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maltese_people"},{"link_name":"Dutch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dutch_people"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_people"},{"link_name":"Danes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danish_people"}],"sub_title":"White","text":"Ramón Power y Giralt was a Puerto Rican military officer and politician.In the 1899 census, taken the year Spain ceded Puerto Rico to the United States following its invasion and annexation in the Spanish–American War, 61.8% of the people were identified as White. In the 2020 United States Census the total of Puerto Ricans that self-identified as White was 17.1% or 560,592 out of the 3,285,874 people living in Puerto Rico,[28] down from 75.8% in the 2010 Census, reflecting a change in perceptions of race in Puerto Rico.[33][49][50] For every United States census until 2010, most Puerto Ricans self identified as \"white\".[51][33][52][53][54][55]The European ancestry of Puerto Ricans comes primarily from one source: Spaniards (including Canarians, Catalans, Castilians, Galicians, Asturians, Andalusians, and Basques).\nThe Canarian cultural influence in Puerto Rico is one of the most important components in which many villages were founded from these immigrants, which started from 1493 to 1890 and beyond. Many Spaniards, especially Canarians, chose Puerto Rico because of its Hispanic ties and relative proximity in comparison with other former Spanish colonies. They searched for security and stability in an environment similar to that of the Canary Islands and Puerto Rico was the most suitable. This began as a temporary exile which became a permanent relocation and the last significant wave of Spanish or European migration to Puerto Rico.[56][57]Other sources of European populations are Corsicans, French, Italians, Portuguese (especially Azoreans), Greeks, Germans, Irish, Scots, Maltese, Dutch, English, and Danes.","title":"Self-identified race"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2020 United States Census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2020_United_States_Census"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2010.census.gov-51"},{"link_name":"Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spain"},{"link_name":"Conquistadors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conquistador"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"slave trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_slavery"},{"link_name":"West Africans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Africa"},{"link_name":"Yoruba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoruba_people"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Africans-60"},{"link_name":"Igbo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Igbo_people"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Africans-60"},{"link_name":"Kongo people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kongo_people"}],"sub_title":"Black","text":"In the 2020 United States Census, 7.0% of people self-identified as Black.[49] Africans were brought by Spanish Conquistadors.[citation needed] The vast majority of the Africans who were brought to Puerto Rico did so as a result of the slave trade taking place from many groups in the African continent, but particularly the West Africans, the Yoruba,[58] the Igbo,[58] and the Kongo people.","title":"Self-identified race"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2010.census.gov-51"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-data.census.gov-30"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-genographic.nationalgeographic.com-47"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Latino_populations:_a_unique_opport-48"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Via-45"}],"sub_title":"Indigenous","text":"Indigenous people make up the third largest racial identity among Puerto Ricans, comprising 0.5% of the population.[49][28] Although this self-identification may be ethno-political in nature since unmixed Tainos no longer exist as a discrete genetic population. Native American admixture in Puerto Ricans ranges between about 5% and 35%, with around 15% being the approximate average.[59][45][46][43]Puerto Rico's self-identified indigenous population therefore consist mostly of indigenous-identified persons (oftentimes with predominant Indigenous ancestry, but not always) from within the genetically mestizo population of mixed European and Amerindian ancestry, even when most other Puerto Ricans of their exact same mixture would identify either as mixed-race or even as white.","title":"Self-identified race"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"Bangladeshi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangladeshis"},{"link_name":"Chinese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_immigration_to_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"Hmong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hmong_people"},{"link_name":"Japanese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japanese_people"},{"link_name":"Malaysian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malaysians"},{"link_name":"Vietnamese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vietnamese_people"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"}],"sub_title":"Asian","text":"For its 2020 census, the U.S. Census Bureau listed the following groups to constitute \"Asian\":[60] Asian Indian, Bangladeshi, Bhutanese, Cambodian, Chinese, Filipino, Hmong, Indonesian, Japanese, Korean, Laotian, Malaysian, Nepalese, Pakistani, Sri Lankan, Taiwanese, Thai, Vietnamese, and Other Asian. Though, the largest groups come from China and India. These groups represented 0.1% of the population.","title":"Self-identified race"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jos%C3%A9_Campeche.JPG"},{"link_name":"José Campeche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jos%C3%A9_Campeche"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rican_people"},{"link_name":"visual artist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_artist"},{"link_name":"Census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_2020_Census"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-data.census.gov-30"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rivera_2015-63"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto1-31"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"Mulatto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulatto"},{"link_name":"Quadroon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadroon"},{"link_name":"National Geographic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic_Society"},{"link_name":"Genographic Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genographic_Project"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-66"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"settlers from Canary Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canary_Islanders"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-66"}],"sub_title":"Other","text":"José Campeche is the first known Puerto Rican visual artist.People of \"Some other race alone\" or \"Two or more races\" constituted 75.3% of the population in the 2020 Census.[28]Although the average Puerto Rican is of mixed-race,[61] few actually identified as multiracial (\"two or more races\") in the 2010 census; only 3.3% did so.[29][62] They more often identified with their predominant heritage or phenotype. However, in the 2020 census, the amount of Puerto Ricans identifying as multiracial went up to 49.8% and an additional 25.5% identified as \"some other race\", showing a marked change in the way Puerto Ricans view themselves. This may show that Puerto Ricans are now more open to embracing all sides of their mixed-race heritage and do not view themselves as part of the standard race dynamic in the United States hence the high number of people identifying as \"some other race\", a similar phenomenon went on in the mainland United States with the overall US Hispanic/Latino population.[63] \nMost have significant ancestry from two or more of the founding source populations of Spaniards, Africans, and Tainos, although Spanish ancestry is predominant in a majority of the population. Small amounts of Puerto Ricans may have additional ancestries from other parts of the world. Similar to many other Latin American ethnic groups, Puerto Ricans are multi-generationally mixed race, though most are European dominant in ancestry, Puerto Ricans who are \"evenly mixed\" can accurately be described \"Mulatto\", \"Quadroon\", or Tri-racial very similar to mixed populations in Cuba and Dominican Republic. According to the National Geographic Genographic Project, \"the average Puerto Rican individual carries 12% Native American, 65% West Eurasian (Mediterranean, Northern European and/or Middle Eastern) and 20% Sub-Saharan African DNA.\"[64]In genetic terms, even many of those of pure Spanish origin would have North and, in some cases, West African ancestry brought from founder populations, particularly in the Canary Islands.[65] Along with European, West African, and Taino, many Puerto Ricans have small amounts of North African blood due to settlers from Canary Islands, the Spanish province where most Puerto Ricans draw their European ancestry from, being of partial North African blood. Very few self-identified Black Puerto Ricans are of unmixed African ancestry, while a genetically unmixed Amerindian population in Puerto Rico is technically extinct despite a minuscule segment of self-identified Amerindian Puerto Ricans due to a minor Amerindian component in their ancestral mixture. Research data shows that 60% of Puerto Ricans carry maternal lineages of Native American origin and the typical Puerto Rican has between 5% and 15% Native American admixture.[64]","title":"Self-identified race"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Aqui_vive_una_familia_puertorrique%C3%B1a_2006_(San_Juan,_Puerto_Rico).jpg"},{"link_name":"Spanish language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spanish_language"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rican Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Spanish"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CIA-68"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NPR.org_2014-69"}],"sub_title":"Modern identity","text":"\"A Puerto Rican family lives here\" sign on a wall in San JuanThe Puerto Rico of today has come to form some of its own social customs, cultural matrix, historically rooted traditions, and its own unique pronunciation, vocabulary, and idiomatic expressions within the Spanish language, known as Puerto Rican Spanish. Even after the attempted assimilation of Puerto Rico into the United States in the early 20th century, the majority of the people of Puerto Rico feel pride in their Puerto Rican nationality,[66] regardless of the individual's particular racial, ethnic, political, or economic background. Many Puerto Ricans are consciously aware of the rich contribution of all cultures represented on the island. This diversity can be seen in the everyday lifestyle of many Puerto Ricans such as the profound Latin, African, and Taíno influences regarding food, music, dance, and architecture.[67]","title":"Self-identified race"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Stateside Puerto Ricans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stateside_Puerto_Ricans"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Puerto Ricans migrated to Hawaii","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rican_immigration_to_Hawaii"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CEP_Part_2-71"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Lehman-72"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-73"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-75"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ACS-B03001-2019-77"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_metropolitan_area"},{"link_name":"Orlando","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Orlando"},{"link_name":"Philadelphia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delaware_Valley"},{"link_name":"Miami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miami_metropolitan_area"},{"link_name":"Chicago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicago_metropolitan_area"},{"link_name":"Tampa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tampa_Bay_area"},{"link_name":"Boston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Boston"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CB2016-83"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"\"American\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emigration_from_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-oecd-ilibrary.org-6"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"}],"text":"See also: Stateside Puerto RicansDuring the Spanish colonial period, there was significant migration from Puerto Rico to Santo Domingo (DR), Cuba, the Virgin Islands, and Venezuela, and vice versa, because migration between neighboring colonies especially under the same European power, was common. Nearly all Puerto Ricans who migrated to these areas during these times, assimilated and intermixed with the local populations. In the early days of US rule, from 1900 to the 1940s, the Puerto Rican economy was small and undeveloped, it relied heavily on agriculture. At this time, Puerto Rican migration waves were mainly to Dominican Republic,[68] the Virgin Islands, and US cities such as Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, Miami, New Orleans, and most importantly metropolitan area surrounding New York City and North Jersey. Over 5,000 Puerto Ricans migrated to Hawaii from 1900 to 1901.[69][70][71][72] Puerto Rican migration to the US northeast started as early as the 1890s; however, it was a very, very small flow at the time. During the 1940s, Puerto Rican desire for independence slowly started to decline while desire for statehood and dependence on the US started rise, due to this more Puerto Ricans started to look at the US more favorably and take full advantage of their US citizenship, huge flows of Puerto Ricans started to arrive in the United States, particularly industrial cities in the Northeast and Midwest, coinciding with a strong decline in Puerto Ricans migrating to other countries and even other areas in the US like Baltimore, New Orleans, and Hawaii.[73][74] From 1940 to 1960, the stateside Puerto Rican population rose from 69,967 to 892,513.In the modern day, there are about 5.9 million Puerto Ricans in the US mainland.[75] Large concentrations can be found in the Northeast region and in Florida, in the metropolitan areas of New York, Orlando, Philadelphia, Miami, Chicago, Tampa, and Boston, among others. Though, over 95% of Puerto Ricans living outside of Puerto Rico, live in the United States (US states), there is a significant and growing number of Puerto Ricans, mainly from Puerto Rico itself but to a lesser degree stateside Puerto Ricans as well, living outside the 50 States and the US territory of Puerto Rico. Puerto Rican populations in other countries are very small, not large enough to have dominance over certain neighborhoods and cities like in Florida and the US Northeast. Unsurprisingly, Puerto Rico's neighbors have the biggest Puerto Rican communities outside Puerto Rico and the US mainland, to the west Dominican Republic with as high as 20,000 Puerto Ricans according to some sources,[76][77][78][79] and to the east US Virgin Islands with 7,759, 8.9% of the territory's population, second highest percentage of any US state or territory, after Puerto Rico (95.5%) and before Connecticut (8.0%).[80][81] There are small numbers of Puerto Ricans in other countries like Canada, Spain, Mexico, United Kingdom, and other countries in Europe and the Caribbean/Latin America. Due to Puerto Rico being a US territory, the vast majority of Puerto Ricans leaving the island go to the mainland United States, comprising Puerto Ricans of all income brackets and lifestyles. However, majority of the small number of Puerto Ricans living outside of the United States, including outside of Puerto Rico and other territories, are usually financially well-off and entrepreneurial, owning homes and businesses in the countries they choose to settle in.[82][83][84][85] Statistical counts of Puerto Rican populations in other countries usually only center on ethnic Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico. Non-Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico and later moving to target country usually wouldn't be included in a Puerto Rican population count, especially if they have ancestry of at least one parent born in target country, for example people of Dominican, Cuban, or Mexican etc ancestry born in Puerto Rico and later returning to their ancestral country- wouldn't be counted in a Puerto Rican population count, but likely rather counted as a \"returning emigrant\". Similarly, Puerto Ricans born in the mainland United States would be counted under an \"American\" statistic, so the Puerto Rican populations abroad may be slightly larger as some may be stateside-born and counted as \"American\" rather than \"Puerto Rican\" on local government statistics on immigrants.[86][6][87][88]","title":"Emigration"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Rivera_2015-63"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"U.S. District Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._District_Court"},{"link_name":"official languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_language"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-factfinder.census.gov-94"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"},{"link_name":"deaf community","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deaf_community"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PRSL-98"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-99"},{"link_name":"American Sign Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Sign_Language"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rican Sign Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Sign_Language"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PRSL-98"},{"link_name":"mutual intelligibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mutual_intelligibility"},{"link_name":"Francosign language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francosign_languages"},{"link_name":"oralist education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oralism"},{"link_name":"Signed English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signed_English"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PRSL-98"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"contact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_contact"},{"link_name":"Signed Spanish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signed_Spanish"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PRSL-98"},{"link_name":"Spanish of Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rican_Spanish"},{"link_name":"Taíno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ta%C3%ADno"},{"link_name":"African languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_languages"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"}],"text":"Spanish and English are the official languages of the entire Commonwealth. A 1902 English-only language law was abolished on April 5, 1991. Then on January 28, 1993, the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico approved Law Number 1 again making Spanish and English the official languages of Puerto Rico.[61][89] All official business of the U.S. District Court for the District of Puerto Rico is conducted in English. The official languages[90] of the executive branch of government of Puerto Rico[91] are Spanish and English, with Spanish being the primary language. English is the primary language of less than 10% of the population.Puerto Rican Spanish is the dominant language of business, education and daily life on the island.[92] The US Census Bureau's 2015 update provides the following:[93] 94.1% of adults speak Spanish, 5.8% speak only English and little to no Spanish, 78.3% do not speak English \"very well\", 15.8% are fully bilingual in both English and Spanish, 0.1% speak other languages.[94]Public school instruction in Puerto Rico is conducted almost entirely in Spanish. There have been pilot programs in about a dozen of the over 1,400 public schools aimed at conducting instruction in English only. Objections from teaching staff are common, perhaps because many of them are not fully fluent in English.[95] English is taught as a second language and is a compulsory subject from elementary levels to high school.Home to a sizeable deaf community, the actual numbers are unknown due to unavailable source data.[96] A 1986 estimate places the Puerto Rican deaf population to be between 8,000 and 40,000.[97] Due to ongoing colonization from the US mainland, the larger American Sign Language (ASL) is supplanting the local Puerto Rican Sign Language (PRSL, also known as LSPR: Lenguaje de Señas Puertorriqueño).[96] Although assumed to be a dialect or variant of ASL, it is currently unknown the degree of mutual intelligibility between Puerto Rican Sign Language nor whether it is even a Francosign language like ASL. Indeed, there is a hesitancy amongst Puerto Rican Deaf to even mention LSPR after heavy handed oralist education of English, Spanish, and Signed English.[96][98] Today, there is much contact between ASL, PRSL, and Signed Spanish.[96]The Spanish of Puerto Rico has evolved into having many idiosyncrasies in vocabulary and syntax that differentiate it from the Spanish spoken elsewhere. While the Spanish spoken in all Iberian, Mediterranean and Atlantic Spanish Maritime Provinces was brought to the island over the centuries, the most profound regional influence on the Spanish spoken in Puerto Rico has been from that spoken in the present-day Canary Islands. The Spanish of Puerto Rico also includes occasional Taíno words, typically in the context of vegetation, natural phenomena or primitive musical instruments. Similarly, words attributed to primarily West African languages were adopted in the contexts of foods, music or dances.[99]","title":"Language"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Christians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christians"},{"link_name":"Spiritists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spiritist"},{"link_name":"Muslims","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muslim"},{"link_name":"Hindus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu"},{"link_name":"Jews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jew"},{"link_name":"Buddhists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buddhist"},{"link_name":"Roman Catholicism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Catholicism"},{"link_name":"Protestant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestantism"},{"link_name":"Mormon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Latter-day_Saint"},{"link_name":"Pentecostal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pentecostal"},{"link_name":"Jehovah's Witnesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses"},{"link_name":"Santería","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santer%C3%ADa"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"Associated Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associated_Press"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"}],"text":"There are many religious beliefs represented in the island. Religious breakdown in Puerto Rico (as of 2006) is given in the table on the right.[100]The majority of Puerto Ricans in the island are Christians. Spiritists have a large secondary following. Muslims, Hindus, Jews, and Buddhists all have a small presence as well. Roman Catholicism has been the main Christian denomination among Puerto Ricans since the arrival of the Spanish in the 15th century, but the presence of Protestant, Mormon, Pentecostal, and Jehovah's Witnesses denominations has increased under U.S. sovereignty, making modern Puerto Rico an inter-denominational, multi-religious community. The Afro-Caribbean religion Santería is also practiced.In 1998, a news report stated that \"Puerto Rico [was] no longer predominantly Catholic\". Pollster Pablo Ramos wrote that the population was 38% Roman Catholic, 28% Pentecostal, and 18% were members of independent churches.[101] However, an Associated Press article in March 2014 stated that \"more than 70 percent of [Puerto Ricans] identify themselves as Catholic\".[102] The CIA World Factbook reports that 85% of the population of Puerto Rico identifies as Roman Catholic, while 15% identify as Protestant and Other.[103]","title":"Religion"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jones–Shafroth Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jones%E2%80%93Shafroth_Act"},{"link_name":"United States Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Constitution"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"14th Amendment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"United States citizens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_nationality_law"},{"link_name":"presidential elections","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_presidential_election"},{"link_name":"Electoral College","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_College_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democratic_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Republican Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republican_Party_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"presidential primaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presidential_primaries"},{"link_name":"U.S. representatives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_House_of_Representatives"},{"link_name":"senators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Senate"},{"link_name":"Resident Commissioner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Resident_Commissioner_of_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"congressional committee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_congressional_committee"},{"link_name":"U.S. military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._military"},{"link_name":"U.S. wars and military conflicts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_United_States_military_operations"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_I"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Korean War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/65th_Infantry_Regiment_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"Vietnam War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_the_Vietnam_War"},{"link_name":"Gulf War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War"},{"link_name":"War in Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_in_Afghanistan_(2001%E2%80%93present)"},{"link_name":"Iraq War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iraq_War"}],"text":"Puerto Ricans became citizens of the United States as a result of the passage of the Jones–Shafroth Act of 1917. Since this law was the result of Congressional legislation, and not the result of an amendment to the United States Constitution, the current U.S. citizenship of Puerto Ricans can be revoked by Congress,[104] as they are statutory citizens, not 14th Amendment citizens.[105] The Jones Act established that Puerto Ricans born prior to 1899 were considered naturalized citizens of Puerto Rico, and anyone born after 1898 were U.S. citizens, unless the Puerto Rican expressed his/her intentions to remain a Spanish subject. Since 1948, it was decided by Congress that all Puerto Ricans, whether born within the United States or in Puerto Rico, were naturally born United States citizens.Puerto Ricans and other U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico cannot vote in presidential elections as that is a right reserved by the U.S. Constitution to admitted states and the District of Columbia through the Electoral College system. Nevertheless, both the Democratic Party and Republican Party, while not fielding candidates for public office in Puerto Rico, provide the islands with state-sized voting delegations at their presidential nominating conventions. Delegate selection processes frequently have resulted in presidential primaries being held in Puerto Rico. U.S. citizens residing in Puerto Rico do not elect U.S. representatives or senators. However, Puerto Rico is represented in the House of Representatives by an elected representative commonly known as the Resident Commissioner, who has the same duties and obligations as a representative, with the exception of being able to cast votes on the final disposition of legislation on the House floor. The Resident Commissioner is elected by Puerto Ricans to a four-year term and does serve on congressional committee. Puerto Ricans residing in the U.S. states have all rights and privileges of other U.S. citizens living in the states.As statutory U.S. citizens, Puerto Ricans born in Puerto Rico may enlist in the U.S. military and have been included in the compulsory draft when it has been in effect. Puerto Ricans have fully participated in all U.S. wars and military conflicts since 1898, including World War I, World War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, the Gulf War, the War in Afghanistan, and the Iraq War.Since 2007, the Puerto Rico State Department has developed a protocol to issue certificates of Puerto Rican citizenship to Puerto Ricans. In order to be eligible, applicants must have been born in Puerto Rico; born outside of Puerto Rico to a Puerto Rican-born parent; or be an American citizen with at least one year residence in Puerto Rico. The citizenship is internationally recognized by Spain, which considers Puerto Rico to be an Ibero-American nation. Therefore, Puerto Rican citizens have the ability to apply for Spanish citizenship after only two years residency in Spain (instead of the standard 10 years).","title":"Political and international status"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"UN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UN"},{"link_name":"political status of Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Political_status_of_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-United_Nations._General_Assembly._Special_Committee_on_the_Situation_With_Regard_to_the_Implementation_of_the_Declaration_on_the_Granting_of_Independence_to_Colonial_Countries_and_Peoples_1971_https://books.google.com/books?id=4nEyLDpKZjMC&pg=PA10_10%E2%80%9311-109"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rican_status_referendum,_2012"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-cbsnews1-113"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-letpuertoricodecide1-116"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated1-117"},{"link_name":"Puerto Rican status referendum of 2017","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rican_status_referendum,_2017"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wapo-2017-coto-danica-119"},{"link_name":"United States Congress","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Congress"},{"link_name":"Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Article_Four_of_the_United_States_Constitution#Federal_property_and_the_Territorial_Clause"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-wapo-2017-coto-danica-119"}],"sub_title":"Decolonization and status referendums","text":"Since 1953, the UN has been considering the political status of Puerto Rico and how to assist it in achieving \"independence\" or \"decolonization.\" In 1978, the Special Committee determined that a \"colonial relationship\" existed between the US and Puerto Rico.[106]The UN's Special Committee has referred often to Puerto Rico as a nation in its reports, because, internationally, the people of Puerto Rico are often considered to be a Caribbean nation with their own national identity.[107][108][109] Most recently, in a June 2016 report, the Special Committee called for the United States to expedite the process to allow self-determination in Puerto Rico. More specifically, the group called on the United States to expedite a process that would allow the people of Puerto Rico to exercise fully their right to self-determination and independence. ... allow the Puerto Rican people to take decisions in a sovereign manner, and to address their urgent economic and social needs, including unemployment, marginalization, insolvency and poverty\".[110]Puerto Rico has held four referendums to determine whether to retain its status as a territory or to switch to some other status such as statehood. The fourth, the Puerto Rican status referendum, 2012 occurred on November 6, 2012. The result a 54% majority of the ballots cast against the continuation of the island's territorial political status, and in favor of a new status. Of votes for new status, a 61.1% majority chose statehood.[111][112][113] This was by far the most successful referendum for statehood advocates. In all earlier referendum, votes for statehood were matched almost equally by votes for remaining an American territory, with the remainder for independence. Support for U.S. statehood has risen in each successive popular referendum.[114][115]The fifth Puerto Rican status referendum of 2017, was held on June 11, 2017, and offered three options: \"Statehood\", \"Independence/Free Association\", and \"Current Territorial Status.\" With 23% of registered voters casting ballots, 97% voted for statehood.[116] Benefits of statehood would include an additional $10 billion per year in federal funds, the right to vote in presidential elections, higher Social Security and Medicare benefits, and a right for its government agencies and municipalities to file for bankruptcy. The latter is currently prohibited.[117]Even with the Puerto Ricans' vote for statehood, action by the United States Congress would be necessary to implement changes to the status of Puerto Rico under the Territorial Clause of the United States Constitution.[117]","title":"Political and international status"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-note1_12-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-note_14-0"},{"link_name":"popularly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_culture"},{"link_name":"spontaneously","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colloquialism"},{"link_name":"politely","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_culture"},{"link_name":"pejorative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pejorative"},{"link_name":"Bobby Valentín","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bobby_Valent%C3%ADn"},{"link_name":"Andy Montañez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andy_Monta%C3%B1ez"},{"link_name":"Bad Bunny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bad_Bunny"}],"text":"^ The term Boricua is gender-neutral, whereas the terms Puertorriqueño, Borinqueño, Borincano, and Puertorro are male-specific when ending in «o» and female-specific when ending in «a».\n\n^ The term Puertorro -a is used popularly, spontaneously, and politely to refer to Puerto Ricans or Puerto Rico. It is occasionally mistaken for a pejorative, but the term is not considered offensive by Puerto Ricans. It has been most famously used by Puerto Rican musicians, including Bobby Valentín in his song Soy Boricua (1972), Andy Montañez in En Mi Puertorro (2006), and Bad Bunny in ACHO PR (2023).","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States of Banana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_of_Banana"},{"link_name":"Giannina Braschi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giannina_Braschi"},{"link_name":"Angelo Falcón","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Angelo_Falc%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Taino-tribe.org","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.taino-tribe.org/pr-taino-dna.htm"}],"text":"\"Adiós, Borinquen querida\": The Puerto Rican Diaspora, Its History, and Contributions, by Edna Acosta-Belen, et al. (Albany, New York: Center for Latino, Latin American, and Caribbean Studies, SUNY-Albany, 2000)\nBoricua Hawaiiana: Puerto Ricans of Hawaii—Reflections of the Past and Mirrors of the Future, by Blase Camacho Souza (Honolulu: Puerto Rican Heritage Society of Hawaii, 1982)\nBoricua Literature: A Literary History of the Puerto Rican Diaspora, by Lisa Sénchez González (New York: New York University Press, 2001)\nBoricua Pop: Puerto Ricans and the Latinization of American Culture, by Frances Negrón-Muntaner (New York: New York University Press, 2004)\nYo soy Boricua in \"United States of Banana\", by Giannina Braschi (AmazonCrossing, 2011)\nBoricuas: Influential Puerto Rican Writings, by Roberto Santiago (New York: One World, 1995)\nBoricuas in Gotham: Puerto Ricans in the Making of Modern New York City, edited by Gabriel Haslip-Viera, Angelo Falcón and Félix Matos Rodríguez (Princeton: Markus Wiener Publishers, 2004)\nTaino-tribe.org, PR Taíno DNA study","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Crowd gathering on a street in Puerto Rico in 1939, photographed by Robert Yarnall Richie","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Crowd_gathering_on_a_street%2C_Puerto_Rico_%288364101673%29.jpg/220px-Crowd_gathering_on_a_street%2C_Puerto_Rico_%288364101673%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Two men sit by the side of a road with the ocean behind them in Puerto Rico.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Waiting_by_the_side_of_the_road_in_Puerto_Rico.jpg/220px-Waiting_by_the_side_of_the_road_in_Puerto_Rico.jpg"},{"image_text":"José Campeche is the first known Puerto Rican visual artist.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Jos%C3%A9_Campeche.JPG/165px-Jos%C3%A9_Campeche.JPG"},{"image_text":"\"A Puerto Rican family lives here\" sign on a wall in San Juan","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Aqui_vive_una_familia_puertorrique%C3%B1a_2006_%28San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico%29.jpg/220px-Aqui_vive_una_familia_puertorrique%C3%B1a_2006_%28San_Juan%2C_Puerto_Rico%29.jpg"}]

[{"title":"United States portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:United_States"},{"title":"Demographics of Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Demographics_of_Puerto_Rico"},{"title":"Hispanics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hispanics"},{"title":"Criollo people","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Criollo_people"},{"title":"History of Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Rico"},{"title":"History of Puerto Ricans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Puerto_Ricans"},{"title":"History of women in Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_women_in_Puerto_Rico"},{"title":"List of Puerto Rican Presidential Citizens Medal recipients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_Presidential_Citizens_Medal_recipients"},{"title":"List of Puerto Rican Presidential Medal of Freedom recipients","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Rican_Presidential_Medal_of_Freedom_recipients"},{"title":"List of Puerto Ricans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Puerto_Ricans"},{"title":"List of Stateside Puerto Ricans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Stateside_Puerto_Ricans"},{"title":"Military history of Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Puerto_Rico"},{"title":"Nuyoricans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuyoricans"},{"title":"Puerto Rican citizenship","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rican_citizenship"},{"title":"Puerto Rican migration to New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rican_migration_to_New_York"},{"title":"Puerto Rican status referendum, 2017","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Rican_status_referendum,_2017"},{"title":"Puerto Ricans in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puerto_Ricans_in_the_United_States"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PGM-11_Redstone

PGM-11 Redstone

["1 History","2 Description","3 Production","4 Redstone derivatives","5 Operators","6 Surviving examples","7 Gallery","8 See also","8.1 Comparable missiles","9 References","10 Bibliography","11 External links"]

American short-range ballistic missile See also: Redstone (rocket family) SSM-A-14/M8/PGM-11 Redstone Redstone No. CC-56, Cape Canaveral, Florida, 17 September 1958TypeTactical ballistic missileshort-range ballistic missilePlace of originUnited StatesService historyIn service1958–1964Used byUnited StatesProduction historyDesignerArmy Ballistic Missile AgencyDesigned1950–1952ManufacturerChrysler CorporationProduced1952–1961No. built128 (ABMA: 27, Chrysler: 101)(85 production models)VariantsBlock I, Block IISpecificationsMass61,207 pounds (27,763 kg) at ignitionLength69.3 feet (21.1 m)Diameter5.83 feet (1.8 m)Blast yieldW39 warhead, 3.75 megatons of TNT (15.7 PJ)EngineRocketdyne North American Aviation 75–110 A-778,000 pounds-force (350 kN) thrust at sea level for 121 secondsPayload capacity6,305 pounds (2,860 kg)Propellantethyl alcoholliquid oxygenFuel capacityalcohol: 11,135 pounds (5,051 kg)liquid oxygen: 25,280 pounds (11,470 kg)hydrogen peroxide: 790 pounds (360 kg)Operationalrange57.5 to 201 miles92.5 to 323.5 kilometresFlight altitude28.4 to 58.7 miles45.7 to 94.5 kilometresBoost time97 seconds to 155 secondsMaximum speed Mach 5 – Mach 6 (6,100–7,400 km/h; 3,800–4,600 mph; 1.7–2.0 km/s) maximum at re-entry interfaceGuidancesystemFord Instrument Company ST-80 inertial guidanceSteeringsystemCarbon jet vanes, air rudders, spatial air jet nozzles, air vanesAccuracy300 metres (980 ft) CEPLaunchplatformguided missile platform launcher M74 The PGM-11 Redstone was the first large American ballistic missile. A short-range ballistic missile (SRBM), it was in active service with the United States Army in West Germany from June 1958 to June 1964 as part of NATO's Cold War defense of Western Europe. It was the first US missile to carry a live nuclear warhead, in the 1958 Pacific Ocean weapons test, Hardtack Teak. The Redstone was a direct descendant of the German V-2 rocket, developed primarily by a team of German rocket engineers brought to the United States after World War II. The design used an upgraded engine from Rocketdyne that allowed the missile to carry the W39 warhead which weighed 6,900 pounds (3,100 kg) with its reentry vehicle to a range of about 175 miles (282 km). Redstone's prime contractor was the Chrysler Corporation. The Redstone spawned the Redstone rocket family which holds a number of firsts in the US space program, notably launching the first US astronaut. It was retired by the Army in 1964 and replaced by the solid-fueled MGM-31 Pershing. Surplus missiles were widely used for test missions and space launches, including the first US man in space, and in 1967 the launch of Australia's first satellite. History This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "PGM-11 Redstone" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (May 2020) (Learn how and when to remove this message) US Army field group erecting Redstone missile Redstone was a direct descendant of the German V-2 rocket, developed by a team of predominantly German rocket engineers under the leadership of Wernher von Braun, that had been brought to the United States after World War II as part of Operation Paperclip. A product of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, Redstone was designed as a surface-to-surface missile for the U.S. Army. It was named for the arsenal on 8 April 1952, which traced its name to the region's red rocks and soil. The first Redstone lifted off from LC-4A at Cape Canaveral on 20 August 1953. It flew for one minute and 20 seconds before suffering an engine failure and falling into the sea. Following this partial success, the second test was conducted on 27 January 1954, this time without a hitch as the missile flew 55 miles (89 km). After these first two prototypes were flown, an improved engine was introduced to reduce problems with LOX turbopump cavitation. The third Redstone flight on 5 May was a total loss as the engine cut off one second after launch, causing the rocket to fall back on the pad and explode. After this incident, Major General Holger Toftoy pressured Wernher von Braun for the cause of the failure. The latter replied that he had no idea, but they would review telemetry and other data to find out. Toftoy persisted, asking "Wernher, why did the rocket explode?" An exasperated von Braun said "It exploded because the damn sonofabitch blew up!" Von Braun pressured the ABMA team to improve reliability and workmanship standards, allegedly remarking that "Missile reliability will require that the target area is more dangerous than the launch area." Subsequent test flights went better and the Army declared Redstone operational in mid-1955. Testing was moved from LC-4 to the bigger LC-5 and LC-6. The Redstone program proved to be a bone of contention between the Army and Air Force due to their different ideas of nuclear warfare. The Army favored using small warheads on mobile missiles as tactical battlefield weapons while the Air Force, which was responsible for the ICBM program, wanted large cross-continental missiles that could strike Soviet targets and rapidly cripple the USSR's infrastructure and ability to wage war. With the arrival of newer solid-fueled missiles that could be stored and not require fueling before launch, Redstone was rendered obsolete and production ended in 1961. The 40th Artillery Group was deactivated in February 1964 and 46th Artillery Group was deactivated in June 1964, as Redstone missiles were replaced by the Pershing missile in the U.S. Army arsenal. All Redstone missiles and equipment deployed to Europe were returned to the United States by the third quarter of 1964. In October 1964, the Redstone missile was ceremonially retired from active service at Redstone Arsenal. Description Redstone was capable of flights from 57.5 to 201 miles (92.5 to 323.5 km). It consisted of a thrust unit for powered flight and a missile body for overall missile control and payload delivery on target. During powered flight, Redstone burned a fuel mixture of 25 percent water–75 percent ethyl alcohol with liquid oxygen (LOX) used as the oxidizer. Later Redstones used Hydyne, 60% unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and 40% diethylenetriamine (DETA), as the fuel. The missile body consisted of an aft unit containing the instrument compartment, and the warhead unit containing the payload compartment and the radar altimeter fuze. The missile body was separated from the thrust unit 20–30 seconds after the termination of powered flight, as determined by the preset range to target. The body continued on a controlled ballistic trajectory to the target impact point. The thrust unit continued on its own uncontrolled ballistic trajectory, impacting short of the designated target. The nuclear-armed Redstone carried the W39, either a MK 39Y1 Mod 1 or MK 39Y2 Mod 1, warhead with a yield of 3.8 megatons. Production Chrysler Corporation was awarded the prime production contract, to be made at the newly renamed Michigan Ordnance Missile Plant in Warren, Michigan. The navy-owned facility was previously known as the Naval Industrial Reserve Aircraft Plant used for jet engine production. Following the cancellation of a planned jet engine program, the facility was made available to the Chrysler Corporation for missile production, and began missile and support equipment production in 1952. Rocketdyne Division of North American Aviation Company provided the rocket engines; Ford Instrument Company, division of Sperry Rand Corporation, produced the guidance and control systems; and Reynolds Metals Company fabricated fuselage assemblies as subcontractors to Chrysler. Redstone derivatives Main article: Redstone (rocket family) In 1955, the Jupiter-C rocket (not to be confused with the later, unrelated Jupiter IRBM) was developed as an enhanced Redstone for atmospheric and reentry vehicle tests. It had elongated propellant tanks for increased burn time and a new engine that burned a fuel mixture known as hydyne and under the name of the Jupiter C/Juno 1 was used for the first successful US space launch of the Explorer 1 satellite in 1958. The Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle was a derivation of the Redstone with a fuel tank increased in length by 6 feet (1.8 m) and was used on 5 May 1961 to launch Alan Shepard on his sub-orbital flight to become the second person and first American in space. It retained the Jupiter C's longer propellant tanks, but went back to using ethyl alcohol/water for propellant instead of hydyne. From 1966 to 1967, a series of surplus modified Redstones called Spartas were launched from Woomera, South Australia, as part of a joint U.S.–United Kingdom–Australian research program aimed at understanding re-entry phenomena. These Redstones had two solid fuel upper stages added. The U.S. donated a spare Sparta for Australia's first satellite launch, WRESAT, in November 1967. Operators  United States United States Army 40th Field Artillery Group 1958–1961 – West Germany 1st Battalion, 333rd Artillery Regiment 46th Field Artillery Group 1959–1961 – West Germany 2nd Battalion, 333rd Artillery Regiment 209th Field Artillery Group – Fort Sill, Oklahoma 4th Bn, 333rd Artillery Regiment Surviving examples Displayed as PGM-11: National Air and Space Museum at the Udvar-Hazy Center, Washington, DC Warren, New Hampshire US Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama Battleship Memorial Park, Mobile, Alabama Air Force Space and Missile Museum, Cape Canaveral, Florida Kansas Cosmosphere, Hutchinson, Kansas (payload and aft unit only) National Museum of Nuclear Science and History, Albuquerque, New Mexico White Sands Missile Range Museum, White Sands, New Mexico Evergreen Aviation Museum, McMinnville, Oregon Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama US Army Field Artillery Museum, Fort Sill, Oklahoma Displayed as Jupiter-C US Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, Merritt Island, Florida Marshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama Petal, Mississippi (formerly at John C. Stennis Space Center's StenniSphere, now INFINITY Science Center, not publicly visible) Displayed as a Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, Merritt Island, Florida One in the rocket garden, one near the badging office, and one at Launch Complex 5 Air Zoo, Kalamazoo, Michigan (in storage) Kansas Cosmosphere, Hutchinson, Kansas Museum of Life + Science, Durham, North Carolina Parque de las Ciencias Luis A. Ferré at Bayamón, Puerto Rico Space Center Houston, Houston, Texas Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicles US Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama United States Astronaut Hall of Fame, Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex Gallery Redstone early production (1953) Preparations on 16 May 1958 for the first Redstone launch on 17 May conducted by US Army troops. Battery A, 217th Field Artillery Missile Battalion, 40th Artillery Group (Redstone); Cape Canaveral, Florida; Launch Complex 5 Redstone trainer missile practice firing exercise by US Army troops of Battery A, 1st Missile Battalion, 333rd Artillery, 40th Artillery Group (Redstone); Bad Kreuznach, West Germany; August 1960 Rocketdyne (NAA) 75-110-A-7 engine A-7 engine on display Redstone on display, Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute Redstone rocket on display since 1971 at the Warren, New Hampshire Historical Society National Museum of Nuclear Science & History display in Albuquerque, New Mexico Redstone missile on display in Grand Central Terminal in New York, 7 July 1957 See also Comparable missiles Ghauri (missile) J-600T Yıldırım SOM Bora Fateh-313 Qiam 1 Al-Hussein Zelzal Tondar-69 Burkan-1 References ^ "Redstone". ^ Redstone Rocket, Hardtack-Teak Test, August 1958 (in French). August 1958. Archived from the original on 7 December 2015. Retrieved 2 September 2015 – via YouTube. ^ "Redgap, Curtis The Chrysler Corporation Missile Division and the Redstone missiles, 2008 Orlando, Florida. Retrieved Oct 8 2010". Archived from the original on 30 March 2008. Retrieved 6 March 2008. ^ Cagle, Mary T. (1955). "The Origin of Redstone's Name". US Army, Redstone Arsenal. Archived from the original on 19 May 2000. Retrieved 9 October 2010. ^ Sutton, George P. (2006). History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 413. ISBN 1-56347-649-5. ^ McCutcheon, Kimble D. The Redstone Engine. Huntsville, Alabama: Aircraft Engine Historical Society. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2016. ^ Hullard, John W. (1965). History of the Redstone Missile System. Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville, Alabama: Army Missile Command. p. 66 (60). Archived from the original on 25 April 2017. Retrieved 26 February 2016. ^ Hansen, Chuck (1995). The Swords of Armageddon. Sunnyvale, California: Chucklea Publications. p. Volume VII Pg 297. ^ Hansen, Chuck (1995). The Swords of Armageddon. Sunnyvale, California: Chucklea Publications. p. Volume VII Pages 293–299. ^ Hansen, Chuck (1995). The Swords of Armageddon. Sunnyvale, California: Chucklea Publications. p. Volume VII Pg 299. ^ "Redstone Missile (PGM-11)". US: Aviation and Missile Research, Development, and Engineering Center. Archived from the original on 29 May 2015. Retrieved 9 January 2015. ^ Turnill 1972, pp. 81–82, 147–8 ^ "USAREUR Units & Kasernes, 1945 - 1989". www.usarmygermany.com. ^ "USAREUR Units & Kasernes, 1945 - 1989". www.usarmygermany.com. ^ "Redstone Missile". Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ Asselin, Ted (1996). The Redstone Missile – Warren, NH (PDF). Warren: Bryan Flagg. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 July 2006. ^ a b "Permanent Exhibits". US Space and Rocket Center. Archived from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ "Battleship Park". Heroic Relics. Archived from the original on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ "Displays". Air Force Space and Missile Museum. Archived from the original on 15 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ a b "Redstone Nuclear Warhead". Kansas Cosmosphere. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ "Bomarc, Mace, Snark, Redstone, Minuteman II missiles". National Museum of Nuclear Science and History. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ "Redstone". White Sands Missile Range Museum. Archived from the original on 8 January 2008. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ "Space Flight". Evergreen Aviation Museum. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ a b "MSFC Rocket Garden". Heroic Relics. Archived from the original on 22 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ a b "KSC Mercury-Redstone Boosters". A Field Guide to American Spacecraft. Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ "This Jupiter-C Rocket Sits Alongside Mr..." Project Habu. 11 April 2014. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ "Air Zoo". Heroic Relics. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ "Museum of Life+Science". A Field Guide to American Spacecraft. Archived from the original on 15 August 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ "Parque de las Ciencias Luis A. Ferré". A Field Guide to American Spacecraft. Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ "Mercury-Redstone". A Field Guide to American Spacecraft. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ "US Space and Rocket Center". Heroic Relics. Archived from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. ^ "Inside Kennedy Space Center's New Heroes & Legends Exhibits". Smithsonian Magazine. 22 November 2016. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017. Bibliography Bullard, John W (15 October 1965). History of the Redstone Missile System (Historical Monograph Project Number: AMC 23 M). Historical Division, Administrative Office, Army Missile Command. The Redstone Missile System. Fort Sill, Oklahoma: United States Army. August 1960. Publication L 619. Standing Operating Procedure For Conduct of Redstone Annual Service Practice at White Sands Missile Range New Mexico. Fort Sill, Oklahoma: Headquarters, United States Army Artillery And Missile Center. 31 March 1962. Operator, Organizational, And Field Maintenance Manual – Ballistic Guided Missile M8, Ballistic Shell (Field Artillery Guided Missile System Redstone). September 1960. TM 9-1410-350-14/2. Field Artillery Missile Redstone. Department of the Army. February 1962. FM 6–35. Turnill, Reginald (May 1972). The Observer's Book of Manned Spaceflight. London: Frederick Warne & Co. ISBN 0-7232-1510-3. 48. von Braun, Wernher. The Redstone, Jupiter and Juno. Technology and Culture, Vol. 4, No. 4, The History of Rocket Technology (Autumn 1963), pp. 452–465. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to PGM-11 Redstone. Redstone Army Command site NASA Documents relating to Redstone and Mercury Projects Redstone Image Collection Redstone from Encyclopedia Astronautica Redstone timeline Boeing: History– Products – North American Aviation Rocketdyne Redstone Rocket Engine Appendix A: The Redstone Missile in Detail "Redstone at the White Sands Missile Range". White Sands Missile Range Museum. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 3 January 2024. 40th Artillery Group (Redstone) 46th Artillery Group (Redstone) From the Stars & Stripes Archives: "Redstone Rocketeers" Jupiter A The Chrysler Corporation Missile Division and the Redstone missiles Brigadier General Julius Braun Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections Files of Julius Braun, Project Officer for the Redstone missiles. vteUnited States Army missile and rocket designations 1948–19631948–1951 missile system RTV-G-1 RTV-G-2 RTV-G-3 RTV-G-4 CTV-G-5 RTV-G-6 SAM-G-7 SSM-G-8 SSM-G-9 RTV-G-10 G-112 SSM-G-12 SSM-G-13 SSM-G-14 SSM-G-15 SSM-G-16 SSM-G-17 1951–1955 missile system RV-A-1 RV-A-2 RV-A-3 RV-A-4 RV-A-5 RV-A-6 SAM-A-7 RV-A-8 SSM-A-9 RV-A-10 G-112 SSM-A-12 SSM-A-13 SSM-A-14 SSM-A-15 SSM-A-16 SSM-A-17 SAM-A-18 SAM-A-19 A-202 A-212 RV-A-22 SSM-A-23 A-242 SAM-A-25 A-262 SSM-A-27 1955–1963 missile system M1 M2 M3 M4 M51 M6 M71 M8 M9 M101 M111 M121 M13 M14 M15 M16 M171 M18 M19 Unguided rockets, 1940–1963 M2 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 M12 M16 M17 M20 M21 M25 M26 M27 M28 M29 M30 M31 M47 M50 M51 M55 M60 M61 M72 M73 M74 Undesignated types Dervish Lobber Ping-Pong 1 Not assigned 2 Designation uncertain vte1963 United States Tri-Service missile designations, 1963–present1–50 MGM-1 RIM-2 MIM-3 AIM-4 MGM-5 RGM-6 AIM-7 RIM-7 RIM-8 AIM-9 CIM-10 PGM-11 AGM-12 CGM-13/MGM-13 MIM-14 RGM-15 CGM-16 PGM-17 MGM-18 PGM-19 ADM-20 MGM-21 AGM-22 MIM-23 RIM-24 HGM-25A LGM-25C AIM-26 UGM-27 AGM-28 MGM-29 LGM-30 MGM-31A/B (MGM-31C) MGM-32 MQM-33 AQM-34 AQM-35 (I) LGM-35 (II) MQM-36 AQM-37 AQM-38 MQM-39 MQM-40 AQM-41 MQM-42 FIM-43 UUM-44 AGM-45 MIM-46 AIM-47 AGM-48 XLIM-49 LIM-49 RIM-50 51–100 MGM-51 MGM-52 AGM-53 AIM-54 RIM-55 PQM-56 MQM-57 MQM-58 RGM-59 AQM-60 MQM-61 AGM-62 AGM-63 AGM-64 AGM-65 RIM-66 RIM-67 AIM-68 AGM-69 LEM-70 BGM-71 MIM-72 UGM-73 BQM-74 BGM-75 AGM-76 FGM-77 AGM-78 AGM-79 AGM-80 AQM-81 AIM-82 AGM-83 AGM-84/RGM-84/UGM-84 AGM-84E AGM-84H/K RIM-85 AGM-86 AGM-87 AGM-88 UGM-89 BQM-90 AQM-91 FIM-92 "AIM-92" XQM-93 YQM-94 AIM-95 UGM-96 AIM-97 YQM-98 LIM-99 LIM-100 101–150 RIM-101 PQM-102 AQM-103 MIM-104 MQM-105 BQM-106 MQM-107 BQM-108 BGM-109/AGM-109/RGM-109/UGM-109 BGM-109G BGM-110 BQM-111 AGM-112 RIM-113 AGM-114 MIM-115 RIM-116 FQM-117 LGM-118 AGM-119 AIM-120 CQM-121/CGM-121 AGM-122 AGM-123 AGM-124 RUM-125/UUM-125 BQM-126 AQM-127 AQM-128 AGM-129 AGM-130 AGM-131 AIM-132 UGM-133 MGM-134 ASM-135 AGM-136 AGM-137 CEM-138 RUM-139 MGM-140 ADM-141 AGM-142 MQM-143 ADM-144 BQM-145 MIM-146 BQM-147 FGM-148 PQM-149 PQM-150 151–200 FQM-151 AIM-152 AGM-153 AGM-154 BQM-155 RIM-156 MGM-157 AGM-158A/B AGM-158C AGM-159 ADM-160 RIM-161 RIM-162 GQM-163 MGM-164 RGM-165 MGM-166 BQM-167 MGM-168 AGM-169 MQM-170 MQM-171 FGM-172 GQM-173 RIM-174 MQM-175 AGM-176 BQM-177 MQM-178 AGM-179 AGM-180 AGM-181 LGM-182 AGM-183 RGM-184 MQM-185 MQM-186 AGM-187 201– AIM-260 MIM-401 Undesignated Aequare ASALM Brazo Common Missile GBI HALO HACM Have Dash JSM KEI LREW LRHW MA-31 MSDM NCADE NLOS OpFires PrSM Senior Prom Sprint Wagtail M30 GMLRS/M31 GMLRS-U GLSDB See also: United States tri-service rocket designations post-1963 Drones designated in UAV sequence vteNASA's George C. Marshall Space Flight Center (Huntsville, Alabama)Directors von Braun Rees Petrone Lucas Thompson Lee Bridwell Littles Griner* Stephenson King Lightfoot Goldman* Henderson* Scheuermann Projects Space Shuttle Propulsion International Space Station Chandra X-ray Observatory Gravity Probe B Project Constellation Ares I Ares V Orion NRHP sites Neutral Buoyancy Simulator Propulsion and Structural Test Facility Redstone Test Stand Saturn V Dynamic Test Stand Saturn V Dynamic Test Vehicle Other Operation Paperclip list of scientists ABMA Redstone Arsenal Redstone Rocket U.S. Space & Rocket Center * acting director only vteProject MercuryGeneral NASA Space Task Group Space race Space flight Mercury program capsuleMissionsCrewed Suborbit: Freedom 7 Liberty Bell 7 Earth orbit: Friendship 7 Aurora 7 Sigma 7 Faith 7 Cancelled: Freedom 7 II Uncrewed Little Joe 1 Big Joe 1 LJ-6 LJ-1A LJ-2 LJ-1B Beach Abort MA-1 Little Joe 5 MR-1 MR-1A MR-2 MA-2 LJ-5A MR-BD MA-3 LJ-5B MA-4 MS-1 MA-5 Flown non-human Sam Miss Sam Suborbit: Ham Earth orbit: Enos AstronautsGeneral Mercury Seven In order of flight Suborbit: Alan Shepard Gus Grissom Earth orbit: John Glenn Scott Carpenter Wally Schirra Gordon Cooper Did not fly: Deke Slayton Equipment Navy Mark IV (space suit) Subprograms Mercury-Atlas Mercury-Redstone Mercury-Scout Mercury-Jupiter (canceled) Contractors McDonnell Aircraft Corporation (spacecraft) Convair (Atlas rocket) Chrysler (Redstone rocket) North American Aviation (Little Joe rocket) Rockets Atlas Redstone Blue Scout II Little Joe Jupiter (proposed) Launch sitesand Control Center Wallops Island / Wallops Flight Facility Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 5 Cape Canaveral Air Force Station Launch Complex 14 Mercury Control Center Related programsUS Gemini (successor program) Apollo (lunar program) Soviet Vostok (rival in space race) Related Manned Space Flight Network Mercury spacesuit Astronaut Wives Club Mercury 13 (non-NASA project inspired by Project Mercury) Authority control databases National Israel United States Other NARA

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Redstone (rocket family)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redstone_(rocket_family)"},{"link_name":"ballistic missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_missile"},{"link_name":"short-range ballistic missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short-range_ballistic_missile"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"West Germany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Germany"},{"link_name":"NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NATO"},{"link_name":"Cold War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold_War"},{"link_name":"nuclear warhead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_weapon"},{"link_name":"Hardtack Teak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardtack_Teak"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hardtack-teak-2"},{"link_name":"V-2 rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_rocket"},{"link_name":"German rocket engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_rocket_scientists_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Rocketdyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocketdyne"},{"link_name":"W39","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_39_nuclear_bomb"},{"link_name":"Chrysler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Redstone rocket family","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redstone_(rocket_family)"},{"link_name":"solid-fueled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solid-fuel_rocket"},{"link_name":"MGM-31 Pershing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MGM-31_Pershing"},{"link_name":"Australia's first satellite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WRESAT"}],"text":"See also: Redstone (rocket family)The PGM-11 Redstone was the first large American ballistic missile. A short-range ballistic missile (SRBM), it was in active service with the United States Army in West Germany from June 1958 to June 1964 as part of NATO's Cold War defense of Western Europe. It was the first US missile to carry a live nuclear warhead, in the 1958 Pacific Ocean weapons test, Hardtack Teak.[2]The Redstone was a direct descendant of the German V-2 rocket, developed primarily by a team of German rocket engineers brought to the United States after World War II. The design used an upgraded engine from Rocketdyne that allowed the missile to carry the W39 warhead which weighed 6,900 pounds (3,100 kg) with its reentry vehicle to a range of about 175 miles (282 km). Redstone's prime contractor was the Chrysler Corporation.[3]The Redstone spawned the Redstone rocket family which holds a number of firsts in the US space program, notably launching the first US astronaut. It was retired by the Army in 1964 and replaced by the solid-fueled MGM-31 Pershing. Surplus missiles were widely used for test missions and space launches, including the first US man in space, and in 1967 the launch of Australia's first satellite.","title":"PGM-11 Redstone"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PGM-11_Redstone_CC-1004.jpg"},{"link_name":"German","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi_Germany"},{"link_name":"V-2 rocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V-2_rocket"},{"link_name":"German rocket engineers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_German_rocket_scientists_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Wernher von Braun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wernher_von_Braun"},{"link_name":"Operation Paperclip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_Paperclip"},{"link_name":"Army Ballistic Missile Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_Ballistic_Missile_Agency"},{"link_name":"Redstone Arsenal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Redstone_Arsenal"},{"link_name":"Huntsville, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntsville,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"red","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron(III)_oxide"},{"link_name":"rocks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hematite"},{"link_name":"soil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Alabama#Climate_and_soil"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Holger Toftoy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holger_Toftoy"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Pershing missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pershing_missile"}],"text":"US Army field group erecting Redstone missileRedstone was a direct descendant of the German V-2 rocket, developed by a team of predominantly German rocket engineers under the leadership of Wernher von Braun, that had been brought to the United States after World War II as part of Operation Paperclip.A product of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency (ABMA) at Redstone Arsenal in Huntsville, Alabama, Redstone was designed as a surface-to-surface missile for the U.S. Army. It was named for the arsenal on 8 April 1952, which traced its name to the region's red rocks and soil.[4] The first Redstone lifted off from LC-4A at Cape Canaveral on 20 August 1953. It flew for one minute and 20 seconds before suffering an engine failure and falling into the sea. Following this partial success, the second test was conducted on 27 January 1954, this time without a hitch as the missile flew 55 miles (89 km). After these first two prototypes were flown, an improved engine was introduced to reduce problems with LOX turbopump cavitation.The third Redstone flight on 5 May was a total loss as the engine cut off one second after launch, causing the rocket to fall back on the pad and explode. After this incident, Major General Holger Toftoy pressured Wernher von Braun for the cause of the failure. The latter replied that he had no idea, but they would review telemetry and other data to find out. Toftoy persisted, asking \"Wernher, why did the rocket explode?\" An exasperated von Braun said \"It exploded because the damn sonofabitch blew up!\"[citation needed]Von Braun pressured the ABMA team to improve reliability and workmanship standards, allegedly remarking that \"Missile reliability will require that the target area is more dangerous than the launch area.\" Subsequent test flights went better and the Army declared Redstone operational in mid-1955. Testing was moved from LC-4 to the bigger LC-5 and LC-6.The Redstone program proved to be a bone of contention between the Army and Air Force due to their different ideas of nuclear warfare.[citation needed] The Army favored using small warheads on mobile missiles as tactical battlefield weapons while the Air Force, which was responsible for the ICBM program, wanted large cross-continental missiles that could strike Soviet targets and rapidly cripple the USSR's infrastructure and ability to wage war.With the arrival of newer solid-fueled missiles that could be stored and not require fueling before launch, Redstone was rendered obsolete and production ended in 1961. The 40th Artillery Group was deactivated in February 1964 and 46th Artillery Group was deactivated in June 1964, as Redstone missiles were replaced by the Pershing missile in the U.S. Army arsenal. All Redstone missiles and equipment deployed to Europe were returned to the United States by the third quarter of 1964. In October 1964, the Redstone missile was ceremonially retired from active service at Redstone Arsenal.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ethyl alcohol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethyl_alcohol"},{"link_name":"liquid oxygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_oxygen"},{"link_name":"oxidizer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxidizer"},{"link_name":"unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unsymmetrical_dimethylhydrazine"},{"link_name":"diethylenetriamine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diethylenetriamine"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"radar altimeter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar_altimeter"},{"link_name":"ballistic trajectory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_trajectory"},{"link_name":"W39","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_39_nuclear_bomb"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Redstone was capable of flights from 57.5 to 201 miles (92.5 to 323.5 km). It consisted of a thrust unit for powered flight and a missile body for overall missile control and payload delivery on target. During powered flight, Redstone burned a fuel mixture of 25 percent water–75 percent ethyl alcohol with liquid oxygen (LOX) used as the oxidizer. Later Redstones used Hydyne, 60% unsymmetrical dimethylhydrazine (UDMH) and 40% diethylenetriamine (DETA), as the fuel.[5][6][7] The missile body consisted of an aft unit containing the instrument compartment, and the warhead unit containing the payload compartment and the radar altimeter fuze. The missile body was separated from the thrust unit 20–30 seconds after the termination of powered flight, as determined by the preset range to target. The body continued on a controlled ballistic trajectory to the target impact point. The thrust unit continued on its own uncontrolled ballistic trajectory, impacting short of the designated target.The nuclear-armed Redstone carried the W39, either a MK 39Y1 Mod 1 or MK 39Y2 Mod 1, warhead with a yield of 3.8 megatons.[8][9][10][11]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Chrysler Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Rocketdyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocketdyne"},{"link_name":"Sperry Rand Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sperry_Rand_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Reynolds Metals Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reynolds_Metals_Company"}],"text":"Chrysler Corporation was awarded the prime production contract, to be made at the newly renamed Michigan Ordnance Missile Plant in Warren, Michigan. The navy-owned facility was previously known as the Naval Industrial Reserve Aircraft Plant used for jet engine production. Following the cancellation of a planned jet engine program, the facility was made available to the Chrysler Corporation for missile production, and began missile and support equipment production in 1952. Rocketdyne Division of North American Aviation Company provided the rocket engines; Ford Instrument Company, division of Sperry Rand Corporation, produced the guidance and control systems; and Reynolds Metals Company fabricated fuselage assemblies as subcontractors to Chrysler.","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jupiter-C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter-C"},{"link_name":"hydyne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydyne"},{"link_name":"Explorer 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explorer_1"},{"link_name":"Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-Redstone_Launch_Vehicle"},{"link_name":"Alan Shepard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Shepard"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Spartas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sparta_(rocket)"},{"link_name":"Woomera, South Australia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woomera,_South_Australia"},{"link_name":"WRESAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WRESAT"}],"text":"In 1955, the Jupiter-C rocket (not to be confused with the later, unrelated Jupiter IRBM) was developed as an enhanced Redstone for atmospheric and reentry vehicle tests. It had elongated propellant tanks for increased burn time and a new engine that burned a fuel mixture known as hydyne and under the name of the Jupiter C/Juno 1 was used for the first successful US space launch of the Explorer 1 satellite in 1958.The Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle was a derivation of the Redstone with a fuel tank increased in length by 6 feet (1.8 m) and was used on 5 May 1961 to launch Alan Shepard on his sub-orbital flight to become the second person and first American in space.[12] It retained the Jupiter C's longer propellant tanks, but went back to using ethyl alcohol/water for propellant instead of hydyne.\nFrom 1966 to 1967, a series of surplus modified Redstones called Spartas were launched from Woomera, South Australia, as part of a joint U.S.–United Kingdom–Australian research program aimed at understanding re-entry phenomena. These Redstones had two solid fuel upper stages added. The U.S. donated a spare Sparta for Australia's first satellite launch, WRESAT, in November 1967.","title":"Redstone derivatives"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"United States Army","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Army"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"333rd Artillery Regiment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/333rd_Field_Artillery_Regiment_(United_States)"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"United States\nUnited States Army40th Field Artillery Group 1958–1961 – West Germany[13]\n1st Battalion, 333rd Artillery Regiment\n46th Field Artillery Group 1959–1961 – West Germany[14]\n2nd Battalion, 333rd Artillery Regiment\n209th Field Artillery Group – Fort Sill, Oklahoma[citation needed]\n4th Bn, 333rd Artillery Regiment[citation needed]","title":"Operators"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Air and Space Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Air_and_Space_Museum"},{"link_name":"Udvar-Hazy Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Udvar-Hazy_Center"},{"link_name":"Washington, DC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_DC"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-NASM-15"},{"link_name":"Warren, New Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren,_New_Hampshire"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Asselin-16"},{"link_name":"US Space and Rocket Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Space_and_Rocket_Center"},{"link_name":"Huntsville, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntsville,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USSRC-17"},{"link_name":"Battleship Memorial Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battleship_Memorial_Park"},{"link_name":"Mobile, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Battleship_Park-18"},{"link_name":"Air Force Space and Missile Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Force_Space_and_Missile_Museum"},{"link_name":"Cape Canaveral, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Air_Force_Station,_Florida"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AF_Space_and_Missile_Museum-19"},{"link_name":"Kansas Cosmosphere","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansas_Cosmosphere"},{"link_name":"Hutchinson, Kansas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hutchinson,_Kansas"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cosmosphere-20"},{"link_name":"National Museum of Nuclear Science and History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Nuclear_Science_and_History"},{"link_name":"Albuquerque, New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albuquerque,_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-National_Museum_of_Nuclear_Science_and_History-21"},{"link_name":"White Sands Missile Range Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sands_Missile_Range_Museum"},{"link_name":"White Sands, New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_Sands,_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White_Sands_Missile_Range_Museum-22"},{"link_name":"Evergreen Aviation Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evergreen_Aviation_Museum"},{"link_name":"McMinnville, Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McMinnville,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Evergreen-23"},{"link_name":"Marshall Space Flight Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_Space_Flight_Center"},{"link_name":"Huntsville, Alabama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Huntsville,_Alabama"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MSFC-24"},{"link_name":"Jupiter-C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jupiter-C"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USSRC-17"},{"link_name":"Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kennedy_Space_Center_Visitor_Complex"},{"link_name":"Merritt Island, Florida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merritt_Island,_Florida"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Field_Guide_-_KSC-25"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MSFC-24"},{"link_name":"Petal, Mississippi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petal,_Mississippi"},{"link_name":"INFINITY Science Center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/INFINITY_Science_Center"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Project_Habu-26"},{"link_name":"Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury-Redstone_Launch_Vehicle"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Field_Guide_-_KSC-25"},{"link_name":"Launch Complex 5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cape_Canaveral_Air_Force_Station_Launch_Complex_5"},{"link_name":"Air Zoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Zoo"},{"link_name":"Kalamazoo, Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalamazoo,_Michigan"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Air_Zoo-27"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cosmosphere-20"},{"link_name":"Museum of Life + Science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Museum_of_Life_%2B_Science&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Durham, North Carolina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durham,_North_Carolina"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Museum_of_Life+Science-28"},{"link_name":"Parque de las Ciencias Luis A. Ferré","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parque_de_las_Ciencias"},{"link_name":"Bayamón, Puerto Rico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bayam%C3%B3n,_Puerto_Rico"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Puerto_Rico-29"},{"link_name":"Space Center Houston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space_Center_Houston"},{"link_name":"Houston, Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Houston,_Texas"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-JSC-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USSRC-HR-31"},{"link_name":"United States Astronaut Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Astronaut_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smithsonian_Magazine-32"}],"text":"Displayed as PGM-11:\nNational Air and Space Museum at the Udvar-Hazy Center, Washington, DC[15]\nWarren, New Hampshire[16]\nUS Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama[17]\nBattleship Memorial Park, Mobile, Alabama[18]\nAir Force Space and Missile Museum, Cape Canaveral, Florida[19]\nKansas Cosmosphere, Hutchinson, Kansas (payload and aft unit only)[20]\nNational Museum of Nuclear Science and History, Albuquerque, New Mexico[21]\nWhite Sands Missile Range Museum, White Sands, New Mexico[22]\nEvergreen Aviation Museum, McMinnville, Oregon[23]\nMarshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama[24]\nUS Army Field Artillery Museum, Fort Sill, Oklahoma\nDisplayed as Jupiter-C\nUS Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama[17]\nKennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, Merritt Island, Florida[25]\nMarshall Space Flight Center, Huntsville, Alabama[24]\nPetal, Mississippi (formerly at John C. Stennis Space Center's StenniSphere, now INFINITY Science Center, not publicly visible)[26]\nDisplayed as a Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle\nKennedy Space Center Visitor Complex, Merritt Island, Florida[25]\nOne in the rocket garden, one near the badging office, and one at Launch Complex 5\nAir Zoo, Kalamazoo, Michigan (in storage)[27]\nKansas Cosmosphere, Hutchinson, Kansas[20]\nMuseum of Life + Science, Durham, North Carolina[28]\n Parque de las Ciencias Luis A. Ferré at Bayamón, Puerto Rico[29]\nSpace Center Houston, Houston, Texas[30]\nMercury-Redstone Launch Vehicles\nUS Space and Rocket Center, Huntsville, Alabama[31]\nUnited States Astronaut Hall of Fame, Kennedy Space Center Visitor Complex[32]","title":"Surviving examples"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Redstone_msl_1_53_01.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PGM-11_Redstone_RS-1002.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Redstone_trainer_08_60.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Rocketdyne_a-7.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:17_22_055_A7_engine.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Redstone_06.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pisgah_Astronomical_Research_Institute"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Redstone_Missile.JPG"},{"link_name":"Warren, New Hampshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren,_New_Hampshire"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:National_Museum_of_Nuclear_Science_%26_History_Redstone_Rocket.tif"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Redstone_in_Grand_Central_Station_July_7_1957.jpg"},{"link_name":"Grand Central Terminal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grand_Central_Terminal"}],"text":"Redstone early production (1953)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPreparations on 16 May 1958 for the first Redstone launch on 17 May conducted by US Army troops. Battery A, 217th Field Artillery Missile Battalion, 40th Artillery Group (Redstone); Cape Canaveral, Florida; Launch Complex 5\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRedstone trainer missile practice firing exercise by US Army troops of Battery A, 1st Missile Battalion, 333rd Artillery, 40th Artillery Group (Redstone); Bad Kreuznach, West Germany; August 1960\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRocketdyne (NAA) 75-110-A-7 engine\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA-7 engine on display\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRedstone on display, Pisgah Astronomical Research Institute\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRedstone rocket on display since 1971 at the Warren, New Hampshire Historical Society\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tNational Museum of Nuclear Science & History display in Albuquerque, New Mexico\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tRedstone missile on display in Grand Central Terminal in New York, 7 July 1957","title":"Gallery"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Observer's Book of Manned Spaceflight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer%27s_Books"},{"link_name":"Frederick Warne & Co","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Warne_%26_Co"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7232-1510-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7232-1510-3"}],"text":"Bullard, John W (15 October 1965). History of the Redstone Missile System (Historical Monograph Project Number: AMC 23 M). Historical Division, Administrative Office, Army Missile Command.\nThe Redstone Missile System. Fort Sill, Oklahoma: United States Army. August 1960. Publication L 619.\nStanding Operating Procedure For Conduct of Redstone Annual Service Practice at White Sands Missile Range New Mexico. Fort Sill, Oklahoma: Headquarters, United States Army Artillery And Missile Center. 31 March 1962.\nOperator, Organizational, And Field Maintenance Manual – Ballistic Guided Missile M8, Ballistic Shell (Field Artillery Guided Missile System Redstone). September 1960. TM 9-1410-350-14/2.\nField Artillery Missile Redstone. Department of the Army. February 1962. FM 6–35.\nTurnill, Reginald (May 1972). The Observer's Book of Manned Spaceflight. London: Frederick Warne & Co. ISBN 0-7232-1510-3. 48.\nvon Braun, Wernher. The Redstone, Jupiter and Juno. Technology and Culture, Vol. 4, No. 4, The History of Rocket Technology (Autumn 1963), pp. 452–465.","title":"Bibliography"}]

[{"image_text":"US Army field group erecting Redstone missile","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/PGM-11_Redstone_CC-1004.jpg/220px-PGM-11_Redstone_CC-1004.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mercury program capsule","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Mercury_Capsule2.png/70px-Mercury_Capsule2.png"}]

[]

[{"reference":"\"Redstone\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.astronautix.com/r/redstone.html","url_text":"\"Redstone\""}]},{"reference":"Redstone Rocket, Hardtack-Teak Test, August 1958 (in French). August 1958. Archived from the original on 7 December 2015. Retrieved 2 September 2015 – via YouTube.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151207095953/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLbyY76zt9w&t=8","url_text":"Redstone Rocket, Hardtack-Teak Test, August 1958"},{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OLbyY76zt9w&t=8","url_text":"the original"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTube","url_text":"YouTube"}]},{"reference":"\"Redgap, Curtis The Chrysler Corporation Missile Division and the Redstone missiles, 2008 Orlando, Florida. Retrieved Oct 8 2010\". Archived from the original on 30 March 2008. Retrieved 6 March 2008.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.allpar.com/history/military/missiles.html","url_text":"\"Redgap, Curtis The Chrysler Corporation Missile Division and the Redstone missiles, 2008 Orlando, Florida. Retrieved Oct 8 2010\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080330015109/http://allpar.com/history/military/missiles.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Cagle, Mary T. (1955). \"The Origin of Redstone's Name\". US Army, Redstone Arsenal. Archived from the original on 19 May 2000. Retrieved 9 October 2010.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20000519105836/http://www.redstone.army.mil/history/studies/ix.html","url_text":"\"The Origin of Redstone's Name\""},{"url":"http://www.redstone.army.mil/history/studies/ix.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Sutton, George P. (2006). History of Liquid Propellant Rocket Engines. Reston, Virginia: American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. p. 413. ISBN 1-56347-649-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56347-649-5","url_text":"1-56347-649-5"}]},{"reference":"McCutcheon, Kimble D. The Redstone Engine. Huntsville, Alabama: Aircraft Engine Historical Society. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 26 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.enginehistory.org/Museums/USSRC/USSRC_Redstone.shtml","url_text":"The Redstone Engine"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160305012951/http://www.enginehistory.org/Museums/USSRC/USSRC_Redstone.shtml","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Hullard, John W. (1965). History of the Redstone Missile System. Redstone Arsenal, Huntsville, Alabama: Army Missile Command. p. 66 (60). Archived from the original on 25 April 2017. Retrieved 26 February 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170425071855/http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA434109","url_text":"History of the Redstone Missile System"},{"url":"http://www.dtic.mil/get-tr-doc/pdf?AD=ADA434109","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Hansen, Chuck (1995). The Swords of Armageddon. Sunnyvale, California: Chucklea Publications. p. Volume VII Pg 297.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hansen, Chuck (1995). The Swords of Armageddon. Sunnyvale, California: Chucklea Publications. p. Volume VII Pages 293–299.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Hansen, Chuck (1995). The Swords of Armageddon. Sunnyvale, California: Chucklea Publications. p. Volume VII Pg 299.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Redstone Missile (PGM-11)\". US: Aviation and Missile Research, Development, and Engineering Center. Archived from the original on 29 May 2015. Retrieved 9 January 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150529081330/http://www.amrdec.army.mil/amrdec/50th/innovation-pgm-11.html","url_text":"\"Redstone Missile (PGM-11)\""},{"url":"http://www.amrdec.army.mil/amrdec/50th/innovation-pgm-11.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"USAREUR Units & Kasernes, 1945 - 1989\". www.usarmygermany.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.usarmygermany.com/Sont.htm?http&&&www.usarmygermany.com/Units/FieldArtillery/USAREUR_40th+Arty+Group.htm","url_text":"\"USAREUR Units & Kasernes, 1945 - 1989\""}]},{"reference":"\"USAREUR Units & Kasernes, 1945 - 1989\". www.usarmygermany.com.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.usarmygermany.com/Sont.htm?http&&&www.usarmygermany.com/Units/FieldArtillery/USAREUR_46th+Arty+Group.htm","url_text":"\"USAREUR Units & Kasernes, 1945 - 1989\""}]},{"reference":"\"Redstone Missile\". Smithsonian National Air and Space Museum. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/missile-liquid-fuel-partly-cutaway-redstone","url_text":"\"Redstone Missile\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171012094811/https://airandspace.si.edu/collection-objects/missile-liquid-fuel-partly-cutaway-redstone","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Asselin, Ted (1996). The Redstone Missile – Warren, NH (PDF). Warren: Bryan Flagg. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 July 2006.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060705032710/http://homepage.mac.com/misterbisson/WarrenRocket/brochure.pdf","url_text":"The Redstone Missile – Warren, NH"},{"url":"http://homepage.mac.com/misterbisson/WarrenRocket/brochure.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Permanent Exhibits\". US Space and Rocket Center. Archived from the original on 12 September 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.rocketcenter.com/museum","url_text":"\"Permanent Exhibits\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170912052247/https://www.rocketcenter.com/museum","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Battleship Park\". Heroic Relics. Archived from the original on 17 November 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://heroicrelics.org/battleship-park/index.html","url_text":"\"Battleship Park\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171117052850/http://heroicrelics.org/battleship-park/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Displays\". Air Force Space and Missile Museum. Archived from the original on 15 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://afspacemuseum.org/displays/","url_text":"\"Displays\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171015161001/http://afspacemuseum.org/displays/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Redstone Nuclear Warhead\". Kansas Cosmosphere. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://cosmospheretour.com/exhibit.php?exhibit_no=18","url_text":"\"Redstone Nuclear Warhead\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171012094901/http://cosmospheretour.com/exhibit.php?exhibit_no=18","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Bomarc, Mace, Snark, Redstone, Minuteman II missiles\". National Museum of Nuclear Science and History. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://nuclearmuseum.pastperfectonline.com/photo/B9867EBE-993F-4753-B44C-451497499820","url_text":"\"Bomarc, Mace, Snark, Redstone, Minuteman II missiles\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171012094806/http://nuclearmuseum.pastperfectonline.com/photo/B9867EBE-993F-4753-B44C-451497499820","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Redstone\". White Sands Missile Range Museum. Archived from the original on 8 January 2008. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.wsmr-history.org/Redstone.htm","url_text":"\"Redstone\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20080108051341/http://www.wsmr-history.org/Redstone.htm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Space Flight\". Evergreen Aviation Museum. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.evergreenmuseum.org/space-flight","url_text":"\"Space Flight\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171012045204/https://www.evergreenmuseum.org/space-flight","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"MSFC Rocket Garden\". Heroic Relics. Archived from the original on 22 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://heroicrelics.org/msfc/index.html","url_text":"\"MSFC Rocket Garden\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171022054010/http://heroicrelics.org/msfc/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"KSC Mercury-Redstone Boosters\". A Field Guide to American Spacecraft. Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.americanspacecraft.com/pages/booster/mr-kscvc.html","url_text":"\"KSC Mercury-Redstone Boosters\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180819044144/http://www.americanspacecraft.com/pages/booster/mr-kscvc.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"This Jupiter-C Rocket Sits Alongside Mr...\" Project Habu. 11 April 2014. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://projecthabu.com/post/82438154886/this-jupiter-c-rocket-sits-alongside-mr","url_text":"\"This Jupiter-C Rocket Sits Alongside Mr...\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171012044243/http://projecthabu.com/post/82438154886/this-jupiter-c-rocket-sits-alongside-mr","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Air Zoo\". Heroic Relics. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://heroicrelics.org/air-zoo/index.html","url_text":"\"Air Zoo\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171012094828/http://heroicrelics.org/air-zoo/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Museum of Life+Science\". A Field Guide to American Spacecraft. Archived from the original on 15 August 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.americanspacecraft.com/pages/address/n-s/northcar.html","url_text":"\"Museum of Life+Science\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180815161151/http://www.americanspacecraft.com/pages/address/n-s/northcar.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Parque de las Ciencias Luis A. Ferré\". A Field Guide to American Spacecraft. Archived from the original on 19 August 2018. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.americanspacecraft.com/pages/address/n-s/parque.html","url_text":"\"Parque de las Ciencias Luis A. Ferré\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180819041625/http://www.americanspacecraft.com/pages/address/n-s/parque.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Mercury-Redstone\". A Field Guide to American Spacecraft. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.americanspacecraft.com/pages/booster/mr-jsc.html","url_text":"\"Mercury-Redstone\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171012094948/http://www.americanspacecraft.com/pages/booster/mr-jsc.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"US Space and Rocket Center\". Heroic Relics. Archived from the original on 17 May 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://heroicrelics.org/ussrc/mercury-redstone-tail-unit/index.html","url_text":"\"US Space and Rocket Center\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170517184633/http://heroicrelics.org/ussrc/mercury-redstone-tail-unit/index.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Inside Kennedy Space Center's New Heroes & Legends Exhibits\". Smithsonian Magazine. 22 November 2016. Archived from the original on 12 October 2017. Retrieved 11 October 2017.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.smithsonianmag.com/sponsored/heroes-legends-kennedy-space-center-180961084/","url_text":"\"Inside Kennedy Space Center's New Heroes & Legends Exhibits\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171012044535/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/sponsored/heroes-legends-kennedy-space-center-180961084/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bullard, John W (15 October 1965). History of the Redstone Missile System (Historical Monograph Project Number: AMC 23 M). Historical Division, Administrative Office, Army Missile Command.","urls":[]},{"reference":"The Redstone Missile System. Fort Sill, Oklahoma: United States Army. August 1960. Publication L 619.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Standing Operating Procedure For Conduct of Redstone Annual Service Practice at White Sands Missile Range New Mexico. Fort Sill, Oklahoma: Headquarters, United States Army Artillery And Missile Center. 31 March 1962.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Operator, Organizational, And Field Maintenance Manual – Ballistic Guided Missile M8, Ballistic Shell (Field Artillery Guided Missile System Redstone). September 1960. TM 9-1410-350-14/2.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Field Artillery Missile Redstone. Department of the Army. February 1962. FM 6–35.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Turnill, Reginald (May 1972). The Observer's Book of Manned Spaceflight. London: Frederick Warne & Co. ISBN 0-7232-1510-3. 48.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Observer%27s_Books","url_text":"The Observer's Book of Manned Spaceflight"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frederick_Warne_%26_Co","url_text":"Frederick Warne & Co"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7232-1510-3","url_text":"0-7232-1510-3"}]},{"reference":"von Braun, Wernher. The Redstone, Jupiter and Juno.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Redstone at the White Sands Missile Range\". White Sands Missile Range Museum. Archived from the original on 16 April 2019. Retrieved 3 January 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20190416191153/http://www.wsmr-history.org/Redstone.htm","url_text":"\"Redstone at the White Sands Missile Range\""},{"url":"http://www.wsmr-history.org/Redstone.htm","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_consultant

Business consultant

["1 References","2 Further reading"]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Business consultant" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2024) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A business consultant (from Latin consultare, "to discuss") is a professional who provides professional or expert advice or service in a particular area such as security (electronic or physical), management, accountancy, law, human resources, marketing (and public relations), financial control, engineering, science, digital transformation, exit planning or any of many other specialized fields. A consultant is usually an expert or a professional in a specific field and has a wide area of knowledge in a specific subject. Consultants can save their clients time, increase revenue, and maintain resources. The role of a consultant outside the medical sphere (where the term is used specifically for a grade of doctor) can fall under one of two general categories: Internal consultant – someone who operates within an organization but is available to be consulted on areas of specialism by other departments or individuals (acting as clients); or External consultant – someone who is employed externally (either by a firm or some other agency) and whose expertise is provided on a temporary basis, usually for a fee. As such this type of consultant generally engages with multiple and changing clients. The overall impact of a consultant is that clients have access to deeper levels of expertise than would be feasible for them to retain in-house, and may purchase only as much service from the outside consultant as desired. References Look up consultant or consulting in Wiktionary, the free dictionary. Wikiquote has quotations related to Business consultant. ^ "Consultant | Define Consultant at Dictionary.com". Dictionary.reference.com. 2004-03-09. Retrieved 2014-07-20. ^ Tordoir, Pieter P. (1995). The professional knowledge economy: the management and integration services in business organizations, p. 140. Further reading Management consultant vteConsultingAreas of expertise Management consulting Assurance services Audit Biotechnology consulting Engineering consulting Environmental consulting Financial adviser Human resource consulting Information technology consulting Public sector consulting Risk and strategic consulting Tax advisor Others Accounting network Business consultant Business networking Case interview Certified management consultant Consultant Consulting firm Strategy+Business Fixed-price contract MECE principle Shareholder value ListsMBB McKinsey & Company Boston Consulting Group Bain & Company Big Four Deloitte Ernst & Young KPMG PwC Others List of management consulting firms List of IT consulting firms Category Authority control databases National Germany 2 Other NARA

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_Programming_Languages_and_Computer_Architecture

International Conference on Functional Programming

["1 History","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]

Annual academic conference in the field of computer science The International Conference on Functional Programming (ICFP) is an annual academic conference in the field of computer science sponsored by the ACM SIGPLAN, in association with IFIP Working Group 2.8 (Functional Programming). The conference focuses on functional programming and related areas of programming languages, logic, compilers and software development. The ICFP was first held in 1996, replacing two biennial conferences: the Functional Programming and Computer Architecture (FPCA) and LISP and Functional Programming (LFP). The conference location alternates between Europe and North America, with occasional appearances in other continents. The conference usually lasts 3 days, surrounded by co-located workshops devoted to particular functional languages or application areas. The ICFP has also held an open annual programming contest since 1998, called the ICFP Programming Contest. History 2012: 17th ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Functional Programming in Copenhagen, Denmark (General Chair: Peter Thiemann, University of Freiburg; Program Chair: Robby Findler, Northwestern University) See also Related conferences FSCD : International Conference on Formal Structures for Computation and Deduction FLOPS: International Symposium on Functional and Logic Programming IFL: International Symposia on Implementation and Application of Functional Languages ISMM: International Symposium on Memory Management MPC: International Conference on Mathematics of Program Construction PLDI: Programming Language Design and Implementation POPL: Principles of Programming Languages PPDP: International Conference on Principles and Practice of Declarative Programming TFP: Symposium on Trends in Functional Programming TLCA: International Conference on Typed Lambda Calculi and Applications TLDI: International Workshop on Types in Language Design and Implementation SAS: International Static Analysis Symposium Related journals Journal of Functional Programming Journal of Functional and Logic Programming Higher-Order and Symbolic Computation ACM Transactions on Programming Languages and Systems References ^ "The ACM SIGPLAN International Conference on Functional Programming". ^ ICFP Steering Committee (2019). "The Functioning of ICFP" (PDF). External links ICFP main site ICFP 2023 conference ICFP Programming Contest Authority control databases International VIAF National Germany Israel United States This article about a computer conference is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_resource_locator

URL

["1 History","2 Syntax","3 Internationalized URL","4 Protocol-relative URLs","5 See also","6 Notes","7 Citations","8 References","9 External links"]

Web address to a particular file or page For other uses, see URL (disambiguation). URLUniform resource locatorAbbreviationURLStatusPublishedFirst published1994; 30 years ago (1994)Latest versionLiving Standard2023OrganizationInternet Engineering Task Force (IETF)CommitteeWeb Hypertext Application Technology Working Group (WHATWG)SeriesRequest for Comments (RFC)EditorsAnne van KesterenAuthorsTim Berners-LeeBase standards RFC 1738. – Uniform Resource Locators (URL). RFC 3986. – Uniform Resource Identifier (URI): Generic Syntax. RFC 4248. – The telnet URI Scheme. RFC 4266. – The gopher URI Scheme. RFC 6068. – The 'mailto' URI Scheme. RFC 6196. – Moving mailserver: URI Scheme to Historic. RFC 6270. – The 'tn3270' URI Scheme. Related standardsURI, URNDomainWorld Wide WebLicenseCC BY 4.0Websiteurl.spec.whatwg.org A uniform resource locator (URL), colloquially known as an address on the Web, is a reference to a resource that specifies its location on a computer network and a mechanism for retrieving it. A URL is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI), although many people use the two terms interchangeably. URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages (HTTP/HTTPS) but are also used for file transfer (FTP), email (mailto), database access (JDBC), and many other applications. Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar. A typical URL could have the form http://www.example.com/index.html, which indicates a protocol (http), a hostname (www.example.com), and a file name (index.html). History Uniform Resource Locators were defined in RFC 1738 in 1994 by Tim Berners-Lee, the inventor of the World Wide Web, and the URI working group of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF), as an outcome of collaboration started at the IETF Living Documents birds of a feather session in 1992. The format combines the pre-existing system of domain names (created in 1985) with file path syntax, where slashes are used to separate directory and filenames. Conventions already existed where server names could be prefixed to complete file paths, preceded by a double slash (//). Berners-Lee later expressed regret at the use of dots to separate the parts of the domain name within URIs, wishing he had used slashes throughout, and also said that, given the colon following the first component of a URI, the two slashes before the domain name were unnecessary. Early WorldWideWeb collaborators including Berners-Lee originally proposed the use of UDIs: Universal Document Identifiers. An early (1993) draft of the HTML Specification referred to "Universal" Resource Locators. This was dropped some time between June 1994 (RFC 1630) and October 1994 (draft-ietf-uri-url-08.txt). In his book Weaving the Web, Berners-Lee emphasizes his preference for the original inclusion of "universal" in the expansion rather than the word "uniform", to which it was later changed, and he gives a brief account of the contention that led to the change. Syntax Main article: Uniform Resource Identifier § Syntax Every HTTP URL conforms to the syntax of a generic URI. The URI generic syntax consists of five components organized hierarchically in order of decreasing significance from left to right: URI = scheme ":" path A component is undefined if it has an associated delimiter and the delimiter does not appear in the URI; the scheme and path components are always defined. A component is empty if it has no characters; the scheme component is always non-empty. The authority component consists of subcomponents: authority = host This is represented in a syntax diagram as: The URI comprises: A non-empty scheme component followed by a colon (:), consisting of a sequence of characters beginning with a letter and followed by any combination of letters, digits, plus (+), period (.), or hyphen (-). Although schemes are case-insensitive, the canonical form is lowercase and documents that specify schemes must do so with lowercase letters. Examples of popular schemes include http, https, ftp, mailto, file, data and irc. URI schemes should be registered with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), although non-registered schemes are used in practice. An optional authority component preceded by two slashes (//), comprising: An optional userinfo subcomponent followed by an at symbol (@), that may consist of a user name and an optional password preceded by a colon (:). Use of the format username:password in the userinfo subcomponent is deprecated for security reasons. Applications should not render as clear text any data after the first colon (:) found within a userinfo subcomponent unless the data after the colon is the empty string (indicating no password). A host subcomponent, consisting of either a registered name (including but not limited to a hostname) or an IP address. IPv4 addresses must be in dot-decimal notation, and IPv6 addresses must be enclosed in brackets (). An optional port subcomponent preceded by a colon (:), consisting of decimal digits. A path component, consisting of a sequence of path segments separated by a slash (/). A path is always defined for a URI, though the defined path may be empty (zero length). A segment may also be empty, resulting in two consecutive slashes (//) in the path component. A path component may resemble or map exactly to a file system path but does not always imply a relation to one. If an authority component is defined, then the path component must either be empty or begin with a slash (/). If an authority component is undefined, then the path cannot begin with an empty segment—that is, with two slashes (//)—since the following characters would be interpreted as an authority component. By convention, in http and https URIs, the last part of a path is named pathinfo and it is optional. It is composed by zero or more path segments that do not refer to an existing physical resource name (e.g. a file, an internal module program or an executable program) but to a logical part (e.g. a command or a qualifier part) that has to be passed separately to the first part of the path that identifies an executable module or program managed by a web server; this is often used to select dynamic content (a document, etc.) or to tailor it as requested (see also: CGI and PATH_INFO, etc.). Example: URI: "http://www.example.com/questions/3456/my-document" where: "/questions" is the first part of the path (an executable module or program) and "/3456/my-document" is the second part of the path named pathinfo, which is passed to the executable module or program named "/questions" to select the requested document. An http or https URI containing a pathinfo part without a query part may also be referred to as a 'clean URL,' whose last part may be a 'slug.' Query delimiter Example Ampersand (&) key1=value1&key2=value2 Semicolon (;) key1=value1;key2=value2 An optional query component preceded by a question mark (?), consisting of a query string of non-hierarchical data. Its syntax is not well defined, but by convention is most often a sequence of attribute–value pairs separated by a delimiter. An optional fragment component preceded by a hash (#). The fragment contains a fragment identifier providing direction to a secondary resource, such as a section heading in an article identified by the remainder of the URI. When the primary resource is an HTML document, the fragment is often an id attribute of a specific element, and web browsers will scroll this element into view. A web browser will usually dereference a URL by performing an HTTP request to the specified host, by default on port number 80. URLs using the https scheme require that requests and responses be made over a secure connection to the website. Internationalized URL Internet users are distributed throughout the world using a wide variety of languages and alphabets, and expect to be able to create URLs in their own local alphabets. An Internationalized Resource Identifier (IRI) is a form of URL that includes Unicode characters. All modern browsers support IRIs. The parts of the URL requiring special treatment for different alphabets are the domain name and path. The domain name in the IRI is known as an Internationalized Domain Name (IDN). Web and Internet software automatically convert the domain name into punycode usable by the Domain Name System; for example, the Chinese URL http://例子.卷筒纸 becomes http://xn--fsqu00a.xn--3lr804guic/. The xn-- indicates that the character was not originally ASCII. The URL path name can also be specified by the user in the local writing system. If not already encoded, it is converted to UTF-8, and any characters not part of the basic URL character set are escaped as hexadecimal using percent-encoding; for example, the Japanese URL http://example.com/引き割り.html becomes http://example.com/%E5%BC%95%E3%81%8D%E5%89%B2%E3%82%8A.html. The target computer decodes the address and displays the page. Protocol-relative URLs Protocol-relative links (PRL), also known as protocol-relative URLs (PRURL), are URLs that have no protocol specified. For example, //example.com will use the protocol of the current page, typically HTTP or HTTPS. See also Hyperlink PURL – Persistent URL CURIE (Compact URI) URI fragment Internet resource locator (IRL) Internationalized Resource Identifier (IRI) Clean URL Typosquatting Uniform Resource Identifier URI normalization Use of slashes in networking Notes ^ A URL implies the means to access an indicated resource and is denoted by a protocol or an access mechanism, which is not true of every URI. Thus http://www.example.com is a URL, while www.example.com is not. ^ The procedures for registering new URI schemes were originally defined in 1999 by RFC 2717, and are now defined by RFC 7595, published in June 2015. ^ For URIs relating to resources on the World Wide Web, some web browsers allow .0 portions of dot-decimal notation to be dropped or raw integer IP addresses to be used. ^ Historic RFC 1866 (obsoleted by RFC 2854) encourages CGI authors to support ';' in addition to '&'. Citations ^ W3C (2009). ^ "Forward and Backslashes in URLs". zzz.buzz. Archived from the original on 2018-09-04. Retrieved 2018-09-19. ^ RFC 3986 (2005). ^ a b Joint W3C/IETF URI Planning Interest Group (2002). ^ RFC 2396 (1998). ^ Miessler, Daniel. "The Difference Between URLs and URIs". Archived from the original on 2017-03-17. Retrieved 2017-03-16. ^ a b W3C (1994). ^ IETF (1992). ^ a b Berners-Lee (2015). ^ BBC News (2009). ^ Berners-Lee, Tim; Connolly, Daniel "Dan" (March 1993). Hypertext Markup Language (draft RFCxxx) (Technical report). p. 28. Archived from the original on 2017-10-23. Retrieved 2017-10-23. ^ Berners-Lee, Tim; Masinter, Larry; McCahill, Mark Perry (October 1994). Uniform Resource Locators (URL) (Technical report). (This Internet-Draft was published as a Proposed Standard RFC, RFC 1738 (1994)) Cited in Ang, C. S.; Martin, D. C. (January 1995). Constituent Component Interface++ (Technical report). UCSF Library and Center for Knowledge Management. Archived from the original on 2017-10-23. Retrieved 2017-10-23. ^ a b RFC 3986 (2005), §3. ^ RFC 3986 (2005), §5.2.1. ^ IETF (2015). ^ RFC 3986 (2005), §3.2.2. ^ Lawrence (2014). ^ RFC 2396 (1998), §3.3. ^ RFC 1866 (1995), §8.2.1. ^ a b W3C (2008). ^ W3C (2014). ^ IANA (2003). ^ Glaser, J. D. (2014-03-10). Secure Development for Mobile Apps: How to Design and Code Secure Mobile Applications with PHP and JavaScript (1st ed.). CRC Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-48220903-7. Retrieved 2015-10-12. ^ Schafer, Steven M. (2011). HTML, XHTML, and CSS Bible (1st ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-11808130-3. Retrieved 2015-10-12. References "Berners-Lee "sorry" for slashes". BBC News. 2009-10-14. Archived from the original on 2020-06-05. Retrieved 2010-02-14. "Living Documents BoF Minutes". World Wide Web Consortium. 1992-03-18. Archived from the original on 2012-11-22. Retrieved 2011-12-26. Berners-Lee, Tim (1994-03-21). "Uniform Resource Locators (URL): A Syntax for the Expression of Access Information of Objects on the Network". World Wide Web Consortium. Archived from the original on 2015-09-09. Retrieved 2015-09-13. Berners-Lee, Tim; Masinter, Larry; McCahill, Mark Perry (December 1994). Uniform Resource Locators (URL). doi:10.17487/RFC1738. RFC 1738. Retrieved 2015-08-31. Berners-Lee, Tim (2015) . "Why the //, #, etc?". Frequently asked questions. World Wide Web Consortium. Archived from the original on 2020-05-14. Retrieved 2010-02-03. Connolly, Daniel "Dan"; Sperberg-McQueen, C. Michael, eds. (2009-05-21). "Web addresses in HTML 5". World Wide Web Consortium. Archived from the original on 2015-07-10. Retrieved 2015-09-13. IANA (2003-02-14). "Completion of IANA Selection of IDNA Prefix". IETF-Announce mailing list. Archived from the original on 2004-12-08. Retrieved 2015-09-03. Berners-Lee, Tim; Connolly, Daniel "Dan" (November 1995). "Hypertext Markup Language – 2.0". IETF Datatracker. Internet Engineering Task Force. doi:10.17487/RFC1866. S2CID 6628570. Archived from the original on 2011-08-27. Retrieved 2015-09-13. Berners-Lee, Tim; Fielding, Roy T.; Masinter, Larry (August 1998). Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax. doi:10.17487/RFC2396. RFC 2396. Retrieved 2015-08-31. Hansen, Tony; Hardie, Ted (June 2015). Thaler, Dave (ed.). Guidelines and Registration Procedures for URI Schemes. doi:10.17487/RFC7595. RFC 7595. Mealling, Michael; Denenberg, Ray, eds. (August 2002). Report from the Joint W3C/IETF URI Planning Interest Group: Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs), URLs, and Uniform Resource Names (URNs): Clarifications and Recommendations. doi:10.17487/RFC3305. RFC 3305. Retrieved 2015-09-13. Berners-Lee, Tim; Fielding, Roy T.; Masinter, Larry (January 2005). Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax. doi:10.17487/RFC3986. RFC 3986. Retrieved 2015-08-31. Berners-Lee, Tim; Fielding, Roy T.; Masinter, Larry (January 2005). Uniform Resource Identifiers (URI): Generic Syntax, section 3, Syntax Components. doi:10.17487/RFC3986. RFC 3986. Retrieved 2015-08-31. Archived 2019-05-21 at the Wayback Machine "An Introduction to Multilingual Web Addresses". 2008-05-09. Archived from the original on 2015-01-05. Retrieved 2015-01-11. Phillip, A. (2014). "What is Happening with "International URLs"". World Wide Web Consortium. Archived from the original on 2015-02-17. Retrieved 2015-01-11. Lawrence, Eric (2014-03-06). "Browser Arcana: IP Literals in URLs". Microsoft Learn. Archived from the original on 2020-06-22. Retrieved 2020-06-22. External links URL specification at WHATWG URL splitter that splits any URI into its parts vteHypermediaBasics Hypertext Hyperlink Hypertext fiction Hypervideo Adaptive hypermedia educational authoring Hyperlinks in virtual worlds Resource identifiers Uniform resource identifier Internationalized resource identifier Uniform resource name Uniform resource locator Extensible resource identifier Persistent uniform resource locator Semantic URL Concepts anchor text click path Domain name click here Copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing deep linking Fat link URI fragment Hostname Hypertext Inline linking inbound link/backlink HTTP referer image map Internal link Internet bookmark linkback Link relation Link rot Object hyperlinking Path Screen hotspot Source tracking transclusion URI scheme URL normalization URL redirection Website Web page XML namespace Technology CURIE Hypertext Transfer Protocol XLink See also Digital poetry History of hypertext Interactive novel Interactive fiction Timeline of hypertext technology Copyright aspects of hyperlinking and framing World Wide Web History Domain Application Protocol Authority control databases: National Germany Czech Republic

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A URL is a specific type of Uniform Resource Identifier (URI),[2][3] although many people use the two terms interchangeably.[4][a] URLs occur most commonly to reference web pages (HTTP/HTTPS) but are also used for file transfer (FTP), email (mailto), database access (JDBC), and many other applications.Most web browsers display the URL of a web page above the page in an address bar. A typical URL could have the form http://www.example.com/index.html, which indicates a protocol (http), a hostname (www.example.com), and a file name (index.html).","title":"URL"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1738","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1738"},{"link_name":"Tim Berners-Lee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee"},{"link_name":"World Wide Web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web"},{"link_name":"Internet Engineering Task Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEW3C1994-8"},{"link_name":"birds of a feather","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_of_a_feather_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEW3C1994-8"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIETF1992-9"},{"link_name":"domain names","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name"},{"link_name":"file path","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(computing)"},{"link_name":"slashes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_(punctuation)"},{"link_name":"directory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folder_(computing)"},{"link_name":"filenames","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filename"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerners-Lee2015-10"},{"link_name":"domain name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_name"},{"link_name":"URIs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URI"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerners-Lee2015-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBBC_News2009-11"},{"link_name":"WorldWideWeb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WorldWideWeb"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"1630","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1630"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Weaving the Web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weaving_the_Web"}],"text":"Uniform Resource Locators were defined in RFC 1738 in 1994 by Tim Berners-Lee, the inventor of the World Wide Web, and the URI working group of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF),[7] as an outcome of collaboration started at the IETF Living Documents birds of a feather session in 1992.[7][8]The format combines the pre-existing system of domain names (created in 1985) with file path syntax, where slashes are used to separate directory and filenames. Conventions already existed where server names could be prefixed to complete file paths, preceded by a double slash (//).[9]Berners-Lee later expressed regret at the use of dots to separate the parts of the domain name within URIs, wishing he had used slashes throughout,[9] and also said that, given the colon following the first component of a URI, the two slashes before the domain name were unnecessary.[10]Early WorldWideWeb collaborators including Berners-Lee originally proposed the use of UDIs: Universal Document Identifiers.\nAn early (1993) draft of the HTML Specification[11] referred to \"Universal\" Resource Locators. This was dropped some time between June 1994 (RFC 1630) and October 1994 (draft-ietf-uri-url-08.txt).[12] In his book Weaving the Web, Berners-Lee emphasizes his preference for the original inclusion of \"universal\" in the expansion rather than the word \"uniform\", to which it was later changed, and he gives a brief account of the contention that led to the change.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERFC_39862005%C2%A73-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERFC_39862005%C2%A75.2.1-15"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERFC_39862005%C2%A73-14"},{"link_name":"syntax diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax_diagram"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:URI_syntax_diagram.svg"},{"link_name":"http","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"https","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTP_Secure"},{"link_name":"ftp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"mailto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mailto"},{"link_name":"file","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File_URI_scheme"},{"link_name":"data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_URI_scheme"},{"link_name":"irc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat#URI_scheme"},{"link_name":"Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Assigned_Numbers_Authority"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"user name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_(computing)"},{"link_name":"password","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Password"},{"link_name":"hostname","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hostname"},{"link_name":"IP address","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IP_address"},{"link_name":"IPv4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv4"},{"link_name":"dot-decimal notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dot-decimal_notation"},{"link_name":"IPv6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IPv6"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERFC_39862005%C2%A73.2.2-18"},{"link_name":"[c]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"file system path","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Path_(computing)"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERFC_23961998%C2%A73.3-21"},{"link_name":"web server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Web_server"},{"link_name":"CGI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Gateway_Interface"},{"link_name":"query","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#query"},{"link_name":"clean URL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_URL"},{"link_name":"slug","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_URL#Slug"},{"link_name":"query string","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Query_string"},{"link_name":"attribute–value pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribute%E2%80%93value_pair"},{"link_name":"delimiter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delimiter"},{"link_name":"hash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number_sign"},{"link_name":"fragment identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fragment_identifier"},{"link_name":"HTML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML"},{"link_name":"id attribute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTML#Attributes"},{"link_name":"dereference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Identifier#Resolution"},{"link_name":"HTTP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypertext_Transfer_Protocol"},{"link_name":"secure connection to the website","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HTTPS"}],"text":"Every HTTP URL conforms to the syntax of a generic URI. The URI generic syntax consists of five components organized hierarchically in order of decreasing significance from left to right:[13]URI = scheme \":\" [\"//\" authority] path [\"?\" query] [\"#\" fragment]A component is undefined if it has an associated delimiter and the delimiter does not appear in the URI; the scheme and path components are always defined.[14] A component is empty if it has no characters; the scheme component is always non-empty.[13]The authority component consists of subcomponents:authority = [userinfo \"@\"] host [\":\" port]This is represented in a syntax diagram as:The URI comprises:A non-empty scheme component followed by a colon (:), consisting of a sequence of characters beginning with a letter and followed by any combination of letters, digits, plus (+), period (.), or hyphen (-). Although schemes are case-insensitive, the canonical form is lowercase and documents that specify schemes must do so with lowercase letters. Examples of popular schemes include http, https, ftp, mailto, file, data and irc. URI schemes should be registered with the Internet Assigned Numbers Authority (IANA), although non-registered schemes are used in practice.[b]\nAn optional authority component preceded by two slashes (//), comprising:\nAn optional userinfo subcomponent followed by an at symbol (@), that may consist of a user name and an optional password preceded by a colon (:). Use of the format username:password in the userinfo subcomponent is deprecated for security reasons. Applications should not render as clear text any data after the first colon (:) found within a userinfo subcomponent unless the data after the colon is the empty string (indicating no password).\nA host subcomponent, consisting of either a registered name (including but not limited to a hostname) or an IP address. IPv4 addresses must be in dot-decimal notation, and IPv6 addresses must be enclosed in brackets ([]).[16][c]\nAn optional port subcomponent preceded by a colon (:), consisting of decimal digits.\nA path component, consisting of a sequence of path segments separated by a slash (/). A path is always defined for a URI, though the defined path may be empty (zero length). A segment may also be empty, resulting in two consecutive slashes (//) in the path component. A path component may resemble or map exactly to a file system path but does not always imply a relation to one. If an authority component is defined, then the path component must either be empty or begin with a slash (/). If an authority component is undefined, then the path cannot begin with an empty segment—that is, with two slashes (//)—since the following characters would be interpreted as an authority component.[18]By convention, in http and https URIs, the last part of a path is named pathinfo and it is optional. It is composed by zero or more path segments that do not refer to an existing physical resource name (e.g. a file, an internal module program or an executable program) but to a logical part (e.g. a command or a qualifier part) that has to be passed separately to the first part of the path that identifies an executable module or program managed by a web server; this is often used to select dynamic content (a document, etc.) or to tailor it as requested (see also: CGI and PATH_INFO, etc.).\nExample:\nURI: \"http://www.example.com/questions/3456/my-document\"\nwhere: \"/questions\" is the first part of the path (an executable module or program) and \"/3456/my-document\" is the second part of the path named pathinfo, which is passed to the executable module or program named \"/questions\" to select the requested document.\nAn http or https URI containing a pathinfo part without a query part may also be referred to as a 'clean URL,' whose last part may be a 'slug.'An optional query component preceded by a question mark (?), consisting of a query string of non-hierarchical data. Its syntax is not well defined, but by convention is most often a sequence of attribute–value pairs separated by a delimiter.\nAn optional fragment component preceded by a hash (#). The fragment contains a fragment identifier providing direction to a secondary resource, such as a section heading in an article identified by the remainder of the URI. When the primary resource is an HTML document, the fragment is often an id attribute of a specific element, and web browsers will scroll this element into view.A web browser will usually dereference a URL by performing an HTTP request to the specified host, by default on port number 80. URLs using the https scheme require that requests and responses be made over a secure connection to the website.","title":"Syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Internationalized Resource Identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationalized_Resource_Identifier"},{"link_name":"Unicode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unicode"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEW3C2008-24"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEW3C2014-25"},{"link_name":"Internationalized Domain Name","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationalized_Domain_Name"},{"link_name":"punycode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punycode"},{"link_name":"Domain Name System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_Name_System"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIANA2003-26"},{"link_name":"UTF-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UTF-8"},{"link_name":"hexadecimal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hexadecimal"},{"link_name":"percent-encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percent-encoding"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEW3C2008-24"}],"text":"Internet users are distributed throughout the world using a wide variety of languages and alphabets, and expect to be able to create URLs in their own local alphabets. An Internationalized Resource Identifier (IRI) is a form of URL that includes Unicode characters. All modern browsers support IRIs. The parts of the URL requiring special treatment for different alphabets are the domain name and path.[20][21]The domain name in the IRI is known as an Internationalized Domain Name (IDN). Web and Internet software automatically convert the domain name into punycode usable by the Domain Name System; for example, the Chinese URL http://例子.卷筒纸 becomes http://xn--fsqu00a.xn--3lr804guic/. The xn-- indicates that the character was not originally ASCII.[22]The URL path name can also be specified by the user in the local writing system. If not already encoded, it is converted to UTF-8, and any characters not part of the basic URL character set are escaped as hexadecimal using percent-encoding; for example, the Japanese URL http://example.com/引き割り.html becomes http://example.com/%E5%BC%95%E3%81%8D%E5%89%B2%E3%82%8A.html. The target computer decodes the address and displays the page.[20]","title":"Internationalized URL"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"text":"Protocol-relative links (PRL), also known as protocol-relative URLs (PRURL), are URLs that have no protocol specified. For example, //example.com will use the protocol of the current page, typically HTTP or HTTPS.[23][24]","title":"Protocol-relative URLs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERFC_23961998-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJoint_W3C/IETF_URI_Planning_Interest_Group2002-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2717","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2717"},{"link_name":"7595","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7595"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIETF2015-16"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-20"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTELawrence2014-19"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"RFC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RFC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1866","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1866"},{"link_name":"2854","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc2854"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTERFC_18661995%C2%A78.2.1-22"}],"text":"^ A URL implies the means to access an indicated resource and is denoted by a protocol or an access mechanism, which is not true of every URI.[5][4] Thus http://www.example.com is a URL, while www.example.com is not.[6]\n\n^ The procedures for registering new URI schemes were originally defined in 1999 by RFC 2717, and are now defined by RFC 7595, published in June 2015.[15]\n\n^ For URIs relating to resources on the World Wide Web, some web browsers allow .0 portions of dot-decimal notation to be dropped or raw integer IP addresses to be used.[17]\n\n^ Historic RFC 1866 (obsoleted by RFC 2854) encourages CGI authors to support ';' in addition to '&'.[19]","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEW3C2009_1-0"},{"link_name":"W3C (2009)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFW3C2009"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"\"Forward and Backslashes in URLs\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//zzz.buzz/2017/09/19/forward-and-backslashes-in-urls/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20180904050005/https://zzz.buzz/2017/09/19/forward-and-backslashes-in-urls/"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERFC_39862005_3-0"},{"link_name":"RFC 3986 (2005)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRFC_39862005"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoint_W3C/IETF_URI_Planning_Interest_Group2002_4-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJoint_W3C/IETF_URI_Planning_Interest_Group2002_4-1"},{"link_name":"Joint W3C/IETF URI Planning Interest Group (2002)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFJoint_W3C/IETF_URI_Planning_Interest_Group2002"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERFC_23961998_5-0"},{"link_name":"RFC 2396 (1998)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRFC_23961998"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"\"The Difference Between URLs and URIs\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//danielmiessler.com/study/url-uri/#gs.Hs64zOs"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20170317054341/https://danielmiessler.com/study/url-uri/#gs.Hs64zOs"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEW3C1994_8-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEW3C1994_8-1"},{"link_name":"W3C (1994)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFW3C1994"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIETF1992_9-0"},{"link_name":"IETF (1992)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFIETF1992"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerners-Lee2015_10-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBerners-Lee2015_10-1"},{"link_name":"Berners-Lee (2015)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBerners-Lee2015"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBBC_News2009_11-0"},{"link_name":"BBC News (2009)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFBBC_News2009"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"Berners-Lee, Tim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee"},{"link_name":"Connolly, Daniel \"Dan\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Connolly"},{"link_name":"Hypertext Markup Language (draft RFCxxx)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ucc.ie/archive/curia/dtds/html-spec.ps"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20171023232709/https://www.ucc.ie/archive/curia/dtds/html-spec.ps"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-13"},{"link_name":"Berners-Lee, Tim","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee"},{"link_name":"Masinter, Larry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Masinter"},{"link_name":"McCahill, Mark Perry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Perry_McCahill"},{"link_name":"RFC 1738 (1994)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRFC_17381994"},{"link_name":"Constituent Component Interface++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//listserv.heanet.ie/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind9501&L=HTML-WG&P=R23201&X=C6F9505B05BC9A3B67"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20171023231159/https://listserv.heanet.ie/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind9501&L=HTML-WG&P=R23201&X=C6F9505B05BC9A3B67"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERFC_39862005%C2%A73_14-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERFC_39862005%C2%A73_14-1"},{"link_name":"RFC 3986 (2005)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRFC_39862005"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERFC_39862005%C2%A75.2.1_15-0"},{"link_name":"RFC 3986 (2005)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRFC_39862005"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIETF2015_16-0"},{"link_name":"IETF (2015)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFIETF2015"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERFC_39862005%C2%A73.2.2_18-0"},{"link_name":"RFC 3986 (2005)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRFC_39862005"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELawrence2014_19-0"},{"link_name":"Lawrence (2014)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFLawrence2014"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERFC_23961998%C2%A73.3_21-0"},{"link_name":"RFC 2396 (1998)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRFC_23961998"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERFC_18661995%C2%A78.2.1_22-0"},{"link_name":"RFC 1866 (1995)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFRFC_18661995"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEW3C2008_24-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEW3C2008_24-1"},{"link_name":"W3C (2008)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFW3C2008"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEW3C2014_25-0"},{"link_name":"W3C (2014)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFW3C2014"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEIANA2003_26-0"},{"link_name":"IANA (2003)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFIANA2003"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-27"},{"link_name":"Secure Development for Mobile Apps: How to Design and Code Secure Mobile Applications with PHP and JavaScript","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=6u2sBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA193"},{"link_name":"CRC Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-48220903-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-48220903-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-28"},{"link_name":"HTML, XHTML, and CSS Bible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=DW0uyBZzEDwC&pg=PT124"},{"link_name":"John Wiley & Sons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-11808130-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-11808130-3"}],"text":"^ W3C (2009).\n\n^ \"Forward and Backslashes in URLs\". zzz.buzz. Archived from the original on 2018-09-04. Retrieved 2018-09-19.\n\n^ RFC 3986 (2005).\n\n^ a b Joint W3C/IETF URI Planning Interest Group (2002).\n\n^ RFC 2396 (1998).\n\n^ Miessler, Daniel. \"The Difference Between URLs and URIs\". Archived from the original on 2017-03-17. Retrieved 2017-03-16.\n\n^ a b W3C (1994).\n\n^ IETF (1992).\n\n^ a b Berners-Lee (2015).\n\n^ BBC News (2009).\n\n^ Berners-Lee, Tim; Connolly, Daniel \"Dan\" (March 1993). Hypertext Markup Language (draft RFCxxx) (Technical report). p. 28. Archived from the original on 2017-10-23. Retrieved 2017-10-23.\n\n^ Berners-Lee, Tim; Masinter, Larry; McCahill, Mark Perry (October 1994). Uniform Resource Locators (URL) (Technical report). (This Internet-Draft was published as a Proposed Standard RFC, RFC 1738 (1994)) Cited in Ang, C. S.; Martin, D. C. (January 1995). Constituent Component Interface++ (Technical report). UCSF Library and Center for Knowledge Management. Archived from the original on 2017-10-23. Retrieved 2017-10-23.\n\n^ a b RFC 3986 (2005), §3.\n\n^ RFC 3986 (2005), §5.2.1.\n\n^ IETF (2015).\n\n^ RFC 3986 (2005), §3.2.2.\n\n^ Lawrence (2014).\n\n^ RFC 2396 (1998), §3.3.\n\n^ RFC 1866 (1995), §8.2.1.\n\n^ a b W3C (2008).\n\n^ W3C (2014).\n\n^ IANA (2003).\n\n^ Glaser, J. D. (2014-03-10). Secure Development for Mobile Apps: How to Design and Code Secure Mobile Applications with PHP and JavaScript (1st ed.). CRC Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-48220903-7. Retrieved 2015-10-12.\n\n^ Schafer, Steven M. (2011). HTML, XHTML, and CSS Bible (1st ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-11808130-3. Retrieved 2015-10-12.","title":"Citations"}]

[]

[{"title":"Hyperlink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperlink"},{"title":"PURL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persistent_uniform_resource_locator"},{"title":"CURIE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CURIE"},{"title":"URI fragment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URI_fragment"},{"title":"Internet resource locator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_resource_locator"},{"title":"Internationalized Resource Identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationalized_Resource_Identifier"},{"title":"Clean URL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clean_URL"},{"title":"Typosquatting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Typosquatting"},{"title":"Uniform Resource Identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniform_Resource_Identifier"},{"title":"URI normalization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/URI_normalization"},{"title":"Use of slashes in networking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slash_(punctuation)#Networking"}]

[{"reference":"\"Forward and Backslashes in URLs\". zzz.buzz. Archived from the original on 2018-09-04. Retrieved 2018-09-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://zzz.buzz/2017/09/19/forward-and-backslashes-in-urls/","url_text":"\"Forward and Backslashes in URLs\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180904050005/https://zzz.buzz/2017/09/19/forward-and-backslashes-in-urls/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Miessler, Daniel. \"The Difference Between URLs and URIs\". Archived from the original on 2017-03-17. Retrieved 2017-03-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://danielmiessler.com/study/url-uri/#gs.Hs64zOs","url_text":"\"The Difference Between URLs and URIs\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170317054341/https://danielmiessler.com/study/url-uri/#gs.Hs64zOs","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Berners-Lee, Tim; Connolly, Daniel \"Dan\" (March 1993). Hypertext Markup Language (draft RFCxxx) (Technical report). p. 28. Archived from the original on 2017-10-23. Retrieved 2017-10-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee","url_text":"Berners-Lee, Tim"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Connolly","url_text":"Connolly, Daniel \"Dan\""},{"url":"https://www.ucc.ie/archive/curia/dtds/html-spec.ps","url_text":"Hypertext Markup Language (draft RFCxxx)"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171023232709/https://www.ucc.ie/archive/curia/dtds/html-spec.ps","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Berners-Lee, Tim; Masinter, Larry; McCahill, Mark Perry (October 1994). Uniform Resource Locators (URL) (Technical report).","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee","url_text":"Berners-Lee, Tim"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Masinter","url_text":"Masinter, Larry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Perry_McCahill","url_text":"McCahill, Mark Perry"}]},{"reference":"Ang, C. S.; Martin, D. C. (January 1995). Constituent Component Interface++ (Technical report). UCSF Library and Center for Knowledge Management. Archived from the original on 2017-10-23. Retrieved 2017-10-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://listserv.heanet.ie/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind9501&L=HTML-WG&P=R23201&X=C6F9505B05BC9A3B67","url_text":"Constituent Component Interface++"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171023231159/https://listserv.heanet.ie/cgi-bin/wa?A2=ind9501&L=HTML-WG&P=R23201&X=C6F9505B05BC9A3B67","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Glaser, J. D. (2014-03-10). Secure Development for Mobile Apps: How to Design and Code Secure Mobile Applications with PHP and JavaScript (1st ed.). CRC Press. p. 193. ISBN 978-1-48220903-7. Retrieved 2015-10-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=6u2sBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA193","url_text":"Secure Development for Mobile Apps: How to Design and Code Secure Mobile Applications with PHP and JavaScript"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CRC_Press","url_text":"CRC Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-48220903-7","url_text":"978-1-48220903-7"}]},{"reference":"Schafer, Steven M. (2011). HTML, XHTML, and CSS Bible (1st ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 124. ISBN 978-1-11808130-3. Retrieved 2015-10-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DW0uyBZzEDwC&pg=PT124","url_text":"HTML, XHTML, and CSS Bible"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Wiley_%26_Sons","url_text":"John Wiley & Sons"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-11808130-3","url_text":"978-1-11808130-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Berners-Lee \"sorry\" for slashes\". BBC News. 2009-10-14. Archived from the original on 2020-06-05. Retrieved 2010-02-14.","urls":[{"url":"http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/technology/8306631.stm","url_text":"\"Berners-Lee \"sorry\" for slashes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_News","url_text":"BBC News"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200605102245/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/8306631.stm","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Living Documents BoF Minutes\". World Wide Web Consortium. 1992-03-18. Archived from the original on 2012-11-22. Retrieved 2011-12-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.w3.org/Conferences/IETF92/WWX_BOF_mins.html","url_text":"\"Living Documents BoF Minutes\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium","url_text":"World Wide Web Consortium"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121122075812/http://www.w3.org/Conferences/IETF92/WWX_BOF_mins.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Berners-Lee, Tim (1994-03-21). \"Uniform Resource Locators (URL): A Syntax for the Expression of Access Information of Objects on the Network\". World Wide Web Consortium. Archived from the original on 2015-09-09. Retrieved 2015-09-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee","url_text":"Berners-Lee, Tim"},{"url":"http://www.w3.org/Addressing/URL/url-spec.txt","url_text":"\"Uniform Resource Locators (URL): A Syntax for the Expression of Access Information of Objects on the Network\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium","url_text":"World Wide Web Consortium"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150909152849/http://www.w3.org/Addressing/URL/url-spec.txt","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Berners-Lee, Tim; Masinter, Larry; McCahill, Mark Perry (December 1994). Uniform Resource Locators (URL). doi:10.17487/RFC1738. RFC 1738. Retrieved 2015-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee","url_text":"Berners-Lee, Tim"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Masinter","url_text":"Masinter, Larry"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark_Perry_McCahill","url_text":"McCahill, Mark Perry"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1738","url_text":"Uniform Resource Locators (URL)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1738","url_text":"10.17487/RFC1738"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc1738","url_text":"1738"}]},{"reference":"Berners-Lee, Tim (2015) [2000]. \"Why the //, #, etc?\". Frequently asked questions. World Wide Web Consortium. Archived from the original on 2020-05-14. Retrieved 2010-02-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee","url_text":"Berners-Lee, Tim"},{"url":"http://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/FAQ.html#etc","url_text":"\"Why the //, #, etc?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium","url_text":"World Wide Web Consortium"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200514191316/https://www.w3.org/People/Berners-Lee/FAQ.html#etc","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Connolly, Daniel \"Dan\"; Sperberg-McQueen, C. Michael, eds. (2009-05-21). \"Web addresses in HTML 5\". World Wide Web Consortium. Archived from the original on 2015-07-10. Retrieved 2015-09-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Connolly_(computer_scientist)","url_text":"Connolly, Daniel \"Dan\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Michael_Sperberg-McQueen","url_text":"Sperberg-McQueen, C. 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Retrieved 2015-09-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tim_Berners-Lee","url_text":"Berners-Lee, Tim"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Connolly_(computer_scientist)","url_text":"Connolly, Daniel \"Dan\""},{"url":"https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1866#section-8.2.1","url_text":"\"Hypertext Markup Language – 2.0\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Engineering_Task_Force","url_text":"Internet Engineering Task Force"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC1866","url_text":"10.17487/RFC1866"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:6628570","url_text":"6628570"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110827085509/http://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc1866#section-8.2.1","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Berners-Lee, Tim; Fielding, Roy T.; Masinter, Larry (August 1998). 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RFC 7595.","urls":[{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7595","url_text":"Guidelines and Registration Procedures for URI Schemes"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.17487%2FRFC7595","url_text":"10.17487/RFC7595"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Request_for_Comments","url_text":"RFC"},{"url":"https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/html/rfc7595","url_text":"7595"}]},{"reference":"Mealling, Michael; Denenberg, Ray, eds. (August 2002). Report from the Joint W3C/IETF URI Planning Interest Group: Uniform Resource Identifiers (URIs), URLs, and Uniform Resource Names (URNs): Clarifications and Recommendations. doi:10.17487/RFC3305. RFC 3305. 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Retrieved 2015-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.w3.org/International/articles/idn-and-iri/","url_text":"\"An Introduction to Multilingual Web Addresses\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150105041451/http://www.w3.org/International/articles/idn-and-iri/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Phillip, A. (2014). \"What is Happening with \"International URLs\"\". World Wide Web Consortium. Archived from the original on 2015-02-17. Retrieved 2015-01-11.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.w3.org/International/wiki/IRIStatus","url_text":"\"What is Happening with \"International URLs\"\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web_Consortium","url_text":"World Wide Web Consortium"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150217192459/https://www.w3.org/International/wiki/IRIStatus","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Lawrence, Eric (2014-03-06). \"Browser Arcana: IP Literals in URLs\". Microsoft Learn. Archived from the original on 2020-06-22. Retrieved 2020-06-22.","urls":[{"url":"https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/archive/blogs/ieinternals/browser-arcana-ip-literals-in-urls","url_text":"\"Browser Arcana: IP Literals in URLs\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200622181648/https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/archive/blogs/ieinternals/browser-arcana-ip-literals-in-urls","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Expeditionary_Unit

Marine expeditionary unit

["1 Attributes","2 Elements","2.1 Ground combat element","2.2 Aviation combat element","2.3 Logistics combat element","2.4 Command element","3 Expeditionary strike group","4 The MEU Cycle","5 List of MEUs","5.1 West Coast MEUs","5.2 East Coast MEUs","5.3 Japan MEU","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

Small United States Marine Corps task force A landing craft utility returns to USS Belleau Wood with members of the 11th Marine Expeditionary Unit A Marine expeditionary unit (MEU, pronounced as one syllable "M'you" IPA: /mjuː/) is the smallest air-ground task force (MAGTF) in the United States Fleet Marine Force. Each MEU is an expeditionary rapid reaction force ready to answer any crisis, whether it be disaster aid or a combat mission. Marine amphibious unit (MAU) was the name used until the late 1980s. A MEU normally is composed of a reinforced USMC infantry battalion (designated as a Battalion Landing Team) as the ground combat element a composite medium tiltrotor squadron forming the aviation combat element a combat logistics battalion providing the logistics combat element a company-size command element serving as the MEU headquarters group. Troop strength of a MEU is about 2,200 (normal and peacetime) to 4,400 (mobilization and wartime). A MEU is usually commanded by a colonel, and is deployed from amphibious assault ships. Currently, a MEU embarks personnel and equipment on the amphibious warfare ships of an expeditionary strike group (ESG), which also includes escort warships and submarines to protect them from air, surface, and submarine threats. For further protection and strong air support, an ESG is often deployed along with one or more carrier strike groups. Attributes Marines loading on a Landing Craft Utility in 1999 The MEU is unique in that its air and ground combat elements are combined with a logistics combat element under one commander; other services do not unite the command of air and ground forces until much higher command levels. The MEU's ground combat element also combines artillery, light armor, and tanks at a much lower level than was common in the Army until the development of the brigade combat team early in the War on Terror, with a similar concept, the combat command, being utilized in World War II. This air-ground task force concept is designed to thoroughly exploit the combat power inherent in air and ground assets by closely integrating them into a single force. The MEU brings all the supplies and logistical support it needs to sustain itself for quick mission accomplishment or to prepare the way for follow-up forces. This self-sustainment allows more flexibility in disposition and operations of forces, and allows the MEU to initiate operations sooner and let support catch up later, without having to wait for external logistical support to begin a mission. Deployments on U.S. Navy amphibious assault ships allows MEUs to seabase around the globe, ready for deployment at short notice. A typical MEU has approximately 2,200 members, including navy sailors. It is equipped with: A UH-1N from the 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit flies past an AH-1W on the flight deck of USS Kearsarge Qty Nomenclature Element 7 to 16 Light Armored Vehicle ground 15 Assault Amphibious Vehicle ground 6 155mm howitzer: M777 ground 8 M252 81mm mortar ground 8 BGM-71 Tube-Launched, Optically-Tracked, Wire-Guided (TOW) missile weapon system ground 8 FGM-148 Javelin anti-tank missile ground 4 to 6 AH-1Z Viper attack helicopters aviation 3 UH-1Y Venom light utility helicopters aviation 12 MV-22A Osprey medium-lift tiltrotor aircraft aviation 4 CH-53E Super Stallion heavy-lift transport helicopters aviation 6 AV-8B Harrier V/STOL light-attack airplanes aviation 2 KC-130 Hercules aerial re-fueler/transport airplanesNote: usually maintained in the contiguous United States aviation 2 Reverse Osmosis Water Purification Unit logistics 1 LMT 3000 water purification unit logistics 4 Tractor, Rubber Tire, Articulated Steering logistics 2 TX51-19M Rough Terrain Forklift logistics 3 D7 bulldozer logistics 1 Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement dump truck logistics 4 Mk48 Logistics Vehicle System logistics 7 500 gallon water containers multiple 63 Humvee multiple 30 Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement trucks multiple 5 Boeing Insitu RQ-21 Blackjack aviation Many types of equipment are, or will soon, undergo a transitory phase as they are replaced. Some examples include the Amphibious Combat Vehicle replacing the AAV-7, the F-35 Lightning II replacing the AV-8B Harrier, and the CH-53K King Stallion replacing the CH-53E. Elements Ground combat element Marines from the 13th Marine Expeditionary Unit land for Operation Bright Star in Egypt Marines from the 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit load a forklift onto a Medium Tactical Vehicle Replacement Expeditionary Strike Group Three flotilla The ground combat element (GCE) is based on the battalion landing team (BLT), an infantry battalion reinforced with an artillery battery, amphibious assault vehicle platoon, combat engineer platoon, light armored reconnaissance company, reconnaissance platoon, and other units as the mission and circumstances require. The total strength is approximately 1,100 members, including Navy sailors. The Maritime Special Purpose Force is a subgroup of the MEU, formed for low-profile missions. The MSPF force consists of four elements: an assault platoon (a direct action platoon augmented from Force Recon), a security platoon (a selected infantry platoon from the battalion landing team), reconnaissance and surveillance assets, and a headquarters section. The total strength is approximately 350 members, including Navy sailors. Aviation combat element The aviation combat element (ACE) is a USMC composite squadron (reinforced) composed of a medium tiltrotor squadron augmented with detachments of heavy, light, and attack helicopters, one detachment of amphibious flight-deck-capable jets, and a Marine air control group detachment with tactical air command, air traffic control, direct air support, and anti-aircraft assets, as well as wing headquarters, wing communications, and wing support squadron personnel. Total strength is approximately 600 troops. Logistics combat element The logistics combat element (LCE) (formerly combat service support element or CSSE) is based on the MEU combat logistics battalion (CLB) (formerly MEU service support group or MSSG). It contains all the logistics specialists and equipment necessary for the MEU to support and sustain itself for up to 15 days in an austere expeditionary environment. It includes service support (postal and disbursing), medical, dental, intermediate maintenance, intermediate supply (consumables and secondary reparable), transportation (distribution and landing support), explosive ordnance disposal, utilities production and distribution, bulk fuels, internal communications, and various other technical experts. It consists of approximately 300 members, including Navy sailors. Command element The command element (CE), which includes the MEU commander and his supporting staff, provides command and control over the other three elements. It includes specialized detachments for air naval gunfire liaison, reconnaissance, surveillance, specialized communications, radio reconnaissance (SIGINT), electronic warfare, Marine Corps Intelligence and counterintelligence, law enforcement, and public affairs missions. The overall strength is about 200 members, including Navy sailors. Expeditionary strike group Recently, MEUs have been deployed within an expeditionary strike group (ESG) in the Mediterranean, the Western Pacific, and periodically, the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. An ESG is typically composed of three amphibious ships that embark the necessary troops and equipment and are escorted by a guided missile cruiser (CG) and guided missile destroyers (DDG) and submarine (SSN) support. Before the ESG, MEUs were typically deployed as part of an amphibious ready group (ARG). The MEU Cycle Marines with the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit train from the amphibious transport dock ship USS Green Bay (LPD-20) in the Philippine Sea in 2022 For detailed information on special operations certification, see Marine expeditionary unit (special operations capable). MEUs maintain their subordinate elements in fifteen month cycles: nine months stateside (with six set aside for training), and a six-month deployment aboard ship. These cycles ensure that at least two of the seven MEUs are deployed forward at any given time. Interim or buildup period: Upon completion of a deployment, the MEU remains "special operations capable" for approximately one month, prepared to respond to events around the world. They are not, however, considered a special operations unit by the Department of Defense. The MEU then releases its major subordinate elements (MSEs), retaining only its command element. This period provides the command element a chance to rotate select personnel and begin planning for the addition of newly assigned MSEs and “work-up” training. When the MSEs are received, the MEU begins six months of intense pre-deployment training. Work-up period: Training during the six-month work-up period is often referred to as "crawl, walk, run". Marines and sailors progress through curriculum and exercises that teach individual, small unit, and unit tactics while integrating the separate MEU elements into a cohesive, flexible, and powerful force. The work-up period includes training in many combat and noncombat skills, to include: urban sniper mechanized and motorized raids non-combatant evacuation operations humanitarian assistance mass casualty scout swimmer jungle and/or mountain warfare riot control Exercises conducted during the work-up period can include: Amphibious squadron—MEU integration training (PMINT) Realistic urban training exercise (RUT), formerly training in an urban environment exercise (TRUEX) Expeditionary strike group exercise (ESGEX) Special operations capable certification exercise (CERTEX or SOCCEX); prior to deployment, the MEU receives certification as special operations capable and then referred to as a "MEU(SOC)". Deployment: Following the work-up period, the MEU deploys for six months in support of geographic combatant commanders. During this time, the MEU is a forward-deployed, self-sustaining force that combatant commanders can direct to accomplish a variety of special operations and conventional missions. The missions may include: Conventional operations (amphibious assaults and raids) Tactical recovery of aircraft and personnel (TRAP) Humanitarian assistance operations (HAO) Noncombatant evacuation operations (NEO) Security operations. List of MEUs West Coast MEUs West Coast MEUs fall under I Marine Expeditionary Force, and their main area of operations includes the western Pacific and Indian oceans (to include the Persian Gulf). Official Name Insignia Headquarters 11th Marine Expeditionary Unit Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California 13th Marine Expeditionary Unit Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California 15th Marine Expeditionary Unit Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton, California East Coast MEUs East Coast MEUs fall under II Marine Expeditionary Force and maintain presence in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea. Official Name Insignia Headquarters 22nd Marine Expeditionary Unit Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina 24th Marine Expeditionary Unit Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina 26th Marine Expeditionary Unit Marine Corps Base Camp Lejeune, North Carolina Japan MEU The 31st MEU is the only permanently forward-deployed MEU, maintaining a presence in the Pacific Ocean at all times as part of III Marine Expeditionary Force. Official Name Insignia Headquarters 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit Marine Corps Base Camp Smedley D. Butler, Okinawa, Japan See also Marine expeditionary unit (special operations capable) Organization of the United States Marine Corps Regimental combat team References ^ a b What is a MEU? Archived 2008-09-10 at the Wayback Machine II MEF website ^ a b c profile at GlobalSecurity.org External links Media related to Marine Expeditionary Units at Wikimedia Commons vteUnited States Marine CorpsLeadership Secretary of the Navy Under Secretary of the Navy Commandant of the Marine Corps Assistant Commandant of the Marine Corps Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps Military Secretary to the Commandant of the Marine Corps Marine Corps four-star generals Marine Corps three-star generals 1942–1959 2000–2009 2010–present US Congress House Armed Services Committee Seapower and Projection Forces subcommittee Senate Armed Services Committee Seapower subcommittee Major commands Organization of the Marine Corps Headquarters Marine Corps Marine Forces Command II Marine Expeditionary Force Marine Forces Pacific I Marine Expeditionary Force III Marine Expeditionary Force Marine Forces Reserve Fleet Marine Force Atlantic Pacific Marine Corps Combat Development Command Training & Education Command (TECOM) United States Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory Marine Corps Systems Command Auxiliary Marine Corps Cyber Auxiliary Structure Marine Air-Ground Task Force Bases Battalions Regiments Brigades Divisions MEF/Corps Marine aviation Marine expeditionary unit Marine Security Guard Special Operations Marine Raiders Marine Raider Regiment Recon Force Division Personneland trainingPersonnel Rank insignia MOS Notable Marines Historical Marines Marine Astronauts Criminal Investigation Division Judge Advocate Division Chaplain of the Marine Corps Associated organizations Training Recruit Training School of Infantry Officer Candidates School The Basic School Martial Arts Program Uniformsand equipment Uniforms Awards Badges Weapons Vehicles and aircraft Individual equipment Historyand traditions History Culture Acronyms and terms Birthday Color Sergeant of the Marine Corps Eagle, Globe, and Anchor Flag Marine Band Drum and Bugle Corps Horse Marines Marine One Color Guard Silent Drill Platoon White House Sentries Service Numbers Marine Corps War Memorial Marine Detachments "Marines' Hymn" Oorah National Museum Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima Rifleman's Creed Semper Fidelis march History of Hispanics in the USMC History of women in the USMC Women's Reserve Honorary Marine Toys for Tots Gung ho Category

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A MEU is usually commanded by a colonel, and is deployed from amphibious assault ships. Currently, a MEU embarks personnel and equipment on the amphibious warfare ships of an expeditionary strike group (ESG), which also includes escort warships and submarines to protect them from air, surface, and submarine threats. 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Total strength is approximately 600 troops.","title":"Elements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"logistics combat element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistics_combat_element"},{"link_name":"logistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logistics"},{"link_name":"medical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hospital_Corpsman"},{"link_name":"dental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentistry"},{"link_name":"explosive ordnance disposal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Explosive_ordnance_disposal"}],"sub_title":"Logistics combat element","text":"The logistics combat element (LCE) (formerly combat service support element or CSSE) is based on the MEU combat logistics battalion (CLB) (formerly MEU service support group or MSSG). It contains all the logistics specialists and equipment necessary for the MEU to support and sustain itself for up to 15 days in an austere expeditionary environment. It includes service support (postal and disbursing), medical, dental, intermediate maintenance, intermediate supply (consumables and secondary reparable), transportation (distribution and landing support), explosive ordnance disposal, utilities production and distribution, bulk fuels, internal communications, and various other technical experts. It consists of approximately 300 members, including Navy sailors.","title":"Elements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"command element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_element_(United_States_Marine_Corps)"},{"link_name":"supporting staff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staff_(military)"},{"link_name":"command and control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_and_Control_(Military)"},{"link_name":"air naval gunfire liaison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Naval_Gunfire_Liaison_Company"},{"link_name":"reconnaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Force_Recon"},{"link_name":"surveillance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveillance"},{"link_name":"radio reconnaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Marine_Corps_battalions#Radio_battalions"},{"link_name":"SIGINT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signals_intelligence"},{"link_name":"electronic warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_warfare"},{"link_name":"Marine Corps Intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Corps_Intelligence"},{"link_name":"counterintelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counterintelligence"},{"link_name":"law enforcement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_police"},{"link_name":"public affairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_affairs_(military)"}],"sub_title":"Command element","text":"The command element (CE), which includes the MEU commander and his supporting staff, provides command and control over the other three elements. It includes specialized detachments for air naval gunfire liaison, reconnaissance, surveillance, specialized communications, radio reconnaissance (SIGINT), electronic warfare, Marine Corps Intelligence and counterintelligence, law enforcement, and public affairs missions. The overall strength is about 200 members, including Navy sailors.","title":"Elements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"expeditionary strike group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expeditionary_strike_group"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean"},{"link_name":"Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific"},{"link_name":"Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Indian Oceans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean"},{"link_name":"amphibious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibious_warfare"},{"link_name":"guided missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guided_missile"},{"link_name":"cruiser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cruiser"},{"link_name":"destroyers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destroyer"},{"link_name":"submarine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine"},{"link_name":"SSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SSN_(U.S._Navy)"},{"link_name":"amphibious ready group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibious_ready_group"}],"text":"Recently, MEUs have been deployed within an expeditionary strike group (ESG) in the Mediterranean, the Western Pacific, and periodically, the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. An ESG is typically composed of three amphibious ships that embark the necessary troops and equipment and are escorted by a guided missile cruiser (CG) and guided missile destroyers (DDG) and submarine (SSN) support.Before the ESG, MEUs were typically deployed as part of an amphibious ready group (ARG).","title":"Expeditionary strike group"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:U.S._Marines_return_from_a_boat_rehearsal_aboard_USS_Green_Bay_(LPD_20)_in_the_Philippine_Sea._(51862631140).jpg"},{"link_name":"31st Marine Expeditionary Unit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/31st_Marine_Expeditionary_Unit"},{"link_name":"USS Green Bay (LPD-20)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USS_Green_Bay_(LPD-20)"},{"link_name":"Philippine Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_Sea"},{"link_name":"Marine expeditionary unit (special operations capable)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_expeditionary_unit_(special_operations_capable)"},{"link_name":"noncombat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_operations_other_than_war"},{"link_name":"raids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raid_(military)"},{"link_name":"non-combatant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-combatant"},{"link_name":"humanitarian assistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanitarian_aid"},{"link_name":"mass casualty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triage"},{"link_name":"scout swimmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frogman"},{"link_name":"jungle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jungle_warfare"},{"link_name":"mountain warfare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mountain_warfare"},{"link_name":"riot control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riot_control"},{"link_name":"combatant commanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unified_Combatant_Command"},{"link_name":"Conventional operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conventional_warfare"},{"link_name":"amphibious assaults","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amphibious_warfare"}],"text":"Marines with the 31st Marine Expeditionary Unit train from the amphibious transport dock ship USS Green Bay (LPD-20) in the Philippine Sea in 2022For detailed information on special operations certification, see Marine expeditionary unit (special operations capable).MEUs maintain their subordinate elements in fifteen month cycles: nine months stateside (with six set aside for training), and a six-month deployment aboard ship. These cycles ensure that at least two of the seven MEUs are deployed forward at any given time.Interim or buildup period: Upon completion of a deployment, the MEU remains \"special operations capable\" for approximately one month, prepared to respond to events around the world. They are not, however, considered a special operations unit by the Department of Defense. The MEU then releases its major subordinate elements (MSEs), retaining only its command element. This period provides the command element a chance to rotate select personnel and begin planning for the addition of newly assigned MSEs and “work-up” training. When the MSEs are received, the MEU begins six months of intense pre-deployment training.Work-up period: Training during the six-month work-up period is often referred to as \"crawl, walk, run\". Marines and sailors progress through curriculum and exercises that teach individual, small unit, and unit tactics while integrating the separate MEU elements into a cohesive, flexible, and powerful force. The work-up period includes training in many combat and noncombat skills, to include:urban sniper\nmechanized and motorized raids\nnon-combatant evacuation operations\nhumanitarian assistance\nmass casualty\nscout swimmer\njungle and/or mountain warfare\nriot controlExercises conducted during the work-up period can include:Amphibious squadron—MEU integration training (PMINT)\nRealistic urban training exercise (RUT), formerly training in an urban environment exercise (TRUEX)\nExpeditionary strike group exercise (ESGEX)\nSpecial operations capable certification exercise (CERTEX or SOCCEX); prior to deployment, the MEU receives certification as special operations capable and then referred to as a \"MEU(SOC)\".Deployment: Following the work-up period, the MEU deploys for six months in support of geographic combatant commanders. During this time, the MEU is a forward-deployed, self-sustaining force that combatant commanders can direct to accomplish a variety of special operations and conventional missions.The missions may include:Conventional operations (amphibious assaults and raids)\nTactical recovery of aircraft and personnel (TRAP)\nHumanitarian assistance operations (HAO)\nNoncombatant evacuation operations (NEO)\nSecurity operations.","title":"The MEU Cycle"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"List of MEUs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"I Marine Expeditionary Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/I_Marine_Expeditionary_Force"},{"link_name":"Pacific","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Persian Gulf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Persian_Gulf"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-globalsecurity-2"}],"sub_title":"West Coast MEUs","text":"West Coast MEUs fall under I Marine Expeditionary Force, and their main area of operations includes the western Pacific and Indian oceans (to include the Persian Gulf).[2]","title":"List of MEUs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"II Marine Expeditionary Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/II_Marine_Expeditionary_Force"},{"link_name":"Atlantic Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Mediterranean Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-globalsecurity-2"}],"sub_title":"East Coast MEUs","text":"East Coast MEUs fall under II Marine Expeditionary Force and maintain presence in the Atlantic Ocean and Mediterranean Sea.[2]","title":"List of MEUs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Pacific Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Ocean"},{"link_name":"III Marine Expeditionary Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/III_Marine_Expeditionary_Force"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-globalsecurity-2"}],"sub_title":"Japan MEU","text":"The 31st MEU is the only permanently forward-deployed MEU, maintaining a presence in the Pacific Ocean at all times as part of III Marine Expeditionary Force.[2]","title":"List of MEUs"}]

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_paper_tape

Punched tape

["1 History","1.1 Modern use","2 Formats","2.1 Materials","2.2 Dimensions","2.3 Chadless tape","3 Encoding","4 Applications","4.1 Communications","4.2 Minicomputers","4.3 Computer-aided manufacturing","4.4 Data transfer for ROM and EPROM programming","4.5 Cash registers","4.6 Newspaper industry","4.7 Cryptography","5 Advantages and limitations","6 Gallery","7 See also","8 References","9 External links"]

Data storage device Five- and eight-hole wide punched paper tape Creed model 6S/2 5-hole paper tape reader Paper tape reader on the Harwell computer with a small piece of five-hole tape connected in a circle – creating a physical program loop Punched tape or perforated paper tape is a form of data storage device that consists of a long strip of paper through which small holes are punched. It was developed from and was subsequently used alongside punched cards, the difference being that the tape is continuous. Punched cards, and chains of punched cards, were used for control of looms in the 18th century. Use for telegraphy systems started in 1842. Punched tapes were used throughout the 19th and for much of the 20th centuries for programmable looms, teleprinter communication, for input to computers of the 1950s and 1960s, and later as a storage medium for minicomputers and CNC machine tools. During the Second World War, high-speed punched tape systems using optical readout methods were used in code breaking systems. Punched tape was used to transmit data for manufacture of read-only memory chips. History A paper tape, constructed from punched cards, in use in a Jacquard loom. The large holes on each edge are sprocket holes, used to pull the paper tape through the loom. Perforated paper tapes were first used by Basile Bouchon in 1725 to control looms. However, the paper tapes were expensive to create, fragile, and difficult to repair. By 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard had developed machines to create paper tapes by tying punched cards in a sequence for Jacquard looms. The resulting paper tape, also called a "chain of cards", was stronger and simpler both to create and to repair. This led to the concept of communicating data not as a stream of individual cards, but as one "continuous card" (or tape). Paper tapes constructed from punched cards were widely used throughout the 19th century for controlling looms. Many professional embroidery operations still refer to those individuals who create the designs and machine patterns as punchers even though punched cards and paper tape were eventually phased out in the 1990s. In 1842, a French patent by Claude Seytre described a piano playing device that read data from perforated paper rolls. By 1900, wide perforated music rolls for player pianos were used to distribute popular music to mass markets. Wheatstone slip with a dot, space and a dash punched, and perforator punch plate In 1846, Alexander Bain used punched tape to send telegrams. This technology was adopted by Charles Wheatstone in 1857 for the Wheatstone system used for the automated preparation, storage and transmission of data in telegraphy. In the 1880s, Tolbert Lanston invented the Monotype typesetting system, which consisted of a keyboard and a composition caster. The tape, punched with the keyboard, was later read by the caster, which produced lead type according to the combinations of holes in up to 31 positions. The tape reader used compressed air, which passed through the holes and was directed into certain mechanisms of the caster. The system went into commercial use in 1897 and was in production well into the 1970s, undergoing several changes along the way. Modern use In the 21st century, punched tape is obsolete except among hobbyists. In computer numerical control (CNC) machining applications, though paper tape has been superseded by digital memory, some modern systems still measure the size of stored CNC programs in feet or meters, corresponding to the equivalent length if the data were actually punched on paper tape. Formats Diagnostic minicomputer software on fanfold paper tape (1975) Mylar punched tape was used for durability in industrial applications Data was represented by the presence or absence of a hole at a particular location. Tapes originally had five rows of holes for data across the width of the tape. Later tapes had more rows. A 1944 electro-mechanical programmable calculating machine, the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator or Harvard Mark I, used paper tape with 24 rows, The IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC) used paper tape with 74 rows. Australia's 1951 electronic computer, CSIRAC, used 3-inch (76 mm) wide paper tape with twelve rows. A row of smaller sprocket holes was always punched to be used to synchronize tape movement. Originally, this was done using a wheel with radial teeth called a sprocket wheel. Later, optical readers made use of the sprocket holes to generate timing pulses. The sprocket holes were slightly closer to one edge of the tape, dividing the tape into unequal widths, to make it unambiguous which way to orient the tape in the reader. The bits on the narrower width of the tape were generally the least significant bits when the code was represented as numbers in a digital system. Materials Many early machines used oiled paper tape, which was pre-impregnated with a light machine oil, to lubricate the reader and punch mechanisms. The oil impregnation usually made the paper somewhat translucent and slippery, and excess oil could transfer to clothing or any surfaces it contacted. Later optical tape readers often specified non-oiled opaque paper tape, which was less prone to depositing oily debris on the optical sensors and causing read errors. Another innovation was fanfold paper tape, which was easier to store compactly and less prone to tangling, as compared to rolled paper tape. For heavy-duty or repetitive use, polyester Mylar tape was often used. This tough, durable plastic film was usually thinner than paper tapes, but could still be used in many devices originally designed for paper media. The plastic tape was sometimes transparent, but usually was aluminized to make it opaque enough for use in high-speed optical readers. Dimensions Tape for punching was usually 0.00394 inches (0.100 mm) thick. The two most common widths were 11⁄16 inch (17 mm) for five bit codes, and 1 inch (25 mm) for tapes with six or more bits. Hole spacing was 0.1 inches (2.5 mm) in both directions. Data holes were 0.072 inches (1.8 mm) in diameter; sprocket feed holes were 0.046 inches (1.2 mm). Chadless tape Chadless 5-level Baudot paper tape c. 1975–1980 punched at Teletype Corp Most tape-punching equipment used solid circular punches to create holes in the tape. This process created "chad", or small circular pieces of paper. Managing the disposal of chad was an annoying and complex problem, as the tiny paper pieces had a tendency to escape containment and to interfere with the other electromechanical parts of the teleprinter equipment. Chad from oiled paper tape was particularly problematic, as it tended to clump and build up, rather than flowing freely into a collection container. A variation on the tape punch was a device called a Chadless Printing Reperforator. This machine would punch a received teleprinter signal into tape and print the message on it at the same time, using a printing mechanism similar to that of an ordinary page printer. The tape punch, rather than punching out the usual round holes, would instead punch little U-shaped cuts in the paper, so that no chad would be produced; the "hole" was still filled with a little paper trap-door. By not fully punching out the hole, the printing on the paper remained intact and legible. This enabled operators to read the tape without having to decipher the holes, which would facilitate relaying the message on to another station in the network. Also, there was no "chad box" to empty from time to time. A disadvantage to this technology was that, once punched, chadless tape did not roll up well for storage, because the protruding flaps of paper would catch on the next layer of tape so it could not be coiled up tightly. Another disadvantage that emerged in time, was that there was no reliable way to read chadless tape in later high-speed readers which used optical sensing. However, the mechanical tape readers used in most standard-speed equipment had no problem with chadless tape, because they sensed the holes by means of blunt spring-loaded mechanical sensing pins, which easily pushed the paper flaps out of the way. Encoding The word "Wikipedia", and a CR/LF as 7-bit ASCII, without a parity bit, least significant bit on the right—e.g. "W" is 1010111 Text was encoded in several ways. The earliest standard character encoding was Baudot, which dates back to the 19th century and had five holes. The Baudot code was superseded by modified five-hole codes such as the Murray code (which added carriage return and line feed) which was developed into the Western Union code which was further developed into the International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA 2), and a variant called the American Teletypewriter code (USTTY). Other standards, such as Teletypesetter (TTS), FIELDATA and Flexowriter, had six holes. In the early 1960s, the American Standards Association led a project to develop a universal code for data processing, which became the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). This seven-level code was adopted by some teleprinter users, including AT&T (Teletype). Others, such as Telex, stayed with the earlier codes. Applications Communications Teletype 33 Automatic Send and Receive teleprinter with paper tape in both the reader and the punch Paper tape relay operation at US FAA's Honolulu flight service station in 1964 Punched tape was used as a way of storing messages for teletypewriters. Operators typed in the message to the paper tape, and then sent the message at the maximum line speed from the tape. This permitted the operator to prepare the message "off-line" at the operator's best typing speed, and permitted the operator to correct any error prior to transmission. An experienced operator could prepare a message at 135 words per minute (WPM) or more for short periods. The line typically operated at 75 WPM, but it operated continuously. By preparing the tape "off-line" and then sending the message with a tape reader, the line could operate continuously rather than depending on continuous "on-line" typing by a single operator. Typically, a single 75 WPM line supported three or more teletype operators working offline. Tapes punched at the receiving end could be used to relay messages to another station. Large store and forward networks were developed using these techniques. Paper tape could be read into computers at up to 1,000 characters per second. In 1963, a Danish company called Regnecentralen introduced a paper tape reader called RC 2000 that could read 2,000 characters per second; later they increased the speed further, up to 2,500 cps. As early as World War II, the Heath Robinson tape reader, used by Allied codebreakers, was capable of 2,000 cps while Colossus could run at 5,000 cps using an optical tape reader designed by Arnold Lynch. Minicomputers A 24-channel program tape for the Harvard Mark I (c. 1944) When the first minicomputers were being released, most manufacturers turned to the existing mass-produced ASCII teleprinters (primarily the Teletype Model 33, capable of ten ASCII characters per second throughput) as a low-cost solution for keyboard input and printer output. The commonly specified Model 33 ASR included a paper tape punch/reader, where ASR stands for "Automatic Send/Receive" as opposed to the punchless/readerless KSR – Keyboard Send/Receive and RO – Receive Only models. As a side effect, punched tape became a popular medium for low-cost minicomputer data and program storage, and it was common to find a selection of tapes containing useful programs in most minicomputer installations. Faster optical readers were also common. Binary data transfer to or from these minicomputers was often accomplished using a doubly encoded technique to compensate for the relatively high error rate of punches and readers. The low-level encoding was typically ASCII, further encoded and framed in various schemes such as Intel Hex, in which a binary value of "01011010" would be represented by the ASCII characters "5A". Framing, addressing and checksum (primarily in ASCII hex characters) information helped with error detection. Efficiencies of such an encoding scheme are on the order of 35–40% (e.g., 36% from 44 8-bit ASCII characters being needed to represent sixteen bytes of binary data per frame). Computer-aided manufacturing Paper tape reader on a computer numerical control (CNC) machine In the 1970s, computer-aided manufacturing equipment often used paper tape. A paper tape reader was smaller and less expensive than Hollerith card or magnetic tape readers, and the medium was reasonably reliable in a manufacturing environment. Paper tape was an important storage medium for computer-controlled wire-wrap machines, for example. Premium black waxed and lubricated long-fiber papers, and Mylar film tape were developed so that heavily used production tapes would last longer. Data transfer for ROM and EPROM programming In the 1970s through the early 1980s, paper tape was commonly used to transfer binary data for incorporation in either mask-programmable read-only memory (ROM) chips or their erasable counterparts EPROMs. A significant variety of encoding formats were developed for use in computer and ROM/EPROM data transfer. Encoding formats commonly used were primarily driven by those formats that EPROM programming devices supported and included various ASCII hex variants as well as a number of proprietary formats. A much more primitive as well as a much longer high-level encoding scheme was also used, BNPF (Begin-Negative-Positive-Finish), also written as BPNF (Begin-Positive-Negative-Finish). In BNPF encoding, a single byte (8 bits) would be represented by a highly redundant character framing sequence starting with a single uppercase ASCII "B", eight ASCII characters where a "0" would be represented by a "N" and a "1" would be represented by a "P", followed by an ending ASCII "F". These ten-character ASCII sequences were separated by one or more whitespace characters, therefore using at least eleven ASCII characters for each byte stored (9% efficiency). The ASCII "N" and "P" characters differed in four bit positions, providing excellent protection from single punch errors. Alternative schemes named BHLF (Begin-High-Low-Finish) and B10F (Begin-One-Zero-Finish) were also available where either "L" and "H" or "0" and "1" were also available to represent data bits, but in both of these encoding schemes, the two data-bearing ASCII characters differ in only one bit position, providing very poor single punch error detection. Cash registers NCR of Dayton, Ohio, made cash registers around 1970 that would punch paper tape. Sweda made similar cash registers around the same time. The tape could then be read into a computer and not only could sales information be summarized, billings could be done on charge transactions. The tape was also used for inventory tracking, recording department and class numbers of items sold. Newspaper industry Punched paper tape was used by the newspaper industry until the mid-1970s or later. Newspapers were typically set in hot lead by devices like Linotype machines. With the wire services coming into a device that would punch paper tape, rather than the Linotype operator having to retype all the incoming stories, the paper tape could be put into a paper tape reader on the Linotype and it would create the lead slugs without the operator re-typing the stories. This also allowed newspapers to use devices, such as the Friden Flexowriter, to convert typing to lead type via tape. Even after the demise of Linotype and hot lead typesetting, many early phototypesetter devices utilized paper tape readers. If an error was found at one position on the six-level tape, that character could be turned into a null character to be skipped by punching out the remaining non-punched positions with what was known as a “chicken plucker". It looked like a strawberry stem remover that, pressed with thumb and forefinger, could punch out the remaining positions, one hole at a time. Cryptography This secure paper tape canister shows evidence of tampering Vernam ciphers were invented in 1917 to encrypt teleprinter communications using a key stored on paper tape. During the last third of the 20th century, the National Security Agency (NSA) used punched paper tape to distribute cryptographic keys. The eight-level paper tapes were distributed under strict accounting controls and read by a fill device, such as the hand held KOI-18, that was temporarily connected to each security device that needed new keys. NSA has been trying to replace this method with a more secure electronic key management system (EKMS), but as of 2016, paper tape was apparently still being employed. The paper tape canister is a tamper-resistant container that contains features to prevent undetected alteration of the contents. Advantages and limitations Acid-free paper or Mylar tapes can be read many decades after manufacture, in contrast with magnetic tape that can deteriorate and become unreadable with time. The hole patterns of punched tape can be decoded by eye if necessary, and even editing of a tape is possible by manual cutting and splicing. Unlike magnetic tape, magnetic fields such as produced by electric motors cannot alter the punched data. In cryptography applications, a punched tape used to distribute a key can be rapidly and completely destroyed by burning, preventing the key from falling into the hands of an enemy. Reliability of paper tape punching operations was a concern, so that for critical applications a new punched tape could be read after punching to verify the correct contents. Rewinding a tape required a takeup reel or other measures to avoid tearing or tangling the tape. In some uses, "fan fold" tape simplified handling as the tape would refold into a "takeup tank" ready to be re-read. The information density of punched tape was low compared with magnetic tape, making large datasets clumsy to handle in punched tape form. Gallery The 1943 Colossus code-breaking machine used paper tapes to hold data (replica shown) This 1959 IBM 1620 relied on paper tape to store data and programs Tape reader used with a UNIVAC 1105 for the 1960 US Census A large-capacity industrial tape reader This early-1960s Monrobot XI computer used two paper tape reader/punches for offline data storage Fanfold paper tape reader on a PDP-1 minicomputer (1960s) Paper tape readers for a word-processing system, c. 1970 Large IBM 1130 systems still handled paper tape in the early 1970s (at left of console) Eight-hole tape from 1974 This 1970s DEC high-speed fanfold reader/punch used optical sensing Paper tape loop controlling paper positioning in a IBM 1403 line printer (1959-1983) Late-1970s heavy-duty tape punch used by the US National Security Agency for secret code distribution Punch tape as an element of facade mosaic, Novosibirsk See also Bit bucket Book music Friden Flexowriter Key punch Tape library Zygalski sheets References ^ Maxfield, Clive (2011-10-13). "How it was: Paper tapes and punched cards". EE Times. ^ Roberts, Steven. "3. Cooke and Wheatstone". Distant Writing: A History of the Telegraph Companies in Britain between 1838 and 1868. ^ Smid, Peter (2010). CNC Control Setup for Milling and Turning: Mastering CNC Control Systems. Industrial Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-8311-3350-4. ^ Dalakov, Georgi, History of computers: The MARK computers of Howard Aiken, retrieved 2011-01-12 ^ da Cruz, Frank (April 2021). "SSEC Tape". Columbia University Computing History. Retrieved 2024-05-25. ^ "CSIRAC paper tape (replica)". Computer History Museum. 2010. Retrieved 2023-10-13. ^ Lancaster, Don (2010), TV Typewriter Cookbook (PDF), Synergetics SP Press, p. 211 ^ Proesch, Roland (2009). Technical Handbook for Radio Monitoring HF: Edition 2009. Books on Demand. ISBN 978-3837045734. ^ Hult, Ture (1963), "Presentation of a new high speed paper tape reader", BIT Numerical Mathematics, 3 (2): 93–96, doi:10.1007/BF01935575, S2CID 61020497 ^ "Translation File Formats" (PDF). Data I/O Corporation. Retrieved 2010-08-30. ^ a b "Appendix A: A Sample Program in PL/M: BNPF Object Tape". MCS-8 A Guide to PL/M programming (PDF). Rev 1 (printed September 1974 ed.). 1974-03-15 . p. 101. MCS180-0774-1K, MCS280-0974-1K. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-01-29. Retrieved 2022-05-18. (1+i+100+1+11+1 pages) ^ a b Feichtinger, Herwig (1987). "1.8.5. Lochstreifen-Datenformate" . Arbeitsbuch Mikrocomputer (in German) (2 ed.). Munich, Germany: Franzis-Verlag GmbH. pp. 240–243. ISBN 3-7723-8022-0. (NB. The book contains a description of the BNPF format.) ^ a b "Chapter 6. Microcomputer System Component Data Sheet - EPROMs and ROM: I. PROM and ROM Programming Instructions - B2. BPNF Paper Tape Format". MCS-80 User's Manual (With Introduction to MCS-85). Intel Corporation. October 1977 . pp. 6–76. 98-153D. Retrieved 2020-02-27. (NB. This manual describes a "BPNF Paper Tape Format", a "Non-Intellec Hex Paper Tape Format" and a "PN Computer Punched Card Format".) ^ "A. Serial Data Transfer Formats: ASCII BPNF, BHLF & B10F Formats". XP640 EPROM Programmer - User Manual (PDF). GP Industrial Electronics. 1984. p. 43. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-10-22. Retrieved 2023-10-22. (47 pages) ^ "Tale of the Tape". National Security Agency Central Security Service. 2016-05-03. Archived from the original on 2021-09-23. Retrieved 2014-06-16. ^ Sinha, Naresh K. (1986-06-30). Microprocessor-Based Control Systems. Springer. p. 264. ISBN 978-90-277-2287-4. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Punched tapes. "ECMA standard for Data Interchange on Punched Tape". European Computer Manufacturers Association. November 1965. ECMA-10. Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2003-07-10. A song mentioning paper tape Various punched media Olympia Flexowriter Detailed description of two paper tape code systems, Baudot code and the system used by the ILLIAC computer Working paper tape punch/reader GNT 3601, Musée Bolo, YouTube vtePaper data storage mediaAntiquity Writing on papyrus (c. 3000 BCE) Paper (105 CE) Modern Index card (1640s) Punched tape (mid-1800s) Punched card (1880s) Edge-notched card (1904) Optical mark recognition (1930s) Barcode (1948) Authority control databases: National Germany

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PaperTapes-5and8Hole.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Creed_model_6S-2_paper_tape_reader.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harwell-dekatron-witch-10.jpg"},{"link_name":"Harwell computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harwell_computer"},{"link_name":"data storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_storage"},{"link_name":"punched cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card"},{"link_name":"looms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loom"},{"link_name":"teleprinter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleprinter"},{"link_name":"minicomputers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputer"},{"link_name":"CNC machine tools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_control"},{"link_name":"read-only memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"}],"text":"Five- and eight-hole wide punched paper tapeCreed model 6S/2 5-hole paper tape readerPaper tape reader on the Harwell computer with a small piece of five-hole tape connected in a circle – creating a physical program loopPunched tape or perforated paper tape is a form of data storage device that consists of a long strip of paper through which small holes are punched. It was developed from and was subsequently used alongside punched cards, the difference being that the tape is continuous.Punched cards, and chains of punched cards, were used for control of looms in the 18th century. Use for telegraphy systems started in 1842. Punched tapes were used throughout the 19th and for much of the 20th centuries for programmable looms, teleprinter communication, for input to computers of the 1950s and 1960s, and later as a storage medium for minicomputers and CNC machine tools. During the Second World War, high-speed punched tape systems using optical readout methods were used in code breaking systems. Punched tape was used to transmit data for manufacture of read-only memory chips.","title":"Punched tape"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jacquard.loom.cards.jpg"},{"link_name":"punched cards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Punched_card"},{"link_name":"Jacquard loom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacquard_loom"},{"link_name":"sprocket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprocket"},{"link_name":"Basile Bouchon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basile_Bouchon"},{"link_name":"Joseph Marie Jacquard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Marie_Jacquard"},{"link_name":"Jacquard looms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacquard_loom"},{"link_name":"embroidery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embroidery"},{"link_name":"piano playing device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Player_piano"},{"link_name":"perforated paper rolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piano_roll"},{"link_name":"music rolls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_roll"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EB1911_Telegraph_-_Wheatstone_Punching_Apparatus.jpg"},{"link_name":"Alexander Bain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Bain_(inventor)"},{"link_name":"telegrams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telegram"},{"link_name":"Charles Wheatstone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Wheatstone"},{"link_name":"Wheatstone system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheatstone_system"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maxfield_2011-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Roberts-2"},{"link_name":"Tolbert Lanston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tolbert_Lanston"},{"link_name":"Monotype typesetting system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monotype_System"},{"link_name":"caster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casting_(metalworking)"}],"text":"A paper tape, constructed from punched cards, in use in a Jacquard loom. The large holes on each edge are sprocket holes, used to pull the paper tape through the loom.Perforated paper tapes were first used by Basile Bouchon in 1725 to control looms. However, the paper tapes were expensive to create, fragile, and difficult to repair. By 1801, Joseph Marie Jacquard had developed machines to create paper tapes by tying punched cards in a sequence for Jacquard looms. The resulting paper tape, also called a \"chain of cards\", was stronger and simpler both to create and to repair. This led to the concept of communicating data not as a stream of individual cards, but as one \"continuous card\" (or tape). Paper tapes constructed from punched cards were widely used throughout the 19th century for controlling looms. Many professional embroidery operations still refer to those individuals who create the designs and machine patterns as punchers even though punched cards and paper tape were eventually phased out in the 1990s.In 1842, a French patent by Claude Seytre described a piano playing device that read data from perforated paper rolls. By 1900, wide perforated music rolls for player pianos were used to distribute popular music to mass markets.Wheatstone slip with a dot, space and a dash punched, and perforator punch plateIn 1846, Alexander Bain used punched tape to send telegrams. This technology was adopted by Charles Wheatstone in 1857 for the Wheatstone system used for the automated preparation, storage and transmission of data in telegraphy.[1][2]In the 1880s, Tolbert Lanston invented the Monotype typesetting system, which consisted of a keyboard and a composition caster. The tape, punched with the keyboard, was later read by the caster, which produced lead type according to the combinations of holes in up to 31 positions. The tape reader used compressed air, which passed through the holes and was directed into certain mechanisms of the caster. The system went into commercial use in 1897 and was in production well into the 1970s, undergoing several changes along the way.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"hobbyists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retrocomputing"},{"link_name":"computer numerical control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_control"},{"link_name":"digital memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiconductor_memory"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smid_2010-3"}],"sub_title":"Modern use","text":"In the 21st century, punched tape is obsolete except among hobbyists. In computer numerical control (CNC) machining applications, though paper tape has been superseded by digital memory, some modern systems still measure the size of stored CNC programs in feet or meters, corresponding to the equivalent length if the data were actually punched on paper tape.[3]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Papertape2.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mylar_Punched_tape.jpg"},{"link_name":"Harvard Mark I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dalakov-4"},{"link_name":"IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_SSEC"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"CSIRAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSIRAC"},{"link_name":"paper tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paper_tape"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CSIRAC_2010-6"},{"link_name":"sprocket wheel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sprocket"},{"link_name":"least significant bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_significant_bit"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Diagnostic minicomputer software on fanfold paper tape (1975)Mylar punched tape was used for durability in industrial applicationsData was represented by the presence or absence of a hole at a particular location. Tapes originally had five rows of holes for data across the width of the tape. Later tapes had more rows. A 1944 electro-mechanical programmable calculating machine, the Automatic Sequence Controlled Calculator or Harvard Mark I, used paper tape with 24 rows,[4] The IBM Selective Sequence Electronic Calculator (SSEC) used paper tape with 74 rows.[5] Australia's 1951 electronic computer, CSIRAC, used 3-inch (76 mm) wide paper tape with twelve rows.[6]A row of smaller sprocket holes was always punched to be used to synchronize tape movement. Originally, this was done using a wheel with radial teeth called a sprocket wheel. Later, optical readers made use of the sprocket holes to generate timing pulses. The sprocket holes were slightly closer to one edge of the tape, dividing the tape into unequal widths, to make it unambiguous which way to orient the tape in the reader. The bits on the narrower width of the tape were generally the least significant bits when the code was represented as numbers in a digital system.[citation needed]","title":"Formats"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"machine oil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_oil"},{"link_name":"Mylar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mylar"},{"link_name":"aluminized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aluminized"}],"sub_title":"Materials","text":"Many early machines used oiled paper tape, which was pre-impregnated with a light machine oil, to lubricate the reader and punch mechanisms. The oil impregnation usually made the paper somewhat translucent and slippery, and excess oil could transfer to clothing or any surfaces it contacted. Later optical tape readers often specified non-oiled opaque paper tape, which was less prone to depositing oily debris on the optical sensors and causing read errors. Another innovation was fanfold paper tape, which was easier to store compactly and less prone to tangling, as compared to rolled paper tape.For heavy-duty or repetitive use, polyester Mylar tape was often used. This tough, durable plastic film was usually thinner than paper tapes, but could still be used in many devices originally designed for paper media. The plastic tape was sometimes transparent, but usually was aluminized to make it opaque enough for use in high-speed optical readers.","title":"Formats"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"sub_title":"Dimensions","text":"Tape for punching was usually 0.00394 inches (0.100 mm) thick. The two most common widths were 11⁄16 inch (17 mm) for five bit codes, and 1 inch (25 mm) for tapes with six or more bits. Hole spacing was 0.1 inches (2.5 mm) in both directions. Data holes were 0.072 inches (1.8 mm) in diameter; sprocket feed holes were 0.046 inches (1.2 mm).[7]","title":"Formats"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1980-Paper_Tape_fromTeletype_(chadless,_5-level_Baudot)-02.jpg"},{"link_name":"chad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad_(paper)"},{"link_name":"chad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chad_(paper)"}],"sub_title":"Chadless tape","text":"Chadless 5-level Baudot paper tape c. 1975–1980 punched at Teletype CorpMost tape-punching equipment used solid circular punches to create holes in the tape. This process created \"chad\", or small circular pieces of paper. Managing the disposal of chad was an annoying and complex problem, as the tiny paper pieces had a tendency to escape containment and to interfere with the other electromechanical parts of the teleprinter equipment. Chad from oiled paper tape was particularly problematic, as it tended to clump and build up, rather than flowing freely into a collection container.A variation on the tape punch was a device called a Chadless Printing Reperforator. This machine would punch a received teleprinter signal into tape and print the message on it at the same time, using a printing mechanism similar to that of an ordinary page printer. The tape punch, rather than punching out the usual round holes, would instead punch little U-shaped cuts in the paper, so that no chad would be produced; the \"hole\" was still filled with a little paper trap-door. By not fully punching out the hole, the printing on the paper remained intact and legible. This enabled operators to read the tape without having to decipher the holes, which would facilitate relaying the message on to another station in the network. Also, there was no \"chad box\" to empty from time to time.A disadvantage to this technology was that, once punched, chadless tape did not roll up well for storage, because the protruding flaps of paper would catch on the next layer of tape so it could not be coiled up tightly. Another disadvantage that emerged in time, was that there was no reliable way to read chadless tape in later high-speed readers which used optical sensing. However, the mechanical tape readers used in most standard-speed equipment had no problem with chadless tape, because they sensed the holes by means of blunt spring-loaded mechanical sensing pins, which easily pushed the paper flaps out of the way.","title":"Formats"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Papertape-Wikipedia-example-dark1.svg"},{"link_name":"CR/LF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newline"},{"link_name":"least significant bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_significant_bit"},{"link_name":"character encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Character_encoding"},{"link_name":"Baudot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baudot_code"},{"link_name":"Murray code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baudot_code#Murray_code"},{"link_name":"carriage return","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carriage_return"},{"link_name":"line feed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_feed"},{"link_name":"Western Union code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_Union_code"},{"link_name":"International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Telegraph_Alphabet_No._2"},{"link_name":"American Teletypewriter code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American_Teletypewriter_code&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Proesch_2009-8"},{"link_name":"Teletypesetter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletypesetter"},{"link_name":"FIELDATA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FIELDATA"},{"link_name":"Flexowriter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flexowriter"},{"link_name":"American Standards Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Standards_Association"},{"link_name":"American Standard Code for Information Interchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Standard_Code_for_Information_Interchange"},{"link_name":"AT&T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Teletype","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletype_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Telex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleprinter"}],"text":"The word \"Wikipedia\", and a CR/LF as 7-bit ASCII, without a parity bit, least significant bit on the right—e.g. \"W\" is 1010111Text was encoded in several ways. The earliest standard character encoding was Baudot, which dates back to the 19th century and had five holes. The Baudot code was superseded by modified five-hole codes such as the Murray code (which added carriage return and line feed) which was developed into the Western Union code which was further developed into the International Telegraph Alphabet No. 2 (ITA 2), and a variant called the American Teletypewriter code (USTTY).[8] Other standards, such as Teletypesetter (TTS), FIELDATA and Flexowriter, had six holes. In the early 1960s, the American Standards Association led a project to develop a universal code for data processing, which became the American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII). This seven-level code was adopted by some teleprinter users, including AT&T (Teletype). Others, such as Telex, stayed with the earlier codes.","title":"Encoding"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Teletype_33_ASR.jpg"},{"link_name":"Teletype 33","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletype_Model_33"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Honolulu_IFSS_Teletype1964.jpg"},{"link_name":"FAA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_Aviation_Administration"},{"link_name":"teletypewriters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleprinter"},{"link_name":"store and forward","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Store_and_forward"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hult-9"},{"link_name":"Regnecentralen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regnecentralen"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"Heath Robinson tape reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heath_Robinson_(codebreaking_machine)#Tape_reading"},{"link_name":"Colossus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_computer"}],"sub_title":"Communications","text":"Teletype 33 Automatic Send and Receive teleprinter with paper tape in both the reader and the punchPaper tape relay operation at US FAA's Honolulu flight service station in 1964Punched tape was used as a way of storing messages for teletypewriters. Operators typed in the message to the paper tape, and then sent the message at the maximum line speed from the tape. This permitted the operator to prepare the message \"off-line\" at the operator's best typing speed, and permitted the operator to correct any error prior to transmission. An experienced operator could prepare a message at 135 words per minute (WPM) or more for short periods.The line typically operated at 75 WPM, but it operated continuously. By preparing the tape \"off-line\" and then sending the message with a tape reader, the line could operate continuously rather than depending on continuous \"on-line\" typing by a single operator. Typically, a single 75 WPM line supported three or more teletype operators working offline. Tapes punched at the receiving end could be used to relay messages to another station. Large store and forward networks were developed using these techniques.Paper tape could be read into computers at up to 1,000 characters per second.[9] In 1963, a Danish company called Regnecentralen introduced a paper tape reader called RC 2000 that could read 2,000 characters per second; later they increased the speed further, up to 2,500 cps. As early as World War II, the Heath Robinson tape reader, used by Allied codebreakers, was capable of 2,000 cps while Colossus could run at 5,000 cps using an optical tape reader designed by Arnold Lynch.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Harvard_Mark_I_program_tape.agr.jpg"},{"link_name":"Harvard Mark I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_Mark_I"},{"link_name":"minicomputers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputer"},{"link_name":"ASCII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASCII"},{"link_name":"teleprinters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleprinter"},{"link_name":"Teletype Model 33","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teletype_Model_33"},{"link_name":"Keyboard Send/Receive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keyboard_Send_Receive"},{"link_name":"Binary data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_data"},{"link_name":"minicomputers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minicomputer"},{"link_name":"Intel Hex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Hex"},{"link_name":"checksum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Checksum"},{"link_name":"bytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"}],"sub_title":"Minicomputers","text":"A 24-channel program tape for the Harvard Mark I (c. 1944)When the first minicomputers were being released, most manufacturers turned to the existing mass-produced ASCII teleprinters (primarily the Teletype Model 33, capable of ten ASCII characters per second throughput) as a low-cost solution for keyboard input and printer output. The commonly specified Model 33 ASR included a paper tape punch/reader, where ASR stands for \"Automatic Send/Receive\" as opposed to the punchless/readerless KSR – Keyboard Send/Receive and RO – Receive Only models. As a side effect, punched tape became a popular medium for low-cost minicomputer data and program storage, and it was common to find a selection of tapes containing useful programs in most minicomputer installations. Faster optical readers were also common.Binary data transfer to or from these minicomputers was often accomplished using a doubly encoded technique to compensate for the relatively high error rate of punches and readers. The low-level encoding was typically ASCII, further encoded and framed in various schemes such as Intel Hex, in which a binary value of \"01011010\" would be represented by the ASCII characters \"5A\". Framing, addressing and checksum (primarily in ASCII hex characters) information helped with error detection. Efficiencies of such an encoding scheme are on the order of 35–40% (e.g., 36% from 44 8-bit ASCII characters being needed to represent sixteen bytes of binary data per frame).","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paper_tape_reader_on_a_CNC_control_001.jpg"},{"link_name":"computer numerical control","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_control"},{"link_name":"computer-aided manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_manufacturing"},{"link_name":"Hollerith card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollerith_card"},{"link_name":"magnetic tape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnetic_tape"},{"link_name":"wire-wrap","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wire-wrap"},{"link_name":"Mylar film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PET_film_(biaxially_oriented)"}],"sub_title":"Computer-aided manufacturing","text":"Paper tape reader on a computer numerical control (CNC) machineIn the 1970s, computer-aided manufacturing equipment often used paper tape. A paper tape reader was smaller and less expensive than Hollerith card or magnetic tape readers, and the medium was reasonably reliable in a manufacturing environment. Paper tape was an important storage medium for computer-controlled wire-wrap machines, for example.Premium black waxed and lubricated long-fiber papers, and Mylar film tape were developed so that heavily used production tapes would last longer.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"read-only memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Read-only_memory"},{"link_name":"EPROMs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EPROM"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Data_I/O_Corporation-10"},{"link_name":"BNPF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BNPF"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Intel_1974-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feichtinger_1987-12"},{"link_name":"BPNF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BPNF"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Intel_1977-13"},{"link_name":"byte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byte"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Intel_1974-11"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Intel_1977-13"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feichtinger_1987-12"},{"link_name":"whitespace characters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whitespace_character"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GP_1984-14"}],"sub_title":"Data transfer for ROM and EPROM programming","text":"In the 1970s through the early 1980s, paper tape was commonly used to transfer binary data for incorporation in either mask-programmable read-only memory (ROM) chips or their erasable counterparts EPROMs. A significant variety of encoding formats were developed for use in computer and ROM/EPROM data transfer.[10] Encoding formats commonly used were primarily driven by those formats that EPROM programming devices supported and included various ASCII hex variants as well as a number of proprietary formats.A much more primitive as well as a much longer high-level encoding scheme was also used, BNPF (Begin-Negative-Positive-Finish),[11][12] also written as BPNF (Begin-Positive-Negative-Finish).[13] In BNPF encoding, a single byte (8 bits) would be represented by a highly redundant character framing sequence starting with a single uppercase ASCII \"B\", eight ASCII characters where a \"0\" would be represented by a \"N\" and a \"1\" would be represented by a \"P\", followed by an ending ASCII \"F\".[11][13][12] These ten-character ASCII sequences were separated by one or more whitespace characters, therefore using at least eleven ASCII characters for each byte stored (9% efficiency). The ASCII \"N\" and \"P\" characters differed in four bit positions, providing excellent protection from single punch errors. Alternative schemes named BHLF (Begin-High-Low-Finish) and B10F (Begin-One-Zero-Finish) were also available where either \"L\" and \"H\" or \"0\" and \"1\" were also available to represent data bits,[14] but in both of these encoding schemes, the two data-bearing ASCII characters differ in only one bit position, providing very poor single punch error detection.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NCR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NCR_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Dayton, Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dayton,_Ohio"},{"link_name":"Sweda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sweda"}],"sub_title":"Cash registers","text":"NCR of Dayton, Ohio, made cash registers around 1970 that would punch paper tape. Sweda made similar cash registers around the same time. The tape could then be read into a computer and not only could sales information be summarized, billings could be done on charge transactions. The tape was also used for inventory tracking, recording department and class numbers of items sold.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linotype machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linotype_machine"},{"link_name":"Friden Flexowriter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friden_Flexowriter"}],"sub_title":"Newspaper industry","text":"Punched paper tape was used by the newspaper industry until the mid-1970s or later. Newspapers were typically set in hot lead by devices like Linotype machines. With the wire services coming into a device that would punch paper tape, rather than the Linotype operator having to retype all the incoming stories, the paper tape could be put into a paper tape reader on the Linotype and it would create the lead slugs without the operator re-typing the stories. This also allowed newspapers to use devices, such as the Friden Flexowriter, to convert typing to lead type via tape. Even after the demise of Linotype and hot lead typesetting, many early phototypesetter devices utilized paper tape readers.If an error was found at one position on the six-level tape, that character could be turned into a null character to be skipped by punching out the remaining non-punched positions with what was known as a “chicken plucker\". It looked like a strawberry stem remover that, pressed with thumb and forefinger, could punch out the remaining positions, one hole at a time.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paper_Tape_Canister,_Tampered_With.jpg"},{"link_name":"Vernam ciphers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gilbert_Vernam"},{"link_name":"teleprinter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teleprinter"},{"link_name":"National Security Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency"},{"link_name":"cryptographic keys","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_(cryptography)"},{"link_name":"fill device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fill_device"},{"link_name":"KOI-18","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KOI-18"},{"link_name":"EKMS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EKMS"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Punched_tape&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-taleoftape-15"},{"link_name":"tamper-resistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tamper-resistant"}],"sub_title":"Cryptography","text":"This secure paper tape canister shows evidence of tamperingVernam ciphers were invented in 1917 to encrypt teleprinter communications using a key stored on paper tape. During the last third of the 20th century, the National Security Agency (NSA) used punched paper tape to distribute cryptographic keys. The eight-level paper tapes were distributed under strict accounting controls and read by a fill device, such as the hand held KOI-18, that was temporarily connected to each security device that needed new keys. NSA has been trying to replace this method with a more secure electronic key management system (EKMS), but as of 2016[update], paper tape was apparently still being employed.[15] The paper tape canister is a tamper-resistant container that contains features to prevent undetected alteration of the contents.","title":"Applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Acid-free paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acid-free_paper"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Sinha_1986-16"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Acid-free paper or Mylar tapes can be read many decades after manufacture, in contrast with magnetic tape that can deteriorate and become unreadable with time. The hole patterns of punched tape can be decoded by eye if necessary, and even editing of a tape is possible by manual cutting and splicing. Unlike magnetic tape, magnetic fields such as produced by electric motors cannot alter the punched data.[16] In cryptography applications, a punched tape used to distribute a key can be rapidly and completely destroyed by burning, preventing the key from falling into the hands of an enemy.Reliability of paper tape punching operations was a concern, so that for critical applications a new punched tape could be read after punching to verify the correct contents. Rewinding a tape required a takeup reel or other measures to avoid tearing or tangling the tape. [citation needed] In some uses, \"fan fold\" tape simplified handling as the tape would refold into a \"takeup tank\" ready to be re-read. The information density of punched tape was low compared with magnetic tape, making large datasets clumsy to handle in punched tape form.","title":"Advantages and limitations"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Colossus_Paper_Tape.JPG"},{"link_name":"Colossus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colossus_computer"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM1620A.jpg"},{"link_name":"IBM 1620","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1620"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Univac_1105_with_Ferranti_Tape_Reader.jpg"},{"link_name":"UNIVAC 1105","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNIVAC_1105"},{"link_name":"US Census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/US_Census"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paper_Tape_Drive_(31437412070).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Monrobot_Mark_XI.jpg"},{"link_name":"Monrobot XI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monrobot_XI"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PDP-1_loading_a_program_from_the_paper_tape_(2283393712).jpg"},{"link_name":"PDP-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PDP-1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Fotothek_df_n-36_0000003_Facharbeiter_f%C3%BCr_Schreibtechnik.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_1130_(16758008839).jpg"},{"link_name":"IBM 1130","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1130"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Punched_paper_tape_roll.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Digital_Papertape_Reader-Punch.jpg"},{"link_name":"DEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM1403controltape.jpg"},{"link_name":"IBM 1403","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_1403"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:NSA_Punch_Verification_and_Print_system.jpg"},{"link_name":"National Security Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Security_Agency"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mosaic-PeopleScienceMedicine-Center1-Timakova2-Novosibirsk.jpg"},{"link_name":"Novosibirsk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novosibirsk"}],"text":"The 1943 Colossus code-breaking machine used paper tapes to hold data (replica shown)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThis 1959 IBM 1620 relied on paper tape to store data and programs\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tTape reader used with a UNIVAC 1105 for the 1960 US Census\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tA large-capacity industrial tape reader\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThis early-1960s Monrobot XI computer used two paper tape reader/punches for offline data storage\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tFanfold paper tape reader on a PDP-1 minicomputer (1960s)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPaper tape readers for a word-processing system, c. 1970\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLarge IBM 1130 systems still handled paper tape in the early 1970s (at left of console)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tEight-hole tape from 1974\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tThis 1970s DEC high-speed fanfold reader/punch used optical sensing\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPaper tape loop controlling paper positioning in a IBM 1403 line printer (1959-1983)\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tLate-1970s heavy-duty tape punch used by the US National Security Agency for secret code distribution\n\t\t\n\t\t\n\t\t\t\n\t\t\tPunch tape as an element of facade mosaic, Novosibirsk","title":"Gallery"}]

[{"image_text":"Five- and eight-hole wide punched paper tape","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/PaperTapes-5and8Hole.jpg/220px-PaperTapes-5and8Hole.jpg"},{"image_text":"Creed model 6S/2 5-hole paper tape reader","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Creed_model_6S-2_paper_tape_reader.jpg/220px-Creed_model_6S-2_paper_tape_reader.jpg"},{"image_text":"Paper tape reader on the Harwell computer with a small piece of five-hole tape connected in a circle – creating a physical program loop","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Harwell-dekatron-witch-10.jpg/220px-Harwell-dekatron-witch-10.jpg"},{"image_text":"A paper tape, constructed from punched cards, in use in a Jacquard loom. The large holes on each edge are sprocket holes, used to pull the paper tape through the loom.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Jacquard.loom.cards.jpg/170px-Jacquard.loom.cards.jpg"},{"image_text":"Wheatstone slip with a dot, space and a dash punched, and perforator punch plate","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/EB1911_Telegraph_-_Wheatstone_Punching_Apparatus.jpg/220px-EB1911_Telegraph_-_Wheatstone_Punching_Apparatus.jpg"},{"image_text":"Diagnostic minicomputer software on fanfold paper tape (1975)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Papertape2.jpg/220px-Papertape2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Mylar punched tape was used for durability in industrial applications","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Mylar_Punched_tape.jpg/220px-Mylar_Punched_tape.jpg"},{"image_text":"Chadless 5-level Baudot paper tape c. 1975–1980 punched at Teletype Corp","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/1980-Paper_Tape_fromTeletype_%28chadless%2C_5-level_Baudot%29-02.jpg/220px-1980-Paper_Tape_fromTeletype_%28chadless%2C_5-level_Baudot%29-02.jpg"},{"image_text":"The word \"Wikipedia\", and a CR/LF as 7-bit ASCII, without a parity bit, least significant bit on the right—e.g. \"W\" is 1010111","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Papertape-Wikipedia-example-dark1.svg/170px-Papertape-Wikipedia-example-dark1.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Teletype 33 Automatic Send and Receive teleprinter with paper tape in both the reader and the punch","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Teletype_33_ASR.jpg/220px-Teletype_33_ASR.jpg"},{"image_text":"Paper tape relay operation at US FAA's Honolulu flight service station in 1964","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Honolulu_IFSS_Teletype1964.jpg/220px-Honolulu_IFSS_Teletype1964.jpg"},{"image_text":"A 24-channel program tape for the Harvard Mark I (c. 1944)","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Harvard_Mark_I_program_tape.agr.jpg/170px-Harvard_Mark_I_program_tape.agr.jpg"},{"image_text":"Paper tape reader on a computer numerical control (CNC) machine","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Paper_tape_reader_on_a_CNC_control_001.jpg/170px-Paper_tape_reader_on_a_CNC_control_001.jpg"},{"image_text":"This secure paper tape canister shows evidence of tampering","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/Paper_Tape_Canister%2C_Tampered_With.jpg/220px-Paper_Tape_Canister%2C_Tampered_With.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Bit bucket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_bucket"},{"title":"Book music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Book_music"},{"title":"Friden Flexowriter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Friden_Flexowriter"},{"title":"Key punch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Key_punch"},{"title":"Tape library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tape_library"},{"title":"Zygalski sheets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygalski_sheets"}]

[{"reference":"Maxfield, Clive (2011-10-13). \"How it was: Paper tapes and punched cards\". EE Times.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eetimes.com/author.asp?doc_id=1285484","url_text":"\"How it was: Paper tapes and punched cards\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EE_Times","url_text":"EE Times"}]},{"reference":"Roberts, Steven. \"3. Cooke and Wheatstone\". Distant Writing: A History of the Telegraph Companies in Britain between 1838 and 1868.","urls":[{"url":"https://distantwriting.co.uk/cookewheatstone.html","url_text":"\"3. Cooke and Wheatstone\""}]},{"reference":"Smid, Peter (2010). CNC Control Setup for Milling and Turning: Mastering CNC Control Systems. Industrial Press. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-8311-3350-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=-2ev3yYwvq0C&pg=PA20","url_text":"CNC Control Setup for Milling and Turning: Mastering CNC Control Systems"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8311-3350-4","url_text":"978-0-8311-3350-4"}]},{"reference":"Dalakov, Georgi, History of computers: The MARK computers of Howard Aiken, retrieved 2011-01-12","urls":[{"url":"http://history-computer.com/ModernComputer/Relays/Aiken.html","url_text":"History of computers: The MARK computers of Howard Aiken"}]},{"reference":"da Cruz, Frank (April 2021). \"SSEC Tape\". Columbia University Computing History. Retrieved 2024-05-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.columbia.edu/cu/computinghistory/ssec-tape.html","url_text":"\"SSEC Tape\""}]},{"reference":"\"CSIRAC paper tape (replica)\". Computer History Museum. 2010. Retrieved 2023-10-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.computerhistory.org/revolution/birth-of-the-computer/4/92/363","url_text":"\"CSIRAC paper tape (replica)\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_History_Museum","url_text":"Computer History Museum"}]},{"reference":"Lancaster, Don (2010), TV Typewriter Cookbook (PDF), Synergetics SP Press, p. 211","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tinaja.com/ebooks/tvtcb.pdf","url_text":"TV Typewriter Cookbook"}]},{"reference":"Proesch, Roland (2009). Technical Handbook for Radio Monitoring HF: Edition 2009. Books on Demand. ISBN 978-3837045734.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=q_yq7zvehjoC&pg=PA136","url_text":"Technical Handbook for Radio Monitoring HF: Edition 2009"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3837045734","url_text":"978-3837045734"}]},{"reference":"Hult, Ture (1963), \"Presentation of a new high speed paper tape reader\", BIT Numerical Mathematics, 3 (2): 93–96, doi:10.1007/BF01935575, S2CID 61020497","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01935575","url_text":"10.1007/BF01935575"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:61020497","url_text":"61020497"}]},{"reference":"\"Translation File Formats\" (PDF). Data I/O Corporation. Retrieved 2010-08-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://ftp.dataio.com/main/Manuals/UniFam/Translation%20Formats.pdf","url_text":"\"Translation File Formats\""}]},{"reference":"\"Appendix A: A Sample Program in PL/M: BNPF Object Tape\". MCS-8 A Guide to PL/M programming (PDF). Rev 1 (printed September 1974 ed.). 1974-03-15 [September 1973]. p. 101. MCS180-0774-1K, MCS280-0974-1K. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2022-01-29. Retrieved 2022-05-18.","urls":[{"url":"http://bitsavers.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/components/intel/MCS8/MCS-8_A_Guide_to_PLM_Programming_Sep73.pdf","url_text":"MCS-8 A Guide to PL/M programming"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220129035351/http://bitsavers.informatik.uni-stuttgart.de/components/intel/MCS8/MCS-8_A_Guide_to_PLM_Programming_Sep73.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Feichtinger, Herwig (1987). \"1.8.5. Lochstreifen-Datenformate\" [1.8.5. Paper tape data formats]. Arbeitsbuch Mikrocomputer [Microcomputer work book] (in German) (2 ed.). Munich, Germany: Franzis-Verlag GmbH. pp. 240–243. ISBN 3-7723-8022-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franzis-Verlag_GmbH","url_text":"Franzis-Verlag GmbH"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-7723-8022-0","url_text":"3-7723-8022-0"}]},{"reference":"\"Chapter 6. Microcomputer System Component Data Sheet - EPROMs and ROM: I. PROM and ROM Programming Instructions - B2. BPNF Paper Tape Format\". MCS-80 User's Manual (With Introduction to MCS-85). Intel Corporation. October 1977 [1975]. pp. 6–76. 98-153D. Retrieved 2020-02-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/bitsavers_intelMCS80ualOct77_38961682/","url_text":"MCS-80 User's Manual (With Introduction to MCS-85)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_Corporation","url_text":"Intel Corporation"}]},{"reference":"\"A. Serial Data Transfer Formats: ASCII BPNF, BHLF & B10F Formats\". XP640 EPROM Programmer - User Manual (PDF). GP Industrial Electronics. 1984. p. 43. Archived (PDF) from the original on 2023-10-22. Retrieved 2023-10-22.","urls":[{"url":"http://matthieu.benoit.free.fr/pdf/GP%20XP640%20User%20Manual.pdf","url_text":"XP640 EPROM Programmer - User Manual"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20231022185324/http://matthieu.benoit.free.fr/pdf/GP%20XP640%20User%20Manual.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Tale of the Tape\". National Security Agency Central Security Service. 2016-05-03. Archived from the original on 2021-09-23. Retrieved 2014-06-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210923182433/https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic-heritage/historical-figures-publications/publications/misc/tale-of-the-tape/","url_text":"\"Tale of the Tape\""},{"url":"https://www.nsa.gov/about/cryptologic-heritage/historical-figures-publications/publications/misc/tale-of-the-tape/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Sinha, Naresh K. (1986-06-30). Microprocessor-Based Control Systems. Springer. p. 264. ISBN 978-90-277-2287-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=JgalRre0L8wC&pg=PA264","url_text":"Microprocessor-Based Control Systems"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-277-2287-4","url_text":"978-90-277-2287-4"}]},{"reference":"\"ECMA standard for Data Interchange on Punched Tape\". European Computer Manufacturers Association. November 1965. ECMA-10. Archived from the original on 2011-09-27. Retrieved 2003-07-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110927013440/http://www.srcf.ucam.org/~jsm28/ECMA-10/","url_text":"\"ECMA standard for Data Interchange on Punched Tape\""},{"url":"http://www.srcf.ucam.org/~jsm28/ECMA-10/","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thou_(length)

Thousandth of an inch

["1 Contexts of use","1.1 Mil-measurements","1.2 Tenths","1.3 Usage notes on mil versus thou","2 Equivalents in other units of length","3 History of usage","4 References"]

Non-metric unit of length Thousandth of an inchID-1 cards like payment cards have a thickness of 0.03 inches (30 thou).General informationUnit systemImperial/US unitsUnit ofLengthSymbolthou, milConversions 1 thou in ...... is equal to ...    imperial/US units   0.001 in   SI units   25.4 μm A thousandth of an inch is a derived unit of length in a system of units using inches. Equal to 1⁄1000 of an inch, a thousandth is commonly called a thou /ˈθaʊ/ (used for both singular and plural) or, particularly in North America, a mil (plural mils). The words are shortened forms of the English and Latin words for "thousand" (mille in Latin). In international engineering contexts, confusion can arise because mil is a formal unit name in North America but mil or mill is also a common colloquial clipped form of millimetre. The units are considerably different: a millimetre is approximately 39 mils. Contexts of use The thou, or mil, is most commonly used in engineering and manufacturing in non-metric countries. For example, in specifying: The thickness of items such as paper, film, foil, wires, paint coatings, latex gloves, plastic sheeting, and fibers For example, most plastic ID cards are about 30 thou (0.76 mm) in thickness. Card stock thickness in the United States, where mils are also called points. Gauge (diameter) of strings in stringed instruments Manufacturing dimensions and tolerances, such as: In the manufacture of older automobile engines. A typical example is the thickness of the head gasket, or the amount of material to be removed from the head to adjust the compression ratio of the cylinders. In the servicing of older automobile engines. Typical examples include a spark-plug gap or ignition points gap. The manufacture of printed circuit boards (PCBs). However, the component dimensions are now typically provided in millimetres, because they are sold worldwide. Tolerance specifications on hydraulic cylinders There are also compound units such as "mils per year" used to express corrosion rates. Mil-measurements The word "mil" appears in the following different units: linear mil = 0.0254 mm (0.001 in) square mil = 0.00064516 mm2 (1.0×10−6 sq in) circular mil = 0.0005067 mm2 (7.854×10−7 sq in) = π/4 square mil angular mil ≈ 1 milliradian ≈ 0.057296 degrees (also known as NATO mil) Tenths In areas of machining where the thou is used, 0.0001 inches (2.54 micrometres) is often treated as a basic unit and can be referred to as "one tenth", meaning "one tenth of a thou" or "one ten thousandth". Other common terms used in machining with Imperial units involve adding tenths together to achieve a specific tolerance or measurement. For example, "five tenths," is typically a measurement or tolerance of five ten-thousandths of an inch, and written as 0.0005 inches. "Three tenths," as another example, is written as 0.0003 inches Machining "to within a few tenths" is often considered very accurate, and at or near the extreme limit of tolerance capability in most contexts. Greater accuracy (tolerance ranges inside one tenth) apply in only a few contexts: in plug gauge and gauge block manufacturing or calibration, they are typically expressed in millionths of an inch or, alternatively, in micrometres; in nanotechnology, nanometres or picometres are used. Usage notes on mil versus thou In the United States, mil was once the more common term, but as use of the metric system has become more common, thou has replaced mil among most technical users to avoid confusion with millimetres. Today both terms are used, but in specific contexts one is traditionally preferred over the other. Equivalents in other units of length 1 thou is equal to: 0.001 international inches (1 international inch is equal to 1,000 thou) 0.0254 mm, or 25.4 μm (1 millimetre is about 39.37 thou) History of usage The introduction of the thousandth of an inch as a base unit in engineering and machining is generally attributed to Joseph Whitworth who wrote in 1857: ... instead of our engineers and machinists thinking in eighths, sixteenths and thirty-seconds of an inch, it is desirable that they should think and speak in tenths, hundredths, and thousandths ... Whitworth's main point was to advocate decimalization in place of fractions based on successive halving; but in mentioning thousandths, he was also broaching the idea of a finer division than had been used previously. Until then, workers such as millwrights, boilermakers, and machinists in the Anglosphere measured only in traditional fractions of an inch, divided via successive halving, usually only as far as 64ths (1, 1⁄2, 1⁄4, 1⁄8, 1⁄16, 1⁄32, 1⁄64). Each 64th is about 16 thou. Communication about sizes smaller than a 64th of an inch was subjective and hampered by a degree of ineffability—while phrases such as "scant 64th" or "heavy 64th" were used, they were imprecise. Dimensions and geometry could be controlled to high accuracy, but this was done by comparative methods: comparison against templates or other gauges, feeling the degree of drag of calipers, or simply repeatably cutting, relying on the positioning consistency of jigs, fixtures, and machine slides. Such work could only be done in craft fashion: on-site, by feel, rather than at a distance working from drawings and written notes. Although measurement was certainly a part of the daily routine, the highest-precision aspects of the work were achieved by feel or by gauge, not by measuring (as in determining counts of units). This in turn limited the kinds of process designs that could work, because they limited the degree of separation of concerns that could occur. The introduction of the thou as a base unit for machining work required the dissemination of vernier calipers and screw micrometers throughout the trade, as the unit is too small to be measured with practical repeatability using rules alone. (Most rule markings were far too wide to mark a single mil, and even if such dividing is accomplished, it is unclear to the naked eye, being discernible but not useful for measuring.) During the following half century, such measuring instruments, previously expensive rarities, became widespread, everyday tools among machinists. Bringing more metrology into machining made possible, for example, designing an assembly in the form of an engineering drawing, then having the mating parts made at different firms who did not have any contact with (or even awareness of) each other—yet still being sure that their products would have the desired fit. References ^ "mil". Lexico UK English Dictionary. Oxford University Press. Archived from the original on July 13, 2021. ^ "Paper weight comparison and more". paper-paper.com. Micro Format. Retrieved 2016-01-18. ^ Carruthers, John; Hurwitz, Tobia (2014). Guitar Care and Gear Essentials. Canada: Alfred Music Publishing. p. 146. ^ Guitar facts. Joe Bennett. Milwaukee, WI: H. Leonard. 2002. p. 164. ISBN 0-634-05192-X. OCLC 52282608.{{cite book}}: CS1 maint: others (link) ^ "The Gerber Format Specification" (PDF). Ucamco. July 2014. p. 30. Retrieved 2014-08-27. ^ Skinner, Richard D., ed. (1993). "Packaging". Basic Integrated Circuit Technology Reference Manual (PDF). US: Integrated Circuit Engineering Corporation. ISBN 1-877750-24-7. Retrieved 2021-07-10 – via Smithsonian Chips. ^ "Corrosion Rate Conversion", Corrosionist.com ^ "...the smallest move of one-tenth (not 0.1 but 0.0001 of an inch)...", Dan Nelson, The CNC Toolbox, p89 ^ "Beginner's Guide To Reading Machine Shop Numbers & Values". machinistguides.com. Amazon Services LLC Associates Program. Retrieved 2023-04-28. ^ a b Mil at How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement by Russ Rowlett ^ a b University of Queensland: PCB design FAQ ^ Thou at How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement by Russ Rowlett ^ Edkins, Jo. "Small units". Imperial Measures of Length. Jo Edkins. Retrieved 2009-09-23. ^ "A Paper on Standard Decimal Measures of Length", Manchester, 1857 vteImperial unitsComparison with US customary systemLength Twip Thousandth of an inch Barleycorn Inch Hand Link Foot Yard Fathom Rod Chain Gunter's chain Furlong Cable Mile Nautical mile League Area Square inch Square foot Square yard Perch Rood Acre Square mile VolumeDerived Cubic inch Cubic foot Hoppus Cubic yard Cubic mile Tmcft Cooking Teaspoon Tablespoon Fluid ounce Cup Pint Quart Trade gallon Gallon Other Chaldron Minim Gill Fluid Scruple Fluid Drachm Peck Bushel Barrel Stuck Hogshead Speed Miles per hour Mass Grain Drachm Ounce Pound (mass) Stone Quarter Slug Long hundred Hundredweight Ship load Ton Pressure Ksi Pounds per square inch Other units and measures British thermal unit Degree Fahrenheit Rankine Foot-candle Foot-pound Foot-poundal Horsepower Horsepower-hour Kenning Pound (force) Pound-foot Poundal Span Spinning count Related systems Avoirdupois system English units Winchester Exchequer English Engineering units Foot–pound–second system (FPS) Twenty-foot equivalent unit vteUnited States customary unitsComparison with imperial unit systemLength Thousandth of an inch Inch Hand Link Foot Yard Rod Chain Furlong Mile statute Area Square inch Square foot Square yard Acre Square mile VolumeDerived Cubic inch Cubic foot Cubic yard Cubic mile Cooking Teaspoon Tablespoon Fluid ounce Cup Pint Quart Gallon Wood Board foot Cord Face cord Other Minim Gill Peck Bushel Barrel Acre-foot Speed Feet per second Miles per hour Mass Grain Dram Ounce Pound Hundredweight Ton Long Short Force Poundal Pound-force Kip Pressure Inch of mercury Pounds per square inch Kilopounds per square inch Other units and measures Bolt (cloth) British thermal unit Degree (angle) Fahrenheit Foot-candle Foot-lambert Foot-pound (energy) Horsepower Perm Pound-foot (torque) Spinning count Ton of refrigeration Related systems American wire gauge Avoirdupois system Body jewelry sizes English Engineering Units Foot–pound–second system (FPS)

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Until then, workers such as millwrights, boilermakers, and machinists in the Anglosphere measured only in traditional fractions of an inch, divided via successive halving, usually only as far as 64ths (1, 1⁄2, 1⁄4, 1⁄8, 1⁄16, 1⁄32, 1⁄64). Each 64th is about 16 thou. Communication about sizes smaller than a 64th of an inch was subjective and hampered by a degree of ineffability—while phrases such as \"scant 64th\" or \"heavy 64th\" were used, they were imprecise. Dimensions and geometry could be controlled to high accuracy, but this was done by comparative methods: comparison against templates or other gauges, feeling the degree of drag of calipers, or simply repeatably cutting, relying on the positioning consistency of jigs, fixtures, and machine slides. Such work could only be done in craft fashion: on-site, by feel, rather than at a distance working from drawings and written notes. Although measurement was certainly a part of the daily routine, the highest-precision aspects of the work were achieved by feel or by gauge, not by measuring (as in determining counts of units). This in turn limited the kinds of process designs that could work, because they limited the degree of separation of concerns that could occur.The introduction of the thou as a base unit for machining work required the dissemination of vernier calipers and screw micrometers throughout the trade, as the unit is too small to be measured with practical repeatability using rules alone. (Most rule markings were far too wide to mark a single mil, and even if such dividing is accomplished, it is unclear to the naked eye, being discernible but not useful for measuring.) During the following half century, such measuring instruments, previously expensive rarities, became widespread, everyday tools among machinists. Bringing more metrology into machining made possible, for example, designing an assembly in the form of an engineering drawing, then having the mating parts made at different firms who did not have any contact with (or even awareness of) each other—yet still being sure that their products would have the desired fit.","title":"History of usage"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_first-order_theories

List of first-order theories

["1 Preliminaries","2 Pure identity theories","3 Unary relations","4 Equivalence relations","5 Orders","6 Lattices","7 Graphs","8 Boolean algebras","9 Groups","10 Rings and fields","11 Geometry","12 Differential algebra","13 Addition","14 Arithmetic","15 Second order arithmetic","16 Set theories","17 See also","18 References","19 Further reading"]

Theories in mathematical logic In first-order logic, a first-order theory is given by a set of axioms in some language. This entry lists some of the more common examples used in model theory and some of their properties. Preliminaries For every natural mathematical structure there is a signature σ listing the constants, functions, and relations of the theory together with their arities, so that the object is naturally a σ-structure. Given a signature σ there is a unique first-order language Lσ that can be used to capture the first-order expressible facts about the σ-structure. There are two common ways to specify theories: List or describe a set of sentences in the language Lσ, called the axioms of the theory. Give a set of σ-structures, and define a theory to be the set of sentences in Lσ holding in all these models. For example, the "theory of finite fields" consists of all sentences in the language of fields that are true in all finite fields. An Lσ theory may: be consistent: no proof of contradiction exists; be satisfiable: there exists a σ-structure for which the sentences of the theory are all true (by the completeness theorem, satisfiability is equivalent to consistency); be complete: for any statement, either it or its negation is provable; have quantifier elimination; eliminate imaginaries; be finitely axiomatizable; be decidable: There is an algorithm to decide which statements are provable; be recursively axiomatizable; be model complete or sub-model complete; be κ-categorical: All models of cardinality κ are isomorphic; be stable or unstable; be ω-stable (same as totally transcendental for countable theories); be superstable have an atomic model; have a prime model; have a saturated model. Pure identity theories Main article: Theory of pure equality The signature of the pure identity theory is empty, with no functions, constants, or relations. Pure identity theory has no (non-logical) axioms. It is decidable. One of the few interesting properties that can be stated in the language of pure identity theory is that of being infinite. This is given by an infinite set of axioms stating there are at least 2 elements, there are at least 3 elements, and so on: ∃x1 ∃x2 ¬x1 = x2,    ∃x1 ∃x2 ∃x3 ¬x1 = x2 ∧ ¬x1 = x3 ∧ ¬x2 = x3,... These axioms define the theory of an infinite set. The opposite property of being finite cannot be stated in first-order logic for any theory that has arbitrarily large finite models: in fact any such theory has infinite models by the compactness theorem. In general if a property can be stated by a finite number of sentences of first-order logic then the opposite property can also be stated in first-order logic, but if a property needs an infinite number of sentences then its opposite property cannot be stated in first-order logic. Any statement of pure identity theory is equivalent to either σ(N) or to ¬σ(N) for some finite subset N of the non-negative integers, where σ(N) is the statement that the number of elements is in N. It is even possible to describe all possible theories in this language as follows. Any theory is either the theory of all sets of cardinality in N for some finite subset N of the non-negative integers, or the theory of all sets whose cardinality is not in N, for some finite or infinite subset N of the non-negative integers. (There are no theories whose models are exactly sets of cardinality N if N is an infinite subset of the integers.) The complete theories are the theories of sets of cardinality n for some finite n, and the theory of infinite sets. One special case of this is the inconsistent theory defined by the axiom ∃x ¬x = x. It is a perfectly good theory with many good properties: it is complete, decidable, finitely axiomatizable, and so on. The only problem is that it has no models at all. By Gödel's completeness theorem, it is the only theory (for any given language) with no models. It is not the same as the theory of the empty set (in versions of first-order logic that allow a model to be empty): the theory of the empty set has exactly one model, which has no elements. Unary relations A set of unary relations Pi for i in some set I is called independent if for every two disjoint finite subsets A and B of I there is some element x such that Pi(x) is true for i in A and false for i in B. Independence can be expressed by a set of first-order statements. The theory of a countable number of independent unary relations is complete, but has no atomic models. It is also an example of a theory that is superstable but not totally transcendental. Equivalence relations The signature of equivalence relations has one binary infix relation symbol ~, no constants, and no functions. Equivalence relations satisfy the axioms: Reflexive ∀x x~x; Symmetric ∀x ∀y x~y → y~x; Transitive: ∀x ∀y ∀z (x~y ∧ y~z) → x~z. Some first-order properties of equivalence relations are: ~ has an infinite number of equivalence classes; ~ has exactly n equivalence classes (for any fixed positive integer n); All equivalence classes are infinite; All equivalence classes have size exactly n (for any fixed positive integer n). The theory of an equivalence relation with exactly 2 infinite equivalence classes is an easy example of a theory which is ω-categorical but not categorical for any larger cardinal. The equivalence relation ~ should not be confused with the identity symbol '=': if x=y then x~y, but the converse is not necessarily true. Theories of equivalence relations are not all that difficult or interesting, but often give easy examples or counterexamples for various statements. The following constructions are sometimes used to produce examples of theories with certain spectra; in fact by applying them to a small number of explicit theories T one gets examples of complete countable theories with all possible uncountable spectra. If T is a theory in some language, we define a new theory 2T by adding a new binary relation to the language, and adding axioms stating that it is an equivalence relation, such that there are an infinite number of equivalence classes all of which are models of T. It is possible to iterate this construction transfinitely: given an ordinal α, define a new theory by adding an equivalence relation Eβ for each β<α, together with axioms stating that whenever β<γ then each Eγ equivalence class is the union of infinitely many Eβ equivalence classes, and each E0 equivalence class is a model of T. Informally, one can visualize models of this theory as infinitely branching trees of height α with models of T attached to all leaves. Orders The signature of orders has no constants or functions, and one binary relation symbols ≤. (It is of course possible to use ≥, < or > instead as the basic relation, with the obvious minor changes to the axioms.) We define x ≥ y, x < y, x > y as abbreviations for y ≤ x, x ≤ y ∧¬y ≤ x, y < x, Some first-order properties of orders: Transitive: ∀x ∀y ∀z (x ≤ y) ∧ (y ≤ z) → x ≤ z Reflexive: ∀x x ≤ x Antisymmetric: ∀x ∀y (x ≤ y) ∧ (y ≤ x) → x = y Partial: Transitive ∧ Reflexive ∧ Antisymmetric; Linear (or total): Partial ∧ ∀x ∀y (x ≤ y) ∨ (y ≤ x) Dense ("Between any 2 distinct elements there is another element"): ∀x ∀z (x < z) → ∃y (x < y) ∧ (y < z) There is a smallest element: ∃x ∀y (x ≤ y) There is a largest element: ∃x ∀y (y ≤ x) Every element has an immediate successor: ∀x ∃y ∀z (x < z) ↔ (y ≤ z) The theory DLO of dense linear orders without endpoints (i.e. no smallest or largest element) is complete, ω-categorical, but not categorical for any uncountable cardinal. There are three other very similar theories: the theory of dense linear orders with a: Smallest but no largest element; Largest but no smallest element; Largest and smallest element. Being well ordered ("any non-empty subset has a minimal element") is not a first-order property; the usual definition involves quantifying over all subsets. Lattices Lattices can be considered either as special sorts of partially ordered sets, with a signature consisting of one binary relation symbol ≤, or as algebraic structures with a signature consisting of two binary operations ∧ and ∨. The two approaches can be related by defining a ≤ b to mean a∧b = a. For two binary operations the axioms for a lattice are: Commutative laws: ∀ a ∀ b a ∨ b = b ∨ a {\displaystyle \forall a\forall b\;a\vee b=b\vee a} ∀ a ∀ b a ∧ b = b ∧ a {\displaystyle \forall a\forall b\;a\wedge b=b\wedge a} Associative laws: ∀ a ∀ b ∀ c a ∨ ( b ∨ c ) = ( a ∨ b ) ∨ c {\displaystyle \forall a\forall b\forall c\;a\vee (b\vee c)=(a\vee b)\vee c} ∀ a ∀ b ∀ c a ∧ ( b ∧ c ) = ( a ∧ b ) ∧ c {\displaystyle \forall a\forall b\forall c\;a\wedge (b\wedge c)=(a\wedge b)\wedge c} Absorption laws: ∀ a ∀ b a ∨ ( a ∧ b ) = a {\displaystyle \forall a\forall b\;a\vee (a\wedge b)=a} ∀ a ∀ b a ∧ ( a ∨ b ) = a {\displaystyle \forall a\forall b\;a\wedge (a\vee b)=a} For one relation ≤ the axioms are: Axioms stating ≤ is a partial order, as above. ∀ a ∀ b ∃ c c ≤ a ∧ c ≤ b ∧ ∀ d d ≤ a ∧ d ≤ b → d ≤ c {\displaystyle \forall a\forall b\exists c\;c\leq a\wedge c\leq b\wedge \forall d\;d\leq a\wedge d\leq b\rightarrow d\leq c} (existence of c = a∧b) ∀ a ∀ b ∃ c a ≤ c ∧ b ≤ c ∧ ∀ d a ≤ d ∧ b ≤ d → c ≤ d {\displaystyle \forall a\forall b\exists c\;a\leq c\wedge b\leq c\wedge \forall d\;a\leq d\wedge b\leq d\rightarrow c\leq d} (existence of c = a∨b) First-order properties include: ∀ x ∀ y ∀ z x ∨ ( y ∧ z ) = ( x ∨ y ) ∧ ( x ∨ z ) {\displaystyle \forall x\forall y\forall z\;x\vee (y\wedge z)=(x\vee y)\wedge (x\vee z)} (distributive lattices) ∀ x ∀ y ∀ z x ∨ ( y ∧ ( x ∨ z ) ) = ( x ∨ y ) ∧ ( x ∨ z ) {\displaystyle \forall x\forall y\forall z\;x\vee (y\wedge (x\vee z))=(x\vee y)\wedge (x\vee z)} (modular lattices) Heyting algebras can be defined as lattices with certain extra first-order properties. Completeness is not a first-order property of lattices. Graphs Main article: Logic of graphs The signature of graphs has no constants or functions, and one binary relation symbol R, where R(x,y) is read as "there is an edge from x to y". The axioms for the theory of graphs are Symmetric: ∀x ∀y R(x,y)→ R(y,x) Anti-reflexive: ∀x ¬R(x,x) ("no loops") The theory of random graphs has the following extra axioms for each positive integer n: For any two disjoint finite sets of size n, there is a point joined to all points of the first set and to no points of the second set. (For each fixed n, it is easy to write this statement in the language of graphs.) The theory of random graphs is ω categorical, complete, and decidable, and its countable model is called the Rado graph. A statement in the language of graphs is true in this theory if and only if the probability that an n-vertex random graph models the statement tends to 1 in the limit as n goes to infinity. Boolean algebras There are several different signatures and conventions used for Boolean algebras: The signature has two constants, 0 and 1, and two binary functions ∧ and ∨ ("and" and "or"), and one unary function ¬ ("not"). This can be confusing as the functions use the same symbols as the propositional functions of first-order logic. In set theory, a common convention is that the language has two constants, 0 and 1, and two binary functions · and +, and one unary function −. The three functions have the same interpretation as the functions in the first convention. Unfortunately, this convention clashes badly with the next convention: In algebra, the usual convention is that the language has two constants, 0 and 1, and two binary functions · and +. The function · has the same meaning as ∧, but a+b means a∨b∧¬(a∧b). The reason for this is that the axioms for a Boolean algebra are then just the axioms for a ring with 1 plus ∀x x2 = x. Unfortunately this clashes with the standard convention in set theory given above. The axioms are: The axioms for a distributive lattice (see above) ∀a a∧¬a = 0, ∀a a∨¬a = 1 (properties of negation) Some authors add the extra axiom ¬0 = 1, to exclude the trivial algebra with one element. Tarski proved that the theory of Boolean algebras is decidable. We write x ≤ y as an abbreviation for x∧y = x, and atom(x) as an abbreviation for ¬x = 0 ∧ ∀y y ≤ x → y = 0 ∨ y = x, read as "x is an atom", in other words a non-zero element with nothing between it and 0. Here are some first-order properties of Boolean algebras: Atomic: ∀x x = 0 ∨ ∃y y ≤ x ∧ atom(y) Atomless: ∀x ¬atom(x) The theory of atomless Boolean algebras is ω-categorical and complete. For any Boolean algebra B, there are several invariants defined as follows. the ideal I(B) consists of elements that are the sum of an atomic and an atomless element (an element with no atoms below it). The quotient algebras Bi of B are defined inductively by B0=B, Bk+1 = Bk/I(Bk). The invariant m(B) is the smallest integer such that Bm+1 is trivial, or ∞ if no such integer exists. If m(B) is finite, the invariant n(B) is the number of atoms of Bm(B) if this number is finite, or ∞ if this number is infinite. The invariant l(B) is 0 if Bm(B) is atomic or if m(B) is ∞, and 1 otherwise. Then two Boolean algebras are elementarily equivalent if and only if their invariants l, m, and n are the same. In other words, the values of these invariants classify the possible completions of the theory of Boolean algebras. So the possible complete theories are: The trivial algebra (if this is allowed; sometimes 0≠1 is included as an axiom.) The theory with m = ∞ The theories with m a natural number, n a natural number or ∞, and l = 0 or 1 (with l = 0 if n = 0). Groups The signature of group theory has one constant 1 (the identity), one function of arity 1 (the inverse) whose value on t is denoted by t−1, and one function of arity 2, which is usually omitted from terms. For any integer n, tn is an abbreviation for the obvious term for the nth power of t. Groups are defined by the axioms Identity: ∀x 1x = x ∧ x1 = x Inverse: ∀x x−1x = 1 ∧ xx−1 = 1 Associativity: ∀x∀y∀z (xy)z = x(yz) Some properties of groups that can be defined in the first-order language of groups are: Abelian: ∀x ∀y xy = yx. Torsion free: ∀x x2 = 1→x = 1, ∀x x3 = 1 → x = 1, ∀x x4 = 1 → x = 1, ... Divisible: ∀x ∃y y2 = x, ∀x ∃y y3 = x, ∀x ∃y y4 = x, ... Infinite (as in identity theory) Exponent n (for any fixed positive integer n): ∀x xn = 1 Nilpotent of class n (for any fixed positive integer n) Solvable of class n (for any fixed positive integer n) The theory of abelian groups is decidable. The theory of infinite divisible torsion-free abelian groups is complete, as is the theory of infinite abelian groups of exponent p (for p prime). The theory of finite groups is the set of first-order statements in the language of groups that are true in all finite groups (there are plenty of infinite models of this theory). It is not completely trivial to find any such statement that is not true for all groups: one example is "given two elements of order 2, either they are conjugate or there is a non-trivial element commuting with both of them". The properties of being finite, or free, or simple, or torsion are not first-order. More precisely, the first-order theory of all groups with one of these properties has models that do not have this property. Rings and fields The signature of (unital) rings has two constants 0 and 1, two binary functions + and ×, and, optionally, one unary negation function −. Rings Axioms: Addition makes the ring into an abelian group, multiplication is associative and has an identity 1, and multiplication is left and right distributive. Commutative rings The axioms for rings plus ∀x ∀y xy = yx. Fields The axioms for commutative rings plus ∀x (¬ x = 0 → ∃y xy = 1) and ¬ 1 = 0. Many of the examples given here have only universal, or algebraic axioms. The class of structures satisfying such a theory has the property of being closed under substructure. For example, a subset of a group closed under the group actions of multiplication and inverse is again a group. Since the signature of fields does not usually include multiplicative and additive inverse, the axioms for inverses are not universal, and therefore a substructure of a field closed under addition and multiplication is not always a field. This can be remedied by adding unary inverse functions to the language. For any positive integer n the property that all equations of degree n have a root can be expressed by a single first-order sentence: ∀ a1 ∀ a2... ∀ an ∃x (...((x+a1)x +a2)x+...)x+an = 0 Perfect fields The axioms for fields, plus axioms for each prime number p stating that if p 1 = 0 (i.e. the field has characteristic p), then every field element has a pth root. Algebraically closed fields of characteristic p The axioms for fields, plus for every positive n the axiom that all polynomials of degree n have a root, plus axioms fixing the characteristic. The classical examples of complete theories. Categorical in all uncountable cardinals. The theory ACFp has a universal domain property, in the sense that every structure N satisfying the universal axioms of ACFp is a substructure of a sufficiently large algebraically closed field M ⊨ A C F 0 {\displaystyle M\models ACF_{0}} , and additionally any two such embeddings N → M induce an automorphism of M. Finite fields The theory of finite fields is the set of all first-order statements that are true in all finite fields. Significant examples of such statements can, for example, be given by applying the Chevalley–Warning theorem, over the prime fields. The name is a little misleading as the theory has plenty of infinite models. Ax proved that the theory is decidable. Formally real fields The axioms for fields plus, for every positive integer n, the axiom: ∀ a1 ∀ a2... ∀ an a1a1+a2a2+ ...+anan=0 → a1=0∧a2=0∧ ... ∧an=0. That is, 0 is not a non-trivial sum of squares. Real closed fields The axioms for formally real fields plus the axioms: ∀x ∃y (x=yy ∨ x+yy= 0); for every odd positive integer n, the axiom stating that every polynomial of degree n has a root. The theory of real closed fields is effective and complete and therefore decidable (the Tarski–Seidenberg theorem). The addition of further function symbols (e.g., the exponential function, the sine function) may change decidability. p-adic fields Ax & Kochen (1965) showed that the theory of p-adic fields is decidable and gave a set of axioms for it. Geometry Axioms for various systems of geometry usually use a typed language, with the different types corresponding to different geometric objects such as points, lines, circles, planes, and so on. The signature will often consist of binary incidence relations between objects of different types; for example, the relation that a point lies on a line. The signature may have more complicated relations; for example ordered geometry might have a ternary "betweenness" relation for 3 points, which says whether one lies between two others, or a "congruence" relation between 2 pairs of points. Some examples of axiomatized systems of geometry include ordered geometry, absolute geometry, affine geometry, Euclidean geometry, projective geometry, and hyperbolic geometry. For each of these geometries there are many different and inequivalent systems of axioms for various dimensions. Some of these axiom systems include "completeness" axioms that are not first order. As a typical example, the axioms for projective geometry use 2 types, points and lines, and a binary incidence relation between points and lines. If point and line variables are indicated by small and capital letter, and a incident to A is written as aA, then one set of axioms is ∀ a ∀ b ¬ a = b → ∃ C a C ∧ b C {\displaystyle \forall a\forall b\;\lnot a=b\rightarrow \exists C\;aC\land bC} (There is a line through any 2 distinct points a,b ...) ∀ a ∀ b ∀ C ∀ D ¬ a = b ∧ a C ∧ b C ∧ a D ∧ b D → C = D {\displaystyle \forall a\forall b\forall C\forall D\;\lnot a=b\land aC\land bC\land aD\land bD\rightarrow C=D} (... which is unique) ∀ a ∀ b ∀ c ∀ d ∀ e ∀ G ∀ H a H ∧ b H ∧ e H ∧ c G ∧ d G ∧ e G → ∃ f ∃ I ∃ J a I ∧ c I ∧ f I ∧ b J ∧ d J ∧ f J {\displaystyle \forall a\forall b\forall c\forall d\forall e\forall G\forall H\;aH\land bH\land eH\land cG\land dG\land eG\rightarrow \exists f\exists I\exists J\;aI\land cI\land fI\land bJ\land dJ\land fJ} (Veblen's axiom: if ab and cd lie on intersecting lines, then so do ac and bd.) ∀ A ∃ b ∃ c ∃ d b A ∧ c A ∧ d A ∧ ¬ b = c ∧ ¬ b = d ∧ ¬ c = d {\displaystyle \forall A\exists b\exists c\exists d\;bA\land cA\land dA\land \lnot b=c\land \lnot b=d\land \lnot c=d} (Every line has at least 3 points) Euclid did not state all the axioms for Euclidean geometry explicitly, and the first complete list was given by Hilbert in Hilbert's axioms. This is not a first-order axiomatization as one of Hilbert's axioms is a second order completeness axiom. Tarski's axioms are a first-order axiomatization of Euclidean geometry. Tarski showed this axiom system is complete and decidable by relating it to the complete and decidable theory of real closed fields. Differential algebra The theory DF of differential fields. The signature is that of fields (0, 1, +, −, ×) together with a unary function ∂, the derivation. The axioms are those for fields together with ∀ u ∀ v ∂ ( u v ) = u ∂ v + v ∂ u {\displaystyle \forall u\forall v\,\partial (uv)=u\,\partial v+v\,\partial u} ∀ u ∀ v ∂ ( u + v ) = ∂ u + ∂ v   . {\displaystyle \forall u\forall v\,\partial (u+v)=\partial u+\partial v\ .} For this theory one can add the condition that the characteristic is p, a prime or zero, to get the theory DFp of differential fields of characteristic p (and similarly with the other theories below). If K is a differential field then the field of constants k = { u ∈ K : ∂ ( u ) = 0 } . {\displaystyle k=\{u\in K:\partial (u)=0\}.} The theory of differentially perfect fields is the theory of differential fields together with the condition that the field of constants is perfect; in other words, for each prime p it has the axiom: ∀ u ∂ ( u ) = 0 ∧ p 1 = 0 → ∃ v v p = u {\displaystyle \forall u\,\partial (u)=0\land p1=0\rightarrow \exists v\,v^{p}=u} (There is little point in demanding that the whole field should be a perfect field, because in non-zero characteristic this implies the differential is 0.) For technical reasons to do with quantifier elimination, it is sometimes more convenient to force the constant field to be perfect by adding a new symbol r to the signature with the axioms ∀ u ∂ ( u ) = 0 ∧ p 1 = 0 → r ( u ) p = u {\displaystyle \forall u\,\partial (u)=0\land p1=0\rightarrow r(u)^{p}=u} ∀ u ¬ ∂ ( u ) = 0 → r ( u ) = 0. {\displaystyle \forall u\,\lnot \partial (u)=0\rightarrow r(u)=0.} The theory of differentially closed fields (DCF) is the theory of differentially perfect fields with axioms saying that if f and g are differential polynomials and the separant of f is nonzero and g≠0 and f has order greater than that of g, then there is some x in the field with f(x)=0 and g(x)≠0. Addition The theory of the natural numbers with a successor function has signature consisting of a constant 0 and a unary function S ("successor": S(x) is interpreted as x+1), and has axioms: ∀x ¬ Sx = 0 ∀x∀y Sx = Sy → x = y Let P(x) be a first-order formula with a single free variable x. Then the following formula is an axiom: (P(0) ∧ ∀x(P(x)→P(Sx))) → ∀y P(y). The last axiom (induction) can be replaced by the axioms For each integer n>0, the axiom ∀x SSS...Sx ≠ x (with n copies of S) ∀x ¬ x = 0 → ∃y Sy = x The theory of the natural numbers with a successor function is complete and decidable, and is κ-categorical for uncountable κ but not for countable κ. Presburger arithmetic is the theory of the natural numbers under addition, with signature consisting of a constant 0, a unary function S, and a binary function +. It is complete and decidable. The axioms are ∀x ¬ Sx = 0 ∀x∀y Sx = Sy → x = y ∀x x + 0 = x ∀x∀y x + Sy = S(x + y) Let P(x) be a first-order formula with a single free variable x. Then the following formula is an axiom: (P(0) ∧ ∀x(P(x)→P(Sx))) → ∀y P(y). Arithmetic Many of the first-order theories described above can be extended to complete recursively enumerable consistent theories. This is no longer true for most of the following theories; they can usually encode both multiplication and addition of natural numbers, and this gives them enough power to encode themselves, which implies that Gödel's incompleteness theorem applies and the theories can no longer be both complete and recursively enumerable (unless they are inconsistent). The signature of a theory of arithmetic has: The constant 0; The unary function, the successor function, here denoted by prefix S, or by prefix σ or postfix ′ elsewhere; Two binary functions, denoted by infix + and ×, called "addition" and "multiplication." Some authors take the signature to contain a constant 1 instead of the function S, then define S in the obvious way as St = 1 + t. Robinson arithmetic (also called Q). Axioms (1) and (2) govern the distinguished element 0. (3) assures that S is an injection. Axioms (4) and (5) are the standard recursive definition of addition; (6) and (7) do the same for multiplication. Robinson arithmetic can be thought of as Peano arithmetic without induction. Q is a weak theory for which Gödel's incompleteness theorem holds. Axioms: ∀x ¬ Sx = 0 ∀x ¬ x = 0 → ∃y Sy = x ∀x∀y Sx = Sy → x = y ∀x x + 0 = x ∀x∀y x + Sy = S(x + y) ∀x x × 0 = 0 ∀x∀y x × Sy = (x × y) + x. IΣn is first-order Peano arithmetic with induction restricted to Σn formulas (for n = 0, 1, 2, ...). The theory IΣ0 is often denoted by IΔ0. This is a series of more and more powerful fragments of Peano arithmetic. The case n = 1 has about the same strength as primitive recursive arithmetic (PRA). Exponential function arithmetic (EFA) is IΣ0 with an axiom stating that xy exists for all x and y (with the usual properties). First-order Peano arithmetic, PA. The "standard" theory of arithmetic. The axioms are the axioms of Robinson arithmetic above, together with the axiom scheme of induction: ϕ ( 0 ) ∧ ( ∀ x ϕ ( x ) → ϕ ( S x ) ) → ( ∀ x ϕ ( x ) ) {\displaystyle \phi (0)\wedge (\forall x\phi (x)\rightarrow \phi (Sx))\rightarrow (\forall x\phi (x))} for any formula φ in the language of PA. φ may contain free variables other than x. Kurt Gödel's 1931 paper proved that PA is incomplete, and has no consistent recursively enumerable completions. Complete arithmetic (also known as true arithmetic) is the theory of the standard model of arithmetic, the natural numbers N. It is complete but does not have a recursively enumerable set of axioms. For the real numbers, the situation is slightly different: The case that includes just addition and multiplication cannot encode the integers, and hence Gödel's incompleteness theorem does not apply. Complications arise when adding further function symbols (e.g., exponentiation). Second order arithmetic Main article: Second-order arithmetic Second-order arithmetic can refer to a first-order theory (in spite of the name) with two types of variables, thought of as varying over integers and subsets of the integers. (There is also a theory of arithmetic in second order logic that is called second order arithmetic. It has only one model, unlike the corresponding theory in first-order logic, which is incomplete.) The signature will typically be the signature 0, S, +, × of arithmetic, together with a membership relation ∈ between integers and subsets (though there are numerous minor variations). The axioms are those of Robinson arithmetic, together with axiom schemes of induction and comprehension. There are many different subtheories of second order arithmetic that differ in which formulas are allowed in the induction and comprehension schemes. In order of increasing strength, five of the most common systems are R C A 0 {\displaystyle {\mathsf {RCA}}_{0}} , Recursive Comprehension W K L 0 {\displaystyle {\mathsf {WKL}}_{0}} , Weak Kőnig's lemma A C A 0 {\displaystyle {\mathsf {ACA}}_{0}} , Arithmetical comprehension A T R 0 {\displaystyle {\mathsf {ATR}}_{0}} , Arithmetical Transfinite Recursion Π 1 1 - C A 0 {\displaystyle \Pi _{1}^{1}{\mbox{-}}{\mathsf {CA}}_{0}} , Π 1 1 {\displaystyle \Pi _{1}^{1}} comprehension These are defined in detail in the articles on second order arithmetic and reverse mathematics. Set theories The usual signature of set theory has one binary relation ∈, no constants, and no functions. Some of the theories below are "class theories" which have two sorts of object, sets and classes. There are three common ways of handling this in first-order logic: Use first-order logic with two types. Use ordinary first-order logic, but add a new unary predicate "Set", where "Set(t)" means informally "t is a set". Use ordinary first-order logic, and instead of adding a new predicate to the language, treat "Set(t)" as an abbreviation for "∃y t∈y" Some first-order set theories include: Weak theories lacking powersets: S' (Tarski, Mostowski, and Robinson, 1953); (finitely axiomatizable) Kripke–Platek set theory; KP; Pocket set theory General set theory, GST Constructive set theory, CZF Mac Lane set theory and Elementary topos theory Zermelo set theory; Z Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory; ZF, ZFC; Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory; NBG; (finitely axiomatizable) Ackermann set theory; Scott–Potter set theory New Foundations; NF (finitely axiomatizable) Positive set theory Morse–Kelley set theory; MK; Tarski–Grothendieck set theory; TG; Some extra first-order axioms that can be added to one of these (usually ZF) include: axiom of choice, axiom of dependent choice Generalized continuum hypothesis Martin's axiom (usually together with the negation of the continuum hypothesis), Martin's maximum ◊ and ♣ Axiom of constructibility (V=L) proper forcing axiom analytic determinacy, projective determinacy, Axiom of determinacy Many large cardinal axioms See also Mathematics portal Glossary of areas of mathematics List of mathematical theories References ^ Goldrei, Derek (2005), Propositional and Predicate Calculus: A Model of Argument: A Model of Argument, Springer, p. 265, ISBN 9781846282294. ^ Szmielew, W. (1955), "Elementary properties of Abelian groups", Fundamenta Mathematicae, 41 (2): 203–271, doi:10.4064/fm-41-2-203-271, MR 0072131. ^ Ax, James; Kochen, Simon (1965), "Diophantine problems over local fields. II. A complete set of axioms for p-adic number theory.", Amer. J. Math., 87 (3), The Johns Hopkins University Press: 631–648, doi:10.2307/2373066, JSTOR 2373066, MR 0184931 Further reading Chang, C.C.; Keisler, H. Jerome (1989), Model Theory (3 ed.), Elsevier, ISBN 0-7204-0692-7 Hodges, Wilfrid (1997), A shorter model theory, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-58713-1 Marker, David (2002), Model Theory: An Introduction, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 217, Springer, ISBN 0-387-98760-6 vteMathematical logicGeneral Axiom list Cardinality First-order logic Formal proof Formal semantics Foundations of mathematics Information theory Lemma Logical consequence Model Theorem Theory Type theory Theorems (list) and paradoxes Gödel's completeness and incompleteness theorems Tarski's undefinability Banach–Tarski paradox Cantor's theorem, paradox and diagonal argument Compactness Halting problem Lindström's Löwenheim–Skolem Russell's paradox LogicsTraditional Classical logic Logical truth Tautology Proposition Inference Logical equivalence Consistency Equiconsistency Argument Soundness Validity Syllogism Square of opposition Venn diagram Propositional Boolean algebra Boolean functions Logical connectives Propositional calculus Propositional formula Truth tables Many-valued logic 3 finite ∞ Predicate First-order list Second-order Monadic Higher-order Fixed-point Free Quantifiers Predicate Monadic predicate calculus Set theory Set hereditary Class (Ur-)Element Ordinal number Extensionality Forcing Relation equivalence partition Set operations: intersection union complement Cartesian product power set identities Types of sets Countable Uncountable Empty Inhabited Singleton Finite Infinite Transitive Ultrafilter Recursive Fuzzy Universal Universe constructible Grothendieck Von Neumann Maps and cardinality Function/Map domain codomain image In/Sur/Bi-jection Schröder–Bernstein theorem Isomorphism Gödel numbering Enumeration Large cardinal inaccessible Aleph number Operation binary Set theories Zermelo–Fraenkel axiom of choice continuum hypothesis General Kripke–Platek Morse–Kelley Naive New Foundations Tarski–Grothendieck Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel Ackermann Constructive Formal systems (list),language and syntax Alphabet Arity Automata Axiom schema Expression ground Extension by definition conservative Relation Formation rule Grammar Formula atomic closed ground open Free/bound variable Language Metalanguage Logical connective ¬ ∨ ∧ → ↔ = Predicate functional variable propositional variable Proof Quantifier ∃ ! ∀ rank Sentence atomic spectrum Signature String Substitution Symbol function logical/constant non-logical variable Term Theory list Example axiomaticsystems (list) of arithmetic: Peano second-order elementary function primitive recursive Robinson Skolem of the real numbers Tarski's axiomatization of Boolean algebras canonical minimal axioms of geometry: Euclidean: Elements Hilbert's Tarski's non-Euclidean Principia Mathematica Proof theory Formal proof Natural deduction Logical consequence Rule of inference Sequent calculus Theorem Systems axiomatic deductive Hilbert list Complete theory Independence (from ZFC) Proof of impossibility Ordinal analysis Reverse mathematics Self-verifying theories Model theory Interpretation function of models Model equivalence finite saturated spectrum submodel Non-standard model of arithmetic Diagram elementary Categorical theory Model complete theory Satisfiability Semantics of logic Strength Theories of truth semantic Tarski's Kripke's T-schema Transfer principle Truth predicate Truth value Type Ultraproduct Validity Computability theory Church encoding Church–Turing thesis Computably enumerable Computable function Computable set Decision problem decidable undecidable P NP P versus NP problem Kolmogorov complexity Lambda calculus Primitive recursive function Recursion Recursive set Turing machine Type theory Related Abstract logic Algebraic logic Automated theorem proving Category theory Concrete/Abstract category Category of sets History of logic History of mathematical logic timeline Logicism Mathematical object Philosophy of mathematics Supertask Mathematics portal

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"first-order logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-order_logic"},{"link_name":"set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"model theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_theory"}],"text":"In first-order logic, a first-order theory is given by a set of axioms in some\nlanguage. This entry lists some of the more common examples used in model theory and some of their properties.","title":"List of first-order theories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"signature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signature_(logic)"},{"link_name":"arities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arity"},{"link_name":"σ-structure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_theory"},{"link_name":"sentences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"completeness theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Completeness_theorem"},{"link_name":"quantifier elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantifier_elimination"},{"link_name":"eliminate imaginaries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elimination_of_imaginaries"},{"link_name":"finitely axiomatizable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_schema#Finite_axiomatization"},{"link_name":"decidable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decidability_(logic)"},{"link_name":"model complete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_complete"},{"link_name":"κ-categorical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morley%27s_categoricity_theorem"},{"link_name":"cardinality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality"},{"link_name":"stable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stable_theory"},{"link_name":"ω-stable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A9-stable"},{"link_name":"totally transcendental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totally_transcendental"},{"link_name":"countable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countable_set"},{"link_name":"superstable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstable"},{"link_name":"atomic model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_model_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"prime model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_model"},{"link_name":"saturated model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturated_model"}],"text":"For every natural mathematical structure there is a signature σ listing the constants, functions, and relations of the theory together with their arities, so that the object is naturally a σ-structure. Given a signature σ there is a unique first-order language Lσ that can be used to capture the first-order expressible facts about the σ-structure.There are two common ways to specify theories:List or describe a set of sentences in the language Lσ, called the axioms of the theory.\nGive a set of σ-structures, and define a theory to be the set of sentences in Lσ holding in all these models. For example, the \"theory of finite fields\" consists of all sentences in the language of fields that are true in all finite fields.An Lσ theory may:be consistent: no proof of contradiction exists;\nbe satisfiable: there exists a σ-structure for which the sentences of the theory are all true (by the completeness theorem, satisfiability is equivalent to consistency);\nbe complete: for any statement, either it or its negation is provable;\nhave quantifier elimination;\neliminate imaginaries;\nbe finitely axiomatizable;\nbe decidable: There is an algorithm to decide which statements are provable;\nbe recursively axiomatizable;\nbe model complete or sub-model complete;\nbe κ-categorical: All models of cardinality κ are isomorphic;\nbe stable or unstable;\nbe ω-stable (same as totally transcendental for countable theories);\nbe superstable\nhave an atomic model;\nhave a prime model;\nhave a saturated model.","title":"Preliminaries"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"first-order logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-order_logic"},{"link_name":"compactness theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compactness_theorem"},{"link_name":"subset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subset"},{"link_name":"non-negative integers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-negative_integer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"empty set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_set"}],"text":"The signature of the pure identity theory is empty, with no functions, constants, or relations.Pure identity theory has no (non-logical) axioms. It is decidable.One of the few interesting properties that can be stated in the language of pure identity theory is that of being infinite.\nThis is given by an infinite set of axioms stating there are at least 2 elements, there are at least 3 elements, and so on:∃x1 ∃x2 ¬x1 = x2,    ∃x1 ∃x2 ∃x3 ¬x1 = x2 ∧ ¬x1 = x3 ∧ ¬x2 = x3,...These axioms define the theory of an infinite set.The opposite property of being finite cannot be stated in first-order logic for any theory that has arbitrarily large finite models: in fact any such theory has infinite models by the compactness theorem. In general if a property can be stated by a finite number of sentences of first-order logic then the opposite property can also be stated in first-order logic, but if a property needs an infinite number of sentences then its opposite property cannot be stated in first-order logic.Any statement of pure identity theory is equivalent to either σ(N) or to ¬σ(N) for some finite subset N of the non-negative integers, where σ(N) is the statement that the number of elements is in N. It is even possible to describe all possible theories in this language as follows. Any theory is either the theory of all sets of cardinality in N for some finite subset N of the non-negative integers, or the theory of all sets whose cardinality is not in N, for some finite or infinite subset N of the non-negative integers. (There are no theories whose models are exactly sets of cardinality N if N is an infinite subset of the integers.) The complete theories are the theories of sets of cardinality n for some finite n, and the theory of infinite sets.One special case of this is the inconsistent theory defined by the axiom ∃x ¬x = x. It is a perfectly good theory with many good properties: it is complete, decidable, finitely axiomatizable, and so on. The only problem is that it has no models at all. By Gödel's completeness theorem, it is the only theory (for any given language) with no models.[1] It is not the same as the theory of the empty set (in versions of first-order logic that allow a model to be empty): the theory of the empty set has exactly one model, which has no elements.","title":"Pure identity theories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"atomic models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_model_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"superstable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superstable"},{"link_name":"totally transcendental","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Totally_transcendental"}],"text":"A set of unary relations Pi for i in some set I is called independent if for every two disjoint finite subsets A and B of I there is some element x such that Pi(x) is true for i in A and false for i in B. Independence can be expressed by a set of first-order statements.The theory of a countable number of independent unary relations is complete, but has no atomic models. It is also an example of a theory that is superstable but not totally transcendental.","title":"Unary relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"equivalence relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_relation"},{"link_name":"Reflexive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_relation"},{"link_name":"Symmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_relation"},{"link_name":"Transitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_relation"},{"link_name":"equivalence classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_classes"},{"link_name":"equivalence classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_class"},{"link_name":"cardinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_number"},{"link_name":"identity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"spectra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_of_a_theory"},{"link_name":"models","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model_theory"},{"link_name":"transfinitely","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transfinite_induction"},{"link_name":"ordinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinal_number"}],"text":"The signature of equivalence relations has one binary infix relation symbol ~, no constants, and no functions. Equivalence relations satisfy the axioms:Reflexive ∀x x~x;\nSymmetric ∀x ∀y x~y → y~x;\nTransitive: ∀x ∀y ∀z (x~y ∧ y~z) → x~z.Some first-order properties of equivalence relations are:~ has an infinite number of equivalence classes;\n~ has exactly n equivalence classes (for any fixed positive integer n);\nAll equivalence classes are infinite;\nAll equivalence classes have size exactly n (for any fixed positive integer n).The theory of an equivalence relation with exactly 2 infinite equivalence classes is an easy example of a theory which is ω-categorical but not categorical for any larger cardinal.The equivalence relation ~ should not be confused with the identity symbol '=': if x=y then x~y, but the converse is not necessarily true. Theories of equivalence relations are not all that difficult or interesting, but often give easy examples or counterexamples for various statements.The following constructions are sometimes used to produce examples of theories with certain spectra; in fact by applying them to a small number of explicit theories T one gets examples of complete countable theories with all possible uncountable spectra. If T is a theory in some language, we define a new theory 2T by adding a new binary relation to the language, and adding axioms stating that it is an equivalence relation, such that there are an infinite number of equivalence classes all of which are models of T. It is possible to iterate this construction transfinitely: given an ordinal α, define a new theory by adding an equivalence relation Eβ for each β<α, together with axioms stating that whenever β<γ then each Eγ equivalence class is the union of infinitely many Eβ equivalence classes, and each E0 equivalence class is a model of T. Informally, one can visualize models of this theory as infinitely branching trees of height α with models of T attached to all leaves.","title":"Equivalence relations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"orders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_order_structures_in_mathematics"},{"link_name":"Antisymmetric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antisymmetric_relation"},{"link_name":"Partial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partial_order"},{"link_name":"Linear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_order"},{"link_name":"Dense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dense_order"},{"link_name":"well ordered","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-ordered_set"}],"text":"The signature of orders has no constants or functions, and one binary relation symbols ≤. (It is of course possible to use ≥, < or > instead as the basic relation, with the obvious minor changes to the axioms.)\nWe define x ≥ y, x < y, x > y as abbreviations for y ≤ x, x ≤ y ∧¬y ≤ x, y < x,Some first-order properties of orders:Transitive: ∀x ∀y ∀z (x ≤ y) ∧ (y ≤ z) → x ≤ z\nReflexive: ∀x x ≤ x\nAntisymmetric: ∀x ∀y (x ≤ y) ∧ (y ≤ x) → x = y\nPartial: Transitive ∧ Reflexive ∧ Antisymmetric;\nLinear (or total): Partial ∧ ∀x ∀y (x ≤ y) ∨ (y ≤ x)\nDense (\"Between any 2 distinct elements there is another element\"): ∀x ∀z (x < z) → ∃y (x < y) ∧ (y < z)\nThere is a smallest element: ∃x ∀y (x ≤ y)\nThere is a largest element: ∃x ∀y (y ≤ x)\nEvery element has an immediate successor: ∀x ∃y ∀z (x < z) ↔ (y ≤ z)The theory DLO of dense linear orders without endpoints (i.e. no smallest or largest element) is complete, ω-categorical, but not categorical for any uncountable cardinal. There are three other very similar theories: the theory of dense linear orders with a:Smallest but no largest element;\nLargest but no smallest element;\nLargest and smallest element.Being well ordered (\"any non-empty subset has a minimal element\") is not a first-order property; the usual definition involves quantifying over all subsets.","title":"Orders"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lattices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_(order)"},{"link_name":"algebraic structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_structure"},{"link_name":"distributive lattices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributive_lattice"},{"link_name":"modular lattices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_lattice"},{"link_name":"Heyting algebras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heyting_algebra"},{"link_name":"Completeness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complete_lattice"}],"text":"Lattices can be considered either as special sorts of partially ordered sets, with a signature consisting of one binary relation symbol ≤, or as algebraic structures with a signature consisting of two binary operations ∧ and ∨. The two approaches can be related by defining a ≤ b to mean a∧b = a.For two binary operations the axioms for a lattice are:For one relation ≤ the axioms are:Axioms stating ≤ is a partial order, as above.\n\n \n \n \n ∀\n a\n ∀\n b\n ∃\n c\n \n c\n ≤\n a\n ∧\n c\n ≤\n b\n ∧\n ∀\n d\n \n d\n ≤\n a\n ∧\n d\n ≤\n b\n →\n d\n ≤\n c\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall a\\forall b\\exists c\\;c\\leq a\\wedge c\\leq b\\wedge \\forall d\\;d\\leq a\\wedge d\\leq b\\rightarrow d\\leq c}\n \n (existence of c = a∧b)\n\n \n \n \n ∀\n a\n ∀\n b\n ∃\n c\n \n a\n ≤\n c\n ∧\n b\n ≤\n c\n ∧\n ∀\n d\n \n a\n ≤\n d\n ∧\n b\n ≤\n d\n →\n c\n ≤\n d\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall a\\forall b\\exists c\\;a\\leq c\\wedge b\\leq c\\wedge \\forall d\\;a\\leq d\\wedge b\\leq d\\rightarrow c\\leq d}\n \n (existence of c = a∨b)First-order properties include:∀\n x\n ∀\n y\n ∀\n z\n \n x\n ∨\n (\n y\n ∧\n z\n )\n =\n (\n x\n ∨\n y\n )\n ∧\n (\n x\n ∨\n z\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall x\\forall y\\forall z\\;x\\vee (y\\wedge z)=(x\\vee y)\\wedge (x\\vee z)}\n \n (distributive lattices)\n\n \n \n \n ∀\n x\n ∀\n y\n ∀\n z\n \n x\n ∨\n (\n y\n ∧\n (\n x\n ∨\n z\n )\n )\n =\n (\n x\n ∨\n y\n )\n ∧\n (\n x\n ∨\n z\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall x\\forall y\\forall z\\;x\\vee (y\\wedge (x\\vee z))=(x\\vee y)\\wedge (x\\vee z)}\n \n (modular lattices)Heyting algebras can be defined as lattices with certain extra first-order properties.Completeness is not a first-order property of lattices.","title":"Lattices"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"graphs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Anti-reflexive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-reflexive"},{"link_name":"loops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loop_(graph_theory)"},{"link_name":"Rado graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rado_graph"},{"link_name":"random graph","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Random_graph"}],"text":"The signature of graphs has no constants or functions, and one binary relation symbol R, where R(x,y) is read as \"there is an edge from x to y\".The axioms for the theory of graphs areSymmetric: ∀x ∀y R(x,y)→ R(y,x)\nAnti-reflexive: ∀x ¬R(x,x) (\"no loops\")The theory of random graphs has the following extra axioms for each positive integer n:For any two disjoint finite sets of size n, there is a point joined to all points of the first set and to no points of the second set. (For each fixed n, it is easy to write this statement in the language of graphs.)The theory of random graphs is ω categorical, complete, and decidable, and its countable model is called the Rado graph. A statement in the language of graphs is true in this theory if and only if the probability that an n-vertex random graph models the statement tends to 1 in the limit as n goes to infinity.","title":"Graphs"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boolean algebras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebras"},{"link_name":"propositional functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_function"},{"link_name":"set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_theory"},{"link_name":"algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebra"},{"link_name":"elementarily equivalent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_equivalence"}],"text":"There are several different signatures and conventions used for Boolean algebras:The signature has two constants, 0 and 1, and two binary functions ∧ and ∨ (\"and\" and \"or\"), and one unary function ¬ (\"not\"). This can be confusing as the functions use the same symbols as the propositional functions of first-order logic.\nIn set theory, a common convention is that the language has two constants, 0 and 1, and two binary functions · and +, and one unary function −. The three functions have the same interpretation as the functions in the first convention. Unfortunately, this convention clashes badly with the next convention:\nIn algebra, the usual convention is that the language has two constants, 0 and 1, and two binary functions · and +. The function · has the same meaning as ∧, but a+b means a∨b∧¬(a∧b). The reason for this is that the axioms for a Boolean algebra are then just the axioms for a ring with 1 plus ∀x x2 = x. Unfortunately this clashes with the standard convention in set theory given above.The axioms are:The axioms for a distributive lattice (see above)\n∀a a∧¬a = 0, ∀a a∨¬a = 1 (properties of negation)\nSome authors add the extra axiom ¬0 = 1, to exclude the trivial algebra with one element.Tarski proved that the theory of Boolean algebras is decidable.We write x ≤ y as an abbreviation for x∧y = x, and atom(x) as an abbreviation for ¬x = 0 ∧ ∀y y ≤ x → y = 0 ∨ y = x, read as \"x is an atom\", in other words a non-zero element with nothing between it and 0. Here are some first-order properties of Boolean algebras:Atomic: ∀x x = 0 ∨ ∃y y ≤ x ∧ atom(y)\nAtomless: ∀x ¬atom(x)The theory of atomless Boolean algebras is ω-categorical and complete.For any Boolean algebra B, there are several invariants defined as follows.the ideal I(B) consists of elements that are the sum of an atomic and an atomless element (an element with no atoms below it).\nThe quotient algebras Bi of B are defined inductively by B0=B, Bk+1 = Bk/I(Bk).\nThe invariant m(B) is the smallest integer such that Bm+1 is trivial, or ∞ if no such integer exists.\nIf m(B) is finite, the invariant n(B) is the number of atoms of Bm(B) if this number is finite, or ∞ if this number is infinite.\nThe invariant l(B) is 0 if Bm(B) is atomic or if m(B) is ∞, and 1 otherwise.Then two Boolean algebras are elementarily equivalent if and only if their invariants l, m, and n are the same. In other words, the values of these invariants classify the possible completions of the theory of Boolean algebras. So the possible complete theories are:The trivial algebra (if this is allowed; sometimes 0≠1 is included as an axiom.)\nThe theory with m = ∞\nThe theories with m a natural number, n a natural number or ∞, and l = 0 or 1 (with l = 0 if n = 0).","title":"Boolean algebras"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"group theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_theory"},{"link_name":"Groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Abelian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian_group"},{"link_name":"Torsion free","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion-free_group"},{"link_name":"Divisible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisible_group"},{"link_name":"Exponent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torsion_group"},{"link_name":"Nilpotent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nilpotent_group"},{"link_name":"Solvable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solvable_group"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"prime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_number"},{"link_name":"free","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_group"},{"link_name":"simple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_group"}],"text":"The signature of group theory has one constant 1 (the identity), one function of arity 1 (the inverse) whose value on t is denoted by t−1, and one function of arity 2, which is usually omitted from terms. For any integer n, tn is an abbreviation for the obvious term for the nth power of t.Groups are defined by the axiomsIdentity: ∀x 1x = x ∧ x1 = x\nInverse: ∀x x−1x = 1 ∧ xx−1 = 1\nAssociativity: ∀x∀y∀z (xy)z = x(yz)Some properties of groups that can be defined in the first-order language of groups are:Abelian: ∀x ∀y xy = yx.\nTorsion free: ∀x x2 = 1→x = 1, ∀x x3 = 1 → x = 1, ∀x x4 = 1 → x = 1, ...\nDivisible: ∀x ∃y y2 = x, ∀x ∃y y3 = x, ∀x ∃y y4 = x, ...\nInfinite (as in identity theory)\nExponent n (for any fixed positive integer n): ∀x xn = 1\nNilpotent of class n (for any fixed positive integer n)\nSolvable of class n (for any fixed positive integer n)The theory of abelian groups is decidable.[2] The theory of infinite divisible torsion-free abelian groups is complete, as is the theory of infinite abelian groups of exponent p (for p prime).The theory of finite groups is the set of first-order statements in the language of groups that are true in all finite groups (there are plenty of infinite models of this theory). It is not completely trivial to find any such statement that is not true for all groups: one example is \n\"given two elements of order 2, either they are conjugate or there is a non-trivial element commuting with both of them\".The properties of being finite, or free, or simple, or torsion are not first-order. More precisely, the first-order theory of all groups with one of these properties has models that do not have this property.","title":"Groups"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Commutative rings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commutative_ring"},{"link_name":"Fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(set_theory)"},{"link_name":"Perfect fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_field"},{"link_name":"characteristic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Field_characteristic"},{"link_name":"Categorical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_theory"},{"link_name":"automorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automorphism"},{"link_name":"Finite fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_field"},{"link_name":"Chevalley–Warning theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevalley%E2%80%93Warning_theorem"},{"link_name":"prime fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prime_field"},{"link_name":"Formally real fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formally_real_field"},{"link_name":"Real closed fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Real_closed_field"},{"link_name":"Tarski–Seidenberg theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarski%E2%80%93Seidenberg_theorem"},{"link_name":"may change decidability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decidability_of_first-order_theories_of_the_real_numbers"},{"link_name":"Ax & Kochen (1965)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#CITEREFAxKochen1965"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The signature of (unital) rings has two constants 0 and 1, two binary functions + and ×, and, optionally, one unary negation function −.RingsAxioms: Addition makes the ring into an abelian group, multiplication is associative and has an identity 1, and multiplication is left and right distributive.Commutative ringsThe axioms for rings plus ∀x ∀y xy = yx.FieldsThe axioms for commutative rings plus ∀x (¬ x = 0 → ∃y xy = 1) and ¬ 1 = 0.\nMany of the examples given here have only universal, or algebraic axioms. The class of structures satisfying such a theory has the property of being closed under substructure. For example, a subset of a group closed under the group actions of multiplication and inverse is again a group. Since the signature of fields does not usually include multiplicative and additive inverse, the axioms for inverses are not universal, and therefore a substructure of a field closed under addition and multiplication is not always a field. This can be remedied by adding unary inverse functions to the language.For any positive integer n the property that all equations of degree n have a root can be expressed by a single first-order sentence:∀ a1 ∀ a2... ∀ an ∃x (...((x+a1)x +a2)x+...)x+an = 0Perfect fieldsThe axioms for fields, plus axioms for each prime number p stating that if p 1 = 0 (i.e. the field has characteristic p), then every field element has a pth root.Algebraically closed fields of characteristic pThe axioms for fields, plus for every positive n the axiom that all polynomials of degree n have a root, plus axioms fixing the characteristic. The classical examples of complete theories. Categorical in all uncountable cardinals. The theory ACFp has a universal domain property, in the sense that every structure N satisfying the universal axioms of ACFp is a substructure of a sufficiently large algebraically closed field \n \n \n \n M\n ⊨\n A\n C\n \n F\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle M\\models ACF_{0}}\n \n, and additionally any two such embeddings N → M induce an automorphism of M.Finite fieldsThe theory of finite fields is the set of all first-order statements that are true in all finite fields. Significant examples of such statements can, for example, be given by applying the Chevalley–Warning theorem, over the prime fields. The name is a little misleading as the theory has plenty of infinite models. Ax proved that the theory is decidable.Formally real fieldsThe axioms for fields plus, for every positive integer n, the axiom:∀ a1 ∀ a2... ∀ an a1a1+a2a2+ ...+anan=0 → a1=0∧a2=0∧ ... ∧an=0.That is, 0 is not a non-trivial sum of squares.Real closed fieldsThe axioms for formally real fields plus the axioms:∀x ∃y (x=yy ∨ x+yy= 0);\nfor every odd positive integer n, the axiom stating that every polynomial of degree n has a root.The theory of real closed fields is effective and complete and therefore decidable (the Tarski–Seidenberg theorem). The addition of further function symbols (e.g., the exponential function, the sine function) may change decidability.p-adic fieldsAx & Kochen (1965) showed that the theory of p-adic fields is decidable and gave a set of axioms for it.[3]","title":"Rings and fields"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ordered geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordered_geometry"},{"link_name":"absolute geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_geometry"},{"link_name":"affine geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affine_geometry"},{"link_name":"Euclidean geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euclidean_geometry"},{"link_name":"projective geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective_geometry"},{"link_name":"hyperbolic geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperbolic_geometry"},{"link_name":"Hilbert's axioms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hilbert%27s_axioms"},{"link_name":"Tarski's axioms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarski%27s_axioms"}],"text":"Axioms for various systems of geometry usually use a typed language, with the different types corresponding to different geometric objects such as points, lines, circles, planes, and so on. The signature will often consist of binary incidence relations between objects of different types; for example, the relation that a point lies on a line. The signature may have more complicated relations; for example ordered geometry might have a ternary \"betweenness\" relation for 3 points, which says whether one lies between two others, or a \"congruence\" relation between 2 pairs of points.Some examples of axiomatized systems of geometry include ordered geometry, absolute geometry, affine geometry, Euclidean geometry, projective geometry, and hyperbolic geometry. For each of these geometries there are many different and inequivalent systems of axioms for various dimensions. Some of these axiom systems include \"completeness\" axioms that are not first order.As a typical example, the axioms for projective geometry use 2 types, points and lines, and a binary incidence relation between points and lines. If point and line variables are indicated by small and capital letter, and a incident to A is written as aA, then one set of axioms is∀\n a\n ∀\n b\n \n ¬\n a\n =\n b\n →\n ∃\n C\n \n a\n C\n ∧\n b\n C\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall a\\forall b\\;\\lnot a=b\\rightarrow \\exists C\\;aC\\land bC}\n \n (There is a line through any 2 distinct points a,b ...)\n\n \n \n \n ∀\n a\n ∀\n b\n ∀\n C\n ∀\n D\n \n ¬\n a\n =\n b\n ∧\n a\n C\n ∧\n b\n C\n ∧\n a\n D\n ∧\n b\n D\n →\n C\n =\n D\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall a\\forall b\\forall C\\forall D\\;\\lnot a=b\\land aC\\land bC\\land aD\\land bD\\rightarrow C=D}\n \n (... which is unique)\n\n \n \n \n ∀\n a\n ∀\n b\n ∀\n c\n ∀\n d\n ∀\n e\n ∀\n G\n ∀\n H\n \n a\n H\n ∧\n b\n H\n ∧\n e\n H\n ∧\n c\n G\n ∧\n d\n G\n ∧\n e\n G\n →\n ∃\n f\n ∃\n I\n ∃\n J\n \n a\n I\n ∧\n c\n I\n ∧\n f\n I\n ∧\n b\n J\n ∧\n d\n J\n ∧\n f\n J\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall a\\forall b\\forall c\\forall d\\forall e\\forall G\\forall H\\;aH\\land bH\\land eH\\land cG\\land dG\\land eG\\rightarrow \\exists f\\exists I\\exists J\\;aI\\land cI\\land fI\\land bJ\\land dJ\\land fJ}\n \n (Veblen's axiom: if ab and cd lie on intersecting lines, then so do ac and bd.)\n\n \n \n \n ∀\n A\n ∃\n b\n ∃\n c\n ∃\n d\n \n b\n A\n ∧\n c\n A\n ∧\n d\n A\n ∧\n ¬\n b\n =\n c\n ∧\n ¬\n b\n =\n d\n ∧\n ¬\n c\n =\n d\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall A\\exists b\\exists c\\exists d\\;bA\\land cA\\land dA\\land \\lnot b=c\\land \\lnot b=d\\land \\lnot c=d}\n \n (Every line has at least 3 points)Euclid did not state all the axioms for Euclidean geometry explicitly, and the first complete list was given by Hilbert in Hilbert's axioms. This is not a first-order axiomatization as one of Hilbert's axioms is a second order completeness axiom. Tarski's axioms are a first-order axiomatization of Euclidean geometry. Tarski showed this axiom system is complete and decidable by relating it to the complete and decidable theory of real closed fields.","title":"Geometry"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"differential fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_field"},{"link_name":"perfect field","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perfect_field"},{"link_name":"quantifier elimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantifier_elimination"},{"link_name":"differentially closed fields","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differentially_closed_field"},{"link_name":"differential polynomials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Differential_polynomial"},{"link_name":"separant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separant"}],"text":"The theory DF of differential fields.The signature is that of fields (0, 1, +, −, ×) together with a unary function ∂, the derivation.\nThe axioms are those for fields together with∀\n u\n ∀\n v\n \n ∂\n (\n u\n v\n )\n =\n u\n \n ∂\n v\n +\n v\n \n ∂\n u\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall u\\forall v\\,\\partial (uv)=u\\,\\partial v+v\\,\\partial u}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n ∀\n u\n ∀\n v\n \n ∂\n (\n u\n +\n v\n )\n =\n ∂\n u\n +\n ∂\n v\n  \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall u\\forall v\\,\\partial (u+v)=\\partial u+\\partial v\\ .}For this theory one can add the condition that the characteristic is p, a prime or zero,\nto get the theory DFp of differential fields of characteristic p (and similarly with the other theories below).If K is a differential field then the field of constants \n \n \n \n k\n =\n {\n u\n ∈\n K\n :\n ∂\n (\n u\n )\n =\n 0\n }\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle k=\\{u\\in K:\\partial (u)=0\\}.}\n \n\nThe theory of differentially perfect fields is the theory of differential fields together with the condition that the field of constants is perfect; in other words, for each prime p it has the axiom:∀\n u\n \n ∂\n (\n u\n )\n =\n 0\n ∧\n p\n 1\n =\n 0\n →\n ∃\n v\n \n \n v\n \n p\n \n \n =\n u\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall u\\,\\partial (u)=0\\land p1=0\\rightarrow \\exists v\\,v^{p}=u}(There is little point in demanding that the whole field should be a perfect field, because in non-zero characteristic this implies the differential is 0.)\nFor technical reasons to do with quantifier elimination, it is sometimes more convenient to force the constant field to be perfect by adding a new symbol r to the signature with the axioms∀\n u\n \n ∂\n (\n u\n )\n =\n 0\n ∧\n p\n 1\n =\n 0\n →\n r\n (\n u\n \n )\n \n p\n \n \n =\n u\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall u\\,\\partial (u)=0\\land p1=0\\rightarrow r(u)^{p}=u}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n ∀\n u\n \n ¬\n ∂\n (\n u\n )\n =\n 0\n →\n r\n (\n u\n )\n =\n 0.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall u\\,\\lnot \\partial (u)=0\\rightarrow r(u)=0.}The theory of differentially closed fields (DCF) is the theory of differentially perfect fields with axioms saying that if f and g are differential polynomials and the separant of f is nonzero and g≠0 and f has order greater than that of g, then there is some x in the field with f(x)=0 and g(x)≠0.","title":"Differential algebra"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"first-order formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-formed_formula"},{"link_name":"free variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_variable"},{"link_name":"Presburger arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Presburger_arithmetic"}],"text":"The theory of the natural numbers with a successor function has signature consisting of a constant 0 and a unary function S (\"successor\": S(x) is interpreted as x+1), and has axioms:∀x ¬ Sx = 0\n∀x∀y Sx = Sy → x = y\nLet P(x) be a first-order formula with a single free variable x. Then the following formula is an axiom:(P(0) ∧ ∀x(P(x)→P(Sx))) → ∀y P(y).The last axiom (induction) can be replaced by the axiomsFor each integer n>0, the axiom ∀x SSS...Sx ≠ x (with n copies of S)\n∀x ¬ x = 0 → ∃y Sy = xThe theory of the natural numbers with a successor function is complete and decidable, and is κ-categorical for uncountable κ but not for countable κ.Presburger arithmetic is the theory of the natural numbers under addition, with signature consisting of a constant 0, a unary function S, and a binary function +. It is complete and decidable. The axioms are∀x ¬ Sx = 0\n∀x∀y Sx = Sy → x = y\n∀x x + 0 = x\n∀x∀y x + Sy = S(x + y)\nLet P(x) be a first-order formula with a single free variable x. Then the following formula is an axiom:(P(0) ∧ ∀x(P(x)→P(Sx))) → ∀y P(y).","title":"Addition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Gödel's incompleteness theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorem"},{"link_name":"unary function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unary_function"},{"link_name":"successor function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Successor_function"},{"link_name":"binary functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_function"},{"link_name":"Robinson arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"injection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injective_function"},{"link_name":"Gödel's incompleteness theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems"},{"link_name":"Σn formulas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetical_hierarchy"},{"link_name":"primitive recursive arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primitive_recursive_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"Exponential function arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exponential_function_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"Peano arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peano_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"Robinson arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"Kurt Gödel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del"},{"link_name":"Gödel's incompleteness theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorem"},{"link_name":"does not apply","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarski%E2%80%93Seidenberg_theorem"},{"link_name":"Complications","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decidability_of_first-order_theories_of_the_real_numbers"}],"text":"Many of the first-order theories described above can be extended to complete recursively enumerable consistent theories. This is no longer true for most of the following theories; they can usually encode both multiplication and addition of natural numbers, and this gives them enough power to encode themselves, which implies that Gödel's incompleteness theorem applies and the theories can no longer be both complete and recursively enumerable (unless they are inconsistent).The signature of a theory of arithmetic has:The constant 0;\nThe unary function, the successor function, here denoted by prefix S, or by prefix σ or postfix ′ elsewhere;\nTwo binary functions, denoted by infix + and ×, called \"addition\" and \"multiplication.\"Some authors take the signature to contain a constant 1 instead of the function S, then define S in the obvious way as St = 1 + t.Robinson arithmetic (also called Q). Axioms (1) and (2) govern the distinguished element 0. (3) assures that S is an injection. Axioms (4) and (5) are the standard recursive definition of addition; (6) and (7) do the same for multiplication. Robinson arithmetic can be thought of as Peano arithmetic without induction. Q is a weak theory for which Gödel's incompleteness theorem holds.\nAxioms:∀x ¬ Sx = 0\n∀x ¬ x = 0 → ∃y Sy = x\n∀x∀y Sx = Sy → x = y\n∀x x + 0 = x\n∀x∀y x + Sy = S(x + y)\n∀x x × 0 = 0\n∀x∀y x × Sy = (x × y) + x.IΣn is first-order Peano arithmetic with induction restricted to Σn formulas (for n = 0, 1, 2, ...). The theory IΣ0 is often denoted by IΔ0. This is a series of more and more powerful fragments of Peano arithmetic. The case n = 1 has about the same strength as primitive recursive arithmetic (PRA).\nExponential function arithmetic (EFA) is IΣ0 with an axiom stating that xy exists for all x and y (with the usual properties).First-order Peano arithmetic, PA. The \"standard\" theory of arithmetic. The axioms are the axioms of Robinson arithmetic above, together with the axiom scheme of induction:ϕ\n (\n 0\n )\n ∧\n (\n ∀\n x\n ϕ\n (\n x\n )\n →\n ϕ\n (\n S\n x\n )\n )\n →\n (\n ∀\n x\n ϕ\n (\n x\n )\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\phi (0)\\wedge (\\forall x\\phi (x)\\rightarrow \\phi (Sx))\\rightarrow (\\forall x\\phi (x))}\n \n for any formula φ in the language of PA. φ may contain free variables other than x.Kurt Gödel's 1931 paper proved that PA is incomplete, and has no consistent recursively enumerable completions.Complete arithmetic (also known as true arithmetic) is the theory of the standard model of arithmetic, the natural numbers N. It is complete but does not have a recursively enumerable set of axioms.For the real numbers, the situation is slightly different: The case that includes just addition and multiplication cannot encode the integers, and hence Gödel's incompleteness theorem does not apply. Complications arise when adding further function symbols (e.g., exponentiation).","title":"Arithmetic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Second-order arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-order_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"Robinson arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robinson_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"induction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_induction"},{"link_name":"comprehension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_schema_of_specification"},{"link_name":"second order arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_order_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"reverse mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reverse_mathematics"}],"text":"Second-order arithmetic can refer to a first-order theory (in spite of the name) with two types of variables, thought of as varying over integers and subsets of the integers. (There is also a theory of arithmetic in second order logic that is called second order arithmetic. It has only one model, unlike the corresponding theory in first-order logic, which is incomplete.) The signature will typically be the signature 0, S, +, × of arithmetic, together with a membership relation ∈ between integers and subsets (though there are numerous minor variations). The axioms are those of Robinson arithmetic, together with axiom schemes of induction and comprehension.There are many different subtheories of second order arithmetic that differ in which formulas are allowed in the induction and comprehension schemes. \nIn order of increasing strength, five of the most common systems\nareR\n C\n A\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathsf {RCA}}_{0}}\n \n, Recursive Comprehension\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n W\n K\n L\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathsf {WKL}}_{0}}\n \n, Weak Kőnig's lemma\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n C\n A\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathsf {ACA}}_{0}}\n \n, Arithmetical comprehension\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n A\n T\n R\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathsf {ATR}}_{0}}\n \n, Arithmetical Transfinite Recursion\n\n \n \n \n \n Π\n \n 1\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n -\n \n \n \n \n \n C\n A\n \n \n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pi _{1}^{1}{\\mbox{-}}{\\mathsf {CA}}_{0}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n Π\n \n 1\n \n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\Pi _{1}^{1}}\n \n comprehensionThese are defined in detail in the articles on second order arithmetic and reverse mathematics.","title":"Second order arithmetic"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"powersets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powerset"},{"link_name":"S'","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Kripke–Platek set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kripke%E2%80%93Platek_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Pocket set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocket_set_theory"},{"link_name":"General set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Constructive set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Mac Lane set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mac_Lane_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Elementary topos theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_topos_theory"},{"link_name":"Zermelo set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zermelo_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann%E2%80%93Bernays%E2%80%93G%C3%B6del_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Ackermann set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ackermann_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Scott–Potter set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scott%E2%80%93Potter_set_theory"},{"link_name":"New Foundations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Foundations"},{"link_name":"Positive set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Morse–Kelley set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse%E2%80%93Kelley_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Tarski–Grothendieck set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarski%E2%80%93Grothendieck_set_theory"},{"link_name":"axiom of choice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_choice"},{"link_name":"axiom of dependent choice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_dependent_choice"},{"link_name":"Generalized continuum hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Generalized_continuum_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"Martin's axiom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%27s_axiom"},{"link_name":"Martin's maximum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin%27s_maximum"},{"link_name":"◊","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diamondsuit"},{"link_name":"♣","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clubsuit"},{"link_name":"Axiom of constructibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_constructibility"},{"link_name":"proper forcing axiom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_forcing_axiom"},{"link_name":"analytic determinacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Analytic_determinacy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"projective determinacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projective_determinacy"},{"link_name":"Axiom of determinacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_determinacy"},{"link_name":"large cardinal axioms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_cardinal_properties"}],"text":"The usual signature of set theory has one binary relation ∈, no constants, and no functions. Some of the theories below are \"class theories\" which have two sorts of object, sets and classes. There are three common ways of handling this in first-order logic:Use first-order logic with two types.\nUse ordinary first-order logic, but add a new unary predicate \"Set\", where \"Set(t)\" means informally \"t is a set\".\nUse ordinary first-order logic, and instead of adding a new predicate to the language, treat \"Set(t)\" as an abbreviation for \"∃y t∈y\"Some first-order set theories include:Weak theories lacking powersets:\nS' (Tarski, Mostowski, and Robinson, 1953); (finitely axiomatizable)\nKripke–Platek set theory; KP;\nPocket set theory\nGeneral set theory, GST\nConstructive set theory, CZF\nMac Lane set theory and Elementary topos theory\nZermelo set theory; Z\nZermelo–Fraenkel set theory; ZF, ZFC;\nVon Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory; NBG; (finitely axiomatizable)\nAckermann set theory;\nScott–Potter set theory\nNew Foundations; NF (finitely axiomatizable)\nPositive set theory\nMorse–Kelley set theory; MK;\nTarski–Grothendieck set theory; TG;Some extra first-order axioms that can be added to one of these (usually ZF) include:axiom of choice, axiom of dependent choice\nGeneralized continuum hypothesis\nMartin's axiom (usually together with the negation of the continuum hypothesis), Martin's maximum\n◊ and ♣\nAxiom of constructibility (V=L)\nproper forcing axiom\nanalytic determinacy, projective determinacy, Axiom of determinacy\nMany large cardinal axioms","title":"Set theories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Keisler, H. Jerome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Jerome_Keisler"},{"link_name":"Elsevier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elsevier"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7204-0692-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7204-0692-7"},{"link_name":"Hodges, Wilfrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilfrid_Hodges"},{"link_name":"Cambridge University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-521-58713-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-58713-1"},{"link_name":"Graduate Texts in Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graduate_Texts_in_Mathematics"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-387-98760-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-387-98760-6"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Mathematical_logic"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Mathematical_logic"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mathematical_logic"},{"link_name":"Mathematical logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_logic"},{"link_name":"Axiom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_axioms"},{"link_name":"Cardinality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality"},{"link_name":"First-order logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-order_logic"},{"link_name":"Formal proof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_proof"},{"link_name":"Formal semantics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_semantics_(logic)"},{"link_name":"Foundations of mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foundations_of_mathematics"},{"link_name":"Information theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory"},{"link_name":"Lemma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemma_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Logical consequence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_consequence"},{"link_name":"Model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Structure_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"Theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem"},{"link_name":"Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"Type theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_theory"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Theorems_in_the_foundations_of_mathematics"},{"link_name":"paradoxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradoxes_of_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Gödel's completeness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_completeness_theorem"},{"link_name":"incompleteness theorems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del%27s_incompleteness_theorems"},{"link_name":"Tarski's undefinability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarski%27s_undefinability_theorem"},{"link_name":"Banach–Tarski paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Banach%E2%80%93Tarski_paradox"},{"link_name":"theorem,","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantor%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantor%27s_paradox"},{"link_name":"diagonal argument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantor%27s_diagonal_argument"},{"link_name":"Compactness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compactness_theorem"},{"link_name":"Halting problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halting_problem"},{"link_name":"Lindström's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lindstr%C3%B6m%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"Löwenheim–Skolem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%B6wenheim%E2%80%93Skolem_theorem"},{"link_name":"Russell's paradox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russell%27s_paradox"},{"link_name":"Logics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logic"},{"link_name":"Traditional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_logic"},{"link_name":"Classical logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_logic"},{"link_name":"Logical truth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_truth"},{"link_name":"Tautology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautology_(logic)"},{"link_name":"Proposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proposition"},{"link_name":"Inference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inference"},{"link_name":"Logical equivalence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_equivalence"},{"link_name":"Consistency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Consistency"},{"link_name":"Equiconsistency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equiconsistency"},{"link_name":"Argument","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argument"},{"link_name":"Soundness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soundness"},{"link_name":"Validity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Validity_(logic)"},{"link_name":"Syllogism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syllogism"},{"link_name":"Square of opposition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_of_opposition"},{"link_name":"Venn diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venn_diagram"},{"link_name":"Propositional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_calculus"},{"link_name":"Boolean algebra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_algebra"},{"link_name":"Boolean functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boolean_function"},{"link_name":"Logical connectives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_connective"},{"link_name":"Propositional calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_calculus"},{"link_name":"Propositional formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_formula"},{"link_name":"Truth tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_table"},{"link_name":"Many-valued logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-valued_logic"},{"link_name":"3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three-valued_logic"},{"link_name":"finite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite-valued_logic"},{"link_name":"∞","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite-valued_logic"},{"link_name":"Predicate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_logic"},{"link_name":"First-order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First-order_logic"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Second-order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-order_logic"},{"link_name":"Monadic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monadic_second-order_logic"},{"link_name":"Higher-order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Higher-order_logic"},{"link_name":"Fixed-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fixed-point_logic"},{"link_name":"Free","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_logic"},{"link_name":"Quantifiers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)"},{"link_name":"Predicate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"Monadic predicate calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monadic_predicate_calculus"},{"link_name":"Set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_theory"},{"link_name":"Set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory"},{"link_name":"hereditary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hereditary_set"},{"link_name":"Class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(set_theory)"},{"link_name":"Ur-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urelement"},{"link_name":"Element","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Element_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Ordinal number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinal_number"},{"link_name":"Extensionality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extensionality"},{"link_name":"Forcing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forcing_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relation_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"equivalence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_relation"},{"link_name":"partition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Partition_of_a_set"},{"link_name":"intersection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intersection_(set_theory)"},{"link_name":"union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_(set_theory)"},{"link_name":"complement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complement_(set_theory)"},{"link_name":"Cartesian product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_product"},{"link_name":"power set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_set"},{"link_name":"identities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_set_identities_and_relations"},{"link_name":"sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Countable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countable_set"},{"link_name":"Uncountable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncountable_set"},{"link_name":"Empty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empty_set"},{"link_name":"Inhabited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inhabited_set"},{"link_name":"Singleton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Singleton_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Finite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_set"},{"link_name":"Infinite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_set"},{"link_name":"Transitive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_set"},{"link_name":"Ultrafilter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultrafilter_(set_theory)"},{"link_name":"Recursive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursive_set"},{"link_name":"Fuzzy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuzzy_set"},{"link_name":"Universal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_set"},{"link_name":"Universe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universe_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"constructible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructible_universe"},{"link_name":"Grothendieck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grothendieck_universe"},{"link_name":"Von Neumann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann_universe"},{"link_name":"Maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"cardinality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality"},{"link_name":"Function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Map","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Map_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domain_of_a_function"},{"link_name":"codomain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codomain"},{"link_name":"image","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"In","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injective_function"},{"link_name":"Sur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surjective_function"},{"link_name":"Bi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bijection"},{"link_name":"Schröder–Bernstein theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6der%E2%80%93Bernstein_theorem"},{"link_name":"Isomorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomorphism"},{"link_name":"Gödel numbering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6del_numbering"},{"link_name":"Enumeration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enumeration"},{"link_name":"Large cardinal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Large_cardinal"},{"link_name":"inaccessible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inaccessible_cardinal"},{"link_name":"Aleph number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleph_number"},{"link_name":"Operation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_operation"},{"link_name":"Zermelo–Fraenkel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory"},{"link_name":"axiom of choice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_choice"},{"link_name":"continuum hypothesis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuum_hypothesis"},{"link_name":"General","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Kripke–Platek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kripke%E2%80%93Platek_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Morse–Kelley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse%E2%80%93Kelley_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Naive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naive_set_theory"},{"link_name":"New Foundations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Foundations"},{"link_name":"Tarski–Grothendieck","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarski%E2%80%93Grothendieck_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann%E2%80%93Bernays%E2%80%93G%C3%B6del_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Ackermann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ackermann_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Constructive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constructive_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Formal systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_system"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_formal_systems"},{"link_name":"language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_language"},{"link_name":"syntax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax_(logic)"},{"link_name":"Alphabet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet_(formal_languages)"},{"link_name":"Arity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arity"},{"link_name":"Automata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automata_theory"},{"link_name":"Axiom schema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_schema"},{"link_name":"Expression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expression_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_expression"},{"link_name":"Extension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extension_by_new_constant_and_function_names"},{"link_name":"by definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extension_by_definitions"},{"link_name":"conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservative_extension"},{"link_name":"Relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finitary_relation"},{"link_name":"Formation rule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formation_rule"},{"link_name":"Grammar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_grammar"},{"link_name":"Formula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Well-formed_formula"},{"link_name":"atomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_formula"},{"link_name":"closed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"ground","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_formula"},{"link_name":"open","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_formula"},{"link_name":"Free/bound variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_variables_and_bound_variables"},{"link_name":"Language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_language"},{"link_name":"Metalanguage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metalanguage"},{"link_name":"Logical connective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_connective"},{"link_name":"¬","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Negation"},{"link_name":"∨","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_disjunction"},{"link_name":"∧","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_conjunction"},{"link_name":"→","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Material_conditional"},{"link_name":"↔","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_biconditional"},{"link_name":"=","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_equality"},{"link_name":"Predicate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"functional","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_predicate"},{"link_name":"variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_variable"},{"link_name":"propositional variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_variable"},{"link_name":"Proof","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_proof"},{"link_name":"Quantifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantifier_(logic)"},{"link_name":"∃","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Existential_quantification"},{"link_name":"!","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uniqueness_quantification"},{"link_name":"∀","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Universal_quantification"},{"link_name":"rank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quantifier_rank"},{"link_name":"Sentence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sentence_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"atomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atomic_sentence"},{"link_name":"spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_of_a_sentence"},{"link_name":"Signature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signature_(logic)"},{"link_name":"String","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_(formal_languages)"},{"link_name":"Substitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substitution_(logic)"},{"link_name":"Symbol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbol_(formal)"},{"link_name":"function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uninterpreted_function"},{"link_name":"logical/constant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_constant"},{"link_name":"non-logical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-logical_symbol"},{"link_name":"variable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Term","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Term_(logic)"},{"link_name":"Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_(mathematical_logic)"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_mathematical_theories"},{"link_name":"axiomaticsystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiomatic_system"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/True_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"Peano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peano_axioms"},{"link_name":"second-order","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-order_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"elementary 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machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_machine"},{"link_name":"Type theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_theory"},{"link_name":"Abstract logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abstract_logic"},{"link_name":"Algebraic logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algebraic_logic"},{"link_name":"Automated theorem proving","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_theorem_proving"},{"link_name":"Category theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_theory"},{"link_name":"Concrete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concrete_category"},{"link_name":"Abstract category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"Category of sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_sets"},{"link_name":"History of logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_logic"},{"link_name":"History of mathematical logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_mathematical_logic"},{"link_name":"timeline","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_mathematical_logic"},{"link_name":"Logicism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logicism"},{"link_name":"Mathematical object","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_object"},{"link_name":"Philosophy of mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics"},{"link_name":"Supertask","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supertask"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nuvola_apps_edu_mathematics_blue-p.svg"},{"link_name":"Mathematics portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Mathematics"}],"text":"Chang, C.C.; Keisler, H. Jerome (1989), Model Theory (3 ed.), Elsevier, ISBN 0-7204-0692-7\nHodges, Wilfrid (1997), A shorter model theory, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-58713-1\nMarker, David (2002), Model Theory: An Introduction, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, vol. 217, Springer, ISBN 0-387-98760-6vteMathematical logicGeneral\nAxiom\nlist\nCardinality\nFirst-order logic\nFormal proof\nFormal semantics\nFoundations of mathematics\nInformation theory\nLemma\nLogical consequence\nModel\nTheorem\nTheory\nType theory\nTheorems (list) and paradoxes\nGödel's completeness and incompleteness theorems\nTarski's undefinability\nBanach–Tarski paradox\nCantor's theorem, paradox and diagonal argument\nCompactness\nHalting problem\nLindström's\nLöwenheim–Skolem\nRussell's paradox\nLogicsTraditional\nClassical logic\nLogical truth\nTautology\nProposition\nInference\nLogical equivalence\nConsistency\nEquiconsistency\nArgument\nSoundness\nValidity\nSyllogism\nSquare of opposition\nVenn diagram\nPropositional\nBoolean algebra\nBoolean functions\nLogical connectives\nPropositional calculus\nPropositional formula\nTruth tables\nMany-valued logic\n3\nfinite\n∞\nPredicate\nFirst-order\nlist\nSecond-order\nMonadic\nHigher-order\nFixed-point\nFree\nQuantifiers\nPredicate\nMonadic predicate calculus\nSet theory\nSet\nhereditary\nClass\n(Ur-)Element\nOrdinal number\nExtensionality\nForcing\nRelation\nequivalence\npartition\nSet operations:\nintersection\nunion\ncomplement\nCartesian product\npower set\nidentities\nTypes of sets\nCountable\nUncountable\nEmpty\nInhabited\nSingleton\nFinite\nInfinite\nTransitive\nUltrafilter\nRecursive\nFuzzy\nUniversal\nUniverse\nconstructible\nGrothendieck\nVon Neumann\nMaps and cardinality\nFunction/Map\ndomain\ncodomain\nimage\nIn/Sur/Bi-jection\nSchröder–Bernstein theorem\nIsomorphism\nGödel numbering\nEnumeration\nLarge cardinal\ninaccessible\nAleph number\nOperation\nbinary\nSet theories\nZermelo–Fraenkel\naxiom of choice\ncontinuum hypothesis\nGeneral\nKripke–Platek\nMorse–Kelley\nNaive\nNew Foundations\nTarski–Grothendieck\nVon Neumann–Bernays–Gödel\nAckermann\nConstructive\nFormal systems (list),language and syntax\nAlphabet\nArity\nAutomata\nAxiom schema\nExpression\nground\nExtension\nby definition\nconservative\nRelation\nFormation rule\nGrammar\nFormula\natomic\nclosed\nground\nopen\nFree/bound variable\nLanguage\nMetalanguage\nLogical connective\n¬\n∨\n∧\n→\n↔\n=\nPredicate\nfunctional\nvariable\npropositional variable\nProof\nQuantifier\n∃\n!\n∀\nrank\nSentence\natomic\nspectrum\nSignature\nString\nSubstitution\nSymbol\nfunction\nlogical/constant\nnon-logical\nvariable\nTerm\nTheory\nlist\nExample axiomaticsystems (list)\nof arithmetic:\nPeano\nsecond-order\nelementary function\nprimitive recursive\nRobinson\nSkolem\nof the real numbers\nTarski's axiomatization\nof Boolean algebras\ncanonical\nminimal axioms\nof geometry:\nEuclidean:\nElements\nHilbert's\nTarski's\nnon-Euclidean\nPrincipia Mathematica\nProof theory\nFormal proof\nNatural deduction\nLogical consequence\nRule of inference\nSequent calculus\nTheorem\nSystems\naxiomatic\ndeductive\nHilbert\nlist\nComplete theory\nIndependence (from ZFC)\nProof of impossibility\nOrdinal analysis\nReverse mathematics\nSelf-verifying theories\nModel theory\nInterpretation\nfunction\nof models\nModel\nequivalence\nfinite\nsaturated\nspectrum\nsubmodel\nNon-standard model\nof arithmetic\nDiagram\nelementary\nCategorical theory\nModel complete theory\nSatisfiability\nSemantics of logic\nStrength\nTheories of truth\nsemantic\nTarski's\nKripke's\nT-schema\nTransfer principle\nTruth predicate\nTruth value\nType\nUltraproduct\nValidity\nComputability theory\nChurch encoding\nChurch–Turing thesis\nComputably enumerable\nComputable function\nComputable set\nDecision problem\ndecidable\nundecidable\nP\nNP\nP versus NP problem\nKolmogorov complexity\nLambda calculus\nPrimitive recursive function\nRecursion\nRecursive set\nTuring machine\nType theory\nRelated\nAbstract logic\nAlgebraic logic\nAutomated theorem proving\nCategory theory\nConcrete/Abstract category\nCategory of sets\nHistory of logic\nHistory of mathematical logic\ntimeline\nLogicism\nMathematical object\nPhilosophy of mathematics\nSupertask\n Mathematics portal","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peaucellier-Lipkin_linkage

Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage

["1 Earlier Sarrus linkage","2 Geometry","3 Mathematical proof of concept","3.1 Collinearity","3.2 Inverse points","3.3 Inversive geometry","3.4 A typical driver","3.5 Historical notes","4 Cultural references","5 See also","6 References","7 Bibliography","8 External links"]

Mechanical linkage capable of transforming rotary motion into linear motion This article includes a list of general references, but it lacks sufficient corresponding inline citations. Please help to improve this article by introducing more precise citations. (August 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Animation for Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage:Dimensions:Cyan Links = aGreen Links = bYellow Links = c The Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage (or Peaucellier–Lipkin cell, or Peaucellier–Lipkin inversor), invented in 1864, was the first true planar straight line mechanism – the first planar linkage capable of transforming rotary motion into perfect straight-line motion, and vice versa. It is named after Charles-Nicolas Peaucellier (1832–1913), a French army officer, and Yom Tov Lipman Lipkin (1846–1876), a Lithuanian Jew and son of the famed Rabbi Israel Salanter. Until this invention, no planar method existed of converting exact straight-line motion to circular motion, without reference guideways. In 1864, all power came from steam engines, which had a piston moving in a straight-line up and down a cylinder. This piston needed to keep a good seal with the cylinder in order to retain the driving medium, and not lose energy efficiency due to leaks. The piston does this by remaining perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, retaining its straight-line motion. Converting the straight-line motion of the piston into circular motion was of critical importance. Most, if not all, applications of these steam engines, were rotary. The mathematics of the Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage is directly related to the inversion of a circle. Earlier Sarrus linkage There is an earlier straight-line mechanism, whose history is not well known, called the Sarrus linkage. This linkage predates the Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage by 11 years and consists of a series of hinged rectangular plates, two of which remain parallel but can be moved normally to each other. Sarrus' linkage is of a three-dimensional class sometimes known as a space crank, unlike the Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage which is a planar mechanism. Geometry Geometric diagram of a Peaucellier linkage In the geometric diagram of the apparatus, six bars of fixed length can be seen: OA, OC, AB, BC, CD, DA. The length of OA is equal to the length of OC, and the lengths of AB, BC, CD, and DA are all equal forming a rhombus. Also, point O is fixed. Then, if point B is constrained to move along a circle (for example, by attaching it to a bar with a length halfway between O and B; path shown in red) which passes through O, then point D will necessarily have to move along a straight line (shown in blue). In contrast, if point B were constrained to move along a line (not passing through O), then point D would necessarily have to move along a circle (passing through O). Mathematical proof of concept Collinearity First, it must be proven that points O, B, D are collinear. This may be easily seen by observing that the linkage is mirror-symmetric about line OD, so point B must fall on that line. More formally, triangles △BAD and △BCD are congruent because side BD is congruent to itself, side BA is congruent to side BC , and side AD is congruent to side CD . Therefore, angles ∠ABD and ∠CBD are equal. Next, triangles △OBA and △OBC are congruent, since sides OA and OC are congruent, side OB is congruent to itself, and sides BA and BC are congruent. Therefore, angles ∠OBA and ∠OBC are equal. Finally, because they form a complete circle, we have ∠ O B A + ∠ A B D + ∠ D B C + ∠ C B O = 360 ∘ {\displaystyle \angle OBA+\angle ABD+\angle DBC+\angle CBO=360^{\circ }} but, due to the congruences, ∠OBA = ∠OBC and ∠DBA = ∠DBC, thus 2 × ∠ O B A + 2 × ∠ D B A = 360 ∘ ∠ O B A + ∠ D B A = 180 ∘ {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&2\times \angle OBA+2\times \angle DBA=360^{\circ }\\&\angle OBA+\angle DBA=180^{\circ }\end{aligned}}} therefore points O, B, and D are collinear. Inverse points Let point P be the intersection of lines AC and BD. Then, since ABCD is a rhombus, P is the midpoint of both line segments BD and AC. Therefore, length BP = length PD. Triangle △BPA is congruent to triangle △DPA, because side BP is congruent to side DP, side AP is congruent to itself, and side AB is congruent to side AD . Therefore, angle ∠BPA = angle ∠DPA. But since ∠BPA + ∠DPA = 180°, then 2 × ∠BPA = 180°, ∠BPA = 90°, and ∠DPA = 90°. Let: x = ℓ B P = ℓ P D y = ℓ O B h = ℓ A P {\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}&x=\ell _{BP}=\ell _{PD}\\&y=\ell _{OB}\\&h=\ell _{AP}\end{aligned}}} Then: ℓ O B ⋅ ℓ O D = y ( y + 2 x ) = y 2 + 2 x y {\displaystyle \ell _{OB}\cdot \ell _{OD}=y(y+2x)=y^{2}+2xy} ℓ O A 2 = ( y + x ) 2 + h 2 {\displaystyle {\ell _{OA}}^{2}=(y+x)^{2}+h^{2}} (due to the Pythagorean theorem) ℓ O A 2 = y 2 + 2 x y + x 2 + h 2 {\displaystyle {\ell _{OA}}^{2}=y^{2}+2xy+x^{2}+h^{2}} (same expression expanded) ℓ A D 2 = x 2 + h 2 {\displaystyle {\ell _{AD}}^{2}=x^{2}+h^{2}} (Pythagorean theorem) ℓ O A 2 − ℓ A D 2 = y 2 + 2 x y = ℓ O B ⋅ ℓ O D {\displaystyle {\ell _{OA}}^{2}-{\ell _{AD}}^{2}=y^{2}+2xy=\ell _{OB}\cdot \ell _{OD}} Since OA and AD are both fixed lengths, then the product of OB and OD is a constant: ℓ O B ⋅ ℓ O D = k 2 {\displaystyle \ell _{OB}\cdot \ell _{OD}=k^{2}} and since points O, B, D are collinear, then D is the inverse of B with respect to the circle (O,k) with center O and radius k. Inversive geometry Thus, by the properties of inversive geometry, since the figure traced by point D is the inverse of the figure traced by point B, if B traces a circle passing through the center of inversion O, then D is constrained to trace a straight line. But if B traces a straight line not passing through O, then D must trace an arc of a circle passing through O. Q.E.D. A typical driver Slider-rocker four-bar acts as the driver of the Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage Peaucellier–Lipkin linkages (PLLs) may have several inversions. A typical example is shown in the opposite figure, in which a rocker-slider four-bar serves as the input driver. To be precise, the slider acts as the input, which in turn drives the right grounded link of the PLL, thus driving the entire PLL. Historical notes Sylvester (Collected Works, Vol. 3, Paper 2) writes that when he showed a model to Kelvin, he “nursed it as if it had been his own child, and when a motion was made to relieve him of it, replied ‘No! I have not had nearly enough of it—it is the most beautiful thing I have ever seen in my life.’” Cultural references A monumental-scale sculpture implementing the linkage in illuminated struts is on permanent exhibition in Eindhoven, Netherlands. The artwork measures 22 by 15 by 16 metres (72 ft × 49 ft × 52 ft), weighs 6,600 kilograms (14,600 lb), and can be operated from a control panel accessible to the general public. See also Linkage (mechanical) Straight line mechanism References ^ "Mathematical tutorial of the Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage". Kmoddl.library.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2011-12-06. ^ Taimina, Daina. "How to draw a straight line by Daina Taimina". Kmoddl.library.cornell.edu. Retrieved 2011-12-06. ^ "Just because you are a character, doesn't mean you have character". Ivo Schoofs. Retrieved 2017-08-14. Bibliography Ogilvy, C. S. (1990), Excursions in Geometry, Dover, pp. 46–48, ISBN 0-486-26530-7 Bryant, John; Sangwin, Chris (2008). How round is your circle? : where engineering and mathematics meet. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 33–38, 60–63. ISBN 978-0-691-13118-4. — proof and discussion of Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage, mathematical and real-world mechanical models Coxeter HSM, Greitzer SL (1967). Geometry Revisited. Washington: MAA. pp. 108–111. ISBN 978-0-88385-619-2. (and references cited therein) Hartenberg, R.S. & J. Denavit (1964) Kinematic synthesis of linkages, pp 181–5, New York: McGraw–Hill, weblink from Cornell University. Johnson RA (1960). Advanced Euclidean Geometry: An elementary treatise on the geometry of the triangle and the circle (reprint of 1929 edition by Houghton Mifflin ed.). New York: Dover Publications. pp. 46–51. ISBN 978-0-486-46237-0. Wells D (1991). The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Geometry. New York: Penguin Books. p. 120. ISBN 0-14-011813-6. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage. How to Draw a Straight Line, online video clips of linkages with interactive applets. How to Draw a Straight Line, historical discussion of linkage design Interactive Java Applet with proof. Java animated Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage Jewish Encyclopedia article on Lippman Lipkin and his father Israel Salanter Peaucellier Apparatus features an interactive applet A simulation using the Molecular Workbench software A related linkage called Hart's Inversor. Modified Peaucellier robotic arm linkage (Vex Team 1508 video) vteEngine configurations for piston enginesType Atmospheric Axial Beam Cornish Rotative Bourke Cam engine Camless Compound Double-acting cylinder Flathead Free-piston Stelzer Hemi Heron head Intake over exhaust Oscillating cylinder Opposed-piston Overhead camshaft Overhead valve Pentroof Rotary Single-acting cylinder Split cycle Swing-piston Uniflow Watt Wedge Stroke cycles Two-stroke Four-stroke Five-stroke Six-stroke Two-and four-stroke Cylinder layoutsInline / straight I2 I3 I4 I5 I6 I7 I8 I9 I12 I14 Flat / boxer F2 F4 F6 F8 F10 F12 F16 V / Vee V2 V3 V4 V5 VR5 V6 VR6 V8 V10 V12 V14 V16 V18 V20 V24 W W3 W6 W8 W12 W16 W18 W24 W30 Other Deltic H Radial Single-cylinder Split-single U X

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Peaucellier-Lipkin_Inversor.gif"},{"link_name":"straight line mechanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight_line_mechanism"},{"link_name":"linkage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical)"},{"link_name":"rotary motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotary_motion"},{"link_name":"straight-line motion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight-line_motion"},{"link_name":"Charles-Nicolas Peaucellier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles-Nicolas_Peaucellier"},{"link_name":"Yom Tov Lipman Lipkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yom_Tov_Lipman_Lipkin"},{"link_name":"Lithuanian Jew","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lithuanian_Jew"},{"link_name":"Israel Salanter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Israel_Salanter"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"steam engines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steam_engine"},{"link_name":"piston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston"},{"link_name":"inversion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inversive_geometry"}],"text":"Animation for Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage:Dimensions:Cyan Links = aGreen Links = bYellow Links = cThe Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage (or Peaucellier–Lipkin cell, or Peaucellier–Lipkin inversor), invented in 1864, was the first true planar straight line mechanism – the first planar linkage capable of transforming rotary motion into perfect straight-line motion, and vice versa. It is named after Charles-Nicolas Peaucellier (1832–1913), a French army officer, and Yom Tov Lipman Lipkin (1846–1876), a Lithuanian Jew and son of the famed Rabbi Israel Salanter.[1][2]Until this invention, no planar method existed of converting exact straight-line motion to circular motion, without reference guideways. In 1864, all power came from steam engines, which had a piston moving in a straight-line up and down a cylinder. This piston needed to keep a good seal with the cylinder in order to retain the driving medium, and not lose energy efficiency due to leaks. The piston does this by remaining perpendicular to the axis of the cylinder, retaining its straight-line motion. Converting the straight-line motion of the piston into circular motion was of critical importance. Most, if not all, applications of these steam engines, were rotary.The mathematics of the Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage is directly related to the inversion of a circle.","title":"Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sarrus linkage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarrus_linkage"},{"link_name":"space crank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Space_crank&action=edit&redlink=1"}],"text":"There is an earlier straight-line mechanism, whose history is not well known, called the Sarrus linkage. This linkage predates the Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage by 11 years and consists of a series of hinged rectangular plates, two of which remain parallel but can be moved normally to each other. Sarrus' linkage is of a three-dimensional class sometimes known as a space crank, unlike the Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage which is a planar mechanism.","title":"Earlier Sarrus linkage"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PeaucellierApparatus.PNG"},{"link_name":"rhombus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhombus"}],"text":"Geometric diagram of a Peaucellier linkageIn the geometric diagram of the apparatus, six bars of fixed length can be seen: OA, OC, AB, BC, CD, DA. The length of OA is equal to the length of OC, and the lengths of AB, BC, CD, and DA are all equal forming a rhombus. Also, point O is fixed. Then, if point B is constrained to move along a circle (for example, by attaching it to a bar with a length halfway between O and B; path shown in red) which passes through O, then point D will necessarily have to move along a straight line (shown in blue). In contrast, if point B were constrained to move along a line (not passing through O), then point D would necessarily have to move along a circle (passing through O).","title":"Geometry"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Mathematical proof of concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"collinear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Collinearity"}],"sub_title":"Collinearity","text":"First, it must be proven that points O, B, D are collinear. This may be easily seen by observing that the linkage is mirror-symmetric about line OD, so point B must fall on that line.More formally, triangles △BAD and △BCD are congruent because side BD is congruent to itself, side BA is congruent to side BC , and side AD is congruent to side CD . Therefore, angles ∠ABD and ∠CBD are equal.Next, triangles △OBA and △OBC are congruent, since sides OA and OC are congruent, side OB is congruent to itself, and sides BA and BC are congruent. Therefore, angles ∠OBA and ∠OBC are equal.Finally, because they form a complete circle, we have∠\n O\n B\n A\n +\n ∠\n A\n B\n D\n +\n ∠\n D\n B\n C\n +\n ∠\n C\n B\n O\n =\n \n 360\n \n ∘\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\angle OBA+\\angle ABD+\\angle DBC+\\angle CBO=360^{\\circ }}but, due to the congruences, ∠OBA = ∠OBC and ∠DBA = ∠DBC, thus2\n ×\n ∠\n O\n B\n A\n +\n 2\n ×\n ∠\n D\n B\n A\n =\n \n 360\n \n ∘\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n ∠\n O\n B\n A\n +\n ∠\n D\n B\n A\n =\n \n 180\n \n ∘\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}&2\\times \\angle OBA+2\\times \\angle DBA=360^{\\circ }\\\\&\\angle OBA+\\angle DBA=180^{\\circ }\\end{aligned}}}therefore points O, B, and D are collinear.","title":"Mathematical proof of concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"rhombus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhombus"},{"link_name":"midpoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midpoint"},{"link_name":"Pythagorean theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pythagorean_theorem"}],"sub_title":"Inverse points","text":"Let point P be the intersection of lines AC and BD. Then, since ABCD is a rhombus, P is the midpoint of both line segments BD and AC. Therefore, length BP = length PD.Triangle △BPA is congruent to triangle △DPA, because side BP is congruent to side DP, side AP is congruent to itself, and side AB is congruent to side AD . Therefore, angle ∠BPA = angle ∠DPA. But since ∠BPA + ∠DPA = 180°, then 2 × ∠BPA = 180°, ∠BPA = 90°, and ∠DPA = 90°.Let:x\n =\n \n ℓ\n \n B\n P\n \n \n =\n \n ℓ\n \n P\n D\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n y\n =\n \n ℓ\n \n O\n B\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n h\n =\n \n ℓ\n \n A\n P\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{aligned}&x=\\ell _{BP}=\\ell _{PD}\\\\&y=\\ell _{OB}\\\\&h=\\ell _{AP}\\end{aligned}}}Then:ℓ\n \n O\n B\n \n \n ⋅\n \n ℓ\n \n O\n D\n \n \n =\n y\n (\n y\n +\n 2\n x\n )\n =\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 2\n x\n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ell _{OB}\\cdot \\ell _{OD}=y(y+2x)=y^{2}+2xy}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ℓ\n \n O\n A\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n (\n y\n +\n x\n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n h\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ell _{OA}}^{2}=(y+x)^{2}+h^{2}}\n \n (due to the Pythagorean theorem)\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ℓ\n \n O\n A\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 2\n x\n y\n +\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n h\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ell _{OA}}^{2}=y^{2}+2xy+x^{2}+h^{2}}\n \n(same expression expanded)\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ℓ\n \n A\n D\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n \n h\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ell _{AD}}^{2}=x^{2}+h^{2}}\n \n (Pythagorean theorem)\n\n \n \n \n \n \n \n ℓ\n \n O\n A\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n −\n \n \n \n ℓ\n \n A\n D\n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n y\n \n 2\n \n \n +\n 2\n x\n y\n =\n \n ℓ\n \n O\n B\n \n \n ⋅\n \n ℓ\n \n O\n D\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\ell _{OA}}^{2}-{\\ell _{AD}}^{2}=y^{2}+2xy=\\ell _{OB}\\cdot \\ell _{OD}}Since OA and AD are both fixed lengths, then the product of OB and OD is a constant:ℓ\n \n O\n B\n \n \n ⋅\n \n ℓ\n \n O\n D\n \n \n =\n \n k\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\ell _{OB}\\cdot \\ell _{OD}=k^{2}}and since points O, B, D are collinear, then D is the inverse of B with respect to the circle (O,k) with center O and radius k.","title":"Mathematical proof of concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"inversive geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inversive_geometry"},{"link_name":"Q.E.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Q.E.D."}],"sub_title":"Inversive geometry","text":"Thus, by the properties of inversive geometry, since the figure traced by point D is the inverse of the figure traced by point B, if B traces a circle passing through the center of inversion O, then D is constrained to trace a straight line. But if B traces a straight line not passing through O, then D must trace an arc of a circle passing through O. Q.E.D.","title":"Mathematical proof of concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Peaucellier-Lipkin_linkage_with_a_rocker-slider_four-bar_as_its_driver.gif"}],"sub_title":"A typical driver","text":"Slider-rocker four-bar acts as the driver of the Peaucellier–Lipkin linkagePeaucellier–Lipkin linkages (PLLs) may have several inversions. A typical example is shown in the opposite figure, in which a rocker-slider four-bar serves as the input driver. To be precise, the slider acts as the input, which in turn drives the right grounded link of the PLL, thus driving the entire PLL.","title":"Mathematical proof of concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Sylvester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Joseph_Sylvester"},{"link_name":"Kelvin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lord_Kelvin"}],"sub_title":"Historical notes","text":"Sylvester (Collected Works, Vol. 3, Paper 2) writes that when he showed a model to Kelvin, he “nursed it as if it had been his own child, and when a motion was made to relieve him of it, replied ‘No! I have not had nearly enough of it—it is the most beautiful thing I have ever seen in my life.’”","title":"Mathematical proof of concept"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Eindhoven, Netherlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eindhoven,_Netherlands"},{"link_name":"control panel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Control_panel_(engineering)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Schoofs-3"}],"text":"A monumental-scale sculpture implementing the linkage in illuminated struts is on permanent exhibition in Eindhoven, Netherlands. The artwork measures 22 by 15 by 16 metres (72 ft × 49 ft × 52 ft), weighs 6,600 kilograms (14,600 lb), and can be operated from a control panel accessible to the general public.[3]","title":"Cultural references"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ogilvy, C. S.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C._Stanley_Ogilvy"},{"link_name":"Excursions in Geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/excursionsingeom0000ogil/page/46"},{"link_name":"46–48","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/excursionsingeom0000ogil/page/46"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-486-26530-7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-26530-7"},{"link_name":"How round is your circle? : where engineering and mathematics meet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/How_Round_Is_Your_Circle"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-691-13118-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13118-4"},{"link_name":"Coxeter HSM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harold_Scott_MacDonald_Coxeter"},{"link_name":"Greitzer SL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._L._Greitzer"},{"link_name":"Geometry Revisited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/geometryrevisite00coxe"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"MAA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematical_Association_of_America"},{"link_name":"108","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/geometryrevisite00coxe/page/n119"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-88385-619-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88385-619-2"},{"link_name":"Kinematic synthesis of linkages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//kmoddl.library.cornell.edu/bib.php?m=23"},{"link_name":"Cornell University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornell_University"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-486-46237-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-46237-0"},{"link_name":"The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Geometry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/penguindictionar0000well/page/120"},{"link_name":"120","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/penguindictionar0000well/page/120"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-14-011813-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-14-011813-6"}],"text":"Ogilvy, C. S. (1990), Excursions in Geometry, Dover, pp. 46–48, ISBN 0-486-26530-7\nBryant, John; Sangwin, Chris (2008). How round is your circle? : where engineering and mathematics meet. Princeton: Princeton University Press. pp. 33–38, 60–63. ISBN 978-0-691-13118-4. — proof and discussion of Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage, mathematical and real-world mechanical models\nCoxeter HSM, Greitzer SL (1967). Geometry Revisited. Washington: MAA. pp. 108–111. ISBN 978-0-88385-619-2. (and references cited therein)\nHartenberg, R.S. & J. Denavit (1964) Kinematic synthesis of linkages, pp 181–5, New York: McGraw–Hill, weblink from Cornell University.\nJohnson RA (1960). Advanced Euclidean Geometry: An elementary treatise on the geometry of the triangle and the circle (reprint of 1929 edition by Houghton Mifflin ed.). New York: Dover Publications. pp. 46–51. ISBN 978-0-486-46237-0.\nWells D (1991). The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Geometry. New York: Penguin Books. p. 120. ISBN 0-14-011813-6.","title":"Bibliography"}]

[{"image_text":"Animation for Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage:Dimensions:Cyan Links = aGreen Links = bYellow Links = c","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Peaucellier-Lipkin_Inversor.gif/220px-Peaucellier-Lipkin_Inversor.gif"},{"image_text":"Geometric diagram of a Peaucellier linkage","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/PeaucellierApparatus.PNG/220px-PeaucellierApparatus.PNG"},{"image_text":"Slider-rocker four-bar acts as the driver of the Peaucellier–Lipkin linkage","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/The_Peaucellier-Lipkin_linkage_with_a_rocker-slider_four-bar_as_its_driver.gif/220px-The_Peaucellier-Lipkin_linkage_with_a_rocker-slider_four-bar_as_its_driver.gif"}]

[{"title":"Linkage (mechanical)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linkage_(mechanical)"},{"title":"Straight line mechanism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Straight_line_mechanism"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cost_reduction

Cost reduction

["1 Importance","2 Examples of cost reduction strategies and programmes","2.1 Commercial businesses","2.2 Public sector","3 References","4 Further reading","5 See also"]

Process used by organisations to reduce costs Cost reduction is the process used by organisations aiming to reduce their costs and increase their profits, or to accommodate reduced income. Depending on a company’s services or products, the strategies can vary. Every decision in the product development process affects cost: design is typically considered to account for 70–80% of the final cost of a project such as an engineering project or the construction of a building. In the public sector, cost reduction programs can be used where income is reduced or to reduce debt levels. Importance Companies typically launch a new product without focusing too much on cost. Cost becomes more important when competition increases and price becomes a differentiator in the market. The importance of cost reduction in relation to other strategic business goals is often debated. Examples of cost reduction strategies and programmes Commercial businesses Consultants Deloitte reported in 2006 that over three-quarters of the FTSE 100 listed companies had commenced a cost reduction programme during the preceding 12 months. Cost reduction is most frequently stimulated by recognition that profits and profitability are below expected levels. Some examples of programmes include: Reductions in staff numbers (head count). Doherty refers to staff reduction exercises as "a quick and easy method" whose use often means that companies lack the resources they need when business activities recover. Component consolidation Function cost analysis / Value analysis / Value engineering Design for manufacture / Design for assembly Reverse costing Cost driver analysis Activity-based costing (ABC), which assigns a cost of each activity undertaken in the production and delivery of each product and service according to the actual consumption by each activity including a share of overheads. Peter Turney, in a 1989 article, examines the role of ABC in the achievement of manufacturing excellence and the product cost information needed by managers working towards this goal. Product benchmarking Competitor benchmarking Design to cost Incorporation of "low-cost thinking" into an organisation's culture Half cost strategies: ambitious strategies which aim to reduce the costs of specific production processes or value adding stages to 1/N of the previous cost. Examples specifically focussed on the use of suppliers and the costs of goods and services supplied include: Supplier consolidation: see examples in the aerospace manufacturing industry Low-cost country sourcing Outsourcing: experience in the United States suggests that businesses primarily outsource to reduce peripheral and "non-core" business expenses. Request for quotations (RFQ) Supplier cost breakdown analysis Design workshops with suppliers Public sector In a public sector spending review, an overall target for reduction in expenditure may be identified: for example, in the United Kingdom, the 2010 spending review anticipated a reduction of £81bn in public expenditure over the four year budget planning period. In order to meet the challenges of a significant reduction in expenditure, government departments are expected to look at how they can "take cost out of the business" rather than simply cut services. One of the main principles expected of government departments in order to reduce costs is a "data-driven approach", i.e. ensuring that staff within the department have "a good understanding of the distribution and profile of costs in their business". Centralisation of procurement activity has been hightlighted as a beneficial public sector cost reduction strategy.: 6  Scott Brown et al, of "Excellence in Business", note that in most cases, a successful approach to cost reduction which aims to maintain service quality "has at its heart an approach based on the principles of Systems Thinking": a fundamental review of the whole service, its purpose and objectives. The "Route Map for Change" which they advocate has been used effectively by Kent County Council for their highway maintenance contract, while the decommissioning of various warships and aircraft squadrons following the UK's Strategic Defence Review in 2010 is seen as a good example of a strategic option appraisal. References ^ Barton, J. A. et al., Design determines 70% of cost? A review of implications for design evaluation, Journal of Engineering Design, Volume 12, published 1 March 2001 ^ Designing Buildings Wiki, Cost control in building design and construction, last updated 15 August 2021, accessed 11 September 2021 ^ McKinsey & Company, A smarter approach to cost reduction in the public sector, published 8 June 2018, accessed 19 April 2024 ^ Green, W., Growth trumps cost cutting, says survey, Supply Management, published 31 January 2018, accessed 12 September 2021 ^ a b c Doherty, P. et al. (2006), The cutting edge: Sound advice for a sustainable approach to reducing costs, Deloitte, p. 1 ^ Turney, P., Activity-Based Costing: A Tool for Manufacturing Excellence, Association for Manufacturing Excellence, published summer 1989, accessed 13 September 2021 ^ High, P., AstraZeneca CIO Makes IT Twice As Good At Half The Cost - Here Is How, Forbes.com, published 3 January 2017, accessed 10 January 2021 ^ Forey, Gail, and Jane Lockwood. Globalization, Communication and the Workplace: Talking across the World. New York: Continuum, 2011. Electronic Book #21-26. ^ BBC News, Spending Review 2010: George Osborne wields the axe, published 20 October 2010, accessed 13 February 2024 ^ a b c National Audit Office, A Short Guide to Structured Cost Reduction, reference 009328-001, published June 2010, accessed 13 February 2024 ^ a b Brown, S., Hadden, C., Jones, K. and Roddie, R. (2010), Radical Cost Reduction in Public Services, published by Excellence in Business, p. 5 Further reading Barrett R. Crane. "Cycle time & cost reduction in a low volume manufacturing environment". MIT DSpace. hdl:1721.1/11020. Apichart Jearasatit. "Using a total landed cost model to foster global logistics strategy in the electronics industry". MIT DSpace. hdl:1721.1/60836. Bryan K. Parks. "Cost and lead time reduction in the manufacture of injection molding tools". MIT DSpace. hdl:1721.1/12092. See also Potential analysis Productivity Efficiency

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Crane. \"Cycle time & cost reduction in a low volume manufacturing environment\". MIT DSpace. hdl:1721.1/11020.\nApichart Jearasatit. \"Using a total landed cost model to foster global logistics strategy in the electronics industry\". MIT DSpace. hdl:1721.1/60836.\nBryan K. Parks. \"Cost and lead time reduction in the manufacture of injection molding tools\". MIT DSpace. hdl:1721.1/12092.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"title":"Potential analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potential_analysis"},{"title":"Productivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Productivity"},{"title":"Efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficiency"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_understanding

Natural-language understanding

["1 History","2 Scope and context","3 Components and architecture","4 See also","5 Notes"]

Subtopic of natural language processing in artificial intelligence This article is about the computer processing ability. For the psychological concept, see Language processing in the brain This article needs to be updated. The reason given is: lack of discussion of recent developments related to large language models, but also no mention of older techniques like word embedding or word2vec. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (February 2024) Natural-language understanding (NLU) or natural-language interpretation (NLI) is a subset of natural-language processing in artificial intelligence that deals with machine reading comprehension. Natural-language understanding is considered an AI-hard problem. There is considerable commercial interest in the field because of its application to automated reasoning, machine translation, question answering, news-gathering, text categorization, voice-activation, archiving, and large-scale content analysis. History The program STUDENT, written in 1964 by Daniel Bobrow for his PhD dissertation at MIT, is one of the earliest known attempts at natural-language understanding by a computer. Eight years after John McCarthy coined the term artificial intelligence, Bobrow's dissertation (titled Natural Language Input for a Computer Problem Solving System) showed how a computer could understand simple natural language input to solve algebra word problems. A year later, in 1965, Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT wrote ELIZA, an interactive program that carried on a dialogue in English on any topic, the most popular being psychotherapy. ELIZA worked by simple parsing and substitution of key words into canned phrases and Weizenbaum sidestepped the problem of giving the program a database of real-world knowledge or a rich lexicon. Yet ELIZA gained surprising popularity as a toy project and can be seen as a very early precursor to current commercial systems such as those used by Ask.com. In 1969, Roger Schank at Stanford University introduced the conceptual dependency theory for natural-language understanding. This model, partially influenced by the work of Sydney Lamb, was extensively used by Schank's students at Yale University, such as Robert Wilensky, Wendy Lehnert, and Janet Kolodner. In 1970, William A. Woods introduced the augmented transition network (ATN) to represent natural language input. Instead of phrase structure rules ATNs used an equivalent set of finite state automata that were called recursively. ATNs and their more general format called "generalized ATNs" continued to be used for a number of years. In 1971, Terry Winograd finished writing SHRDLU for his PhD thesis at MIT. SHRDLU could understand simple English sentences in a restricted world of children's blocks to direct a robotic arm to move items. The successful demonstration of SHRDLU provided significant momentum for continued research in the field. Winograd continued to be a major influence in the field with the publication of his book Language as a Cognitive Process. At Stanford, Winograd would later advise Larry Page, who co-founded Google. In the 1970s and 1980s, the natural language processing group at SRI International continued research and development in the field. A number of commercial efforts based on the research were undertaken, e.g., in 1982 Gary Hendrix formed Symantec Corporation originally as a company for developing a natural language interface for database queries on personal computers. However, with the advent of mouse-driven graphical user interfaces, Symantec changed direction. A number of other commercial efforts were started around the same time, e.g., Larry R. Harris at the Artificial Intelligence Corporation and Roger Schank and his students at Cognitive Systems Corp. In 1983, Michael Dyer developed the BORIS system at Yale which bore similarities to the work of Roger Schank and W. G. Lehnert. The third millennium saw the introduction of systems using machine learning for text classification, such as the IBM Watson. However, experts debate how much "understanding" such systems demonstrate: e.g., according to John Searle, Watson did not even understand the questions. John Ball, cognitive scientist and inventor of the Patom Theory, supports this assessment. Natural language processing has made inroads for applications to support human productivity in service and e-commerce, but this has largely been made possible by narrowing the scope of the application. There are thousands of ways to request something in a human language that still defies conventional natural language processing. According to Wibe Wagemans, "To have a meaningful conversation with machines is only possible when we match every word to the correct meaning based on the meanings of the other words in the sentence – just like a 3-year-old does without guesswork." Scope and context The umbrella term "natural-language understanding" can be applied to a diverse set of computer applications, ranging from small, relatively simple tasks such as short commands issued to robots, to highly complex endeavors such as the full comprehension of newspaper articles or poetry passages. Many real-world applications fall between the two extremes, for instance text classification for the automatic analysis of emails and their routing to a suitable department in a corporation does not require an in-depth understanding of the text, but needs to deal with a much larger vocabulary and more diverse syntax than the management of simple queries to database tables with fixed schemata. Throughout the years various attempts at processing natural language or English-like sentences presented to computers have taken place at varying degrees of complexity. Some attempts have not resulted in systems with deep understanding, but have helped overall system usability. For example, Wayne Ratliff originally developed the Vulcan program with an English-like syntax to mimic the English speaking computer in Star Trek. Vulcan later became the dBase system whose easy-to-use syntax effectively launched the personal computer database industry. Systems with an easy to use or English-like syntax are, however, quite distinct from systems that use a rich lexicon and include an internal representation (often as first order logic) of the semantics of natural language sentences. Hence the breadth and depth of "understanding" aimed at by a system determine both the complexity of the system (and the implied challenges) and the types of applications it can deal with. The "breadth" of a system is measured by the sizes of its vocabulary and grammar. The "depth" is measured by the degree to which its understanding approximates that of a fluent native speaker. At the narrowest and shallowest, English-like command interpreters require minimal complexity, but have a small range of applications. Narrow but deep systems explore and model mechanisms of understanding, but they still have limited application. Systems that attempt to understand the contents of a document such as a news release beyond simple keyword matching and to judge its suitability for a user are broader and require significant complexity, but they are still somewhat shallow. Systems that are both very broad and very deep are beyond the current state of the art. Components and architecture Regardless of the approach used, most natural-language-understanding systems share some common components. The system needs a lexicon of the language and a parser and grammar rules to break sentences into an internal representation. The construction of a rich lexicon with a suitable ontology requires significant effort, e.g., the Wordnet lexicon required many person-years of effort. The system also needs theory from semantics to guide the comprehension. The interpretation capabilities of a language-understanding system depend on the semantic theory it uses. Competing semantic theories of language have specific trade-offs in their suitability as the basis of computer-automated semantic interpretation. These range from naive semantics or stochastic semantic analysis to the use of pragmatics to derive meaning from context. Semantic parsers convert natural-language texts into formal meaning representations. Advanced applications of natural-language understanding also attempt to incorporate logical inference within their framework. This is generally achieved by mapping the derived meaning into a set of assertions in predicate logic, then using logical deduction to arrive at conclusions. Therefore, systems based on functional languages such as Lisp need to include a subsystem to represent logical assertions, while logic-oriented systems such as those using the language Prolog generally rely on an extension of the built-in logical representation framework. The management of context in natural-language understanding can present special challenges. A large variety of examples and counter examples have resulted in multiple approaches to the formal modeling of context, each with specific strengths and weaknesses. See also Computational semantics Computational linguistics Discourse representation theory Deep linguistic processing History of natural language processing Information extraction Mathematica Natural-language processing Natural-language programming Natural-language user interface Siri (software) Wolfram Alpha Open information extraction Part-of-speech tagging Speech recognition Notes ^ Semaan, P. (2012). Natural Language Generation: An Overview. Journal of Computer Science & Research (JCSCR)-ISSN, 50-57 ^ Roman V. Yampolskiy. Turing Test as a Defining Feature of AI-Completeness . In Artificial Intelligence, Evolutionary Computation and Metaheuristics (AIECM) --In the footsteps of Alan Turing. Xin-She Yang (Ed.). pp. 3-17. (Chapter 1). Springer, London. 2013. http://cecs.louisville.edu/ry/TuringTestasaDefiningFeature04270003.pdf ^ Van Harmelen, Frank, Vladimir Lifschitz, and Bruce Porter, eds. Handbook of knowledge representation. Vol. 1. Elsevier, 2008. ^ Macherey, Klaus, Franz Josef Och, and Hermann Ney. "Natural language understanding using statistical machine translation." Seventh European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology. 2001. ^ Hirschman, Lynette, and Robert Gaizauskas. "Natural language question answering: the view from here." natural language engineering 7.4 (2001): 275-300. ^ American Association for Artificial Intelligence Brief History of AI ^ Daniel Bobrow's PhD Thesis Natural Language Input for a Computer Problem Solving System. ^ Machines who think by Pamela McCorduck 2004 ISBN 1-56881-205-1 page 286 ^ Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-790395-2, http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/, p. 19 ^ Computer Science Logo Style: Beyond programming by Brian Harvey 1997 ISBN 0-262-58150-7 page 278 ^ Weizenbaum, Joseph (1976). Computer power and human reason: from judgment to calculation W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-0463-3 pages 188-189 ^ Roger Schank, 1969, A conceptual dependency parser for natural language Proceedings of the 1969 conference on Computational linguistics, Sång-Säby, Sweden, pages 1-3 ^ Woods, William A (1970). "Transition Network Grammars for Natural Language Analysis". Communications of the ACM 13 (10): 591–606 ^ Artificial intelligence: critical concepts, Volume 1 by Ronald Chrisley, Sander Begeer 2000 ISBN 0-415-19332-X page 89 ^ Terry Winograd's SHRDLU page at Stanford SHRDLU ^ Winograd, Terry (1983), Language as a Cognitive Process, Addison–Wesley, Reading, MA. ^ Larry R. Harris, Research at the Artificial Intelligence corp. ACM SIGART Bulletin, issue 79, January 1982 ^ Inside case-based reasoning by Christopher K. Riesbeck, Roger C. Schank 1989 ISBN 0-89859-767-6 page xiii ^ In Depth Understanding: A Model of Integrated Process for Narrative Comprehension.. Michael G. Dyer. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-04073-5 ^ Searle, John (23 February 2011). "Watson Doesn't Know It Won on 'Jeopardy!'". Wall Street Journal. ^ Brandon, John (2016-07-12). "What Natural Language Understanding tech means for chatbots". VentureBeat. Retrieved 2024-02-29. ^ An approach to hierarchical email categorization by Peifeng Li et al. in Natural language processing and information systems edited by Zoubida Kedad, Nadira Lammari 2007 ISBN 3-540-73350-7 ^ InfoWorld, Nov 13, 1989, page 144 ^ InfoWorld, April 19, 1984, page 71 ^ Building Working Models of Full Natural-Language Understanding in Limited Pragmatic Domains by James Mason 2010 ^ Mining the Web: discovering knowledge from hypertext data by Soumen Chakrabarti 2002 ISBN 1-55860-754-4 page 289 ^ G. A. Miller, R. Beckwith, C. D. Fellbaum, D. Gross, K. Miller. 1990. WordNet: An online lexical database. Int. J. Lexicograph. 3, 4, pp. 235-244. ^ Using computers in linguistics: a practical guide by John Lawler, Helen Aristar Dry 198 ISBN 0-415-16792-2 page 209 ^ Naive semantics for natural language understanding by Kathleen Dahlgren 1988 ISBN 0-89838-287-4 ^ Stochastically-based semantic analysis by Wolfgang Minker, Alex Waibel, Joseph Mariani 1999 ISBN 0-7923-8571-3 ^ Pragmatics and natural language understanding by Georgia M. Green 1996 ISBN 0-8058-2166-X ^ Wong, Yuk Wah, and Raymond J. Mooney. "Learning for semantic parsing with statistical machine translation." Proceedings of the main conference on Human Language Technology Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association of Computational Linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics, 2006. ^ Natural Language Processing Prolog Programmers by M. Covington, 1994 ISBN 0-13-629478-2 ^ Natural language processing in Prolog by Gerald Gazdar, Christopher S. Mellish 1989 ISBN 0-201-18053-7 ^ Understanding language understanding by Ashwin Ram, Kenneth Moorman 1999 ISBN 0-262-18192-4 page 111 ^ Formal aspects of context by Pierre Bonzon et al 2000 ISBN 0-7923-6350-7 ^ Programming with Natural Language Is Actually Going to Work—Wolfram Blog ^ Van Valin, Jr, Robert D. "From NLP to NLU" (PDF). ^ Ball, John. "multi-lingual NLU by Pat Inc". Pat.ai. vteNatural language processingGeneral terms AI-complete Bag-of-words n-gram Bigram Trigram Computational linguistics Natural-language understanding Stop words Text processing Text analysis Argument mining Collocation extraction Concept mining Coreference resolution Deep linguistic processing Distant reading Information extraction Named-entity recognition Ontology learning Parsing Semantic parsing Syntactic parsing Part-of-speech tagging Semantic analysis Semantic role labeling Semantic decomposition Semantic similarity Sentiment analysis Terminology extraction Text mining Textual entailment Truecasing Word-sense disambiguation Word-sense induction Text segmentation Compound-term processing Lemmatisation Lexical analysis Text chunking Stemming Sentence segmentation Word segmentation Automatic summarization Multi-document summarization Sentence extraction Text simplification Machine translation Computer-assisted Example-based Rule-based Statistical Transfer-based Neural Distributional semantics models BERT Document-term matrix Explicit semantic analysis fastText GloVe Language model (large) Latent semantic analysis Seq2seq Word embedding Word2vec Language resources,datasets and corporaTypes andstandards Corpus linguistics Lexical resource Linguistic Linked Open Data Machine-readable dictionary Parallel text PropBank Semantic network Simple Knowledge Organization System Speech corpus Text corpus Thesaurus (information retrieval) Treebank Universal Dependencies Data BabelNet Bank of English DBpedia FrameNet Google Ngram Viewer UBY WordNet Wikidata Automatic identificationand data capture Speech recognition Speech segmentation Speech synthesis Natural language generation Optical character recognition Topic model Document classification Latent Dirichlet allocation Pachinko allocation Computer-assistedreviewing Automated essay scoring Concordancer Grammar checker Predictive text Pronunciation assessment Spell checker Natural languageuser interface Chatbot Interactive fiction (c.f. Syntax guessing) Question answering Virtual assistant Voice user interface Related Formal semantics Hallucination Natural Language Toolkit spaCy

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Language processing in the brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Language_processing_in_the_brain"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"natural-language processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural-language_processing"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"reading comprehension","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reading_comprehension"},{"link_name":"AI-hard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AI-hard"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"automated reasoning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_reasoning"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"machine translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"question answering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question_answering"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"text categorization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_categorization"},{"link_name":"voice-activation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_user_interface"},{"link_name":"content analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Content_analysis"}],"text":"This article is about the computer processing ability. For the psychological concept, see Language processing in the brainNatural-language understanding (NLU) or natural-language interpretation (NLI)[1] is a subset of natural-language processing in artificial intelligence that deals with machine reading comprehension. Natural-language understanding is considered an AI-hard problem.[2]There is considerable commercial interest in the field because of its application to automated reasoning,[3] machine translation,[4] question answering,[5] news-gathering, text categorization, voice-activation, archiving, and large-scale content analysis.","title":"Natural-language understanding"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"STUDENT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/STUDENT_(computer_program)"},{"link_name":"Daniel Bobrow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel_Bobrow"},{"link_name":"MIT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"John McCarthy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_McCarthy_(computer_scientist)"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"Joseph Weizenbaum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph_Weizenbaum"},{"link_name":"ELIZA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ELIZA"},{"link_name":"database","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Database"},{"link_name":"lexicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon"},{"link_name":"Ask.com","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ask.com"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Roger Schank","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roger_Schank"},{"link_name":"Stanford University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"conceptual dependency theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conceptual_dependency_theory"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Sydney Lamb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sydney_Lamb"},{"link_name":"Yale University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University"},{"link_name":"Robert Wilensky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Wilensky"},{"link_name":"Wendy Lehnert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendy_Lehnert"},{"link_name":"Janet Kolodner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janet_Kolodner"},{"link_name":"William A. Woods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Aaron_Woods"},{"link_name":"augmented transition network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Augmented_transition_network"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"phrase structure rules","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phrase_structure_rules"},{"link_name":"finite state automata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_state_automata"},{"link_name":"Terry Winograd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terry_Winograd"},{"link_name":"SHRDLU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SHRDLU"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Larry Page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Page"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"SRI International","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRI_International"},{"link_name":"Gary Hendrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gary_Hendrix"},{"link_name":"Symantec Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symantec_Corporation"},{"link_name":"graphical user interfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Watson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Watson_(computer)"},{"link_name":"John Searle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Searle"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"John Ball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Ball_(cognitive_scientist)"},{"link_name":"Patom Theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patom_Theory"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"}],"text":"The program STUDENT, written in 1964 by Daniel Bobrow for his PhD dissertation at MIT, is one of the earliest known attempts at natural-language understanding by a computer.[6][7][8][9][10] Eight years after John McCarthy coined the term artificial intelligence, Bobrow's dissertation (titled Natural Language Input for a Computer Problem Solving System) showed how a computer could understand simple natural language input to solve algebra word problems.A year later, in 1965, Joseph Weizenbaum at MIT wrote ELIZA, an interactive program that carried on a dialogue in English on any topic, the most popular being psychotherapy. ELIZA worked by simple parsing and substitution of key words into canned phrases and Weizenbaum sidestepped the problem of giving the program a database of real-world knowledge or a rich lexicon. Yet ELIZA gained surprising popularity as a toy project and can be seen as a very early precursor to current commercial systems such as those used by Ask.com.[11]In 1969, Roger Schank at Stanford University introduced the conceptual dependency theory for natural-language understanding.[12] This model, partially influenced by the work of Sydney Lamb, was extensively used by Schank's students at Yale University, such as Robert Wilensky, Wendy Lehnert, and Janet Kolodner.In 1970, William A. Woods introduced the augmented transition network (ATN) to represent natural language input.[13] Instead of phrase structure rules ATNs used an equivalent set of finite state automata that were called recursively. ATNs and their more general format called \"generalized ATNs\" continued to be used for a number of years.In 1971, Terry Winograd finished writing SHRDLU for his PhD thesis at MIT. SHRDLU could understand simple English sentences in a restricted world of children's blocks to direct a robotic arm to move items. The successful demonstration of SHRDLU provided significant momentum for continued research in the field.[14][15] Winograd continued to be a major influence in the field with the publication of his book Language as a Cognitive Process.[16] At Stanford, Winograd would later advise Larry Page, who co-founded Google.In the 1970s and 1980s, the natural language processing group at SRI International continued research and development in the field. A number of commercial efforts based on the research were undertaken, e.g., in 1982 Gary Hendrix formed Symantec Corporation originally as a company for developing a natural language interface for database queries on personal computers. However, with the advent of mouse-driven graphical user interfaces, Symantec changed direction. A number of other commercial efforts were started around the same time, e.g., Larry R. Harris at the Artificial Intelligence Corporation and Roger Schank and his students at Cognitive Systems Corp.[17][18] In 1983, Michael Dyer developed the BORIS system at Yale which bore similarities to the work of Roger Schank and W. G. Lehnert.[19]The third millennium saw the introduction of systems using machine learning for text classification, such as the IBM Watson. However, experts debate how much \"understanding\" such systems demonstrate: e.g., according to John Searle, Watson did not even understand the questions.[20]John Ball, cognitive scientist and inventor of the Patom Theory, supports this assessment. Natural language processing has made inroads for applications to support human productivity in service and e-commerce, but this has largely been made possible by narrowing the scope of the application. There are thousands of ways to request something in a human language that still defies conventional natural language processing.[citation needed] According to Wibe Wagemans, \"To have a meaningful conversation with machines is only possible when we match every word to the correct meaning based on the meanings of the other words in the sentence – just like a 3-year-old does without guesswork.\"[21]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"robots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robot"},{"link_name":"text classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Document_classification"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Wayne Ratliff","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayne_Ratliff"},{"link_name":"Star Trek","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Star_Trek"},{"link_name":"dBase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DBase"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"lexicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon"},{"link_name":"representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Knowledge_representation_and_reasoning"},{"link_name":"first order logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_order_logic"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"}],"text":"The umbrella term \"natural-language understanding\" can be applied to a diverse set of computer applications, ranging from small, relatively simple tasks such as short commands issued to robots, to highly complex endeavors such as the full comprehension of newspaper articles or poetry passages. Many real-world applications fall between the two extremes, for instance text classification for the automatic analysis of emails and their routing to a suitable department in a corporation does not require an in-depth understanding of the text,[22] but needs to deal with a much larger vocabulary and more diverse syntax than the management of simple queries to database tables with fixed schemata.Throughout the years various attempts at processing natural language or English-like sentences presented to computers have taken place at varying degrees of complexity. Some attempts have not resulted in systems with deep understanding, but have helped overall system usability. For example, Wayne Ratliff originally developed the Vulcan program with an English-like syntax to mimic the English speaking computer in Star Trek. Vulcan later became the dBase system whose easy-to-use syntax effectively launched the personal computer database industry.[23][24] Systems with an easy to use or English-like syntax are, however, quite distinct from systems that use a rich lexicon and include an internal representation (often as first order logic) of the semantics of natural language sentences.Hence the breadth and depth of \"understanding\" aimed at by a system determine both the complexity of the system (and the implied challenges) and the types of applications it can deal with. The \"breadth\" of a system is measured by the sizes of its vocabulary and grammar. The \"depth\" is measured by the degree to which its understanding approximates that of a fluent native speaker. At the narrowest and shallowest, English-like command interpreters require minimal complexity, but have a small range of applications. Narrow but deep systems explore and model mechanisms of understanding,[25] but they still have limited application. Systems that attempt to understand the contents of a document such as a news release beyond simple keyword matching and to judge its suitability for a user are broader and require significant complexity,[26] but they are still somewhat shallow. Systems that are both very broad and very deep are beyond the current state of the art.","title":"Scope and context"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lexicon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lexicon"},{"link_name":"parser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parser"},{"link_name":"grammar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar"},{"link_name":"ontology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontology_(information_science)"},{"link_name":"Wordnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wordnet"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"semantics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantics"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"naive semantics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naive_semantics"},{"link_name":"stochastic semantic analysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stochastic_semantic_analysis"},{"link_name":"pragmatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pragmatics"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Semantic parsers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semantic_parser"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"inference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inference"},{"link_name":"predicate logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predicate_logic"},{"link_name":"logical deduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logical_deduction"},{"link_name":"Lisp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lisp_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Prolog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prolog"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"context","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Context_(language_use)"},{"link_name":"formal modeling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"text":"Regardless of the approach used, most natural-language-understanding systems share some common components. The system needs a lexicon of the language and a parser and grammar rules to break sentences into an internal representation. The construction of a rich lexicon with a suitable ontology requires significant effort, e.g., the Wordnet lexicon required many person-years of effort.[27]The system also needs theory from semantics to guide the comprehension. The interpretation capabilities of a language-understanding system depend on the semantic theory it uses. Competing semantic theories of language have specific trade-offs in their suitability as the basis of computer-automated semantic interpretation.[28] These range from naive semantics or stochastic semantic analysis to the use of pragmatics to derive meaning from context.[29][30][31] Semantic parsers convert natural-language texts into formal meaning representations.[32]Advanced applications of natural-language understanding also attempt to incorporate logical inference within their framework. This is generally achieved by mapping the derived meaning into a set of assertions in predicate logic, then using logical deduction to arrive at conclusions. Therefore, systems based on functional languages such as Lisp need to include a subsystem to represent logical assertions, while logic-oriented systems such as those using the language Prolog generally rely on an extension of the built-in logical representation framework.[33][34]The management of context in natural-language understanding can present special challenges. A large variety of examples and counter examples have resulted in multiple approaches to the formal modeling of context, each with specific strengths and weaknesses.[35][36]","title":"Components and architecture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-1"},{"link_name":"Natural Language Generation: An Overview","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.lacsc.org/papers/PaperA6.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"},{"link_name":"http://cecs.louisville.edu/ry/TuringTestasaDefiningFeature04270003.pdf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//cecs.louisville.edu/ry/TuringTestasaDefiningFeature04270003.pdf"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"Handbook of knowledge representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=xwBDylHhJhYC&q=%22natural+language+understanding%22"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"Natural 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allocation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pachinko_allocation"},{"link_name":"Computer-assistedreviewing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-assisted_reviewing"},{"link_name":"Automated essay scoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_essay_scoring"},{"link_name":"Concordancer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concordancer"},{"link_name":"Grammar checker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grammar_checker"},{"link_name":"Predictive text","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Predictive_text"},{"link_name":"Pronunciation assessment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pronunciation_assessment"},{"link_name":"Spell checker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spell_checker"},{"link_name":"Natural languageuser interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_language_user_interface"},{"link_name":"Chatbot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chatbot"},{"link_name":"Interactive fiction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interactive_fiction"},{"link_name":"Syntax guessing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syntax_guessing"},{"link_name":"Question answering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Question_answering"},{"link_name":"Virtual assistant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_assistant"},{"link_name":"Voice user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voice_user_interface"},{"link_name":"Formal semantics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_semantics_(natural_language)"},{"link_name":"Hallucination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hallucination_(artificial_intelligence)"},{"link_name":"Natural Language Toolkit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Language_Toolkit"},{"link_name":"spaCy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SpaCy"}],"text":"^ Semaan, P. (2012). Natural Language Generation: An Overview. Journal of Computer Science & Research (JCSCR)-ISSN, 50-57\n\n^ Roman V. Yampolskiy. Turing Test as a Defining Feature of AI-Completeness . In Artificial Intelligence, Evolutionary Computation and Metaheuristics (AIECM) --In the footsteps of Alan Turing. Xin-She Yang (Ed.). pp. 3-17. (Chapter 1). Springer, London. 2013. http://cecs.louisville.edu/ry/TuringTestasaDefiningFeature04270003.pdf\n\n^ Van Harmelen, Frank, Vladimir Lifschitz, and Bruce Porter, eds. Handbook of knowledge representation. Vol. 1. Elsevier, 2008.\n\n^ Macherey, Klaus, Franz Josef Och, and Hermann Ney. \"Natural language understanding using statistical machine translation.\" Seventh European Conference on Speech Communication and Technology. 2001.\n\n^ Hirschman, Lynette, and Robert Gaizauskas. \"Natural language question answering: the view from here.\" natural language engineering 7.4 (2001): 275-300.\n\n^ American Association for Artificial Intelligence Brief History of AI [1]\n\n^ Daniel Bobrow's PhD Thesis Natural Language Input for a Computer Problem Solving System.\n\n^ Machines who think by Pamela McCorduck 2004 ISBN 1-56881-205-1 page 286\n\n^ Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-13-790395-2, http://aima.cs.berkeley.edu/, p. 19\n\n^ Computer Science Logo Style: Beyond programming by Brian Harvey 1997 ISBN 0-262-58150-7 page 278\n\n^ Weizenbaum, Joseph (1976). Computer power and human reason: from judgment to calculation W. H. Freeman and Company. ISBN 0-7167-0463-3 pages 188-189\n\n^ Roger Schank, 1969, A conceptual dependency parser for natural language Proceedings of the 1969 conference on Computational linguistics, Sång-Säby, Sweden, pages 1-3\n\n^ Woods, William A (1970). \"Transition Network Grammars for Natural Language Analysis\". Communications of the ACM 13 (10): 591–606 [2]\n\n^ Artificial intelligence: critical concepts, Volume 1 by Ronald Chrisley, Sander Begeer 2000 ISBN 0-415-19332-X page 89\n\n^ Terry Winograd's SHRDLU page at Stanford SHRDLU\n\n^ Winograd, Terry (1983), Language as a Cognitive Process, Addison–Wesley, Reading, MA.\n\n^ Larry R. Harris, Research at the Artificial Intelligence corp. ACM SIGART Bulletin, issue 79, January 1982 [3]\n\n^ Inside case-based reasoning by Christopher K. Riesbeck, Roger C. Schank 1989 ISBN 0-89859-767-6 page xiii\n\n^ In Depth Understanding: A Model of Integrated Process for Narrative Comprehension.. Michael G. Dyer. MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-04073-5\n\n^ Searle, John (23 February 2011). \"Watson Doesn't Know It Won on 'Jeopardy!'\". Wall Street Journal.\n\n^ Brandon, John (2016-07-12). \"What Natural Language Understanding tech means for chatbots\". VentureBeat. Retrieved 2024-02-29.\n\n^ An approach to hierarchical email categorization by Peifeng Li et al. in Natural language processing and information systems edited by Zoubida Kedad, Nadira Lammari 2007 ISBN 3-540-73350-7\n\n^ InfoWorld, Nov 13, 1989, page 144\n\n^ InfoWorld, April 19, 1984, page 71\n\n^ Building Working Models of Full Natural-Language Understanding in Limited Pragmatic Domains by James Mason 2010 [4]\n\n^ Mining the Web: discovering knowledge from hypertext data by Soumen Chakrabarti 2002 ISBN 1-55860-754-4 page 289\n\n^ G. A. Miller, R. Beckwith, C. D. Fellbaum, D. Gross, K. Miller. 1990. WordNet: An online lexical database. Int. J. Lexicograph. 3, 4, pp. 235-244.\n\n^ Using computers in linguistics: a practical guide by John Lawler, Helen Aristar Dry 198 ISBN 0-415-16792-2 page 209\n\n^ Naive semantics for natural language understanding by Kathleen Dahlgren 1988 ISBN 0-89838-287-4\n\n^ Stochastically-based semantic analysis by Wolfgang Minker, Alex Waibel, Joseph Mariani 1999 ISBN 0-7923-8571-3\n\n^ Pragmatics and natural language understanding by Georgia M. Green 1996 ISBN 0-8058-2166-X\n\n^ Wong, Yuk Wah, and Raymond J. Mooney. \"Learning for semantic parsing with statistical machine translation.\" Proceedings of the main conference on Human Language Technology Conference of the North American Chapter of the Association of Computational Linguistics. Association for Computational Linguistics, 2006.\n\n^ Natural Language Processing Prolog Programmers by M. Covington, 1994 ISBN 0-13-629478-2\n\n^ Natural language processing in Prolog by Gerald Gazdar, Christopher S. Mellish 1989 ISBN 0-201-18053-7\n\n^ Understanding language understanding by Ashwin Ram, Kenneth Moorman 1999 ISBN 0-262-18192-4 page 111\n\n^ Formal aspects of context by Pierre Bonzon et al 2000 ISBN 0-7923-6350-7\n\n^ Programming with Natural Language Is Actually Going to Work—Wolfram Blog\n\n^ Van Valin, Jr, Robert D. \"From NLP to NLU\" (PDF).\n\n^ Ball, John. \"multi-lingual NLU by Pat Inc\". Pat.ai.vteNatural language processingGeneral terms\nAI-complete\nBag-of-words\nn-gram\nBigram\nTrigram\nComputational linguistics\nNatural-language understanding\nStop words\nText processing\nText analysis\nArgument mining\nCollocation extraction\nConcept mining\nCoreference resolution\nDeep linguistic processing\nDistant reading\nInformation extraction\nNamed-entity recognition\nOntology learning\nParsing\nSemantic parsing\nSyntactic parsing\nPart-of-speech tagging\nSemantic analysis\nSemantic role labeling\nSemantic decomposition\nSemantic similarity\nSentiment analysis\nTerminology extraction\nText mining\nTextual entailment\nTruecasing\nWord-sense disambiguation\nWord-sense induction\nText segmentation\nCompound-term processing\nLemmatisation\nLexical analysis\nText chunking\nStemming\nSentence segmentation\nWord segmentation\n\nAutomatic summarization\nMulti-document summarization\nSentence extraction\nText simplification\nMachine translation\nComputer-assisted\nExample-based\nRule-based\nStatistical\nTransfer-based\nNeural\nDistributional semantics models\nBERT\nDocument-term matrix\nExplicit semantic analysis\nfastText\nGloVe\nLanguage model (large)\nLatent semantic analysis\nSeq2seq\nWord embedding\nWord2vec\nLanguage resources,datasets and corporaTypes andstandards\nCorpus linguistics\nLexical resource\nLinguistic Linked Open Data\nMachine-readable dictionary\nParallel text\nPropBank\nSemantic network\nSimple Knowledge Organization System\nSpeech corpus\nText corpus\nThesaurus (information retrieval)\nTreebank\nUniversal Dependencies\nData\nBabelNet\nBank of English\nDBpedia\nFrameNet\nGoogle Ngram Viewer\nUBY\nWordNet\nWikidata\nAutomatic identificationand data capture\nSpeech recognition\nSpeech segmentation\nSpeech synthesis\nNatural language generation\nOptical character recognition\nTopic model\nDocument classification\nLatent Dirichlet allocation\nPachinko allocation\nComputer-assistedreviewing\nAutomated essay scoring\nConcordancer\nGrammar checker\nPredictive text\nPronunciation assessment\nSpell checker\nNatural languageuser interface\nChatbot\nInteractive fiction (c.f. Syntax guessing)\nQuestion answering\nVirtual assistant\nVoice user interface\nRelated\nFormal semantics\nHallucination\nNatural Language Toolkit\nspaCy","title":"Notes"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/May_Brodbeck

May Brodbeck

["1 Biography","2 Work","3 Select bibliography","4 References","5 External links"]

American philosopher of science May Brodbeck (July 26, 1917 – August 1, 1983) was an American philosopher of science. Biography Brodbeck was born in Newark, New Jersey. She studied chemistry at New York University, attending evening courses while working, and earned a bachelor's degree in 1941. Thereafter, she worked as a high-school chemistry teacher, before being recruited into the Manhattan Project. Following the war, she studied philosophy at the University of Iowa, completing a Ph.D. supervised by Gustav Bergmann in 1947, on the subject of John Dewey's Logic: The Theory of Inquiry. Upon finishing her PhD, she was offered a professorship at the University of Minnesota, where she worked from 1947 to 1974, eventually rising to chair of the philosophy department (1967–1970) and dean of the graduate school (1972–1974). She then returned to the University of Iowa as Carver Professor of Philosophy and Dean of the Faculties. In the administrative part of her role at the University of Iowa, among other initiatives she focused in particular on the status of women in the university, and oversaw the creation of one of the first women's studies programs. She stepped down from administration in 1981, retired in 1983, and died later that year in Menlo Park, California. Work Brodbeck's career focused on a number of issues in the philosophy of science, in particular aiming to include the social sciences within its remit. She edited two widely read anthologies on the subject: Readings in the Philosophy of Science (1953, co-edited with Herbert Feigl), and Readings in the Philosophy of the Social Sciences (1968). Later in her career, she also wrote on the philosophy of mind, defending a form of psychophysical parallelism. Select bibliography Readings in the Philosophy of Science (1953, co-edited with Herbert Feigl) At Internet Archive. List of works by May Brodbeck listed at PhilPapers. References ^ a b c d Arthur Fine (1997). "Brodbeck, May (1917–1983)". Jewish Women in America: An Historical Encyclopedia. Vol. 1. Taylor & Francis. pp. 187–188. ISBN 0415919347. Also available online from the Jewish Women's Archive. ^ a b c d Laird Addis (2005). "Brodbeck, May Selznick (1917–83)". In John R. Shook (ed.). Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers. Vol. 1. Thoemmes Continuum. pp. 347–349. ISBN 1847144705. External links "Brodbeck, May (1917–1983)." Women in World History: A Biographical Encyclopedia, Encyclopedia.com. 26 Jul. 2019 Addis, Laird (2010), "Brodbeck, May Selznick", The Dictionary of Modern American Philosophers (Archived by Wayback Machine) Portraits of Brodbeck via Iowa Women's Archives, and Minnesota Philosophy Department photo c.1953 featuring her. Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Germany Israel Belgium United States Latvia Netherlands Academics CiNii Other IdRef

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_British_Standard

Advanced British Standard

["1 References"]

Proposed educational qualification in England Advanced British StandardYear started2033 (estimated)Countries / regionsEnglandLanguagesEnglish language The Advanced British Standard is a proposed replacement for the system of A-levels and T-levels in England. It is aimed at 16 to 19 year olds, and it accompanies a plan to increase the level of English and Maths taught to this age group. The proposal is intended to bring together A-Levels and T-Levels into a single new qualification, with students being able to take a wide mix of technical and academic subjects. The proposal was announced by Prime Minister Rishi Sunak at the Conservative Party Conference in October 2023. The government describes it as a 'Baccalaureate-style qualification'. If implemented, the new qualification would be expected to come into effect around 2033. It was announced that the government intends to start a consultation in Autumn 2023 to discuss how the qualification should be developed, and that a budget of £600 million had been allocated over two years for the development of the qualification. This would include funding for a tax-free bonus of up to £30,000 over the first five years of their career for teachers in key subjects, with Further Education colleges set to benefit the most from this funding. The qualification was described as an "undeliverable gimmick" by a Labour Party spokesperson. The Guardian reported that the plan appeared to have emerged from Downing Street, with little or no involvement from the Department for Education, nor the Education secretary Gillian Keegan. Sky News noted that the forthcoming general election created uncertainty about the future of the proposal. References ^ Clarence-Smith, Louisa (2023-10-04). "What is the Advanced British Standard and how is it different to A-Levels?". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2023-10-06. ^ a b "A world-class education system: The Advanced British Standard". GOV.UK. Retrieved 2023-10-04. ^ "Sunak axes A-levels and reveals new 'Advanced British Standard'". The Independent. 2023-10-04. Retrieved 2023-10-04. ^ "Advanced British Standard: Sunak qualification will replace A-levels and T-levels". BBC News. 2023-10-04. Retrieved 2023-10-06. ^ a b "New qualifications to deliver world class education for all". GOV.UK. Retrieved 2023-10-04. ^ a b Adams, Richard (2023-09-22). "Rishi Sunak's A-level overhaul plan is undeliverable gimmick, says Labour". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-10-04. ^ Brown, Faye (5 October 2023). "What is the new Advanced British Standard replacing A-Levels?". Sky News. Retrieved 2023-10-06. vteEducation in EnglandKey StagesFoundation Stage Nursery/Preschool Playgroup Reception Key Stage 1 Year 1 Year 2 Key Stage 2 Year 3 Year 4 Year 5 Year 6 Key Stage 3 Year 7 Year 8 Year 9 Key Stage 4 Year 10 Year 11 Key Stage 5 Year 12 Year 13 Schooling State-funded schools Private schools Primary school Infant school Junior school Secondary school Sixth form college Raising of school leaving age Exams and qualifications SATs 11-plus GCSE A-Level English Baccalaureate BTEC Regulation Department for Education Ofqual Ofsted Special measures Other Common Entrance Examination Schools (category) Special education in the United Kingdom Former O-Level CSE School Certificate Higher School Certificate GNVQ This England-related article is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte This article relating to education in the UK is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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[]

[{"reference":"Clarence-Smith, Louisa (2023-10-04). \"What is the Advanced British Standard and how is it different to A-Levels?\". The Telegraph. ISSN 0307-1235. Retrieved 2023-10-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/2023/10/04/understanding-the-advanced-british-standard/","url_text":"\"What is the Advanced British Standard and how is it different to A-Levels?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0307-1235","url_text":"0307-1235"}]},{"reference":"\"A world-class education system: The Advanced British Standard\". GOV.UK. Retrieved 2023-10-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/a-world-class-education-system-the-advanced-british-standard","url_text":"\"A world-class education system: The Advanced British Standard\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sunak axes A-levels and reveals new 'Advanced British Standard'\". The Independent. 2023-10-04. Retrieved 2023-10-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/politics/rishi-sunak-a-levels-scrapped-b2423832.html","url_text":"\"Sunak axes A-levels and reveals new 'Advanced British Standard'\""}]},{"reference":"\"Advanced British Standard: Sunak qualification will replace A-levels and T-levels\". BBC News. 2023-10-04. Retrieved 2023-10-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bbc.com/news/education-67008206","url_text":"\"Advanced British Standard: Sunak qualification will replace A-levels and T-levels\""}]},{"reference":"\"New qualifications to deliver world class education for all\". GOV.UK. Retrieved 2023-10-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.gov.uk/government/news/new-qualifications-to-deliver-world-class-education-for-all","url_text":"\"New qualifications to deliver world class education for all\""}]},{"reference":"Adams, Richard (2023-09-22). \"Rishi Sunak's A-level overhaul plan is undeliverable gimmick, says Labour\". The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2023-10-04.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theguardian.com/education/2023/sep/22/rishi-sunak-a-level-overhaul-plan-undeliverable-gimmick-labour","url_text":"\"Rishi Sunak's A-level overhaul plan is undeliverable gimmick, says Labour\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0261-3077","url_text":"0261-3077"}]},{"reference":"Brown, Faye (5 October 2023). \"What is the new Advanced British Standard replacing A-Levels?\". Sky News. Retrieved 2023-10-06.","urls":[{"url":"https://news.sky.com/story/what-is-the-new-advanced-british-standard-replacing-a-levels-12977383","url_text":"\"What is the new Advanced British Standard replacing A-Levels?\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dragons_of_Eden

The Dragons of Eden

["1 Summary","2 Reception","3 In popular culture","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

For the album, see The Dragons of Eden (album). 1977 book by Carl Sagan The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence Cover of the first editionAuthorCarl SaganCover artistDon DavisLanguageEnglishSubjectsHuman evolutionIntelligencePublisherRandom HousePublication date1977Publication placeUnited StatesMedia typePrint (Hardcover and Paperback)Pages263 (first edition)ISBN0-394-41045-9OCLC2922889Dewey Decimal153LC ClassBF431 .S2Followed byBroca's Brain  The Dragons of Eden: Speculations on the Evolution of Human Intelligence is a 1977 book by Carl Sagan, in which the author combines the fields of anthropology, evolutionary biology, psychology, and computer science to give a perspective on how human intelligence may have evolved. Sagan discusses the search for a quantitative means of measuring intelligence. He argues that the brain to body mass ratio is an extremely good correlative indicator for intelligence, with humans having the highest ratio and dolphins the second highest, though he views the trend as breaking down at smaller scales, with some small animals (ants in particular) placing disproportionately high on the list. Other topics mentioned include the evolution of the brain (with emphasis on the function of the neocortex in humans), the evolutionary purpose of sleep and dreams, demonstration of sign language abilities by chimps and the purpose of mankind's innate fears and myths. The title "The Dragons of Eden" is borrowed from the notion that man's early struggle for survival in the face of predators, and in particular a fear of reptiles, may have led to cultural beliefs and myths about dragons. The Dragons of Eden won a Pulitzer Prize. In 2002, John Skoyles and Dorion Sagan published a follow-up entitled Up from Dragons. Summary The book is an expansion of the Jacob Bronowski Memorial Lecture in Natural Philosophy which Sagan gave at the University of Toronto. In the introduction Sagan presents his thesis – that "the mind ... a consequence of its anatomy and physiology and nothing more" – in reference to the works of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace. In chapter 2, Sagan briefly summarizes the entire evolution of species starting from the Big Bang to the beginning of the human civilization with the help of a "Cosmic Calendar", an analogy where one year in the calendar corresponds to the time since the Big Bang. Sagan used the same analogy in the more-widely known television series Cosmos. It is disconcerting to find that in such a cosmic year the Earth does not condense out of interstellar matter until early September, dinosaurs emerge on Christmas Eve; flowers arise on December 28; and men and women originate at 10:30 P.M. on New Year's Eve. All of recorded history occupies the last 10 seconds of December 31; and the time from the waning of the Middle Ages to the present occupies little more than one second. Reception Writing for the New York Times, John Leonard called the book "a delight" and described Sagan as "a scientific Robert Redford, handsome and articulate and all business." The book was awarded a Pulitzer Prize in 1978. In popular culture In 2008, an album called The Dragons of Eden was released by keyboard player and producer Travis Dickerson along with guitar virtuoso Buckethead and drummer Bryan "Brain" Mantia. The album derives its track titles from the book's chapters. See also Brain-to-body mass ratio Triune brain References Campbell, David N. "Fascinating Popularization of Special Interest to Educators", Phi Delta Kappan (April 1978). Vol. 59, no. 8. pp. 567–568. JSTOR 20299094. Geschwind, Norman. American Scientist (January–February 1978). Vol. 66, no. 1. p. 91. JSTOR 27848453. Klopfer, P. H. The Quarterly Review of Biology (December 1978). Vol. 53, no. 4. p. 495. JSTOR 2826736. Pitt, Joseph C. Human Ecology (December 1978). Vol. 6, no. 4. pp. 471–473. JSTOR 4602474. The Wilson Quarterly (Autumn 1977). Vol. 1, No. 5. p. 183. JSTOR 40255318. ^ pp. 38–40, hardback ed. ^ The Pulitzer Prizes: 1978 Winners ^ Skoyles, John & Sagan, Dorion. Up from Dragons: The Evolution of Human Intelligence. McGraw-Hill, 2002, p. xi. ^ Dicke, William (December 21, 1996). "Carl Sagan, an Astronomer Who Excelled at Popularizing Science, Is Dead at 62". The New York Times. Retrieved May 8, 2021. External links The Dragons of Eden at Open Library vtePulitzer Prize for General Nonfiction (1976–2000) Why Survive? by Robert N. Butler (1976) Beautiful Swimmers by William W. Warner (1977) The Dragons of Eden by Carl Sagan (1978) On Human Nature by E. O. Wilson (1979) Gödel, Escher, Bach by Douglas Hofstadter (1980) Fin-de-siècle Vienna by Carl Emil Schorske (1981) The Soul of a New Machine by Tracy Kidder (1982) Is There No Place on Earth for Me? by Susan Sheehan (1983) The Social Transformation of American Medicine by Paul Starr (1984) The Good War by Studs Terkel (1985) Common Ground by J. Anthony Lukas / Move Your Shadow by Joseph Lelyveld (1986) Arab and Jew by David K. Shipler (1987) The Making of the Atomic Bomb by Richard Rhodes (1988) A Bright Shining Lie by Neil Sheehan (1989) And Their Children After Them by Dale Maharidge and Michael Williamson (1990) The Ants by Bert Hölldobler and E. O. Wilson (1991) The Prize by Daniel Yergin (1992) Lincoln at Gettysburg by Garry Wills (1993) Lenin's Tomb by David Remnick (1994) The Beak of the Finch by Jonathan Weiner (1995) The Haunted Land by Tina Rosenberg (1996) Ashes to Ashes by Richard Kluger (1997) Guns, Germs, and Steel by Jared Diamond (1998) Annals of the Former World by John McPhee (1999) Embracing Defeat by John W. Dower (2000) Complete list (1962–1975) (1976–2000) (2001–2025) vteCarl SaganScientific career Project A119 Pioneer plaque Faint young Sun paradox Cosmic Calendar Voyager Golden Record (contents) Voyager Family Portrait Pale Blue Dot The Planetary Society Search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence BooksScience The Cosmic Connection (1973) Mars and the Mind of Man (1973) The Dragons of Eden (1977) Broca's Brain (1979) Cosmos (1980) The Cold and the Dark (1984) Comet (1985) Shadows of Forgotten Ancestors (1993) Pale Blue Dot (1994) The Demon-Haunted World (1995) Billions and Billions (1997) The Varieties of Scientific Experience (2006) Fiction Contact (1985) MediaTelevision Cosmos: A Personal Voyage (1980 TV series) God, the Universe and Everything Else (1988) Cosmos: A Spacetime Odyssey (2014 TV series) Cosmos: Possible Worlds (2020 TV series) Films Contact (1997) Wanderers (2014) Family Lynn Margulis (first wife) Dorion Sagan (son) Linda Salzman Sagan (second wife) Nick Sagan (son) Ann Druyan (third wife) Sasha Sagan (daughter) Prizes Carl Sagan Memorial Award Carl Sagan Medal Carl Sagan Award for Public Appreciation of Science Carl Sagan Prize for Science Popularization Recognition Carl Sagan Institute Sagan Planet Walk Carl Sagan Memorial Station 2709 Sagan Pale Blue Dot: A Tribute to Carl Sagan Symphony of Science Related 900 Stewart Avenue Category Authority control databases International VIAF Other MusicBrainz work

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He argues that the brain to body mass ratio is an extremely good correlative indicator for intelligence, with humans having the highest ratio and dolphins the second highest,[1] though he views the trend as breaking down at smaller scales, with some small animals (ants in particular) placing disproportionately high on the list. Other topics mentioned include the evolution of the brain (with emphasis on the function of the neocortex in humans), the evolutionary purpose of sleep and dreams, demonstration of sign language abilities by chimps and the purpose of mankind's innate fears and myths. The title \"The Dragons of Eden\" is borrowed from the notion that man's early struggle for survival in the face of predators, and in particular a fear of reptiles, may have led to cultural beliefs and myths about dragons.The Dragons of Eden won a Pulitzer Prize.[2] In 2002, John Skoyles and Dorion Sagan published a follow-up entitled Up from Dragons.[3]","title":"The Dragons of Eden"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jacob Bronowski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacob_Bronowski"},{"link_name":"Memorial Lecture in Natural Philosophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lecture_series"},{"link_name":"University of Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Toronto"},{"link_name":"Charles Darwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Darwin"},{"link_name":"Alfred Russel Wallace","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Big Bang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_Bang"},{"link_name":"Cosmic Calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Calendar"},{"link_name":"same analogy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmic_Calendar"},{"link_name":"Cosmos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmos:_A_Personal_Voyage"},{"link_name":"Christmas Eve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christmas_Eve"}],"text":"The book is an expansion of the Jacob Bronowski Memorial Lecture in Natural Philosophy which Sagan gave at the University of Toronto. In the introduction Sagan presents his thesis – that \"the mind ... [is] a consequence of its anatomy and physiology and nothing more\" – in reference to the works of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace.[citation needed]In chapter 2, Sagan briefly summarizes the entire evolution of species starting from the Big Bang to the beginning of the human civilization with the help of a \"Cosmic Calendar\", an analogy where one year in the calendar corresponds to the time since the Big Bang. Sagan used the same analogy in the more-widely known television series Cosmos.It is disconcerting to find that in such a cosmic year the Earth does not condense out of interstellar matter until early September, dinosaurs emerge on Christmas Eve; flowers arise on December 28; and men and women originate at 10:30 P.M. on New Year's Eve. All of recorded history occupies the last 10 seconds of December 31; and the time from the waning of the Middle Ages to the present occupies little more than one second.","title":"Summary"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"New York Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Times"},{"link_name":"John Leonard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Leonard_(critic)"},{"link_name":"Robert Redford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Redford"},{"link_name":"Pulitzer Prize","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulitzer_Prize"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Writing for the New York Times, John Leonard called the book \"a delight\" and described Sagan as \"a scientific Robert Redford, handsome and articulate and all business.\" The book was awarded a Pulitzer Prize in 1978.[4]","title":"Reception"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Travis Dickerson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Travis_Dickerson"},{"link_name":"Buckethead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buckethead"},{"link_name":"Bryan \"Brain\" Mantia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bryan_%22Brain%22_Mantia"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"In 2008, an album called The Dragons of Eden was released by keyboard player and producer Travis Dickerson along with guitar virtuoso Buckethead and drummer Bryan \"Brain\" Mantia. The album derives its track titles from the book's chapters.[citation needed]","title":"In popular culture"}]

[]

[{"title":"Brain-to-body mass ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain-to-body_mass_ratio"},{"title":"Triune brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Triune_brain"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Research_and_Development_Organisation

Defence Research and Development Organisation

["1 History","2 Organisation","2.1 Cluster Laboratories/Establishments","2.2 HR Institutions","2.3 Other Institutions","2.4 Centres of Excellence","3 Projects","4 Industry linkages, technology transfer and indigenisation","4.1 Development cum Production Partner programme","5 Heads of DRDO","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

Government agency in India Defence Research and Development Organisationरक्षा अनुसंधान एवं विकास संगठनRaksā Anūsandhān Evam Vikās SangaṭhanLogo of DRDOAgency overviewFormed1958; 66 years ago (1958)HeadquartersDRDO Bhavan, New Delhi, IndiaMotto"Strength's Origin is in Science" Sanskrit: बलस्य मूलं विज्ञानम्Employees30,000 (5,000 scientists)Annual budget ₹23,264 crore (US$2.8 billion)(2022–23)Minister responsibleRajnath Singh, Minister of DefenceAgency executiveSameer V. Kamat, Chairman, DRDOParent agencyMinistry of DefenceWebsitedrdo.gov.in The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) (IAST: Raksā Anūsandhān Evam Vikās Sangaṭhan) is an agency under the Department of Defence Research and Development in Ministry of Defence of the Government of India, charged with the military's research and development, headquartered in Delhi, India. It was formed in 1958 by the merger of the Technical Development Establishment and the Directorate of Technical Development and Production of the Indian Ordnance Factories with the Defence Science Organisation under the administration of Jawaharlal Nehru. Subsequently, Defence Research & Development Service (DRDS) was constituted in 1979 as a service of Group 'A' Officers / Scientists directly under the administrative control of Ministry of Defence. With a network of 52 laboratories that are engaged in developing defence technologies covering various fields like aeronautics, armaments, electronics, land combat engineering, life sciences, materials, missiles, and naval systems, DRDO is India's largest and most diverse research organisation. The organisation includes around 5,000 scientists belonging to the DRDS and about 25,000 other subordinate scientific, technical, and supporting personnel. History The DRDO was established in 1958 by combining the Defence Science Organisation and some of the technical development establishments. A separate Department of Defence Research and Development was formed in 1980, which later administered DRDO and its almost 30 laboratories and establishments (there were almost 52 labs before merging). Most of the time, the Defence Research and Development Organisation was treated as if it were a vendor and the Army Headquarters or the Air Force Headquarters were the customers. Because the Army and the Air Force themselves did not have any design or construction responsibility, they tended to treat the designer or Indian industry at par with their corresponding designer in the world market. If they could get a MiG-21 from the world market, they wanted a MiG-21 from DRDO. DRDO started its first major project in surface-to-air missiles (SAM) known as Project Indigo in the 1960s. Indigo was discontinued in later years without achieving full success. Project Indigo led to Project Devil, along with Project Valiant, to develop short-range SAM and ICBM in the 1970s. Project Devil itself led to the later development of the Prithvi missile under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) in the 1980s. IGMDP was an Indian Ministry of Defence programme between the early 1980s and 2007 for the development of a comprehensive range of missiles, including the Agni missile, Prithvi ballistic missile, Akash missile, Trishul missile and Nag Missile. In 2010, defence minister A. K. Antony ordered the restructuring of the DRDO to give 'a major boost to defence research in the country and to ensure effective participation of the private sector in defence technology'. The key measures to make DRDO effective in its functioning include the establishment of a Defence Technology Commission with the defence minister as its chairman. The programmes which were largely managed by DRDO have seen considerable success with many of the systems seeing rapid deployment as well as yielding significant technological benefits. Since its establishment, DRDO has created other major systems and critical technologies such as aircraft avionics, UAVs, small arms, artillery systems, EW Systems, tanks and armoured vehicles, sonar systems, command and control systems and missile systems. Organisation Cluster Laboratories/Establishments Source Laboratory Name Location Area of Research Advanced Numerical Research & Analysis Group (ANURAG) Hyderabad, Telangana Computational System Advanced Systems Laboratory (ASL) Missiles & Strategic Systems Aerial Delivery Research & Development Establishment (ADRDE) Agra, Uttar Pradesh Parachutes & Aerial Systems Aeronautical Development Establishment (ADE) Bengaluru, Karnataka Aeronautics Aeronautical Test Range (ATR) Chitradurga, Karnataka Unmanned & Manned Aircraft Armaments Research & Development Establishment (ARDE) Pune, Maharashtra Armaments Centre for Airborne Systems (CABS) Bengaluru, Karnataka Air-Borne Systems Centre for Artificial Intelligence & Robotics (CAIR) Artificial Intelligence & Robotics Centre for Fire, Explosives & Environment Safety (CFEES) Delhi, National Capital Territory of Delhi Explosives Centre for High Energy Systems and Sciences (CHESS) Hyderabad, Telangana High Energy Weapons Combat Vehicles Research & Development Establishment (CVRDE) Chennai, Tamil Nadu Combat Vehicles Combat Aircraft Systems Development & Integration Centre Bengaluru, Karnataka Avionics Defence Bio-engineering & Electro-medical Laboratory (DEBEL) Bio-engineering Defence Electronics Applications Laboratory (DEAL) Dehradun, Uttarakhand Electronics & Communication Systems Defence Food Research Laboratory (DFRL) Mysuru, Karnataka Food Research Defence Institute of Bio-Energy Research (DIBER) Haldwani, Uttarakhand Bio-Energy Defence Institute of High Altitude Research (DIHAR) Leh, Ladakh High Altitude Agro-animal Research Defence Institute of Physiology & Allied Sciences (DIPAS) Delhi, National Capital Territory of Delhi Physiological and Biomedical Research Defence Institute of Psychological Research (DIPR) Psychological Research Defence Laboratory (DL) Jodhpur, Rajasthan Camouflaging and Isotopes Defence Electronics Research Laboratory (DLRL) Hyderabad, Telangana Electronic Warfare Defence Materials & Stores Research & Development Establishment (DMSRDE) Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh Textiles, Polymers & Composites Defence Metallurgical Research Laboratory (DMRL) Hyderabad, Telangana Metallurgy Defence Research & Development Establishment (DRDE) Gwalior, Madhya Pradesh Chemical & Biological Warfare Defence Research & Development Laboratory (DRDL) Hyderabad, Telangana Missile & Strategic Systems Defence Research Laboratory (DRL) Tezpur, Assam Health & Hygiene Defence Terrain Research Laboratory (DTRL) Delhi, National Capital Territory of Delhi Terrain Research Gas Turbine Research Establishment (GTRE) Bengaluru, Karnataka Gas Turbine High Energy Materials Research Laboratory (HEMRL) Pune, Maharashtra High Energy Materials, Explosive Institute of Nuclear Medicines & Allied Sciences (INMAS) Delhi, National Capital Territory of Delhi Nuclear Medicine Instruments Research & Development Establishment (IRDE) Dehradun, Uttarakhand Electronics & Optical Systems Integrated Test Range (ITR) Balasore, Odisha Missile & Strategic Systems Joint Cipher Bureau (JCB) Delhi, National Capital Territory of Delhi Signals Intelligence and Cryptanalysis Laser Science & Technology Centre (LASTEC) Laser Technology Electronics & Radar Development Establishment (LRDE) Bengaluru, Karnataka Radars Centre for Military Airworthiness and Certification (CEMILAC) Air-worthiness and Certification Naval Materials Research Laboratory (NMRL) Ambarnath, Maharashtra Naval Materials Naval Physical & Oceanographic Laboratory (NPOL) Kochi, Kerala Sonar Systems Naval Science & Technological Laboratory (NSTL) Visakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh Underwater Weapons Programme Air Defence (PGAD) Hyderabad, Telangana Missiles & Strategic Systems Proof and Experimental Establishment (PXE) Balasore, Odisha Armament Testing Research Centre Imarat (RCI) Hyderabad, Telangana Missile & Strategic Systems Research & Development Establishment (Engineers) (R&DE(E)) Pune, Maharashtra Engineering Systems & Weapon Platforms Scientific Analysis Group (SAG) Delhi Communications Security Snow and Avalanche Study Establishment (SASE) Chandigarh, Union Territory of Chandigarh Snow and Avalanche Solid State Physics Laboratory (SSPL) Delhi, National Capital Territory of Delhi Solid State Materials, Devices and Sub-systems Society for Integrated Circuit Technology and Applied Research (SITAR) Bengaluru, Karnataka & Hyderabad, Telangana Semiconductor, Microelectromechanical Systems Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (TBRL) Chandigarh, Union Territory of Chandigarh Ballistics Vehicles Research & Development Establishment (VRDE) Ahmednagar, Maharashtra Wheeled Vehicles As part of rationalization plan, Defence Terrain Research Laboratory (DTRL) was merged with Snow and Avalanche Studies Establishment (SASE) which is renamed into Defence Geological Research Establishment (DGRE). As of 2020, Advanced Numerical Research and Analysis Group (ANURAG) and Laser Science and Technology Center (LASTEC) are no longer functional as independent entities. The staffs are relocated at various DRDO labs in Hyderabad. DRDO is planning to build a new research lab in Lucknow. Source Laboratory Name Location Area of Research DRDO Young Scientist Laboratories Bengaluru, Karnataka Artificial Intelligence Kolkata, West Bengal Asymmetric Technologies Chennai, Tamil Nadu Cognitive Technologies Mumbai, Maharashtra Quantum Technology Hyderabad, Telangana Smart Materials HR Institutions Source Institution Name Location Area Centre for Personnel Talent Management (CEPTAM) Delhi, National Capital Territory of Delhi Talent Management Institute of Technology Management (ITM) Mussoorie, Uttarakhand Technology Management Recruitment and Assessment Centre (RAC) Delhi, National Capital Territory of Delhi Human Resource Other Institutions Source Institution Name Location Area of Research Advanced Centre for Energetic Materials (ACEM) Nashik, Maharashtra High Energy Materials Centre for Advanced Systems (CAS) Hyderabad, Telangana Advanced Systems Defence Scientific Information & Documentation Centre (DESIDOC) Delhi, National Capital Territory of Delhi Information System and Documentation DRDO Integration Centre (DIC) Panagarh, West Bengal Systems Integration Institute for Systems Studies & Analyses (ISSA) Delhi, National Capital Territory of Delhi Systems Analysis Mobile Systems Complex (MSC) Pune, Maharashtra Missile Systems SF Complex (SFC) Jagdalpur, Chhattisgarh Propellant Centres of Excellence Source Center Name Location Area of Research DRDO Bharathiar University (DRDO-BU), Centre of Excellence Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu Applied Psychology, Toxicology, Biological Sensors, Fuel Cell Advanced Centre for Research in High Energy Materials (ACRHEM) Hyderabad, Telangana Photonics, Material Science, High Energy Materials Centre of Excellence in Cryptology Kolkata, West Bengal Cryptology Centre of Millimeter Wave Semiconductor Devices and Systems Kolkata, West Bengal Millimeter Wave and Semiconductor Advanced Centre for Excellence on Composite Materials (ACECM) Bengaluru, Karnataka Composite Materials Research and Innovation Centre (RIC) Chennai, Tamil Nadu Sensors and Microelectromechanical Systems Centre of Propulsion Technology (CoPT) Mumbai, Maharashtra Propulsion Technology Jagdish Chandra Bose Centre for Advanced Technology (JCBCAT) Kolkata, West Bengal Directed Energy Technologies, Robotics, Cognitive Technologies Joint Advanced Technology Centre (JATC) Delhi, National Capital Territory of Delhi Ballistics, Electromagnetism, Human–Computer Interaction, Electronic Textiles, Photonics, Plasmonics, Quantum Technology Centre of Excellence in Systems Design and Engineering Mumbai, Maharashtra Systems Design North East Science and Technology Centre (NESTC) Aizawl, Mizoram Microelectromechanical Systems, Sensors, Degenerative Disease, Toxicology Kalam Centre for Science and Technology (KCST) Jammu, Jammu and Kashmir Computational System Security, Sensors DRDO-Industry-Academia Center of Excellence (DIA-CoE), IIT Jodhpur Jodhpur, Rajasthan Desert Warfare Technologies, Futuristic Omni Mobile System, Artificial Intelligence in Information and War gaming DRDO-Industry-Academia Center of Excellence (DIA-CoE), IIT Kanpur Kanpur, Uttar Pradesh Advanced Nanomaterials, Accelerated Material Design and Development, High Energy Materials, Biological engineering Projects See also: Projects of DRDO Industry linkages, technology transfer and indigenisation See also: Defence industry of India, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry, Make in India, Startup India, and Indigenous Defence Equipment Exporters Association India domestically produces only 45% to 50% of defence products it uses, and the rest are imported. To become technology research and production leader, reduce reliance on the imports and increase self-reliance, DRDO Chief called for more collaboration with the industry, private sector, research and education institutes including IITs and NITs. India's military–industrial complex has had little success and only recently private sector was allowed to enter the defence production. To expedite the development cycle of new technologies and to better fit the end user requirements, army has asked DRDO to take more army staff on deputation to be part of DRDO technology development project teams. Indian forces are using numerous indigenous technologies produced by the DRDO, including Varunastra, Maareech, Ushus, TAL by navy; Electronic Warfare Technologies, radars, composite materials for LCA, AEW&C, Astra, LCA Tejas by airforce; and ASAT, BrahMos, ASTRA, Nag missile, SAAW, Arjun MBT Mk 1A, 46-metre Modular Bridge, MPR, LLTR Ashwin by the army. In September 2019, DRDO formulated the "DRDO Policy and Procedures for Transfer of Technology" and released information on "DRDO-Industry Partnership: Synergy and Growth and DRDO Products with Potential for Export". During the Vibrant Goa Global Expo and Summit 2019 in October, DRDO signed technology transfer contracts with 16 Indian companies, including 3 startups, to produce products for the use by Indian Armed Forces. This included high shelf life, high nutrition, ready-to-eat on-the-go food products to be consumed in the difficult terrain and bad weather. DRDO and ISRO have agreed to collaborate in India's crewed orbital spacecraft project called Gaganyaan during which DRDOs various laboratories will tailor their defence capabilities to suit the needs of ISRO's human space mission with critical human-centric systems and technologies like space grade food, crew healthcare, radiation measurement and protection, parachutes for the safe recovery of the crew module and fire suppression system etc. Kalyani Group is developing the Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System. DRDO with Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FICCI) under Advance Assessment Technology and Commercialisation Programme is helping Lakes and Waterways Development Authority (LAWDA) to keep Dal Lake clean by providing low cost Biodigesters for the treatment of human excreta, animal waste disposal, grey water and kitchen waste release that works fine in ambient as well as sub zero temperature which are also supplied to Indian Railways. Defence Research and Development Establishment (DRDE) which works in the field of chemical weapon, biological agent detection and research is helping Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) in augmenting diagnostic capability for COVID-19 outbreak. It has created special hand sanitiser formulation and diagnostic kits following WHO standards and guidelines that are supplied in large numbers to civilian and defence officials. Medical staff all over India dealing with Coronavirus contamination are using protective waterproof clothing with special sealant used in submarine applications developed by Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences (INMAS) for CBRN defence that is made up of high strength polyester coated with breathable polymer. The clothing underwent successful trials at the South India Textile Research Association and exceeds the criteria of currently available suits in the market. The suit is washable, passed all critical CBRN and ASTM standards and is now manufactured by two private players, Venus Industries from Mumbai and IMTEC from Kolkata. Defence Bioengineering and Electromedical Laboratory (DEBEL) developed causality evacuation bag for COVID-19 infected patients that can withstand Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) environments and is protected against blood and viral penetration. The bag is made up of durable water repellent nonwoven fabric. It is rigid cylindrical in shape with air and water proof zippers and ventilators. Already ordered 500 in numbers, DRDO will now transfer the technology to private sector for manufacturing. Under Society for Biomedical Technology (SBMT) programme, DEBEL has developed five-layer nanomesh based N99 masks and is collaborating with Mysore based Skanray Technologies for the production of ventilators using current available technologies with Indian made parts due to unavailability of imports. It is also working on a new multiplexed ventilator technology that will be able to support several infected individuals on a single ventilator. The prototype development stage is complete and the initial model is now undergoing various improvements suggested by a team of medical researchers and doctors. The technology will finally be transferred to Tata Motors, Mahindra and Mahindra, Hyundai Motor India, Honda Cars India and Maruti Suzuki for immediate mass production. DRDO signed agreement with Indian Telephone Industries Limited for tech transfer on low cost multiplexed ventilator technology with 80% to 90% of components are now make in India. DRDO as of 11 April 2020 transferred technologies to 30 major companies to manufacture various non-medicine products against the COVID-19 pandemic which includes ventilator, sanitiser, personal protective equipment, face shield and isolation shelter. The technology for the newly developed multiplexed ventilator came from on-board oxygen generation system (OBOGS) developed for HAL Tejas. Private sector players like Raksha Polycoats and Accurate Savan Defence are now producing protective clothing, isolation shelters based on DRDO tech developed for high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) bags, submarine escape suit and satellite recovery systems. Hyderabad based 3D printing startup iMake with Modern Manufacturers and Kirat Mechanical Engineering from Chandigarh, Wipro 3D from Bengaluru and Global Healthcare from Delhi are 3D printing visor-based face shields which is an offshoot of the tech developed for high-altitude military parachuting. Setco from Mumbai is producing sealants developed for submarines of Indian Navy at DRDO labs for personal protection equipments. Research Centre Imarat (RCI) and Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (TBRL) developed product called Aerosol Containment Box for enclosure of intubation procedure made with Poly(methyl methacrylate). It is cubical in shape designed for both adults and minors that covers the COVID-19 infected patients during medical examination and treatment from head to chest to stop the transmission of droplets containing the virus to others. Employees' State Insurance Corporation Medical College, Hyderabad helped RCI in prototype development while Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research helped in testing, validation and acceptance of product for medical use. The technology is now transferred to private industries located in Chandigarh and Hyderabad for mass manufacturing. RCI at DRDO Missile Complex, Hyderabad is now supplying technology of brushless DC motors (BLDC) used for missile actuators and high response solenoid valves used in missile control for ventilator pumps that validated the prototype testing stages. Centre for Fire, Explosive and Environment Safety (CFEES) developed two sanitising equipments of 50 litres tank capacity consists of portable backpack type that covers an area of 300 metres while another trolley mounted for large area sanitisation of up to 3000 metres by spraying 1% hypochlorite solution. Vehicle Research and Development Establishment (VRDE) developed portable disinfection chamber and special face protection mask for health professionals combating COVID-19 outbreak in India. The personnel decontamination system is equipped with sanitiser and soap dispenser. The full-body decontamination starts using for pedal with an electrically operated pump creating disinfectant mist of 700-litre of hypo sodium chloride. The system takes 25 seconds for full decontamination with automatic shut-off procedure and can decontaminate 650 personnels until next refill. The face mask developed for COVID-19 patients uses the A4 size Over-Head Projection (OHP) film for protection and light weight materials for long duration comfortable use. VRDE developed full-body decontamination chamber was designed and validated within 4 days with All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi became the first premier institution to use it. The mass manufacturing of the portable decontamination chamber is now done by Dass Hitachi Limited. Development cum Production Partner programme As part of Make In India and Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative, DRDO under Development cum Production Partner programme (DcPP) allowed handholding of domestic private sector industries to improve their development and production cycle of complex defence systems. VL-SRSAM (Vertical Launch - Short Range Surface to Air Missile) and Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS) became some of the successful projects of this programme. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited on 17 December 2021, secured order for manufacturing, assembly, integration, testing and supply of DRDO Abhyas from Aeronautical Development Establishment. The order will be completed under Development-cum-Production Partner (DcPP) with a private sector industry. On 16 December 2021, Ashok Leyland signed partnership agreement with Combat Vehicles Research and Development Establishment (CVRDE) to develop 600 hp engine for Future Combat Vehicle Programme. Instruments Research and Development Establishment (IRDE) on 27 December 2021 transferred technologies for developing border surveillance system to Indian private sector company Paras Defence and Space. The system consists of radar, electro-optical sensors mounted on pan tilt platform. On 28 December 2021, Defence Institute of Physiology and Allied Sciences (DIPAS) transferred technology to manufacture extreme cold weather clothing system to RHD Business Services, SBNX Innovation, Shiva Texyarn Limited, Kusumgar Corporates and Ginni Filaments Limited. DRDO on 8 January 2024 launched Ugram, an assault rifle chambered in 7.62x51mm NATO, which has been designed, developed and manufactured in collaboration with Dvipa Armour India Private Limited under DcPP. It's scheduled to be tested by the Indian Army. Heads of DRDO List of Director Generals (1948–2015) and Chairpersons (since 2015) of DRDO. Daulat Singh Kothari (1948–1961) Suri Bhagavantam (1961–1969) B. D. Nag Chaudhuri (1970–1974) M. G. K. Menon (1974–1978) Raja Ramanna (1978–1982) V. S. R. Arunachalam (1982–1992) A. P. J. Abdul Kalam (1992–1999) V. K. Aatre (1999–2004) M. Natarajan (2004–2009) V. K. Saraswat (2009–2013) Avinash Chander (2013–2015) S. Christopher (2015–2018) G.Satheesh Reddy (2018-2022) Sameer V. 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P. J. Abdul Kalam A. Sivathanu Pillai W Selvamurthy V. K. Saraswat V. K. Aatre Raja Ramanna V. S. Mahalingam Keshav Dattatreya Nayak Tessy Thomas Shashikala Sinha Ipsita Biswas S. P. Chakravarti Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan Engines GTX 37-14U GTX-35VS Kaveri Kaveri Marine Gas Turbine GATET engine Important programmes Project Indigo Project Valiant Project Devil IGMDP Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme DYSLs Indian Missile Programme Indian Armed Forces vteDefence Research and Development Organisation LaboratoriesAeronautical Systems ADRDE ADE CABS CEMILAC GTRE Armament & Combat Engineering Systems ACEM ARDE CVRDE DTRL HEMRL PXE R&DE(Engrs) SASE VRDE Electronics and Communication Systems DARE DEAL DLRL LRDE IRDE LASTEC Life Sciences DEBEL DFRL DIBER DIHAR DIPAS DIPR DRDE DRL INMAS Micro Electronic Devices, Computational Systems & Cyber Systems ANURAG CAIR MTRDC SAG SSPL Missiles and Strategic Systems ASL DRDL ITR RCI TBRL Naval Systems and Materials DLJ DMSRDE DMRL NMRL NPOL NSTL Human Resources CEPTAM DESIDOC ITM RAC System Analysis & Modelling CFEES ISSA Corporate Directorates DCW&E DER&IPR DFMM DFTM DHRD DIITM DISB DIT&CS DIC DLIC DMS DPA DOP DP&C DPI DQR&S DRB and O&M DSTA DTDF DVS Research Boards ARDB ARB NRB LSRB DRDO Young Scientist Laboratories DYSL-AI DYSL-AT DYSL-CT DYSL-QT DYSL-SM Other Related Body/Institute ADA BrahMos Aerospace DIAT MILIT DRDO Laboratories vte Indian Armed Forces  Indian Army  Indian Navy  Indian Air Force Leadership President Prime Minister Minister of Defence Defence Secretary National Security Advisor Chief of Defence Staff (Chairman Chiefs of Staff Committee) Chief of the Army Staff Chief of the Naval Staff Chief of the Air Staff Vice Chief of Defence Staff Director General Armed Forces Medical Services Serving generals Serving admirals Serving marshals OrganisationMinistry andCommittees/Councils Ministry of Defence Department of Military Affairs Department of Defence Research and Development Department of Ex-servicemen Welfare National Security Council Cabinet Committee on Security Standing Committee on Defence Defence Planning Committee Nuclear Command Authority Integrated Defence Staff Defence Intelligence Agency CommandsJoint Integrated Theatre Commands Andaman and Nicobar Command Commander-in-Chief Strategic Forces Command Defence Cyber Agency Defence Space Agency Armed Forces Special Operations Division Army Central Command Eastern Command Northern Command Southern Command South Western Command Western Command Army Training Command Navy Western Naval Command Eastern Naval Command Southern Naval Command Air Force Central Air Command Eastern Air Command Southern Air Command South Western Air Command Western Air Command Training Command Maintenance Command Other components Indian Coast Guard National Cadet Corps Paramilitary forces Special forces Territorial Army Border Roads Organisation Personnel Military Academies Ranks and insignia Army Navy Air Force Coast Guard Border Roads Organisation Paramilitary forces Awards and Decorations OperationsWars Indo-Pakistani wars 1947–1948 1965 Battle of Asal Uttar Battle of Chawinda 1971 Naval War Air War Battle of Chamb Operation Trident Operation Cactus-Lilly Battle of Longewala Kargil War Sino-Indian War External Conflicts Kashmir conflict Korean War Siachen conflict Indo-Pakistani border skirmishes Operation Parakram 2011 2013 2014–2015 2016–2018 2019 Balakot airstrike Congo Crisis Sino-Indian border skirmish 1987 Nathu La and Cho La clashes Doklam standoff 2020 Indian intervention in the Sri Lankan Civil War Operation Cactus Evacuation of Indian civilians from Kuwait Piracy off the coast of Somalia Operation Raahat Operation Devi Shakti Indo-Myanmar border strike Annexations Operation Polo (Hyderabad) Operation Vijay (Portuguese India - Goa, Damaon, Silvassa & Diu) Junagadh Dadra and Nagar Haveli Insurgencies Northeast India Punjab Operation Blue Star Operation Woodrose Kashmir Counter-insurgency operations LOC surgical strike Equipment Defence Research and Development Organisation Ordnance Factory Board Ballistic missiles Weapons of mass destruction Army List of equipment of the Indian Army Navy Active Ships Historical Ships Weapon Systems Future Air Force Active Aircraft Historical Aircraft Aircraft Squadrons Future Documents Indian Maritime Security Strategy Other topics President's fleet review History President's Colour Award Women in the Indian Armed Forces Armed Forces Flag Day Armed Forces Tribunal Indian Armed Forces rank flags Indian military bands National War Memorial Amar Jawan Jyoti Category Army Navy Air Force Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Israel United States vteHyderabad topicsHistory Qutb Shahi Dynasty Siege of Golconda Nizams of Hyderabad Asaf Jahi dynasty Hyderabad State Great Musi Flood of 1908 Telangana Rebellion Annexation of Hyderabad Government Greater Hyderabad Municipal Corporation Hyderabad District Collectorate Hyderabad Metropolitan Development Authority Quli Qutb Shah Urban Development Authority Public buildings Telangana Secretariat Rashtrapati Nilayam High Court Telangana Legislature Tourist attractionsHistoricalmonuments Charminar Mecca Masjid Falaknuma Palace Golconda Chowmahalla Palace Qutb Shahi tombs Taramati Baradari King Kothi Palace Paigah Tombs City Wall British Residency Moazzam Jahi Market Heritage structures Parks Nehru Zoological Park Public Gardens NTR Gardens Lumbini Park Ramoji Film City Wonderla Amusement Park, Raviryal, Hyderabad Indira Park Sanjeevaiah Park Snow World Jalavihar Jalagam Vengal Rao Park Places ofworship Temples Birla Mandir Karmanghat Hanuman Temple Pedamma Temple Chilkoor Balaji Temple Jagannath Temple Mosques Makkah Masjid Khairtabad Mosque Kulsum Begum Masjid Toli Masjid Musheerabad Masjid Churches St. John's St. Joseph's St. George's Museums andlibraries Salar Jung Museum Telangana State Archaeology Museum Birla Science Museum Nizam's Museum City Museum State Central Library Bridges Durgam Cheruvu Bridge Purana pul Education List of institutions List of schools Hyderabad Public School Higher educationUniversities University of Hyderabad Osmania University NALSAR University of Law Maulana Azad National Urdu University Technical institutions BITS IIT IIIT JNTUH CBIT Medical colleges Nizam's Institute of Medical Sciences Osmania Medical College All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Bibinagar Deccan College of Medical Sciences Gandhi Medical College Apollo Institute of Medical Sciences and Research MediCiti Institute of Medical Sciences Shadan Institute of Medical Sciences Business schools List of business schools ISB Healthcare List of hospitals in Hyderabad Industry HITEC City Genome Valley Defence Research and Development Organisation Atomic Minerals Directorate for Exploration and Research Nuclear Fuel Complex Electronics Corporation of India Limited Dr. Reddy's Laboratories Industries in Hyderabad Software industry in Telangana TransportAir Rajiv Gandhi International Airport Begumpet Airport Rail Hyderabad Metro Hyderabad Multi-Modal Transport System South Central Railway Hyderabad Deccan Railway Kacheguda railway station Secunderabad Junction Road Telangana State Road Transport Corporation Hyderabad Elevated Expressways Outer Ring Road Hyderabad Bus Rapid Transit System Mahatma Gandhi Bus Station Vijayawada–Hyderabad Expressway Culture Architecture Cuisine Hyderabadi biryani Hyderabadi haleem Hyderabadi marag Telangana Bhasha Hyderabadi Muslims Hyderabadi Urdu LGBT culture in Hyderabad Hyderabad queer pride Water bodies Musi River Hussain Sagar Osman Sagar Himayat Sagar Shamirpet Lake Safilguda Lake Saroornagar Lake Mir Alam Tank Lotus Pond Durgam Cheruvu Khajaguda Lake Khajaguda Talab National parks around Hyderabad Kasu Brahmananda Reddy National Park Mahavir Harina Vanasthali National Park Mrugavani National Park National parks around Hyderabad Statue of Equality (Ramanuja) B. R. Ambedkar statue SportEvents Hyderabad Marathon Teams Hyderabad Cricket Team Deccan Chargers Sunrisers Hyderabad Hyderabad FC Hyderabad Sultans Hyderabad HotShots Stadiums Rajiv Gandhi International Cricket Stadium Lal Bahadur Shastri Stadium G. M. C. Balayogi Athletic Stadium Other topics Famous people from Hyderabad Neighbourhoods of Hyderabad List of cities in India List of largest cities List of technology centers Hyderabad portal

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IAST","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Alphabet_of_Sanskrit_Transliteration"},{"link_name":"agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_agency"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(India)"},{"link_name":"Government of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_India"},{"link_name":"military","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"research and development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_and_development"},{"link_name":"Indian Ordnance Factories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Ordnance_Factories"},{"link_name":"Jawaharlal Nehru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jawaharlal_Nehru"},{"link_name":"Defence Research & Development Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Research_%26_Development_Service"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"The Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) (IAST: Raksā Anūsandhān Evam Vikās Sangaṭhan) is an agency under the Department of Defence Research and Development in Ministry of Defence of the Government of India, charged with the military's research and development, headquartered in Delhi, India. It was formed in 1958 by the merger of the Technical Development Establishment and the Directorate of Technical Development and Production of the Indian Ordnance Factories with the Defence Science Organisation under the administration of Jawaharlal Nehru. Subsequently, Defence Research & Development Service (DRDS) was constituted in 1979 as a service of Group 'A' Officers / Scientists directly under the administrative control of Ministry of Defence.With a network of 52 laboratories that are engaged in developing defence technologies covering various fields like aeronautics, armaments, electronics, land combat engineering, life sciences, materials, missiles, and naval systems, DRDO is India's largest and most diverse research organisation. The organisation includes around 5,000 scientists belonging to the DRDS and about 25,000 other subordinate scientific, technical, and supporting personnel.[5][6]","title":"Defence Research and Development Organisation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Air Force","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Air_Force"},{"link_name":"MiG-21","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MiG-21"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"surface-to-air missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surface-to-air_missile"},{"link_name":"Project Indigo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Indigo"},{"link_name":"Project Devil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Project_Devil"},{"link_name":"ICBM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICBM"},{"link_name":"Prithvi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prithvi_(missile)"},{"link_name":"Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integrated_Guided_Missile_Development_Programme"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defence_(India)"},{"link_name":"Agni missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agni_missile"},{"link_name":"Akash missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akash_missile"},{"link_name":"Trishul missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trishul_missile"},{"link_name":"Nag Missile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nag_Missile"},{"link_name":"A. K. Antony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._K._Antony"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"UAVs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UAV"}],"text":"The DRDO was established in 1958 by combining the Defence Science Organisation and some of the technical development establishments. A separate Department of Defence Research and Development was formed in 1980, which later administered DRDO and its almost 30 laboratories and establishments (there were almost 52 labs before merging). Most of the time, the Defence Research and Development Organisation was treated as if it were a vendor and the Army Headquarters or the Air Force Headquarters were the customers. Because the Army and the Air Force themselves did not have any design or construction responsibility, they tended to treat the designer or Indian industry at par with their corresponding designer in the world market. If they could get a MiG-21 from the world market, they wanted a MiG-21 from DRDO.[citation needed]DRDO started its first major project in surface-to-air missiles (SAM) known as Project Indigo in the 1960s. Indigo was discontinued in later years without achieving full success. Project Indigo led to Project Devil, along with Project Valiant, to develop short-range SAM and ICBM in the 1970s. Project Devil itself led to the later development of the Prithvi missile under the Integrated Guided Missile Development Programme (IGMDP) in the 1980s. IGMDP was an Indian Ministry of Defence programme between the early 1980s and 2007 for the development of a comprehensive range of missiles, including the Agni missile, Prithvi ballistic missile, Akash missile, Trishul missile and Nag Missile. In 2010, defence minister A. K. Antony ordered the restructuring of the DRDO to give 'a major boost to defence research in the country and to ensure effective participation of the private sector in defence technology'. The key measures to make DRDO effective in its functioning include the establishment of a Defence Technology Commission with the defence minister as its chairman.[7][8] The programmes which were largely managed by DRDO have seen considerable success with many of the systems seeing rapid deployment as well as yielding significant technological benefits. Since its establishment, DRDO has created other major systems and critical technologies such as aircraft avionics, UAVs, small arms, artillery systems, EW Systems, tanks and armoured vehicles, sonar systems, command and control systems and missile systems.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Organisation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Cluster Laboratories/Establishments","text":"As part of rationalization plan, Defence Terrain Research Laboratory (DTRL) was merged with Snow and Avalanche Studies Establishment (SASE) which is renamed into Defence Geological Research Establishment (DGRE). As of 2020, Advanced Numerical Research and Analysis Group (ANURAG) and Laser Science and Technology Center (LASTEC) are no longer functional as independent entities. The staffs are relocated at various DRDO labs in Hyderabad.[10] DRDO is planning to build a new research lab in Lucknow.[11]","title":"Organisation"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"HR Institutions","title":"Organisation"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Other Institutions","title":"Organisation"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Centres of Excellence","title":"Organisation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Projects of DRDO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Projects_of_DRDO"}],"text":"See also: Projects of DRDO","title":"Projects"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Defence industry of India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_industry_of_India"},{"link_name":"Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_Indian_Chambers_of_Commerce_%26_Industry"},{"link_name":"Make in India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_in_India"},{"link_name":"Startup India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Startup_India&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Indigenous Defence Equipment Exporters Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_Defence_Equipment_Exporters_Association"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mind1-15"},{"link_name":"IITs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Institutes_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"NITs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Institutes_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mind1-15"},{"link_name":"military–industrial complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mind3-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mind9-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mind7-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mind7-18"},{"link_name":"technology transfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technology_transfer"},{"link_name":"16 Indian companies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_in_India"},{"link_name":"Indian Armed Forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Armed_Forces"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mind2-19"},{"link_name":"high shelf life","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shelf_life"},{"link_name":"ready-to-eat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meal,_Ready-to-Eat"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mind2-19"},{"link_name":"ISRO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISRO"},{"link_name":"Gaganyaan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaganyaan"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mind6-20"},{"link_name":"Kalyani Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalyani_Group"},{"link_name":"Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Towed_Artillery_Gun_System"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mind6-20"},{"link_name":"Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federation_of_Indian_Chambers_of_Commerce_%26_Industry"},{"link_name":"Dal Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dal_Lake"},{"link_name":"human excreta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_waste"},{"link_name":"animal waste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manure"},{"link_name":"grey water","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greywater"},{"link_name":"kitchen waste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_waste"},{"link_name":"sub zero temperature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperature"},{"link_name":"Indian Railways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Railways"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Defence Research and Development Establishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Research_and_Development_Establishment"},{"link_name":"chemical weapon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_weapon"},{"link_name":"biological agent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_agent"},{"link_name":"Indian Council of Medical Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Council_of_Medical_Research"},{"link_name":"COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus_disease_2019"},{"link_name":"civilian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civilian"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"Coronavirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coronavirus"},{"link_name":"Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Nuclear_Medicine_%26_Allied_Sciences"},{"link_name":"CBRN defence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CBRN_defence"},{"link_name":"polyester","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polyester"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"South India Textile Research Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_South_India_Textile_Research_Association"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"ASTM standards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASTM_Standards"},{"link_name":"Mumbai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai"},{"link_name":"Kolkata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kolkata"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Defence Bioengineering and Electromedical Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Bioengineering_and_Electromedical_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"COVID-19","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19"},{"link_name":"nonwoven fabric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nonwoven_fabric"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"nanomesh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomesh"},{"link_name":"Skanray Technologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larsen_%26_Toubro#Divestments"},{"link_name":"ventilator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventilator"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"Tata Motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tata_Motors"},{"link_name":"Mahindra and Mahindra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahindra_%26_Mahindra"},{"link_name":"Hyundai Motor India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyundai_Motor_India_Limited"},{"link_name":"Honda Cars India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda_Cars_India"},{"link_name":"Maruti Suzuki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruti_Suzuki"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Indian Telephone Industries Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Telephone_Industries_Limited"},{"link_name":"make in India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_in_India"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"COVID-19 pandemic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic"},{"link_name":"personal protective equipment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Personal_protective_equipment"},{"link_name":"face shield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Face_shield"},{"link_name":"ventilator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventilator"},{"link_name":"HAL Tejas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HAL_Tejas"},{"link_name":"high altitude pulmonary edema","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_pulmonary_edema"},{"link_name":"3D","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printing"},{"link_name":"iMake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.imake.in/"},{"link_name":"Chandigarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh"},{"link_name":"Bengaluru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bangalore"},{"link_name":"Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delhi"},{"link_name":"3D printing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/3D_printing"},{"link_name":"high-altitude military parachuting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High-altitude_military_parachuting"},{"link_name":"Mumbai","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mumbai"},{"link_name":"Indian Navy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indian_Navy"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Research Centre Imarat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Research_Centre_Imarat"},{"link_name":"Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terminal_Ballistics_Research_Laboratory"},{"link_name":"intubation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intubation"},{"link_name":"Poly(methyl methacrylate)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poly(methyl_methacrylate)"},{"link_name":"Employees' State Insurance Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Employees_State_Insurance_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postgraduate_Institute_of_Medical_Education_and_Research"},{"link_name":"Chandigarh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandigarh"},{"link_name":"Hyderabad","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyderabad"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"solenoid valves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solenoid_valve"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Centre for Fire, Explosive and Environment Safety","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Centre_for_Fire,_Explosive_and_Environment_Safety"},{"link_name":"hypochlorite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hypochlorite"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Vehicle Research and Development Establishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_Research_and_Development_Establishment"},{"link_name":"health professionals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Health_professional"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All_India_Institute_of_Medical_Sciences,_New_Delhi"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"See also: Defence industry of India, Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry, Make in India, Startup India, and Indigenous Defence Equipment Exporters AssociationIndia domestically produces only 45% to 50% of defence products it uses, and the rest are imported.[15] To become technology research and production leader, reduce reliance on the imports and increase self-reliance, DRDO Chief called for more collaboration with the industry, private sector, research and education institutes including IITs and NITs.[15] India's military–industrial complex has had little success and only recently private sector was allowed to enter the defence production.[16] To expedite the development cycle of new technologies and to better fit the end user requirements, army has asked DRDO to take more army staff on deputation to be part of DRDO technology development project teams.[17]Indian forces are using numerous indigenous technologies produced by the DRDO, including Varunastra, Maareech, Ushus, TAL by navy; Electronic Warfare Technologies, radars, composite materials for LCA, AEW&C, Astra, LCA Tejas by airforce; and ASAT, BrahMos, ASTRA, Nag missile, SAAW, Arjun MBT Mk 1A, 46-metre Modular Bridge, MPR, LLTR Ashwin by the army.[18] In September 2019, DRDO formulated the \"DRDO Policy and Procedures for Transfer of Technology\" and released information on \"DRDO-Industry Partnership: Synergy and Growth and DRDO Products with Potential for Export\".[18]During the Vibrant Goa Global Expo and Summit 2019 in October, DRDO signed technology transfer contracts with 16 Indian companies, including 3 startups, to produce products for the use by Indian Armed Forces.[19] This included high shelf life, high nutrition, ready-to-eat on-the-go food products to be consumed in the difficult terrain and bad weather.[19] DRDO and ISRO have agreed to collaborate in India's crewed orbital spacecraft project called Gaganyaan during which DRDOs various laboratories will tailor their defence capabilities to suit the needs of ISRO's human space mission with critical human-centric systems and technologies like space grade food, crew healthcare, radiation measurement and protection, parachutes for the safe recovery of the crew module and fire suppression system etc.[20] Kalyani Group is developing the Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System.[20]DRDO with Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce & Industry (FICCI) under Advance Assessment Technology and Commercialisation Programme is helping Lakes and Waterways Development Authority (LAWDA) to keep Dal Lake clean by providing low cost Biodigesters for the treatment of human excreta, animal waste disposal, grey water and kitchen waste release that works fine in ambient as well as sub zero temperature which are also supplied to Indian Railways.[21][22]Defence Research and Development Establishment (DRDE) which works in the field of chemical weapon, biological agent detection and research is helping Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR) in augmenting diagnostic capability for COVID-19 outbreak. It has created special hand sanitiser formulation and diagnostic kits following WHO standards and guidelines that are supplied in large numbers to civilian and defence officials.[23][24] Medical staff all over India dealing with Coronavirus contamination are using protective waterproof clothing with special sealant used in submarine applications developed by Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Allied Sciences (INMAS) for CBRN defence that is made up of high strength polyester coated with breathable polymer.[25] The clothing underwent successful trials at the South India Textile Research Association and exceeds the criteria of currently available suits in the market.[26] The suit is washable, passed all critical CBRN and ASTM standards and is now manufactured by two private players, Venus Industries from Mumbai and IMTEC from Kolkata.[27] Defence Bioengineering and Electromedical Laboratory (DEBEL) developed causality evacuation bag for COVID-19 infected patients that can withstand Chemical, Biological, Radiological and Nuclear (CBRN) environments and is protected against blood and viral penetration. The bag is made up of durable water repellent nonwoven fabric. It is rigid cylindrical in shape with air and water proof zippers and ventilators. Already ordered 500 in numbers, DRDO will now transfer the technology to private sector for manufacturing.[28]Under Society for Biomedical Technology (SBMT) programme, DEBEL has developed five-layer nanomesh based N99 masks and is collaborating with Mysore based Skanray Technologies for the production of ventilators using current available technologies with Indian made parts due to unavailability of imports. It is also working on a new multiplexed ventilator technology that will be able to support several infected individuals on a single ventilator. The prototype development stage is complete and the initial model is now undergoing various improvements suggested by a team of medical researchers and doctors.[29] The technology will finally be transferred to Tata Motors, Mahindra and Mahindra, Hyundai Motor India, Honda Cars India and Maruti Suzuki for immediate mass production.[30][31] DRDO signed agreement with Indian Telephone Industries Limited for tech transfer on low cost multiplexed ventilator technology with 80% to 90% of components are now make in India.[32]DRDO as of 11 April 2020 transferred technologies to 30 major companies to manufacture various non-medicine products against the COVID-19 pandemic which includes ventilator, sanitiser, personal protective equipment, face shield and isolation shelter. The technology for the newly developed multiplexed ventilator came from on-board oxygen generation system (OBOGS) developed for HAL Tejas. Private sector players like Raksha Polycoats and Accurate Savan Defence are now producing protective clothing, isolation shelters based on DRDO tech developed for high altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) bags, submarine escape suit and satellite recovery systems. Hyderabad based 3D printing startup iMake with Modern Manufacturers and Kirat Mechanical Engineering from Chandigarh, Wipro 3D from Bengaluru and Global Healthcare from Delhi are 3D printing visor-based face shields which is an offshoot of the tech developed for high-altitude military parachuting. Setco from Mumbai is producing sealants developed for submarines of Indian Navy at DRDO labs for personal protection equipments.[33]Research Centre Imarat (RCI) and Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (TBRL) developed product called Aerosol Containment Box for enclosure of intubation procedure made with Poly(methyl methacrylate). It is cubical in shape designed for both adults and minors that covers the COVID-19 infected patients during medical examination and treatment from head to chest to stop the transmission of droplets containing the virus to others. Employees' State Insurance Corporation Medical College, Hyderabad helped RCI in prototype development while Postgraduate Institute of Medical Education and Research helped in testing, validation and acceptance of product for medical use. The technology is now transferred to private industries located in Chandigarh and Hyderabad for mass manufacturing.[34] RCI at DRDO Missile Complex, Hyderabad is now supplying technology of brushless DC motors (BLDC) used for missile actuators and high response solenoid valves used in missile control for ventilator pumps that validated the prototype testing stages.[35]Centre for Fire, Explosive and Environment Safety (CFEES) developed two sanitising equipments of 50 litres tank capacity consists of portable backpack type that covers an area of 300 metres while another trolley mounted for large area sanitisation of up to 3000 metres by spraying 1% hypochlorite solution.[36]Vehicle Research and Development Establishment (VRDE) developed portable disinfection chamber and special face protection mask for health professionals combating COVID-19 outbreak in India. The personnel decontamination system is equipped with sanitiser and soap dispenser. The full-body decontamination starts using for pedal with an electrically operated pump creating disinfectant mist of 700-litre of hypo sodium chloride. The system takes 25 seconds for full decontamination with automatic shut-off procedure and can decontaminate 650 personnels until next refill. The face mask developed for COVID-19 patients uses the A4 size Over-Head Projection (OHP) film for protection and light weight materials for long duration comfortable use.[37] VRDE developed full-body decontamination chamber was designed and validated within 4 days with All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi became the first premier institution to use it. The mass manufacturing of the portable decontamination chamber is now done by Dass Hitachi Limited.[38]","title":"Industry linkages, technology transfer and indigenisation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Make In India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Make_in_India"},{"link_name":"Atmanirbhar Bharat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atmanirbhar_Bharat"},{"link_name":"VL-SRSAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VL-SRSAM"},{"link_name":"Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Towed_Artillery_Gun_System"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Hindustan Aeronautics Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan_Aeronautics_Limited"},{"link_name":"DRDO Abhyas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DRDO_Abhyas"},{"link_name":"Aeronautical Development Establishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeronautical_Development_Establishment"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"Ashok Leyland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashok_Leyland"},{"link_name":"Combat Vehicles Research and Development Establishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combat_Vehicles_Research_and_Development_Establishment"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Instruments Research and Development Establishment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instruments_Research_and_Development_Establishment"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Defence Institute of Physiology and Allied Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Institute_of_Physiology_and_Allied_Sciences"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-43"},{"link_name":"7.62x51mm NATO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/7.62%C3%9751mm_NATO"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"}],"sub_title":"Development cum Production Partner programme","text":"As part of Make In India and Atmanirbhar Bharat initiative, DRDO under Development cum Production Partner programme (DcPP) allowed handholding of domestic private sector industries to improve their development and production cycle of complex defence systems.VL-SRSAM (Vertical Launch - Short Range Surface to Air Missile) and Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS) became some of the successful projects of this programme.[39]Hindustan Aeronautics Limited on 17 December 2021, secured order for manufacturing, assembly, integration, testing and supply of DRDO Abhyas from Aeronautical Development Establishment. The order will be completed under Development-cum-Production Partner (DcPP) with a private sector industry.[40]On 16 December 2021, Ashok Leyland signed partnership agreement with Combat Vehicles Research and Development Establishment (CVRDE) to develop 600 hp engine for Future Combat Vehicle Programme.[41] Instruments Research and Development Establishment (IRDE) on 27 December 2021 transferred technologies for developing border surveillance system to Indian private sector company Paras Defence and Space. The system consists of radar, electro-optical sensors mounted on pan tilt platform.[42] On 28 December 2021, Defence Institute of Physiology and Allied Sciences (DIPAS) transferred technology to manufacture extreme cold weather clothing system to RHD Business Services, SBNX Innovation, Shiva Texyarn Limited, Kusumgar Corporates and Ginni Filaments Limited.[43]DRDO on 8 January 2024 launched Ugram, an assault rifle chambered in 7.62x51mm NATO, which has been designed, developed and manufactured in collaboration with Dvipa Armour India Private Limited under DcPP.[44] It's scheduled to be tested by the Indian Army.[45]","title":"Industry linkages, technology transfer and indigenisation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"},{"link_name":"Daulat Singh Kothari","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daulat_Singh_Kothari"},{"link_name":"Suri Bhagavantam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suri_Bhagavantam"},{"link_name":"B. D. \n Nag Chaudhuri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basanti_Dulal_Nagchaudhuri"},{"link_name":"M. G. K. Menon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M._G._K._Menon"},{"link_name":"Raja Ramanna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raja_Ramanna"},{"link_name":"V. S. R. Arunachalam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._S._R._Arunachalam"},{"link_name":"A. P. J. Abdul Kalam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A._P._J._Abdul_Kalam"},{"link_name":"V. K. Aatre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._K._Aatre"},{"link_name":"M. Natarajan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_scientists"},{"link_name":"V. K. Saraswat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V._K._Saraswat"},{"link_name":"Avinash Chander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avinash_Chander_(DRDO)"},{"link_name":"S. Christopher","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S._Christopher"},{"link_name":"G.Satheesh Reddy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G._Satheesh_Reddy"},{"link_name":"Sameer V. Kamat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Indian_scientists"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"}],"text":"List of Director Generals (1948–2015) and Chairpersons (since 2015) of DRDO.[46]Daulat Singh Kothari (1948–1961)\nSuri Bhagavantam (1961–1969)\nB. D. \n Nag Chaudhuri (1970–1974)\nM. G. K. Menon (1974–1978)\nRaja Ramanna (1978–1982)\nV. S. R. Arunachalam (1982–1992)\nA. P. J. Abdul Kalam (1992–1999)\nV. K. Aatre (1999–2004)\nM. Natarajan (2004–2009)\nV. K. Saraswat (2009–2013)\nAvinash Chander (2013–2015)\nS. Christopher (2015–2018)\nG.Satheesh Reddy (2018-2022)\nSameer V. Kamat (2022–present)[47]","title":"Heads of DRDO"}]

[]

[{"title":"Aeronautical Development Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeronautical_Development_Agency"},{"title":"Agency for Defense Development","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agency_for_Defense_Development"},{"title":"Bharat Electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bharat_Electronics"},{"title":"Corruption in defence procurement in India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Corruption_in_defence_procurement_in_India"},{"title":"Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defense_Advanced_Research_Projects_Agency"},{"title":"Defence Industry Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Industry_Agency"},{"title":"Defence Institute of Advanced Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Institute_of_Advanced_Technology"},{"title":"Defence Technology Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Defence_Technology_Institute"},{"title":"Hindustan Aeronautics Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindustan_Aeronautics_Limited"},{"title":"Military Institute of Armament Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_Institute_of_Armament_Technology"},{"title":"National Chung-Shan Institute of Science and Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Chung-Shan_Institute_of_Science_and_Technology"},{"title":"Ordnance Factories Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordnance_Factories_Board"},{"title":"Rafael Advanced Defense Systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rafael_Advanced_Defense_Systems"},{"title":"Swedish Defence Research Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swedish_Defence_Research_Agency"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Department_of_Fish_and_Game

California Department of Fish and Wildlife

["1 History","2 Regional divisions","3 Law Enforcement Division","3.1 Marine officers","3.2 Special Operations Unit","3.3 Pilots","4 Office of Spill Prevention and Response","5 Wildlife Forensics Laboratory","6 California Fish and Game Commission","7 In popular culture","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]

Government agency in California California Department of Fish and WildlifePatch of the California Department of Fish and GameAgency overviewFormed1909Preceding agencyBoard of Fish CommissionersHeadquarters1416 Ninth Street, Sacramento, CaliforniaAnnual budget$539 million (2007)Agency executiveCharlton (Chuck) Bonham, Executive DirectorParent agencyCalifornia Resources AgencyWebsitewildlife.ca.govMap The California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW), formerly known as the California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG), is an American state agency under the California Natural Resources Agency. The Department of Fish and Wildlife manages and protects the state's wildlife, wildflowers, trees, mushrooms, algae (kelp and seaweed) and native habitats (ecosystems). The department is responsible for regulatory enforcement and management of related recreational, commercial, scientific, and educational uses. The department also prevents illegal poaching. History The Game Act was passed in 1852 by the California State Legislature and signed into law by Governor John Bigler. The Game Act closed seasons in 12 counties for quail, partridge, mallard and wood ducks, elk, deer, and antelope. A second legislative action enacted the same year protected salmon runs. In 1854, the Legislature extended the act to include all counties of California. In 1860, protection controls were extended for trout. Lake Merritt in Oakland was made the first game refuge of California in 1869, believed to be the first in the United States. In 1870, the Legislature, with the support of Governor Henry Huntly Haight, created the Board of Fish Commissioners. The Board stipulated that fish ladders were now required at state dams. The Board outlawed explosives or other deleterious substances, and created a $500 fine for violations. In 1870, the first fish ladder in the state was built on a tributary of the Truckee River, and a state hatching house was established at the University of California in Berkeley. In 1871, the state appointed the first Game Wardens to handle wildlife law enforcement, making the Enforcement Division of the Department of Fish and Game the first state law enforcement agency enacted in California. Over the next 30 years, the Board of Fish Commissioners were given authority over game in the state as well as establishing hunting and fishing licenses. In 1909, the Board of Fish Commissioners changed its name to the Fish and Game Commission. The Division of Fish and Game was established in 1927, set up within the Department of Natural Resources. In 1951, the Reorganization Act elevated the Division of Fish and Game to the Department of Fish and Game (DFG). California Fish and Game also collaborated with the indigenous Native American Tribes to ensure their proper fishing rights. The Yurok tribe has collaborated with them as recently as 2011. The department also helped figure out the official count of fish killed (which was around 30,000) in the 2002 Fish Kill on the Klamath River. The Klamath river is very important to the tribes that live along that river. By 2012, California was one of only 13 states still using "Game" in the title of their wildlife agency. The State Legislature changed the department's name to Fish and Wildlife on January 1, 2013. The legislation followed recommendations of a 51-member stakeholder advisory group. 18 other states use the term "wildlife," while the others generally use "natural resources" or "conservation," in the titles of their Departments. This change reflects the trend toward expansion of the Agencies' missions from sport fishing and hunting alone, to protection of non-game wildlife and whole ecosystems. In June 2015, the CDFW phased out lead ammunition for hunting on state land in order to keep lead out of backcountry ecosystems. Regional divisions The Department of Fish and Wildlife divides the State of California into seven management regions whose boundaries mostly correspond to county borders (with the exception of Sacramento, Yolo, and San Joaquin counties). Northern Region: Del Norte, Humboldt, Lassen, Mendocino, Modoc, Shasta, Siskiyou, Tehama and Trinity counties. North Central Region: Alpine, Amador, Butte, Calaveras, Colusa, El Dorado, Glenn, Lake, Nevada, Placer, Plumas, Sacramento, San Joaquin, Sierra, Sutter, Yolo and Yuba counties. Bay Delta Region: Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, Sacramento, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, San Francisco, San Joaquin, Solano, Sonoma, and Yolo counties. Central Region: Fresno, Kern, Kings, Madera, Mariposa, Merced, Monterey, San Benito, San Luis Obispo, Stanislaus, Tulare and Tuolumne counties. South Coast Region: Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, Santa Barbara and Ventura counties. Inland Deserts Region: Imperial, Inyo, Mono, Riverside and San Bernardino counties. Marine Region: includes the entire coastline of California. Law Enforcement Division The department employs wardens to protect California's wildlife and natural resources. CDFW wardens are armed law enforcement officers with statewide arrest authority. Their primary mission is to enforce California state laws related to hunting, fishing, pollution, endangered species, and wildlife habitat destruction. However, they can enforce any state law, anywhere in the state. Vehicles used range from the patrol pickups to boats, catamarans, four-wheelers, snow-mobiles, horses, helicopters, and planes. The wardens investigate, collect evidence, serve search warrants, arrest criminals, and ensure public safety. Wardens patrol the state of California and 200 miles (320 km) off the coast. As of 2014, about 380 wardens patrolled the state. Merging the Law Enforcement Division into the California Highway Patrol has been discussed, similar to how Alaska has a Wildlife Trooper division within the Alaska State Troopers. Given that the CDFW Law Enforcement Division has faced low numbers of Wildlife Officers for the last ten years. Marine officers The Marine Region officers patrol the entire coastline of California, and up to 200 miles off the shore. Marine officers enforce commercial and sport fishing laws through spot checks on the water and on land. As of 2001, the Marine Region was patrolled by 63 officers piloting 65-foot, 54-foot, and 40-foot mono-hull patrol vessels and 18-foot and 24-foot rigid-hull inflatable patrol boats. Some rigid-hull inflatable boats are carried on the larger patrol vessels, while others are carried on trailers to respond to emergencies on the north coast. Special Operations Unit The Special Operations Unit (SOU) is CDFW's investigative unit. The SOU investigates crimes related to improper use of California's natural resources, including poaching of fish and game. The unit accomplishes this with a combination of physical surveillance and undercover operations. Pilots The CDFW operates an Air Services unit for the purposes of aerial surveillance, fish stocking, and transportation. All CDFW pilots are fully qualified peace officers, pilots, and airplane mechanics. They are responsible for maintaining their own aircraft, and fly out of Hemet, Fresno, Sacramento, and Redding. Office of Spill Prevention and Response The Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR) is a branch of the California Department of Fish and Wildlife that is tasked with responding to pollution and protecting the wildlife of California. The OSPR has authority over all surface waters in California, both inland and up to 200 miles (320 km) off the coast. The funding for the OSPR's Oil Spill Prevention Administration Fund comes from a fee placed on every barrel of crude oil entering California. Wildlife Forensics Laboratory The CDFW Wildlife Forensics Laboratory is a forensic laboratory that uses molecular biology to investigate crimes against animals. The lab is staffed by three wildlife forensic specialists who help CDFW officers identify species, determine the biological sex of an animal, and determine whether two samples are from the same animal. California Fish and Game Commission The California Fish and Game Commission is an organ of the California state government, and is separate from the CDFW. Although the department's name was recently modified by changing the word "Game" to "Wildlife", no such name change has occurred for the commission. In popular culture CDFW officers were followed by the National Geographic Channel show "Wild Justice" in 2010 and 2011. A fictionalized version of the CDFW is depicted in the 2022 film, Jurassic World Dominion. Rangers capture and relocate dinosaurs that escaped into the wild at the end of the previous film. See also California portal List of California Department of Fish and Wildlife protected areas List of law enforcement agencies in California List of State Fish and Wildlife Management Agencies in the U.S. List of marine protected areas of California References ^ a b Jim Zobel (November–December 1999). "Department of Fish and Game celebrates 130 years of serving California". Outdoor California. Retrieved December 3, 2023. ^ Buckskin, Marjorie. Yurok Tribe MLPA and Marine Resource Plan Factual Record of Marine Resource Use. Klamath: Yurok Tribe, September 15, 2011. PDF. http://www.yuroktribe.org/government/tribalattorney/documents/2011.08.29_YurokTribe-FactualRecordtoCAFGC.pdf ^ a b May, Theresa (2014). Salmon Is Everything. Oregon State University Press. pp. 50–51, 159–160. ISBN 978-0-87071-746-8. ^ a b Don Thompson (October 4, 2012). "Hunting, fishing groups leery of California department's name change". San Jose Mercury News. Associated Press. Retrieved February 4, 2014. ^ Erik Anderson (June 29, 2015). "California To Start Banning Lead Ammunition". KPBS Radio News (San Diego, CA). Retrieved July 4, 2015. ^ CDFW Law Enforcement Division. "Fish and Wildlife Officer Career". www.wildlife.ca.gov. Archived from the original on August 20, 2016. Retrieved July 30, 2016. ^ 2008 Census of State and Local Law Enforcement Agencies, by Brian A Reaves, US Department of Justice, Office of Justice Programs, Bureau of Justice Statistics, July 2011 ^ "Fish and Game Wardens". www.bls.gov. Retrieved February 25, 2016. ^ California Fish and Game Commission Meeting March 6, 2008 ^ A how-to guide in revamping woeful DFG Tom Stienstra, San Francisco Chronicle, December 8, 2002 ^ A world without game wardens? ESPN, March 6, 2008 ^ Game-warden shortage is about to get worse San Francisco Chronicle, September 23, 2007 ^ Welser, Matt (August 19, 2007). "Lots of ocean, but few game wardens". The Sacramento Bee. Archived from the original on August 21, 2007. ^ Leet, William S.; Dewees, Christopher M.; Klingbeil, Richard; Larson, Eric J. (2001). Managing California's Living Marine Resources: A Status Report. California: California Department of Fish and Game. pp. 67–72. ^ "Special Operations Unit". California Fish & Game Wardens Association. California Fish & Game Wardens Association. 2007. Archived from the original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved July 31, 2016. ^ "Air Services". California Fish & game Wardens Association. California Fish & game Wardens Association. 2007. Archived from the original on March 9, 2016. Retrieved July 31, 2016. ^ "Law Enforcement Division". California Department of Fish and Wildlife. State of California. 2016. Retrieved July 31, 2016. ^ "Wildlife Forensics Laboratory". California Department of Fish and Wildlife. State of California. 2016. Retrieved July 31, 2016. ^ "About the California Fish and Game Commission". State of California. Retrieved March 4, 2021. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to California Department of Fish and Wildlife. Official website California Fish and Game Commission California game warden history California Fish and Game Wardens Association California Game Wardens Foundation vteProtected areas of CaliforniaNational Park SystemParks Channel Islands Death Valley Joshua Tree Kings Canyon Lassen Volcanic Pinnacles Redwood Sequoia Yosemite PreservesMojaveMonuments Cabrillo Castle Mountains César E. Chávez Devils Postpile Lava Beds Muir Woods Tule Lake Seashores Point Reyes Historical Parks Rosie the Riveter World War II Home Front San Francisco Maritime Historic Sites Eugene O'Neill Fort Point John Muir Manzanar Memorials Port Chicago Naval Magazine Recreation Areas Golden Gate Santa Monica Mountains Whiskeytown–Shasta–Trinity California State ParksParks Ahjumawi Lava Springs Andrew Molera Angel Island Año Nuevo Anza-Borrego Desert Arthur B. Ripley Desert Woodland Bidwell–Sacramento River Big Basin Redwoods Border Field Bothe-Napa Valley Burton Creek Butano Calaveras Big Trees Castle Crags Castle Rock Caswell Memorial China Camp Chino Hills Clear Lake Coast Dairies Crystal Cove Cuyamaca Rancho D. L. Bliss Del Norte Coast Redwoods Donner Memorial Dos Rios Ranch Ed Z'berg Sugar Pine Point Emerald Bay The Forest of Nisene Marks Fort Ord Dunes Fremont Peak Garrapata Gaviota Great Valley Grasslands Grizzly Creek Redwoods Grover Hot Springs Hearst San Simeon Hendy Woods Henry Cowell Redwoods Henry W. Coe Humboldt Lagoons Humboldt Redwoods Jedediah Smith Redwoods Julia Pfeiffer Burns Leo Carrillo Limekiln MacKerricher Malibu Creek Manchester McArthur–Burney Falls Memorial McLaughlin Eastshore Mendocino Headlands Mendocino Woodlands Montaña de Oro Morro Bay Mount Diablo Mount San Jacinto Mount Tamalpais Navarro River Redwoods Pacheco Palomar Mountain Pfeiffer Big Sur Placerita Canyon Plumas-Eureka Point Mugu Portola Redwoods Prairie Creek Redwoods Red Rock Canyon Richardson Grove Rio de Los Angeles Robert Louis Stevenson Russian Gulch Saddleback Butte Salt Point Samuel P. Taylor San Bruno Mountain Sinkyone Wilderness South Yuba River Sue-meg Sugarloaf Ridge Sutter Buttes Tolowa Dunes Tomales Bay Topanga Trione-Annadel Van Damme Washoe Meadows Wilder Ranch Natural Reserves Antelope Valley California Poppy Armstrong Redwoods Azalea Caspar Headlands John B. Dewitt John Little Jug Handle Kruse Rhododendron Los Osos Oaks Mailliard Redwoods Mono Lake Tufa Montgomery Woods Point Lobos Smithe Redwoods Torrey Pines Tule Elk Marine Reserves Albany Anacapa Island SMR Asilomar Begg Rock Big Creek Bodega Head Cabrillo Carmel Pinnacles Carrington Point Del Mar Landing Elkhorn Slough Emeryville Crescent Estero de Limantour and Drakes Estero Fitzgerald Gerstle Cove Gull Island Harris Point Judith Rock Laguna Beach Long Point Lovers Point Montara and Pillar Point Moro Cojo Slough Morro Bay Natural Bridges Piedras Blancas Point Arena Point Buchon Point Cabrillo Point Dume Point Lobos Point Reyes Point Sur Richardson Rock Russian River Santa Barbara Island Scorpion Sea Lion Gulch Skunk Point South Cape Mendocino Stewarts Point Vandenberg Historic Parks Anderson Marsh Antelope Valley Indian Museum Bale Grist Mill Benicia Capitol Bidwell Mansion Bodie California Citrus California State Indian Museum Chumash Painted Cave Colonel Allensworth Columbia El Presidio de Santa Barbara Empire Mine Folsom Powerhouse Fort Humboldt Fort Ross Fort Tejon Governor's Mansion Hearst Castle Indian Grinding Rock Jack London La Purísima Mission Leland Stanford Mansion Los Angeles Los Encinos Malakoff Diggins Marconi Conference Center Marsh Creek Marshall Gold Discovery Monterey Old Sacramento Old Town San Diego Olompali Pigeon Point Light Station Pío Pico Point Sur Railtown 1897 Rancho Petaluma Adobe San Juan Bautista San Pasqual Battlefield Santa Cruz Mission Santa Susana Pass Shasta Sonoma Sutter's Fort Tomo-Kahni Wassama Round House Watts Towers Weaverville Joss House Will Rogers William B. Ide Adobe Woodland Opera House Beaches Asilomar Bean Hollow Bolsa Chica Cardiff Carlsbad Carmel River Carpinteria Caspar Headlands Cayucos Corona del Mar Crown Memorial Dockweiler Doheny El Capitán Emma Wood Gray Whale Cove Greenwood Half Moon Bay Huntington Leucadia Lighthouse Field Little River Malibu Lagoon Mandalay Manresa Marina McGrath Montara Monterey Moonlight Morro Strand Moss Landing Natural Bridges New Brighton Pacifica Pelican Pescadero Pismo Point Dume Point Sal Pomponio Refugio Robert H. Meyer Memorial Salinas River San Buenaventura San Clemente San Elijo San Gregorio San Onofre Santa Monica Schooner Gulch Seacliff Silver Strand Sonoma Coast South Carlsbad Sunset Thornton Torrey Pines Trinidad Twin Lakes Westport-Union Landing Will Rogers William Randolph Hearst Memorial Zmudowski Recreation Areas Admiral William Standley Auburn Austin Creek Benbow Benicia Bethany Reservoir Brannan Island Candlestick Point Castaic Lake Colusa-Sacramento River Folsom Lake Franks Tract George J. Hatfield Harry A. Merlo Kenneth Hahn Kings Beach Lake Del Valle Lake Oroville Lake Perris Lake Valley Martial Cottle McConnell Millerton Lake Picacho Providence Mountains Salton Sea San Luis Reservoir Silverwood Lake Standish-Hickey Tahoe Turlock Lake Woodson Bridge VehicularRecreation Areas Carnegie Clay Pit Heber Dunes Hollister Hills Hungry Valley Oceano Dunes Ocotillo Wells Prairie City Other Burleigh H. Murray Ranch California State Capitol Museum California State Mining and Mineral Museum California State Railroad Museum Castro Adobe Delta Meadows Estero Bay Hatton Canyon Indio Hills Palms Point Cabrillo Light Ishxenta State Park Point Montara Light Reynolds Wayside Campground San Timoteo Canyon Stone Lake Verdugo Mountains Ward Creek Wildwood Canyon National Forests and GrasslandsNational Forestsand Grasslands Angeles Butte Valley NG Cleveland Eldorado Humboldt–Toiyabe Inyo Klamath Lake Tahoe Basin Lassen Los Padres Mendocino Modoc Plumas Rogue River–Siskiyou San Bernardino Sequoia Shasta–Trinity Sierra Six Rivers Stanislaus Tahoe National WildernessPreservation System Agua Tibia Ansel Adams Bucks Lake Caribou Carson–Iceberg Castle Crags Cucamonga Desolation Dick Smith Dinkey Lakes Emigrant Golden Trout Hoover Inyo Mountains Ishi Jennie Lakes John Muir Kaiser Marble Mountain Mokelumne Mount Shasta Wilderness North Fork Pine Creek San Gabriel San Jacinto San Rafael Sanhedrin Sespe Siskiyou Snow Mountain South Fork Eel River South Sierra South Warner Thousand Lakes Trinity Alps Ventana Yolla Bolly–Middle Eel Yuki National Monumentsand Recreation Areas Giant Sequoia National Monument San Gabriel Mountains National Monument Sand to Snow National Monument Santa Rosa and San Jacinto Mountains National Monument Smith River National Recreation Area Whiskeytown–Shasta–Trinity National Recreation Area State Forests Boggs Mountain Demonstration Ellen Pickett Jackson Demonstration Las Posadas LaTour Demonstration Mount Zion Demonstration Mountain Home Demonstration Soquel Demonstration National Wildlife Refuges Antioch Dunes Bitter Creek Blue Ridge Butte Sink Castle Rock Clear Lake Coachella Valley Colusa Delevan Don Edwards San Francisco Bay Ellicott Slough Farallon Guadalupe-Nipomo Dunes Hopper Mountain Humboldt Bay Imperial Kern Lower Klamath Marin Islands Merced Modoc Pixley Sacramento Sacramento River Salinas River San Diego Bay San Diego San Joaquin River San Luis San Pablo Bay Seal Beach Sonny Bono Salton Sea Stone Lakes Sutter Tijuana Slough Tule Lake State Wildlife AreasWildlifeAreas Antelope Valley Ash Creek Bass Hill Battle Creek Big Lagoon Big Sandy Biscar Butte Valley Buttermilk Country Cache Creek Camp Cady Cantara/Ney Springs Cedar Roughs Cinder Flats Collins Eddy Colusa Bypass Coon Hollow Cottonwood Creek Crescent City Marsh Crocker Meadows Daugherty Hill Decker Island Doyle Dutch Flat Eastlker River Eel River Elk Creek Wetlands Elk River Fay Slough Feather River Fitzhugh Creek Fremont Weir Grass Lake Gray Lodge Green Creek Grizzly Island Hallelujah Junction Heenan Lake Hill Slough Hollenbeck Canyon Honey Lake Hope Valley Horseshoe Ranch Imperial Indian Valley Kelso Peak and Old Dad Mountains Kinsman Flat Knoxville Laguna Lake Berryessa Lake Earl Lake Sonoma Little Panoche Reservoir Los Banos Lower Sherman Island Mad River Slough Marble Mountains Mendota Merrill's Landing Miner Slough Monache Meadows Morro Bay Moss Landing Mouth of Cottonwood Creek Napa-Sonoma Marshes North Grasslands O'Neill Forebay Oroville Petaluma Marsh Pickel Meadow Pine Creek Point Edith Putah Creek Rector Reservoir Red Lake Rhode Island Sacramento River San Felipe Valley San Jacinto San Luis Obispo San Luis Reservoir San Pablo Bay Santa Rosa Shasta Valley Silver Creek Slinkard/Little Antelope Smithneck Creek South Fork Spenceville Surprise Valley Sutter Bypass Tehama Truckee River Upper Butte Basin Volta Warner Valley Waukell Creek West Hilmar Westlker River White Slough Willow Creek Yolo Bypass EcologicalReserves Albany Mudflats Alkali Sink Allensworth Atascadero Creek Marsh Bair Island Baldwin Lake Batiquitos Lagoon Blue Sky Boden Canyon Boggs Lake Bolsa Chica Bonny Doon Buena Vista Lagoon Butler Slough Butte Creek Canyon Butte Creek House Buttonwillow By Day Creek Calhoun Cut Canebrake Carlsbad Highlands Carmel Bay Carrizo Canyon Carrizo Plains China Point Clover Creek Coachella Valley Coal Canyon Corte Madera Marsh Crestridge Dairy Mart Ponds Dales Lake Del Mar Landing Eden Landing Elkhorn Slough Estelle Mountain Fall River Mills Fish Slough Fremont Valley Goleta Slough Indian Joe Spring Kaweah Kerman King Clone Laguna Laurel Loch Lomond Vernal Pool Lokern Magnesia Spring Marin Islands Mattole River McGinty Mountain Morro Dunes Morro Rock Napa River North Table Mountain Oasis Spring Panoche Hills Peytonia Slough Phoenix Vernal Pools Pine Hill Piute Creek Pleasant Valley Rancho Jamul Redwood Shores River Springs Lakes Saline Valley San Dieguito Lagoon San Elijo Lagoon San Felipe Creek San Joaquin River Santa Rosa Plateau Springville Stone Corral Sycamore Canyon Sycuan Peak Thomes Creek Tomales Bay Upper Newport Bay Watsonville Slough West Mojave Desert Woodbridge Yaudanchi MarineProtectedAreas Abalone Cove and Point Vicente Anacapa Island SMCA Año Nuevo Arrow Point to Lion Head Point Batiquitos Lagoon Big Creek Bodega Head Bolsa Chica Cambria Campus Point Carmel Bay Cat Harbor Crystal Cove Dana Point Duxbury Reef Edward F. Ricketts Elkhorn Slough Estero Americano Estero de Limantour and Drakes Estero Estero de San Antonio Fagan Marsh Famosa Slough Farnsworth Onshore and Offshore Goleta Slough Greyhound Rock Lovers Cove and Casino Point MacKerricher Marin Islands Morro Bay Naples Pacific Grove Marine Gardens Painted Cave Piedras Blancas Point Arena Point Buchon Point Dume Point Reyes Point Sur Portuguese Ledge Pyramid Point Robert E. Badham Robert W. 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Boyd Deep Canyon Desert Point Reyes Field Station Quail Ridge Rancho Marino Sagehen Creek Field Station San Joaquin Marsh Santa Cruz Island Scripps Coastal Sedgwick Stebbins Cold Canyon Steele Burnand Anza-Borrego Desert Stunt Ranch Santa Monica Mountains Sweeney Granite Mountains Desert Valentine Eastern Sierra White Mountain Younger Lagoon Private Conservation Land Trusts Agua Hedionda Lagoon Arastradero Preserve Arroyo Conejo Open Space Audubon Canyon Ranch Bear Creek Redwoods Open Space Preserve Blue Ridge Berryessa Natural Area Bluff Lake Big Sur Land Trust California Rangeland Trust Catalina Island Conservancy Claremont Canyon Conservancy Cosumnes River Preserve Fairfield Osborn Preserve Land Conservancy of San Luis Obispo County Pacific Forest Trust Palos Verdes Peninsula Land Conservancy Peninsula Open Space Trust Pepperwood Preserve Sanctuary Forest Santa Cruz Island Santa Lucia Preserve Sempervirens Fund Sierra Nevada Alliance Sogorea Te Land Trust The Nature Conservancy Trust for Public Land The Wildlands Conservancy Heritage registers National Natural Landmarks vteExecutive state agencies, departments and other entities of the State of CaliforniaCabinet-level superagencies Business, Consumer Services and Housing Government Operations Environmental Protection Health and Human Services Labor and Workforce Development Natural Resources Transportation Cabinet-level departments Corrections and Rehabilitation Education Finance Food and Agriculture Insurance Justice Military Cabinet-level offices Governor's Office of Emergency Services Governor's Office of Planning and Research Governor's Office of Business and Economic Development BCSH departments Consumer Affairs Board of Accountancy Bureau of Automotive Repair Bureau for Private Postsecondary Education Bureau of Real Estate Appraisers Contractors State License Board Medical Board Fair Employment and Housing Housing and Community Development Business Oversight Real Estate Alcoholic Beverage Control Alcoholic Beverage Control Appeals Board Horse Racing Board GOA departments CalPERS CalSTRS Franchise Tax Board FI$CAL General Services Human Resources State Personnel Board Tax and Fee Administration Technology Office of Administrative Law Complete Count Committee Victim Compensation Board CalEPA departments Air Resources Board Pesticide Regulation CalRecycle Toxic Substances Control Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment State Water Resources Control Board HHS departments Aging Child Support Services Community Services and Development Developmental Services Medical Services Authority Health Care Services Managed Health Care Managed Risk Medical Insurance Board Public Health Rehabilitation Social Services State Hospitals Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development Office of Health Information Integrity Office of Law Enforcement Support Office of the Patient Advocate LWDA departments Industrial Relations Agricultural Labor Relations Board Employment Development Department Public Employment Relations Board Unemployment Insurance Appeals Board Workforce Development Board Employment Training Panel CNRA departments Conservation Conservation Corps Fish and Wildlife Forestry and Fire Protection Parks and Recreation Water Resources CALFED Bay-Delta Program Coastal Commission Energy Commission State Lands Commission San Francisco Bay Conservation and Development Commission Colorado River Board CalSTA departments Motor Vehicles Caltrans Highway Patrol Board of Pilot Commissioners Transportation Commission High-Speed Rail Authority New Motor Vehicle Board Office of Traffic Safety Independent entities University of California Board of Regents California State University California Community Colleges Public Utilities Commission State Auditor Fair Political Practices Commission Little Hoover Commission Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California Natural Resources Agency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Natural_Resources_Agency"},{"link_name":"poaching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poaching"}],"text":"The California Department of Fish and Wildlife (CDFW), formerly known as the California Department of Fish and Game (CDFG), is an American state agency under the California Natural Resources Agency. The Department of Fish and Wildlife manages and protects the state's wildlife, wildflowers, trees, mushrooms, algae (kelp and seaweed) and native habitats (ecosystems). The department is responsible for regulatory enforcement and management of related recreational, commercial, scientific, and educational uses. The department also prevents illegal poaching.","title":"California Department of Fish and Wildlife"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California State Legislature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_State_Legislature"},{"link_name":"John Bigler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Bigler"},{"link_name":"Lake Merritt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Merritt"},{"link_name":"game refuge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nature_reserve"},{"link_name":"Henry Huntly Haight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Huntly_Haight"},{"link_name":"fish ladders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fish_ladders"},{"link_name":"Truckee River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truckee_River"},{"link_name":"University of California in Berkeley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_California_in_Berkeley"},{"link_name":"Game Wardens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_Warden"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-History-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"Fish Kill","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002_Klamath_River_fish_kill"},{"link_name":"Klamath River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klamath_River"},{"link_name":"Klamath river","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klamath_River"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DonThompson-4"},{"link_name":"lead","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lead"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pbs-5"}],"text":"The Game Act was passed in 1852 by the California State Legislature and signed into law by Governor John Bigler. The Game Act closed seasons in 12 counties for quail, partridge, mallard and wood ducks, elk, deer, and antelope. A second legislative action enacted the same year protected salmon runs. In 1854, the Legislature extended the act to include all counties of California. In 1860, protection controls were extended for trout. Lake Merritt in Oakland was made the first game refuge of California in 1869, believed to be the first in the United States.In 1870, the Legislature, with the support of Governor Henry Huntly Haight, created the Board of Fish Commissioners. The Board stipulated that fish ladders were now required at state dams. The Board outlawed explosives or other deleterious substances, and created a $500 fine for violations. In 1870, the first fish ladder in the state was built on a tributary of the Truckee River, and a state hatching house was established at the University of California in Berkeley.In 1871, the state appointed the first Game Wardens to handle wildlife law enforcement, making the Enforcement Division of the Department of Fish and Game the first state law enforcement agency enacted in California. Over the next 30 years, the Board of Fish Commissioners were given authority over game in the state as well as establishing hunting and fishing licenses.[1]In 1909, the Board of Fish Commissioners changed its name to the Fish and Game Commission. The Division of Fish and Game was established in 1927, set up within the Department of Natural Resources. In 1951, the Reorganization Act elevated the Division of Fish and Game to the Department of Fish and Game (DFG).[1]California Fish and Game also collaborated with the indigenous Native American Tribes to ensure their proper fishing rights. The Yurok tribe has collaborated with them as recently as 2011.[2] The department also helped figure out the official count of fish killed (which was around 30,000)[3] in the 2002 Fish Kill on the Klamath River. The Klamath river is very important to the tribes that live along that river.[3]By 2012, California was one of only 13 states still using \"Game\" in the title of their wildlife agency. The State Legislature changed the department's name to Fish and Wildlife on January 1, 2013. The legislation followed recommendations of a 51-member stakeholder advisory group. 18 other states use the term \"wildlife,\" while the others generally use \"natural resources\" or \"conservation,\" in the titles of their Departments. This change reflects the trend toward expansion of the Agencies' missions from sport fishing and hunting alone, to protection of non-game wildlife and whole ecosystems.[4]In June 2015, the CDFW phased out lead ammunition for hunting on state land in order to keep lead out of backcountry ecosystems.[5]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"State of California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_of_California"},{"link_name":"county","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Counties_of_California"},{"link_name":"Sacramento","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento_County"},{"link_name":"Yolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolo_County"},{"link_name":"San Joaquin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Joaquin_County"},{"link_name":"Del Norte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Del_Norte_County"},{"link_name":"Humboldt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humboldt_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Lassen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lassen_County"},{"link_name":"Mendocino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mendocino_County"},{"link_name":"Modoc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modoc_County"},{"link_name":"Shasta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shasta_County"},{"link_name":"Siskiyou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siskiyou_County"},{"link_name":"Tehama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tehama_County"},{"link_name":"Trinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trinity_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Alpine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alpine_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Amador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amador_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Butte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Butte_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Calaveras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calaveras_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Colusa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colusa_County,_California"},{"link_name":"El Dorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Dorado_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Glenn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glenn_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Nevada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nevada_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Placer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Placer_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Plumas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plumas_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Sacramento","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento_County"},{"link_name":"San Joaquin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Joaquin_County"},{"link_name":"Sierra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sierra_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Sutter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sutter_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Yolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolo_County"},{"link_name":"Yuba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuba_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Alameda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alameda_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Contra Costa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contra_Costa_County"},{"link_name":"Marin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marin_County"},{"link_name":"Napa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napa_County"},{"link_name":"Sacramento","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento_County"},{"link_name":"San Mateo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Mateo_County"},{"link_name":"Santa Clara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Clara_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Santa Cruz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Cruz_County,_California"},{"link_name":"San Francisco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Francisco,_California"},{"link_name":"San Joaquin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Joaquin_County"},{"link_name":"Solano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solano_County"},{"link_name":"Sonoma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonoma_County"},{"link_name":"Yolo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolo_County"},{"link_name":"Fresno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresno_County"},{"link_name":"Kern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kern_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Kings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kings_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Madera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madera_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Mariposa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mariposa_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Merced","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merced_County"},{"link_name":"Monterey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monterey_County,_California"},{"link_name":"San Benito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Benito_County,_California"},{"link_name":"San Luis Obispo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Luis_Obispo_County"},{"link_name":"Stanislaus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanislaus_County"},{"link_name":"Tulare","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tulare_County"},{"link_name":"Tuolumne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuolumne_County"},{"link_name":"Los Angeles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Angeles_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Orange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orange_County,_California"},{"link_name":"San Diego","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Diego_County"},{"link_name":"Santa Barbara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa_Barbara_County"},{"link_name":"Ventura","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventura_County"},{"link_name":"Imperial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperial_County,_California"},{"link_name":"Inyo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inyo_County"},{"link_name":"Mono","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mono_County"},{"link_name":"Riverside","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riverside_County,_California"},{"link_name":"San Bernardino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San_Bernardino_County"}],"text":"The Department of Fish and Wildlife divides the State of California into seven management regions whose boundaries mostly correspond to county borders (with the exception of Sacramento, Yolo, and San Joaquin counties).Northern Region: Del Norte, Humboldt, Lassen, Mendocino, Modoc, Shasta, Siskiyou, Tehama and Trinity counties.\nNorth Central Region: Alpine, Amador, Butte, Calaveras, Colusa, El Dorado, Glenn, Lake, Nevada, Placer, Plumas, Sacramento, San Joaquin, Sierra, Sutter, Yolo and Yuba counties.\nBay Delta Region: Alameda, Contra Costa, Marin, Napa, Sacramento, San Mateo, Santa Clara, Santa Cruz, San Francisco, San Joaquin, Solano, Sonoma, and Yolo counties.\nCentral Region: Fresno, Kern, Kings, Madera, Mariposa, Merced, Monterey, San Benito, San Luis Obispo, Stanislaus, Tulare and Tuolumne counties.\nSouth Coast Region: Los Angeles, Orange, San Diego, Santa Barbara and Ventura counties.\nInland Deserts Region: Imperial, Inyo, Mono, Riverside and San Bernardino counties.\nMarine Region: includes the entire coastline of California.","title":"Regional divisions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"habitat destruction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitat_destruction"},{"link_name":"catamarans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catamaran"},{"link_name":"four-wheelers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/All-terrain_vehicle"},{"link_name":"snow-mobiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowmobile"},{"link_name":"horses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse"},{"link_name":"helicopters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helicopter"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"California Highway Patrol","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_Highway_Patrol"},{"link_name":"Alaska State Troopers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_State_Troopers"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Wildlife Officers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_warden"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"The department employs wardens to protect California's wildlife and natural resources. CDFW wardens are armed law enforcement officers with statewide arrest authority. Their primary mission is to enforce California state laws related to hunting, fishing, pollution, endangered species, and wildlife habitat destruction. However, they can enforce any state law, anywhere in the state. Vehicles used range from the patrol pickups to boats, catamarans, four-wheelers, snow-mobiles, horses, helicopters, and planes. The wardens investigate, collect evidence, serve search warrants, arrest criminals, and ensure public safety. Wardens patrol the state of California and 200 miles (320 km) off the coast.[6]As of 2014, about 380 wardens patrolled the state.[7][8]Merging the Law Enforcement Division into the California Highway Patrol has been discussed, similar to how Alaska has a Wildlife Trooper division within the Alaska State Troopers.[9][10] Given that the CDFW Law Enforcement Division has faced low numbers of Wildlife Officers for the last ten years.[when?][11][12][13]","title":"Law Enforcement Division"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"patrol boats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrol_boat"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"Marine officers","text":"The Marine Region officers patrol the entire coastline of California, and up to 200 miles off the shore. Marine officers enforce commercial and sport fishing laws through spot checks on the water and on land. As of 2001, the Marine Region was patrolled by 63 officers piloting 65-foot, 54-foot, and 40-foot mono-hull patrol vessels and 18-foot and 24-foot rigid-hull inflatable patrol boats. Some rigid-hull inflatable boats are carried on the larger patrol vessels, while others are carried on trailers to respond to emergencies on the north coast.[14]","title":"Law Enforcement Division"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"physical surveillance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surveillance"},{"link_name":"undercover operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undercover_operation"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"}],"sub_title":"Special Operations Unit","text":"The Special Operations Unit (SOU) is CDFW's investigative unit. The SOU investigates crimes related to improper use of California's natural resources, including poaching of fish and game. The unit accomplishes this with a combination of physical surveillance and undercover operations.[15]","title":"Law Enforcement Division"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Hemet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemet-Ryan_Airport"},{"link_name":"Fresno","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fresno_Yosemite_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"Sacramento","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sacramento_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"Redding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benton_Field"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"sub_title":"Pilots","text":"The CDFW operates an Air Services unit for the purposes of aerial surveillance, fish stocking, and transportation. All CDFW pilots are fully qualified peace officers, pilots, and airplane mechanics.[16] They are responsible for maintaining their own aircraft, and fly out of Hemet, Fresno, Sacramento, and Redding.[17]","title":"Law Enforcement Division"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"The Office of Spill Prevention and Response (OSPR) is a branch of the California Department of Fish and Wildlife that is tasked with responding to pollution and protecting the wildlife of California. The OSPR has authority over all surface waters in California, both inland and up to 200 miles (320 km) off the coast. The funding for the OSPR's Oil Spill Prevention Administration Fund comes from a fee placed on every barrel of crude oil entering California.","title":"Office of Spill Prevention and Response"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"forensic laboratory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crime_lab"},{"link_name":"biological sex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"}],"text":"The CDFW Wildlife Forensics Laboratory is a forensic laboratory that uses molecular biology to investigate crimes against animals. The lab is staffed by three wildlife forensic specialists who help CDFW officers identify species, determine the biological sex of an animal, and determine whether two samples are from the same animal.[18]","title":"Wildlife Forensics Laboratory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DonThompson-4"}],"text":"The California Fish and Game Commission is an organ of the California state government, and is separate from the CDFW.[19] Although the department's name was recently modified by changing the word \"Game\" to \"Wildlife\", no such name change has occurred for the commission.[4]","title":"California Fish and Game Commission"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"National Geographic Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Geographic_(U.S._TV_channel)"},{"link_name":"Wild Justice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_Justice_(TV_series)"},{"link_name":"Jurassic World Dominion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_World_Dominion"},{"link_name":"previous film","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jurassic_World:_Fallen_Kingdom"}],"text":"CDFW officers were followed by the National Geographic Channel show \"Wild Justice\" in 2010 and 2011.A fictionalized version of the CDFW is depicted in the 2022 film, Jurassic World Dominion. Rangers capture and relocate dinosaurs that escaped into the wild at the end of the previous film.","title":"In popular culture"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario

Ontario

["1 Etymology","2 Geography","2.1 Climate","3 History","3.1 Indigenous habitation (pre–1610)","3.2 Pays d'en Haut (1610–1763)","3.3 Province of Quebec (1763–1791)","3.4 Upper Canada (1791–1841)","3.5 Canada West (1841–1867)","3.6 Canadian province (1867–present)","4 Demographics","4.1 Population","4.2 Ethnicity","4.3 Visible minorities and Indigenous peoples","4.4 Religion","4.5 Language","5 Economy","5.1 Agriculture","5.2 Energy","6 Government, law and politics","6.1 Law","6.2 Politics","6.3 Administrative divisions","6.4 Urban areas","7 Education","7.1 Higher education","8 Culture","8.1 Museums","8.2 Music and arts","8.3 Media","8.4 Songs and slogans","8.5 Professional sports","8.6 Notable residents","9 Transportation","9.1 Air travel","9.2 Railways","9.3 Roads","9.4 Waterways","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References","13 Sources","14 Further reading","15 External links"]

Coordinates: 49°15′N 84°30′W / 49.250°N 84.500°W / 49.250; -84.500Province of Canada This article is about the Canadian province. For other uses, see Ontario (disambiguation). Province in CanadaOntarioProvince FlagCoat of armsMotto(s): Ut Incepit Fidelis Sic Permanet (Latin)("Loyal she began, loyal she remains") BC AB SK MB ON QC NB PE NS NL YT NT NU Coordinates: 49°15′N 84°30′W / 49.250°N 84.500°W / 49.250; -84.500CountryCanadaBefore confederationCanada WestConfederationJuly 1, 1867 (1st, with New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Quebec)Capital(and largest city)TorontoLargest metroGreater Toronto AreaGovernment • TypeParliamentary constitutional monarchy • Lieutenant GovernorEdith Dumont • PremierDoug Ford LegislatureLegislative Assembly of OntarioFederal representationParliament of CanadaHouse seats121 of 338 (35.8%)Senate seats24 of 105 (22.9%) Area (2021 land) • Total1,076,395 km2 (415,598 sq mi) • Land892,411.76 km2 (344,562.11 sq mi) • Water158,654 km2 (61,257 sq mi)  14.7% • Rank4th 10.8% of CanadaPopulation (2021) • Total14,223,942 • Estimate (Q1 2024)15,911,285 • Rank1st • Density15.94/km2 (41.3/sq mi)DemonymOntarian Official languagesEnglish GDP • Rank1st • Total (2022)CA$1,044.670 billion • Per capitaCA$69,288 (8th)HDI • HDI (2021)0.943—Very high (3rd)Time zonesEast of 90th meridian westUTC−05:00 (EST) • Summer (DST)UTC−04:00 (EDT)West of 90th meridian west, except Atikokan and Pickle LakeUTC−06:00 (CST) • Summer (DST)UTC−05:00 (CDT)Atikokan and Pickle Lake (No DST)UTC−05:00 (EST)Canadian postal abbr.ONPostal code prefixK L M N PISO 3166 codeCA-ONFlowerWhite trilliumTreeEastern white pineBirdCommon loonRankings include all provinces and territories Ontario (/ɒnˈtɛərioʊ/ ⓘ on-TAIR-ee-oh; French: ) is the southernmost province of Canada. Located in Central Canada, Ontario is the country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it is home to 38.5 percent of the country's population, and is the second-largest province by total area (after Quebec). Ontario is Canada's fourth-largest jurisdiction in total area of all the Canadian provinces and territories. It is home to the nation's capital, Ottawa, and its most populous city, Toronto, which is Ontario's provincial capital. Ontario is bordered by the province of Manitoba to the west, Hudson Bay and James Bay to the north, and Quebec to the east and northeast. To the south, it is bordered by the U.S. states of (from west to east) Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Almost all of Ontario's 2,700 km (1,700 mi) border with the United States follows rivers and lakes: from the westerly Lake of the Woods, eastward along the major rivers and lakes of the Great Lakes/Saint Lawrence River drainage system. There is only about 1 km (5⁄8 mi) of actual land border, made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border. The great majority of Ontario's population and arable land is in Southern Ontario, and while agriculture remains a significant industry, the region's economy depends highly on manufacturing. In contrast, Northern Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and heavy forestation, with mining and forestry making up the region's major industries. Etymology Ontario is a term thought to be derived from Indigenous origins, either Ontarí:io, a Huron (Wyandot) word meaning "great lake", or possibly skanadario, which means "beautiful water" or "sparkling water" in the Iroquoian languages. Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes. The first mention of the name Ontario was in 1641, when "Ontario" was used to describe the land on the north shore of the easternmost part of the Great Lakes. It was adopted as the official name of the new province at Confederation in 1867. Geography Main article: Geography of Ontario See also: List of census divisions of Ontario, Geography of Canada, and List of parks and protected areas of Ontario Typical landscape of the Canadian Shield at Queen Elizabeth II Wildlands Provincial Park, located in Central Ontario. The thinly populated Canadian Shield, which dominates the northwestern and central portions of the province, comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals, partly covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, and studded with lakes and rivers. Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions: Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario. The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the extreme north and northeast are mainly swampy and sparsely forested. Southern Ontario, which is further sub-divided into four sub-regions: Central Ontario (although not actually the province's geographic centre), Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe and Southwestern Ontario (parts of which were formerly referred to as Western Ontario). Despite the rarity of mountainous terrain in the province, there are large areas of uplands, particularly within the Canadian Shield which traverses the province from northwest to southeast and also above the Niagara Escarpment which crosses the south. The highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres (2,274 ft) above sea level in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m (1,640 ft) are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands and in hilltops near the Madawaska River in Renfrew County. The Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. The temperate and fertile Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence Valley in the south is part of the Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests ecoregion where the forest has now been largely replaced by agriculture, industrial and urban development. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment. The Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario covers approximately 87% of the province's surface area; conversely, Southern Ontario contains 94% of the population. Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario (near Windsor and Detroit, Michigan) that is the southernmost extent of Canada's mainland. Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the northern border of California. Climate See also: Climate of Ontario Köppen climate types of Ontario Ontario's climate varies by season and location. Three air sources affect it: cold, dry, arctic air from the north (dominant factor during the winter months, and for a longer part of the year in far northern Ontario); Pacific polar air crossing in from the western Canadian Prairies/US Northern Plains; and warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean. The effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief. In general, most of Ontario's climate is classified as humid continental. Ontario has three main climatic regions: The surrounding Great Lakes greatly influence the climatic region of southern Ontario. During the fall and winter, the release of heat stored by the lakes moderates the climate near the shores. This gives parts of southern Ontario milder winters than mid-continental areas at lower latitudes. Parts of Southwestern Ontario and the Niagara region (generally south of a line from Sarnia–Toronto) have a moderate humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa), similar to the inland Mid-Atlantic states and the Great Lakes portion of the Midwestern United States. The region has warm to hot, humid summers and cold winters. Annual precipitation ranges from 750–1,000 mm (30–39 in) and is well distributed throughout the year. Most of this region lies in the lee of the Great Lakes, making for abundant snow in some areas. In December 2010, the snowbelt set a new record when it was hit by more than a metre of snow within 48 hours. The next climatic region is Central and Eastern Ontario, which has a moderate humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). This region has warm and sometimes hot summers with colder, longer winters, ample snowfall (even in regions not directly in the snowbelts) and annual precipitation similar to the rest of Southern Ontario. In the northeastern parts of Ontario, extending south as far as Kirkland Lake, the cold waters of Hudson Bay depress summer temperatures, making it cooler than other locations at similar latitudes. The same is true on the northern shore of Lake Superior, which cools hot, humid air from the south, leading to cooler summer temperatures. Along the eastern shores of Lake Superior and Lake Huron winter temperatures are slightly moderated but come with frequent heavy lake-effect snow squalls that increase seasonal snowfall totals to upwards of 3 m (10 ft) in some places. These regions have higher annual precipitation, in some places over 100 cm (39 in). Cold northwesterly wind over the Great Lakes creating lake-effect snow. Lake-effect snow most frequently occurs in the snowbelt regions of the province. The northernmost parts of Ontario – primarily north of 50°N – have a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc) with long, severely cold winters and short, cool to warm summers with dramatic temperature changes possible in all seasons. With no major mountain ranges blocking sinking Arctic air masses, temperatures of −40 °C (−40 °F) are not uncommon; snow remains on the ground for sometimes over half the year. Snow accumulation can be high in some areas. Precipitation is generally less than 70 cm (28 in) and peaks in the summer months in the form of rain or thunderstorms. Severe thunderstorms peak in summer. Windsor, in Southern (Southwestern) Ontario, has the most lightning strikes per year in Canada, averaging 33 days of thunderstorm activity per year. In a typical year, Ontario averages 11 confirmed tornado touchdowns. Ontario had a record 29 tornadoes in both 2006 and 2009. Tropical depression remnants occasionally bring heavy rains and winds in the south, but are rarely deadly. A notable exception was Hurricane Hazel which struck Southern Ontario centred on Toronto, in October 1954. Average daily maximum and minimum temperatures for selected locations in Ontario City July (°C) July (°F) January (°C) January (°F) Windsor (Windsor International Airport) 28/18 82/64 0/−7 31/19 Niagara Falls (NPCSH) 27/17 81/63 0/−8 30/18 Toronto (The Annex) 27/18 80/64 −1/−7 30/20 Midland (Water Pollution Control Plant) 26/16 78/61 −4/–13 25/8 Ottawa (Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport) 27/16 80/60 −6/−14 22/6 Sudbury (Sudbury Airport) 25/13 77/56 −8/−19 18/0 Emo (Emo Radbourne) 25/11 77/52 −9/–22 15/–9 Thunder Bay (Thunder Bay International Airport) 24/11 76/52 −9/−21 18/−5 Kenora (Kenora Airport) 24/15 76/59 −11/−21 12/−5 Moosonee (UA) 23/9 73/48 −14/–26 8/–15 History Main article: History of Ontario Further information: Monarchy in Ontario § History Indigenous habitation (pre–1610) Main article: Settlement of the Americas Paleo-Indians were the first people to settle on the lands of Ontario, about 11,000 years ago, after crossing the Bering land bridge from Asia to North America between 25,000 to 50,000 years ago. During the Archaic period, which lasted from 8000-1000 BC, the population slowly increased, with a generally egalitarian hunter-gatherer society and a warmer climate. Trading routes also began emerging along the St. Lawrence River and around the Great Lakes. Hunting and gathering remained predominant throughout the early Woodland period, and social structures and trade continued to develop. Around 500 AD, corn cultivation began, later expanding to include beans and squash around 1100 AD. Increased agriculture enabled more permanent, fortified, and significantly larger settlements. In southern Ontario during the 1400s, the population of some villages numbered in the thousands, with longhouses that could house over a hundred people. Around this time, large-scale warfare began in southern Ontario, leading to the emergence of Iroquoian groups, including the Neutral Confederacy, Erie and Wendat (Huron). Groups in northern Ontario were primarily Algonquian and included the Ojibwe, who traded with the Iroquois. Many ethnocultural groups emerged and came to exist on the lands of Ontario: the Algonquins, Mississaugas, Ojibway, Cree, Odawa, Pottowatomi, and Iroquois. Pays d'en Haut (1610–1763) Main articles: Exploration of North America, New France, and Pays d'en Haut In the 15th century, the Byzantine Empire fell, prompting Western Europeans to search for new sea routes to the Far East. Around 1522–1523, Giovanni da Verrazzano persuaded King Francis I of France to commission an expedition to find a western route to Cathay (China) via a Northwest Passage. Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established the name "New France" for northeastern North America. After a few expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in the Italian Wars and there were religious wars between Protestants and Catholics. Around 1580 however, the rise of the fur trade (particularly the demand for beaver pelts), reignited French interest. In 1608, Samuel de Champlain established France's first colonial settlement in New France, the Habitation de Québec (now Quebec City), in the colony of Canada (now southern Quebec). Afterwards, French explorers continued to travel west, establishing new villages along the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River. French explorers, the first of which was Étienne Brûlé who explored the Georgian Bay area in 1610–1612, mapped Southern Ontario and called the region the Pays d'en Haut ("Upper Country"), in reference to the region being upstream of the Saint Lawrence River. The colony of the Pays d'en Haut was formally established in 1610 as an administrative dependency of Canada, and was for defence and business rather than a settlement colony. The territory of the Pays-d'en-Haut was quite large and would today include the province of Ontario, as well as, in whole or in part, the American states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. Indigenous peoples were the vast majority of the Pays d'en Haut population.A 1755 map of the Pays d'en Haut region of New France, an area that included most of Ontario As for Northern Ontario, the English explorer Henry Hudson sailed into Hudson Bay in 1611 and claimed its drainage basin for England. The area would become known as Rupert's Land. Samuel de Champlain reached Lake Huron in 1615, and French missionaries, such as the Jésuites and Supliciens, began to establish posts along the Great Lakes. The French allied with most Indigenous groups of Ontario, all for the fur trade and for defence against Iroquois attacks (which would later be called the Iroquois Wars). The French would declare their Indigenous allies to be subjects of the King of France and would often act as mediators between different groups. The Iroquois later allied themselves with the British. From 1634 to 1640, the Huron were devastated by European infectious diseases, such as measles and smallpox, to which they had no immunity. By 1700, the Iroquois had been driven out or left the area that would become Ontario and the Mississaugas of the Ojibwa had settled the north shore of Lake Ontario. The remaining Huron settled north of Quebec. During the French and Indian War, the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War of 1754 to 1763, the British defeated the armies of New France and its Indigenous allies. In the Treaty of Paris 1763 France ceded most of its possessions in North America to Britain. Using the Quebec Act, Britain re-organised the territory into the Province of Quebec. Province of Quebec (1763–1791) Main article: Province of Quebec (1763–1791) A monument in Hamilton commemorating the United Empire Loyalists, a group of settlers who fled the United States during or after the American Revolution In 1782–1784, 5,000 United Empire Loyalists entered what is now Ontario following the American Revolution. The Kingdom of Great Britain granted them 200 acres (81 ha) land and other items with which to rebuild their lives. The British also set up reserves in Ontario for the Mohawks who had fought for the British and had lost their land in New York state. Other Iroquois, also displaced from New York were resettled in 1784 at the Six Nations reserve at the west end of Lake Ontario. The Mississaugas, displaced by European settlements, would later move to Six Nations also. After the American War of Independence, the first reserves for First Nations were established. These are situated at Six Nations (1784), Tyendinaga (1793) and Akwesasne (1795). Six Nations and Tyendinaga were established by the British for those Indigenous groups who had fought on the side of the British, and were expelled from the new United States. Akwesasne was a pre-existing Mohawk community and its borders were formalized under the 1795 Jay Treaty. In 1788, while part of the province of Quebec, southern Ontario was divided into four districts: Hesse, Lunenburg, Mecklenburg, and Nassau. In 1792, the four districts were renamed: Hesse became the Western District, Lunenburg became the Eastern District, Mecklenburg became the Midland District, and Nassau became the Home District. Counties were created within the districts. The population of Canada west of the St. Lawrence-Ottawa River confluence substantially increased during this period, a fact recognized by the Constitutional Act of 1791, which split Quebec into the Canadas: Upper Canada southwest of the St. Lawrence-Ottawa River confluence, and Lower Canada east of it. Upper Canada (1791–1841) Main article: Upper Canada Map of Upper Canada, 1811 John Graves Simcoe was appointed Upper Canada's first Lieutenant governor in 1793. A second wave of Americans, not all of them necessarily loyalists moved to Upper Canada after 1790 until the pre-war of 1812, many seeking available cheap land, and at the time, lower taxation. By 1798, there were eight districts: Eastern, Home, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, and Western. By 1826, there were eleven districts: Bathurst, Eastern, Gore, Home, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, Ottawa, and Western. By 1838, there were twenty districts: Bathurst, Brock, Colbourne, Dalhousie, Eastern, Gore, Home, Huron, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, Ottawa, Prince Edward, Simcoe, Talbot, Victoria, Wellington, and Western. American troops in the War of 1812 invaded Upper Canada across the Niagara River and the Detroit River, but were defeated and pushed back by the British, Canadian fencibles and militias, and First Nations warriors. However, the Americans eventually gained control of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. The 1813 Battle of York saw American troops defeat the garrison at the Upper Canada capital of York. The Americans looted the town and burned the Upper Canada Parliament Buildings during their brief occupation. The British would burn the American capital of Washington, D.C. in 1814. Depiction of the Battle of Queenston Heights, during the War of 1812. Upper Canada was an active theatre of operation during the conflict. After the War of 1812, relative stability allowed for increasing numbers of immigrants to arrive from Europe rather than from the United States. As was the case in the previous decades, this immigration shift was encouraged by the colonial leaders. Despite affordable and often free land, many arriving newcomers, mostly from Britain and Ireland, found frontier life with the harsh climate difficult, and some of those with the means eventually returned home or went south. However, population growth far exceeded emigration in the following decades. It was a mostly agrarian-based society, but canal projects and a new network of plank roads spurred greater trade within the colony and with the United States, thereby improving previously damaged relations over time. Meanwhile, Ontario's numerous waterways aided travel and transportation into the interior and supplied water power for development. As the population increased, so did the industries and transportation networks, which in turn led to further development. By the end of the century, Ontario vied with Quebec as the nation's leader in terms of growth in population, industry, arts and communications. Unrest in the colony began to chafe against the aristocratic Family Compact who governed while benefiting economically from the region's resources, and who did not allow elected bodies power. This resentment spurred republican ideals and sowed the seeds for early Canadian nationalism. Accordingly, rebellion in favour of responsible government rose in both regions; Louis-Joseph Papineau led the Lower Canada Rebellion and William Lyon Mackenzie, first Toronto mayor, led the Upper Canada Rebellion. In Upper Canada, the rebellion was quickly a failure. William Lyon Mackenzie escaped to the United States, where he declared the Republic of Canada on Navy Island on the Niagara River. Canada West (1841–1867) Main article: Canada West Although both rebellions were put down in short order, the British government sent Lord Durham to investigate the causes. He recommended responsible government be granted, and Lower and Upper Canada be re-joined in an attempt to assimilate the French Canadians. Accordingly, the two colonies were merged into the Province of Canada by the Act of Union 1840, with the capital initially at Kingston, and Upper Canada becoming known as Canada West. Responsible government was achieved in 1848. There were heavy waves of immigration in the 1840s, and the population of Canada West more than doubled by 1851 over the previous decade. As a result, for the first time, the English-speaking population of Canada West surpassed the French-speaking population of Canada East, tilting the representative balance of power. Map of Canada West from 1855. Canada West formed the western portion of the Province of Canada. In 1849, the districts of southern Ontario were abolished by the Province of Canada, and county governments took over certain municipal responsibilities. The Province of Canada also began creating districts in sparsely populated Northern Ontario with the establishment of Algoma District and Nipissing District in 1858. An economic boom in the 1850s coincided with railway expansion across the province, further increasing the economic strength of Central Canada. With the repeal of the Corn Laws and a reciprocity agreement in place with the United States, various industries such as timber, mining, farming and alcohol distilling benefited tremendously. A political stalemate developed in the 1850s, between finely balanced political groups: conservative and reform groups from Canada West and Canada East aligned against reform and liberal groups from Canada East each group having some support from French-Canadian and English-Canadian legislators. There was als a fear of aggression from the United States during and immediately after the American Civil War. These factors led to the formation of the Great Coalition in the elected Legislative Assembly, which initiated a series of conferences in the 1860s to effect a broader federal union of all British North American colonies. The British North America Act took effect on July 1, 1867, establishing the Dominion of Canada, initially with the four provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario. The Province of Canada was divided into Ontario and Quebec so that each linguistic group would have its own province. Both Quebec and Ontario were required by section 93 of the British North America Act to safeguard existing educational rights and privileges of the Protestant and Catholic minorities. Thus, separate Catholic schools and school boards were permitted in Ontario. However, neither province had a constitutional requirement to protect its French- or English-speaking minority. Toronto was formally established as Ontario's provincial capital. Canadian province (1867–present) An animated map of the changes to the borders of Canada. The borders of Ontario were last changed in 1912. The borders of Ontario, its new name in 1867, were provisionally expanded north and west. When the Province of Canada was formed, its borders were not entirely clear, and Ontario claimed eventually to reach all the way to the Rocky Mountains and Arctic Ocean. With Canada's acquisition of Rupert's Land, Ontario was interested in clearly defining its borders, especially since some of the new areas in which it was interested were rapidly growing. After the federal government asked Ontario to pay for construction in the new disputed area, the province asked for an elaboration on its limits, and its boundary was moved north to the 51st parallel north. Oliver Mowat, Premier of Ontario from 1872 to 1896 Once constituted as a province, Ontario proceeded to assert its economic and legislative power. In 1872, the lawyer Oliver Mowat became Premier of Ontario and remained as premier until 1896. He fought for provincial rights, weakening the power of the federal government in provincial matters, usually through well-argued appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. His battles with the federal government greatly decentralized Canada, giving the provinces far more power than John A. Macdonald had intended. He consolidated and expanded Ontario's educational and provincial institutions, created districts in Northern Ontario, and fought to ensure that those parts of Northwestern Ontario not historically part of Upper Canada (the vast areas north and west of the Lake Superior-Hudson Bay watershed, known as the District of Keewatin) would become part of Ontario, a victory embodied in the Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act, 1889. He also presided over the emergence of the province into the economic powerhouse of Canada. Mowat was the creator of what is often called Empire Ontario. Beginning with Macdonald's National Policy (1879) and the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway (1875–1885) through Northern Ontario and the Canadian Prairies to British Columbia, Ontario manufacturing and industry flourished. However, population increases slowed after a large recession hit the province in 1893, thus slowing growth drastically but for only a few years. Many newly arrived immigrants and others moved west along the railway to the Prairie Provinces and British Columbia, sparsely settling Northern Ontario. The northern and western boundaries of Ontario were in dispute after Canadian Confederation. Ontario's right to Northwestern Ontario was determined by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1884 and confirmed by the Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act, 1889 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. By 1899, there were seven northern districts: Algoma, Manitoulin, Muskoka, Nipissing, Parry Sound, Rainy River, and Thunder Bay. Four more northern districts were created between 1907 and 1912: Cochrane, Kenora, Sudbury and Timiskaming. Mineral exploitation accelerated in the late 19th century, leading to the rise of important mining centres in the northeast, such as Sudbury, Cobalt and Timmins. The province harnessed its water power to generate hydro-electric power and created the state-controlled Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario, later Ontario Hydro. The availability of cheap electric power further facilitated the development of industry. The Ford Motor Company of Canada was established in 1904 and the McLaughlin Motor Car Company (later General Motors Canada) was founded in 1907. The motor vehicle industry became the most lucrative industry for the Ontario economy during the 20th century. In July 1912, the Conservative government of James Whitney issued Regulation 17 which severely limited the availability of French-language schooling to the province's French-speaking minority. French Canadians reacted with outrage, journalist Henri Bourassa denouncing the "Prussians of Ontario". The regulation was eventually repealed in 1927. Law enforcement confiscate stores of alcohol in Elk Lake in an effort to enforce prohibition. The prohibition measures were introduced in 1916 and were not repealed until 1927. Influenced by events in the United States, the government of William Hearst introduced prohibition of alcoholic drinks in 1916 with the passing of the Ontario Temperance Act. However, residents could distil and retain their own personal supply, and liquor producers could continue distillation and export for sale, allowing this already sizeable industry to strengthen further. Ontario became a hotbed for the illegal smuggling of liquor and the biggest supplier into the United States, which was under complete prohibition. Prohibition in Ontario came to an end in 1927 with the establishment of the Liquor Control Board of Ontario under the government of Howard Ferguson. The sale and consumption of liquor, wine, and beer are still controlled by some of the most extreme laws in North America to ensure strict community standards and revenue generation from the alcohol retail monopoly are upheld. The post-World War II period was one of exceptional prosperity and growth. Ontario has been the recipients of most immigration to Canada, largely immigrants from war-torn Europe in the 1950s and 1960s and following changes in federal immigration law, a massive influx of non-Europeans since the 1970s. From a largely ethnically British province, Ontario has rapidly become culturally very diverse. The nationalist movement in Quebec, particularly after the election of the Parti Québécois in 1976, contributed to driving many businesses and English-speaking people out of Quebec to Ontario, and as a result, Toronto surpassed Montreal as the largest city and economic centre of Canada. Depressed economic conditions in the Maritime Provinces have also resulted in de-population of those provinces in the 20th century, with heavy migration into Ontario. Ontario's official language is English, although there exists a number of French-speaking communities across Ontario. French-language services are made available for communities with a sizeable French-speaking population; a service that is ensured under the French Language Services Act of 1989. Demographics Main article: Demographics of Ontario See also: List of population centres in Ontario Population density of Ontario Historical populationsYearPop.±%1851952,004—    18611,396,091+46.6%18711,620,851+16.1%18811,926,922+18.9%18912,114,321+9.7%19012,182,947+3.2%19112,527,292+15.8%19212,933,662+16.1%19313,431,683+17.0%19413,787,655+10.4%19514,597,542+21.4%19565,404,933+17.6%19616,236,092+15.4%19666,960,870+11.6%19717,703,105+10.7%19768,264,465+7.3%19818,625,107+4.4%19869,101,695+5.5%199110,084,885+10.8%199610,753,573+6.6%200111,410,046+6.1%200612,160,282+6.6%201112,851,821+5.7%201613,448,494+4.6%202114,223,942+5.8%Source: Statistics Canada Population In the 2021 census, Ontario had a population of 14,223,942 living in 5,491,201 of its 5,929,250 total dwellings, a 5.8 percent change from its 2016 population of 13,448,494. With a land area of 892,411.76 km2 (344,562.11 sq mi), it had a population density of 15.9/km2 (41.3/sq mi) in 2021. The largest population centres in Ontario are Toronto, Ottawa, Hamilton, Kitchener, London and Oshawa, which all have more than 300,000 inhabitants. Ethnicity Main article: Demographics of Ontario § Ethnic origins This section does not cite any sources. Please help improve this section by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) The percentages given below add to more than 100 per cent because of dual responses (e.g., "French and Canadian" response generates an entry both in the category "French Canadian" and in the category "Canadian"). The majority of Ontarians are of English or other European descent including large Scottish, Irish and Italian communities. Slightly less than 5 per cent of the population of Ontario is Franco-Ontarian, that is those whose native tongue is French, although those with French ancestry account for 11 per cent of the population. Compared to natural increase or interprovincial migration, immigration is a huge population growth force in Ontario, as it has been over the last two centuries. More recent sources of immigrants with large or growing communities in Ontario include East Asians, South Asians, Caribbeans, Latin Americans, Europeans, and Africans. Most populations have settled in the larger urban centres. Visible minorities and Indigenous peoples This article is in list format but may read better as prose. You can help by converting this article, if appropriate. Editing help is available. (July 2023) Main article: Demographics of Ontario § Visible minorities and Aboriginals In 2021, 34.3% of the population consisted of visible minorities and 2.9% of the population was Indigenous, mostly of First Nations and Métis descent. There was also a small number of Inuit in the province. The number of Indigenous people and visible minorities has been increasing at a faster rate than the general population of Ontario. Visible minority and Indigenous population (Canada 2021 Census) Population group Population % European 8,807,805 62.8% Visible minority group South Asian 1,515,295 10.8% Chinese 820,245 5.8% Black 768,740 5.5% Filipino 363,650 2.6% Arab 284,215 2.0% Latin American 249,190 1.8% Southeast Asian 167,845 1.2% West Asian 212,185 1.5% Korean 99,425 0.7% Japanese 31,420 0.2% Visible minority, n.i.e. 124,120 0.9% Multiple visible minorities 181,025 1.3% Total visible minority population 4,817,360 34.3% Indigenous group First Nations (North American Indian) 251,030 1.8% Métis 134,615 1.0% Inuk (Inuit) 4,310 0.0% Multiple Indigenous responses 7,115 0.1% Indigenous responses n.i.e. 9,515 0.1% Total Indigenous population 406,585 2.9% 'Total population' '14,031,750' '100.0%' Religion Main article: Demographics of Ontario § Religion In 2021, 52.1% of the population was Christian, with the largest religious denominations being the Roman Catholic Church (with 26.0% of the population) and the United Church of Canada with (4.1%). Other religions included Islam (6.7%), Hinduism (4.1%). 31.6% of Ontarians had no religious affiliation. The major religious groups in Ontario in 2021 were: Religion People % Total 14,031,750 100   No religious affiliation 4,433,675 31.6 Catholic 3,654,825 26.0 Protestant 1,893,860 13.5 Other Christians 1,437,275 10.2 Muslim 942,990 6.7 Hindu 573,700 4.1 Christian Orthodox 329,850 2.4 Sikh 300,435 2.1 Jewish 196,100 1.4 Buddhist 164,215 1.2 Other religions 104,830 0.7 In Ontario, Catholics are represented by the Assembly of Catholic Bishops of Ontario and the Anglican Protestants by the Ecclesiastical Province of Ontario. Language Main article: Demographics of Ontario § Language See also: Franco-Ontarian Map of French language ability according to the 2021 census. English and French displayed on a gantry sign. Communities with sizeable francophone populations are able to receive provincial services in French. As of the 2021 Canadian Census, the ten most spoken languages in the province included English (13,650,230 or 97.28%), French (1,550,545 or 11.05%), Mandarin (467,420 or 3.33%), Hindi (436,125 or 3.11%), Spanish (401,205 or 2.86%), Punjabi (397,865 or 2.84%), Cantonese (352,135 or 2.51%), Arabic (342,860 or 2.44%), Italian (312,800 or 2.23%), and Urdu (295,175 or 2.1%). The principal language of Ontario is English, the province's de facto official language, with approximately 97.2 per cent of Ontarians having proficiency in the language, although only 69.5 per cent of Ontarians reported English as their mother tongue in the 2016 Census. English is one of two official languages of Canada, with the other being French. English and French are the official languages of the courts in Ontario. Approximately 4.6 per cent of the population identified as francophone, and a total of 11.5 per cent of Ontarians reported having proficiency in French. Approximately 11.2 per cent of Ontarians reported being bilingual in both English and French. Approximately 2.5 per cent of Ontarians have no proficiency in either English or French. Franco-Ontarians are concentrated in the northeastern, eastern, and extreme southern parts of the province, where under the French Language Services Act, provincial government services are required to be available in French if at least 10 per cent of a designated area's population report French as their native language or if an urban centre has at least 5,000 francophones. Other languages spoken by residents include Arabic, Bengali, Cantonese, Dutch, German, Greek, Gujarati, Hindi, Hebrew, Italian, Korean, Malayalam, Mandarin, Marathi, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Punjabi, Russian, Sinhalese, Somali, Spanish, Tagalog, Telugu, Tamil, Tibetan, Ukrainian, Urdu, and Vietnamese. Economy Main article: Economy of Ontario Ontario is Canada's leading manufacturing province, accounting for 52% of the total national manufacturing shipments in 2004. Ontario's largest trading partner is the American state of Michigan. As of April 2012, Moody's bond-rating agency rated Ontario debt at AA2/stable, while S&P rated it AA−. Dominion Bond Rating Service rated it AA(low) in January 2013. Long known as a bastion of Canadian manufacturing and financial solvency, Ontario's public debt-to-GDP ratio is projected to be 38.4% in fiscal year 2023–2024. Container ship at Algoma Steel. The Great Lakes provide ocean access for industries in the province's interior. Mining and the forest products industry, notably pulp and paper, are vital to the economy of Northern Ontario. As of 2011, roughly 200,000 ha are clearcut each year; herbicides for hardwood suppression are applied to a third of the total. There has been controversy over the Ring of Fire mineral deposit, and whether the province can afford to spend CAD$2.25 billion on a road from the Trans-Canada Highway near Kenora to the deposit, currently valued at CAD$60 billion. An abundance of natural resources, excellent transportation links to the North American heartland and the inland Great Lakes making ocean access possible via container ships, have all contributed to making manufacturing the principal industry of the province, found mainly in the Golden Horseshoe region, which is the largest industrialized area in Canada, the southern end of the region being part of the North American Rust Belt. Important products include motor vehicles, iron, steel, food, electrical appliances, machinery, chemicals, and paper. Hamilton is the largest steel manufacturing city in Canada followed closely by Sault Ste. Marie, and Sarnia is the centre for petrochemical production. Construction employed more than 6.5% of the province's work force in June 2011. Ontario's steel industry was once centred in Hamilton. Hamilton harbour, which can be seen from the QEW Skyway bridge, is an industrial wasteland; U.S. Steel-owned Stelco announced in the autumn of 2013 that it would close in 2014, with the loss of 875 jobs. The move flummoxed a union representative, who seemed puzzled why a plant with capacity of 2 million tonnes per annum would be shut while Canada imported 8 million tonnes of steel the previous year. Algoma Steel maintains a plant in Sault Ste Marie. A worker at the Oakville Assembly installs a battery in an automobile. The automotive industry is a contributor to the economy of Ontario. Ontario surpassed Michigan in car production, assembling more than 2,696,000 vehicles in 2004. Ontario has Chrysler plants in Windsor and Bramalea, two GM plants in Oshawa and one in Ingersoll, a Honda assembly plant in Alliston, Ford plants in Oakville and St. Thomas and Toyota assembly plants in Cambridge and Woodstock. However, as a result of steeply declining sales, in 2005, General Motors announced massive layoffs at production facilities across North America, including two large GM plants in Oshawa and a drive train facility in St. Catharines, that resulted in 8,000 job losses in Ontario alone. In 2006, Ford Motor Company announced between 25,000 and 30,000 layoffs phased until 2012; Ontario was spared the worst, but job losses were announced for the St Thomas facility and the Windsor Casting plant. However, these losses will be offset by Ford's recent announcement of a hybrid vehicle facility slated to begin production in 2007 at its Oakville plant and GM's re-introduction of the Camaro which will be produced in Oshawa. On December 4, 2008, Toyota announced the grand opening of the RAV4 plant in Woodstock, and Honda also plans to add an engine plant at its facility in Alliston. Despite these new plants coming online, Ontario has not yet fully recovered following massive layoffs caused by the global recession; its unemployment rate was 7.3% in May 2013, compared to 8.7 percent in January 2010 and approximately 6% in 2007. In September 2013, the Ontario government committed CAD$70.9 million to the Ford plant in Oakville, while the federal government committed CAD$71.1mn, to secure 2,800 jobs. The province has lost 300,000 manufacturing jobs in the decade from 2003, and the Bank of Canada noted that "while the energy and mining industries have benefitted from these movements, the pressure on the manufacturing sector has intensified, since many firms in this sector were already dealing with growing competition from low-cost economies such as China." Toronto's Financial District serves as the centre for Canada's financial services. Toronto, the capital of Ontario, is the centre of Canada's financial services and banking industry. Neighbouring cities are home to product distribution, IT centres, and manufacturing industries. Canada's Federal Government is the largest single employer in the National Capital Region, which centres on the border cities of Ontario's Ottawa and Quebec's Gatineau. The information technology sector is important, particularly in the Silicon Valley North section of Ottawa, home to Canada's largest technology park. IT is also important in the Waterloo Region, where the headquarters of BlackBerry is located. Tourism contributes heavily to the economy of Central Ontario, peaking during the summer months owing to the abundance of fresh water recreation and wilderness found there in reasonable proximity to the major urban centres. At other times of the year, hunting, skiing and snowmobiling are popular. This region has some of the most vibrant fall colour displays anywhere on the continent, and tours directed at overseas visitors are organized to see them. Tourism also plays a key role in border cities with large casinos, among them Windsor, Cornwall, Sarnia and Niagara Falls, the latter of which attracts millions of US and other international visitors. Agriculture Aerial view of farms in Waterloo. A significant portion of the land in Southern Ontario is used as farmland. Once the dominant industry, agriculture now uses a small percentage of the workforce. Massey Ferguson, a farm-implement manufacturer, was originally founded in the province in 1847, before eventually expanding internationally. As the following table shows, while the number of individual farms has steadily decreased and their overall size has shrunk at a lower rate, greater mechanization has supported increased supply to satisfy the ever-increasing demands of a growing population base; this has also meant a gradual increase in the total amount of land used for growing crops. Ontario Farming 1986 1991 1996 2001 2006   Number of Farms     72,713   68,633   67,520   59,728   57,211     Total   Hectares       5,646,582     5,451,379     5,616,860     5,466,233     5,386,453     Acres       13,953,009     13,470,652     13,879,565     13,507,358     13,310,217     Planted     Crops     Hectares     3,457,966     3,411,667     3,544,927     3,656,705     3,660,941     Acres       8,544,821     8,430,438     8,759,707     9,035,916     9,046,383   Source: Statistics Canada, Census of Agriculture.  vte Vineyard, Prince Edward County Common types of farms reported in the 2001 census include those for cattle, small grains and dairy. The fruit- and wine industry is primarily on the Niagara Peninsula, Prince Edward County, and along the northern shore of Lake Erie, where tobacco farms are also situated. Market vegetables grow in the rich soils of the Holland Marsh near Newmarket. The area near Windsor is also very fertile. The area defined as the Corn Belt covers much of the southwestern area of the province, extending as far north as close to Goderich, but corn and soy are grown throughout the southern portion of the province. Apple orchards are a common sight along the southern shore of Nottawasaga Bay (part of Georgian Bay) near Collingwood and along the northern shore of Lake Ontario near Cobourg. Tobacco production, centred in Norfolk County, has decreased, allowing an increase in alternative crops such as hazelnuts and ginseng. Southern Ontario's limited supply of agricultural land is going out of production at an increasing rate. Urban sprawl and farmland severances contribute to the loss of thousands of acres of productive agricultural land in Ontario each year. Over 2,000 farms and 150,000 acres (61,000 ha) of farmland in the GTA alone were lost to production in the two decades between 1976 and 1996. This loss represented approximately 18%". of Ontario's Class 1 farmland being converted to urban purposes. In addition, increasing rural severances provide ever-greater interference with agricultural production. In an effort to protect the farmland and green spaces of the National Capital Region, and Greater Toronto Area, the Federal and Provincial Governments introduced greenbelts around Ottawa and the Golden Horseshoe, limiting urban development in these areas. Energy See also: Energy policy of Canada, Renewable energy in Canada, and Smart grid Ontario's rivers make it rich in hydroelectric energy. In 2009, Ontario Power Generation generated 70 percent of the province's electricity, of which 51 percent is nuclear, 39% is hydroelectric and 10% is fossil-fuel derived. By 2025, nuclear power is projected to supply 42%, while fossil-fuel-derived generation is projected to decrease slightly over the next 20 years. Much of the newer power generation coming online in the last few years is natural gas or combined-cycle natural gas plants. OPG is not, however, responsible for the transmission of power, which is under the control of Hydro One. The Pickering Nuclear Generating Station is one of three nuclear power stations in Ontario. Despite its diverse range of power options, problems related to increasing consumption, lack of energy efficiency and ageing nuclear reactors, Ontario has been forced in recent years to purchase power from its neighbours Quebec and Michigan to supplement its power needs during peak consumption periods. Ontario's basic domestic rate in 2010 was 11.17 cents per kWh; by contrast. Quebec's was 6.81. In December 2013, the government projected a 42 percent hike by 2018, and 68 percent by 2033. Industrial rates are projected to rise by 33% by 2018, and 55% in 2033. The Green Energy and Green Economy Act, 2009 (GEA), takes a two-pronged approach to commercializing renewable energy; first, it aims to bring more renewable energy sources to the province; and secondly, it aims to adopt more energy-efficiency measures to help conserve energy. The bill envisaged appointing a Renewable Energy Facilitator to provide "one-window" assistance and support to project developers to facilitate project approvals. The approvals process for transmission projects would also be streamlined and (for the first time in Ontario) the bill would enact standards for renewable energy projects. Homeowners would have access to incentives to develop small-scale renewables such as low- or no-interest loans to finance the capital cost of renewable energy generating facilities like solar panels. The Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Generating Stations are hydroelectric plants located in Niagara Falls. Ontario is home to Niagara Falls, which supplies a large amount of electricity to the province. The Bruce Nuclear Generating Station, the second largest operational nuclear power plant in the world, is also in Ontario and uses 8 CANDU reactors to generate electricity for the province. Ontario had the most wind energy capacity of the country with 4,900 MW of power (41% of Canada's capacity). Government, law and politics Further information: Monarchy in Ontario, Executive Council of Ontario, and Local government in Ontario The British North America Act 1867 section 69 stipulated "There shall be a Legislature for Ontario consisting of the Lieutenant Governor and of One House, styled the Legislative Assembly of Ontario." The assembly currently has 124 seats (increased from 107 as of the 42nd Ontario general election) representing ridings elected in a first-past-the-post system across the province. The legislative buildings at Queen's Park are the seat of government. Following the Westminster system, the leader of the party holding the most seats in the assembly is known as the "Premier and President of the Council" (Executive Council Act R.S.O. 1990). The Premier chooses the cabinet or Executive Council whose members are deemed ministers of the Crown. Although the Legislative Assembly Act (R.S.O. 1990) refers to "members of the assembly", the legislators are now commonly called MPPs (Members of the Provincial Parliament) in English and députés de l'Assemblée législative in French, but they have also been called MLAs (Members of the Legislative Assembly); both are acceptable but the latter is uncommon. The title of Prime Minister of Ontario, correct in French (le Premier ministre), is permissible in English but now generally avoided in favour of the title "Premier" to avoid confusion with the Prime Minister of Canada. Law Osgoode Hall houses the Court of Appeal for Ontario, the appellate court for the province. Further information: Courts of Ontario Ontario has grown, from its roots in Upper Canada, into a modern jurisdiction. The old titles of the chief law officers, the Attorney-General and the Solicitor-General, remain in use. They both are responsible to the Legislature. The Attorney-General draughts the laws and is responsible for criminal prosecutions and the administration of justice, while the Solicitor-General is responsible for law enforcement and the police services of the province. The Municipal Act is the main statute governing the creation, administration and government of municipalities in the Canadian province of Ontario, other than the City of Toronto. After being passed in 2001, it came into force on January 1, 2003, replacing the previous Municipal Act. Effective January 1, 2007, the Municipal Act (the Act) was significantly amended by the Municipal Statute Law Amendment Act, 2006 (Bill 130). Politics Main article: Politics of Ontario The Ontario Legislative Building at Queen's Park. The building serves as the meeting place for the Legislative Assembly of Ontario. Ontario has numerous political parties which run for election. The four main parties are the centre-right Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario, the social democratic Ontario New Democratic Party (NDP), the centre to centre-left Ontario Liberal Party, and Green Party of Ontario. The Progressive Conservatives, Liberals and New Democrats have each governed the province, while the Greens elected their first member to the Legislative Assembly in 2018. The 2018 provincial election resulted in a Progressive Conservative majority government under party leader Doug Ford, who was sworn in as Premier on June 29. Ontario NDP leader Andrea Horwath was sworn in as the leader of her Majesty's Loyal Opposition. Administrative divisions Map of the counties, regional municipalities, districts, and municipalities of Ontario. Ontario has three types of first-level administrative divisions. They include single-tier municipalities, upper-tier municipalities (which may be in the form of either regional municipalities or counties), and districts. Upper-tier municipalities and districts are made up of smaller municipalities and other types of administrative divisions. Administrative divisions differ primarily in the services that they provide to their residents, with the differing structures of these administrative regions resulting in disparities among Ontario's different regions. The administrative regions of Ontario are roughly coterminous with the census divisions used by Statistics Canada, although some exceptions do exist. Urban areas See also: Golden Horseshoe, National Capital Region (Canada), and Detroit–Windsor Statistics Canada's measure of a "metro area", the Census Metropolitan Area (CMA), roughly bundles together population figures from the core municipality with those from "commuter" municipalities. CMA (largest other included municipalities in brackets) 2001 2006 2011 2016 % Change Toronto CMA (Mississauga, Brampton) 4,682,897  5,113,149  5,583,064  5,928,040  6.2 Ottawa CMA (Gatineau, Clarence-Rockland) * 1,067,800  1,130,761  1,254,919 1,323,783 4.4 Hamilton CMA (Burlington, Grimsby) 662,401  692,911  721,053  747,545 3.7 Kitchener CMA (Cambridge, Waterloo) 414,284  451,235  496,383 523,894 5.5 London CMA (St. Thomas, Strathroy-Caradoc) 435,600  457,720  474,786  494,069 4.1 St. Catharines CMA (Niagara Falls, Welland) 377,009  390,317  392,184  406,074 3.5 Oshawa CMA (Whitby, Clarington) 296,298  330,594  356,177  379,848 6.6 Windsor CMA (Lakeshore, LaSalle) 307,877  323,342  319,246  329,144 3.1 Barrie CMA (Innisfil, Springwater) 148,480  177,061  187,013  197,059 5.4 Sudbury CMA (Whitefish Lake, Wanapitei Reserve) 155,601  158,258  160,770  164,689 1.0 Kingston CMA 146,838  152,358  159,561  161,175 1.0 *Parts of Quebec (including Gatineau) are included in the Ottawa CMA. The population of the Ottawa CMA, in both provinces, is shown. The Ontario portion of the CMA is about 75% of the total population of the CMA. Ten largest municipalities by population Municipality 2001 2006 2011 2016 2021 Toronto 2,481,494 2,503,281 2,615,060 2,731,571 2,794,356 Ottawa 774,072 812,129 883,391 934,243 1,017,449 Mississauga 612,925 668,549 713,443 721,599 717,961 Brampton 325,428 433,806 523,911 593,638 656,480 Hamilton 490,268 504,559 519,949 536,917 569,353 London 336,539 352,395 366,151 383,822 422,324 Markham 208,615 261,573 301,709 328,996 338,503 Vaughan 182,022 238,866 288,301 306,233 323,103 Kitchener 190,399 204,668 219,153 233,222 256,885 Windsor 209,218 216,473 210,891 217,188 229,660 Education Main article: Education in Ontario Ontario operates four publicly funded school systems, with there being both English and French equivalents of the public school system and the Catholic school system. About half of Ontario's government-funded District School Boards are Catholic (37 out of 72). There are some publicly funded schools with non-Catholic religious affiliation: these include Eden High School (under the District School Board of Niagara) and the Burkevale Protestant Separate School (under the Penetanguishene Protestant Separate School Board). Legislation regarding primary and secondary level education in Ontario is outlined in the Education Act. As of 2021, two million children were enrolled as students within the province. Elementary schools teach children enrolled in kindergarden and grades 1–8, while secondary schools teach adolescents in grades 9–12. Four and five year olds may enter kindergarten programs but are not required by law to do so until they turn six that calender year. Higher education Main article: Higher education in Ontario See also: List of colleges in Ontario and List of universities in Ontario Higher education in Ontario includes postsecondary education and skills training regulated by the Ministry of Colleges and Universities, whose current minister is Jill Dunlop. Recognized institutions include universities, colleges of applied arts and technology, and private career colleges. While there is some overlap between the purpose of universities and colleges in Canada, they generally serve different purposes. Universities place greater emphasis on academics while colleges place greater emphasis on work-integrated learning. Both colleges and universities can offer undergraduate degree programs. There are also programs that involve a partnership between a college and a university. Some students choose to attend college over university because it is the more affordable option. Culture See also: Category:Works about Ontario, Hollywood North, Southern Ontario Gothic, Northern Ontario § Culture, and Franco-Ontarians § Culture Outdoor recreation is popular in Ontario and the region is home to numerous cultural events and festivals. There is no single regional dish in Ontario. Local fish and wild game, such as walleye and moose, are sometimes consumed. Poutine, a dish that originated in Quebec, is also popular in Ontario. In 2019, the government of Ontario passed legislation that established the Poet Laureate of Ontario. Museums Main article: List of museums in Ontario Royal Ontario Museum in fall of 2021 The largest museum in both Ontario and Canada is the Royal Ontario Museum, located in Toronto and founded in 1912. Receiving over one million visitors each year, it is also Canada's most popular museum. It features 40 exhibits containing "art, culture and nature from around the world." Iconic objects include: the world's largest faceted cerussite gem, Light of the Desert; four large totem poles, Nisga'a and Haida; and a Neo-Babylonian wall relief, Striding Lion. Ontario is also home to a number of national museums, due to the location of Ottawa. These include, among others, the Canadian War Museum, dedicated to Canada's military history, the Canadian Museum of Nature, dedicated to natural history and the Canada Science and Technology Museum, dedicated to the history of science and technology in Canada. There are also numerous other smaller, regional museums located in Ontario. Music and arts See also: Music of Ontario and Canadian art The Tragically Hip star on Canada's Walk of Fame in Toronto Ontario has a particularly prominent role in Canadian music. The provincial capital city of Toronto, Canada's largest municipality, In classical music, the Toronto Symphony Orchestra, and the National Arts Centre Orchestra are renowned internationally. Many smaller Ontario cities have orchestras of their own as well. The Canadian Opera Company, also based in Toronto, is the country's largest and most influential producer of opera productions. Other institutions in the province include the Royal Conservatory of Music, MuchMusic, National Ballet of Canada and concert venues such as Roy Thomson Hall, Massey Hall, the National Arts Centre, and the Four Seasons Centre. Media As of 2022, Ontario has 357 newspapers, 32 of which are daily, the highest in any province. Ontario is home to the largest newspaper in Canada, the Toronto Star, and Canada's newspaper of record, The Globe and Mail. There are also numerous weekly newspapers for individual communities, though print publications for these papers have been on a downwards trend due to local news being shared on sites like Facebook. Songs and slogans An Ontario licence plate with the slogan Yours to Discover at the bottom of the plate In 1973, the first slogan to appear on licence plates in Ontario was "Keep It Beautiful". This was replaced by "Yours to Discover" in 1982, which was originally used as a tourism slogan beginning in 1980. Plates with the French equivalent, Tant à découvrir, were made available to the public beginning in May 2008. (From 1988 to 1990, "Ontario Incredible" gave "Yours to Discover" a brief respite.) In 2020, as part of a licence plate redesign, the slogan was changed to "A Place to Grow," inspired by the song A Place to Stand, a Place to Grow. This decision was reversed in the same year, due to visibility concerns. The slogan on licence plates remains "Yours to Discover". A Place to Stand, a Place to Grow is a song commissioned by the government of Ontario for its pavilion in Expo 67, and an unofficial anthem of the province. As a part of the Canada 150 celebrations in 2017, the provincial government released an updated rendition. In 2007, the provincial tourism agency commissioned a new song, "There's No Place Like This" is featured in television advertising, performed by Ontario artists including Molly Johnson, Brian Byrne, Keshia Chanté, as well as Tomi Swick and Arkells. Professional sports Main article: List of professional sports teams in Ontario The province has professional sports teams in baseball, basketball, Canadian football, ice hockey, lacrosse, rugby league, rugby union and soccer. Club Sport League City Stadium Atlético Ottawa Soccer CPL Ottawa TD Place Stadium Belleville Senators Ice hockey AHL Belleville CAA Arena Forge FC Soccer CPL Hamilton Tim Hortons Field Guelph Nighthawks Basketball CEBL Guelph Sleeman Centre Hamilton Honey Badgers Basketball CEBL Hamilton FirstOntario Centre Hamilton Tiger-Cats Football CFL Hamilton Tim Hortons Field KW Titans Basketball NBLC Kitchener Kitchener Memorial Auditorium London Lightning Basketball NBLC London Budweiser Gardens Niagara River Lions Basketball CEBL St. Catharines Meridian Centre Ottawa Blackjacks Basketball CEBL Ottawa TD Place Arena Ottawa Redblacks Football CFL Ottawa TD Place Stadium Ottawa Senators Ice hockey NHL Ottawa Canadian Tire Centre Ottawa Titans Baseball FL Ottawa Raymond Chabot Grant Thornton Park PWHL Ottawa Ice Hockey PWHL Ottawa TD Place Arena PWHL Toronto Ice Hockey PWHL Toronto Mattamy Athletic Centre Raptors 905 Basketball G League Mississauga Paramount Fine Foods Centre Sudbury Five Basketball NBLC Greater Sudbury Sudbury Community Arena Toronto Argonauts Football CFL Toronto BMO Field Toronto Arrows Rugby union MLR Toronto York Lions Stadium Toronto Blue Jays Baseball MLB Toronto Rogers Centre Toronto FC Soccer MLS Toronto BMO Field Toronto FC II Soccer USL Toronto Lamport Stadium Toronto Maple Leafs Ice hockey NHL Toronto Scotiabank Arena Toronto Marlies Ice hockey AHL Toronto Coca-Cola Coliseum Toronto Raptors Basketball NBA Toronto Scotiabank Arena Toronto Rock Lacrosse NLL Hamilton FirstOntario Centre Toronto Wolfpack Rugby league NARL Toronto Lamport Stadium Windsor Express Basketball NBLC Windsor WFCU Centre York United FC Soccer CPL Toronto York Lions Stadium Notable residents Main article: List of people from Ontario Transportation Transportation in Ontario is under the purview of the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario and Transport Canada. Infrastructure and laws relating to road transport is the responsibility of the Ministry of Transportation, while infrastructure and laws relating to air, rail and marine transport is the responsibility of Transport Canada. Air travel Airport apron of Pearson Airport, Canada's busiest airport. Control tower visible in background. As of October 2023, there are two Transport Canada designated international airports in Ontario They are Toronto Pearson International Airport, the busiest airport in Canada, handling almost 35 million passengers in 2022 and Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport, Ontario's second largest airport, handling over 2.5 million passengers in 2022. In addition to airports in Ottawa, and Toronto, the province also operates 11 other airports of entry. A number of Ontario cities also have regional airports, many of which have scheduled commuter flights from Jazz Aviation or smaller airlines and charter companies – flights from mid-size cities such as Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie, to larger airports in Toronto and Ottawa. Bearskin Airlines also runs flights along the northerly east–west route, connecting North Bay, Sudbury, Sault Ste. Marie, and Thunder Bay directly. Remote and isolated towns and settlements in the northern areas of the province rely partly or entirely on air service for travel, goods, and even ambulance services (MEDIVAC), since much of the far northern area of the province cannot be reached by road (or by year-round road) or rail. Railways A Via Rail train approaching Belleville station Via Rail operates the inter-regional passenger train service on the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor, along with The Canadian, a transcontinental rail service from Southern Ontario to Vancouver, and the Sudbury–White River train. Additionally, Amtrak rail connects Ontario with key New York cities including Buffalo, Albany, and New York City. Ontario Northland provides rail service to destinations as far north as Moosonee near James Bay, connecting them with the south. Regional commuter rail is limited to the provincially owned GO Transit, and serves a train-bus network spanning the Golden Horseshoe region, with Union Station in Toronto serving as the transport hub. Freight rail is dominated by the founding cross-country Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific Kansas City (formerly CP Rail) companies. As of 2021, there are 19,979 km of railways in operation. There are several city rail-transit systems in the Province. The Toronto Transit Commission operates subways, as well as streetcars (being one of the busiest streetcar systems in North America). OC Transpo operates a light rail metro system in Ottawa. In addition, Waterloo region operates a surface light rail system called Ion. Construction on light rail lines, such as the Hurontario LRT, are also underway in the Regional Municipality of Peel, and are expected to be completed by late 2024. Ontario Northland freight train crossing the Missinaibi River at Mattice-Val Côté in Northern Ontario Roads Main article: Roads in Ontario Highway 400 in Seguin. The roadway forms a part of the province's 400-series highways. 400-series highways make up the primary vehicular network in the south of province, and they connect at a number of points to border crossings to the United States, and Quebec, the busiest being the Detroit–Windsor Tunnel and Ambassador Bridge and the Blue Water Bridge (via Highway 402). Some of the primary highways along the southern route are Highway 401, Highway 417, and Highway 400, Highway 401 being the busiest highway in North America. Other provincial highways and regional roads inter-connect the remainder of the province, and the Trans-Canada Highway connects the province to the rest of the country. Waterways See also: Boat building industry in Ontario The Saint Lawrence Seaway, which extends across most of the southern portion of the province and connects to the Atlantic Ocean, is the primary water transportation route for cargo, particularly iron ore and grain. In the past, the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River were also a major passenger transportation route, but over the past half century passenger travel has been reduced to ferry services and sightseeing cruises. Ontario's three largest ports are the Port of Hamilton, Port of Thunder Bay and the Port of Nanticoke. Ontario's only saltwater port is located in the town of Moosonee on James Bay. See also Canada portalOntario portal Outline of Ontario Index of Ontario-related articles Notes ^ These three agricultural crops are known as the Three Sisters (agriculture) ^ in weekly circulation ^ Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada. ^ Statistic includes all persons that did not make up part of a visible minority or an indigenous identity. ^ The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses. ^ The following figure is taken from the province's "Inclusive Definition of Francophones", (IDF) which includes those whose mother tongue is French, and those whose mother tongue is not French, but have proficiency in the language, and use French as the primary language at home. ^ Statistics Canada treats Norfolk County and Haldimand County as one single census division; the County of Brant and City of Brantford are also treated as one single census division. 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Archived from the original on December 27, 2009. Retrieved March 18, 2007. The 'phenomenal' number of vehicles on Hwy. 401 as it cuts through Toronto makes it the busiest freeway in the world... ^ Clark, Andrew (April 28, 2023). "The defining characteristic of Ontario's 400-series highways is immense boredom punctuated by sudden fear". The Globe and Mail. Archived from the original on June 3, 2023. Retrieved October 4, 2023. ^ IBI Group (November 2016). Draft Technical Backgrounder: Highways and Roads (PDF) (Report). Ministry of Transportation of Ontario. p. 7. Archived (PDF) from the original on December 11, 2020. Retrieved March 9, 2021. ^ "Trans-Canada Highway". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Archived from the original on August 25, 2023. Retrieved October 6, 2023. ^ Rodrigue, Jean-Paul (February 3, 2018). "B.20 – The St. Lawrence Seaway and Regional Development | The Geography of Transport Systems". transportgeography.org. Archived from the original on June 10, 2023. Retrieved October 4, 2023. ^ "Table 11-4a: Top 20 Canadian Water Ports by Tonnage (Domestic and International) – 2011". Statistics Canada. February 8, 2019. Archived from the original on May 24, 2023. Retrieved October 4, 2023. ^ "About Ontario: Moosonee". Queen's Printer for Ontario. Archived from the original on October 18, 2012. Retrieved December 22, 2010. Sources Michael Sletcher, "Ottawa", in James Ciment, ed., Colonial America: An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural, and Economic History, (5 vols., M. E. Sharpe, New York, 2006). Virtual Vault Archived October 1, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, an online exhibition of Canadian historical art at Library and Archives Canada. Baskerville, Peter A. (2005). Sites of power: a concise history of Ontario. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195418927. Further reading For a more comprehensive list, see Bibliography of Ontario. Beckett, Harry (2001). Ontario. Weigl Educational Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-1-894705-04-2. Archived from the original on June 13, 2021. Retrieved October 19, 2020. White, Randall (1985). Ontario, 1610–1985 : a political and economic history. Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-0-919670-98-3. Ontario. Montigny, Edgar-André; Chambers, Anne Lorene (2000). Ontario since Confederation : a reader. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-4444-0. Archived from the original on June 13, 2021. Retrieved October 19, 2020. Celebrating One Thousand Years of Ontario's History: Proceedings of the Celebrating One Thousand Years of Ontario's History Symposium, April 14, 15 and 16, 2000. Ontario Historical Society, 2000. 343 pp. Chambers, Lori, and Edgar-Andre Montigny, eds. Ontario Since Confederation: A Reader (2000), articles by scholars. Winfield, Mark S. Blue-Green Province: The Environment and the Political Economy of Ontario (University of British Columbia Press; 2012) 296 pages; environmental policies since 1945. External links Ontario at Wikipedia's sister projects Definitions from WiktionaryMedia from CommonsNews from WikinewsRecipes from WikibooksTravel information from Wikivoyage Government of Ontario Tourism Ontario Archived April 21, 2021, at the Wayback Machine Ontario at Curlie Ontario Visual Heritage Project Archived July 6, 2011, at the Wayback Machine – Non-profit documentary project about Ontario's history vteOntarioGovernment Premier of Ontario Departments and agencies Ontario Legislative Building more... Geography Subdivisions Regions Islands Lakes Mountains Rivers more... 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ontario (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"/ɒnˈtɛərioʊ/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/2/2a/En-ca-Ontario.ogg/En-ca-Ontario.ogg.mp3"},{"link_name":"ⓘ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:En-ca-Ontario.ogg"},{"link_name":"on-TAIR-ee-oh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key"},{"link_name":"[ɔ̃taʁjo]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/French"},{"link_name":"province of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provinces_and_territories_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[note 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Central Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Canada"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-location-10"},{"link_name":"country's most populous province","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_of_Canada_by_province_and_territory"},{"link_name":"2021 Canadian census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Canadian_census"},{"link_name":"Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-canpop-3"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-www150.statcan.gc.ca-12"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-www150.statcan.gc.ca-12"},{"link_name":"Ottawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa"},{"link_name":"most populous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_largest_municipalities_in_Canada_by_population"},{"link_name":"Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Manitoba","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manitoba"},{"link_name":"Hudson Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Bay"},{"link_name":"James Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bay"},{"link_name":"U.S. states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state"},{"link_name":"Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota"},{"link_name":"Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan"},{"link_name":"Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio"},{"link_name":"Pennsylvania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pennsylvania"},{"link_name":"New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_(state)"},{"link_name":"Lake of the Woods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_of_the_Woods"},{"link_name":"Great Lakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes"},{"link_name":"Saint Lawrence River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_River"},{"link_name":"Height of Land Portage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Height_of_Land_Portage"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IBC-14"},{"link_name":"arable land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arable_land"},{"link_name":"Southern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agriculture_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"manufacturing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manufacturing_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"Northern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"mining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mining_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"forestry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forestry_in_Canada"}],"text":"Province of CanadaThis article is about the Canadian province. For other uses, see Ontario (disambiguation).Province in CanadaOntario (/ɒnˈtɛərioʊ/ ⓘ on-TAIR-ee-oh; French: [ɔ̃taʁjo]) is the southernmost province of Canada.[9][note 1] Located in Central Canada,[10] Ontario is the country's most populous province. As of the 2021 Canadian census, it is home to 38.5 percent of the country's population, and is the second-largest province by total area (after Quebec).[3][11] Ontario is Canada's fourth-largest jurisdiction in total area of all the Canadian provinces and territories.[11] It is home to the nation's capital, Ottawa, and its most populous city, Toronto,[12] which is Ontario's provincial capital.Ontario is bordered by the province of Manitoba to the west, Hudson Bay and James Bay to the north, and Quebec to the east and northeast. To the south, it is bordered by the U.S. states of (from west to east) Minnesota, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania, and New York. Almost all of Ontario's 2,700 km (1,700 mi) border with the United States follows rivers and lakes: from the westerly Lake of the Woods, eastward along the major rivers and lakes of the Great Lakes/Saint Lawrence River drainage system. There is only about 1 km (5⁄8 mi) of actual land border, made up of portages including Height of Land Portage on the Minnesota border.[13]The great majority of Ontario's population and arable land is in Southern Ontario, and while agriculture remains a significant industry, the region's economy depends highly on manufacturing. In contrast, Northern Ontario is sparsely populated with cold winters and heavy forestation,[14] with mining and forestry making up the region's major industries.","title":"Ontario"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Huron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyandot_language"},{"link_name":"Wyandot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wyandot_people"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mithun2001-16"},{"link_name":"Iroquoian languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroquoian_languages"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-river-number-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-canada.ca-19"},{"link_name":"Confederation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Confederation"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-canada.ca-19"}],"text":"Ontario is a term thought to be derived from Indigenous origins, either Ontarí:io, a Huron (Wyandot) word meaning \"great lake\",[15] or possibly skanadario, which means \"beautiful water\" or \"sparkling water\" in the Iroquoian languages.[16] Ontario has about 250,000 freshwater lakes.[17] The first mention of the name Ontario was in 1641, when \"Ontario\" was used to describe the land on the north shore of the easternmost part of the Great Lakes.[18] It was adopted as the official name of the new province at Confederation in 1867.[18]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of census divisions of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_census_divisions_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Geography of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geography_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"List of parks and protected areas of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_protected_areas_of_Ontario"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:BlackRiver1.JPG"},{"link_name":"Canadian Shield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Shield"},{"link_name":"Queen Elizabeth II Wildlands Provincial Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_II_Wildlands_Provincial_Park"},{"link_name":"Central Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Canadian Shield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Shield"},{"link_name":"minerals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral"},{"link_name":"Central","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Canadian_Shield_forests"},{"link_name":"Midwestern Canadian Shield forests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwestern_Canadian_Shield_forests"},{"link_name":"Northern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Northwestern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwestern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Northeastern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northeastern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Hudson Bay Lowlands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Bay_Lowlands"},{"link_name":"Southern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Central Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Eastern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Golden Horseshoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Horseshoe"},{"link_name":"Southwestern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwestern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Niagara Escarpment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Escarpment"},{"link_name":"Ishpatina Ridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ishpatina_Ridge"},{"link_name":"above sea level","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Above_mean_sea_level"},{"link_name":"Temagami","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temagami"},{"link_name":"Madawaska River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madawaska_River_(Ontario)"},{"link_name":"Renfrew County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renfrew_County"},{"link_name":"Carolinian forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carolinian_forest"},{"link_name":"Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Great_Lakes_lowland_forests"},{"link_name":"ecoregion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecoregion"},{"link_name":"Niagara Falls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Falls"},{"link_name":"Niagara Escarpment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Escarpment"},{"link_name":"Saint Lawrence Seaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_Seaway"},{"link_name":"Atlantic Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"Thunder Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunder_Bay"},{"link_name":"Northern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Point Pelee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Point_Pelee_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Windsor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Detroit, Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit"},{"link_name":"Pelee Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pelee,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Middle Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Island_(Lake_Erie)"},{"link_name":"42°N","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/42nd_parallel_north"},{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"}],"text":"See also: List of census divisions of Ontario, Geography of Canada, and List of parks and protected areas of OntarioTypical landscape of the Canadian Shield at Queen Elizabeth II Wildlands Provincial Park, located in Central Ontario.The thinly populated Canadian Shield, which dominates the northwestern and central portions of the province, comprises over half the land area of Ontario. Although this area mostly does not support agriculture, it is rich in minerals, partly covered by the Central and Midwestern Canadian Shield forests, and studded with lakes and rivers. Northern Ontario is subdivided into two sub-regions: Northwestern Ontario and Northeastern Ontario.The virtually unpopulated Hudson Bay Lowlands in the extreme north and northeast are mainly swampy and sparsely forested.Southern Ontario, which is further sub-divided into four sub-regions: Central Ontario (although not actually the province's geographic centre), Eastern Ontario, Golden Horseshoe and Southwestern Ontario (parts of which were formerly referred to as Western Ontario).Despite the rarity of mountainous terrain in the province, there are large areas of uplands, particularly within the Canadian Shield which traverses the province from northwest to southeast and also above the Niagara Escarpment which crosses the south. The highest point is Ishpatina Ridge at 693 metres (2,274 ft) above sea level in Temagami, Northeastern Ontario. In the south, elevations of over 500 m (1,640 ft) are surpassed near Collingwood, above the Blue Mountains in the Dundalk Highlands and in hilltops near the Madawaska River in Renfrew County.The Carolinian forest zone covers most of the southwestern region of the province. The temperate and fertile Great Lakes-Saint Lawrence Valley in the south is part of the Eastern Great Lakes lowland forests ecoregion where the forest has now been largely replaced by agriculture, industrial and urban development. A well-known geographic feature is Niagara Falls, part of the Niagara Escarpment. The Saint Lawrence Seaway allows navigation to and from the Atlantic Ocean as far inland as Thunder Bay in Northwestern Ontario. Northern Ontario covers approximately 87% of the province's surface area; conversely, Southern Ontario contains 94% of the population.Point Pelee is a peninsula of Lake Erie in southwestern Ontario (near Windsor and Detroit, Michigan) that is the southernmost extent of Canada's mainland. Pelee Island and Middle Island in Lake Erie extend slightly farther. All are south of 42°N – slightly farther south than the northern border of California.","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Climate of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_of_Ontario"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ontario_K%C3%B6ppen.svg"},{"link_name":"Köppen climate types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EC-20"},{"link_name":"Northern Plains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Plains"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UBCgeo-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UBCgeo-21"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UBCgeo-21"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EC-20"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EPA-22"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EPA-22"},{"link_name":"humid continental climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humid_continental_climate"},{"link_name":"Köppen climate classification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%B6ppen_climate_classification"},{"link_name":"Mid-Atlantic states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_states"},{"link_name":"Great Lakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes"},{"link_name":"Midwestern United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midwestern_United_States"},{"link_name":"snowbelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowbelt"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"humid continental climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humid_continental_climate"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UBCgeo-21"},{"link_name":"Kirkland Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkland_Lake"},{"link_name":"Lake Superior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Superior"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-UBCgeo-21"},{"link_name":"Lake Huron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake_Huron"},{"link_name":"lake-effect snow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake-effect_snow"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lake_Effect_Snow_on_Earth.jpg"},{"link_name":"Great Lakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes"},{"link_name":"lake-effect snow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lake-effect_snow"},{"link_name":"snowbelt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowbelt"},{"link_name":"subarctic climate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subarctic_climate"},{"link_name":"air masses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_mass"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EC-20"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-EC-20"},{"link_name":"Windsor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Southern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"(Southwestern)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southwestern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"tornado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tornado"},{"link_name":"Tropical depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropical_cyclone"},{"link_name":"Hurricane Hazel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurricane_Hazel"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"}],"sub_title":"Climate","text":"See also: Climate of OntarioKöppen climate types of OntarioOntario's climate varies by season and location.[19] Three air sources affect it: cold, dry, arctic air from the north (dominant factor during the winter months, and for a longer part of the year in far northern Ontario); Pacific polar air crossing in from the western Canadian Prairies/US Northern Plains; and warm, moist air from the Gulf of Mexico and the Atlantic Ocean.[20] The effects of these major air masses on temperature and precipitation depend mainly on latitude, proximity to major bodies of water and to a small extent, terrain relief.[20] In general, most of Ontario's climate is classified as humid continental.[20]Ontario has three main climatic regions:The surrounding Great Lakes greatly influence the climatic region of southern Ontario.[19] During the fall and winter, the release of heat stored by the lakes moderates the climate near the shores.[21] This gives parts of southern Ontario milder winters than mid-continental areas at lower latitudes.[21] Parts of Southwestern Ontario and the Niagara region (generally south of a line from Sarnia–Toronto) have a moderate humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification Dfa), similar to the inland Mid-Atlantic states and the Great Lakes portion of the Midwestern United States. The region has warm to hot, humid summers and cold winters. Annual precipitation ranges from 750–1,000 mm (30–39 in) and is well distributed throughout the year. Most of this region lies in the lee of the Great Lakes, making for abundant snow in some areas. In December 2010, the snowbelt set a new record when it was hit by more than a metre of snow within 48 hours.[22]\nThe next climatic region is Central and Eastern Ontario, which has a moderate humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb). This region has warm and sometimes hot summers with colder, longer winters, ample snowfall (even in regions not directly in the snowbelts) and annual precipitation similar to the rest of Southern Ontario.[20]In the northeastern parts of Ontario, extending south as far as Kirkland Lake, the cold waters of Hudson Bay depress summer temperatures, making it cooler than other locations at similar latitudes. The same is true on the northern shore of Lake Superior, which cools hot, humid air from the south, leading to cooler summer temperatures.[20] Along the eastern shores of Lake Superior and Lake Huron winter temperatures are slightly moderated but come with frequent heavy lake-effect snow squalls that increase seasonal snowfall totals to upwards of 3 m (10 ft) in some places. These regions have higher annual precipitation, in some places over 100 cm (39 in).Cold northwesterly wind over the Great Lakes creating lake-effect snow. Lake-effect snow most frequently occurs in the snowbelt regions of the province.The northernmost parts of Ontario – primarily north of 50°N – have a subarctic climate (Köppen Dfc) with long, severely cold winters and short, cool to warm summers with dramatic temperature changes possible in all seasons. With no major mountain ranges blocking sinking Arctic air masses, temperatures of −40 °C (−40 °F) are not uncommon; snow remains on the ground for sometimes over half the year. Snow accumulation can be high in some areas.[19] Precipitation is generally less than 70 cm (28 in) and peaks in the summer months in the form of rain or thunderstorms.[19]Severe thunderstorms peak in summer. Windsor, in Southern (Southwestern) Ontario, has the most lightning strikes per year in Canada, averaging 33 days of thunderstorm activity per year.[23] In a typical year, Ontario averages 11 confirmed tornado touchdowns. Ontario had a record 29 tornadoes in both 2006 and 2009. Tropical depression remnants occasionally bring heavy rains and winds in the south, but are rarely deadly. A notable exception was Hurricane Hazel which struck Southern Ontario centred on Toronto, in October 1954.[24]","title":"Geography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Monarchy in Ontario § History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy_in_Ontario#History"}],"text":"Further information: Monarchy in Ontario § History","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Paleo-Indians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleo-Indians"},{"link_name":"Bering land bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bering_land_bridge"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaskerville20051-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"Archaic period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_period_(North_America)"},{"link_name":"BC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anno_Domini"},{"link_name":"egalitarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egalitarianism"},{"link_name":"hunter-gatherer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunter-gatherer"},{"link_name":"St. Lawrence River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Lawrence_River"},{"link_name":"Great Lakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaskerville20052%E2%80%933-38"},{"link_name":"Woodland period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodland_period"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaskerville20054-39"},{"link_name":"AD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AD"},{"link_name":"beans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bean"},{"link_name":"squash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cucurbita"},{"link_name":"[a]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"southern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"onghouses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longhouses_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_North_America"},{"link_name":"Iroquoian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroquoian_peoples"},{"link_name":"Neutral Confederacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neutral_Confederacy"},{"link_name":"Erie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erie_people"},{"link_name":"Wendat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wendats"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaskerville20055-41"},{"link_name":"northern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Algonquian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algonquian_peoples"},{"link_name":"Ojibwe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ojibwe"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaskerville20059%E2%80%9311-42"},{"link_name":"Algonquins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algonquin_people"},{"link_name":"Mississaugas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississaugas"},{"link_name":"Ojibway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ojibway"},{"link_name":"Cree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cree"},{"link_name":"Odawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Odawa"},{"link_name":"Pottowatomi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potawatomi"},{"link_name":"Iroquois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroquois"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"Indigenous habitation (pre–1610)","text":"Paleo-Indians were the first people to settle on the lands of Ontario, about 11,000 years ago, after crossing the Bering land bridge from Asia to North America between 25,000 to 50,000 years ago.[35][36] During the Archaic period, which lasted from 8000-1000 BC, the population slowly increased, with a generally egalitarian hunter-gatherer society and a warmer climate. Trading routes also began emerging along the St. Lawrence River and around the Great Lakes.[37] Hunting and gathering remained predominant throughout the early Woodland period, and social structures and trade continued to develop.[38] Around 500 AD, corn cultivation began, later expanding to include beans and squash around 1100 AD.[a] Increased agriculture enabled more permanent, fortified, and significantly larger settlements. In southern Ontario during the 1400s, the population of some villages numbered in the thousands, with longhouses that could house over a hundred people. Around this time, large-scale warfare began in southern Ontario, leading to the emergence of Iroquoian groups, including the Neutral Confederacy, Erie and Wendat (Huron).[39] Groups in northern Ontario were primarily Algonquian and included the Ojibwe, who traded with the Iroquois.[40]Many ethnocultural groups emerged and came to exist on the lands of Ontario: the Algonquins, Mississaugas, Ojibway, Cree, Odawa, Pottowatomi, and Iroquois.[41]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire fell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople"},{"link_name":"sea routes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sea_lane"},{"link_name":"Far East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far_East"},{"link_name":"Giovanni da Verrazzano","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovanni_da_Verrazzano"},{"link_name":"King Francis I of France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Francis_I_of_France"},{"link_name":"Cathay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cathay"},{"link_name":"Northwest Passage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Passage"},{"link_name":"New France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_France"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTECharpentierDurocherLavilleLinteau198550-44"},{"link_name":"Italian Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italian_Wars"},{"link_name":"Protestants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestant"},{"link_name":"Catholics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"fur trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fur_trade"},{"link_name":"beaver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beaver"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mathieu-46"},{"link_name":"Samuel de Champlain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_de_Champlain"},{"link_name":"Habitation de Québec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Habitation_de_Qu%C3%A9bec"},{"link_name":"Quebec City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_City"},{"link_name":"colony of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_(New_France)"},{"link_name":"Étienne Brûlé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tienne_Br%C3%BBl%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"Southern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Pays d'en Haut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pays_d%27en_Haut"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1755_Bellin_Map_of_the_Great_Lakes_-_Geographicus_-_GreatLakes-bellin-1755.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pays d'en Haut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pays_d%27en_Haut"},{"link_name":"New France","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_France"},{"link_name":"Henry Hudson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry_Hudson"},{"link_name":"Hudson Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hudson_Bay"},{"link_name":"Rupert's Land","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rupert%27s_Land"},{"link_name":"Samuel de Champlain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel_de_Champlain"},{"link_name":"Jésuites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C3%A9suites"},{"link_name":"Supliciens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_the_Priests_of_Saint_Sulpice"},{"link_name":"Iroquois Wars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iroquois_Wars"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thefrenchshouldvewon-49"},{"link_name":"measles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measles"},{"link_name":"smallpox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smallpox"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"French and Indian War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_and_Indian_War"},{"link_name":"Seven Years' War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_Years%27_War"},{"link_name":"Treaty of Paris 1763","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Treaty_of_Paris_1763"},{"link_name":"Quebec Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_Act"},{"link_name":"Province of Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Quebec_(1763%E2%80%931791)"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"sub_title":"Pays d'en Haut (1610–1763)","text":"In the 15th century, the Byzantine Empire fell, prompting Western Europeans to search for new sea routes to the Far East. Around 1522–1523, Giovanni da Verrazzano persuaded King Francis I of France to commission an expedition to find a western route to Cathay (China) via a Northwest Passage. Though this expedition was unsuccessful, it established the name \"New France\" for northeastern North America.[42] After a few expeditions, France mostly abandoned North America for 50 years because of its financial crisis; France was involved in the Italian Wars and there were religious wars between Protestants and Catholics.[43] Around 1580 however, the rise of the fur trade (particularly the demand for beaver pelts), reignited French interest.[44]In 1608, Samuel de Champlain established France's first colonial settlement in New France, the Habitation de Québec (now Quebec City), in the colony of Canada (now southern Quebec). Afterwards, French explorers continued to travel west, establishing new villages along the coasts of the Saint Lawrence River. French explorers, the first of which was Étienne Brûlé who explored the Georgian Bay area in 1610–1612,[45] mapped Southern Ontario and called the region the Pays d'en Haut (\"Upper Country\"), in reference to the region being upstream of the Saint Lawrence River. The colony of the Pays d'en Haut was formally established in 1610 as an administrative dependency of Canada, and was for defence and business rather than a settlement colony. The territory of the Pays-d'en-Haut was quite large and would today include the province of Ontario, as well as, in whole or in part, the American states of Minnesota, Wisconsin, Illinois, Indiana, Michigan, Ohio, Pennsylvania and New York. Indigenous peoples were the vast majority of the Pays d'en Haut population.[46]A 1755 map of the Pays d'en Haut region of New France, an area that included most of OntarioAs for Northern Ontario, the English explorer Henry Hudson sailed into Hudson Bay in 1611 and claimed its drainage basin for England. The area would become known as Rupert's Land.Samuel de Champlain reached Lake Huron in 1615, and French missionaries, such as the Jésuites and Supliciens, began to establish posts along the Great Lakes. The French allied with most Indigenous groups of Ontario, all for the fur trade and for defence against Iroquois attacks (which would later be called the Iroquois Wars). The French would declare their Indigenous allies to be subjects of the King of France and would often act as mediators between different groups. The Iroquois later allied themselves with the British.[47]From 1634 to 1640, the Huron were devastated by European infectious diseases, such as measles and smallpox, to which they had no immunity.[48] By 1700, the Iroquois had been driven out or left the area that would become Ontario and the Mississaugas of the Ojibwa had settled the north shore of Lake Ontario. The remaining Huron settled north of Quebec.During the French and Indian War, the North American theatre of the Seven Years' War of 1754 to 1763, the British defeated the armies of New France and its Indigenous allies. In the Treaty of Paris 1763 France ceded most of its possessions in North America to Britain. Using the Quebec Act, Britain re-organised the territory into the Province of Quebec.[49]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:United_Empire_Loyalist_Statue_in_Hamilton,_Ontario.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"United Empire Loyalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Empire_Loyalists"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"American Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution"},{"link_name":"United Empire Loyalists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Empire_Loyalist"},{"link_name":"American Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Revolution"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thefrenchshouldvewon-49"},{"link_name":"Mohawks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mohawk_people"},{"link_name":"Six Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Nations_of_the_Grand_River"},{"link_name":"Six Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Six_Nations_of_the_Grand_River"},{"link_name":"Tyendinaga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tyendinaga_Mohawk_Territory"},{"link_name":"Akwesasne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akwesasne"},{"link_name":"Jay Treaty","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jay_Treaty"},{"link_name":"districts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District#Ontario"},{"link_name":"Hesse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_District,_Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"Lunenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_District,_Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"Mecklenburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Midland_District,_Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"Nassau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Home_District"},{"link_name":"Constitutional Act of 1791","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_Act_1791"},{"link_name":"the Canadas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canadas"},{"link_name":"Upper Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"Lower Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Canada"}],"sub_title":"Province of Quebec (1763–1791)","text":"A monument in Hamilton commemorating the United Empire Loyalists, a group of settlers who fled the United States during or after the American RevolutionIn 1782–1784, 5,000 United Empire Loyalists entered what is now Ontario following the American Revolution.[50] The Kingdom of Great Britain granted them 200 acres (81 ha) land and other items with which to rebuild their lives.[47] The British also set up reserves in Ontario for the Mohawks who had fought for the British and had lost their land in New York state. Other Iroquois, also displaced from New York were resettled in 1784 at the Six Nations reserve at the west end of Lake Ontario. The Mississaugas, displaced by European settlements, would later move to Six Nations also.After the American War of Independence, the first reserves for First Nations were established. These are situated at Six Nations (1784), Tyendinaga (1793) and Akwesasne (1795). Six Nations and Tyendinaga were established by the British for those Indigenous groups who had fought on the side of the British, and were expelled from the new United States. Akwesasne was a pre-existing Mohawk community and its borders were formalized under the 1795 Jay Treaty.In 1788, while part of the province of Quebec, southern Ontario was divided into four districts: Hesse, Lunenburg, Mecklenburg, and Nassau. In 1792, the four districts were renamed: Hesse became the Western District, Lunenburg became the Eastern District, Mecklenburg became the Midland District, and Nassau became the Home District. Counties were created within the districts.The population of Canada west of the St. Lawrence-Ottawa River confluence substantially increased during this period, a fact recognized by the Constitutional Act of 1791, which split Quebec into the Canadas: Upper Canada southwest of the St. Lawrence-Ottawa River confluence, and Lower Canada east of it.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_new_map_of_Upper_and_Lower_Canada_from_the_latest_authorities_-_1811.jpg"},{"link_name":"Upper Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"John Graves Simcoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Graves_Simcoe"},{"link_name":"Lieutenant governor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lieutenant_governor_(Canada)"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"Johnstown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johnstown_District,_Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London_District,_Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"Newcastle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newcastle_District"},{"link_name":"Niagara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_District"},{"link_name":"Bathurst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bathurst_District"},{"link_name":"Gore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gore_District,_Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"Ottawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa_District"},{"link_name":"Dalhousie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dalhousie_District"},{"link_name":"Simcoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simcoe_County"},{"link_name":"Wellington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wellington_District,_Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"War of 1812","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_1812"},{"link_name":"Niagara River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_River"},{"link_name":"Detroit River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit_River"},{"link_name":"fencibles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fencibles"},{"link_name":"First Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"Battle of York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_York"},{"link_name":"York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/York,_Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"burn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burning_of_Washington"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Push_on,_brave_York_volunteers(large).jpg"},{"link_name":"Battle of Queenston Heights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_Queenston_Heights"},{"link_name":"War of 1812","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War_of_1812"},{"link_name":"Upper Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"water power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydropower"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Family Compact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Family_Compact"},{"link_name":"Canadian nationalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_nationalism"},{"link_name":"responsible government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_government"},{"link_name":"Louis-Joseph Papineau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis-Joseph_Papineau"},{"link_name":"Lower Canada Rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lower_Canada_Rebellion"},{"link_name":"William Lyon Mackenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie"},{"link_name":"Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"mayor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mayor"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"Upper Canada Rebellion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Canada_Rebellion"},{"link_name":"Upper Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"William Lyon Mackenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Lyon_Mackenzie"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Republic of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Navy Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navy_Island"},{"link_name":"Niagara River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_River"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"}],"sub_title":"Upper Canada (1791–1841)","text":"Map of Upper Canada, 1811John Graves Simcoe was appointed Upper Canada's first Lieutenant governor in 1793.[51] A second wave of Americans, not all of them necessarily loyalists moved to Upper Canada after 1790 until the pre-war of 1812, many seeking available cheap land, and at the time, lower taxation.By 1798, there were eight districts: Eastern, Home, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, and Western. By 1826, there were eleven districts: Bathurst, Eastern, Gore, Home, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, Ottawa, and Western. By 1838, there were twenty districts: Bathurst, Brock, Colbourne, Dalhousie, Eastern, Gore, Home, Huron, Johnstown, London, Midland, Newcastle, Niagara, Ottawa, Prince Edward, Simcoe, Talbot, Victoria, Wellington, and Western.American troops in the War of 1812 invaded Upper Canada across the Niagara River and the Detroit River, but were defeated and pushed back by the British, Canadian fencibles and militias, and First Nations warriors. However, the Americans eventually gained control of Lake Erie and Lake Ontario. The 1813 Battle of York saw American troops defeat the garrison at the Upper Canada capital of York. The Americans looted the town and burned the Upper Canada Parliament Buildings during their brief occupation. The British would burn the American capital of Washington, D.C. in 1814.Depiction of the Battle of Queenston Heights, during the War of 1812. Upper Canada was an active theatre of operation during the conflict.After the War of 1812, relative stability allowed for increasing numbers of immigrants to arrive from Europe rather than from the United States. As was the case in the previous decades, this immigration shift was encouraged by the colonial leaders. Despite affordable and often free land, many arriving newcomers, mostly from Britain and Ireland, found frontier life with the harsh climate difficult, and some of those with the means eventually returned home or went south. However, population growth far exceeded emigration in the following decades. It was a mostly agrarian-based society, but canal projects and a new network of plank roads spurred greater trade within the colony and with the United States, thereby improving previously damaged relations over time.Meanwhile, Ontario's numerous waterways aided travel and transportation into the interior and supplied water power for development. As the population increased, so did the industries and transportation networks, which in turn led to further development. By the end of the century, Ontario vied with Quebec as the nation's leader in terms of growth in population, industry, arts and communications.[52]Unrest in the colony began to chafe against the aristocratic Family Compact who governed while benefiting economically from the region's resources, and who did not allow elected bodies power. This resentment spurred republican ideals and sowed the seeds for early Canadian nationalism. Accordingly, rebellion in favour of responsible government rose in both regions; Louis-Joseph Papineau led the Lower Canada Rebellion and William Lyon Mackenzie, first Toronto mayor,[53] led the Upper Canada Rebellion. In Upper Canada, the rebellion was quickly a failure. William Lyon Mackenzie escaped to the United States, where he declared the Republic of Canada on Navy Island on the Niagara River.[54]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Lord Durham","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Lambton,_1st_Earl_of_Durham"},{"link_name":"responsible government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Responsible_government"},{"link_name":"French Canadians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Canadians"},{"link_name":"Act of Union 1840","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Union_1840"},{"link_name":"Kingston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kingston,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Canada West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"Canada East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_East"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1855_Colton_Map_of_Upper_Canada_or_Ontario_-_Geographicus_-_Ontario2-colton-1855.jpg"},{"link_name":"Canada West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_West"},{"link_name":"Province of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Province of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"county","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County"},{"link_name":"Algoma District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algoma_District"},{"link_name":"Nipissing District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nipissing_District"},{"link_name":"Corn Laws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn_Laws"},{"link_name":"French-Canadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French-Canadian"},{"link_name":"American Civil War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Civil_War"},{"link_name":"Great Coalition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Coalition"},{"link_name":"British North American","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_North_America"},{"link_name":"British North America Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_Act,_1867"},{"link_name":"school boards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Board_of_education"}],"sub_title":"Canada West (1841–1867)","text":"Although both rebellions were put down in short order, the British government sent Lord Durham to investigate the causes. He recommended responsible government be granted, and Lower and Upper Canada be re-joined in an attempt to assimilate the French Canadians. Accordingly, the two colonies were merged into the Province of Canada by the Act of Union 1840, with the capital initially at Kingston, and Upper Canada becoming known as Canada West.[55] Responsible government was achieved in 1848. There were heavy waves of immigration in the 1840s, and the population of Canada West more than doubled by 1851 over the previous decade. As a result, for the first time, the English-speaking population of Canada West surpassed the French-speaking population of Canada East, tilting the representative balance of power.Map of Canada West from 1855. Canada West formed the western portion of the Province of Canada.In 1849, the districts of southern Ontario were abolished by the Province of Canada, and county governments took over certain municipal responsibilities. The Province of Canada also began creating districts in sparsely populated Northern Ontario with the establishment of Algoma District and Nipissing District in 1858.An economic boom in the 1850s coincided with railway expansion across the province, further increasing the economic strength of Central Canada. With the repeal of the Corn Laws and a reciprocity agreement in place with the United States, various industries such as timber, mining, farming and alcohol distilling benefited tremendously.A political stalemate developed in the 1850s, between finely balanced political groups: conservative and reform groups from Canada West and Canada East aligned against reform and liberal groups from Canada East each group having some support from French-Canadian and English-Canadian legislators. There was als a fear of aggression from the United States during and immediately after the American Civil War. These factors led to the formation of the Great Coalition in the elected Legislative Assembly, which initiated a series of conferences in the 1860s to effect a broader federal union of all British North American colonies. The British North America Act took effect on July 1, 1867, establishing the Dominion of Canada, initially with the four provinces of Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, Quebec, and Ontario. The Province of Canada was divided into Ontario and Quebec so that each linguistic group would have its own province. Both Quebec and Ontario were required by section 93 of the British North America Act to safeguard existing educational rights and privileges of the Protestant and Catholic minorities. Thus, separate Catholic schools and school boards were permitted in Ontario. However, neither province had a constitutional requirement to protect its French- or English-speaking minority. Toronto was formally established as Ontario's provincial capital.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Canada_provinces_evolution_2.gif"},{"link_name":"Rocky Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rocky_Mountains"},{"link_name":"Arctic Ocean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_Ocean"},{"link_name":"51st parallel north","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/51st_parallel_north"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oliver_Mowat.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oliver Mowat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Mowat"},{"link_name":"Premier of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Oliver Mowat","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oliver_Mowat"},{"link_name":"Premier of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"federal government","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"decentralized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decentralization"},{"link_name":"John A. Macdonald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_A._Macdonald"},{"link_name":"District of Keewatin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_of_Keewatin"},{"link_name":"National Policy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Policy"},{"link_name":"Canadian Pacific Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway"},{"link_name":"Canadian Prairies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Prairies"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Canadian Confederation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Confederation"},{"link_name":"Judicial Committee of the Privy Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judicial_Committee_of_the_Privy_Council"},{"link_name":"Parliament of the United Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parliament_of_the_United_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"Mineral","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mineral"},{"link_name":"Sudbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Sudbury"},{"link_name":"Cobalt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cobalt,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Timmins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timmins"},{"link_name":"Ontario Hydro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Hydro"},{"link_name":"Ford Motor Company of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"McLaughlin Motor Car Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McLaughlin_Motor_Car_Company"},{"link_name":"General Motors Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors_Canada"},{"link_name":"Conservative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"James Whitney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Whitney_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Regulation 17","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regulation_17"},{"link_name":"Henri Bourassa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henri_Bourassa"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Raid_at_elk_lake.jpg"},{"link_name":"Elk Lake","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"prohibition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition"},{"link_name":"William Hearst","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Howard_Hearst"},{"link_name":"prohibition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"Ontario Temperance Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Temperance_Act"},{"link_name":"prohibition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prohibition_in_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"Liquor Control Board of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquor_Control_Board_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Howard Ferguson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Howard_Ferguson"},{"link_name":"World War II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_II"},{"link_name":"immigration law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_law"},{"link_name":"ethnically","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethnic_group"},{"link_name":"Parti Québécois","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parti_Qu%C3%A9b%C3%A9cois"},{"link_name":"Montreal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montreal"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"Maritime Provinces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlantic_Canada"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"French-speaking communities across Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_francophone_communities_in_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aboot-63"},{"link_name":"French Language Services Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Language_Services_Act"}],"sub_title":"Canadian province (1867–present)","text":"An animated map of the changes to the borders of Canada. The borders of Ontario were last changed in 1912.The borders of Ontario, its new name in 1867, were provisionally expanded north and west. When the Province of Canada was formed, its borders were not entirely clear, and Ontario claimed eventually to reach all the way to the Rocky Mountains and Arctic Ocean. With Canada's acquisition of Rupert's Land, Ontario was interested in clearly defining its borders, especially since some of the new areas in which it was interested were rapidly growing. After the federal government asked Ontario to pay for construction in the new disputed area, the province asked for an elaboration on its limits, and its boundary was moved north to the 51st parallel north.[56]Oliver Mowat, Premier of Ontario from 1872 to 1896Once constituted as a province, Ontario proceeded to assert its economic and legislative power. In 1872, the lawyer Oliver Mowat became Premier of Ontario and remained as premier until 1896. He fought for provincial rights, weakening the power of the federal government in provincial matters, usually through well-argued appeals to the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. His battles with the federal government greatly decentralized Canada, giving the provinces far more power than John A. Macdonald had intended. He consolidated and expanded Ontario's educational and provincial institutions, created districts in Northern Ontario, and fought to ensure that those parts of Northwestern Ontario not historically part of Upper Canada (the vast areas north and west of the Lake Superior-Hudson Bay watershed, known as the District of Keewatin) would become part of Ontario, a victory embodied in the Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act, 1889. He also presided over the emergence of the province into the economic powerhouse of Canada. Mowat was the creator of what is often called Empire Ontario.Beginning with Macdonald's National Policy (1879) and the construction of the Canadian Pacific Railway (1875–1885) through Northern Ontario and the Canadian Prairies to British Columbia, Ontario manufacturing and industry flourished. However, population increases slowed after a large recession hit the province in 1893, thus slowing growth drastically but for only a few years. Many newly arrived immigrants and others moved west along the railway to the Prairie Provinces and British Columbia, sparsely settling Northern Ontario.The northern and western boundaries of Ontario were in dispute after Canadian Confederation. Ontario's right to Northwestern Ontario was determined by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in 1884 and confirmed by the Canada (Ontario Boundary) Act, 1889 of the Parliament of the United Kingdom. By 1899, there were seven northern districts: Algoma, Manitoulin, Muskoka, Nipissing, Parry Sound, Rainy River, and Thunder Bay. Four more northern districts were created between 1907 and 1912: Cochrane, Kenora, Sudbury and Timiskaming.[57]Mineral exploitation accelerated in the late 19th century, leading to the rise of important mining centres in the northeast, such as Sudbury, Cobalt and Timmins. The province harnessed its water power to generate hydro-electric power and created the state-controlled Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario, later Ontario Hydro. The availability of cheap electric power further facilitated the development of industry. The Ford Motor Company of Canada was established in 1904 and the McLaughlin Motor Car Company (later General Motors Canada) was founded in 1907. The motor vehicle industry became the most lucrative industry for the Ontario economy during the 20th century.In July 1912, the Conservative government of James Whitney issued Regulation 17 which severely limited the availability of French-language schooling to the province's French-speaking minority. French Canadians reacted with outrage, journalist Henri Bourassa denouncing the \"Prussians of Ontario\". The regulation was eventually repealed in 1927.Law enforcement confiscate stores of alcohol in Elk Lake in an effort to enforce prohibition. The prohibition measures were introduced in 1916 and were not repealed until 1927.Influenced by events in the United States, the government of William Hearst introduced prohibition of alcoholic drinks in 1916 with the passing of the Ontario Temperance Act. However, residents could distil and retain their own personal supply, and liquor producers could continue distillation and export for sale, allowing this already sizeable industry to strengthen further. Ontario became a hotbed for the illegal smuggling of liquor and the biggest supplier into the United States, which was under complete prohibition. Prohibition in Ontario came to an end in 1927 with the establishment of the Liquor Control Board of Ontario under the government of Howard Ferguson. The sale and consumption of liquor, wine, and beer are still controlled by some of the most extreme laws in North America to ensure strict community standards and revenue generation from the alcohol retail monopoly are upheld.The post-World War II period was one of exceptional prosperity and growth. Ontario has been the recipients of most immigration to Canada, largely immigrants from war-torn Europe in the 1950s and 1960s and following changes in federal immigration law, a massive influx of non-Europeans since the 1970s. From a largely ethnically British province, Ontario has rapidly become culturally very diverse.The nationalist movement in Quebec, particularly after the election of the Parti Québécois in 1976, contributed to driving many businesses and English-speaking people out of Quebec to Ontario, and as a result, Toronto surpassed Montreal as the largest city and economic centre of Canada.[58] Depressed economic conditions in the Maritime Provinces have also resulted in de-population of those provinces in the 20th century, with heavy migration into Ontario.[59][60]Ontario's official language is English, although there exists a number of French-speaking communities across Ontario.[61] French-language services are made available for communities with a sizeable French-speaking population; a service that is ensured under the French Language Services Act of 1989.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of population centres in Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_population_centres_in_Ontario"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ontario_Population_Density_2021.svg"}],"text":"See also: List of population centres in OntarioPopulation density of Ontario","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"2021 census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Canadian_Census"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-StatCan2021-2"},{"link_name":"population centres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_population_centres_in_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"Ottawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa"},{"link_name":"Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Kitchener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kitchener,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"London","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/London,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Oshawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oshawa"}],"sub_title":"Population","text":"In the 2021 census, Ontario had a population of 14,223,942 living in 5,491,201 of its 5,929,250 total dwellings, a 5.8 percent change from its 2016 population of 13,448,494. With a land area of 892,411.76 km2 (344,562.11 sq mi), it had a population density of 15.9/km2 (41.3/sq mi) in 2021.[2] The largest population centres in Ontario are Toronto, Ottawa, Hamilton, Kitchener, London and Oshawa, which all have more than 300,000 inhabitants.","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"French Canadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Canadian"},{"link_name":"English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Canadians"},{"link_name":"European descent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Canadians"},{"link_name":"Franco-Ontarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Ontarian"},{"link_name":"interprovincial migration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interprovincial_migration_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"immigration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration_to_Canada"},{"link_name":"East Asians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Asian_Canadians"},{"link_name":"South Asians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/South_Asian_Canadians"}],"sub_title":"Ethnicity","text":"The percentages given below add to more than 100 per cent because of dual responses (e.g., \"French and Canadian\" response generates an entry both in the category \"French Canadian\" and in the category \"Canadian\").The majority of Ontarians are of English or other European descent including large Scottish, Irish and Italian communities. Slightly less than 5 per cent of the population of Ontario is Franco-Ontarian, that is those whose native tongue is French, although those with French ancestry account for 11 per cent of the population. Compared to natural increase or interprovincial migration, immigration is a huge population growth force in Ontario, as it has been over the last two centuries. More recent sources of immigrants with large or growing communities in Ontario include East Asians, South Asians, Caribbeans, Latin Americans, Europeans, and Africans. Most populations have settled in the larger urban centres.","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"visible minorities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_minorities"},{"link_name":"Indigenous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"First Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/First_Nations_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"Métis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9tis_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"Inuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuit"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"}],"sub_title":"Visible minorities and Indigenous peoples","text":"In 2021, 34.3% of the population consisted of visible minorities and 2.9% of the population was Indigenous, mostly of First Nations and Métis descent. There was also a small number of Inuit in the province. The number of Indigenous people and visible minorities has been increasing at a faster rate than the general population of Ontario.[62]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Roman Catholic Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholic_Church_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"United Church of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Church_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Islam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islam"},{"link_name":"Hinduism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-census-religion-67"},{"link_name":"Catholics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catholics"},{"link_name":"Assembly of Catholic Bishops of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assembly_of_Catholic_Bishops_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"Anglican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anglican"},{"link_name":"Protestants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protestants"},{"link_name":"Ecclesiastical Province of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesiastical_Province_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-province-ontario.anglican.ca-69"}],"sub_title":"Religion","text":"In 2021, 52.1% of the population was Christian, with the largest religious denominations being the Roman Catholic Church (with 26.0% of the population) and the United Church of Canada with (4.1%). Other religions included Islam (6.7%), Hinduism (4.1%). 31.6% of Ontarians had no religious affiliation.[64]The major religious groups in Ontario in 2021 were:In Ontario, Catholics are represented by the Assembly of Catholic Bishops of Ontario[65] and the Anglican Protestants by the Ecclesiastical Province of Ontario.[66]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Franco-Ontarian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Ontarian"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ontario_French_Ability_2021.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hwy_416_Ottawa.JPG"},{"link_name":"2021 Canadian Census","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2021_Canadian_census"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-language2021-70"},{"link_name":"[note 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"de facto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De_facto"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-72"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-langcen-73"},{"link_name":"official languages of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Official_languages_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-74"},{"link_name":"[note 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inclu-75"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-langcen-73"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-langcen-73"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-langcen-73"},{"link_name":"Franco-Ontarians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Ontarian"},{"link_name":"French Language Services Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/French_Language_Services_Act"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-76"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"sub_title":"Language","text":"See also: Franco-OntarianMap of French language ability according to the 2021 census.English and French displayed on a gantry sign. Communities with sizeable francophone populations are able to receive provincial services in French.As of the 2021 Canadian Census, the ten most spoken languages in the province included English (13,650,230 or 97.28%), French (1,550,545 or 11.05%), Mandarin (467,420 or 3.33%), Hindi (436,125 or 3.11%), Spanish (401,205 or 2.86%), Punjabi (397,865 or 2.84%), Cantonese (352,135 or 2.51%), Arabic (342,860 or 2.44%), Italian (312,800 or 2.23%), and Urdu (295,175 or 2.1%).[67][note 3]The principal language of Ontario is English, the province's de facto official language,[68] with approximately 97.2 per cent of Ontarians having proficiency in the language, although only 69.5 per cent of Ontarians reported English as their mother tongue in the 2016 Census.[69] English is one of two official languages of Canada, with the other being French. English and French are the official languages of the courts in Ontario. Approximately 4.6 per cent of the population identified as francophone,[70][note 4] and a total of 11.5 per cent of Ontarians reported having proficiency in French.[69] Approximately 11.2 per cent of Ontarians reported being bilingual in both English and French.[69] Approximately 2.5 per cent of Ontarians have no proficiency in either English or French.[69]Franco-Ontarians are concentrated in the northeastern, eastern, and extreme southern parts of the province, where under the French Language Services Act,[71] provincial government services are required to be available in French if at least 10 per cent of a designated area's population report French as their native language or if an urban centre has at least 5,000 francophones.Other languages spoken by residents include Arabic, Bengali, Cantonese, Dutch, German, Greek, Gujarati, Hindi, Hebrew, Italian, Korean, Malayalam, Mandarin, Marathi, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Punjabi, Russian, Sinhalese, Somali, Spanish, Tagalog, Telugu, Tamil, Tibetan, Ukrainian, Urdu, and Vietnamese.[72]","title":"Demographics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"Michigan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michigan"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ontario&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Moody's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moody%27s_Corporation"},{"link_name":"Ontario debt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_public_debt"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"S&P","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%26P"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"Dominion Bond Rating Service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominion_Bond_Rating_Service"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"debt-to-GDP ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debt-to-GDP_ratio"},{"link_name":"fiscal year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiscal_year"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:2007_Ontario_Sault_Ste._Marie_Algoma_Steel.jpg"},{"link_name":"Algoma Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algoma_Steel"},{"link_name":"Great Lakes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Great_Lakes"},{"link_name":"pulp and paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulp_and_paper_industry_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"clearcut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clearcut"},{"link_name":"herbicides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbicides"},{"link_name":"hardwood","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hardwood"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"Ring of Fire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ontario_Ring_of_Fire"},{"link_name":"Trans-Canada Highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Canada_Highway"},{"link_name":"Kenora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenora"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"natural resources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_resource"},{"link_name":"container ships","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_ship"},{"link_name":"Rust Belt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rust_Belt"},{"link_name":"Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Sault Ste. Marie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sault_Ste._Marie,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Sarnia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarnia"},{"link_name":"petrochemical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petrochemical"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"QEW","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QEW"},{"link_name":"U.S. Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Steel"},{"link_name":"Stelco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stelco"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"Algoma Steel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algoma_Steel"},{"link_name":"Sault Ste Marie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sault_Ste._Marie,_Ontario"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Oakville_Assembly.jpg"},{"link_name":"Oakville Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakville_Assembly"},{"link_name":"economy of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economy_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Chrysler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chrysler"},{"link_name":"Windsor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"GM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors"},{"link_name":"Honda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda"},{"link_name":"Alliston","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alliston"},{"link_name":"Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company"},{"link_name":"Toyota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota"},{"link_name":"General Motors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Motors"},{"link_name":"Oshawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oshawa"},{"link_name":"drive train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Powertrain"},{"link_name":"St. Catharines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Catharines"},{"link_name":"Ford Motor Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ford_Motor_Company"},{"link_name":"St Thomas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/St._Thomas,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Windsor Casting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor_Casting"},{"link_name":"hybrid vehicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_vehicle"},{"link_name":"Oakville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakville,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Camaro","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chevrolet_Camaro"},{"link_name":"Toyota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota"},{"link_name":"RAV4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toyota_RAV4"},{"link_name":"Woodstock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woodstock,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-87"},{"link_name":"Honda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honda"},{"link_name":"global recession","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_crisis_of_2007%E2%80%932010"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"Oakville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakville,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-90"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-91"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-92"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toronto_from_cn_tower.jpg"},{"link_name":"Financial District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_District,_Toronto"},{"link_name":"Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"financial services","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_services"},{"link_name":"National Capital Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Capital_Region_(Canada)"},{"link_name":"Gatineau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatineau"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-93"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"Silicon Valley North","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silicon_Valley_North"},{"link_name":"Ottawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-95"},{"link_name":"Waterloo Region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Municipality_of_Waterloo"},{"link_name":"BlackBerry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BlackBerry"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"hunting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting"},{"link_name":"skiing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiing"},{"link_name":"snowmobiling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snowmobile"},{"link_name":"Cornwall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cornwall,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Niagara Falls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Falls,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-97"}],"text":"Ontario is Canada's leading manufacturing province, accounting for 52% of the total national manufacturing shipments in 2004.[73] Ontario's largest trading partner is the American state of Michigan. As of April 2012[update], Moody's bond-rating agency rated Ontario debt at AA2/stable,[74] while S&P rated it AA−.[75] Dominion Bond Rating Service rated it AA(low) in January 2013.[76] Long known as a bastion of Canadian manufacturing and financial solvency, Ontario's public debt-to-GDP ratio is projected to be 38.4% in fiscal year 2023–2024.[77]Container ship at Algoma Steel. The Great Lakes provide ocean access for industries in the province's interior.Mining and the forest products industry, notably pulp and paper, are vital to the economy of Northern Ontario. As of 2011, roughly 200,000 ha are clearcut each year; herbicides for hardwood suppression are applied to a third of the total.[78] There has been controversy over the Ring of Fire mineral deposit, and whether the province can afford to spend CAD$2.25 billion on a road from the Trans-Canada Highway near Kenora to the deposit, currently valued at CAD$60 billion.[79]An abundance of natural resources, excellent transportation links to the North American heartland and the inland Great Lakes making ocean access possible via container ships, have all contributed to making manufacturing the principal industry of the province, found mainly in the Golden Horseshoe region, which is the largest industrialized area in Canada, the southern end of the region being part of the North American Rust Belt. Important products include motor vehicles, iron, steel, food, electrical appliances, machinery, chemicals, and paper.Hamilton is the largest steel manufacturing city in Canada followed closely by Sault Ste. Marie, and Sarnia is the centre for petrochemical production. Construction employed more than 6.5% of the province's work force in June 2011.[80] Ontario's steel industry was once centred in Hamilton. Hamilton harbour, which can be seen from the QEW Skyway bridge, is an industrial wasteland; U.S. Steel-owned Stelco announced in the autumn of 2013 that it would close in 2014, with the loss of 875 jobs. The move flummoxed a union representative, who seemed puzzled why a plant with capacity of 2 million tonnes per annum would be shut while Canada imported 8 million tonnes of steel the previous year.[81] Algoma Steel maintains a plant in Sault Ste Marie.A worker at the Oakville Assembly installs a battery in an automobile. The automotive industry is a contributor to the economy of Ontario.Ontario surpassed Michigan in car production, assembling more than 2,696,000 vehicles in 2004. Ontario has Chrysler plants in Windsor and Bramalea, two GM plants in Oshawa and one in Ingersoll, a Honda assembly plant in Alliston, Ford plants in Oakville and St. Thomas and Toyota assembly plants in Cambridge and Woodstock. However, as a result of steeply declining sales, in 2005, General Motors announced massive layoffs at production facilities across North America, including two large GM plants in Oshawa and a drive train facility in St. Catharines, that resulted in 8,000 job losses in Ontario alone. In 2006, Ford Motor Company announced between 25,000 and 30,000 layoffs phased until 2012; Ontario was spared the worst, but job losses were announced for the St Thomas facility and the Windsor Casting plant. However, these losses will be offset by Ford's recent announcement of a hybrid vehicle facility slated to begin production in 2007 at its Oakville plant and GM's re-introduction of the Camaro which will be produced in Oshawa. On December 4, 2008, Toyota announced the grand opening of the RAV4 plant in Woodstock,[82] and Honda also plans to add an engine plant at its facility in Alliston. Despite these new plants coming online, Ontario has not yet fully recovered following massive layoffs caused by the global recession; its unemployment rate was 7.3% in May 2013,[83] compared to 8.7 percent in January 2010[84] and approximately 6% in 2007. In September 2013, the Ontario government committed CAD$70.9 million to the Ford plant in Oakville, while the federal government committed CAD$71.1mn, to secure 2,800 jobs.[85] The province has lost 300,000 manufacturing jobs in the decade from 2003, and the Bank of Canada noted that \"while the energy and mining industries have benefitted from these movements, the pressure on the manufacturing sector has intensified, since many firms in this sector were already dealing with growing competition from low-cost economies such as China.\"[86][87]Toronto's Financial District serves as the centre for Canada's financial services.Toronto, the capital of Ontario, is the centre of Canada's financial services and banking industry. Neighbouring cities are home to product distribution, IT centres, and manufacturing industries. Canada's Federal Government is the largest single employer in the National Capital Region, which centres on the border cities of Ontario's Ottawa and Quebec's Gatineau.[88][89]The information technology sector is important, particularly in the Silicon Valley North section of Ottawa, home to Canada's largest technology park.[90] IT is also important in the Waterloo Region, where the headquarters of BlackBerry is located.[91]Tourism contributes heavily to the economy of Central Ontario, peaking during the summer months owing to the abundance of fresh water recreation and wilderness found there in reasonable proximity to the major urban centres. At other times of the year, hunting, skiing and snowmobiling are popular. This region has some of the most vibrant fall colour displays anywhere on the continent, and tours directed at overseas visitors are organized to see them. Tourism also plays a key role in border cities with large casinos, among them Windsor, Cornwall, Sarnia and Niagara Falls, the latter of which attracts millions of US and other international visitors.[92]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Waterloo,_Canada_(Unsplash_v1ar8e1dOjg).jpg"},{"link_name":"Waterloo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterloo,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Southern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Massey Ferguson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massey_Ferguson"},{"link_name":"farm-implement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agricultural_machinery"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-98"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Vineyard,_Prince_Edward_County_(4048276162).jpg"},{"link_name":"wine industry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_wine"},{"link_name":"Niagara Peninsula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"Prince Edward County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince_Edward_County_Wine"},{"link_name":"tobacco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco"},{"link_name":"Holland Marsh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holland_Marsh"},{"link_name":"Newmarket","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newmarket,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Windsor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Windsor,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Corn Belt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corn_Belt"},{"link_name":"Nottawasaga Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nottawasaga_Bay"},{"link_name":"Norfolk County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk_County,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"hazelnuts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corylus_avellana"},{"link_name":"ginseng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ginseng"},{"link_name":"Southern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Urban sprawl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl"},{"link_name":"severances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Severance_(land)"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"link_name":"greenbelts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_belt#Canada"},{"link_name":"Ottawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"Golden Horseshoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Horseshoe"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"}],"sub_title":"Agriculture","text":"Aerial view of farms in Waterloo. A significant portion of the land in Southern Ontario is used as farmland.Once the dominant industry, agriculture now uses a small percentage of the workforce. Massey Ferguson, a farm-implement manufacturer, was originally founded in the province in 1847, before eventually expanding internationally.[93] As the following table shows, while the number of individual farms has steadily decreased and their overall size has shrunk at a lower rate, greater mechanization has supported increased supply to satisfy the ever-increasing demands of a growing population base; this has also meant a gradual increase in the total amount of land used for growing crops.Vineyard, Prince Edward CountyCommon types of farms reported in the 2001 census include those for cattle, small grains and dairy. The fruit- and wine industry is primarily on the Niagara Peninsula, Prince Edward County, and along the northern shore of Lake Erie, where tobacco farms are also situated. Market vegetables grow in the rich soils of the Holland Marsh near Newmarket. The area near Windsor is also very fertile.The area defined as the Corn Belt covers much of the southwestern area of the province, extending as far north as close to Goderich, but corn and soy are grown throughout the southern portion of the province. Apple orchards are a common sight along the southern shore of Nottawasaga Bay (part of Georgian Bay) near Collingwood and along the northern shore of Lake Ontario near Cobourg. Tobacco production, centred in Norfolk County, has decreased, allowing an increase in alternative crops such as hazelnuts and ginseng. Southern Ontario's limited supply of agricultural land is going out of production at an increasing rate. Urban sprawl and farmland severances contribute to the loss of thousands of acres of productive agricultural land in Ontario each year. Over 2,000 farms and 150,000 acres (61,000 ha) of farmland in the GTA alone were lost to production in the two decades between 1976 and 1996. This loss represented approximately 18%\". of Ontario's Class 1 farmland being converted to urban purposes. In addition, increasing rural severances provide ever-greater interference with agricultural production.[95] In an effort to protect the farmland and green spaces of the National Capital Region, and Greater Toronto Area, the Federal[96] and Provincial Governments introduced greenbelts around Ottawa[97] and the Golden Horseshoe, limiting urban development in these areas.[98]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Energy policy of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_policy_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Renewable energy in Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_energy_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"Smart grid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smart_grid"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"Ontario Power Generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Power_Generation"},{"link_name":"nuclear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power"},{"link_name":"hydroelectric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricity"},{"link_name":"fossil-fuel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fossil-fuel"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gm2dec-106"},{"link_name":"Hydro One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydro_One"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Frenchman%27s_Bay_and_the_Pickering_Nuclear_Plant_-a.jpg"},{"link_name":"Pickering Nuclear Generating Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pickering_Nuclear_Generating_Station"},{"link_name":"nuclear power stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gm2dec-106"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-gm2dec-106"},{"link_name":"renewable energy sources","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renewable_resource"},{"link_name":"energy-efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Efficient_energy_use"},{"link_name":"conserve energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_conservation"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-renewableenergyworld1-108"},{"link_name":"streamlined","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/streamline"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-renewableenergyworld1-108"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Adam_Beck_Complex.jpg"},{"link_name":"Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Generating Stations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_Adam_Beck_Hydroelectric_Generating_Stations"},{"link_name":"hydroelectric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydroelectricity"},{"link_name":"Niagara Falls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Falls,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Niagara Falls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Niagara_Falls"},{"link_name":"Bruce Nuclear Generating Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Nuclear_Generating_Station"},{"link_name":"nuclear power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuclear_power"},{"link_name":"CANDU reactors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CANDU_reactor"},{"link_name":"wind energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wind_energy"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-109"}],"sub_title":"Energy","text":"See also: Energy policy of Canada, Renewable energy in Canada, and Smart gridOntario's rivers make it rich in hydroelectric energy.[99] In 2009, Ontario Power Generation generated 70 percent of the province's electricity, of which 51 percent is nuclear, 39% is hydroelectric and 10% is fossil-fuel derived.[100] By 2025, nuclear power is projected to supply 42%, while fossil-fuel-derived generation is projected to decrease slightly over the next 20 years.[101] Much of the newer power generation coming online in the last few years is natural gas or combined-cycle natural gas plants. OPG is not, however, responsible for the transmission of power, which is under the control of Hydro One.The Pickering Nuclear Generating Station is one of three nuclear power stations in Ontario.Despite its diverse range of power options, problems related to increasing consumption, lack of energy efficiency and ageing nuclear reactors, Ontario has been forced in recent years to purchase power from its neighbours Quebec and Michigan to supplement its power needs during peak consumption periods. Ontario's basic domestic rate in 2010 was 11.17 cents per kWh; by contrast. Quebec's was 6.81.[102] In December 2013, the government projected a 42 percent hike by 2018, and 68 percent by 2033.[101] Industrial rates are projected to rise by 33% by 2018, and 55% in 2033.[101]The Green Energy and Green Economy Act, 2009 (GEA), takes a two-pronged approach to commercializing renewable energy; first, it aims to bring more renewable energy sources to the province; and secondly, it aims to adopt more energy-efficiency measures to help conserve energy. The bill envisaged appointing a Renewable Energy Facilitator to provide \"one-window\" assistance and support to project developers to facilitate project approvals.[103]The approvals process for transmission projects would also be streamlined and (for the first time in Ontario) the bill would enact standards for renewable energy projects. Homeowners would have access to incentives to develop small-scale renewables such as low- or no-interest loans to finance the capital cost of renewable energy generating facilities like solar panels.[103]The Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Generating Stations are hydroelectric plants located in Niagara Falls.Ontario is home to Niagara Falls, which supplies a large amount of electricity to the province. The Bruce Nuclear Generating Station, the second largest operational nuclear power plant in the world, is also in Ontario and uses 8 CANDU reactors to generate electricity for the province.Ontario had the most wind energy capacity of the country with 4,900 MW of power (41% of Canada's capacity).[104]","title":"Economy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Monarchy in Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monarchy_in_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Executive Council of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Council_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Local government in Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Local_government_in_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Legislative Assembly of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"ridings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electoral_district_(Canada)"},{"link_name":"first-past-the-post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plurality_voting"},{"link_name":"Queen's Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_Park_(Toronto)"},{"link_name":"Westminster system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Westminster_system"},{"link_name":"cabinet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet_(government)"},{"link_name":"Executive Council","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Executive_Council_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"ministers of the Crown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministers_of_the_Crown"},{"link_name":"Members of the Provincial Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_Provincial_Parliament_(Ontario)"},{"link_name":"Members of the Legislative Assembly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Member_of_the_Legislative_Assembly"}],"text":"Further information: Monarchy in Ontario, Executive Council of Ontario, and Local government in OntarioThe British North America Act 1867 section 69 stipulated \"There shall be a Legislature for Ontario consisting of the Lieutenant Governor and of One House, styled the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.\" The assembly currently has 124 seats (increased from 107 as of the 42nd Ontario general election) representing ridings elected in a first-past-the-post system across the province.The legislative buildings at Queen's Park are the seat of government. Following the Westminster system, the leader of the party holding the most seats in the assembly is known as the \"Premier and President of the Council\" (Executive Council Act R.S.O. 1990). The Premier chooses the cabinet or Executive Council whose members are deemed ministers of the Crown.Although the Legislative Assembly Act (R.S.O. 1990) refers to \"members of the assembly\", the legislators are now commonly called MPPs (Members of the Provincial Parliament) in English and députés de l'Assemblée législative in French, but they have also been called MLAs (Members of the Legislative Assembly); both are acceptable but the latter is uncommon. The title of Prime Minister of Ontario, correct in French (le Premier ministre), is permissible in English but now generally avoided in favour of the title \"Premier\" to avoid confusion with the Prime Minister of Canada.","title":"Government, law and politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:One_of_Osgoode_Hall_facade_during_Doors_Open_Toronto_event,_2010.jpg"},{"link_name":"Osgoode Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Osgoode_Hall"},{"link_name":"Court of Appeal for Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Court_of_Appeal_for_Ontario"},{"link_name":"appellate court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Appellate_court"},{"link_name":"Courts of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courts_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Upper Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upper_Canada"},{"link_name":"Municipal Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipal_Act"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"link_name":"statute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statute"},{"link_name":"municipalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Municipality"},{"link_name":"Canadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada"},{"link_name":"City of Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_of_Toronto_government"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-112"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"}],"sub_title":"Law","text":"Osgoode Hall houses the Court of Appeal for Ontario, the appellate court for the province.Further information: Courts of OntarioOntario has grown, from its roots in Upper Canada, into a modern jurisdiction. The old titles of the chief law officers, the Attorney-General and the Solicitor-General, remain in use. They both are responsible to the Legislature. The Attorney-General draughts the laws and is responsible for criminal prosecutions and the administration of justice, while the Solicitor-General is responsible for law enforcement and the police services of the province. The Municipal Act[105] is the main statute governing the creation, administration and government of municipalities in the Canadian province of Ontario, other than the City of Toronto. After being passed in 2001, it came into force on January 1, 2003, replacing the previous Municipal Act.[106] Effective January 1, 2007, the Municipal Act (the Act) was significantly amended by the Municipal Statute Law Amendment Act, 2006 (Bill 130).[107][108]","title":"Government, law and politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ontario_Legislative_Building,_Toronto,_South_view_20170417_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ontario Legislative Building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Legislative_Building"},{"link_name":"Queen's Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%27s_Park_(Toronto)"},{"link_name":"Legislative Assembly of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legislative_Assembly_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Progressive_Conservative_Party_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"social democratic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_democracy"},{"link_name":"Ontario New Democratic Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_New_Democratic_Party"},{"link_name":"Ontario Liberal Party","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Liberal_Party"},{"link_name":"Green Party of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Green_Party_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"2018","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Ontario_general_election"},{"link_name":"2018 provincial election","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2018_Ontario_general_election"},{"link_name":"Doug Ford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doug_Ford"},{"link_name":"Premier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Premier_of_Ontario"}],"sub_title":"Politics","text":"The Ontario Legislative Building at Queen's Park. The building serves as the meeting place for the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.Ontario has numerous political parties which run for election. The four main parties are the centre-right Progressive Conservative Party of Ontario, the social democratic Ontario New Democratic Party (NDP), the centre to centre-left Ontario Liberal Party, and Green Party of Ontario. The Progressive Conservatives, Liberals and New Democrats have each governed the province, while the Greens elected their first member to the Legislative Assembly in 2018.The 2018 provincial election resulted in a Progressive Conservative majority government under party leader Doug Ford, who was sworn in as Premier on June 29. Ontario NDP leader Andrea Horwath was sworn in as the leader of her Majesty's Loyal Opposition.","title":"Government, law and politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ontario_census_divisions_by_type.png"},{"link_name":"first-level administrative divisions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_census_divisions_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"single-tier municipalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_census_divisions_of_Ontario#Single-tier_municipalities"},{"link_name":"regional municipalities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_regional_municipalities_in_Ontario"},{"link_name":"counties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_counties"},{"link_name":"districts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Districts_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"census divisions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_census_divisions_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Statistics Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_Canada"},{"link_name":"[note 5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Haldimand-Norfolk-114"}],"sub_title":"Administrative divisions","text":"Map of the counties, regional municipalities, districts, and municipalities of Ontario.Ontario has three types of first-level administrative divisions. They include single-tier municipalities, upper-tier municipalities (which may be in the form of either regional municipalities or counties), and districts. Upper-tier municipalities and districts are made up of smaller municipalities and other types of administrative divisions.Administrative divisions differ primarily in the services that they provide to their residents, with the differing structures of these administrative regions resulting in disparities among Ontario's different regions. The administrative regions of Ontario are roughly coterminous with the census divisions used by Statistics Canada, although some exceptions do exist.[note 5]","title":"Government, law and politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Golden Horseshoe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Horseshoe"},{"link_name":"National Capital Region (Canada)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Capital_Region_(Canada)"},{"link_name":"Detroit–Windsor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit%E2%80%93Windsor"},{"link_name":"Census Metropolitan Area","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Census_Metropolitan_Area"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-115"},{"link_name":"Gatineau","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatineau"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ON2006MuniPops-117"}],"sub_title":"Urban areas","text":"See also: Golden Horseshoe, National Capital Region (Canada), and Detroit–WindsorStatistics Canada's measure of a \"metro area\", the Census Metropolitan Area (CMA), roughly bundles together population figures from the core municipality with those from \"commuter\" municipalities.[109]*Parts of Quebec (including Gatineau) are included in the Ottawa CMA. The population of the Ottawa CMA, in both provinces, is shown. The Ontario portion of the CMA is about 75% of the total population of the CMA.[110]Ten largest municipalities by population[111]","title":"Government, law and politics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-119"},{"link_name":"Eden High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eden_High_School"},{"link_name":"District School Board of Niagara","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/District_School_Board_of_Niagara"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"Penetanguishene Protestant Separate School Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penetanguishene_Protestant_Separate_School_Board"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-121"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-122"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ontario&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-123"},{"link_name":"Elementary schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elementary_school"},{"link_name":"secondary schools","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_school"},{"link_name":"kindergarten","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kindergarten"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-124"}],"text":"Ontario operates four publicly funded school systems, with there being both English and French equivalents of the public school system and the Catholic school system.[112] About half of Ontario's government-funded District School Boards are Catholic (37 out of 72).[113] There are some publicly funded schools with non-Catholic religious affiliation: these include Eden High School (under the District School Board of Niagara)[114] and the Burkevale Protestant Separate School (under the Penetanguishene Protestant Separate School Board).[115] Legislation regarding primary and secondary level education in Ontario is outlined in the Education Act.[116] As of 2021[update], two million children were enrolled as students within the province.[117] Elementary schools teach children enrolled in kindergarden and grades 1–8, while secondary schools teach adolescents in grades 9–12. Four and five year olds may enter kindergarten programs but are not required by law to do so until they turn six that calender year.[118]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of colleges in Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_colleges_in_Ontario"},{"link_name":"List of universities in Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Colleges and Universities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Colleges_and_Universities"},{"link_name":"Jill Dunlop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jill_Dunlop"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-125"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MTCU-Role_of_the_ministry-126"},{"link_name":"work-integrated learning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Work-integrated_learning"},{"link_name":"undergraduate degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undergraduate_degree"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"}],"sub_title":"Higher education","text":"See also: List of colleges in Ontario and List of universities in OntarioHigher education in Ontario includes postsecondary education and skills training regulated by the Ministry of Colleges and Universities, whose current minister is Jill Dunlop.[119] Recognized institutions include universities, colleges of applied arts and technology, and private career colleges.[120] While there is some overlap between the purpose of universities and colleges in Canada, they generally serve different purposes. Universities place greater emphasis on academics while colleges place greater emphasis on work-integrated learning. Both colleges and universities can offer undergraduate degree programs.[121] There are also programs that involve a partnership between a college and a university. Some students choose to attend college over university because it is the more affordable option.[122]","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Category:Works about Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Works_about_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Hollywood North","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollywood_North"},{"link_name":"Southern Ontario Gothic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Southern_Ontario_Gothic"},{"link_name":"Northern Ontario § Culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ontario#Culture"},{"link_name":"Franco-Ontarians § Culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franco-Ontarians#Culture"},{"link_name":"walleye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walleye"},{"link_name":"moose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moose"},{"link_name":"Poet Laureate of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poet_Laureate_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CBCnews-129"}],"text":"See also: Category:Works about Ontario, Hollywood North, Southern Ontario Gothic, Northern Ontario § Culture, and Franco-Ontarians § CultureOutdoor recreation is popular in Ontario and the region is home to numerous cultural events and festivals. There is no single regional dish in Ontario. Local fish and wild game, such as walleye and moose, are sometimes consumed. Poutine, a dish that originated in Quebec, is also popular in Ontario.In 2019, the government of Ontario passed legislation that established the Poet Laureate of Ontario.[123]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Royal_Ontario_Museum_in_Fall_2021.jpg"},{"link_name":"Royal Ontario Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Ontario_Museum"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"cerussite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerussite"},{"link_name":"Light of the Desert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_of_the_Desert"},{"link_name":"Nisga'a and Haida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nisga%27a_and_Haida_Crest_Poles_of_the_Royal_Ontario_Museum"},{"link_name":"Neo-Babylonian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neo-Babylonian"},{"link_name":"Striding Lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Striding_Lion"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"Ottawa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa"},{"link_name":"Canadian War Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_War_Museum"},{"link_name":"Canada's military history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_history_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"Canadian Museum of Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Museum_of_Nature"},{"link_name":"natural history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_history"},{"link_name":"Canada Science and Technology Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_Science_and_Technology_Museum"},{"link_name":"history of science and technology in Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technological_and_industrial_history_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"}],"sub_title":"Museums","text":"Royal Ontario Museum in fall of 2021The largest museum in both Ontario and Canada is the Royal Ontario Museum, located in Toronto and founded in 1912. Receiving over one million visitors each year, it is also Canada's most popular museum.[124][125] It features 40 exhibits containing \"art, culture and nature from around the world.\"[126] Iconic objects include: the world's largest faceted cerussite gem, Light of the Desert; four large totem poles, Nisga'a and Haida; and a Neo-Babylonian wall relief, Striding Lion.[127] Ontario is also home to a number of national museums, due to the location of Ottawa. These include, among others, the Canadian War Museum, dedicated to Canada's military history, the Canadian Museum of Nature, dedicated to natural history and the Canada Science and Technology Museum, dedicated to the history of science and technology in Canada.[128][129] There are also numerous other smaller, regional museums located in Ontario.[130]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Music of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Canadian art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_art"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Tragically_Hip_Star_on_Canada%27s_Walk_of_Fame.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Tragically Hip","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Tragically_Hip"},{"link_name":"Canadian music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Music_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"Toronto","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-138"},{"link_name":"Toronto Symphony Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Symphony_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sym-139"},{"link_name":"National Arts Centre Orchestra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Arts_Centre_Orchestra"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"Canadian Opera Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Opera_Company"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"Royal Conservatory of Music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Conservatory_of_Music_(Canada)"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"MuchMusic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MuchMusic"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"National Ballet of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Ballet_of_Canada"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"Roy Thomson Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roy_Thomson_Hall"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-roy-146"},{"link_name":"Massey Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massey_Hall"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-roy-146"},{"link_name":"National Arts Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Arts_Centre_(building)"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"},{"link_name":"Four Seasons Centre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four_Seasons_Centre"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-148"}],"sub_title":"Music and arts","text":"See also: Music of Ontario and Canadian artThe Tragically Hip star on Canada's Walk of Fame in TorontoOntario has a particularly prominent role in Canadian music.[131] The provincial capital city of Toronto, Canada's largest municipality,[132] In classical music, the Toronto Symphony Orchestra,[133] and the National Arts Centre Orchestra[134] are renowned internationally.[135] Many smaller Ontario cities have orchestras of their own as well. The Canadian Opera Company,[136] also based in Toronto, is the country's largest and most influential producer of opera productions. Other institutions in the province include the Royal Conservatory of Music,[137] MuchMusic,[138] National Ballet of Canada[139] and concert venues such as Roy Thomson Hall,[140] Massey Hall,[140] the National Arts Centre,[141] and the Four Seasons Centre.[142]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ontario&action=edit"},{"link_name":"daily","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daily_newspaper"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"[b]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-150"},{"link_name":"Toronto Star","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Star"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-151"},{"link_name":"newspaper of record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newspaper_of_record"},{"link_name":"The Globe and Mail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Globe_and_Mail"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-152"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-155"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"}],"sub_title":"Media","text":"As of 2022[update], Ontario has 357 newspapers, 32 of which are daily, the highest in any province.[143] Ontario is home to the largest newspaper[b] in Canada, the Toronto Star,[144] and Canada's newspaper of record, The Globe and Mail.[145][146][147][148] There are also numerous weekly newspapers for individual communities, though print publications for these papers have been on a downwards trend due to local news being shared on sites like Facebook.[149][150]","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:1997_Ontario_license_plate_CAJA%E2%99%94723.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ontario licence plate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"licence plates in Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_registration_plates_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"},{"link_name":"A Place to Stand, a Place to Grow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Place_to_Stand,_a_Place_to_Grow"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-165"},{"link_name":"A Place to Stand, a Place to Grow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_Place_to_Stand,_a_Place_to_Grow"},{"link_name":"Expo 67","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expo_67"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aplaceto-166"},{"link_name":"Canada 150","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canada_150"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-aplaceto-166"},{"link_name":"television advertising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_advertisement"},{"link_name":"Molly Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molly_Johnson"},{"link_name":"Brian Byrne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Byrne"},{"link_name":"Keshia Chanté","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keshia_Chant%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"Tomi Swick","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomi_Swick"},{"link_name":"Arkells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arkells"}],"sub_title":"Songs and slogans","text":"An Ontario licence plate with the slogan Yours to Discover at the bottom of the plateIn 1973, the first slogan to appear on licence plates in Ontario was \"Keep It Beautiful\". This was replaced by \"Yours to Discover\" in 1982,[151] which was originally used as a tourism slogan beginning in 1980.[152] Plates with the French equivalent, Tant à découvrir, were made available to the public beginning in May 2008.[153] (From 1988 to 1990,[154] \"Ontario Incredible\"[155] gave \"Yours to Discover\" a brief respite.) In 2020, as part of a licence plate redesign, the slogan was changed to \"A Place to Grow,\" inspired by the song A Place to Stand, a Place to Grow. This decision was reversed in the same year, due to visibility concerns.[156][157] The slogan on licence plates remains \"Yours to Discover\".[158]A Place to Stand, a Place to Grow is a song commissioned by the government of Ontario for its pavilion in Expo 67, and an unofficial anthem of the province.[159] As a part of the Canada 150 celebrations in 2017, the provincial government released an updated rendition.[159] In 2007, the provincial tourism agency commissioned a new song, \"There's No Place Like This\" is featured in television advertising, performed by Ontario artists including Molly Johnson, Brian Byrne, Keshia Chanté,[160] as well as Tomi Swick and Arkells.","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"baseball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseball"},{"link_name":"basketball","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basketball"},{"link_name":"Canadian football","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_football"},{"link_name":"ice hockey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ice_hockey"},{"link_name":"lacrosse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lacrosse"},{"link_name":"rugby league","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_league"},{"link_name":"rugby union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rugby_union"},{"link_name":"soccer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_football"}],"sub_title":"Professional sports","text":"The province has professional sports teams in baseball, basketball, Canadian football, ice hockey, lacrosse, rugby league, rugby union and soccer.","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Notable residents","title":"Culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Ministry of Transportation of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Transportation_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Transport Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Canada"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"}],"text":"Transportation in Ontario is under the purview of the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario and Transport Canada. Infrastructure and laws relating to road transport is the responsibility of the Ministry of Transportation, while infrastructure and laws relating to air, rail and marine transport is the responsibility of Transport Canada.[161][162]","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Toronto_Pearson_International_Airport_-_panoramio.jpg"},{"link_name":"Airport apron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airport_apron"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ontario&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Transport Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_Canada"},{"link_name":"international airports in Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_international_airports_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TCAC-170"},{"link_name":"Toronto Pearson International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Pearson_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"busiest airport in Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_the_busiest_airports_in_Canada"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-busy-171"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-move-172"},{"link_name":"Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottawa_Macdonald%E2%80%93Cartier_International_Airport"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-move-172"},{"link_name":"airports of entry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Port_of_entry#Airport_of_entry"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-173"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-174"},{"link_name":"Jazz Aviation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_Canada_Jazz"},{"link_name":"Sudbury","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Sudbury"},{"link_name":"Sault Ste. Marie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sault_Ste._Marie,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-175"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"Bearskin Airlines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bearskin_Airlines"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"},{"link_name":"Remote and isolated towns and settlements","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remote_and_isolated_community"},{"link_name":"air service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airline"},{"link_name":"ambulance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_ambulance"},{"link_name":"MEDIVAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_evacuation"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"}],"sub_title":"Air travel","text":"Airport apron of Pearson Airport, Canada's busiest airport. Control tower visible in background.As of October 2023[update], there are two Transport Canada designated international airports in Ontario[163] They are Toronto Pearson International Airport, the busiest airport in Canada,[164] handling almost 35 million passengers in 2022[165] and Ottawa Macdonald–Cartier International Airport, Ontario's second largest airport, handling over 2.5 million passengers in 2022.[165] In addition to airports in Ottawa, and Toronto, the province also operates 11 other airports of entry.[166]A number of Ontario cities also have regional airports,[167] many of which have scheduled commuter flights from Jazz Aviation or smaller airlines and charter companies – flights from mid-size cities such as Sudbury and Sault Ste. Marie, to larger airports in Toronto and Ottawa.[168][169] Bearskin Airlines also runs flights along the northerly east–west route, connecting North Bay, Sudbury, Sault Ste. Marie, and Thunder Bay directly.[170]Remote and isolated towns and settlements in the northern areas of the province rely partly or entirely on air service for travel, goods, and even ambulance services (MEDIVAC), since much of the far northern area of the province cannot be reached by road (or by year-round road) or rail.[171]","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:VIA_Rail_Belleville_0002.jpg"},{"link_name":"Belleville station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Belleville_station_(Ontario)"},{"link_name":"Via Rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Via_Rail"},{"link_name":"Quebec City–Windsor Corridor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec_City%E2%80%93Windsor_Corridor_(Via_Rail)"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-179"},{"link_name":"The Canadian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Canadian"},{"link_name":"Vancouver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vancouver"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-180"},{"link_name":"Sudbury–White River train","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudbury%E2%80%93White_River_train"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-181"},{"link_name":"Amtrak","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amtrak"},{"link_name":"Buffalo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York"},{"link_name":"Albany","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Albany,_New_York"},{"link_name":"New York City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_City"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-182"},{"link_name":"Ontario Northland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Northland_Railway"},{"link_name":"Moosonee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moosonee"},{"link_name":"James Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bay"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-183"},{"link_name":"commuter rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commuter_rail"},{"link_name":"GO Transit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GO_Transit"},{"link_name":"Union Station","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Union_Station_(Toronto)"},{"link_name":"transport hub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_hub"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-184"},{"link_name":"[178]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-185"},{"link_name":"Freight rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_freight_transport"},{"link_name":"Canadian National Railway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_National_Railway"},{"link_name":"Canadian Pacific Kansas City","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Kansas_City"},{"link_name":"CP Rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canadian_Pacific_Railway"},{"link_name":"[179]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-186"},{"link_name":"[180]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-187"},{"link_name":"Toronto Transit Commission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_Transit_Commission"},{"link_name":"subways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_subway"},{"link_name":"streetcars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toronto_streetcar_system"},{"link_name":"OC Transpo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OC_Transpo"},{"link_name":"light rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/O-Train"},{"link_name":"[181]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-188"},{"link_name":"Waterloo region","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Municipality_of_Waterloo"},{"link_name":"light rail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light_rail"},{"link_name":"Ion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ion_rapid_transit"},{"link_name":"[182]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-189"},{"link_name":"Hurontario LRT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hurontario_LRT"},{"link_name":"Regional Municipality of Peel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_Municipality_of_Peel"},{"link_name":"[183]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-190"},{"link_name":"[184]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-191"},{"link_name":"[185]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-192"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ontario_Northland_train_crosses_the_Missinaibi_River_at_Mattice-Val_C%C3%B4t%C3%A9,_Ontario.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ontario_Northland_train_crosses_the_Missinaibi_River_at_Mattice-Val_C%C3%B4t%C3%A9,_Ontario.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ontario Northland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Northland_Railway"},{"link_name":"Missinaibi River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Missinaibi_River"},{"link_name":"Mattice-Val Côté","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mattice-Val_C%C3%B4t%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Northern Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Ontario"}],"sub_title":"Railways","text":"A Via Rail train approaching Belleville stationVia Rail operates the inter-regional passenger train service on the Quebec City–Windsor Corridor,[172] along with The Canadian, a transcontinental rail service from Southern Ontario to Vancouver,[173] and the Sudbury–White River train.[174] Additionally, Amtrak rail connects Ontario with key New York cities including Buffalo, Albany, and New York City.[175] Ontario Northland provides rail service to destinations as far north as Moosonee near James Bay, connecting them with the south.[176] Regional commuter rail is limited to the provincially owned GO Transit, and serves a train-bus network spanning the Golden Horseshoe region, with Union Station in Toronto serving as the transport hub.[177][178]Freight rail is dominated by the founding cross-country Canadian National Railway and Canadian Pacific Kansas City (formerly CP Rail) companies.[179] As of 2021, there are 19,979 km of railways in operation.[180]There are several city rail-transit systems in the Province. The Toronto Transit Commission operates subways, as well as streetcars (being one of the busiest streetcar systems in North America). OC Transpo operates a light rail metro system in Ottawa.[181] In addition, Waterloo region operates a surface light rail system called Ion.[182] Construction on light rail lines, such as the Hurontario LRT, are also underway in the Regional Municipality of Peel, and are expected to be completed by late 2024.[183][184][185]Ontario Northland freight train crossing the Missinaibi River at Mattice-Val Côté in Northern Ontario","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Highway_400_Seguin.jpg"},{"link_name":"Highway 400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Highway_400"},{"link_name":"Seguin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seguin,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"400-series highways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/400-series_highway"},{"link_name":"400-series highways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/400-series_highways"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"Quebec","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quebec"},{"link_name":"Detroit–Windsor Tunnel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detroit%E2%80%93Windsor_Tunnel"},{"link_name":"Ambassador Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ambassador_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Blue Water Bridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blue_Water_Bridge"},{"link_name":"Highway 402","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Highway_402"},{"link_name":"Highway 401","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Highway_401"},{"link_name":"Highway 417","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Highway_417"},{"link_name":"Highway 400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario_Highway_400"},{"link_name":"[186]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ontario-193"},{"link_name":"[187]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Highway-194"},{"link_name":"[188]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-195"},{"link_name":"provincial highways","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_provincial_highways_in_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Trans-Canada Highway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trans-Canada_Highway"},{"link_name":"[189]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-196"},{"link_name":"[190]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-197"}],"sub_title":"Roads","text":"Highway 400 in Seguin. The roadway forms a part of the province's 400-series highways.400-series highways make up the primary vehicular network in the south of province, and they connect at a number of points to border crossings to the United States, and Quebec, the busiest being the Detroit–Windsor Tunnel and Ambassador Bridge and the Blue Water Bridge (via Highway 402). Some of the primary highways along the southern route are Highway 401, Highway 417, and Highway 400,[186][187] Highway 401 being the busiest highway in North America.[188] Other provincial highways and regional roads inter-connect the remainder of the province, and the Trans-Canada Highway connects the province to the rest of the country.[189][190]","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boat building industry in Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boat_building_industry_in_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Saint Lawrence Seaway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saint_Lawrence_Seaway"},{"link_name":"iron ore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_ore"},{"link_name":"[191]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-198"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[note 6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-199"},{"link_name":"Port of Hamilton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamilton-Oshawa_Port_Authority"},{"link_name":"Port of Thunder Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thunder_Bay_Port_Authority"},{"link_name":"[192]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-200"},{"link_name":"Moosonee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moosonee"},{"link_name":"James Bay","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Bay"},{"link_name":"[193]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-201"}],"sub_title":"Waterways","text":"See also: Boat building industry in OntarioThe Saint Lawrence Seaway, which extends across most of the southern portion of the province and connects to the Atlantic Ocean, is the primary water transportation route for cargo, particularly iron ore and grain.[191] In the past, the Great Lakes and St. Lawrence River were also a major passenger transportation route, but over the past half century passenger travel has been reduced to ferry services and sightseeing cruises.[citation needed] Ontario's three largest ports[note 6] are the Port of Hamilton, Port of Thunder Bay and the Port of Nanticoke.[192] Ontario's only saltwater port is located in the town of Moosonee on James Bay.[193]","title":"Transportation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-40"},{"link_name":"Three Sisters (agriculture)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-150"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-11"},{"link_name":"eastern half of Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Canada"},{"link_name":"Central Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_Canada"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-location-10"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-euro_66-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-71"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-inclu_75-0"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Haldimand-Norfolk_114-0"},{"link_name":"Statistics Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_Canada"},{"link_name":"Norfolk County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norfolk_County,_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Haldimand County","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haldimand_County"},{"link_name":"County of Brant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/County_of_Brant"},{"link_name":"City of Brantford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brantford"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-199"}],"text":"^ These three agricultural crops are known as the Three Sisters (agriculture)\n\n^ in weekly circulation^ Ontario is located in the geographic eastern half of Canada, but it has historically and politically been considered to be part of Central Canada.[10]\n\n^ Statistic includes all persons that did not make up part of a visible minority or an indigenous identity.\n\n^ The question on knowledge of languages allows for multiple responses.\n\n^ The following figure is taken from the province's \"Inclusive Definition of Francophones\", (IDF) which includes those whose mother tongue is French, and those whose mother tongue is not French, but have proficiency in the language, and use French as the primary language at home.\n\n^ Statistics Canada treats Norfolk County and Haldimand County as one single census division; the County of Brant and City of Brantford are also treated as one single census division. There would otherwise be 51 census divisions instead of the 49 official ones used by Statistics Canada.\n\n^ As of 2011, domestic and international tonnage","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Virtual Vault","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.collectionscanada.ca/virtual-vault/"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20071001065838/http://www.collectionscanada.ca/virtual-vault/"},{"link_name":"Wayback Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wayback_Machine"},{"link_name":"Library and Archives Canada","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Library_and_Archives_Canada"},{"link_name":"Sites of power: a concise history of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/sitesofpowerconc0000bask/"},{"link_name":"Oxford University Press","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oxford_University_Press"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780195418927","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195418927"}],"text":"Michael Sletcher, \"Ottawa\", in James Ciment, ed., Colonial America: An Encyclopedia of Social, Political, Cultural, and Economic History, (5 vols., M. E. Sharpe, New York, 2006).\nVirtual Vault Archived October 1, 2007, at the Wayback Machine, an online exhibition of Canadian historical art at Library and Archives Canada.\nBaskerville, Peter A. (2005). Sites of power: a concise history of Ontario. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780195418927.","title":"Sources"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bibliography of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibliography_of_Ontario"},{"link_name":"Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=9Jx0lQMN53sC&q=Ontario&pg=PA1"},{"link_name":"Weigl Educational Publishers Limited","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weigl_Educational_Publishers_Limited"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-894705-04-2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-894705-04-2"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210613205435/https://books.google.com/books?id=9Jx0lQMN53sC&q=Ontario&pg=PA1"},{"link_name":"Ontario, 1610–1985 : a political and economic history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/ontario16101985p0000whit"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-919670-98-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-919670-98-3"},{"link_name":"Ontario since Confederation : a reader","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=oSfenc15ISUC&q=Ontario&pg=PP1"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8020-4444-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8020-4444-0"},{"link_name":"Archived","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20210613205433/https://books.google.com/books?id=oSfenc15ISUC&q=Ontario&pg=PP1"}],"text":"For a more comprehensive list, see Bibliography of Ontario.Beckett, Harry (2001). Ontario. Weigl Educational Publishers Limited. ISBN 978-1-894705-04-2. Archived from the original on June 13, 2021. Retrieved October 19, 2020.\nWhite, Randall (1985). Ontario, 1610–1985 : a political and economic history. Dundurn Press. ISBN 978-0-919670-98-3. Ontario.\nMontigny, Edgar-André; Chambers, Anne Lorene (2000). Ontario since Confederation : a reader. University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-4444-0. Archived from the original on June 13, 2021. Retrieved October 19, 2020.\nCelebrating One Thousand Years of Ontario's History: Proceedings of the Celebrating One Thousand Years of Ontario's History Symposium, April 14, 15 and 16, 2000. Ontario Historical Society, 2000. 343 pp.\nChambers, Lori, and Edgar-Andre Montigny, eds. Ontario Since Confederation: A Reader (2000), articles by scholars.\nWinfield, Mark S. Blue-Green Province: The Environment and the Political Economy of Ontario (University of British Columbia Press; 2012) 296 pages; environmental policies since 1945.","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Typical landscape of the Canadian Shield at Queen Elizabeth II Wildlands Provincial Park, located in Central Ontario.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/BlackRiver1.JPG/220px-BlackRiver1.JPG"},{"image_text":"Köppen climate types of Ontario","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Ontario_K%C3%B6ppen.svg/290px-Ontario_K%C3%B6ppen.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Cold northwesterly wind over the Great Lakes creating lake-effect snow. Lake-effect snow most frequently occurs in the snowbelt regions of the province.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/Lake_Effect_Snow_on_Earth.jpg/220px-Lake_Effect_Snow_on_Earth.jpg"},{"image_text":"A 1755 map of the Pays d'en Haut region of New France, an area that included most of Ontario","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/1755_Bellin_Map_of_the_Great_Lakes_-_Geographicus_-_GreatLakes-bellin-1755.jpg/220px-1755_Bellin_Map_of_the_Great_Lakes_-_Geographicus_-_GreatLakes-bellin-1755.jpg"},{"image_text":"A monument in Hamilton commemorating the United Empire Loyalists, a group of settlers who fled the United States during or after the American Revolution","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/United_Empire_Loyalist_Statue_in_Hamilton%2C_Ontario.jpg/220px-United_Empire_Loyalist_Statue_in_Hamilton%2C_Ontario.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of Upper Canada, 1811","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/A_new_map_of_Upper_and_Lower_Canada_from_the_latest_authorities_-_1811.jpg/220px-A_new_map_of_Upper_and_Lower_Canada_from_the_latest_authorities_-_1811.jpg"},{"image_text":"Depiction of the Battle of Queenston Heights, during the War of 1812. Upper Canada was an active theatre of operation during the conflict.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/Push_on%2C_brave_York_volunteers%28large%29.jpg/220px-Push_on%2C_brave_York_volunteers%28large%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of Canada West from 1855. Canada West formed the western portion of the Province of Canada.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/1855_Colton_Map_of_Upper_Canada_or_Ontario_-_Geographicus_-_Ontario2-colton-1855.jpg/220px-1855_Colton_Map_of_Upper_Canada_or_Ontario_-_Geographicus_-_Ontario2-colton-1855.jpg"},{"image_text":"An animated map of the changes to the borders of Canada. The borders of Ontario were last changed in 1912.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Canada_provinces_evolution_2.gif/220px-Canada_provinces_evolution_2.gif"},{"image_text":"Oliver Mowat, Premier of Ontario from 1872 to 1896","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/78/Oliver_Mowat.jpg/220px-Oliver_Mowat.jpg"},{"image_text":"Law enforcement confiscate stores of alcohol in Elk Lake in an effort to enforce prohibition. The prohibition measures were introduced in 1916 and were not repealed until 1927.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Raid_at_elk_lake.jpg/220px-Raid_at_elk_lake.jpg"},{"image_text":"Population density of Ontario","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Ontario_Population_Density_2021.svg/220px-Ontario_Population_Density_2021.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Map of French language ability according to the 2021 census.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/Ontario_French_Ability_2021.svg/220px-Ontario_French_Ability_2021.svg.png"},{"image_text":"English and French displayed on a gantry sign. Communities with sizeable francophone populations are able to receive provincial services in French.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Hwy_416_Ottawa.JPG/220px-Hwy_416_Ottawa.JPG"},{"image_text":"Container ship at Algoma Steel. The Great Lakes provide ocean access for industries in the province's interior.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c0/2007_Ontario_Sault_Ste._Marie_Algoma_Steel.jpg/220px-2007_Ontario_Sault_Ste._Marie_Algoma_Steel.jpg"},{"image_text":"A worker at the Oakville Assembly installs a battery in an automobile. The automotive industry is a contributor to the economy of Ontario.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Oakville_Assembly.jpg/220px-Oakville_Assembly.jpg"},{"image_text":"Toronto's Financial District serves as the centre for Canada's financial services.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Toronto_from_cn_tower.jpg/220px-Toronto_from_cn_tower.jpg"},{"image_text":"Aerial view of farms in Waterloo. A significant portion of the land in Southern Ontario is used as farmland.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Waterloo%2C_Canada_%28Unsplash_v1ar8e1dOjg%29.jpg/220px-Waterloo%2C_Canada_%28Unsplash_v1ar8e1dOjg%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Vineyard, Prince Edward County","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Vineyard%2C_Prince_Edward_County_%284048276162%29.jpg/220px-Vineyard%2C_Prince_Edward_County_%284048276162%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Pickering Nuclear Generating Station is one of three nuclear power stations in Ontario.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Frenchman%27s_Bay_and_the_Pickering_Nuclear_Plant_-a.jpg/220px-Frenchman%27s_Bay_and_the_Pickering_Nuclear_Plant_-a.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Sir Adam Beck Hydroelectric Generating Stations are hydroelectric plants located in Niagara Falls.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Adam_Beck_Complex.jpg/220px-Adam_Beck_Complex.jpg"},{"image_text":"Osgoode Hall houses the Court of Appeal for Ontario, the appellate court for the province.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/One_of_Osgoode_Hall_facade_during_Doors_Open_Toronto_event%2C_2010.jpg/220px-One_of_Osgoode_Hall_facade_during_Doors_Open_Toronto_event%2C_2010.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Ontario Legislative Building at Queen's Park. The building serves as the meeting place for the Legislative Assembly of Ontario.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Ontario_Legislative_Building%2C_Toronto%2C_South_view_20170417_1.jpg/220px-Ontario_Legislative_Building%2C_Toronto%2C_South_view_20170417_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Map of the counties, regional municipalities, districts, and municipalities of Ontario.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Ontario_census_divisions_by_type.png/275px-Ontario_census_divisions_by_type.png"},{"image_text":"Royal Ontario Museum in fall of 2021","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Royal_Ontario_Museum_in_Fall_2021.jpg/220px-Royal_Ontario_Museum_in_Fall_2021.jpg"},{"image_text":"The Tragically Hip star on Canada's Walk of Fame in Toronto","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/The_Tragically_Hip_Star_on_Canada%27s_Walk_of_Fame.jpg/220px-The_Tragically_Hip_Star_on_Canada%27s_Walk_of_Fame.jpg"},{"image_text":"An Ontario licence plate with the slogan Yours to Discover at the bottom of the plate","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/1997_Ontario_license_plate_CAJA%E2%99%94723.jpg/220px-1997_Ontario_license_plate_CAJA%E2%99%94723.jpg"},{"image_text":"Airport apron of Pearson Airport, Canada's busiest airport. Control tower visible in background.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Toronto_Pearson_International_Airport_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-Toronto_Pearson_International_Airport_-_panoramio.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Via Rail train approaching Belleville station","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/VIA_Rail_Belleville_0002.jpg/220px-VIA_Rail_Belleville_0002.jpg"},{"image_text":"Highway 400 in Seguin. The roadway forms a part of the province's 400-series highways.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Highway_400_Seguin.jpg/220px-Highway_400_Seguin.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Canada portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Canada"},{"title":"Ontario portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Ontario"},{"title":"Outline of Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline_of_Ontario"},{"title":"Index of Ontario-related articles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_of_Ontario-related_articles"}]

[{"reference":"\"Ontario\". Geographical Names Data Base. Natural Resources Canada.","urls":[{"url":"https://geonames.nrcan.gc.ca/search-place-names/unique?id=FEHRI","url_text":"\"Ontario\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GeoBase_(geospatial_data)#Geographical_Names_Data_Base","url_text":"Geographical Names Data Base"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_Resources_Canada","url_text":"Natural Resources Canada"}]},{"reference":"\"Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories\". Statistics Canada. February 9, 2022. Archived from the original on February 9, 2022. Retrieved February 9, 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000101","url_text":"\"Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_Canada","url_text":"Statistics Canada"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220209134802/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000101","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories\". Statistics Canada. September 2, 2022. Archived from the original on April 11, 2023. Retrieved October 7, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000101","url_text":"\"Population and dwelling counts: Canada, provinces and territories\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statistics_Canada","url_text":"Statistics Canada"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230411183058/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=9810000101","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Population estimates, quarterly\". Statistics Canada. September 27, 2023. Archived from the original on September 28, 2023. Retrieved September 28, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000901","url_text":"\"Population estimates, quarterly\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230928010937/https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action?pid=1710000901","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Definition of Ontarian\". Collins Online Dictionary. HarperCollins Publishers. Archived from the original on October 4, 2013. Retrieved October 3, 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ontarian","url_text":"\"Definition of Ontarian\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131004234108/http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/ontarian","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"About Ontario\". Ontario.ca. Queen's Printer for Ontario. March 7, 2019. Archived from the original on January 8, 2020. Retrieved January 8, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ontario.ca/page/about-ontario","url_text":"\"About Ontario\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20200108211436/https://www.ontario.ca/page/about-ontario","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Ontario Economic Accounts\". Government of Ontario. July 13, 2023. Archived from the original on April 14, 2023. Retrieved September 15, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://data.ontario.ca/dataset/ontario-economic-accounts","url_text":"\"Ontario Economic Accounts\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230414030611/https://data.ontario.ca/dataset/ontario-economic-accounts","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Sub-national HDI – Subnational HDI – Global Data Lab\". Archived from the original on September 25, 2021. Retrieved September 8, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/shdi/CAN/?levels=1%2B4&interpolation=1&extrapolation=0&nearest_real=0&years=2021","url_text":"\"Sub-national HDI – Subnational HDI – Global Data Lab\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20210925115406/https://globaldatalab.org/shdi/shdi/CAN/?levels=1%2B4&interpolation=1&extrapolation=0&nearest_real=0&years=2019","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Get to know Canada - Provinces and territories\". Government of Canada, Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. July 12, 2017. Archived from the original on December 31, 2017. Retrieved October 7, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/new-immigrants/prepare-life-canada/provinces-territories.html","url_text":"\"Get to know Canada - Provinces and territories\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_of_Canada","url_text":"Government of Canada"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immigration,_Refugees_and_Citizenship_Canada","url_text":"Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada"},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20171231212034/https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/services/new-immigrants/prepare-life-canada/provinces-territories.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Discover Canada - Canada's Regions\". Government of Canada, Immigration, Refugees and Citizenship Canada. July 1, 2012. Archived from the original on August 6, 2023. Retrieved October 7, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/discover-canada/read-online/canadas-regions.html","url_text":"\"Discover Canada - Canada's Regions\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20230806161959/https://www.canada.ca/en/immigration-refugees-citizenship/corporate/publications-manuals/discover-canada/read-online/canadas-regions.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Table 15.7 Land and freshwater area, by province and territory\". www150.statcan.gc.ca. Retrieved November 1, 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/n1/pub/11-402-x/2010000/chap/geo/tbl/tbl07-eng.htm","url_text":"\"Table 15.7 Land and freshwater area, by province and territory\""}]},{"reference":"\"Population of census metropolitan areas (2001 Census boundaries)\". Statistics Canada. Archived from the original on July 24, 2005. Retrieved January 5, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20050724005426/http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo05a.htm","url_text":"\"Population of census metropolitan areas (2001 Census boundaries)\""},{"url":"http://www40.statcan.ca/l01/cst01/demo05a.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Canada/United States International Boundary Commission (2006). \"St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes\" (PDF). Presentation at 2006 IBRU Conference, p. 21. Durham University. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 2, 2012. Retrieved May 6, 2014.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.dur.ac.uk/resources/ibru/conferences/thailand/canada.pdf","url_text":"\"St. Lawrence River and Great Lakes\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20121102204917/http://www.dur.ac.uk/resources/ibru/conferences/thailand/canada.pdf","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Ontario Population Projections, 2018–2046\". Government of Ontario Ministry of Finance. Archived from the original on March 28, 2020. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerhard_Sessler

Gerhard M. Sessler

["1 Life","2 Publications","3 Awards","4 References","5 External links"]

German inventor and scientist Gerhard M. Sessler (born 15 February 1931 in Rosenfeld, Baden-Württemberg, Germany) is a German inventor and scientist. He is Professor emeritus at the Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology of the Technische Universität Darmstadt. Together with James E. West, he invented the foil electret microphone at Bell Laboratories in 1962 and together with Dietmar Hohm the silicon microphone in 1983. Life First patent on foil electret microphone by G. M. Sessler and J. E. West (pages 1 to 3) From 1950 to 1959, Sessler studied physics at Universities of Freiburg, Munich, and Göttingen. He received his diploma in 1957 and his Ph.D. from the University of Göttingen in 1959. After working in the United States at Bell Labs until 1975, he returned to the academia in Germany. From 1975 to 2000, he worked as a professor of electrical engineering at the Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology of the Technische Universität Darmstadt where he invented the silicon microphone. In 1999, Sessler was named Professor emeritus at the same university. He holds over 100 international patents, among them 18 US-patents. The first one, US 3,118,022, with James E. West, was issued on 14 January 1964. Sessler is the author/editor of several books on electrets and acoustics. In 2014, together with Ning Xiang, he co-edited a memorial book on Manfred R. Schroeder published by Springer. Furthermore, he is well known for his over 300 scientific papers in prestigious international magazines and journals. Gerhard Sessler was married to Renate Sessler (now deceased) and has three children: Cornelia, Christine and Gunther. Publications Sessler, Gerhard M. (1 November 2006). "Progress in electroacoustic transducer research". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 120 (5_Supplement). Acoustical Society of America (ASA): 3100. Bibcode:2006ASAJ..120.3100S. doi:10.1121/1.4787543. ISSN 0001-4966. Sessler, Gerhard M. (21 January 2006). Electrets. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-70750-9. Sessler, G. M. (1 December 1981). "Piezoelectricity in polyvinylidenefluoride". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 70 (6). Acoustical Society of America (ASA): 1596–1608. Bibcode:1981ASAJ...70.1596S. doi:10.1121/1.387225. ISSN 0001-4966. Bauer, Siegfried; Gerhard-Multhaupt, Reimund; Sessler, Gerhard M. (2004). "Ferroelectrets: Soft Electroactive Foams for Transducers". Physics Today. 57 (2). AIP Publishing: 37–43. Bibcode:2004PhT....57b..37B. doi:10.1063/1.1688068. ISSN 0031-9228. Awards Fellow of the Acoustical Society of America, 1964 Fellow of the IEEE, 1976 Fellow of the American Physical Society, 1991 George R. Stibitz Trophy of AT&T, 1993 Helmholtz-medal of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Akustik, 1993 Silver Helmholtz-Rayleigh-medal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1997 Induction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame, 1999 Technology Award of the Eduard Rhein Foundation, 2007 honorary doctorate from the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, 2010 Benjamin Franklin Medal in Electrical Engineering of The Franklin Institute, with James E. West, 2010 IEEE/RSE James Clerk Maxwell Medal, 2012 Gold Medal of the Acoustical Society of America, 2015 References ^ Elektroakustik, Fachgebiet. "Gerhard M. Sessler". Fachgebiet Elektroakustik – Technische Universität Darmstadt. Retrieved 1 November 2019. ^ Sessler, G. M.; West, J. E. (1962). "Self-biased condenser microphone with high capacitance". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 34 (11): 1787–1788. Bibcode:1962ASAJ...34.1787S. doi:10.1121/1.1909130. ^ a b Darmstadt, Technische Universität. "Gerhard M. Sessler". Technische Universität Darmstadt (in German). Retrieved 1 November 2019. ^ , "Electroacoustic transducer", issued 1962-05-22  ^ Ning Xiang and Gerhard M. Sessler: Acoustics, Information, and Communication – Memorial Volume in Honor of Manfred R. SchroederXiang, Ning; Sessler, Gerhard M, eds. (2015). "Acoustics, Information, and Communication". Acoustics, Information, and Communication – Memorial Volume in Honor of Manfred R. Schroeder, Springer 2014. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05660-9. ISBN 978-3-319-05659-3. ^ "Acoustical News—USA". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 102 (6): 3235–3238. 1 December 1997. doi:10.1121/1.4734349. ISSN 0001-4966. ^ "NIHF Inductee Gerhard Sessler and Electronic Microphone History". www.invent.org. Retrieved 1 November 2019. ^ "Eduard Rhein Stiftung | Prof. Dr. Dr.h.c. Gerhard M. Sessler". Retrieved 1 November 2019. ^ "Eduard Rhein Stiftung | Hervorragende Beiträge zur Entwicklung von Schallwandlern sowie insbesondere die Miterfindung des Elektretmikrofons und des Silizium-Kondensatormikrofons". Retrieved 1 November 2019. ^ Reinhard, Lerch; West, James E. (1 April 2015). "Acoustical Society of America Gold Medal: Gerhard M. Sessler". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 137 (4): 2353–2356. Bibcode:2015ASAJ..137.2353R. doi:10.1121/1.4920555. ISSN 0001-4966. External links "Prof. Dr. rer. nat. Dr. h.c. Gerhard M. Sessler". Fachgebiet Elektroakustik – TU Darmstadt. Retrieved 22 July 2023. Inventor Hall of Fame Profile vteAcoustic Society of America Gold Medal Wallace Waterfall (1954) Floyd A. Firestone (1955) Harvey Fletcher (1957) Edward C. Wente (1959) Georg von Békésy (1961) Robert Bruce Lindsay (1962) Hallowell Davis (1965) Vern Oliver Knudsen (1967) Frederick Vinton Hunt (1969) Warren P. Mason (1971) Philip M. Morse (1973) Leo Beranek (1975) Raymond W. B. Stephens (1977) Richard Bolt (1979) Harry F. Olson (1981) Isadore Rudnick (1982) Martin Greenspan (1983) Robert T. Beyer (1984) Laurence Batchelder (1985) James L. Flanagan (1986) Cyril M. Harris (1987) Arthur H. Benade (1988) Richard K. Cook (1988) Lothar W. Cremer (1989) Eugen J. Skudrzyk (1990) Manfred R. Schroeder (1991) Ira Hirsh (1992) David T. Blackstock (1993) David M. Green (1994) Kenneth N. Stevens (1995) Ira Dyer (1996) K. Uno Ingard (1997) Floyd Dunn (1998) Henning E. von Gierke (1999) Murray Strasberg (2000) Herman Medwin (2001) Robert E. Apfel (2002) Tony F. W. Embleton (2002) Richard H. Lyon (2003) Chester M. McKinney (2004) Allan D. Pierce (2005) James West (2006) Katherine Safford Harris (2007) Patricia K. Kuhl (2008) Thomas D. Rossing (2009) Jiri Tichy (2010) Eric E. Ungar (2011) William Kuperman (2012) Lawrence A. Crum (2013) Brian C.J. Moore (2014) Gerhard M. Sessler (2015) Whitlow Au (2016) William M. Hartmann (2017) William A. Yost (2018) Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Czech Republic Academics Google Scholar zbMATH Other IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Baden-Württemberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baden-W%C3%BCrttemberg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Professor emeritus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emeritus"},{"link_name":"Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Electrical_Engineering_and_Information_Technology_of_TU_Darmstadt"},{"link_name":"Technische Universität Darmstadt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Technische_Universit%C3%A4t_Darmstadt"},{"link_name":"James E. 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West, he invented the foil electret microphone[2] at Bell Laboratories in 1962 and together with Dietmar Hohm the silicon microphone in 1983.[3]","title":"Gerhard M. Sessler"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:US_Patent_3118022_-_Gerhard_M._Sessler_James_E._West_-_Bell_labs_-_electroacustic_transducer_-_foil_electret_condenser_microphone_1962_1964_-_pages_1-3.png"},{"link_name":"Freiburg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Freiburg"},{"link_name":"Göttingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen"},{"link_name":"diploma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diplom"},{"link_name":"University of Göttingen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_G%C3%B6ttingen"},{"link_name":"Bell Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bell_Labs"},{"link_name":"electrical engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_engineering"},{"link_name":"Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department_of_Electrical_Engineering_and_Information_Technology_of_TU_Darmstadt"},{"link_name":"Technische Universität Darmstadt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Darmstadt_University_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Darmstadt-3"},{"link_name":"Professor emeritus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Professor_emeritus"},{"link_name":"patents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patents"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"electrets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electret"},{"link_name":"acoustics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustics"},{"link_name":"Ning Xiang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ning_Xiang"},{"link_name":"Manfred R. Schroeder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manfred_R._Schroeder"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"First patent on foil electret microphone by G. M. Sessler and J. E. West (pages 1 to 3)From 1950 to 1959, Sessler studied physics at Universities of Freiburg, Munich, and Göttingen. He received his diploma in 1957 and his Ph.D. from the University of Göttingen in 1959. After working in the United States at Bell Labs until 1975, he returned to the academia in Germany. From 1975 to 2000, he worked as a professor of electrical engineering at the Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology of the Technische Universität Darmstadt where he invented the silicon microphone.[3] In 1999, Sessler was named Professor emeritus at the same university.He holds over 100 international patents, among them 18 US-patents. The first one, US 3,118,022, with James E. West, was issued on 14 January 1964.[4]Sessler is the author/editor of several books on electrets and acoustics. In 2014, together with Ning Xiang, he co-edited a memorial book on Manfred R. Schroeder published by Springer.[5] Furthermore, he is well known for his over 300 scientific papers in prestigious international magazines and journals.Gerhard Sessler was married to Renate Sessler (now deceased) and has three children: Cornelia, Christine and Gunther.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2006ASAJ..120.3100S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ASAJ..120.3100S"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1121/1.4787543","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1121%2F1.4787543"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0001-4966","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0001-4966"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-540-70750-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-70750-9"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1981ASAJ...70.1596S","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981ASAJ...70.1596S"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1121/1.387225","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1121%2F1.387225"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0001-4966","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0001-4966"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2004PhT....57b..37B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PhT....57b..37B"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1063/1.1688068","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1688068"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0031-9228","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9228"}],"text":"Sessler, Gerhard M. (1 November 2006). \"Progress in electroacoustic transducer research\". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 120 (5_Supplement). Acoustical Society of America (ASA): 3100. Bibcode:2006ASAJ..120.3100S. doi:10.1121/1.4787543. ISSN 0001-4966.\nSessler, Gerhard M. (21 January 2006). Electrets. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-70750-9.\nSessler, G. M. (1 December 1981). \"Piezoelectricity in polyvinylidenefluoride\". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 70 (6). Acoustical Society of America (ASA): 1596–1608. Bibcode:1981ASAJ...70.1596S. doi:10.1121/1.387225. ISSN 0001-4966.\nBauer, Siegfried; Gerhard-Multhaupt, Reimund; Sessler, Gerhard M. (2004). \"Ferroelectrets: Soft Electroactive Foams for Transducers\". Physics Today. 57 (2). AIP Publishing: 37–43. Bibcode:2004PhT....57b..37B. doi:10.1063/1.1688068. ISSN 0031-9228.","title":"Publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Acoustical Society of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustical_Society_of_America"},{"link_name":"IEEE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers"},{"link_name":"American Physical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Physical_Society"},{"link_name":"George R. Stibitz Trophy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=George_R._Stibitz_Trophy&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"AT&T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AT%26T"},{"link_name":"Deutsche Gesellschaft für Akustik","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deutsche_Gesellschaft_f%C3%BCr_Akustik"},{"link_name":"Silver Helmholtz-Rayleigh-medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASA_Silver_Medal"},{"link_name":"Acoustical Society of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acoustical_Society_of_America"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"National Inventors Hall of Fame","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Inventors_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Technology Award","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Rhein_Award"},{"link_name":"Eduard Rhein Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eduard_Rhein_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"National Academy of Sciences of Belarus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academy_of_Sciences_of_Belarus"},{"link_name":"Benjamin Franklin Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Franklin_Institute_Awards"},{"link_name":"The Franklin Institute","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Franklin_Institute"},{"link_name":"James E. West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_West_(inventor)"},{"link_name":"IEEE/RSE James Clerk Maxwell Medal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE/RSE_James_Clerk_Maxwell_Medal"},{"link_name":"Gold Medal of the Acoustical Society of America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ASA_Gold_Medal"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"Fellow of the Acoustical Society of America, 1964\nFellow of the IEEE, 1976\nFellow of the American Physical Society, 1991\nGeorge R. Stibitz Trophy of AT&T, 1993\nHelmholtz-medal of the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Akustik, 1993\nSilver Helmholtz-Rayleigh-medal of the Acoustical Society of America, 1997[6]\nInduction into the National Inventors Hall of Fame, 1999[7]\nTechnology Award of the Eduard Rhein Foundation, 2007[8][9]\nhonorary doctorate from the National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, 2010\nBenjamin Franklin Medal in Electrical Engineering of The Franklin Institute, with James E. West, 2010\nIEEE/RSE James Clerk Maxwell Medal, 2012\nGold Medal of the Acoustical Society of America, 2015[10]","title":"Awards"}]

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[{"reference":"Sessler, Gerhard M. (1 November 2006). \"Progress in electroacoustic transducer research\". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 120 (5_Supplement). Acoustical Society of America (ASA): 3100. Bibcode:2006ASAJ..120.3100S. doi:10.1121/1.4787543. ISSN 0001-4966.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2006ASAJ..120.3100S","url_text":"2006ASAJ..120.3100S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.4787543","url_text":"10.1121/1.4787543"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0001-4966","url_text":"0001-4966"}]},{"reference":"Sessler, Gerhard M. (21 January 2006). Electrets. Springer Science & Business Media. ISBN 978-3-540-70750-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-70750-9","url_text":"978-3-540-70750-9"}]},{"reference":"Sessler, G. M. (1 December 1981). \"Piezoelectricity in polyvinylidenefluoride\". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 70 (6). Acoustical Society of America (ASA): 1596–1608. Bibcode:1981ASAJ...70.1596S. doi:10.1121/1.387225. ISSN 0001-4966.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1981ASAJ...70.1596S","url_text":"1981ASAJ...70.1596S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.387225","url_text":"10.1121/1.387225"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0001-4966","url_text":"0001-4966"}]},{"reference":"Bauer, Siegfried; Gerhard-Multhaupt, Reimund; Sessler, Gerhard M. (2004). \"Ferroelectrets: Soft Electroactive Foams for Transducers\". Physics Today. 57 (2). AIP Publishing: 37–43. Bibcode:2004PhT....57b..37B. doi:10.1063/1.1688068. ISSN 0031-9228.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2004PhT....57b..37B","url_text":"2004PhT....57b..37B"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.1688068","url_text":"10.1063/1.1688068"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0031-9228","url_text":"0031-9228"}]},{"reference":"Elektroakustik, Fachgebiet. \"Gerhard M. Sessler\". Fachgebiet Elektroakustik – Technische Universität Darmstadt. Retrieved 1 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ea.tu-darmstadt.de/elektroakustik_nt/personal_ea_nt/detail_mitarbeiter_ea_nt_2_22656.en.jsp","url_text":"\"Gerhard M. Sessler\""}]},{"reference":"Sessler, G. M.; West, J. E. (1962). \"Self-biased condenser microphone with high capacitance\". Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 34 (11): 1787–1788. Bibcode:1962ASAJ...34.1787S. doi:10.1121/1.1909130.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1962ASAJ...34.1787S","url_text":"1962ASAJ...34.1787S"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.1909130","url_text":"10.1121/1.1909130"}]},{"reference":"Darmstadt, Technische Universität. \"Gerhard M. Sessler\". Technische Universität Darmstadt (in German). Retrieved 1 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.tu-darmstadt.de/universitaet/mitten_in_der_gesellschaft/geschichte_persoenlichkeiten/persoenlichkeiten_1/gerhard_m_sessler/index.de.jsp","url_text":"\"Gerhard M. Sessler\""}]},{"reference":"Xiang, Ning; Sessler, Gerhard M, eds. (2015). \"Acoustics, Information, and Communication\". Acoustics, Information, and Communication – Memorial Volume in Honor of Manfred R. Schroeder, Springer 2014. doi:10.1007/978-3-319-05660-9. ISBN 978-3-319-05659-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-05660-9","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-319-05660-9"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-05659-3","url_text":"978-3-319-05659-3"}]},{"reference":"\"Acoustical News—USA\". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 102 (6): 3235–3238. 1 December 1997. doi:10.1121/1.4734349. ISSN 0001-4966.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.4734349","url_text":"\"Acoustical News—USA\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1121%2F1.4734349","url_text":"10.1121/1.4734349"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0001-4966","url_text":"0001-4966"}]},{"reference":"\"NIHF Inductee Gerhard Sessler and Electronic Microphone History\". www.invent.org. Retrieved 1 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.invent.org/inductees/gerhard-m-sessler","url_text":"\"NIHF Inductee Gerhard Sessler and Electronic Microphone History\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eduard Rhein Stiftung | Prof. Dr. Dr.h.c. Gerhard M. Sessler\". Retrieved 1 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eduard-rhein-stiftung.de/awardee/prof-dr-dr-h-c-gerhard-m-sessler/","url_text":"\"Eduard Rhein Stiftung | Prof. Dr. Dr.h.c. Gerhard M. Sessler\""}]},{"reference":"\"Eduard Rhein Stiftung | Hervorragende Beiträge zur Entwicklung von Schallwandlern sowie insbesondere die Miterfindung des Elektretmikrofons und des Silizium-Kondensatormikrofons\". Retrieved 1 November 2019.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.eduard-rhein-stiftung.de/hervorragende-beitrage-zur-entwicklung-von-schallwandlern-sowie-insbesondere-die-miterfindung-des-elektretmikrofons-und-des-silizium-kondensatormikrofons/","url_text":"\"Eduard Rhein Stiftung | Hervorragende Beiträge zur Entwicklung von Schallwandlern sowie insbesondere die Miterfindung des Elektretmikrofons und des Silizium-Kondensatormikrofons\""}]},{"reference":"Reinhard, Lerch; West, James E. (1 April 2015). \"Acoustical Society of America Gold Medal: Gerhard M. Sessler\". The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America. 137 (4): 2353–2356. Bibcode:2015ASAJ..137.2353R. doi:10.1121/1.4920555. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation_rate

Symbol rate

["1 Symbols","1.1 Relationship to gross bit rate","1.2 Modems for passband transmission","1.3 Line codes for baseband transmission","1.4 Digital television and OFDM example","1.5 Relationship to chip rate","1.6 Relationship to bit error rate","2 Modulation","2.1 Binary modulation","2.2 N-ary modulation, N greater than 2","2.3 Not power of 2","2.4 Data rate versus error rate","3 Significant condition","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Symbol rate" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (October 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Rate of modulation of a digital signal In a digitally modulated signal or a line code, symbol rate, modulation rate or baud rate is the number of symbol changes, waveform changes, or signaling events across the transmission medium per unit of time. The symbol rate is measured in baud (Bd) or symbols per second. In the case of a line code, the symbol rate is the pulse rate in pulses per second. Each symbol can represent or convey one or several bits of data. The symbol rate is related to the gross bit rate, expressed in bits per second. Symbols A symbol may be described as either a pulse in digital baseband transmission or a tone in passband transmission using modems. A symbol is a waveform, a state or a significant condition of the communication channel that persists, for a fixed period of time. A sending device places symbols on the channel at a fixed and known symbol rate, and the receiving device has the job of detecting the sequence of symbols in order to reconstruct the transmitted data. There may be a direct correspondence between a symbol and a small unit of data. For example, each symbol may encode one or several binary digits (bits). The data may also be represented by the transitions between symbols, or even by a sequence of many symbols. The symbol duration time, also known as unit interval, can be directly measured as the time between transitions by looking into an eye diagram of an oscilloscope. The symbol duration time Ts can be calculated as: T s = 1 f s {\displaystyle T_{s}={1 \over f_{s}}} where fs is the symbol rate. For example, a baud rate of 1 kBd = 1,000 Bd is synonymous to a symbol rate of 1,000 symbols per second. In case of a modem, this corresponds to 1,000 tones per second, and in case of a line code, this corresponds to 1,000 pulses per second. The symbol duration time is 1/1,000 second = 1 millisecond. Relationship to gross bit rate The term baud rate has sometimes incorrectly been used to mean bit rate, since these rates are the same in old modems as well as in the simplest digital communication links using only one bit per symbol, such that binary "0" is represented by one symbol, and binary "1" by another symbol. In more advanced modems and data transmission techniques, a symbol may have more than two states, so it may represent more than one binary digit (a binary digit always represents one of exactly two states). For this reason, the baud rate value will often be lower than the gross bit rate. Example of use and misuse of "baud rate": It is correct to write "the baud rate of my COM port is 9,600" if we mean that the bit rate is 9,600 bit/s, since there is one bit per symbol in this case. It is not correct to write "the baud rate of Ethernet is 100 megabaud" or "the baud rate of my modem is 56,000" if we mean bit rate. See below for more details on these techniques. The difference between baud (or signaling rate) and the data rate (or bit rate) is like a man using a single semaphore flag who can move his arm to a new position once each second, so his signaling rate (baud) is one symbol per second. The flag can be held in one of eight distinct positions: Straight up, 45° left, 90° left, 135° left, straight down (which is the rest state, where he is sending no signal), 135° right, 90° right, and 45° right. Each signal (symbol) carries three bits of information. It takes three binary digits to encode eight states. The data rate is three bits per second. In the Navy, more than one flag pattern and arm can be used at once, so the combinations of these produce many symbols, each conveying several bits, a higher data rate. If N bits are conveyed per symbol, and the gross bit rate is R, inclusive of channel coding overhead, the symbol rate can be calculated as: f s = R N {\displaystyle f_{s}={R \over N}} In that case M = 2N different symbols are used. In a modem, these may be sinewave tones with unique combinations of amplitude, phase and/or frequency. For example, in a 64QAM modem, M = 64. In a line code, these may be M different voltage levels. By taking information per pulse N in bit/pulse to be the base-2-logarithm of the number of distinct messages M that could be sent, Hartley constructed a measure of the gross bit rate R as: R = f s log 2 ⁡ ( M ) {\displaystyle R=f_{s}\log _{2}(M)} where fs is the baud rate in symbols/second or pulses/second. (See Hartley's law). Modems for passband transmission Modulation is used in passband filtered channels such as telephone lines, radio channels and other frequency division multiplex (FDM) channels. In a digital modulation method provided by a modem, each symbol is typically a sine wave tone with a certain frequency, amplitude and phase. Symbol rate, baud rate, is the number of transmitted tones per second. One symbol can carry one or several bits of information. In voiceband modems for the telephone network, it is common for one symbol to carry up to 7 bits. Conveying more than one bit per symbol or bit per pulse has advantages. It reduces the time required to send a given quantity of data over a limited bandwidth. A high spectral efficiency in (bit/s)/Hz can be achieved; i.e., a high bit rate in bit/s although the bandwidth in hertz may be low. The maximum baud rate for a passband for common modulation methods such as QAM, PSK and OFDM is approximately equal to the passband bandwidth. Voiceband modem examples: A V.22bis modem transmits 2400 bit/s using 1200 Bd (1200 symbol/s), where each quadrature amplitude modulation symbol carries two bits of information. The modem can generate M=22=4 different symbols. It requires a bandwidth of 1200 Hz (equal to the baud rate). The carrier frequency is 1800 Hz, meaning that the lower cut off frequency is 1,800 − 1,200/2 = 1,200 Hz, and the upper cutoff frequency is 1,800 + 1,200/2 = 2,400 Hz. A V.34 modem may transmit symbols at a baud rate of 3,420 Bd, and each symbol can carry up to ten bits, resulting in a gross bit rate of 3420 × 10 = 34,200 bit/s. However, the modem is said to operate at a net bit rate of 33,800 bit/s, excluding physical layer overhead. Line codes for baseband transmission In case of a baseband channel such as a telegraph line, a serial cable or a Local Area Network twisted pair cable, data is transferred using line codes; i.e., pulses rather than sinewave tones. In this case, the baud rate is synonymous to the pulse rate in pulses/second. The maximum baud rate or pulse rate for a base band channel is called the Nyquist rate, and is double the bandwidth (double the cut-off frequency). The simplest digital communication links (such as individual wires on a motherboard or the RS-232 serial port/COM port) typically have a symbol rate equal to the gross bit rate. Common communication links such as 10 Mbit/s Ethernet (10BASE-T), USB, and FireWire typically have a data bit rate slightly lower than the baud rate, due to the overhead of extra non-data symbols used for self-synchronizing code and error detection. J. M. Emile Baudot (1845–1903) worked out a five-bit code for telegraphs which was standardized internationally and is commonly called Baudot code. More than two voltage levels are used in advanced techniques such as FDDI and 100/1,000 Mbit/s Ethernet LANs, and others, to achieve high data rates. 1,000 Mbit/s Ethernet LAN cables use four wire pairs in full duplex (250 Mbit/s per pair in both directions simultaneously), and many bits per symbol to encode their data payloads. Digital television and OFDM example In digital television transmission the symbol rate calculation is: symbol rate in symbols per second = (Data rate in bits per second × 204) / (188 × bits per symbol) The 204 is the number of bytes in a packet including the 16 trailing Reed–Solomon error correction bytes. The 188 is the number of data bytes (187 bytes) plus the leading packet sync byte (0x47). The bits per symbol is the (modulation's power of 2) × (Forward Error Correction). So for example, in 64-QAM modulation 64 = 26 so the bits per symbol is 6. The Forward Error Correction (FEC) is usually expressed as a fraction; i.e., 1/2, 3/4, etc. In the case of 3/4 FEC, for every 3 bits of data, you are sending out 4 bits, one of which is for error correction. Example: given bit rate = 18096263 Modulation type = 64-QAM FEC = 3/4 then symbol rate = 18096263 6 ⋅ 3 4   204 188 = 18096263 6   4 3   204 188 = 4363638 {\displaystyle {\text{symbol rate}}={\cfrac {18096263}{6\cdot {\frac {3}{4}}}}~{\cfrac {204}{188}}={\cfrac {18096263}{6}}~{\cfrac {4}{3}}~{\cfrac {204}{188}}=4363638} In digital terrestrial television (DVB-T, DVB-H and similar techniques) OFDM modulation is used; i.e., multi-carrier modulation. The above symbol rate should then be divided by the number of OFDM sub-carriers in view to achieve the OFDM symbol rate. See the OFDM system comparison table for further numerical details. Relationship to chip rate Some communication links (such as GPS transmissions, CDMA cell phones, and other spread spectrum links) have a symbol rate much higher than the data rate (they transmit many symbols called chips per data bit). Representing one bit by a chip sequence of many symbols overcomes co-channel interference from other transmitters sharing the same frequency channel, including radio jamming, and is common in military radio and cell phones. Despite the fact that using more bandwidth to carry the same bit rate gives low channel spectral efficiency in (bit/s)/Hz, it allows many simultaneous users, which results in high system spectral efficiency in (bit/s)/Hz per unit of area. In these systems, the symbol rate of the physically transmitted high-frequency signal rate is called chip rate, which also is the pulse rate of the equivalent base band signal. However, in spread spectrum systems, the term symbol may also be used at a higher layer and refer to one information bit, or a block of information bits that are modulated using for example conventional QAM modulation, before the CDMA spreading code is applied. Using the latter definition, the symbol rate is equal to or lower than the bit rate. Relationship to bit error rate The disadvantage of conveying many bits per symbol is that the receiver has to distinguish many signal levels or symbols from each other, which may be difficult and cause bit errors in case of a poor phone line that suffers from low signal-to-noise ratio. In that case, a modem or network adapter may automatically choose a slower and more robust modulation scheme or line code, using fewer bits per symbol, in view to reduce the bit error rate. An optimal symbol set design takes into account channel bandwidth, desired information rate, noise characteristics of the channel and the receiver, and receiver and decoder complexity. Modulation Many data transmission systems operate by the modulation of a carrier signal. For example, in frequency-shift keying (FSK), the frequency of a tone is varied among a small, fixed set of possible values. In a synchronous data transmission system, the tone can only be changed from one frequency to another at regular and well-defined intervals. The presence of one particular frequency during one of these intervals constitutes a symbol. (The concept of symbols does not apply to asynchronous data transmission systems.) In a modulated system, the term modulation rate may be used synonymously with symbol rate. Binary modulation If the carrier signal has only two states, then only one bit of data (i.e., a 0 or 1) can be transmitted in each symbol. The bit rate is in this case equal to the symbol rate. For example, a binary FSK system would allow the carrier to have one of two frequencies, one representing a 0 and the other a 1. A more practical scheme is differential binary phase-shift keying, in which the carrier remains at the same frequency, but can be in one of two phases. During each symbol, the phase either remains the same, encoding a 0, or jumps by 180°, encoding a 1. Again, only one bit of data (i.e., a 0 or 1) is transmitted by each symbol. This is an example of data being encoded in the transitions between symbols (the change in phase), rather than the symbols themselves (the actual phase). (The reason for this in phase-shift keying is that it is impractical to know the reference phase of the transmitter.) N-ary modulation, N greater than 2 By increasing the number of states that the carrier signal can take, the number of bits encoded in each symbol can be greater than one. The bit rate can then be greater than the symbol rate. For example, a differential phase-shift keying system might allow four possible jumps in phase between symbols. Then two bits could be encoded at each symbol interval, achieving a data rate of double the symbol rate. In a more complex scheme such as 16-QAM, four bits of data are transmitted in each symbol, resulting in a bit rate of four times the symbol rate. Not power of 2 Although it is common to choose the number of symbols to be a power of 2 and send an integer number of bits per baud, this is not required. Line codes such as bipolar encoding and MLT-3 use three carrier states to encode one bit per baud while maintaining DC balance. The 4B3T line code uses three 3-ary modulated bits to transmit four data bits, a rate of 1.33 bits per baud. Data rate versus error rate Modulating a carrier increases the frequency range, or bandwidth, it occupies. Transmission channels are generally limited in the bandwidth they can carry. The bandwidth depends on the symbol (modulation) rate (not directly on the bit rate). As the bit rate is the product of the symbol rate and the number of bits encoded in each symbol, it is clearly advantageous to increase the latter if the former is fixed. However, for each additional bit encoded in a symbol, the constellation of symbols (the number of states of the carrier) doubles in size. This makes the states less distinct from one another which in turn makes it more difficult for the receiver to detect the symbol correctly in the presence of disturbances on the channel. The history of modems is the attempt at increasing the bit rate over a fixed bandwidth (and therefore a fixed maximum symbol rate), leading to increasing bits per symbol. For example, ITU-T V.29 specifies 4 bits per symbol, at a symbol rate of 2,400 baud, giving an effective bit rate of 9,600 bits per second. The history of spread spectrum goes in the opposite direction, leading to fewer and fewer data bits per symbol in order to spread the bandwidth. In the case of GPS, we have a data rate of 50 bit/s and a symbol rate of 1.023 Mchips/s. If each chip is considered a symbol, each symbol contains far less than one bit (50 bit/s / 1,023 ksymbols/s ≈ 0.000,05 bits/symbol). The complete collection of M possible symbols over a particular channel is called a M-ary modulation scheme. Most modulation schemes transmit some integer number of bits per symbol b, requiring the complete collection to contain M = 2b different symbols. Most popular modulation schemes can be described by showing each point on a constellation diagram, although a few modulation schemes (such as MFSK, DTMF, pulse-position modulation, spread spectrum modulation) require a different description. Significant condition In telecommunication, concerning the modulation of a carrier, a significant condition is one of the signal's parameters chosen to represent information. A significant condition could be an electric current (voltage, or power level), an optical power level, a phase value, or a particular frequency or wavelength. The duration of a significant condition is the time interval between successive significant instants. A change from one significant condition to another is called a signal transition. Information can be transmitted either during the given time interval, or encoded as the presence or absence of a change in the received signal. Significant conditions are recognized by an appropriate device called a receiver, demodulator, or decoder. The decoder translates the actual signal received into its intended logical value such as a binary digit (0 or 1), an alphabetic character, a mark, or a space. Each significant instant is determined when the appropriate device assumes a condition or state usable for performing a specific function, such as recording, processing, or gating. See also Bandwidth (computing) Bitrate Chip rate Constellation diagram, which shows (on a graph or 2D oscilloscope image) how a given signal state (a symbol) can represent three or four bits at once. Gross bit rate, also known as data signaling rate or line rate. List of device bandwidths Pulse-code modulation Signaling rate References ^ D. A. Bell (1962). Information Theory; and its Engineering Applications (3rd ed.). New York: Pitman. ^ Goldsmith A. Wireless communications. – Stanford University, 2004. - p. 140, 326 ^ a b c "Federal Standard 1037C". National Communications System. July 7, 1996. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ "System Design and Engineering Standard for Tactical Communications". Mil-STD-188-200. United States Department of Defense. May 28, 1983. External links What is the Symbol rate? "On the origins of serial communications and data encoding". Archived from the original on December 5, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2007. What’s The Difference Between Bit Rate And Baud Rate?, Electronic Design Magazine

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The symbol duration time is 1/1,000 second = 1 millisecond.","title":"Symbols"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"modems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"megabaud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabaud"},{"link_name":"semaphore flag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flag_semaphore"},{"link_name":"binary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_numeral_system"},{"link_name":"64QAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/64QAM"},{"link_name":"logarithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logarithm"},{"link_name":"Hartley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ralph_Hartley"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Hartley's law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hartley%27s_law"}],"sub_title":"Relationship to gross bit rate","text":"The term baud rate has sometimes incorrectly been used to mean bit rate, since these rates are the same in old modems as well as in the simplest digital communication links using only one bit per symbol, such that binary \"0\" is represented by one symbol, and binary \"1\" by another symbol. In more advanced modems and data transmission techniques, a symbol may have more than two states, so it may represent more than one binary digit (a binary digit always represents one of exactly two states). For this reason, the baud rate value will often be lower than the gross bit rate.Example of use and misuse of \"baud rate\": It is correct to write \"the baud rate of my COM port is 9,600\" if we mean that the bit rate is 9,600 bit/s, since there is one bit per symbol in this case. It is not correct to write \"the baud rate of Ethernet is 100 megabaud\" or \"the baud rate of my modem is 56,000\" if we mean bit rate. See below for more details on these techniques.The difference between baud (or signaling rate) and the data rate (or bit rate) is like a man using a single semaphore flag who can move his arm to a new position once each second, so his signaling rate (baud) is one symbol per second. The flag can be held in one of eight distinct positions: Straight up, 45° left, 90° left, 135° left, straight down (which is the rest state, where he is sending no signal), 135° right, 90° right, and 45° right. Each signal (symbol) carries three bits of information. It takes three binary digits to encode eight states. The data rate is three bits per second. In the Navy, more than one flag pattern and arm can be used at once, so the combinations of these produce many symbols, each conveying several bits, a higher data rate.If N bits are conveyed per symbol, and the gross bit rate is R, inclusive of channel coding overhead, the symbol rate can be calculated as:f\n \n s\n \n \n =\n \n \n R\n N\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle f_{s}={R \\over N}}In that case M = 2N different symbols are used. In a modem, these may be sinewave tones with unique combinations of amplitude, phase and/or frequency. For example, in a 64QAM modem, M = 64. In a line code, these may be M different voltage levels.By taking information per pulse N in bit/pulse to be the base-2-logarithm of the number of distinct messages M that could be sent, Hartley[1] constructed a measure of the gross bit rate R as:R\n =\n \n f\n \n s\n \n \n \n log\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n (\n M\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R=f_{s}\\log _{2}(M)}where fs is the baud rate in symbols/second or pulses/second. (See Hartley's law).","title":"Symbols"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"passband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passband"},{"link_name":"frequency division multiplex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency_division_multiplex"},{"link_name":"modem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"spectral efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectral_efficiency"},{"link_name":"QAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/QAM"},{"link_name":"PSK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-shift_keying"},{"link_name":"OFDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDM"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"V.22bis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-T_V.22bis"},{"link_name":"quadrature amplitude modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quadrature_amplitude_modulation"},{"link_name":"information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_theory"},{"link_name":"carrier frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_frequency"},{"link_name":"V.34","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-T_V.34"}],"sub_title":"Modems for passband transmission","text":"Modulation is used in passband filtered channels such as telephone lines, radio channels and other frequency division multiplex (FDM) channels.In a digital modulation method provided by a modem, each symbol is typically a sine wave tone with a certain frequency, amplitude and phase. Symbol rate, baud rate, is the number of transmitted tones per second.One symbol can carry one or several bits of information. In voiceband modems for the telephone network, it is common for one symbol to carry up to 7 bits.Conveying more than one bit per symbol or bit per pulse has advantages. It reduces the time required to send a given quantity of data over a limited bandwidth. A high spectral efficiency in (bit/s)/Hz can be achieved; i.e., a high bit rate in bit/s although the bandwidth in hertz may be low.The maximum baud rate for a passband for common modulation methods such as QAM, PSK and OFDM is approximately equal to the passband bandwidth.[2]Voiceband modem examples:A V.22bis modem transmits 2400 bit/s using 1200 Bd (1200 symbol/s), where each quadrature amplitude modulation symbol carries two bits of information. The modem can generate M=22=4 different symbols. It requires a bandwidth of 1200 Hz (equal to the baud rate). The carrier frequency is 1800 Hz, meaning that the lower cut off frequency is 1,800 − 1,200/2 = 1,200 Hz, and the upper cutoff frequency is 1,800 + 1,200/2 = 2,400 Hz.\nA V.34 modem may transmit symbols at a baud rate of 3,420 Bd, and each symbol can carry up to ten bits, resulting in a gross bit rate of 3420 × 10 = 34,200 bit/s. However, the modem is said to operate at a net bit rate of 33,800 bit/s, excluding physical layer overhead.","title":"Symbols"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"baseband","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baseband"},{"link_name":"pulses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"base band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_band"},{"link_name":"Nyquist rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nyquist_rate"},{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"10BASE-T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/10BASE-T"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"},{"link_name":"FireWire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FireWire"},{"link_name":"self-synchronizing code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Self-synchronizing_code"},{"link_name":"error detection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Error_detection"},{"link_name":"Baudot code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Baudot_code"},{"link_name":"FDDI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FDDI"},{"link_name":"Mbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Megabit"},{"link_name":"full duplex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_duplex"}],"sub_title":"Line codes for baseband transmission","text":"In case of a baseband channel such as a telegraph line, a serial cable or a Local Area Network twisted pair cable, data is transferred using line codes; i.e., pulses rather than sinewave tones. In this case, the baud rate is synonymous to the pulse rate in pulses/second.The maximum baud rate or pulse rate for a base band channel is called the Nyquist rate, and is double the bandwidth (double the cut-off frequency).The simplest digital communication links (such as individual wires on a motherboard or the RS-232 serial port/COM port) typically have a symbol rate equal to the gross bit rate.Common communication links such as 10 Mbit/s Ethernet (10BASE-T), USB, and FireWire typically have a data bit rate slightly lower than the baud rate, due to the overhead of extra non-data symbols used for self-synchronizing code and error detection.J. M. Emile Baudot (1845–1903) worked out a five-bit code for telegraphs which was standardized internationally and is commonly called Baudot code.More than two voltage levels are used in advanced techniques such as FDDI and 100/1,000 Mbit/s Ethernet LANs, and others, to achieve high data rates.1,000 Mbit/s Ethernet LAN cables use four wire pairs in full duplex (250 Mbit/s per pair in both directions simultaneously), and many bits per symbol to encode their data payloads.","title":"Symbols"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"digital television","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_television"},{"link_name":"Reed–Solomon error correction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reed%E2%80%93Solomon_error_correction"},{"link_name":"sync byte","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syncword"},{"link_name":"DVB-T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVB-T"},{"link_name":"DVB-H","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DVB-H"},{"link_name":"OFDM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDM"},{"link_name":"OFDM system comparison table","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OFDM_system_comparison_table"}],"sub_title":"Digital television and OFDM example","text":"In digital television transmission the symbol rate calculation is:symbol rate in symbols per second = (Data rate in bits per second × 204) / (188 × bits per symbol)The 204 is the number of bytes in a packet including the 16 trailing Reed–Solomon error correction bytes. The 188 is the number of data bytes (187 bytes) plus the leading packet sync byte (0x47).The bits per symbol is the (modulation's power of 2) × (Forward Error Correction). So for example, in 64-QAM modulation 64 = 26 so the bits per symbol is 6. The Forward Error Correction (FEC) is usually expressed as a fraction; i.e., 1/2, 3/4, etc. In the case of 3/4 FEC, for every 3 bits of data, you are sending out 4 bits, one of which is for error correction.Example:given bit rate = 18096263\nModulation type = 64-QAM\nFEC = 3/4thensymbol rate\n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 18096263\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 6\n ⋅\n \n \n 3\n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n  \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 204\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 188\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 18096263\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 6\n \n \n \n \n \n  \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 4\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n \n  \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 204\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 188\n \n \n \n \n \n =\n 4363638\n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\text{symbol rate}}={\\cfrac {18096263}{6\\cdot {\\frac {3}{4}}}}~{\\cfrac {204}{188}}={\\cfrac {18096263}{6}}~{\\cfrac {4}{3}}~{\\cfrac {204}{188}}=4363638}In digital terrestrial television (DVB-T, DVB-H and similar techniques) OFDM modulation is used; i.e., multi-carrier modulation. The above symbol rate should then be divided by the number of OFDM sub-carriers in view to achieve the OFDM symbol rate. See the OFDM system comparison table for further numerical details.","title":"Symbols"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"GPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPS"},{"link_name":"CDMA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CDMA"},{"link_name":"spread spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_spectrum"},{"link_name":"chips","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chip_(CDMA)"},{"link_name":"co-channel interference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Co-channel_interference"},{"link_name":"radio jamming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_jamming"},{"link_name":"military radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Military_radio"},{"link_name":"cell phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_phone"},{"link_name":"bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"channel spectral efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_spectral_efficiency"},{"link_name":"system spectral efficiency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_spectral_efficiency"},{"link_name":"chip rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chip_rate"},{"link_name":"base band","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Base_band"}],"sub_title":"Relationship to chip rate","text":"Some communication links (such as GPS transmissions, CDMA cell phones, and other spread spectrum links) have a symbol rate much higher than the data rate (they transmit many symbols called chips per data bit). Representing one bit by a chip sequence of many symbols overcomes co-channel interference from other transmitters sharing the same frequency channel, including radio jamming, and is common in military radio and cell phones. Despite the fact that using more bandwidth to carry the same bit rate gives low channel spectral efficiency in (bit/s)/Hz, it allows many simultaneous users, which results in high system spectral efficiency in (bit/s)/Hz per unit of area.In these systems, the symbol rate of the physically transmitted high-frequency signal rate is called chip rate, which also is the pulse rate of the equivalent base band signal. However, in spread spectrum systems, the term symbol may also be used at a higher layer and refer to one information bit, or a block of information bits that are modulated using for example conventional QAM modulation, before the CDMA spreading code is applied. Using the latter definition, the symbol rate is equal to or lower than the bit rate.","title":"Symbols"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Relationship to bit error rate","text":"The disadvantage of conveying many bits per symbol is that the receiver has to distinguish many signal levels or symbols from each other, which may be difficult and cause bit errors in case of a poor phone line that suffers from low signal-to-noise ratio. In that case, a modem or network adapter may automatically choose a slower and more robust modulation scheme or line code, using fewer bits per symbol, in view to reduce the bit error rate.An optimal symbol set design takes into account channel bandwidth, desired information rate, noise characteristics of the channel and the receiver, and receiver and decoder complexity.","title":"Symbols"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data transmission","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_transmission"},{"link_name":"modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation"},{"link_name":"carrier signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_wave"},{"link_name":"frequency-shift keying (FSK)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-shift_keying"},{"link_name":"synchronous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synchronization"}],"text":"Many data transmission systems operate by the modulation of a carrier signal. For example, in frequency-shift keying (FSK), the frequency of a tone is varied among a small, fixed set of possible values. In a synchronous data transmission system, the tone can only be changed from one frequency to another at regular and well-defined intervals. The presence of one particular frequency during one of these intervals constitutes a symbol. (The concept of symbols does not apply to asynchronous data transmission systems.) In a modulated system, the term modulation rate may be used synonymously with symbol rate.","title":"Modulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit"},{"link_name":"bit rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_rate"},{"link_name":"differential binary phase-shift keying","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-shift_keying"},{"link_name":"bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit"}],"sub_title":"Binary modulation","text":"If the carrier signal has only two states, then only one bit of data (i.e., a 0 or 1) can be transmitted in each symbol. The bit rate is in this case equal to the symbol rate. For example, a binary FSK system would allow the carrier to have one of two frequencies, one representing a 0 and the other a 1. A more practical scheme is differential binary phase-shift keying, in which the carrier remains at the same frequency, but can be in one of two phases. During each symbol, the phase either remains the same, encoding a 0, or jumps by 180°, encoding a 1. Again, only one bit of data (i.e., a 0 or 1) is transmitted by each symbol. This is an example of data being encoded in the transitions between symbols (the change in phase), rather than the symbols themselves (the actual phase). (The reason for this in phase-shift keying is that it is impractical to know the reference phase of the transmitter.)","title":"Modulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"16-QAM","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16-QAM"}],"sub_title":"N-ary modulation, N greater than 2","text":"By increasing the number of states that the carrier signal can take, the number of bits encoded in each symbol can be greater than one. The bit rate can then be greater than the symbol rate. For example, a differential phase-shift keying system might allow four possible jumps in phase between symbols. Then two bits could be encoded at each symbol interval, achieving a data rate of double the symbol rate. In a more complex scheme such as 16-QAM, four bits of data are transmitted in each symbol, resulting in a bit rate of four times the symbol rate.","title":"Modulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bipolar encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bipolar_encoding"},{"link_name":"MLT-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLT-3"},{"link_name":"DC balance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DC_balance"},{"link_name":"4B3T","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/4B3T"}],"sub_title":"Not power of 2","text":"Although it is common to choose the number of symbols to be a power of 2 and send an integer number of bits per baud, this is not required. Line codes such as bipolar encoding and MLT-3 use three carrier states to encode one bit per baud while maintaining DC balance.The 4B3T line code uses three 3-ary modulated bits to transmit four data bits, a rate of 1.33 bits per baud.","title":"Modulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(signal_processing)"},{"link_name":"bit rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_rate"},{"link_name":"modems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modem"},{"link_name":"ITU-T V.29","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ITU-T_V.29"},{"link_name":"spread spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_spectrum"},{"link_name":"modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation"},{"link_name":"constellation diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation_diagram"},{"link_name":"MFSK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multiple_frequency-shift_keying"},{"link_name":"DTMF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual-tone_multi-frequency"},{"link_name":"pulse-position modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-position_modulation"},{"link_name":"spread spectrum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spread_spectrum"}],"sub_title":"Data rate versus error rate","text":"Modulating a carrier increases the frequency range, or bandwidth, it occupies. Transmission channels are generally limited in the bandwidth they can carry. The bandwidth depends on the symbol (modulation) rate (not directly on the bit rate). As the bit rate is the product of the symbol rate and the number of bits encoded in each symbol, it is clearly advantageous to increase the latter if the former is fixed. However, for each additional bit encoded in a symbol, the constellation of symbols (the number of states of the carrier) doubles in size. This makes the states less distinct from one another which in turn makes it more difficult for the receiver to detect the symbol correctly in the presence of disturbances on the channel.The history of modems is the attempt at increasing the bit rate over a fixed bandwidth (and therefore a fixed maximum symbol rate), leading to increasing bits per symbol. For example, ITU-T V.29 specifies 4 bits per symbol, at a symbol rate of 2,400 baud, giving an effective bit rate of 9,600 bits per second.The history of spread spectrum goes in the opposite direction, leading to fewer and fewer data bits per symbol in order to spread the bandwidth. In the case of GPS, we have a data rate of 50 bit/s and a symbol rate of 1.023 Mchips/s. If each chip is considered a symbol, each symbol contains far less than one bit (50 bit/s / 1,023 ksymbols/s ≈ 0.000,05 bits/symbol).The complete collection of M possible symbols over a particular channel is called a M-ary modulation scheme. Most modulation schemes transmit some integer number of bits per symbol b, requiring the complete collection to contain M = 2b different symbols. Most popular modulation schemes can be described by showing each point on a constellation diagram, although a few modulation schemes (such as MFSK, DTMF, pulse-position modulation, spread spectrum modulation) require a different description.","title":"Modulation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"telecommunication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telecommunication"},{"link_name":"modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modulation"},{"link_name":"carrier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrier_(telecommunication)"},{"link_name":"signal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signalling_(telecommunications)"},{"link_name":"information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FS-1037C-3"},{"link_name":"power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electric_power"},{"link_name":"phase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_(waves)"},{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"wavelength","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wavelength"},{"link_name":"time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FS-1037C-3"},{"link_name":"signal transition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_transition"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MIL-STD-188-200-4"},{"link_name":"logical value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_value"},{"link_name":"significant instant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Significant_instant&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"gating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gating_(telecommunication)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FS-1037C-3"}],"text":"In telecommunication, concerning the modulation of a carrier, a significant condition is one of the signal's parameters chosen to represent information.[3]A significant condition could be an electric current (voltage, or power level), an optical power level, a phase value, or a particular frequency or wavelength. The duration of a significant condition is the time interval between successive significant instants.[3] A change from one significant condition to another is called a signal transition. Information can be transmitted either during the given time interval, or encoded as the presence or absence of a change in the received signal.[4]Significant conditions are recognized by an appropriate device called a receiver, demodulator, or decoder. The decoder translates the actual signal received into its intended logical value such as a binary digit (0 or 1), an alphabetic character, a mark, or a space. Each significant instant is determined when the appropriate device assumes a condition or state usable for performing a specific function, such as recording, processing, or gating.[3]","title":"Significant condition"}]

[]

[{"title":"Bandwidth (computing)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)"},{"title":"Bitrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitrate"},{"title":"Chip rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chip_rate"},{"title":"Constellation diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constellation_diagram"},{"title":"Gross bit rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gross_bit_rate"},{"title":"data signaling rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_signaling_rate"},{"title":"line rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Line_rate"},{"title":"List of device bandwidths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_device_bandwidths"},{"title":"Pulse-code modulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pulse-code_modulation"},{"title":"Signaling rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signaling_rate"}]

[{"reference":"D. A. Bell (1962). Information Theory; and its Engineering Applications (3rd ed.). New York: Pitman.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"Federal Standard 1037C\". National Communications System. July 7, 1996.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.its.bldrdoc.gov/fs-1037/fs-1037c.htm","url_text":"\"Federal Standard 1037C\""}]},{"reference":"\"System Design and Engineering Standard for Tactical Communications\". Mil-STD-188-200. United States Department of Defense. May 28, 1983.","urls":[{"url":"http://assist.daps.dla.mil/quicksearch/basic_profile.cfm?ident_number=35582","url_text":"\"System Design and Engineering Standard for Tactical Communications\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense","url_text":"United States Department of Defense"}]},{"reference":"\"On the origins of serial communications and data encoding\". Archived from the original on December 5, 2012. Retrieved January 4, 2007.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20121205233200/http://www.compkarori.com/dbase/bu07sh.htm","url_text":"\"On the origins of serial communications and data encoding\""},{"url":"http://www.compkarori.com/dbase/bu07sh.htm","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_RGB_color_space

Adobe RGB color space

["1 Historical background","2 Specifications","2.1 Reference viewing conditions","2.2 ICC PCS color image encoding","3 Comparison to sRGB","3.1 Gamut","3.2 Bit depth distribution","4 See also","5 References","6 External links"]

Color space developed by Adobe Adobe RGBAdobe RGB (1998) color spaceThe CIE 1931 xy chromaticity diagram showing the primaries of the Adobe RGB (1998) color space. The Illuminant D65 white point is shown in the center.AbbreviationopRGBNative name Adobe RGB (1998) color space IEC 61966-2-5:2007 ISO 12640-4:2011 StatusPublishedYear started1997First published1998Latest version2007November 7, 2007; 16 years ago (2007-11-07)Organization Adobe Systems, Inc. IEC ISO Committee IEC: TC 100/TA 2 (TC/SC) ISO: ISO/TC 130 AuthorsAdobe Systems, Inc.Base standardssRGBDomainColor space, color modelWebsite webstore.iec.ch/publication/6175 www.iso.org/standard/45115.html The Adobe RGB (1998) color space or opRGB is a color space developed by Adobe Inc. in 1998. It was designed to encompass most of the colors achievable on CMYK color printers, but by using RGB primary colors on a device such as a computer display. The Adobe RGB (1998) color space encompasses roughly 30% of the visible colors specified by the CIELAB color space – improving upon the gamut of the sRGB color space, primarily in cyan-green hues. It was subsequently standardized by the IEC as IEC 61966-2-5:1999 with a name opRGB (optional RGB color space) and is used in HDMI. Historical background Beginning in 1997, Adobe Systems was looking into creating ICC profiles that its consumers could use in conjunction with Photoshop's new color management features. Since not many applications at the time had any ICC color management, most operating systems did not ship with useful profiles. Lead developer of Photoshop, Thomas Knoll decided to build an ICC profile around specifications he found in the documentation for the SMPTE 240M standard, the precursor to Rec. 709 (but not in primaries: 240M also defined EOTF and thus was display referred, sRGB was created by connecting BT.470 PAL and SMPTE C). SMPTE 240M's gamut is wider than that of the BT.709 gamut and the same as BT.470 NTSC (System B, G). However, with the release of Photoshop 5.0 nearing, Adobe made the decision to include the profile within the software. Although users loved the wider range of reproducible colors, those familiar with the SMPTE 240M specifications contacted Adobe, informing the company that it had copied the values that described idealized primaries, not actual standard ones (in a special annex to the standard). The real values were much closer to sRGB's, which avid Photoshop consumers did not enjoy as a working environment. To make matters worse, an engineer had made an error when copying the red primary chromaticity coordinates, resulting in an even more inaccurate representation of the SMPTE standard. On the other hand red and blue primary are the same as in PAL and green is the same as in NTSC 1953 (blue is the same as in BT.709 and sRGB). Adobe tried numerous tactics to correct the profile, such as correcting the red primary and changing the white point to match that of the CIE Standard Illuminant D50 (though that will also change the primaries and is thus pointless), yet all of the adjustments made CMYK conversion worse than before. In the end, Adobe decided to keep the "incorrect" profile, but changed the name to Adobe RGB (1998) in order to avoid a trademark search or infringement. Specifications Reference viewing conditions Parameter Value White Point Luminance Level 160.00 cd/m2 Black Point Luminance Level 0.5557 cd/m2 (0.34731% of white point luminance) Contrast Ratio 287.9 Ambient Illuminance Level 32 lx Reference Display Surround Level 32.00 cd/m2 (20% of white point luminance) Viewing Surround 2 cd/m2 In Adobe RGB (1998), colors are specified as triplets, where each of the R, G, and B components have values ranging between 0 and 1. When displayed on a monitor, the exact chromaticities of the reference white point , the reference black point , and the primaries (, , and ) are specified. To meet the color appearance requirements of the color space, the luminance of the monitor must be 160.00 cd/m2 at the white point, and 0.5557 cd/m2 at the black point, which implies a contrast ratio of 287.9. Moreover, the black point shall have the same chromaticity as the white point, yet with a luminance equal to 0.34731% of the white point luminance. The ambient illumination level at the monitor faceplate when the monitor is turned off must be 32 lx. As with sRGB, the RGB component values in Adobe RGB (1998) are not proportional to the luminances. Rather, a gamma of approximately 2.2 is assumed, without the linear segment near zero that is present in sRGB. The precise gamma value is 563/256, or 2.19921875. In coverage of the CIE 1931 color space the Adobe RGB (1998) color space covers 52.1%. The chromaticities of the primary colors and the white point, both of which correspond to the CIE Standard Illuminant D65, are as follows: x y Red 0.6400 0.3300 Green 0.2100 0.7100 Blue 0.1500 0.0600 White 0.3127 0.3290 The corresponding absolute XYZ tristimulus values for the reference display white and black points are as follows: X Y Z White 152.07 160.00 174.25 Black 0.5282 0.5557 0.6052 Normalized XYZ tristimulus values can be obtained from absolute luminance XaYaZa tristimulus values as follows: X = X a − X K X W − X K X W Y W {\displaystyle X={\frac {X_{a}-X_{K}}{X_{W}-X_{K}}}{\frac {X_{W}}{Y_{W}}}} Y = Y a − Y K Y W − Y K {\displaystyle Y={\frac {Y_{a}-Y_{K}}{Y_{W}-Y_{K}}}} Z = Z a − Z K Z W − Z K Z W Y W {\displaystyle Z={\frac {Z_{a}-Z_{K}}{Z_{W}-Z_{K}}}{\frac {Z_{W}}{Y_{W}}}} where XKYKZK and XWYWZW are reference display black and white points in the table above. The conversion between normalized XYZ to and from Adobe RGB tristimulus values can be done as follows: [ R G B ] = [ 2.04159 − 0.56501 − 0.34473 − 0.96924 1.87597 0.04156 0.01344 − 0.11836 1.01517 ] [ X Y Z ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}R\\G\\B\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}2.04159&-0.56501&-0.34473\\-0.96924&1.87597&0.04156\\0.01344&-0.11836&1.01517\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}X\\Y\\Z\end{bmatrix}}} [ X Y Z ] = [ 0.57667 0.18556 0.18823 0.29734 0.62736 0.07529 0.02703 0.07069 0.99134 ] [ R G B ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}X\\Y\\Z\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}0.57667&0.18556&0.18823\\0.29734&0.62736&0.07529\\0.02703&0.07069&0.99134\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}R\\G\\B\end{bmatrix}}} As was later defined in the IEC standard opYCC uses BT.601 matrix for conversion to YCbCr, that can be full range matrix and limited range matrix. Display can signal YCC quantization range support and sink can send either one. ICC PCS color image encoding An image in the ICC Profile Connection Space (PCS) is encoded in 24-bit Adobe RGB (1998) color image encoding. Through the application of the 3x3 matrix below (derived from the inversion of the color space chromaticity coordinates and a chromatic adaptation to CIE Standard Illuminant D50 using the Bradford transformation matrix), the input image's normalized XYZ tristimulus values are transformed into RGB tristimulus values. The component values would be clipped to the range . [ R G B ] = [ 1.96253 − 0.61068 − 0.34137 − 0.97876 1.91615 0.03342 0.02869 − 0.14067 1.34926 ] [ X Y Z ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}R\\G\\B\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}1.96253&-0.61068&-0.34137\\-0.97876&1.91615&0.03342\\0.02869&-0.14067&1.34926\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}X\\Y\\Z\end{bmatrix}}} The RGB tristimulus values are then converted to Adobe RGB R'G'B' component values through the use of the following component transfer functions: R ′ = R 256 563 , {\displaystyle R'=R^{\frac {256}{563}},} G ′ = G 256 563 , {\displaystyle G'=G^{\frac {256}{563}},} B ′ = B 256 563 {\displaystyle B'=B^{\frac {256}{563}}} The resulting component values would be then represented in floating point or integer encodings. If it is necessary to encode values from the PCS back to the input device space, the following matrix can be implemented: [ X Y Z ] = [ 0.60974 0.20528 0.14919 0.31111 0.62567 0.06322 0.01947 0.06087 0.74457 ] [ R G B ] {\displaystyle {\begin{bmatrix}X\\Y\\Z\end{bmatrix}}={\begin{bmatrix}0.60974&0.20528&0.14919\\0.31111&0.62567&0.06322\\0.01947&0.06087&0.74457\end{bmatrix}}{\begin{bmatrix}R\\G\\B\end{bmatrix}}} Comparison to sRGB Gamut A comparison of the Adobe RGB (1998) color space and sRGB color gamuts space within the CIE 1931 xy chromaticity diagram. The sRGB gamut is lacking in cyan-green hues. sRGB is an RGB color space proposed by HP and Microsoft in 1996 to approximate the color gamut of the (then) most common computer display devices (CRTs). Since sRGB serves as a "best guess" metric for how another person's monitor produces color, it has become the standard color space for displaying images on the Internet. sRGB's color gamut encompasses just 35% of the visible colors specified by CIE, whereas Adobe RGB (1998) encompasses slightly more than 50% of all visible colors. Adobe RGB (1998) extends into richer cyans and greens than does sRGB – for all levels of luminance. The two gamuts are often compared in mid-tone values (~50% luminance), but clear differences are evident in shadows (~25% luminance) and highlights (~75% luminance) as well. In fact, Adobe RGB (1998) expands its advantages to areas of intense orange, yellow, and magenta regions. Although there is a significant difference between gamut ranges in the CIE xy chromaticity diagram, if the coordinates were to be transformed to fit on the CIE u′v′ chromaticity diagram, which illustrates the eye's perceived variance in hue more closely, the difference in the green region is far less exaggerated. Also, although Adobe RGB (1998) can theoretically represent a wider gamut of colors, the color space requires special software and a complex workflow in order to utilize its full range. Otherwise, the produced colors would be squeezed into a smaller range (making them appear duller) in order to match sRGB's more widely used gamut. Bit depth distribution Although the Adobe RGB (1998) working space clearly provides more colors to utilize, another factor to consider when choosing between color spaces is how each space influences the distribution of the image's bit depth. Color spaces with larger gamuts "stretch" the bits over a broader region of colors, whereas smaller gamuts concentrate these bits within a narrow region. A similar, yet not as dramatic concentration of bit depth occurs with Adobe RGB (1998) versus sRGB, except in three dimensions rather than one. The Adobe RGB (1998) color space occupies roughly 40% more volume than the sRGB color space, which concludes that one would only be exploiting 70% of the available bit depth if the colors in Adobe RGB (1998) are unnecessary. On the contrary, one may have plenty of "spare" bits if using a 16-bit image, thus negating any reduction due to the choice of working space. See also International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) Society for Imaging Science and Technology (IS&T) Society for Information Display (SID) References ^ a b c d "IEC 61966-2-5:2007 | IEC Webstore". webstore.iec.ch. Retrieved 8 February 2021. ^ a b ISO; Adobe Systems, Inc. (May 2011). "ISO - ISO 12640-4:2011 - Graphic technology — Prepress digital data exchange — Part 4: Wide gamut display-referred standard colour image data ". ISO. Retrieved 18 April 2021. ^ "2011 Color and Imaging Conference, Part VI: Special Session". Real-Time Rendering. 21 December 2011. ^ a b c d e f Adobe RGB (1998) Color Image Encoding (PDF) (Technical report). Adobe Systems Incorporated. 13 May 2005. ^ Yamashita, Takayuki; Masuda, Hiroyasu; Masaoka, Kenichiro; Ohmura, Kohei; Emotot, Masaki; Nishida, Yukihiro; Sugawara, Masayuki (November–December 2012). ""Super Hi-Vision" as Next-Generation Television and Its Video Parameters" (PDF). Information Display. 28 (11 & 12). Society for Information Display: 12–17. doi:10.1002/j.2637-496X.2012.tb00565.x. S2CID 86626642. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2013. ^ a b "sRGB vs. Adobe RGB 1998". Cambridge in Colour. External links Adobe Magazine discussion of Photoshop 5.0's new RGB working spaces Adobe RGB (1998) Color Image Encoding Color Management in Practice – Advantages of the Adobe RGB Color Space ICC Adobe RGB (1998) Encoding Characteristics IEC 61966-2-5:2007: optional RGB color space - opRGB vteColor space List of color spaces Color models CAM CIECAM02 iCAM CAM16 CIECAM16 CIE XYZ (1931) RGB (1931) YUV (1960) UVW (1964) CIELAB (1976) CIELUV (1976) CIECAM02 CIECAM16 RGB RGB color spaces sRGB rg chromaticity Adobe Wide-gamut ProPhoto scRGB DCI-P3 Rec. 601 SMPTE 240M/"C" Rec. 709 Rec. 2020 Rec. 2100 Y′UV YUV PAL YDbDr SECAM YIQ NTSC YCbCr Rec. 601 Rec. 709 Rec. 2020 Rec. 2100 ICtCp Rec. 2100 YPbPr MAC xvYCC YCoCg Other CcMmYK CMYK Coloroid LMS Hexachrome HSL, HSV HCL Imaginary color OSA-UCS PCCS RG RYB HWB YJK TSL Color systemsand standards ACES ANPA Colour Index International CI list of dyes DIC Federal Standard 595 HKS ICC profile ISCC–NBS Munsell NCS Ostwald Pantone RAL list JIS Z8102  For the vision capacities of organisms or machines, see  Color vision.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"color space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_space"},{"link_name":"Adobe Inc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Inc."},{"link_name":"CMYK","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CMYK"},{"link_name":"printers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_printing"},{"link_name":"RGB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RGB_color_model"},{"link_name":"primary colors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_color"},{"link_name":"computer display","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_display"},{"link_name":"color space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_space"},{"link_name":"visible colors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visible_spectrum"},{"link_name":"CIELAB color space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIELAB_color_space"},{"link_name":"gamut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamut"},{"link_name":"sRGB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB"},{"link_name":"hues","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hue"},{"link_name":"IEC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission"},{"link_name":"HDMI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HDMI"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iec-standard-1"}],"text":"The Adobe RGB (1998) color space or opRGB is a color space developed by Adobe Inc. in 1998. It was designed to encompass most of the colors achievable on CMYK color printers, but by using RGB primary colors on a device such as a computer display. The Adobe RGB (1998) color space encompasses roughly 30% of the visible colors specified by the CIELAB color space – improving upon the gamut of the sRGB color space, primarily in cyan-green hues. It was subsequently standardized by the IEC as IEC 61966-2-5:1999 with a name opRGB (optional RGB color space) and is used in HDMI.[1]","title":"Adobe RGB color space"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ICC profiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ICC_profile"},{"link_name":"Photoshop's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Photoshop"},{"link_name":"color management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_management"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Thomas Knoll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Knoll"},{"link_name":"SMPTE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_of_Motion_Picture_and_Television_Engineers"},{"link_name":"Rec. 709","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rec._709"},{"link_name":"failed verification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability"},{"link_name":"dubious","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement"},{"link_name":"discuss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Talk:Adobe_RGB_color_space#Dubious"},{"link_name":"NTSC 1953","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTSC#Colorimetry"},{"link_name":"CIE Standard Illuminant D50","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_illuminant#Illuminant_series_D"},{"link_name":"infringement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark_infringement"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-HistoryOfAdobeRGB-3"}],"text":"Beginning in 1997, Adobe Systems was looking into creating ICC profiles that its consumers could use in conjunction with Photoshop's new color management features. Since not many applications at the time had any ICC color management, most operating systems did not ship with useful profiles.Lead developer of Photoshop, Thomas Knoll decided to build an ICC profile around specifications he found in the documentation for the SMPTE 240M standard, the precursor to Rec. 709 (but not in primaries: 240M also defined EOTF and thus was display referred, sRGB was created by connecting BT.470 PAL and SMPTE C). SMPTE 240M's gamut is wider than that of the BT.709 gamut and the same as BT.470 NTSC (System B, G). However, with the release of Photoshop 5.0 nearing, Adobe made the decision to include the profile within the software.Although users loved the wider range of reproducible colors, those familiar with the SMPTE 240M specifications contacted Adobe, informing the company that it had copied the values that described idealized primaries, not actual standard ones (in a special annex to the standard).[failed verification] The real values were much closer to sRGB's, which avid Photoshop consumers did not enjoy as a working environment. To make matters worse, an engineer had made an error when copying the red primary chromaticity coordinates, resulting in an even more inaccurate representation of the SMPTE standard.[dubious – discuss] On the other hand red and blue primary are the same as in PAL and green is the same as in NTSC 1953 (blue is the same as in BT.709 and sRGB).Adobe tried numerous tactics to correct the profile, such as correcting the red primary and changing the white point to match that of the CIE Standard Illuminant D50 (though that will also change the primaries and is thus pointless), yet all of the adjustments made CMYK conversion worse than before. In the end, Adobe decided to keep the \"incorrect\" profile, but changed the name to Adobe RGB (1998) in order to avoid a trademark search or infringement.[3]","title":"Historical background"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"chromaticities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromaticity"},{"link_name":"white point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/White_point"},{"link_name":"luminance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luminance"},{"link_name":"cd","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candela"},{"link_name":"contrast ratio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contrast_ratio"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AdobeRGBColorImagingEncoding-4"},{"link_name":"illumination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illuminance"},{"link_name":"lx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lux"},{"link_name":"gamma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamma_correction"},{"link_name":"CIE 1931 color space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE_1931_color_space"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-InformationDisplayDecember2012SuperHi-Vision-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AdobeRGBColorImagingEncoding-4"},{"link_name":"tristimulus values","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIE_1931_color_space#Tristimulus_values"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AdobeRGBColorImagingEncoding-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AdobeRGBColorImagingEncoding-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AdobeRGBColorImagingEncoding-4"},{"link_name":"BT.601 matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YCbCr#ITU-R_BT.601_conversion"}],"sub_title":"Reference viewing conditions","text":"In Adobe RGB (1998), colors are specified as [R,G,B] triplets, where each of the R, G, and B components have values ranging between 0 and 1. When displayed on a monitor, the exact chromaticities of the reference white point [1,1,1], the reference black point [0,0,0], and the primaries ([1,0,0], [0,1,0], and [0,0,1]) are specified. To meet the color appearance requirements of the color space, the luminance of the monitor must be 160.00 cd/m2 at the white point, and 0.5557 cd/m2 at the black point, which implies a contrast ratio of 287.9. Moreover, the black point shall have the same chromaticity as the white point, yet with a luminance equal to 0.34731% of the white point luminance.[4] The ambient illumination level at the monitor faceplate when the monitor is turned off must be 32 lx.As with sRGB, the RGB component values in Adobe RGB (1998) are not proportional to the luminances. Rather, a gamma of approximately 2.2 is assumed, without the linear segment near zero that is present in sRGB. The precise gamma value is 563/256, or 2.19921875. In coverage of the CIE 1931 color space the Adobe RGB (1998) color space covers 52.1%.[5]The chromaticities of the primary colors and the white point, both of which correspond to the CIE Standard Illuminant D65, are as follows:[4]The corresponding absolute XYZ tristimulus values for the reference display white and black points are as follows:[4]Normalized XYZ tristimulus values can be obtained from absolute luminance XaYaZa tristimulus values as follows:[4]X\n =\n \n \n \n \n X\n \n a\n \n \n −\n \n X\n \n K\n \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n W\n \n \n −\n \n X\n \n K\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n X\n \n W\n \n \n \n Y\n \n W\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle X={\\frac {X_{a}-X_{K}}{X_{W}-X_{K}}}{\\frac {X_{W}}{Y_{W}}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n Y\n =\n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n a\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n K\n \n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n W\n \n \n −\n \n Y\n \n K\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Y={\\frac {Y_{a}-Y_{K}}{Y_{W}-Y_{K}}}}\n \n\n\n \n \n \n Z\n =\n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n a\n \n \n −\n \n Z\n \n K\n \n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n W\n \n \n −\n \n Z\n \n K\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n W\n \n \n \n Y\n \n W\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle Z={\\frac {Z_{a}-Z_{K}}{Z_{W}-Z_{K}}}{\\frac {Z_{W}}{Y_{W}}}}where XKYKZK and XWYWZW are reference display black and white points in the table above.The conversion between normalized XYZ to and from Adobe RGB tristimulus values can be done as follows:[4][\n \n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 2.04159\n \n \n −\n 0.56501\n \n \n −\n 0.34473\n \n \n \n \n −\n 0.96924\n \n \n 1.87597\n \n \n 0.04156\n \n \n \n \n 0.01344\n \n \n −\n 0.11836\n \n \n 1.01517\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n X\n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}R\\\\G\\\\B\\end{bmatrix}}={\\begin{bmatrix}2.04159&-0.56501&-0.34473\\\\-0.96924&1.87597&0.04156\\\\0.01344&-0.11836&1.01517\\end{bmatrix}}{\\begin{bmatrix}X\\\\Y\\\\Z\\end{bmatrix}}}[\n \n \n \n X\n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 0.57667\n \n \n 0.18556\n \n \n 0.18823\n \n \n \n \n 0.29734\n \n \n 0.62736\n \n \n 0.07529\n \n \n \n \n 0.02703\n \n \n 0.07069\n \n \n 0.99134\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}X\\\\Y\\\\Z\\end{bmatrix}}={\\begin{bmatrix}0.57667&0.18556&0.18823\\\\0.29734&0.62736&0.07529\\\\0.02703&0.07069&0.99134\\end{bmatrix}}{\\begin{bmatrix}R\\\\G\\\\B\\end{bmatrix}}}As was later defined in the IEC standard opYCC uses BT.601 matrix for conversion to YCbCr, that can be full range matrix and limited range matrix. Display can signal YCC quantization range support and sink can send either one.","title":"Specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ICC Profile Connection Space (PCS)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Color_Consortium"},{"link_name":"24-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_depth#True_color_.2824-bit.29"},{"link_name":"color image encoding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NTSC#Color_encoding"},{"link_name":"matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"chromatic adaptation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatic_adaptation"},{"link_name":"clipped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clipping_(photography)"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AdobeRGBColorImagingEncoding-4"},{"link_name":"floating point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floating_point"},{"link_name":"integer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer"},{"link_name":"input device","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Input_device"}],"sub_title":"ICC PCS color image encoding","text":"An image in the ICC Profile Connection Space (PCS) is encoded in 24-bit Adobe RGB (1998) color image encoding. Through the application of the 3x3 matrix below (derived from the inversion of the color space chromaticity coordinates and a chromatic adaptation to CIE Standard Illuminant D50 using the Bradford transformation matrix), the input image's normalized XYZ tristimulus values are transformed into RGB tristimulus values. The component values would be clipped to the range [0, 1].[4][\n \n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 1.96253\n \n \n −\n 0.61068\n \n \n −\n 0.34137\n \n \n \n \n −\n 0.97876\n \n \n 1.91615\n \n \n 0.03342\n \n \n \n \n 0.02869\n \n \n −\n 0.14067\n \n \n 1.34926\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n X\n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}R\\\\G\\\\B\\end{bmatrix}}={\\begin{bmatrix}1.96253&-0.61068&-0.34137\\\\-0.97876&1.91615&0.03342\\\\0.02869&-0.14067&1.34926\\end{bmatrix}}{\\begin{bmatrix}X\\\\Y\\\\Z\\end{bmatrix}}}The RGB tristimulus values are then converted to Adobe RGB R'G'B' component values through the use of the following component transfer functions:R\n ′\n \n =\n \n R\n \n \n 256\n 563\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle R'=R^{\\frac {256}{563}},}\n \n \n \n \n \n \n G\n ′\n \n =\n \n G\n \n \n 256\n 563\n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle G'=G^{\\frac {256}{563}},}\n \n \n \n \n \n \n B\n ′\n \n =\n \n B\n \n \n 256\n 563\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle B'=B^{\\frac {256}{563}}}The resulting component values would be then represented in floating point or integer encodings. If it is necessary to encode values from the PCS back to the input device space, the following matrix can be implemented:[\n \n \n \n X\n \n \n \n \n Y\n \n \n \n \n Z\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n =\n \n \n [\n \n \n \n 0.60974\n \n \n 0.20528\n \n \n 0.14919\n \n \n \n \n 0.31111\n \n \n 0.62567\n \n \n 0.06322\n \n \n \n \n 0.01947\n \n \n 0.06087\n \n \n 0.74457\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n R\n \n \n \n \n G\n \n \n \n \n B\n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\begin{bmatrix}X\\\\Y\\\\Z\\end{bmatrix}}={\\begin{bmatrix}0.60974&0.20528&0.14919\\\\0.31111&0.62567&0.06322\\\\0.01947&0.06087&0.74457\\end{bmatrix}}{\\begin{bmatrix}R\\\\G\\\\B\\end{bmatrix}}}","title":"Specifications"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Comparison to sRGB"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CIExy1931_AdobeRGB_vs_sRGB.png"},{"link_name":"sRGB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SRGB"},{"link_name":"HP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hewlett-Packard"},{"link_name":"Microsoft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft"},{"link_name":"cyans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyan"},{"link_name":"shadows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_(photography)#Blacks"},{"link_name":"highlights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exposure_(photography)#Highlights"},{"link_name":"magenta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magenta"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sRGBVsAdobeRGB-6"},{"link_name":"CIE u′v′ chromaticity diagram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CIELUV"}],"sub_title":"Gamut","text":"A comparison of the Adobe RGB (1998) color space and sRGB color gamuts space within the CIE 1931 xy chromaticity diagram. The sRGB gamut is lacking in cyan-green hues.sRGB is an RGB color space proposed by HP and Microsoft in 1996 to approximate the color gamut of the (then) most common computer display devices (CRTs). Since sRGB serves as a \"best guess\" metric for how another person's monitor produces color, it has become the standard color space for displaying images on the Internet. sRGB's color gamut encompasses just 35% of the visible colors specified by CIE, whereas Adobe RGB (1998) encompasses slightly more than 50% of all visible colors. Adobe RGB (1998) extends into richer cyans and greens than does sRGB – for all levels of luminance. The two gamuts are often compared in mid-tone values (~50% luminance), but clear differences are evident in shadows (~25% luminance) and highlights (~75% luminance) as well. In fact, Adobe RGB (1998) expands its advantages to areas of intense orange, yellow, and magenta regions.[6]Although there is a significant difference between gamut ranges in the CIE xy chromaticity diagram, if the coordinates were to be transformed to fit on the CIE u′v′ chromaticity diagram, which illustrates the eye's perceived variance in hue more closely, the difference in the green region is far less exaggerated. Also, although Adobe RGB (1998) can theoretically represent a wider gamut of colors, the color space requires special software and a complex workflow in order to utilize its full range. Otherwise, the produced colors would be squeezed into a smaller range (making them appear duller) in order to match sRGB's more widely used gamut.","title":"Comparison to sRGB"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bit depth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Color_depth"},{"link_name":"bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-sRGBVsAdobeRGB-6"},{"link_name":"16-bit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/16-bit_color"}],"sub_title":"Bit depth distribution","text":"Although the Adobe RGB (1998) working space clearly provides more colors to utilize, another factor to consider when choosing between color spaces is how each space influences the distribution of the image's bit depth. Color spaces with larger gamuts \"stretch\" the bits over a broader region of colors, whereas smaller gamuts concentrate these bits within a narrow region.A similar, yet not as dramatic concentration of bit depth occurs with Adobe RGB (1998) versus sRGB, except in three dimensions rather than one. The Adobe RGB (1998) color space occupies roughly 40% more volume than the sRGB color space, which concludes that one would only be exploiting 70% of the available bit depth if the colors in Adobe RGB (1998) are unnecessary.[6] On the contrary, one may have plenty of \"spare\" bits if using a 16-bit image, thus negating any reduction due to the choice of working space.","title":"Comparison to sRGB"}]

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[{"title":"International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Electrotechnical_Commission"},{"title":"Society for Imaging Science and Technology (IS&T)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Imaging_Science_and_Technology"},{"title":"Society for Information Display (SID)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society_for_Information_Display"}]

[{"reference":"\"IEC 61966-2-5:2007 | IEC Webstore\". webstore.iec.ch. Retrieved 8 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://webstore.iec.ch/publication/6175","url_text":"\"IEC 61966-2-5:2007 | IEC Webstore\""}]},{"reference":"ISO; Adobe Systems, Inc. (May 2011). \"ISO - ISO 12640-4:2011 - Graphic technology — Prepress digital data exchange — Part 4: Wide gamut display-referred standard colour image data [Adobe RGB (1998)/SCID]\". ISO. Retrieved 18 April 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adobe_Systems","url_text":"Adobe Systems, Inc."},{"url":"https://www.iso.org/standard/45115.html","url_text":"\"ISO - ISO 12640-4:2011 - Graphic technology — Prepress digital data exchange — Part 4: Wide gamut display-referred standard colour image data [Adobe RGB (1998)/SCID]\""}]},{"reference":"\"2011 Color and Imaging Conference, Part VI: Special Session\". Real-Time Rendering. 21 December 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.realtimerendering.com/blog/2011-color-and-imaging-conference-part-vi-special-session/","url_text":"\"2011 Color and Imaging Conference, Part VI: Special Session\""}]},{"reference":"Adobe RGB (1998) Color Image Encoding (PDF) (Technical report). Adobe Systems Incorporated. 13 May 2005.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.adobe.com/digitalimag/pdfs/AdobeRGB1998.pdf","url_text":"Adobe RGB (1998) Color Image Encoding"}]},{"reference":"Yamashita, Takayuki; Masuda, Hiroyasu; Masaoka, Kenichiro; Ohmura, Kohei; Emotot, Masaki; Nishida, Yukihiro; Sugawara, Masayuki (November–December 2012). \"\"Super Hi-Vision\" as Next-Generation Television and Its Video Parameters\" (PDF). Information Display. 28 (11 & 12). Society for Information Display: 12–17. doi:10.1002/j.2637-496X.2012.tb00565.x. S2CID 86626642. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 April 2015. Retrieved 1 December 2013.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150420223449/http://informationdisplay.org/Portals/InformationDisplay/IssuePDF/12_2012.pdf","url_text":"\"\"Super Hi-Vision\" as Next-Generation Television and Its Video Parameters\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fj.2637-496X.2012.tb00565.x","url_text":"10.1002/j.2637-496X.2012.tb00565.x"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:86626642","url_text":"86626642"},{"url":"http://informationdisplay.org/Portals/InformationDisplay/IssuePDF/12_2012.pdf","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"sRGB vs. Adobe RGB 1998\". Cambridge in Colour.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cambridgeincolour.com/tutorials/sRGB-AdobeRGB1998.htm","url_text":"\"sRGB vs. Adobe RGB 1998\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Management_Information_Systems

Journal of Management Information Systems

["1 Critics","2 See also","3 References","4 External links"]

This article contains content that is written like an advertisement. Please help improve it by removing promotional content and inappropriate external links, and by adding encyclopedic content written from a neutral point of view. (November 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Academic journalJournal of Management Information SystemsDisciplineInformation SystemsLanguageEnglishEdited byVladimir ZwassPublication detailsHistory1984-presentPublisherTaylor & Francis (United States)FrequencyQuarterlyImpact factor7.838 (2020)Standard abbreviationsISO 4 (alt) · Bluebook (alt1 · alt2)NLM (alt) · MathSciNet (alt )ISO 4J. Manag. Inf. Syst.IndexingCODEN (alt · alt2) · JSTOR (alt) · LCCN (alt)MIAR · NLM (alt) · ScopusCODENJMISEBISSN0742-1222LCCN96091378OCLC no.986542950Links Journal homepage The Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS) is a top-tier peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes impactful research articles making a significant novel contribution in the areas of information systems and information technology. It was established in 1984. The present editor-in-chief of JMIS is Vladimir Zwass. JMIS is published by Taylor & Francis in print and online. The mission of JMIS is to present an integrated view of the field of Information Systems (IS) through the significant novel contributions by the best thinkers. The IS discipline seeks to understand how systems can be organized, developed, and deployed effectively to manage information and knowledge toward specified outcomes, in order to support people, organizations, marketplaces, and products. Numerous now prominent research streams in the discipline have their origins in the foundational paper published in the Journal. JMIS has always reflected the belief that thematic and methodological diversity of the highest quality papers within a well-defined IS domain is the strength of the field. JMIS is ranked as one of the three top-tier Information Systems journals, along with Information Systems Research (ISR) and MIS Quarterly (MISQ), in the comprehensive scientometric study published in MISQ and confirmed by other scholarly studies. JMIS is one of the 50 leading scholarly journals on the Financial Times FT50 list. JMIS serves the researchers investigating new modes of information technology deployment and the changing landscape of information policy making, as well as practitioners and executives managing the information resource. Along with the pursuit of knowledge, the quarterly aims to serve the societal goals, and to bridge the gap between theory and practice of information systems. The journal accepts for the double-blind review full-scale research submissions that make a significant contribution to the field of information systems. Such contributions may present: Impactful and methodologically sound empirical and theoretical work leading to the progress of the IS knowledge field Paradigmatic and generalizable designs and applications Analyses of informational policy making in an organizational, national, or international setting Investigations of societal and economic issues of organizational computing, in particular aiming at the improvements in health, sustainability, and equity Analytical attention is focused on the following key issues: Information systems for competitive positioning Business processes and management enabled by information technology Business value of information technology Resilience and security of information-technology infrastructures Entrepreneurial deployment of information technology Management of information resources Relationship between information technology and organizational performance and structures Enterprise-wide systems architectures and infrastructures Electronic business, net-enabled organizations, and platforms The organization and impacts of big data and data analytics Artificial intelligence with machine learning in organizational information systems Social media, social commerce, and social networks in the organizational perspective Systems sourcing, development, and stewardship in organizations Informational support of collaborative work and co-creation Knowledge management, organizational learning, and organizational memory The human element in organizational computing The submissions are refereed in a double-blind process by the internationally recognized expert referees and by Associate Editors who serve on the distinguished Editorial Board of JMIS. JMIS reviews have been ranked #1 in 2020 for quality and timeliness by the IS scholarly community. Critics This journal's fairness and transparency in handling manuscripts have been criticized by some scholars. There have been comments on the academic journal review website, Scirev, stating that this journal rejected submissions without providing any explanation, simply stating that they were not suitable. There were also comments mentioning that within the peer review feedback they received, some individuals claimed that this journal no longer publishes articles using the Partial Least Squares (PLS) method for data analysis. However, the journal's website has never addressed this issue, and the PLS method is used in many other top-tier journals. Even if there are concerns about the method, further explanation and decision-making should be provided instead of simply rejecting articles based on that reason. See also MIS Quarterly Information Systems Research Information Systems Journal Journal of Information Technology References ^ Everard, A., St. Pierre, K., and Heck, J.L. (December 2017), "Contributors to the High-Impact IS Journals (1977-2014): An Aid for Setting Research Standards" Communications of the AIS Vol. 40, Article 4. ^ Lowry, P.B., Moody, G.D, Gaskin, J., Galletta, D.F., Humphreys, S.L.,Barlow, J.B. and Wilson, D.W. (December 2013), “Evaluating Journal Quality and the Association for Information Systems Senior Scholars’ Basket via Bibliometric Measures: Do Expert Journal Assessments Add Value?” MIS Quarterly Vol. 37 No 4, 993-1012 ^ "Reviews for "Journal of Management Information Systems" - Page 1 - SciRev". scirev.org. Retrieved 2021-09-18. External links Official website Journal page at publisher's website

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"peer-reviewed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peer_review"},{"link_name":"academic journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_journal"},{"link_name":"information systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_systems"},{"link_name":"information technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology"},{"link_name":"editor-in-chief","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Editor-in-chief"},{"link_name":"Vladimir Zwass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vladimir_Zwass&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Taylor & Francis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taylor_%26_Francis"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"Academic journalThe Journal of Management Information Systems (JMIS) is a top-tier peer-reviewed academic journal that publishes impactful research articles making a significant novel contribution in the areas of information systems and information technology. It was established in 1984. The present editor-in-chief of JMIS is Vladimir Zwass. JMIS is published by Taylor & Francis in print and online.The mission of JMIS is to present an integrated view of the field of Information Systems (IS) through the significant novel contributions by the best thinkers. The IS discipline seeks to understand how systems can be organized, developed, and deployed effectively to manage information and knowledge toward specified outcomes, in order to support people, organizations, marketplaces, and products. Numerous now prominent research streams in the discipline have their origins in the foundational paper published in the Journal. JMIS has always reflected the belief that thematic and methodological diversity of the highest quality papers within a well-defined IS domain is the strength of the field.JMIS is ranked as one of the three top-tier Information Systems journals, along with Information Systems Research (ISR) and MIS Quarterly (MISQ), in the comprehensive scientometric study published in MISQ and confirmed by other scholarly studies. JMIS is one of the 50 leading scholarly journals on the Financial Times FT50 list.JMIS serves the researchers investigating new modes of information technology deployment and the changing landscape of information policy making, as well as practitioners and executives managing the information resource. Along with the pursuit of knowledge, the quarterly aims to serve the societal goals, and to bridge the gap between theory and practice of information systems.The journal accepts for the double-blind review full-scale research submissions that make a significant contribution to the field of information systems. Such contributions may present:Impactful and methodologically sound empirical and theoretical work leading to the progress of the IS knowledge field\nParadigmatic and generalizable designs and applications\nAnalyses of informational policy making in an organizational, national, or international setting\nInvestigations of societal and economic issues of organizational computing, in particular aiming at the improvements in health, sustainability, and equityAnalytical attention is focused on the following key issues:Information systems for competitive positioning\nBusiness processes and management enabled by information technology\nBusiness value of information technology\nResilience and security of information-technology infrastructures\nEntrepreneurial deployment of information technology\nManagement of information resources\nRelationship between information technology and organizational performance and structures\nEnterprise-wide systems architectures and infrastructures\nElectronic business, net-enabled organizations, and platforms\nThe organization and impacts of big data and data analytics\nArtificial intelligence with machine learning in organizational information systems\nSocial media, social commerce, and social networks in the organizational perspective\nSystems sourcing, development, and stewardship in organizations\nInformational support of collaborative work and co-creation\nKnowledge management, organizational learning, and organizational memory\nThe human element in organizational computingThe submissions are refereed in a double-blind process by the internationally recognized expert referees and by Associate Editors who serve on the distinguished Editorial Board of JMIS. JMIS reviews have been ranked #1 in 2020 for quality and timeliness by the IS scholarly community.[1][2]","title":"Journal of Management Information Systems"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"This journal's fairness and transparency in handling manuscripts have been criticized by some scholars. There have been comments on the academic journal review website, Scirev, stating that this journal rejected submissions without providing any explanation, simply stating that they were not suitable. There were also comments mentioning that within the peer review feedback they received, some individuals claimed that this journal no longer publishes articles using the Partial Least Squares (PLS) method for data analysis. However, the journal's website has never addressed this issue, and the PLS method is used in many other top-tier journals. Even if there are concerns about the method, further explanation and decision-making should be provided instead of simply rejecting articles based on that reason.[3]","title":"Critics"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scepticism_and_Animal_Faith

Scepticism and Animal Faith

["1 References","2 External links"]

Book by George Santayana Scepticism and Animal Faith Dustjacket of the first editionAuthorGeorge SantayanaLanguageEnglishSubjectEpistemologyPublication date1923Media typePrintPages314 (Dover Books edition)ISBN0-486-20236-4 (Dover Books edition) Scepticism and Animal Faith (1923) is a later work by Spanish-born American philosopher George Santayana. He intended it to be "merely the introduction to a new system of philosophy," a work that would later be called The Realms of Being, which constitutes the bulk of his philosophy, along with The Life of Reason. Scepticism is Santayana's major treatise on epistemology; after its publication, he wrote no more on the topic. His preface begins humbly, with Santayana saying: Here is one more system of philosophy. If the reader is tempted to smile, I can assure him that I smile with him...I am merely trying to express for the reader the principles to which he appeals when he smiles. Moreover, he does not claim philosophical supremacy: I do not ask anyone to think in my terms if he prefers others. Let him clean better, if he can, the windows of his soul, that the variety and beauty of the prospect may spread more brightly before him. While Santayana acknowledges the importance of skepticism to philosophy, and begins by doubting almost everything; from here, he seeks to find some kind of epistemological truths. Idealism is correct, claims Santayana, but is of no consequence. He makes this pragmatic claim by asserting that men do not live by the principles of idealism, even if it is true. We have functioned for eons without adhering to such principles, and may continue, pragmatically, as such. He posits the necessity of the eponymous "Animal Faith", which is belief in that which our senses tell us; "Philosophy begins in medias res", he assures us at the beginning of his treatise. References ^ Durant, Will. The Story of Philosophy. Simon & Schuster: 1967. External links The full text of Scepticism and Animal Faith at the Internet Archive vteGeorge SantayanaWorks The Sense of Beauty (1896) The Life of Reason (1905–1906) Scepticism and Animal Faith (1923) The Last Puritan (1935) The Realms of Being (1942) This article about a philosophy-related book is a stub. You can help Wikipedia by expanding it.vte

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equipotent

Equinumerosity

["1 Cardinality","2 Cantor's theorem","3 Dedekind-infinite sets","4 Compatibility with set operations","5 Categorial definition","6 See also","7 References"]

Mathematical relationship between two sets "Equipollence" redirects here. For the concept in geometry, see Equipollence (geometry). In mathematics, two sets or classes A and B are equinumerous if there exists a one-to-one correspondence (or bijection) between them, that is, if there exists a function from A to B such that for every element y of B, there is exactly one element x of A with f(x) = y. Equinumerous sets are said to have the same cardinality (number of elements). The study of cardinality is often called equinumerosity (equalness-of-number). The terms equipollence (equalness-of-strength) and equipotence (equalness-of-power) are sometimes used instead. Equinumerosity has the characteristic properties of an equivalence relation. The statement that two sets A and B are equinumerous is usually denoted A ≈ B {\displaystyle A\approx B\,} or A ∼ B {\displaystyle A\sim B} , or | A | = | B | . {\displaystyle |A|=|B|.} The definition of equinumerosity using bijections can be applied to both finite and infinite sets, and allows one to state whether two sets have the same size even if they are infinite. Georg Cantor, the inventor of set theory, showed in 1874 that there is more than one kind of infinity, specifically that the collection of all natural numbers and the collection of all real numbers, while both infinite, are not equinumerous (see Cantor's first uncountability proof). In his controversial 1878 paper, Cantor explicitly defined the notion of "power" of sets and used it to prove that the set of all natural numbers and the set of all rational numbers are equinumerous (an example where a proper subset of an infinite set is equinumerous to the original set), and that the Cartesian product of even a countably infinite number of copies of the real numbers is equinumerous to a single copy of the real numbers. Cantor's theorem from 1891 implies that no set is equinumerous to its own power set (the set of all its subsets). This allows the definition of greater and greater infinite sets starting from a single infinite set. If the axiom of choice holds, then the cardinal number of a set may be regarded as the least ordinal number of that cardinality (see initial ordinal). Otherwise, it may be regarded (by Scott's trick) as the set of sets of minimal rank having that cardinality. The statement that any two sets are either equinumerous or one has a smaller cardinality than the other is equivalent to the axiom of choice. Cardinality Equinumerous sets have a one-to-one correspondence between them, and are said to have the same cardinality. The cardinality of a set X is essentially a measure of the number of elements of the set. Equinumerosity has the characteristic properties of an equivalence relation (reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity): Reflexivity Given a set A, the identity function on A is a bijection from A to itself, showing that every set A is equinumerous to itself: A ~ A. Symmetry For every bijection between two sets A and B there exists an inverse function which is a bijection between B and A, implying that if a set A is equinumerous to a set B then B is also equinumerous to A: A ~ B implies B ~ A. Transitivity Given three sets A, B and C with two bijections f : A → B and g : B → C, the composition g ∘ f of these bijections is a bijection from A to C, so if A and B are equinumerous and B and C are equinumerous then A and C are equinumerous: A ~ B and B ~ C together imply A ~ C. An attempt to define the cardinality of a set as the equivalence class of all sets equinumerous to it is problematic in Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, the standard form of axiomatic set theory, because the equivalence class of any non-empty set would be too large to be a set: it would be a proper class. Within the framework of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, relations are by definition restricted to sets (a binary relation on a set A is a subset of the Cartesian product A × A), and there is no set of all sets in Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory. In Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, instead of defining the cardinality of a set as the equivalence class of all sets equinumerous to it one tries to assign a representative set to each equivalence class (cardinal assignment). In some other systems of axiomatic set theory, for example in Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory and Morse–Kelley set theory, relations are extended to classes. A set A is said to have cardinality smaller than or equal to the cardinality of a set B, if there exists a one-to-one function (an injection) from A into B. This is denoted |A| ≤ |B|. If A and B are not equinumerous, then the cardinality of A is said to be strictly smaller than the cardinality of B. This is denoted |A| < |B|. If the axiom of choice holds, then the law of trichotomy holds for cardinal numbers, so that any two sets are either equinumerous, or one has a strictly smaller cardinality than the other. The law of trichotomy for cardinal numbers also implies the axiom of choice. The Schröder–Bernstein theorem states that any two sets A and B for which there exist two one-to-one functions f : A → B and g : B → A are equinumerous: if |A| ≤ |B| and |B| ≤ |A|, then |A| = |B|. This theorem does not rely on the axiom of choice. Cantor's theorem Cantor's theorem implies that no set is equinumerous to its power set (the set of all its subsets). This holds even for infinite sets. Specifically, the power set of a countably infinite set is an uncountable set. Assuming the existence of an infinite set N consisting of all natural numbers and assuming the existence of the power set of any given set allows the definition of a sequence N, P(N), P(P(N)), P(P(P(N))), … of infinite sets where each set is the power set of the set preceding it. By Cantor's theorem, the cardinality of each set in this sequence strictly exceeds the cardinality of the set preceding it, leading to greater and greater infinite sets. Cantor's work was harshly criticized by some of his contemporaries, for example by Leopold Kronecker, who strongly adhered to a finitist philosophy of mathematics and rejected the idea that numbers can form an actual, completed totality (an actual infinity). However, Cantor's ideas were defended by others, for example by Richard Dedekind, and ultimately were largely accepted, strongly supported by David Hilbert. See Controversy over Cantor's theory for more. Within the framework of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, the axiom of power set guarantees the existence of the power set of any given set. Furthermore, the axiom of infinity guarantees the existence of at least one infinite set, namely a set containing the natural numbers. There are alternative set theories, e.g. "general set theory" (GST), Kripke–Platek set theory, and pocket set theory (PST), that deliberately omit the axiom of power set and the axiom of infinity and do not allow the definition of the infinite hierarchy of infinites proposed by Cantor. The cardinalities corresponding to the sets N, P(N), P(P(N)), P(P(P(N))), … are the beth numbers ℶ 0 {\displaystyle \beth _{0}} , ℶ 1 {\displaystyle \beth _{1}} , ℶ 2 {\displaystyle \beth _{2}} , ℶ 3 {\displaystyle \beth _{3}} , …, with the first beth number ℶ 0 {\displaystyle \beth _{0}} being equal to ℵ 0 {\displaystyle \aleph _{0}} (aleph naught), the cardinality of any countably infinite set, and the second beth number ℶ 1 {\displaystyle \beth _{1}} being equal to c {\displaystyle {\mathfrak {c}}} , the cardinality of the continuum. Dedekind-infinite sets In some occasions, it is possible for a set S and its proper subset to be equinumerous. For example, the set of even natural numbers is equinumerous to the set of all natural numbers. A set that is equinumerous to a proper subset of itself is called Dedekind-infinite. The axiom of countable choice (ACω), a weak variant of the axiom of choice (AC), is needed to show that a set that is not Dedekind-infinite is actually finite. The axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice (ZF) are not strong enough to prove that every infinite set is Dedekind-infinite, but the axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of countable choice (ZF + ACω) are strong enough. Other definitions of finiteness and infiniteness of sets than that given by Dedekind do not require the axiom of choice for this, see Finite set § Necessary and sufficient conditions for finiteness. Compatibility with set operations Equinumerosity is compatible with the basic set operations in a way that allows the definition of cardinal arithmetic. Specifically, equinumerosity is compatible with disjoint unions: Given four sets A, B, C and D with A and C on the one hand and B and D on the other hand pairwise disjoint and with A ~ B and C ~ D then A ∪ C ~ B ∪ D. This is used to justify the definition of cardinal addition. Furthermore, equinumerosity is compatible with cartesian products: If A ~ B and C ~ D then A × C ~ B × D. A × B ~ B × A (A × B) × C ~ A × (B × C) These properties are used to justify cardinal multiplication. Given two sets X and Y, the set of all functions from Y to X is denoted by XY. Then the following statements hold: If A ~ B and C ~ D then AC ~ BD. AB ∪ C ~ AB × AC for disjoint B and C. (A × B)C ~ AC × BC (AB)C ~ AB×C These properties are used to justify cardinal exponentiation. Furthermore, the power set of a given set A (the set of all subsets of A) is equinumerous to the set 2A, the set of all functions from the set A to a set containing exactly two elements. Categorial definition In category theory, the category of sets, denoted Set, is the category consisting of the collection of all sets as objects and the collection of all functions between sets as morphisms, with the composition of functions as the composition of the morphisms. In Set, an isomorphism between two sets is precisely a bijection, and two sets are equinumerous precisely if they are isomorphic as objects in Set. See also Combinatorial class Hume's principle References ^ a b c d e f g h i j k l Suppes, Patrick (1972) . Axiomatic Set Theory. Dover. ISBN 0486616304. ^ Enderton, Herbert (1977). Elements of Set Theory. Academic Press Inc. ISBN 0-12-238440-7. ^ a b c d Jech, Thomas J. (2008) . The Axiom of Choice. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-46624-8. ^ Weisstein, Eric W. "Equipollent". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2020-09-05. ^ Tiles, Mary (2004) . The Philosophy of Set Theory: An Historical Introduction to Cantor's Paradise. Dover. ISBN 978-0486435206. ^ Herrlich, Horst (2006). Axiom of Choice. Lecture Notes in Mathematics 1876. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3540309895.

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For the concept in geometry, see Equipollence (geometry).In mathematics, two sets or classes A and B are equinumerous if there exists a one-to-one correspondence (or bijection) between them, that is, if there exists a function from A to B such that for every element y of B, there is exactly one element x of A with f(x) = y.[1] Equinumerous sets are said to have the same cardinality (number of elements).[2] The study of cardinality is often called equinumerosity (equalness-of-number). The terms equipollence (equalness-of-strength) and equipotence (equalness-of-power) are sometimes used instead.Equinumerosity has the characteristic properties of an equivalence relation.[1] The statement that two sets A and B are equinumerous is usually denotedA\n ≈\n B\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\approx B\\,}\n \n or \n \n \n \n A\n ∼\n B\n \n \n {\\displaystyle A\\sim B}\n \n, or \n \n \n \n \n |\n \n A\n \n |\n \n =\n \n |\n \n B\n \n |\n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle |A|=|B|.}The definition of equinumerosity using bijections can be applied to both finite and infinite sets, and allows one to state whether two sets have the same size even if they are infinite. Georg Cantor, the inventor of set theory, showed in 1874 that there is more than one kind of infinity, specifically that the collection of all natural numbers and the collection of all real numbers, while both infinite, are not equinumerous (see Cantor's first uncountability proof). In his controversial 1878 paper, Cantor explicitly defined the notion of \"power\" of sets and used it to prove that the set of all natural numbers and the set of all rational numbers are equinumerous (an example where a proper subset of an infinite set is equinumerous to the original set), and that the Cartesian product of even a countably infinite number of copies of the real numbers is equinumerous to a single copy of the real numbers.Cantor's theorem from 1891 implies that no set is equinumerous to its own power set (the set of all its subsets).[1] This allows the definition of greater and greater infinite sets starting from a single infinite set.If the axiom of choice holds, then the cardinal number of a set may be regarded as the least ordinal number of that cardinality (see initial ordinal). Otherwise, it may be regarded (by Scott's trick) as the set of sets of minimal rank having that cardinality.[1]The statement that any two sets are either equinumerous or one has a smaller cardinality than the other is equivalent to the axiom of choice.[3]","title":"Equinumerosity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"cardinality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suppes-1"},{"link_name":"equivalence relation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equivalence_relation"},{"link_name":"reflexivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflexive_relation"},{"link_name":"symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symmetric_relation"},{"link_name":"transitivity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transitive_relation"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suppes-1"},{"link_name":"identity function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_function"},{"link_name":"inverse function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inverse_function"},{"link_name":"composition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_composition"},{"link_name":"Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory"},{"link_name":"axiomatic set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiomatic_set_theory"},{"link_name":"non-empty set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-empty_set"},{"link_name":"proper class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_class"},{"link_name":"relations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_relation"},{"link_name":"subset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subset"},{"link_name":"Cartesian product","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_product"},{"link_name":"set of all sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Set_of_all_sets"},{"link_name":"representative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Representative_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"cardinal assignment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_assignment"},{"link_name":"Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Von_Neumann%E2%80%93Bernays%E2%80%93G%C3%B6del_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Morse–Kelley set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morse%E2%80%93Kelley_set_theory"},{"link_name":"classes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Class_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"one-to-one function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-to-one_function"},{"link_name":"law of trichotomy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Law_of_trichotomy"},{"link_name":"cardinal numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_number"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suppes-1"},{"link_name":"axiom of choice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_choice"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jech-3"},{"link_name":"Schröder–Bernstein theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Schr%C3%B6der%E2%80%93Bernstein_theorem"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suppes-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jech-3"},{"link_name":"axiom of choice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_choice"}],"text":"Equinumerous sets have a one-to-one correspondence between them,[4] and are said to have the same cardinality. The cardinality of a set X is essentially a measure of the number of elements of the set.[1] Equinumerosity has the characteristic properties of an equivalence relation (reflexivity, symmetry, and transitivity):[1]Reflexivity\nGiven a set A, the identity function on A is a bijection from A to itself, showing that every set A is equinumerous to itself: A ~ A.\nSymmetry\nFor every bijection between two sets A and B there exists an inverse function which is a bijection between B and A, implying that if a set A is equinumerous to a set B then B is also equinumerous to A: A ~ B implies B ~ A.\nTransitivity\nGiven three sets A, B and C with two bijections f : A → B and g : B → C, the composition g ∘ f of these bijections is a bijection from A to C, so if A and B are equinumerous and B and C are equinumerous then A and C are equinumerous: A ~ B and B ~ C together imply A ~ C.An attempt to define the cardinality of a set as the equivalence class of all sets equinumerous to it is problematic in Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, the standard form of axiomatic set theory, because the equivalence class of any non-empty set would be too large to be a set: it would be a proper class. Within the framework of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, relations are by definition restricted to sets (a binary relation on a set A is a subset of the Cartesian product A × A), and there is no set of all sets in Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory. In Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, instead of defining the cardinality of a set as the equivalence class of all sets equinumerous to it one tries to assign a representative set to each equivalence class (cardinal assignment). In some other systems of axiomatic set theory, for example in Von Neumann–Bernays–Gödel set theory and Morse–Kelley set theory, relations are extended to classes.A set A is said to have cardinality smaller than or equal to the cardinality of a set B, if there exists a one-to-one function (an injection) from A into B. This is denoted |A| ≤ |B|. If A and B are not equinumerous, then the cardinality of A is said to be strictly smaller than the cardinality of B. This is denoted |A| < |B|. If the axiom of choice holds, then the law of trichotomy holds for cardinal numbers, so that any two sets are either equinumerous, or one has a strictly smaller cardinality than the other.[1] The law of trichotomy for cardinal numbers also implies the axiom of choice.[3]The Schröder–Bernstein theorem states that any two sets A and B for which there exist two one-to-one functions f : A → B and g : B → A are equinumerous: if |A| ≤ |B| and |B| ≤ |A|, then |A| = |B|.[1][3] This theorem does not rely on the axiom of choice.","title":"Cardinality"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cantor's theorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantor%27s_theorem"},{"link_name":"power set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_set"},{"link_name":"subsets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subset"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suppes-1"},{"link_name":"infinite sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_set"},{"link_name":"countably infinite set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Countably_infinite_set"},{"link_name":"uncountable set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uncountable_set"},{"link_name":"natural numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_number"},{"link_name":"Leopold Kronecker","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leopold_Kronecker"},{"link_name":"finitist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finitism"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-tiles-5"},{"link_name":"philosophy of mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy_of_mathematics"},{"link_name":"actual infinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Actual_infinity"},{"link_name":"Richard Dedekind","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Dedekind"},{"link_name":"David Hilbert","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Hilbert"},{"link_name":"Controversy over Cantor's theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controversy_over_Cantor%27s_theory"},{"link_name":"Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory"},{"link_name":"axiom of power set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_power_set"},{"link_name":"axiom of infinity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_infinity"},{"link_name":"alternative set theories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_set_theory"},{"link_name":"general set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_set_theory"},{"link_name":"Kripke–Platek set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kripke%E2%80%93Platek_set_theory"},{"link_name":"pocket set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pocket_set_theory"},{"link_name":"beth numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beth_number"},{"link_name":"aleph naught","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleph_naught"},{"link_name":"cardinality of the continuum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinality_of_the_continuum"}],"text":"Cantor's theorem implies that no set is equinumerous to its power set (the set of all its subsets).[1] This holds even for infinite sets. Specifically, the power set of a countably infinite set is an uncountable set.Assuming the existence of an infinite set N consisting of all natural numbers and assuming the existence of the power set of any given set allows the definition of a sequence N, P(N), P(P(N)), P(P(P(N))), … of infinite sets where each set is the power set of the set preceding it. By Cantor's theorem, the cardinality of each set in this sequence strictly exceeds the cardinality of the set preceding it, leading to greater and greater infinite sets.Cantor's work was harshly criticized by some of his contemporaries, for example by Leopold Kronecker, who strongly adhered to a finitist[5] philosophy of mathematics and rejected the idea that numbers can form an actual, completed totality (an actual infinity). However, Cantor's ideas were defended by others, for example by Richard Dedekind, and ultimately were largely accepted, strongly supported by David Hilbert. See Controversy over Cantor's theory for more.Within the framework of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory, the axiom of power set guarantees the existence of the power set of any given set. Furthermore, the axiom of infinity guarantees the existence of at least one infinite set, namely a set containing the natural numbers. There are alternative set theories, e.g. \"general set theory\" (GST), Kripke–Platek set theory, and pocket set theory (PST), that deliberately omit the axiom of power set and the axiom of infinity and do not allow the definition of the infinite hierarchy of infinites proposed by Cantor.The cardinalities corresponding to the sets N, P(N), P(P(N)), P(P(P(N))), … are the beth numbers \n \n \n \n \n ℶ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\beth _{0}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n ℶ\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\beth _{1}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n ℶ\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\beth _{2}}\n \n, \n \n \n \n \n ℶ\n \n 3\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\beth _{3}}\n \n, …, with the first beth number \n \n \n \n \n ℶ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\beth _{0}}\n \n being equal to \n \n \n \n \n ℵ\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\aleph _{0}}\n \n (aleph naught), the cardinality of any countably infinite set, and the second beth number \n \n \n \n \n ℶ\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\beth _{1}}\n \n being equal to \n \n \n \n \n \n c\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\mathfrak {c}}}\n \n, the cardinality of the continuum.","title":"Cantor's theorem"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"proper subset","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_subset"},{"link_name":"natural numbers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_number"},{"link_name":"Dedekind-infinite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedekind-infinite"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suppes-1"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-jech-3"},{"link_name":"axiom of countable choice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_countable_choice"},{"link_name":"axiom of choice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom_of_choice"},{"link_name":"finite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_set"},{"link_name":"axioms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axiom"},{"link_name":"Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zermelo%E2%80%93Fraenkel_set_theory"},{"link_name":"infinite set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infinite_set"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-herrlich-6"},{"link_name":"Finite set § Necessary and sufficient conditions for finiteness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finite_set#Necessary_and_sufficient_conditions_for_finiteness"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suppes-1"}],"text":"In some occasions, it is possible for a set S and its proper subset to be equinumerous. For example, the set of even natural numbers is equinumerous to the set of all natural numbers. A set that is equinumerous to a proper subset of itself is called Dedekind-infinite.[1][3]The axiom of countable choice (ACω), a weak variant of the axiom of choice (AC), is needed to show that a set that is not Dedekind-infinite is actually finite. The axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory without the axiom of choice (ZF) are not strong enough to prove that every infinite set is Dedekind-infinite, but the axioms of Zermelo–Fraenkel set theory with the axiom of countable choice (ZF + ACω) are strong enough.[6] Other definitions of finiteness and infiniteness of sets than that given by Dedekind do not require the axiom of choice for this, see Finite set § Necessary and sufficient conditions for finiteness.[1]","title":"Dedekind-infinite sets"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"basic set operations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basic_set_operations"},{"link_name":"cardinal arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-suppes-1"},{"link_name":"disjoint unions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disjoint_union"},{"link_name":"pairwise disjoint","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pairwise_disjoint"},{"link_name":"cardinal addition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_addition"},{"link_name":"cartesian products","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cartesian_product"},{"link_name":"cardinal multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_multiplication"},{"link_name":"cardinal exponentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_exponentiation"},{"link_name":"power set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_set"},{"link_name":"subsets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Subset"}],"text":"Equinumerosity is compatible with the basic set operations in a way that allows the definition of cardinal arithmetic.[1] Specifically, equinumerosity is compatible with disjoint unions: Given four sets A, B, C and D with A and C on the one hand and B and D on the other hand pairwise disjoint and with A ~ B and C ~ D then A ∪ C ~ B ∪ D. This is used to justify the definition of cardinal addition.Furthermore, equinumerosity is compatible with cartesian products:If A ~ B and C ~ D then A × C ~ B × D.\nA × B ~ B × A\n(A × B) × C ~ A × (B × C)These properties are used to justify cardinal multiplication.Given two sets X and Y, the set of all functions from Y to X is denoted by XY. Then the following statements hold:If A ~ B and C ~ D then AC ~ BD.\nAB ∪ C ~ AB × AC for disjoint B and C.\n(A × B)C ~ AC × BC\n(AB)C ~ AB×CThese properties are used to justify cardinal exponentiation.Furthermore, the power set of a given set A (the set of all subsets of A) is equinumerous to the set 2A, the set of all functions from the set A to a set containing exactly two elements.","title":"Compatibility with set operations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"category theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_theory"},{"link_name":"category of sets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_of_sets"},{"link_name":"category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"morphisms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morphism_(category_theory)"},{"link_name":"composition of functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_composition"},{"link_name":"isomorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isomorphism"}],"text":"In category theory, the category of sets, denoted Set, is the category consisting of the collection of all sets as objects and the collection of all functions between sets as morphisms, with the composition of functions as the composition of the morphisms. In Set, an isomorphism between two sets is precisely a bijection, and two sets are equinumerous precisely if they are isomorphic as objects in Set.","title":"Categorial definition"}]

[]

[{"title":"Combinatorial class","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combinatorial_class"},{"title":"Hume's principle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hume%27s_principle"}]

[{"reference":"Suppes, Patrick (1972) [originally published by D. van Nostrand Company in 1960]. Axiomatic Set Theory. Dover. ISBN 0486616304.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_Suppes","url_text":"Suppes, Patrick"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/axiomaticsettheo00supp_0","url_text":"Axiomatic Set Theory"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0486616304","url_text":"0486616304"}]},{"reference":"Enderton, Herbert (1977). Elements of Set Theory. Academic Press Inc. ISBN 0-12-238440-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herbert_Enderton","url_text":"Enderton, Herbert"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-12-238440-7","url_text":"0-12-238440-7"}]},{"reference":"Jech, Thomas J. (2008) [Originally published by North–Holland in 1973]. The Axiom of Choice. Dover. ISBN 978-0-486-46624-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas_Jech","url_text":"Jech, Thomas J."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-46624-8","url_text":"978-0-486-46624-8"}]},{"reference":"Weisstein, Eric W. \"Equipollent\". mathworld.wolfram.com. Retrieved 2020-09-05.","urls":[{"url":"https://mathworld.wolfram.com/Equipollent.html","url_text":"\"Equipollent\""}]},{"reference":"Tiles, Mary (2004) [Originally published by Basil Blackwell Ltd. in 1989]. The Philosophy of Set Theory: An Historical Introduction to Cantor's Paradise. Dover. ISBN 978-0486435206.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary_Tiles","url_text":"Tiles, Mary"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0486435206","url_text":"978-0486435206"}]},{"reference":"Herrlich, Horst (2006). Axiom of Choice. Lecture Notes in Mathematics 1876. Springer-Verlag. ISBN 978-3540309895.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3540309895","url_text":"978-3540309895"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingle

Jingle

["1 History","1.1 Jingle downturn","2 Long running jingles","3 Alternative jingles","4 Radio jingles","5 Copyright","6 See also","7 References"]

Short song or tune used in advertising and for other commercial uses For other uses, see Jingle (disambiguation). The examples and perspective in this article deal primarily with the United States and do not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this article, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new article, as appropriate. (May 2009) (Learn how and when to remove this message) A jingle is a short song or tune used in advertising and for other commercial uses. Jingles are a form of sound branding. A jingle contains one or more hooks and meanings that explicitly promote the product or service being advertised, usually through the use of one or more advertising slogans. Ad buyers use jingles in radio and television commercials; they can also be used in non-advertising contexts to establish or maintain a brand image. Many jingles are also created using snippets of popular songs, in which lyrics are modified to appropriately advertise the product or service. History The first radio commercial jingle aired in December 1926, for Wheaties cereal. Have you tried Wheaties? They're whole wheat with all of the bran. Won't you try Wheaties? For wheat is the best food of man. They're crispy and crunchy the whole year through, The kiddies never tire of them and neither will you. So just try Wheaties, The best breakfast food in the land. Wheaties Jingle (1926) The Wheaties advertisement, with its lyrical hooks, was seen by its owners as extremely successful. According to one account, General Mills had seriously planned to end production of Wheaties in 1929 on the basis of poor sales. Soon after the song "Have you tried Wheaties?" aired in Minnesota, however, sales spiked there. Of the 53,000 cases of Wheaties breakfast cereal sold, 40,000 were sold in the Twin Cities market. After advertising manager Samuel Chester Gale pointed out that this was the only location where "Have You Tried Wheaties?" was being aired at the time, the success of the jingle was accepted by the company. Encouraged by the results of this new method of advertising, General Mills changed its brand strategy. Instead of dropping the cereal, it purchased nationwide commercial time for the advertisement. The resultant climb in sales single-handedly established the "Wheaties" brand nationwide. After General Mills' success, other companies began to investigate this new method of advertisement. Initially, the jingle circumvented the ban on direct advertising that the National Broadcasting Company, the dominant broadcasting chain, was trying to maintain at the time. A jingle could get a brand's name embedded in the heads of potential customers even though it did not fit into the definition of "advertisement" accepted in the late 1920s. The art of the jingle reached its peak around the economic boom of the 1950s. The jingle was used in the advertising of branded products such as breakfast cereals, candy, snacks, soda pop, tobacco, and beer. Various franchises and products aimed at the consumers' self-image, such as automobiles, personal hygiene products (including deodorants, mouthwash, shampoo, and toothpaste), and household cleaning products, especially detergent, also used jingles. Jingle downturn In August 2016, The Atlantic reported that in the United States, the once popular jingle was now being replaced by advertisers with a mixture of older and recent pop music to make their commercials memorable. In 1998, there were 153 jingles in a sample of 1,279 national commercials; by 2011, the number of jingles had dropped to eight jingles out of 306 commercials. Long running jingles One of the longest running jingles is for McCormick Foods' Aeroplane Jelly. Composed in Australia before 1943, the jingle has been used in advertising well into the 21st century. During the '40s, it made itself famous, or infamous, as it was played more than 100 times a day on some stations. Another long-running jingle is "Like a Good Neighbor, State Farm is There", which was composed by Barry Manilow and has been used in one form or another in commercials for State Farm Insurance since 1971. The 6-note ABS-CBN jingle, used from 1967 to September 23, 1972 and since its reopening on September 14, 1986, serves as the network's jingle as it is used on various IDs, such as Christmas and Summer station IDs. Alternative jingles Jingles can also be used for parody purposes, popularized in Top 40/CHR radio formats primarily Hot30 Countdown, used primarily for branding reasons. Television station idents have also introduced their own audio jingles to strengthen their brand identities, for example the melodic motifs of Channel 4's Fourscore or BBC One's 'Circle' idents. Radio jingles Most often the term "radio jingles" can be used to collectively describe all elements of radio station branding or identification. Accurately the term in the context of radio is used to describe only those station branding elements which are musical, or sung. Sung jingles are the most common form of radio station branding otherwise known as imaging. A radio jingle therefore is created in a studio by session singers and includes a musical representation of the radio station name and frequency. Radio stations will sub contract to specialist radio jingle producers who will create the musical sound and melody, along with recording the session singers. The elements, termed a donut, will then be dispatched to the radio station in various time variations to be edited by local radio producers before being broadcast in between songs, or into and out of commercial breaks. Alternatively, jingles can be made in-house by production staff. Copyright When commissioned to write jingles, writers will sometimes create all aspects of the jingle: music, lyrics, performance and recording. In this case, the writer may be paid for these aspects as well as a flat fee. Although the advertiser receives rights free of writer royalty, sometimes the writer will try to retain performance rights. In most cases the writer retains no rights whatsoever. In other cases, advertisers purchase jingles in package deals from producers specializing in jingles. The writers working for these producers receive a salary and do not retain rights. The rights belong to the producer, who may sell them to an advertiser. See also Radio sweeper Teaser trailer References ^ "What the First Radio Commercial Jingle Sounded Like". Retrieved 2024-04-10. ^ General Mills history of innovation Radio and TV (archived link, 15 February 2010) ^ MWOTRC: Metro Washington Old Time Radio Club ^ Stanley, Tiffany (2016-08-29). "What Killed the Jingle?". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2016-08-31. ^ "Aeroplane Jelly Song". Australian Screen. National Film and Sound Archive of Australia. Retrieved 19 August 2018. ^ Audio Identities Archived 2013-02-14 at the Wayback Machine at imagedissectors.com, URL accessed September 3, 2010 ^ The Ad Station ^ In house jingle production Archived 2013-05-24 at the Wayback Machine at talkingnewspaper.org.uk, URL accessed August 20, 2015 ^ Krasilovsky. W: "This Business of Music", page 288. Billboard Books, 2000 Authority control databases: National Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Jingle (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jingle_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"short song or tune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fanfare"},{"link_name":"advertising","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising"},{"link_name":"sound branding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sound_branding"},{"link_name":"hooks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hook_(music)"},{"link_name":"slogans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slogans"},{"link_name":"radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio"},{"link_name":"television commercials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_commercials"},{"link_name":"snippets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sampling_(music)"},{"link_name":"popular songs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Popular_music"},{"link_name":"lyrics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyrics"}],"text":"For other uses, see Jingle (disambiguation).A jingle is a short song or tune used in advertising and for other commercial uses. Jingles are a form of sound branding. A jingle contains one or more hooks and meanings that explicitly promote the product or service being advertised, usually through the use of one or more advertising slogans. Ad buyers use jingles in radio and television commercials; they can also be used in non-advertising contexts to establish or maintain a brand image. Many jingles are also created using snippets of popular songs, in which lyrics are modified to appropriately advertise the product or service.","title":"Jingle"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-smithsonian-1"},{"link_name":"Wheaties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheaties"},{"link_name":"General Mills","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/General_Mills"},{"link_name":"Minnesota","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota"},{"link_name":"breakfast cereal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Breakfast_cereal"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GM-2"},{"link_name":"National Broadcasting Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Broadcasting_Company"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MW-3"},{"link_name":"economic boom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boom_and_bust"},{"link_name":"candy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candy"},{"link_name":"snacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snacks"},{"link_name":"soda pop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soda_pop"},{"link_name":"tobacco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobacco"},{"link_name":"beer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beer"},{"link_name":"franchises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Franchising"},{"link_name":"automobiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile"},{"link_name":"deodorants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deodorant"},{"link_name":"mouthwash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouthwash"},{"link_name":"shampoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shampoo"},{"link_name":"toothpaste","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Toothpaste"},{"link_name":"detergent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detergent"}],"text":"The first radio commercial jingle aired in December 1926, for Wheaties cereal.[1]Have you tried Wheaties?\nThey're whole wheat with all of the bran.\nWon't you try Wheaties?\nFor wheat is the best food of man.\nThey're crispy and crunchy the whole year through,\nThe kiddies never tire of them and neither will you.\nSo just try Wheaties,\nThe best breakfast food in the land.\n\n\nWheaties Jingle (1926)The Wheaties advertisement, with its lyrical hooks, was seen by its owners as extremely successful. According to one account, General Mills had seriously planned to end production of Wheaties in 1929 on the basis of poor sales. Soon after the song \"Have you tried Wheaties?\" aired in Minnesota, however, sales spiked there. Of the 53,000 cases of Wheaties breakfast cereal sold, 40,000 were sold in the Twin Cities market. After advertising manager Samuel Chester Gale pointed out that this was the only location where \"Have You Tried Wheaties?\" was being aired at the time, the success of the jingle was accepted by the company.[2] Encouraged by the results of this new method of advertising, General Mills changed its brand strategy. Instead of dropping the cereal, it purchased nationwide commercial time for the advertisement. The resultant climb in sales single-handedly established the \"Wheaties\" brand nationwide.\nAfter General Mills' success, other companies began to investigate this new method of advertisement. Initially, the jingle circumvented the ban on direct advertising that the National Broadcasting Company, the dominant broadcasting chain, was trying to maintain at the time.[3] A jingle could get a brand's name embedded in the heads of potential customers even though it did not fit into the definition of \"advertisement\" accepted in the late 1920s.The art of the jingle reached its peak around the economic boom of the 1950s.\nThe jingle was used in the advertising of branded products such as breakfast cereals, candy, snacks, soda pop, tobacco, and beer. Various franchises and products aimed at the consumers' self-image, such as automobiles, personal hygiene products (including deodorants, mouthwash, shampoo, and toothpaste), and household cleaning products, especially detergent, also used jingles.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Atlantic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic"},{"link_name":"pop music","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pop_music"},{"link_name":"commercials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Television_advertisement"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"sub_title":"Jingle downturn","text":"In August 2016, The Atlantic reported that in the United States, the once popular jingle was now being replaced by advertisers with a mixture of older and recent pop music to make their commercials memorable. In 1998, there were 153 jingles in a sample of 1,279 national commercials; by 2011, the number of jingles had dropped to eight jingles out of 306 commercials.[4]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Aeroplane Jelly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeroplane_Jelly"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Barry Manilow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barry_Manilow"},{"link_name":"State Farm Insurance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/State_Farm_Insurance"},{"link_name":"ABS-CBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ABS-CBN"}],"text":"One of the longest running jingles is for McCormick Foods' Aeroplane Jelly. Composed in Australia before 1943, the jingle has been used in advertising well into the 21st century. During the '40s, it made itself famous, or infamous, as it was played more than 100 times a day on some stations.[5]Another long-running jingle is \"Like a Good Neighbor, State Farm is There\", which was composed by Barry Manilow and has been used in one form or another in commercials for State Farm Insurance since 1971.The 6-note ABS-CBN jingle, used from 1967 to September 23, 1972 and since its reopening on September 14, 1986, serves as the network's jingle as it is used on various IDs, such as Christmas and Summer station IDs.","title":"Long running jingles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Top 40","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Top_40"},{"link_name":"CHR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contemporary_hit_radio"},{"link_name":"Hot30 Countdown","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hot30_Countdown"},{"link_name":"idents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Station_identification"},{"link_name":"Channel 4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Channel_4"},{"link_name":"Fourscore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourscore"},{"link_name":"BBC One","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_One"},{"link_name":"'Circle' idents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_One_%27Circle%27_idents"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Jingles can also be used for parody purposes, popularized in Top 40/CHR radio formats primarily Hot30 Countdown, used primarily for branding reasons.Television station idents have also introduced their own audio jingles to strengthen their brand identities, for example the melodic motifs of Channel 4's Fourscore or BBC One's 'Circle' idents.[6]","title":"Alternative jingles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"Most often the term \"radio jingles\" can be used to collectively describe all elements of radio station branding or identification. Accurately the term in the context of radio is used to describe only those station branding elements which are musical, or sung. Sung jingles are the most common form of radio station branding otherwise known as imaging. A radio jingle therefore is created in a studio by session singers and includes a musical representation of the radio station name and frequency. Radio stations will sub contract to specialist radio jingle producers who will create the musical sound and melody, along with recording the session singers. The elements, termed a donut, will then be dispatched to the radio station in various time variations to be edited by local radio producers before being broadcast in between songs, or into and out of commercial breaks.[7] Alternatively, jingles can be made in-house by production staff.[8]","title":"Radio jingles"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"}],"text":"When commissioned to write jingles, writers will sometimes create all aspects of the jingle: music, lyrics, performance and recording. In this case, the writer may be paid for these aspects as well as a flat fee. Although the advertiser receives rights free of writer royalty, sometimes the writer will try to retain performance rights. In most cases the writer retains no rights whatsoever. In other cases, advertisers purchase jingles in package deals from producers specializing in jingles. The writers working for these producers receive a salary and do not retain rights. The rights belong to the producer, who may sell them to an advertiser.[9]","title":"Copyright"}]

[]

[{"title":"Radio sweeper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_sweeper"},{"title":"Teaser trailer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaser_trailer"}]

[{"reference":"\"What the First Radio Commercial Jingle Sounded Like\". Retrieved 2024-04-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.smithsonianmag.com/videos/what-the-first-radio-commercial-jingle-sounded/","url_text":"\"What the First Radio Commercial Jingle Sounded Like\""}]},{"reference":"Stanley, Tiffany (2016-08-29). \"What Killed the Jingle?\". The Atlantic. Retrieved 2016-08-31.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/08/what-killed-the-jingle/497291/","url_text":"\"What Killed the Jingle?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Atlantic","url_text":"The Atlantic"}]},{"reference":"\"Aeroplane Jelly Song\". Australian Screen. National Film and Sound Archive of Australia. Retrieved 19 August 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://aso.gov.au/titles/ads/aeroplane-jelly-song/notes/","url_text":"\"Aeroplane Jelly Song\""}]}]

[{"Link":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jingle&action=edit","external_links_name":"improve this article"},{"Link":"https://www.smithsonianmag.com/videos/what-the-first-radio-commercial-jingle-sounded/","external_links_name":"\"What the First Radio Commercial Jingle Sounded Like\""},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100215112522/http://www.generalmills.com/corporate/company/hist_radio.pdf","external_links_name":"General Mills history of innovation Radio and TV"},{"Link":"http://www.mwotrc.com/rr2005_02/expert.htm","external_links_name":"MWOTRC: Metro Washington Old Time Radio Club"},{"Link":"https://www.theatlantic.com/business/archive/2016/08/what-killed-the-jingle/497291/","external_links_name":"\"What Killed the Jingle?\""},{"Link":"https://aso.gov.au/titles/ads/aeroplane-jelly-song/notes/","external_links_name":"\"Aeroplane Jelly Song\""},{"Link":"http://www.imagedissectors.com/article/46","external_links_name":"Audio Identities"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130214015912/http://www.imagedissectors.com/article/46","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://www.theadstation.com/","external_links_name":"The Ad Station"},{"Link":"http://www.talkingnewspaper.org.uk/music-and-jingles/","external_links_name":"In house jingle production"},{"Link":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130524155116/http://www.talkingnewspaper.org.uk/music-and-jingles/","external_links_name":"Archived"},{"Link":"http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007553736005171","external_links_name":"Israel"},{"Link":"https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh90002359","external_links_name":"United States"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_2.0

Apache License

["1 History","2 Licensing conditions","2.1 Apache License 2.0","3 Compatibility","4 Reception and adoption","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Free software license Apache LicenseThe Apache Software Foundation logoAuthorThe Apache Software FoundationLatest version2.0PublisherThe Apache Software FoundationPublishedJanuary 2004; 20 years ago (2004-01)SPDX identifierApache-2.0Apache-1.1Apache-1.0Debian FSG compatibleYesFSF approvedYesOSI approvedYesGPL compatibleOnly version 2.0 is compatible with only GPLv3.CopyleftNoLinking from code with a different licenceYesWebsitewww.apache.org/licenses The Apache License is a permissive free software license written by the Apache Software Foundation (ASF). It allows users to use the software for any purpose, to distribute it, to modify it, and to distribute modified versions of the software under the terms of the license, without concern for royalties. The ASF and its projects release their software products under the Apache License. The license is also used by many non-ASF projects. History Beginning in 1995, the Apache Group (later the Apache Software Foundation) released successive versions of the Apache HTTP Server. Its initial license was essentially the same as the original 4-clause BSD license, with only the names of the organizations changed, and with an additional clause forbidding derivative works from bearing the Apache name. In July 1999, the Berkeley Software Distribution accepted the argument put to it by the Free Software Foundation and retired their advertising clause (clause 3) to form the new 3-clause BSD license. In 2000, Apache did likewise and created the Apache License 1.1, in which derived products are no longer required to include attribution in their advertising materials, only in their documentation. Individual packages licensed under the 1.1 version may have used different wording due to varying requirements for attribution or mark identification, but the binding terms were the same. In January 2004, ASF decided to depart from the BSD model and produced the Apache License 2.0. The stated goals of the license included making it easier for non-ASF projects to use, improving compatibility with GPL-based software, allowing the license to be included by reference instead of listed in every file, clarifying the license on contributions, and requiring a patent license on contributions that necessarily infringe a contributor's own patents. This license requires the preservation of the copyright notice and disclaimer. Licensing conditions The Apache License is permissive; unlike copyleft licenses, it does not require a derivative work of the software, or modifications to the original, to be distributed using the same license. It still requires application of the same license to all unmodified parts. In every licensed file, original copyright, patent, trademark, and attribution notices must be preserved (excluding notices that do not pertain to any part of the derivative works). In every licensed file changed, a notification must be added stating that changes have been made to that file. If a NOTICE text file is included as part of the distribution of the original work, then derivative works must include a readable copy of these notices within a NOTICE text file distributed as part of the derivative works, within the source form or documentation, or within a display generated by the derivative works (wherever such third-party notices normally appear). The contents of the NOTICE file do not modify the license, as they are for informational purposes only, and adding more attribution notices as addenda to the NOTICE text is permissible, provided that these notices cannot be understood as modifying the license. Modifications may have appropriate copyright notices, and may provide different license terms for the modifications. Unless explicitly stated otherwise, any contributions submitted by a licensee to a licensor will be under the terms of the license without any terms and conditions, but this does not preclude any separate agreements with the licensor regarding these contributions. Apache License 2.0 The Apache License 2.0 attempts to forestall potential patent litigation in Section 3. The user is granted a patent license from each contributor to "make, have made, use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work." Through an in terrorem clause, if the user sues anyone alleging that the software or a contribution within it constitutes patent infringement, any such patent licenses for that work are terminated. Compatibility The Apache Software Foundation and the Free Software Foundation agree that the Apache License 2.0 is a free software license, compatible with the GNU General Public License (GPL) version 3, meaning that code under GPLv3 and Apache License 2.0 can be combined, as long as the resulting software is licensed under the GPLv3. The Free Software Foundation considers all versions of the Apache License to be incompatible with the previous GPL versions 1 and 2. Furthermore, it considers Apache License versions before 2.0 incompatible with GPLv3. Because of version 2.0's patent license requirements, the Free Software Foundation recommends it over other non-copyleft licenses. If the Apache License with the LLVM exception is used, then it is compatible with GPLv2. Reception and adoption In October 2012, 8,708 projects located at SourceForge.net were available under the terms of the Apache License. In a blog post from May 2008, Google mentioned that over 25% of the nearly 100,000 projects then hosted on Google Code were using the Apache License, including the Android operating system. As of 2015, according to Black Duck Software and GitHub, the Apache license is the third most popular license in the FOSS domain after MIT License and GPLv2. The OpenBSD project does not consider the Apache License 2.0 to be an acceptable free license because of its patent provisions. The OpenBSD policy believes that when the license forces one to give up a legal right that one otherwise has, that license is no longer free. Moreover, the project objects to involving contract law with copyright law, stating "...Copyright law is somewhat standardized by international agreements, contract law differs wildly among jurisdictions. So what the license means in different jurisdictions may vary and is hard to predict." See also Free and open-source software portal Comparison of free and open-source software licenses Software using the Apache license (category) References ^ "The Apache Software License (ASL)". The Big DFSG-compatible Licenses. Debian Project. Retrieved 6 July 2009. ^ a b c d e "Apache License, Version 2.0". Various Licenses and Comments about Them. Free Software Foundation. Archived from the original on 16 July 2009. Retrieved 6 July 2009. ^ "OSI-approved licenses by name David Gutierrez & David Louie Gutierrez". Open Source Initiative. Archived from the original on 28 April 2011. Retrieved 31 March 2011. ^ New Media Rights (12 September 2008). "Open Source Licensing Guide". California Western School of Law. Retrieved 28 November 2015. The 'BSD-like' licenses such as the BSD, MIT, and Apache licenses are extremely permissive, requiring little more than attributing the original portions of the licensed code to the original developers in your own code and/or documentation. ^ a b "Apache License, Version 2.0". Apache Software Foundation. Retrieved 15 July 2019. ^ Apache Software Foundation. "Apache License v2.0 and GPL Compatibility". Archived from the original on 15 January 2008. Retrieved 30 January 2008. ^ "How to choose a license for your own work". gnu.org. Free Software Foundation. 15 December 2018. Retrieved 25 August 2019. ^ "LLVM Exception | Software Package Data Exchange (SPDX)". spdx.org. Retrieved 22 June 2022. ^ "Projects at SourceForge under Apache License". Retrieved 28 October 2012. ^ Stein, Greg (28 May 2008). "Standing Against License Proliferation". Google Open Source Blog. ^ "Licenses". Android Open Source Project. Retrieved 25 August 2019. ^ "Top 20 licenses". Black Duck Software. 19 November 2015. Archived from the original on 19 July 2016. Retrieved 19 November 2015. ^ Balter, Ben (9 March 2015). "Open source license usage on GitHub.com". GitHub. ^ "OpenBSD copyright policy". openbsd.org. OpenBSD Project. 28 May 2019. External links Apache Licenses Quick Summary of the Apache License 2.0 vteThe Apache Software FoundationTop-levelprojects Accumulo ActiveMQ Airavata Airflow Allura Ambari Ant Aries Arrow Apache HTTP Server APR Avro Axis Axis2 Beam Bloodhound Brooklyn Calcite Camel CarbonData Cassandra Cayenne CloudStack Cocoon Cordova CouchDB cTAKES CXF Derby Directory Drill Druid Empire-db Felix Flex Flink Flume FreeMarker Geronimo Groovy Guacamole Gump Hadoop HBase Helix Hive Iceberg Ignite Impala Jackrabbit James Jena JMeter Kafka Kudu Kylin Lucene Mahout Maven MINA mod_perl MyFaces Mynewt NiFi NetBeans Nutch NuttX OFBiz Oozie OpenEJB OpenJPA OpenNLP OрenOffice ORC PDFBox Parquet Phoenix POI Pig Pinot Pivot Qpid Roller RocketMQ Samza Shiro SINGA Sling Solr Spark Storm SpamAssassin Struts 1 Struts 2 Subversion Superset SystemDS Tapestry Thrift Tika TinkerPop Tomcat Trafodion Traffic Server UIMA Velocity Wicket Xalan Xerces XMLBeans Yetus ZooKeeper Commons BCEL BSF Daemon Jelly Logging Incubator Taverna Other projects Batik FOP Ivy Log4j Attic Apex AxKit Beehive Bluesky iBATIS Click Continuum Deltacloud Etch Giraph Hama Harmony Jakarta Marmotta MXNet ODE River Shale Slide Sqoop Stanbol Tuscany Wave XML Licenses Apache License Category vteFree and open-source softwareGeneral Alternative terms for free software Comparison of open-source and closed-source software Comparison of source-code-hosting facilities Free software Free software project directories Gratis versus libre Long-term support Open-source software Open-source software development Outline Timeline Softwarepackages Audio Bioinformatics Codecs Configuration management Drivers Graphics Wireless Health Mathematics Office suites Operating systems Routing Television Video games Web applications E-commerce Android apps iOS apps Commercial Formerly proprietary Formerly open-source Community Free software movement History Open-source-software movement Events Advocacy Organisations Free Software Movement of India Free Software Foundation Licenses AFL Apache APSL Artistic Beerware BSD Creative Commons CDDL EPL Free Software Foundation GNU GPL GNU AGPL GNU LGPL ISC MIT MPL Python Python Software Foundation License Shared Source Initiative Sleepycat Unlicense WTFPL zlib Types and standards Comparison of licenses Contributor License Agreement Copyleft Debian Free Software Guidelines Definition of Free Cultural Works Free license The Free Software Definition The Open Source Definition Open-source license Permissive software license Public domain Viral license Challenges Digital rights management License proliferation Mozilla software rebranding Proprietary device drivers Proprietary firmware Proprietary software SCO/Linux controversies Software patents Software security Trusted Computing Related topics Forking GNU Manifesto Microsoft Open Specification Promise Open-core model Open-source hardware Shared Source Initiative Source-available software The Cathedral and the Bazaar Revolution OS Portal Category

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"permissive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_free_software_licence"},{"link_name":"free software license","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free-software_license"},{"link_name":"Apache Software Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Software_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-nmr-permissive-4"},{"link_name":"royalties","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royalties"}],"text":"The Apache License is a permissive free software license written by the Apache Software Foundation (ASF).[4] It allows users to use the software for any purpose, to distribute it, to modify it, and to distribute modified versions of the software under the terms of the license, without concern for royalties. The ASF and its projects release their software products under the Apache License. The license is also used by many non-ASF projects.","title":"Apache License"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Apache HTTP Server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_HTTP_Server"},{"link_name":"original 4-clause BSD license","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Original_BSD_license"},{"link_name":"Berkeley Software Distribution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berkeley_Software_Distribution"},{"link_name":"Free Software Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation"},{"link_name":"compatibility","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/License_compatibility"},{"link_name":"GPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Apache_licenses-5"},{"link_name":"copyright","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright"},{"link_name":"disclaimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disclaimer"}],"text":"Beginning in 1995, the Apache Group (later the Apache Software Foundation) released successive versions of the Apache HTTP Server. Its initial license was essentially the same as the original 4-clause BSD license, with only the names of the organizations changed, and with an additional clause forbidding derivative works from bearing the Apache name.In July 1999, the Berkeley Software Distribution accepted the argument put to it by the Free Software Foundation and retired their advertising clause (clause 3) to form the new 3-clause BSD license. In 2000, Apache did likewise and created the Apache License 1.1, in which derived products are no longer required to include attribution in their advertising materials, only in their documentation. Individual packages licensed under the 1.1 version may have used different wording due to varying requirements for attribution or mark identification, but the binding terms were the same.In January 2004, ASF decided to depart from the BSD model and produced the Apache License 2.0. The stated goals of the license included making it easier for non-ASF projects to use, improving compatibility with GPL-based software, allowing the license to be included by reference instead of listed in every file, clarifying the license on contributions, and requiring a patent license on contributions that necessarily infringe a contributor's own patents.[5] This license requires the preservation of the copyright notice and disclaimer.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"permissive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_free_software_license"},{"link_name":"copyleft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyleft"},{"link_name":"derivative work","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derivative_work"}],"text":"The Apache License is permissive; unlike copyleft licenses, it does not require a derivative work of the software, or modifications to the original, to be distributed using the same license. It still requires application of the same license to all unmodified parts. In every licensed file, original copyright, patent, trademark, and attribution notices must be preserved (excluding notices that do not pertain to any part of the derivative works). In every licensed file changed, a notification must be added stating that changes have been made to that file.If a NOTICE text file is included as part of the distribution of the original work, then derivative works must include a readable copy of these notices within a NOTICE text file distributed as part of the derivative works, within the source form or documentation, or within a display generated by the derivative works (wherever such third-party notices normally appear).The contents of the NOTICE file do not modify the license, as they are for informational purposes only, and adding more attribution notices as addenda to the NOTICE text is permissible, provided that these notices cannot be understood as modifying the license. Modifications may have appropriate copyright notices, and may provide different license terms for the modifications.Unless explicitly stated otherwise, any contributions submitted by a licensee to a licensor will be under the terms of the license without any terms and conditions, but this does not preclude any separate agreements with the licensor regarding these contributions.","title":"Licensing conditions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"in terrorem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/In_terrorem"}],"sub_title":"Apache License 2.0","text":"The Apache License 2.0 attempts to forestall potential patent litigation in Section 3. The user is granted a patent license from each contributor to \"make, have made, use, offer to sell, sell, import, and otherwise transfer the Work.\" Through an in terrorem clause, if the user sues anyone alleging that the software or a contribution within it constitutes patent infringement, any such patent licenses for that work are terminated.","title":"Licensing conditions"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Free Software Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation"},{"link_name":"free software license","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software_license"},{"link_name":"GNU General Public License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Apache_licenses-5"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fsflist-2"},{"link_name":"GPLv3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_General_Public_License#Version_3"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"incompatible","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/License_compatibility"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fsflist-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-fsflist-2"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"The Apache Software Foundation and the Free Software Foundation agree that the Apache License 2.0 is a free software license, compatible with the GNU General Public License[5] (GPL) version 3,[2] meaning that code under GPLv3 and Apache License 2.0 can be combined, as long as the resulting software is licensed under the GPLv3.[6]The Free Software Foundation considers all versions of the Apache License to be incompatible with the previous GPL versions 1 and 2.[2] Furthermore, it considers Apache License versions before 2.0 incompatible with GPLv3. Because of version 2.0's patent license requirements, the Free Software Foundation recommends it over other non-copyleft licenses.[7][2] If the Apache License with the LLVM exception is used, then it is compatible with GPLv2.[8]","title":"Compatibility"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SourceForge.net","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SourceForge.net"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"Google Code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Code"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Android operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Android_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apache_License&action=edit"},{"link_name":"Black Duck Software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Duck_Software"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-blackduck2015-12"},{"link_name":"GitHub","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GitHub"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-github-13"},{"link_name":"FOSS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FOSS"},{"link_name":"MIT License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_License"},{"link_name":"GPLv2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPLv2"},{"link_name":"OpenBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBSD"},{"link_name":"contract law","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contract_law"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"In October 2012, 8,708 projects located at SourceForge.net were available under the terms of the Apache License.[9] In a blog post from May 2008, Google mentioned that over 25% of the nearly 100,000 projects then hosted on Google Code were using the Apache License,[10] including the Android operating system.[11]As of 2015[update], according to Black Duck Software[12] and GitHub,[13] the Apache license is the third most popular license in the FOSS domain after MIT License and GPLv2.The OpenBSD project does not consider the Apache License 2.0 to be an acceptable free license because of its patent provisions. The OpenBSD policy believes that when the license forces one to give up a legal right that one otherwise has, that license is no longer free. Moreover, the project objects to involving contract law with copyright law, stating \"...Copyright law is somewhat standardized by international agreements, contract law differs wildly among jurisdictions. So what the license means in different jurisdictions may vary and is hard to predict.\"[14]","title":"Reception and adoption"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square-and-multiply_algorithm

Exponentiation by squaring

["1 Basic method","1.1 Recursive version","1.2 With constant auxiliary memory","2 Computational complexity","3 2k-ary method","4 Sliding-window method","5 Montgomery's ladder technique","6 Fixed-base exponent","6.1 Yao's method","6.2 Euclidean method","7 Further applications","8 Signed-digit recoding","9 Alternatives and generalizations","10 See also","11 Notes","12 References"]

Algorithm for fast exponentiation This article may be confusing or unclear to readers. Please help clarify the article. There is a discussion about this on talk:Exponentiation by squaring § Least significant bit is first. (May 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Exponentiation by squaring" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (February 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) In mathematics and computer programming, exponentiating by squaring is a general method for fast computation of large positive integer powers of a number, or more generally of an element of a semigroup, like a polynomial or a square matrix. Some variants are commonly referred to as square-and-multiply algorithms or binary exponentiation. These can be of quite general use, for example in modular arithmetic or powering of matrices. For semigroups for which additive notation is commonly used, like elliptic curves used in cryptography, this method is also referred to as double-and-add. Basic method Recursive version The method is based on the observation that, for any integer n > 0 {\displaystyle n>0} , one has: x n = { x ( x 2 ) ( n − 1 ) / 2 , if  n  is odd ( x 2 ) n / 2 , if  n  is even {\displaystyle x^{n}={\begin{cases}x\,(x^{2})^{(n-1)/2},&{\mbox{if }}n{\mbox{ is odd}}\\(x^{2})^{n/2},&{\mbox{if }}n{\mbox{ is even}}\end{cases}}} If the exponent n is zero then the answer is 1. If the exponent is negative then we can reuse the previous formula by rewriting the value using a positive exponent. That is, x n = ( 1 x ) − n . {\displaystyle x^{n}=\left({\frac {1}{x}}\right)^{-n}\,.} Together, these may be implemented directly as the following recursive algorithm: In: an integer x; an integer n Out: xn exp_by_squaring(x, n) if n < 0 then return exp_by_squaring(1 / x, -n); else if n = 0 then return 1; else if n is even then return exp_by_squaring(x * x, n / 2); else if n is odd then return x * exp_by_squaring(x * x, (n - 1) / 2); end function In each recursive call, the least significant digits of the binary representation of n is removed. It follows that the number of recursive calls is ⌈ log 2 ⁡ n ⌉ , {\displaystyle \lceil \log _{2}n\rceil ,} the number of bits of the binary representation of n. So this algorithm computes this number of squares and a lower number of multiplication, which is equal to the number of 1 in the binary representation of n. This logarithmic number of operations is to be compared with the trivial algorithm which requires n − 1 multiplications. This algorithm is not tail-recursive. This implies that it requires an amount of auxiliary memory that is roughly proportional to the number of recursive calls -- or perhaps higher if the amount of data per iteration is increasing. The algorithms of the next section use a different approach, and the resulting algorithms needs the same number of operations, but use an auxiliary memory that is roughly the same as the memory required to store the result. With constant auxiliary memory The variants described in this section are based on the formula y x n = { ( y x ) ( x 2 ) ( n − 1 ) / 2 , if  n  is odd y ( x 2 ) n / 2 , if  n  is even . {\displaystyle yx^{n}={\begin{cases}(yx)\,(x^{2})^{(n-1)/2},&{\mbox{if }}n{\mbox{ is odd}}\\y\,(x^{2})^{n/2},&{\mbox{if }}n{\mbox{ is even}}.\end{cases}}} If one applies recursively this formula, by starting with y = 1, one gets eventually an exponent equal to 0, and the desired result is then the left factor. This may be implemented as a tail-recursive function: Function exp_by_squaring(x, n) return exp_by_squaring2(1, x, n) Function exp_by_squaring2(y, x, n) if n < 0 then return exp_by_squaring2(y, 1 / x, -n); else if n = 0 then return y; else if n is even then return exp_by_squaring2(y, x * x, n / 2); else if n is odd then return exp_by_squaring2(x * y, x * x, (n - 1) / 2). The iterative version of the algorithm also uses a bounded auxiliary space, and is given by Function exp_by_squaring_iterative(x, n) if n < 0 then x := 1 / x; n := -n; if n = 0 then return 1 y := 1; while n > 1 do if n is odd then y := x * y; n := n - 1; x := x * x; n := n / 2; return x * y The correctness of the algorithm results from the fact that y x n {\displaystyle yx^{n}} is invariant during the computation; it is 1 ⋅ x n = x n {\displaystyle 1\cdot x^{n}=x^{n}} at the beginning; and it is y x 1 = x y {\displaystyle yx^{1}=xy} at the end. These algorithms use exactly the same number of operations as the algorithm of the preceding section, but the multiplications are done in a different order. Computational complexity A brief analysis shows that such an algorithm uses ⌊ log 2 ⁡ n ⌋ {\displaystyle \lfloor \log _{2}n\rfloor } squarings and at most ⌊ log 2 ⁡ n ⌋ {\displaystyle \lfloor \log _{2}n\rfloor } multiplications, where ⌊ ⌋ {\displaystyle \lfloor \;\rfloor } denotes the floor function. More precisely, the number of multiplications is one less than the number of ones present in the binary expansion of n. For n greater than about 4 this is computationally more efficient than naively multiplying the base with itself repeatedly. Each squaring results in approximately double the number of digits of the previous, and so, if multiplication of two d-digit numbers is implemented in O(dk) operations for some fixed k, then the complexity of computing xn is given by ∑ i = 0 O ( log ⁡ n ) ( 2 i O ( log ⁡ x ) ) k = O ( ( n log ⁡ x ) k ) . {\displaystyle \sum \limits _{i=0}^{O(\log n)}{\big (}2^{i}O(\log x){\big )}^{k}=O{\big (}(n\log x)^{k}{\big )}.} 2k-ary method This algorithm calculates the value of xn after expanding the exponent in base 2k. It was first proposed by Brauer in 1939. In the algorithm below we make use of the following function f(0) = (k, 0) and f(m) = (s, u), where m = u·2s with u odd. Algorithm: Input An element x of G, a parameter k > 0, a non-negative integer n = (nl−1, nl−2, ..., n0)2k and the precomputed values x 3 , x 5 , . . . , x 2 k − 1 {\displaystyle x^{3},x^{5},...,x^{2^{k}-1}} . Output The element xn in G y := 1; i := l - 1 while i ≥ 0 do (s, u) := f(ni) for j := 1 to k - s do y := y2 y := y * xu for j := 1 to s do y := y2 i := i - 1 return y For optimal efficiency, k should be the smallest integer satisfying lg ⁡ n < k ( k + 1 ) ⋅ 2 2 k 2 k + 1 − k − 2 + 1. {\displaystyle \lg n<{\frac {k(k+1)\cdot 2^{2k}}{2^{k+1}-k-2}}+1.} Sliding-window method This method is an efficient variant of the 2k-ary method. For example, to calculate the exponent 398, which has binary expansion (110 001 110)2, we take a window of length 3 using the 2k-ary method algorithm and calculate 1, x3, x6, x12, x24, x48, x49, x98, x99, x198, x199, x398. But, we can also compute 1, x3, x6, x12, x24, x48, x96, x192, x199, x398, which saves one multiplication and amounts to evaluating (110 001 110)2 Here is the general algorithm: Algorithm: Input An element x of G, a non negative integer n=(nl−1, nl−2, ..., n0)2, a parameter k > 0 and the pre-computed values x 3 , x 5 , . . . , x 2 k − 1 {\displaystyle x^{3},x^{5},...,x^{2^{k}-1}} . Output The element xn ∈ G. Algorithm: y := 1; i := l - 1 while i > -1 do if ni = 0 then y := y2' i := i - 1 else s := max{i - k + 1, 0} while ns = 0 do s := s + 1 for h := 1 to i - s + 1 do y := y2 u := (ni, ni-1, ..., ns)2 y := y * xu i := s - 1 return y Montgomery's ladder technique Many algorithms for exponentiation do not provide defence against side-channel attacks. Namely, an attacker observing the sequence of squarings and multiplications can (partially) recover the exponent involved in the computation. This is a problem if the exponent should remain secret, as with many public-key cryptosystems. A technique called "Montgomery's ladder" addresses this concern. Given the binary expansion of a positive, non-zero integer n = (nk−1...n0)2 with nk−1 = 1, we can compute xn as follows: x1 = x; x2 = x2 for i = k - 2 to 0 do if ni = 0 then x2 = x1 * x2; x1 = x12 else x1 = x1 * x2; x2 = x22 return x1 The algorithm performs a fixed sequence of operations (up to log n): a multiplication and squaring takes place for each bit in the exponent, regardless of the bit's specific value. A similar algorithm for multiplication by doubling exists. This specific implementation of Montgomery's ladder is not yet protected against cache timing attacks: memory access latencies might still be observable to an attacker, as different variables are accessed depending on the value of bits of the secret exponent. Modern cryptographic implementations use a "scatter" technique to make sure the processor always misses the faster cache. Fixed-base exponent There are several methods which can be employed to calculate xn when the base is fixed and the exponent varies. As one can see, precomputations play a key role in these algorithms. Yao's method Yao's method is orthogonal to the 2k-ary method where the exponent is expanded in radix b = 2k and the computation is as performed in the algorithm above. Let n, ni, b, and bi be integers. Let the exponent n be written as n = ∑ i = 0 w − 1 n i b i , {\displaystyle n=\sum _{i=0}^{w-1}n_{i}b_{i},} where 0 ⩽ n i < h {\displaystyle 0\leqslant n_{i}<h} for all i ∈ [ 0 , w − 1 ] {\displaystyle i\in } . Let xi = xbi. Then the algorithm uses the equality x n = ∏ i = 0 w − 1 x i n i = ∏ j = 1 h − 1 [ ∏ n i = j x i ] j . {\displaystyle x^{n}=\prod _{i=0}^{w-1}x_{i}^{n_{i}}=\prod _{j=1}^{h-1}{\bigg }^{j}.} Given the element x of G, and the exponent n written in the above form, along with the precomputed values xb0...xbw−1, the element xn is calculated using the algorithm below: y = 1, u = 1, j = h - 1 while j > 0 do for i = 0 to w - 1 do if ni = j then u = u × xbi y = y × u j = j - 1 return y If we set h = 2k and bi = hi, then the ni values are simply the digits of n in base h. Yao's method collects in u first those xi that appear to the highest power h − 1 {\displaystyle h-1} ; in the next round those with power h − 2 {\displaystyle h-2} are collected in u as well etc. The variable y is multiplied h − 1 {\displaystyle h-1} times with the initial u, h − 2 {\displaystyle h-2} times with the next highest powers, and so on. The algorithm uses w + h − 2 {\displaystyle w+h-2} multiplications, and w + 1 {\displaystyle w+1} elements must be stored to compute xn. Euclidean method The Euclidean method was first introduced in Efficient exponentiation using precomputation and vector addition chains by P.D Rooij. This method for computing x n {\displaystyle x^{n}} in group G, where n is a natural integer, whose algorithm is given below, is using the following equality recursively: x 0 n 0 ⋅ x 1 n 1 = ( x 0 ⋅ x 1 q ) n 0 ⋅ x 1 n 1 mod n 0 , {\displaystyle x_{0}^{n_{0}}\cdot x_{1}^{n_{1}}=\left(x_{0}\cdot x_{1}^{q}\right)^{n_{0}}\cdot x_{1}^{n_{1}\mod n_{0}},} where q = ⌊ n 1 n 0 ⌋ {\displaystyle q=\left\lfloor {\frac {n_{1}}{n_{0}}}\right\rfloor } . In other words, a Euclidean division of the exponent n1 by n0 is used to return a quotient q and a rest n1 mod n0. Given the base element x in group G, and the exponent n {\displaystyle n} written as in Yao's method, the element x n {\displaystyle x^{n}} is calculated using l {\displaystyle l} precomputed values x b 0 , . . . , x b l i {\displaystyle x^{b_{0}},...,x^{b_{l_{i}}}} and then the algorithm below. Begin loop Find M ∈ [ 0 , l − 1 ] {\displaystyle M\in } , such that ∀ i ∈ [ 0 , l − 1 ] , n M ≥ n i {\displaystyle \forall i\in ,n_{M}\geq n_{i}} . Find N ∈ ( [ 0 , l − 1 ] − M ) {\displaystyle N\in {\big (}-M{\big )}} , such that ∀ i ∈ ( [ 0 , l − 1 ] − M ) , n N ≥ n i {\displaystyle \forall i\in {\big (}-M{\big )},n_{N}\geq n_{i}} . Break loop if n N = 0 {\displaystyle n_{N}=0} . Let q = ⌊ n M / n N ⌋ {\displaystyle q=\lfloor n_{M}/n_{N}\rfloor } , and then let n N = ( n M mod n N ) {\displaystyle n_{N}=(n_{M}{\bmod {n}}_{N})} . Compute recursively x M q {\displaystyle x_{M}^{q}} , and then let x N = x N ⋅ x M q {\displaystyle x_{N}=x_{N}\cdot x_{M}^{q}} . End loop; Return x n = x M n M {\displaystyle x^{n}=x_{M}^{n_{M}}} . The algorithm first finds the largest value among the ni and then the supremum within the set of { ni \ i ≠ M }. Then it raises xM to the power q, multiplies this value with xN, and then assigns xN the result of this computation and nM the value nM modulo nN. Further applications The approach also works with semigroups that are not of characteristic zero, for example allowing fast computation of large exponents modulo a number. Especially in cryptography, it is useful to compute powers in a ring of integers modulo q. For example, the evaluation of 13789722341 (mod 2345) = 2029 would take a very long time and much storage space if the naïve method of computing 13789722341 and then taking the remainder when divided by 2345 were used. Even using a more effective method will take a long time: square 13789, take the remainder when divided by 2345, multiply the result by 13789, and so on. Applying above exp-by-squaring algorithm, with "*" interpreted as x * y = xy mod 2345 (that is, a multiplication followed by a division with remainder) leads to only 27 multiplications and divisions of integers, which may all be stored in a single machine word. Generally, any of these approaches will take fewer than 2log2(722340) ≤ 40 modular multiplications. The approach can also be used to compute integer powers in a group, using either of the rules Power(x, −n) = Power(x−1, n), Power(x, −n) = (Power(x, n))−1. The approach also works in non-commutative semigroups and is often used to compute powers of matrices. More generally, the approach works with positive integer exponents in every magma for which the binary operation is power associative. Signed-digit recoding In certain computations it may be more efficient to allow negative coefficients and hence use the inverse of the base, provided inversion in G is "fast" or has been precomputed. For example, when computing x2k−1, the binary method requires k−1 multiplications and k−1 squarings. However, one could perform k squarings to get x2k and then multiply by x−1 to obtain x2k−1. To this end we define the signed-digit representation of an integer n in radix b as n = ∑ i = 0 l − 1 n i b i  with  | n i | < b . {\displaystyle n=\sum _{i=0}^{l-1}n_{i}b^{i}{\text{ with }}|n_{i}|<b.} Signed binary representation corresponds to the particular choice b = 2 and n i ∈ { − 1 , 0 , 1 } {\displaystyle n_{i}\in \{-1,0,1\}} . It is denoted by ( n l − 1 … n 0 ) s {\displaystyle (n_{l-1}\dots n_{0})_{s}} . There are several methods for computing this representation. The representation is not unique. For example, take n = 478: two distinct signed-binary representations are given by ( 10 1 ¯ 1100 1 ¯ 10 ) s {\displaystyle (10{\bar {1}}1100{\bar {1}}10)_{s}} and ( 100 1 ¯ 1000 1 ¯ 0 ) s {\displaystyle (100{\bar {1}}1000{\bar {1}}0)_{s}} , where 1 ¯ {\displaystyle {\bar {1}}} is used to denote −1. Since the binary method computes a multiplication for every non-zero entry in the base-2 representation of n, we are interested in finding the signed-binary representation with the smallest number of non-zero entries, that is, the one with minimal Hamming weight. One method of doing this is to compute the representation in non-adjacent form, or NAF for short, which is one that satisfies n i n i + 1 = 0  for all  i ⩾ 0 {\displaystyle n_{i}n_{i+1}=0{\text{ for all }}i\geqslant 0} and denoted by ( n l − 1 … n 0 ) NAF {\displaystyle (n_{l-1}\dots n_{0})_{\text{NAF}}} . For example, the NAF representation of 478 is ( 1000 1 ¯ 000 1 ¯ 0 ) NAF {\displaystyle (1000{\bar {1}}000{\bar {1}}0)_{\text{NAF}}} . This representation always has minimal Hamming weight. A simple algorithm to compute the NAF representation of a given integer n = ( n l n l − 1 … n 0 ) 2 {\displaystyle n=(n_{l}n_{l-1}\dots n_{0})_{2}} with n l = n l − 1 = 0 {\displaystyle n_{l}=n_{l-1}=0} is the following: c 0 = 0 {\displaystyle c_{0}=0} for i = 0 to l − 1 do c i + 1 = ⌊ 1 2 ( c i + n i + n i + 1 ) ⌋ {\displaystyle c_{i+1}=\left\lfloor {\frac {1}{2}}(c_{i}+n_{i}+n_{i+1})\right\rfloor } n i ′ = c i + n i − 2 c i + 1 {\displaystyle n_{i}'=c_{i}+n_{i}-2c_{i+1}} return ( n l − 1 ′ … n 0 ′ ) NAF {\displaystyle (n_{l-1}'\dots n_{0}')_{\text{NAF}}} Another algorithm by Koyama and Tsuruoka does not require the condition that n i = n i + 1 = 0 {\displaystyle n_{i}=n_{i+1}=0} ; it still minimizes the Hamming weight. Alternatives and generalizations Main article: Addition-chain exponentiation Exponentiation by squaring can be viewed as a suboptimal addition-chain exponentiation algorithm: it computes the exponent by an addition chain consisting of repeated exponent doublings (squarings) and/or incrementing exponents by one (multiplying by x) only. More generally, if one allows any previously computed exponents to be summed (by multiplying those powers of x), one can sometimes perform the exponentiation using fewer multiplications (but typically using more memory). The smallest power where this occurs is for n = 15: x 15 = x × ( x × [ x × x 2 ] 2 ) 2 {\displaystyle x^{15}=x\times (x\times ^{2})^{2}}  (squaring, 6 multiplies), x 15 = x 3 × ( [ x 3 ] 2 ) 2 {\displaystyle x^{15}=x^{3}\times (^{2})^{2}}  (optimal addition chain, 5 multiplies if x3 is re-used). In general, finding the optimal addition chain for a given exponent is a hard problem, for which no efficient algorithms are known, so optimal chains are typically used for small exponents only (e.g. in compilers where the chains for small powers have been pre-tabulated). However, there are a number of heuristic algorithms that, while not being optimal, have fewer multiplications than exponentiation by squaring at the cost of additional bookkeeping work and memory usage. Regardless, the number of multiplications never grows more slowly than Θ(log n), so these algorithms improve asymptotically upon exponentiation by squaring by only a constant factor at best. See also Modular exponentiation Vectorial addition chain Montgomery modular multiplication Non-adjacent form Addition chain Notes ^ In this line, the loop finds the longest string of length less than or equal to k ending in a non-zero value. Not all odd powers of 2 up to x 2 k − 1 {\displaystyle x^{2^{k}-1}} need be computed, and only those specifically involved in the computation need be considered. References ^ a b Cohen, H.; Frey, G., eds. (2006). Handbook of Elliptic and Hyperelliptic Curve Cryptography. Discrete Mathematics and Its Applications. Chapman & Hall/CRC. ISBN 9781584885184. ^ Montgomery, Peter L. (1987). "Speeding the Pollard and Elliptic Curve Methods of Factorization" (PDF). Math. Comput. 48 (177): 243–264. doi:10.1090/S0025-5718-1987-0866113-7. ^ Gueron, Shay (5 April 2012). "Efficient software implementations of modular exponentiation" (PDF). Journal of Cryptographic Engineering. 2 (1): 31–43. doi:10.1007/s13389-012-0031-5. S2CID 7629541.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics"},{"link_name":"computer programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_programming"},{"link_name":"positive integer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Positive_integer"},{"link_name":"number","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number"},{"link_name":"semigroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semigroup"},{"link_name":"polynomial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polynomial"},{"link_name":"square matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Square_matrix"},{"link_name":"modular arithmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"additive notation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abelian_group#Notation"},{"link_name":"elliptic curves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliptic_curve"},{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"}],"text":"In mathematics and computer programming, exponentiating by squaring is a general method for fast computation of large positive integer powers of a number, or more generally of an element of a semigroup, like a polynomial or a square matrix. Some variants are commonly referred to as square-and-multiply algorithms or binary exponentiation. These can be of quite general use, for example in modular arithmetic or powering of matrices. For semigroups for which additive notation is commonly used, like elliptic curves used in cryptography, this method is also referred to as double-and-add.","title":"Exponentiation by squaring"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Basic method"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"recursive algorithm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursion_(computer_science)"},{"link_name":"binary representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_representation"},{"link_name":"bits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit"},{"link_name":"tail-recursive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tail_call"}],"sub_title":"Recursive version","text":"The method is based on the observation that, for any integer \n \n \n \n n\n >\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n>0}\n \n, one has:x\n \n n\n \n \n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n x\n \n (\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n (\n n\n −\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n if \n \n \n n\n \n \n  is odd\n \n \n \n \n \n \n (\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n n\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n if \n \n \n n\n \n \n  is even\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{n}={\\begin{cases}x\\,(x^{2})^{(n-1)/2},&{\\mbox{if }}n{\\mbox{ is odd}}\\\\(x^{2})^{n/2},&{\\mbox{if }}n{\\mbox{ is even}}\\end{cases}}}If the exponent n is zero then the answer is 1. If the exponent is negative then we can reuse the previous formula by rewriting the value using a positive exponent. That is,x\n \n n\n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n 1\n x\n \n \n )\n \n \n −\n n\n \n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{n}=\\left({\\frac {1}{x}}\\right)^{-n}\\,.}Together, these may be implemented directly as the following recursive algorithm:In: an integer x; an integer n\n Out: xn\n \n exp_by_squaring(x, n)\n if n < 0 then\n return exp_by_squaring(1 / x, -n);\n else if n = 0 then \n return 1;\n else if n is even then \n return exp_by_squaring(x * x, n / 2);\n else if n is odd then \n return x * exp_by_squaring(x * x, (n - 1) / 2);\n end functionIn each recursive call, the least significant digits of the binary representation of n is removed. It follows that the number of recursive calls is \n \n \n \n ⌈\n \n log\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n n\n ⌉\n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lceil \\log _{2}n\\rceil ,}\n \n the number of bits of the binary representation of n. So this algorithm computes this number of squares and a lower number of multiplication, which is equal to the number of 1 in the binary representation of n. This logarithmic number of operations is to be compared with the trivial algorithm which requires n − 1 multiplications.This algorithm is not tail-recursive. This implies that it requires an amount of auxiliary memory that is roughly proportional to the number of recursive calls -- or perhaps higher if the amount of data per iteration is increasing.The algorithms of the next section use a different approach, and the resulting algorithms needs the same number of operations, but use an auxiliary memory that is roughly the same as the memory required to store the result.","title":"Basic method"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"With constant auxiliary memory","text":"The variants described in this section are based on the formulay\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n =\n \n \n {\n \n \n \n (\n y\n x\n )\n \n (\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n (\n n\n −\n 1\n )\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n if \n \n \n n\n \n \n  is odd\n \n \n \n \n \n \n y\n \n (\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n n\n \n /\n \n 2\n \n \n ,\n \n \n \n \n if \n \n \n n\n \n \n  is even\n \n \n .\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle yx^{n}={\\begin{cases}(yx)\\,(x^{2})^{(n-1)/2},&{\\mbox{if }}n{\\mbox{ is odd}}\\\\y\\,(x^{2})^{n/2},&{\\mbox{if }}n{\\mbox{ is even}}.\\end{cases}}}If one applies recursively this formula, by starting with y = 1, one gets eventually an exponent equal to 0, and the desired result is then the left factor.This may be implemented as a tail-recursive function:Function exp_by_squaring(x, n)\n return exp_by_squaring2(1, x, n)\n Function exp_by_squaring2(y, x, n)\n if n < 0 then return exp_by_squaring2(y, 1 / x, -n);\n else if n = 0 then return y;\n else if n is even then return exp_by_squaring2(y, x * x, n / 2);\n else if n is odd then return exp_by_squaring2(x * y, x * x, (n - 1) / 2).The iterative version of the algorithm also uses a bounded auxiliary space, and is given byFunction exp_by_squaring_iterative(x, n)\n if n < 0 then\n x := 1 / x;\n n := -n;\n if n = 0 then return 1\n y := 1;\n while n > 1 do\n if n is odd then\n y := x * y;\n n := n - 1;\n x := x * x;\n n := n / 2;\n return x * yThe correctness of the algorithm results from the fact that \n \n \n \n y\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle yx^{n}}\n \n is invariant during the computation; it is \n \n \n \n 1\n ⋅\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1\\cdot x^{n}=x^{n}}\n \n at the beginning; and it is \n \n \n \n y\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n =\n x\n y\n \n \n {\\displaystyle yx^{1}=xy}\n \n at the end.These algorithms use exactly the same number of operations as the algorithm of the preceding section, but the multiplications are done in a different order.","title":"Basic method"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"floor function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Floor_function"},{"link_name":"binary expansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_expansion"}],"text":"A brief analysis shows that such an algorithm uses \n \n \n \n ⌊\n \n log\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n n\n ⌋\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lfloor \\log _{2}n\\rfloor }\n \n squarings and at most \n \n \n \n ⌊\n \n log\n \n 2\n \n \n ⁡\n n\n ⌋\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lfloor \\log _{2}n\\rfloor }\n \n multiplications, where \n \n \n \n ⌊\n \n ⌋\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lfloor \\;\\rfloor }\n \n denotes the floor function. More precisely, the number of multiplications is one less than the number of ones present in the binary expansion of n. For n greater than about 4 this is computationally more efficient than naively multiplying the base with itself repeatedly.Each squaring results in approximately double the number of digits of the previous, and so, if multiplication of two d-digit numbers is implemented in O(dk) operations for some fixed k, then the complexity of computing xn is given by∑\n \n i\n =\n 0\n \n \n O\n (\n log\n ⁡\n n\n )\n \n \n \n \n (\n \n \n \n 2\n \n i\n \n \n O\n (\n log\n ⁡\n x\n )\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n k\n \n \n =\n O\n \n \n (\n \n \n (\n n\n log\n ⁡\n x\n \n )\n \n k\n \n \n \n \n )\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\sum \\limits _{i=0}^{O(\\log n)}{\\big (}2^{i}O(\\log x){\\big )}^{k}=O{\\big (}(n\\log x)^{k}{\\big )}.}","title":"Computational complexity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brauer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brauer"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-frey-1"}],"text":"This algorithm calculates the value of xn after expanding the exponent in base 2k. It was first proposed by Brauer in 1939. In the algorithm below we make use of the following function f(0) = (k, 0) and f(m) = (s, u), where m = u·2s with u odd.Algorithm:Input\nAn element x of G, a parameter k > 0, a non-negative integer n = (nl−1, nl−2, ..., n0)2k and the precomputed values \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 5\n \n \n ,\n .\n .\n .\n ,\n \n x\n \n \n 2\n \n k\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{3},x^{5},...,x^{2^{k}-1}}\n \n.Output\nThe element xn in Gy := 1; i := l - 1\nwhile i ≥ 0 do\n (s, u) := f(ni)\n for j := 1 to k - s do\n y := y2\n y := y * xu\n for j := 1 to s do\n y := y2\n i := i - 1\nreturn yFor optimal efficiency, k should be the smallest integer satisfying[1]lg\n ⁡\n n\n <\n \n \n \n k\n (\n k\n +\n 1\n )\n ⋅\n \n 2\n \n 2\n k\n \n \n \n \n \n 2\n \n k\n +\n 1\n \n \n −\n k\n −\n 2\n \n \n \n +\n 1.\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\lg n<{\\frac {k(k+1)\\cdot 2^{2k}}{2^{k+1}-k-2}}+1.}","title":"2k-ary method"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[notes 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"This method is an efficient variant of the 2k-ary method. For example, to calculate the exponent 398, which has binary expansion (110 001 110)2, we take a window of length 3 using the 2k-ary method algorithm and calculate 1, x3, x6, x12, x24, x48, x49, x98, x99, x198, x199, x398.\nBut, we can also compute 1, x3, x6, x12, x24, x48, x96, x192, x199, x398, which saves one multiplication and amounts to evaluating (110 001 110)2Here is the general algorithm:Algorithm:Input\nAn element x of G, a non negative integer n=(nl−1, nl−2, ..., n0)2, a parameter k > 0 and the pre-computed values \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n ,\n \n x\n \n 5\n \n \n ,\n .\n .\n .\n ,\n \n x\n \n \n 2\n \n k\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{3},x^{5},...,x^{2^{k}-1}}\n \n.Output\nThe element xn ∈ G.Algorithm:y := 1; i := l - 1\nwhile i > -1 do\n if ni = 0 then\n y := y2' i := i - 1\n else\n s := max{i - k + 1, 0}\n while ns = 0 do\n s := s + 1[notes 1]\n for h := 1 to i - s + 1 do\n y := y2\n u := (ni, ni-1, ..., ns)2\n y := y * xu\n i := s - 1\nreturn y","title":"Sliding-window method"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"side-channel attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Side-channel_attack"},{"link_name":"public-key cryptosystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-key_cryptography"},{"link_name":"Montgomery's","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Montgomery_(mathematician)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ladder-3"},{"link_name":"binary expansion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Binary_expansion"},{"link_name":"up to","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Up_to"},{"link_name":"timing attacks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timing_attack"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"}],"text":"Many algorithms for exponentiation do not provide defence against side-channel attacks. Namely, an attacker observing the sequence of squarings and multiplications can (partially) recover the exponent involved in the computation. This is a problem if the exponent should remain secret, as with many public-key cryptosystems. A technique called \"Montgomery's ladder\"[2] addresses this concern.Given the binary expansion of a positive, non-zero integer n = (nk−1...n0)2 with nk−1 = 1, we can compute xn as follows:x1 = x; x2 = x2\nfor i = k - 2 to 0 do\n if ni = 0 then\n x2 = x1 * x2; x1 = x12\n else\n x1 = x1 * x2; x2 = x22\nreturn x1The algorithm performs a fixed sequence of operations (up to log n): a multiplication and squaring takes place for each bit in the exponent, regardless of the bit's specific value. A similar algorithm for multiplication by doubling exists.This specific implementation of Montgomery's ladder is not yet protected against cache timing attacks: memory access latencies might still be observable to an attacker, as different variables are accessed depending on the value of bits of the secret exponent. Modern cryptographic implementations use a \"scatter\" technique to make sure the processor always misses the faster cache.[3]","title":"Montgomery's ladder technique"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"precomputations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Precomputation"}],"text":"There are several methods which can be employed to calculate xn when the base is fixed and the exponent varies. As one can see, precomputations play a key role in these algorithms.","title":"Fixed-base exponent"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-frey-1"}],"sub_title":"Yao's method","text":"Yao's method is orthogonal to the 2k-ary method where the exponent is expanded in radix b = 2k and the computation is as performed in the algorithm above. Let n, ni, b, and bi be integers.Let the exponent n be written asn\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 0\n \n \n w\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n \n b\n \n i\n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n=\\sum _{i=0}^{w-1}n_{i}b_{i},}where \n \n \n \n 0\n ⩽\n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n <\n h\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 0\\leqslant n_{i}<h}\n \n for all \n \n \n \n i\n ∈\n [\n 0\n ,\n w\n −\n 1\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle i\\in [0,w-1]}\n \n.Let xi = xbi.Then the algorithm uses the equalityx\n \n n\n \n \n =\n \n ∏\n \n i\n =\n 0\n \n \n w\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n ∏\n \n j\n =\n 1\n \n \n h\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n [\n \n \n \n ∏\n \n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n =\n j\n \n \n \n x\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n ]\n \n \n \n j\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{n}=\\prod _{i=0}^{w-1}x_{i}^{n_{i}}=\\prod _{j=1}^{h-1}{\\bigg [}\\prod _{n_{i}=j}x_{i}{\\bigg ]}^{j}.}Given the element x of G, and the exponent n written in the above form, along with the precomputed values xb0...xbw−1, the element xn is calculated using the algorithm below:y = 1, u = 1, j = h - 1\nwhile j > 0 do\n for i = 0 to w - 1 do\n if ni = j then\n u = u × xbi\n y = y × u\n j = j - 1\nreturn yIf we set h = 2k and bi = hi, then the ni values are simply the digits of n in base h. Yao's method collects in u first those xi that appear to the highest power \n \n \n \n h\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle h-1}\n \n; in the next round those with power \n \n \n \n h\n −\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle h-2}\n \n are collected in u as well etc. The variable y is multiplied \n \n \n \n h\n −\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle h-1}\n \n times with the initial u, \n \n \n \n h\n −\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle h-2}\n \n times with the next highest powers, and so on.\nThe algorithm uses \n \n \n \n w\n +\n h\n −\n 2\n \n \n {\\displaystyle w+h-2}\n \n multiplications, and \n \n \n \n w\n +\n 1\n \n \n {\\displaystyle w+1}\n \n elements must be stored to compute xn.[1]","title":"Fixed-base exponent"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Euclidean method","text":"The Euclidean method was first introduced in Efficient exponentiation using precomputation and vector addition chains by P.D Rooij.This method for computing \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{n}}\n \n in group G, where n is a natural integer, whose algorithm is given below, is using the following equality recursively:x\n \n 0\n \n \n \n n\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n \n \n =\n \n \n (\n \n \n x\n \n 0\n \n \n ⋅\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n q\n \n \n \n )\n \n \n \n n\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n ⋅\n \n x\n \n 1\n \n \n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n \n mod\n \n \n \n n\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n ,\n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{0}^{n_{0}}\\cdot x_{1}^{n_{1}}=\\left(x_{0}\\cdot x_{1}^{q}\\right)^{n_{0}}\\cdot x_{1}^{n_{1}\\mod n_{0}},}where \n \n \n \n q\n =\n \n ⌊\n \n \n \n n\n \n 1\n \n \n \n n\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n ⌋\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle q=\\left\\lfloor {\\frac {n_{1}}{n_{0}}}\\right\\rfloor }\n \n.\nIn other words, a Euclidean division of the exponent n1 by n0 is used to return a quotient q and a rest n1 mod n0.Given the base element x in group G, and the exponent \n \n \n \n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n}\n \n written as in Yao's method, the element \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{n}}\n \n is calculated using \n \n \n \n l\n \n \n {\\displaystyle l}\n \n precomputed values \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n b\n \n 0\n \n \n \n \n ,\n .\n .\n .\n ,\n \n x\n \n \n b\n \n \n l\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{b_{0}},...,x^{b_{l_{i}}}}\n \n and then the algorithm below.Begin loop\n Find \n \n \n \n M\n ∈\n [\n 0\n ,\n l\n −\n 1\n ]\n \n \n {\\displaystyle M\\in [0,l-1]}\n \n, such that \n \n \n \n ∀\n i\n ∈\n [\n 0\n ,\n l\n −\n 1\n ]\n ,\n \n n\n \n M\n \n \n ≥\n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall i\\in [0,l-1],n_{M}\\geq n_{i}}\n \n.\n Find \n \n \n \n N\n ∈\n \n \n (\n \n \n [\n 0\n ,\n l\n −\n 1\n ]\n −\n M\n \n \n )\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle N\\in {\\big (}[0,l-1]-M{\\big )}}\n \n, such that \n \n \n \n ∀\n i\n ∈\n \n \n (\n \n \n [\n 0\n ,\n l\n −\n 1\n ]\n −\n M\n \n \n )\n \n \n ,\n \n n\n \n N\n \n \n ≥\n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\forall i\\in {\\big (}[0,l-1]-M{\\big )},n_{N}\\geq n_{i}}\n \n.\n Break loop if \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n N\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{N}=0}\n \n.\n Let \n \n \n \n q\n =\n ⌊\n \n n\n \n M\n \n \n \n /\n \n \n n\n \n N\n \n \n ⌋\n \n \n {\\displaystyle q=\\lfloor n_{M}/n_{N}\\rfloor }\n \n, and then let \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n N\n \n \n =\n (\n \n n\n \n M\n \n \n \n \n mod\n \n n\n \n \n \n N\n \n \n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{N}=(n_{M}{\\bmod {n}}_{N})}\n \n.\n Compute recursively \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n M\n \n \n q\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{M}^{q}}\n \n, and then let \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n N\n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n N\n \n \n ⋅\n \n x\n \n M\n \n \n q\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x_{N}=x_{N}\\cdot x_{M}^{q}}\n \n.\nEnd loop;\nReturn \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n n\n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n M\n \n \n \n n\n \n M\n \n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{n}=x_{M}^{n_{M}}}\n \n.The algorithm first finds the largest value among the ni and then the supremum within the set of { ni \\ i ≠ M }.\nThen it raises xM to the power q, multiplies this value with xN, and then assigns xN the result of this computation and nM the value nM modulo nN.","title":"Fixed-base exponent"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"semigroups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Semigroup"},{"link_name":"characteristic zero","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Characteristic_zero"},{"link_name":"exponents modulo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_exponentiation"},{"link_name":"cryptography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptography"},{"link_name":"ring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"integers modulo q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_arithmetic"},{"link_name":"remainder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Remainder"},{"link_name":"result","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Result"},{"link_name":"group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"non-commutative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-commutative"},{"link_name":"matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"magma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magma_(algebra)"},{"link_name":"power associative","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Power_associative"}],"text":"The approach also works with semigroups that are not of characteristic zero, for example allowing fast computation of large exponents modulo a number. Especially in cryptography, it is useful to compute powers in a ring of integers modulo q. For example, the evaluation of13789722341 (mod 2345) = 2029would take a very long time and much storage space if the naïve method of computing 13789722341 and then taking the remainder when divided by 2345 were used. Even using a more effective method will take a long time: square 13789, take the remainder when divided by 2345, multiply the result by 13789, and so on.Applying above exp-by-squaring algorithm, with \"*\" interpreted as x * y = xy mod 2345 (that is, a multiplication followed by a division with remainder) leads to only 27 multiplications and divisions of integers, which may all be stored in a single machine word. Generally, any of these approaches will take fewer than 2log2(722340) ≤ 40 modular multiplications.The approach can also be used to compute integer powers in a group, using either of the rulesPower(x, −n) = Power(x−1, n),\nPower(x, −n) = (Power(x, n))−1.The approach also works in non-commutative semigroups and is often used to compute powers of matrices.More generally, the approach works with positive integer exponents in every magma for which the binary operation is power associative.","title":"Further applications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"signed-digit representation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signed-digit_representation"},{"link_name":"Hamming weight","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hamming_weight"},{"link_name":"non-adjacent form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-adjacent_form"}],"text":"In certain computations it may be more efficient to allow negative coefficients and hence use the inverse of the base, provided inversion in G is \"fast\" or has been precomputed. For example, when computing x2k−1, the binary method requires k−1 multiplications and k−1 squarings. However, one could perform k squarings to get x2k and then multiply by x−1 to obtain x2k−1.To this end we define the signed-digit representation of an integer n in radix b asn\n =\n \n ∑\n \n i\n =\n 0\n \n \n l\n −\n 1\n \n \n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n \n b\n \n i\n \n \n \n  with \n \n \n |\n \n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n \n |\n \n <\n b\n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n=\\sum _{i=0}^{l-1}n_{i}b^{i}{\\text{ with }}|n_{i}|<b.}Signed binary representation corresponds to the particular choice b = 2 and \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n ∈\n {\n −\n 1\n ,\n 0\n ,\n 1\n }\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{i}\\in \\{-1,0,1\\}}\n \n. It is denoted by \n \n \n \n (\n \n n\n \n l\n −\n 1\n \n \n …\n \n n\n \n 0\n \n \n \n )\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (n_{l-1}\\dots n_{0})_{s}}\n \n. There are several methods for computing this representation. The representation is not unique. For example, take n = 478: two distinct signed-binary representations are given by \n \n \n \n (\n 10\n \n \n \n 1\n ¯\n \n \n \n 1100\n \n \n \n 1\n ¯\n \n \n \n 10\n \n )\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (10{\\bar {1}}1100{\\bar {1}}10)_{s}}\n \n and \n \n \n \n (\n 100\n \n \n \n 1\n ¯\n \n \n \n 1000\n \n \n \n 1\n ¯\n \n \n \n 0\n \n )\n \n s\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (100{\\bar {1}}1000{\\bar {1}}0)_{s}}\n \n, where \n \n \n \n \n \n \n 1\n ¯\n \n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle {\\bar {1}}}\n \n is used to denote −1. Since the binary method computes a multiplication for every non-zero entry in the base-2 representation of n, we are interested in finding the signed-binary representation with the smallest number of non-zero entries, that is, the one with minimal Hamming weight. One method of doing this is to compute the representation in non-adjacent form, or NAF for short, which is one that satisfies \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n \n n\n \n i\n +\n 1\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n  for all \n \n i\n ⩾\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{i}n_{i+1}=0{\\text{ for all }}i\\geqslant 0}\n \n and denoted by \n \n \n \n (\n \n n\n \n l\n −\n 1\n \n \n …\n \n n\n \n 0\n \n \n \n )\n \n NAF\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (n_{l-1}\\dots n_{0})_{\\text{NAF}}}\n \n. For example, the NAF representation of 478 is \n \n \n \n (\n 1000\n \n \n \n 1\n ¯\n \n \n \n 000\n \n \n \n 1\n ¯\n \n \n \n 0\n \n )\n \n NAF\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (1000{\\bar {1}}000{\\bar {1}}0)_{\\text{NAF}}}\n \n. This representation always has minimal Hamming weight. A simple algorithm to compute the NAF representation of a given integer \n \n \n \n n\n =\n (\n \n n\n \n l\n \n \n \n n\n \n l\n −\n 1\n \n \n …\n \n n\n \n 0\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n=(n_{l}n_{l-1}\\dots n_{0})_{2}}\n \n with \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n l\n \n \n =\n \n n\n \n l\n −\n 1\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{l}=n_{l-1}=0}\n \n is the following:c\n \n 0\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle c_{0}=0}\n \n\nfor i = 0 to l − 1 do\n \n \n \n \n \n c\n \n i\n +\n 1\n \n \n =\n \n ⌊\n \n \n \n 1\n 2\n \n \n (\n \n c\n \n i\n \n \n +\n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n +\n \n n\n \n i\n +\n 1\n \n \n )\n \n ⌋\n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle c_{i+1}=\\left\\lfloor {\\frac {1}{2}}(c_{i}+n_{i}+n_{i+1})\\right\\rfloor }\n \n\n \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n i\n \n ′\n \n =\n \n c\n \n i\n \n \n +\n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n −\n 2\n \n c\n \n i\n +\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{i}'=c_{i}+n_{i}-2c_{i+1}}\n \n\nreturn \n \n \n \n (\n \n n\n \n l\n −\n 1\n \n ′\n \n …\n \n n\n \n 0\n \n ′\n \n \n )\n \n NAF\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle (n_{l-1}'\\dots n_{0}')_{\\text{NAF}}}Another algorithm by Koyama and Tsuruoka does not require the condition that \n \n \n \n \n n\n \n i\n \n \n =\n \n n\n \n i\n +\n 1\n \n \n =\n 0\n \n \n {\\displaystyle n_{i}=n_{i+1}=0}\n \n; it still minimizes the Hamming weight.","title":"Signed-digit recoding"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"addition-chain exponentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition-chain_exponentiation"},{"link_name":"addition chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition_chain"},{"link_name":"compilers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compiler"},{"link_name":"heuristic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heuristic"},{"link_name":"Θ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big-O_notation"}],"text":"Exponentiation by squaring can be viewed as a suboptimal addition-chain exponentiation algorithm: it computes the exponent by an addition chain consisting of repeated exponent doublings (squarings) and/or incrementing exponents by one (multiplying by x) only. More generally, if one allows any previously computed exponents to be summed (by multiplying those powers of x), one can sometimes perform the exponentiation using fewer multiplications (but typically using more memory). The smallest power where this occurs is for n = 15:x\n \n 15\n \n \n =\n x\n ×\n (\n x\n ×\n [\n x\n ×\n \n x\n \n 2\n \n \n \n ]\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{15}=x\\times (x\\times [x\\times x^{2}]^{2})^{2}}\n \n (squaring, 6 multiplies),\n\n \n \n \n \n x\n \n 15\n \n \n =\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n ×\n (\n [\n \n x\n \n 3\n \n \n \n ]\n \n 2\n \n \n \n )\n \n 2\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{15}=x^{3}\\times ([x^{3}]^{2})^{2}}\n \n (optimal addition chain, 5 multiplies if x3 is re-used).In general, finding the optimal addition chain for a given exponent is a hard problem, for which no efficient algorithms are known, so optimal chains are typically used for small exponents only (e.g. in compilers where the chains for small powers have been pre-tabulated). However, there are a number of heuristic algorithms that, while not being optimal, have fewer multiplications than exponentiation by squaring at the cost of additional bookkeeping work and memory usage. Regardless, the number of multiplications never grows more slowly than Θ(log n), so these algorithms improve asymptotically upon exponentiation by squaring by only a constant factor at best.","title":"Alternatives and generalizations"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-2"}],"text":"^ In this line, the loop finds the longest string of length less than or equal to k ending in a non-zero value. Not all odd powers of 2 up to \n \n \n \n \n x\n \n \n 2\n \n k\n \n \n −\n 1\n \n \n \n \n {\\displaystyle x^{2^{k}-1}}\n \n need be computed, and only those specifically involved in the computation need be considered.","title":"Notes"}]

[]

[{"title":"Modular exponentiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modular_exponentiation"},{"title":"Vectorial addition chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vectorial_addition_chain"},{"title":"Montgomery modular multiplication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montgomery_modular_multiplication"},{"title":"Non-adjacent form","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Non-adjacent_form"},{"title":"Addition chain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Addition_chain"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wool

Wool

["1 Characteristics","2 Processing","2.1 Shearing","2.2 Scouring","3 Fineness and yield","4 History","5 Production","6 Marketing","6.1 Australia","6.2 Other countries","7 Yarn","8 Uses","9 Events","10 See also","10.1 Production","10.2 Processing","10.3 Refined products","10.4 Organizations","10.5 Miscellaneous wool","11 References","12 External links"]

Textile fiber from the hair of sheep or other mammals For other uses, see Wool (disambiguation). Wool before processing Unshorn Merino sheep Shorn sheep Wool is the textile fiber obtained from sheep and other mammals, especially goats, rabbits, and camelids. The term may also refer to inorganic materials, such as mineral wool and glass wool, that have some properties similar to animal wool. As an animal fiber, wool consists of protein together with a small percentage of lipids. This makes it chemically quite distinct from cotton and other plant fibers, which are mainly cellulose. Characteristics Champion hogget fleece, Walcha ShowWool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the upper layer of the skin called the epidermis and push down into the second skin layer called the dermis as the wool fibers grow. Follicles can be classed as either primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber: kemp, medullated fibers, and true wool fibers. Secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp and elasticity. Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out. Fleece of fine New Zealand Merino wool and combed wool top on a wool table Wool's crimp refers to the strong natural wave present in each wool fiber as it is presented on the animal. Wool's crimp, and to a lesser degree scales, make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach, so they stay together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool has a high specific thermal resistance, so it impedes heat transfer in general. This effect has benefited desert peoples, as Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes for insulation. The felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibers hook together. Felting generally comes under two main areas, dry felting and wet felting. Wet felting occurs when water and a lubricant (especially an alkali such as soap) are applied to the wool which is then agitated until the fibers mix and bond together. Temperature shock while damp or wet accentuates the felting process. Some natural felting can occur on the animal's back. Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped and elastic. The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers. A fine wool like Merino may have up to 40 crimps per centimetre (100 crimps per inch), while coarser wool like karakul may have less than one (one or two crimps per inch). In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no crimp, and little ability to bind into yarn. On sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to breed and make some fleeces more desirable for spinning, felting, or carding into batts for quilts or other insulating products, including the famous tweed cloth of Scotland. Wool fibers readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow. Wool can absorb almost one-third of its own weight in water. Wool absorbs sound like many other fabrics. It is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes. Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers. It has a lower rate of flame spread, a lower rate of heat release, a lower heat of combustion, and does not melt or drip; it forms a char that is insulating and self-extinguishing, and it contributes less to toxic gases and smoke than other flooring products when used in carpets. Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, and others in occupations where they are exposed to the likelihood of fire. Wool causes an allergic reaction in some people. Processing Shearing Main article: Sheep shearing Fine Merino shearing in Lismore, Victoria Sheep shearing is the process in which a worker (a shearer) cuts off the woollen fleece of a sheep. After shearing, wool-classers separate the wool into four main categories: fleece (which makes up the vast bulk) broken bellies locks The quality of fleeces is determined by a technique known as wool classing, whereby a qualified person, called a wool classer, groups wools of similar grading together to maximize the return for the farmer or sheep owner. In Australia, before being auctioned, all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for average diameter (micron), yield (including the amount of vegetable matter), staple length, staple strength, and sometimes color and comfort factor. Scouring Wool before and after scouring Wool straight off a sheep is known as "raw wool", "greasy wool" or "wool in the grease". This wool contains a high level of valuable lanolin, as well as the sheep's dead skin and sweat residue, and generally also contains pesticides and vegetable matter from the animal's environment. Before the wool can be used for commercial purposes, it must be scoured, a process of cleaning the greasy wool. Scouring may be as simple as a bath in warm water or as complicated as an industrial process using detergent and alkali in specialized equipment. In north west England, special potash pits were constructed to produce potash used in the manufacture of a soft soap for scouring locally produced white wool. Vegetable matter in commercial wool is often removed by chemical carbonization. In less-processed wools, vegetable matter may be removed by hand and some of the lanolin left intact through the use of gentler detergents. This semigrease wool can be worked into yarn and knitted into particularly water-resistant mittens or sweaters, such as those of the Aran Island fishermen. Lanolin removed from wool is widely used in cosmetic products such as hand creams. Fineness and yield Raw wool has many impurities; vegetable matter, sand, dirt and yolk which is a mixture of suint (sweat), grease, urine stains and dung locks. The sheep's body yields many types of wool with differing strengths, thicknesses, length of staple and impurities. The raw wool (greasy) is processed into 'top'. 'Worsted top' requires strong straight and parallel fibres. Common Name Part of Sheep Style of Wool Fine Shoulder Fine, uniform and very dense Near Sides Fine, uniform and strong Downrights Neck Short and irregular, lower quality Choice Back Shorter staple, open and less strong Abb Haunches Longer, stronger staple Seconds Belly Short, tender, matted and dirty Top-not Head Stiff, very coarse, rough and kempy Brokes Forelegs Short, irregular and faulty Cowtail Hindlegs Very strong, coarse and hairy Britch Tail Very coarse, kempy and dirty Source: Various types and natural colors of wool, and a picture made from wool The quality of wool is determined by its fiber diameter, crimp, yield, color, and staple strength. Fiber diameter is the single most important wool characteristic determining quality and price. Merino wool is typically 90–115 mm (3.5–4.5 in) in length and is very fine (between 12 and 24 microns). The finest and most valuable wool comes from Merino hoggets. Wool taken from sheep produced for meat is typically coarser, and has fibers 40–150 mm (1.5–6 in) in length. Damage or breaks in the wool can occur if the sheep is stressed while it is growing its fleece, resulting in a thin spot where the fleece is likely to break. Wool is also separated into grades based on the measurement of the wool's diameter in microns and also its style. These grades may vary depending on the breed or purpose of the wool. For example: Merinos Diameter in microns Name < 15.5 Ultrafine Merino 15.6–18.5 Superfine Merino 18.6–20 Fine Merino 20.1–23 Medium Merino > 23 Strong Merino Breeds Breeds Diameter Comeback 21–26 microns, white, 90–180 mm (3.5–7.1 in) long Fine crossbred 27–31 microns, Corriedales, etc. Medium crossbred 32–35 microns Downs 23–34 microns, typically lacks luster and brightness. Examples, Aussiedown, Dorset Horn, Suffolk, etc. Coarse crossbred >36 microns Carpet wools 35–45 microns Any wool finer than 25 microns can be used for garments, while coarser grades are used for outerwear or rugs. The finer the wool, the softer it is, while coarser grades are more durable and less prone to pilling. The finest Australian and New Zealand Merino wools are known as 1PP, which is the industry benchmark of excellence for Merino wool 16.9 microns and finer. This style represents the top level of fineness, character, color, and style as determined on the basis of a series of parameters in accordance with the original dictates of British wool as applied by the Australian Wool Exchange (AWEX) Council. Only a few dozen of the millions of bales auctioned every year can be classified and marked 1PP. In the United States, three classifications of wool are named in the Wool Products Labeling Act of 1939. Wool is "the fiber from the fleece of the sheep or lamb or hair of the Angora or Cashmere goat (and may include the so-called specialty fibers from the hair of the camel, alpaca, llama, and vicuna) which has never been reclaimed from any woven or felted wool product". "Virgin wool" and "new wool" are also used to refer to such never used wool. There are two categories of recycled wool (also called reclaimed or shoddy wool). "Reprocessed wool" identifies "wool which has been woven or felted into a wool product and subsequently reduced to a fibrous state without having been used by the ultimate consumer". "Reused wool" refers to such wool that has been used by the ultimate consumer. History Further information: History of clothing and textiles and The medieval English wool trade A 1905 illustration of a Tibetan man spinning wool Wild sheep were more hairy than woolly. Although sheep were domesticated some 9,000 to 11,000 years ago, archaeological evidence from statuary found at sites in Iran suggests selection for woolly sheep may have begun around 6000 BC, with the earliest woven wool garments having only been dated to two to three thousand years later. Woolly sheep were introduced into Europe from the Near East in the early part of the 4th millennium BC. The oldest known European wool textile, c. 1500 BC, was preserved in a Danish bog. Prior to invention of shears—probably in the Iron Age—the wool was plucked out by hand or by bronze combs. In Roman times, wool, linen, and leather clothed the European population; cotton from India was a curiosity of which only naturalists had heard, and silks, imported along the Silk Road from China, were extravagant luxury goods. Pliny the Elder records in his Natural History that the reputation for producing the finest wool was enjoyed by Tarentum, where selective breeding had produced sheep with superior fleeces, but which required special care. In medieval times, as trade connections expanded, the Champagne fairs revolved around the production of wool cloth in small centers such as Provins. The network developed by the annual fairs meant the woolens of Provins might find their way to Naples, Sicily, Cyprus, Majorca, Spain, and even Constantinople. The wool trade developed into serious business, a generator of capital. In the 13th century, the wool trade became the economic engine of the Low Countries and central Italy. By the end of the 14th century, Italy predominated. The Florentine wool guild, Arte della Lana, sent the imported English wool to the San Martino convent for processing. Italian wool from Abruzzo and Spanish merino wools were processed at Garbo workshops. Abruzzo wool had once been the most accessible for the Florentine guild, until improved relations with merchants in Iberia made merino wool more available. By the 16th century Italian wool exports to the Levant had declined, eventually replaced by silk production. The value of exports of English raw wool were rivaled only by the 15th-century sheepwalks of Castile and were a significant source of income to the English crown, which in 1275 had imposed an export tax on wool called the "Great Custom". The importance of wool to the English economy can be seen in the fact that since the 14th century, the presiding officer of the House of Lords has sat on the "Woolsack", a chair stuffed with wool. Economies of scale were instituted in the Cistercian houses, which had accumulated great tracts of land during the 12th and early 13th centuries, when land prices were low and labor still scarce. Raw wool was baled and shipped from North Sea ports to the textile cities of Flanders, notably Ypres and Ghent, where it was dyed and worked up as cloth. At the time of the Black Death, English textile industries consumed about 10% of English wool production. The English textile trade grew during the 15th century, to the point where export of wool was discouraged. Over the centuries, various British laws controlled the wool trade or required the use of wool even in burials. The smuggling of wool out of the country, known as owling, was at one time punishable by the cutting off of a hand. After the Restoration, fine English woolens began to compete with silks in the international market, partly aided by the Navigation Acts; in 1699, the English crown forbade its American colonies to trade wool with anyone but England herself. A great deal of the value of woollen textiles was in the dyeing and finishing of the woven product. In each of the centers of the textile trade, the manufacturing process came to be subdivided into a collection of trades, overseen by an entrepreneur in a system called by the English the "putting-out" system, or "cottage industry", and the Verlagssystem by the Germans. In this system of producing wool cloth, once perpetuated in the production of Harris tweeds, the entrepreneur provides the raw materials and an advance, the remainder being paid upon delivery of the product. Written contracts bound the artisans to specified terms. Fernand Braudel traces the appearance of the system in the 13th-century economic boom, quoting a document of 1275. The system effectively bypassed the guilds' restrictions. Before the flowering of the Renaissance, the Medici and other great banking houses of Florence had built their wealth and banking system on their textile industry based on wool, overseen by the Arte della Lana, the wool guild: wool textile interests guided Florentine policies. Francesco Datini, the "merchant of Prato", established in 1383 an Arte della Lana for that small Tuscan city. The sheepwalks of Castile were controlled by the Mesta union of sheep owners. They shaped the landscape and the fortunes of the meseta that lies in the heart of the Iberian peninsula; in the 16th century, a unified Spain allowed export of Merino lambs only with royal permission. The German wool market – based on sheep of Spanish origin – did not overtake British wool until comparatively late. Later, the Industrial Revolution introduced mass production technology into wool and wool cloth manufacturing. Australia's colonial economy was based on sheep raising, and the Australian wool trade eventually overtook that of the Germans by 1845, furnishing wool for Bradford, which developed as the heart of industrialized woolens production. A World War I-era poster sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture encouraging children to raise sheep to provide needed war supplies Due to decreasing demand with increased use of synthetic fibers, wool production is much less than what it was in the past. The collapse in the price of wool began in late 1966 with a 40% drop; with occasional interruptions, the price has tended down. The result has been sharply reduced production and movement of resources into production of other commodities, in the case of sheep growers, to production of meat. Superwash wool (or washable wool) technology first appeared in the early 1970s to produce wool that has been specially treated so it is machine washable and may be tumble-dried. This wool is produced using an acid bath that removes the "scales" from the fiber, or by coating the fiber with a polymer that prevents the scales from attaching to each other and causing shrinkage. This process results in a fiber that holds longevity and durability over synthetic materials, while retaining its shape. In December 2004, a bale of the then world's finest wool, averaging 11.8 microns, sold for AU$3,000 per kilogram at auction in Melbourne. This fleece wool tested with an average yield of 74.5%, 68 mm (2.7 in) long, and had 40 newtons per kilotex strength. The result was A$279,000 for the bale. The finest bale of wool ever auctioned was sold for a seasonal record of AU$2690 per kilo during June 2008. This bale was produced by the Hillcreston Pinehill Partnership and measured 11.6 microns, 72.1% yield, and had a 43 newtons per kilotex strength measurement. The bale realized $247,480 and was exported to India. In 2007, a new wool suit was developed and sold in Japan that can be washed in the shower, and which dries off ready to wear within hours with no ironing required. The suit was developed using Australian Merino wool, and it enables woven products made from wool, such as suits, trousers, and skirts, to be cleaned using a domestic shower at home. In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres, so as to raise the profile of wool and other natural fibers. Production Global wool production is about 2 million tonnes (2.2 million short tons) per year, of which 60% goes into apparel. Wool comprises ca 3% of the global textile market, but its value is higher owing to dyeing and other modifications of the material. Australia is a leading producer of wool which is mostly from Merino sheep but has been eclipsed by China in terms of total weight. New Zealand (2016) is the third-largest producer of wool, and the largest producer of crossbred wool. Breeds such as Lincoln, Romney, Drysdale, and Elliotdale produce coarser fibers, and wool from these sheep is usually used for making carpets. In the United States, Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado have large commercial sheep flocks and their mainstay is the Rambouillet (or French Merino). Also, a thriving home-flock contingent of small-scale farmers raise small hobby flocks of specialty sheep for the hand-spinning market. These small-scale farmers offer a wide selection of fleece. Global woolclip (total amount of wool shorn) 2020 China: 19% of global wool-clip (334 million kilograms greasy, 2020) Australia: 16% New Zealand: 8% Turkey: 4% United Kingdom: 4% Morocco: 3% Iran: 3% Russia: 3% South Africa: 3% India: 3% Organic wool has gained in popularity. This wool is limited in supply and much of it comes from New Zealand and Australia. Organic wool has become easier to find in clothing and other products, but these products often carry a higher price. Wool is environmentally preferable (as compared to petroleum-based nylon or polypropylene) as a material for carpets, as well, in particular when combined with a natural binding and the use of formaldehyde-free glues. Animal rights groups have noted issues with the production of wool, such as mulesing. Marketing This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (December 2017) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Australia "Wool: Fibre of the gods, created – not man-made" CSIRO marketing poster describing the benefits of wool Merino wool samples for sale by auction, Newcastle, New South Wales About 85% of wool sold in Australia is sold by open cry auction. Wool received by Australian brokers and dealers (tonnes/quarter) since 1973 Wool buyers' room at a wool auction, Newcastle, New South Wales Other countries Wanha Villatehdas, a former wool factory in Hyvinkää, Finland The British Wool Marketing Board operates a central marketing system for UK fleece wool with the aim of achieving the best possible net returns for farmers. Less than half of New Zealand's wool is sold at auction, while around 45% of farmers sell wool directly to private buyers and end-users. United States sheep producers market wool with private or cooperative wool warehouses, but wool pools are common in many states. In some cases, wool is pooled in a local market area, but sold through a wool warehouse. Wool offered with objective measurement test results is preferred. Imported apparel wool and carpet wool goes directly to central markets, where it is handled by the large merchants and manufacturers. Yarn Woollen yarn Shoddy or recycled wool is made by cutting or tearing apart existing wool fabric and respinning the resulting fibers. As this process makes the wool fibers shorter, the remanufactured fabric is inferior to the original. The recycled wool may be mixed with raw wool, wool noil, or another fiber such as cotton to increase the average fiber length. Such yarns are typically used as weft yarns with a cotton warp. This process was invented in the Heavy Woollen District of West Yorkshire and created a microeconomy in this area for many years. Worsted is a strong, long-staple, combed wool yarn with a hard surface. Woolen is a soft, short-staple, carded wool yarn typically used for knitting. In traditional weaving, woolen weft yarn (for softness and warmth) is frequently combined with a worsted warp yarn for strength on the loom. Uses In addition to clothing, wool has been used for blankets, horse rugs, saddle cloths, carpeting, insulation and upholstery. Dyed wool can be used to create other forms of art such as wet and needle felting. Wool felt covers piano hammers, and it is used to absorb odors and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient Greeks lined their helmets with felt, and Roman legionnaires used breastplates made of wool felt. Wool as well as cotton has also been traditionally used for cloth diapers. Wool fiber exteriors are hydrophobic (repel water) and the interior of the wool fiber is hygroscopic (attracts water); this makes a wool garment suitable cover for a wet diaper by inhibiting wicking, so outer garments remain dry. Wool felted and treated with lanolin is water resistant, air permeable, and slightly antibacterial, so it resists the buildup of odor. Some modern cloth diapers use felted wool fabric for covers, and there are several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers. Initial studies of woollen underwear have found it prevented heat and sweat rashes because it more readily absorbs the moisture than other fibers. As an animal protein, wool can be used as a soil fertilizer, being a slow-release source of nitrogen. Researchers at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology school of fashion and textiles have discovered a blend of wool and Kevlar, the synthetic fiber widely used in body armor, was lighter, cheaper and worked better in damp conditions than Kevlar alone. Kevlar, when used alone, loses about 20% of its effectiveness when wet, so required an expensive waterproofing process. Wool increased friction in a vest with 28–30 layers of fabric, to provide the same level of bullet resistance as 36 layers of Kevlar alone. Events Andean woman sorting wool as part of the theme park Los Aleros in Mérida, Venezuela A buyer of Merino wool, Ermenegildo Zegna, has offered awards for Australian wool producers. In 1963, the first Ermenegildo Zegna Perpetual Trophy was presented in Tasmania for growers of "Superfine skirted Merino fleece". In 1980, a national award, the Ermenegildo Zegna Trophy for Extrafine Wool Production, was launched. In 2004, this award became known as the Ermenegildo Zegna Unprotected Wool Trophy. In 1998, an Ermenegildo Zegna Protected Wool Trophy was launched for fleece from sheep coated for around nine months of the year. In 2002, the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy was launched for wool that is 13.9 microns or finer. Wool from Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa may enter, and a winner is named from each country. In April 2008, New Zealand won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy for the first time with a fleece that measured 10.8 microns. This contest awards the winning fleece weight with the same weight in gold as a prize, hence the name. In 2010, an ultrafine, 10-micron fleece, from Windradeen, near Pyramul, New South Wales, won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum International Trophy. Since 2000, Loro Piana has awarded a cup for the world's finest bale of wool that produces just enough fabric for 50 tailor-made suits. The prize is awarded to an Australian or New Zealand wool grower who produces the year's finest bale. The New England Merino Field days which display local studs, wool, and sheep are held during January, in even numbered years around the Walcha, New South Wales district. The Annual Wool Fashion Awards, which showcase the use of Merino wool by fashion designers, are hosted by the city of Armidale, New South Wales, in March each year. This event encourages young and established fashion designers to display their talents. During each May, Armidale hosts the annual New England Wool Expo to display wool fashions, handicrafts, demonstrations, shearing competitions, yard dog trials, and more. In July, the annual Australian Sheep and Wool Show is held in Bendigo, Victoria. This is the largest sheep and wool show in the world, with goats and alpacas, as well as woolcraft competitions and displays, fleece competitions, sheepdog trials, shearing, and wool handling. The largest competition in the world for objectively measured fleeces is the Australian Fleece Competition, which is held annually at Bendigo. In 2008, 475 entries came from all states of Australia, with first and second prizes going to the Northern Tablelands fleeces. See also Timeline of clothing and textiles technology Production Glossary of sheep husbandry Lambswool Sheep husbandry Sheep shearing Wool bale Processing Canvas work Carding Combing Dyeing Fulling Knitting Spinning Textile manufacturing Weaving Refined products Felt Fiber art Tweed Worsted Yarn Wool crepe Wool satin Wool coating Wool melton Organizations British Wool Marketing Board IWTO Worshipful Company of Woolmen Miscellaneous wool Alpaca wool Angora wool Cashmere wool Chiengora wool Glass wool Llama wool Lopi Mineral wool Mohair Pashmina Shahtoosh Tibetan fur References ^ a b c d Braaten, Ann W. (2005). "Wool". In Steele, Valerie (ed.). Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion. Vol. 3. Thomson Gale. pp. 441–443. ISBN 0-684-31394-4. ^ Simmons, Paula (2009). Storey's Guide to Raising Sheep. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing. pp. 315–316. ^ D'Arcy, John B. (1986). Sheep and Wool Technology. Kensington: NSW University Press. ISBN 0-86840-106-4. ^ Wool Facts Archived 2014-05-26 at the Wayback Machine. Aussiesheepandwool.com.au. Retrieved on 2012-08-05. ^ Wool History Archived 2008-05-09 at the Wayback Machine. Tricountyfarm.org. Retrieved on 2012-08-05. ^ a b The Land, Merinos – Going for Green and Gold, p.46, US use flame resistance, 21 August 2008 ^ Admani, Shehla; Jacob, Sharon E. (2014-04-01). "Allergic contact dermatitis in children: review of the past decade". Current Allergy and Asthma Reports. 14 (4): 421. doi:10.1007/s11882-014-0421-0. PMID 24504525. S2CID 33537360. ^ a b c d e Preparation of Australian Wool Clips, Code of Practice 2010–2012, Australian Wool Exchange (AWEX), 2010 ^ "Technology in Australia 1788–1988". Australian Science and Technology Heritage Center. 2001. Archived from the original on 2006-05-14. Retrieved 2006-04-30. ^ Wu Zhao (1987). A study of wool carbonizing (PhD). University of New South Wales. School of Fibre Science and Technology. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014. ^ Bradford Industrial Museum 2015. sfn error: no target: CITEREFBradford_Industrial_Museum2015 (help) ^ "Merino Sheep in Australia". Archived from the original on 2006-11-05. Retrieved 2006-11-10. ^ Van Nostran, Don. "Wool Management – Maximizing Wool Returns". Mid-States Wool growers Cooperative Association. Archived from the original on 2010-01-01. Retrieved 2006-11-10. ^ D'Arcy, John B. (1986). Sheep Management & Wool Technology. NSW University Press. ISBN 0-86840-106-4. ^ "1PP Certification". Australian Wool Exchange. Archived from the original on 2012-07-18. ^ a b c d Robert E. Freer. "The Wool Products Labeling Act of 1939." Archived 2016-06-05 at the Wayback Machine Temple Law Quarterly. 20.1 (July 1946). p. 47. Reprinted at ftc.gov. Retrieved 1 May 2016. ^ Ensminger, M. E.; R. O. Parker (1986). Sheep and Goat Science, Fifth Edition. Danville, Illinois: The Interstate Printers and Publishers Inc. ISBN 0-8134-2464-X. ^ Weaver, Sue (2005). Sheep: small-scale sheep keeping for pleasure and profit. Irvine, CA: Hobby Farm Press, an imprint of BowTie Press, a division of BowTie Inc. ISBN 1-931993-49-1. ^ Smith, Barbara; Kennedy, Gerald; Aseltine, Mark (1997). Beginning Shepherd's Manual, Second Edition. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. ISBN 0-8138-2799-X. ^ "Fibre history". Woolmark. Archived from the original on 2006-08-28. ^ a b c d Fernand Braudel, 1982. The Wheels of Commerce, vol 2 of Civilization and Capitalism (New York:Harper & Row), pp.312–317 ^ Bell, Adrian R.; Brooks, Chris; Dryburgh, Paul (2007). The English Wool Market, c.1230–1327. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521859417. ^ "Florentine Woolen Manufacture in the Sixteenth Century:Crisis and New Entrepreneurial Strategies" (PDF). THe Business History Conference. ^ "The end of pastoral dominance" Archived 2007-08-19 at the Wayback Machine. Teara.govt.nz (2009-03-03). Retrieved on 2012-08-05. ^ 1301.0 – Year Book Australia, 2000 Archived 2017-07-01 at the Wayback Machine, Australian Bureau of Statistics ^ "The History of Wool" Archived 2015-04-27 at the Wayback Machine. johnhanly.com ^ Superwash Wool Archived 2009-03-09 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 10 November 2008 ^ World’s Finest Bale Record Broken. landmark.com.au, 22 November 2004 ^ Country Leader, NSW Wool Sells for a Quarter of a Million, 7 July 2008 ^ Shower suit Archived 2011-08-22 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved on 11 November 2008 ^ "Sheep 101". Archived from the original on 28 November 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016. According to this chart, US production is around 10,000 tonnes (11,000 short tons), hugely at variance with the percentage list, and way outside year-to-year variability. ^ "FAOSTAT". FAOSTAT (Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations Statistics). Retrieved May 17, 2020. ^ Speer, Jordan K. (2006-05-01). "Shearing the Edge of Innovation". Apparel Magazine. Archived from the original on 2015-05-26. ^ Bolt, C (2004-04-07). "AWH to set up wool auctions". The Age. Retrieved 2019-05-27. ^ Wool Production in New Zealand. maf.govt.nz ^ Wool Marketing. sheepusa.org ^ a b c Kadolph, Sara J, ed. (2007). Textiles (10 ed.). Pearson/Prentice-Hall. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-13-118769-6. ^ Shell, Hanna Rose. "Leftovers / Devil's Dust". cabinetmagazine.org. ^ Østergård, Else (2004). Woven into the Earth: Textiles from Norse Greenland. Aarhus University Press. p. 50. ISBN 87-7288-935-7. ^ Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2015). World Clothing and Fashion : an Encyclopedia of History, Culture, and Social Influence. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. pp. 49–51. ISBN 978-1-317-45167-9. OCLC 910448387. ^ ABC Rural Radio: Woodhams, Dr. Libby, New research shows woollen underwear helps prevent rashes Archived 2011-08-23 at the Wayback Machine Retrieved 2010-3-24 ^ Blenkin, Max (2011-04-11). "Wool's tough new image". Country Leader. ^ "2004/51/1 Trophy and plaque, Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum trophy and plaque, plaster / bronze / silver / gold, trophy designed and made by Not Vital for Ermenegildo Zegna, Switzerland, 2001". Powerhouse Museum, Sydney. Archived from the original on 2007-05-19. Retrieved 2008-04-27. ^ Country Leader, 26 April 2010, Finest wool rewarded, Rural Press, North Richmond ^ Australian Wool Network News, Issue #19, July 2008 ^ "Fletcher Wins Australian Fleece Comp". Walcha News. 24 July 2008. p. 3. Archived from the original on 27 July 2008. Retrieved 5 August 2012. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Wool. "Story of Wool" . The New Student's Reference Work . 1914. "Wool" . New International Encyclopedia. 1905. vteFibersNaturalPlant Abacá Bagasse Bamboo Bashō Coir Cotton Fique Flax Linen Hemp Jute Kapok Kenaf Lotus silk Piña Pine Raffia Ramie Rattan Sisal Wood Animal Alpaca Angora Byssus Camel hair Cashmere Catgut Chiengora Guanaco Hair Llama Mohair Pashmina Qiviut Rabbit Silk Tendon Spider silk Wool Vicuña Yak Mineral Asbestos SyntheticRegenerated Artificial silk Milk fiber Semi-synthetic Acetate Diacetate Lyocell Modal Rayon Triacetate Mineral Glass Carbon Basalt Metallic Polymer Acrylic Aramid Twaron Kevlar Technora Nomex Microfiber Modacrylic Nylon Olefin Polyester Polyethylene UHMWPE Spandex Vectran Vinylon Vinyon Zylon Category Commons vteFabricTypesWoven Abacá cloth (Medriñaque) Aertex Armazine Almerían silk Barathea Barkcloth Batiste Bedford cord Bengaline Beta cloth Bombazine Brilliantine Broadcloth Buckram Bunting Burlap Byrd Cloth C change Calico Cambric Canvas Chambray Capilene Cedar bark textile Challis Char cloth Charmeuse Charvet Cheesecloth Chiffon Chino Chintz Cloqué Cloth of gold Cordura Corduroy Cotton duck Coutil Crêpe Cretonne Denim Dimity Donegal tweed Dornix Dowlas Drill Drugget Eolienne Flannel Foulard Fustian Gabardine Gauze Gazar Georgette Ghalamkar Gingham Grenadine Grenfell Cloth Grosgrain Habutai Haircloth Harris tweed Herringbone Himroo Hodden Irish linen Jamdani Kerseymere Khādī Khaki drill Kijōka-bashōfu Kente cloth Lamé Lawn Linsey-woolsey Loden Longcloth Mackinaw Madapollam Madras Moleskin Muslin Nainsook Nankeen Ninon Oilskin Organdy Organza Osnaburg Ottoman Oxford Paduasoy Percale Perpetuana Pongee Poplin Rakematiz Rayadillo Rep Ripstop Russell cord Saga Nishiki Samite Sateen Satin Saye Scarlet Seerhand muslin Seersucker Sendal Serge Scrim Shot silk Stuff Taffeta Tais Tartan Ticking Toile Tucuyo Tweed Twill Ultrasuede Vegetable flannel Ventile Vinyl coated polyester Viyella Voile Wadmal Waffle Wigan Whipcord Zephyr Zorbeez Figured woven Brocade Camlet Damask Lampas Songket Rinzu Pile woven Baize Chenille Corduroy Crimplene Fustian Mockado Moquette Plush Polar fleece Terrycloth Velours du Kasaï Velvet Velveteen Zibeline Nonwoven Felt Cedar bark Knitted Boiled wool Coolmax Machine knitting Milliskin Jersey Velour Netted Bobbinet Carbon fibers Lace Mesh Needlerun net Ninon Tulle Technical Ballistic nylon Ban-Lon Conductive textile Darlexx E-textiles Gannex Gore-Tex Lenticular fabric Silnylon Spandex Stub-tex SympaTex Windstopper Patterns Argyle Bizarre silk Check Chiné Herringbone Houndstooth Kelsch Paisley Pinstripes Polka dot Shweshwe Tartan or plaid Tattersall Textile fibers Abacá (Manila hemp) Acrylic Alpaca Angora Bashō Cashmere Coir Cotton Eisengarn Hemp Jute Kevlar Linen Mohair Nylon Microfiber Olefin Pashmina Polyester Piña Ramie Rayon Sea silk Silk Sisal Spandex Spider silk Wool Finishing andprinting Androsia Batik Beetling Bingata Bògòlanfini Burnout Calendering Decatising Devoré Finishing Fulling Heatsetting Indienne Kasuri Katazome Mercerization Moire Nap Parchmentising Rogan printing Rōketsuzome Roller printing Sanforization Tenterhook Textile printing Tsutsugaki Warp printing Waxed cotton Woodblock printing Yūzen Fabric mills Carlo Barbera Cerruti Dormeuil E. Thomas Holland & Sherry Larusmiani Loro Piana Piacenza Reda Scabal Vitale Barberis Canonico Zegna Manufacturingindustry Design Manufacturing Performance Preservation Recycling Terminology Related Dyeing Fiber History of textiles History of silk Knitting Pandy Shrinkage Swatches and strike-offs Synthetic fabric Weaving Yarn vteClothing materials and partsGarment structures Armscye Collar Clerical collar Collar stays Detachable collar Cuff Dart Facing Fly Lapel Gore Hem Lining Placket Pleat Pocket Revers Ruffle Shoulder pad Strap Sleeve Train Waistband Yoke TextilesNatural Cotton Fur Linen Silk Wool Synthetic Artificial leather Elastic Nylon Polyester Rayon Spandex Animal hides / leather Calf Deer Goat Kangaroo Ostrich Seal Sheep Snake Stingray Fasteners Back closure Belt hook Buckle Button Buttonhole Frog Shank Hook-and-eye Hook-and-loop Velcro Snap Zipper Seams Neckline Bustline Waistline Hemline Authority control databases National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Japan Czech Republic Other Historical Dictionary of Switzerland NARA

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This makes it chemically quite distinct from cotton and other plant fibers, which are mainly cellulose.[1]","title":"Wool"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Hogget_fleece.JPG"},{"link_name":"hogget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glossary_of_sheep_husbandry"},{"link_name":"Walcha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walcha,_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"follicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_follicle"},{"link_name":"epidermis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis"},{"link_name":"dermis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermis"},{"link_name":"kemp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemp_(wool)"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wool_fleece_and_top.jpg"},{"link_name":"Merino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merino"},{"link_name":"spin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)"},{"link_name":"specific thermal resistance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Specific_thermal_resistance"},{"link_name":"Bedouins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bedouin"},{"link_name":"Tuaregs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tuareg_people"},{"link_name":"crimped","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimp_(wool)"},{"link_name":"elastic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elasticity_(physics)"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Merino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merino"},{"link_name":"karakul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karakul_(sheep)"},{"link_name":"scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuticle_(hair)"},{"link_name":"yarn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarn"},{"link_name":"kemp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemp_(wool)"},{"link_name":"spinning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinning_(textiles)"},{"link_name":"felting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felting"},{"link_name":"carding","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carding"},{"link_name":"batts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batting_(material)"},{"link_name":"tweed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tweed_(cloth)"},{"link_name":"Scotland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"readily absorb moisture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrophilic"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"synthetic fibers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_fiber"},{"link_name":"flame spread","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flame_spread"},{"link_name":"heat of combustion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_of_combustion"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Land_p.46-6"},{"link_name":"garments","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garments"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-The_Land_p.46-6"},{"link_name":"allergic reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allergic_contact_dermatitis"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Champion hogget fleece, Walcha ShowWool is produced by follicles which are small cells located in the skin. These follicles are located in the upper layer of the skin called the epidermis and push down into the second skin layer called the dermis as the wool fibers grow. Follicles can be classed as either primary or secondary follicles. Primary follicles produce three types of fiber: kemp, medullated fibers, and true wool fibers. Secondary follicles only produce true wool fibers. Medullated fibers share nearly identical characteristics to hair and are long but lack crimp and elasticity. Kemp fibers are very coarse and shed out.[2]Fleece of fine New Zealand Merino wool and combed wool top on a wool tableWool's crimp refers to the strong natural wave present in each wool fiber as it is presented on the animal. Wool's crimp, and to a lesser degree scales, make it easier to spin the fleece by helping the individual fibers attach, so they stay together. Because of the crimp, wool fabrics have greater bulk than other textiles, and they hold air, which causes the fabric to retain heat. Wool has a high specific thermal resistance, so it impedes heat transfer in general. This effect has benefited desert peoples, as Bedouins and Tuaregs use wool clothes for insulation.The felting of wool occurs upon hammering or other mechanical agitation as the microscopic barbs on the surface of wool fibers hook together. Felting generally comes under two main areas, dry felting and wet felting. Wet felting occurs when water and a lubricant (especially an alkali such as soap) are applied to the wool which is then agitated until the fibers mix and bond together. Temperature shock while damp or wet accentuates the felting process. Some natural felting can occur on the animal's back.Wool has several qualities that distinguish it from hair or fur: it is crimped and elastic.[3]The amount of crimp corresponds to the fineness of the wool fibers. A fine wool like Merino may have up to 40 crimps per centimetre (100 crimps per inch), while coarser wool like karakul may have less than one (one or two crimps per inch). In contrast, hair has little if any scale and no crimp, and little ability to bind into yarn. On sheep, the hair part of the fleece is called kemp. The relative amounts of kemp to wool vary from breed to breed and make some fleeces more desirable for spinning, felting, or carding into batts for quilts or other insulating products, including the famous tweed cloth of Scotland.Wool fibers readily absorb moisture, but are not hollow. Wool can absorb almost one-third of its own weight in water.[4]\nWool absorbs sound like many other fabrics. It is generally a creamy white color, although some breeds of sheep produce natural colors, such as black, brown, silver, and random mixes.Wool ignites at a higher temperature than cotton and some synthetic fibers. It has a lower rate of flame spread, a lower rate of heat release, a lower heat of combustion, and does not melt or drip;[5] it forms a char that is insulating and self-extinguishing, and it contributes less to toxic gases and smoke than other flooring products when used in carpets.[6] Wool carpets are specified for high safety environments, such as trains and aircraft. Wool is usually specified for garments for firefighters, soldiers, and others in occupations where they are exposed to the likelihood of fire.[6]Wool causes an allergic reaction in some people.[7]","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Processing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Merino_shearing.jpg"},{"link_name":"Lismore, Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lismore,_Victoria"},{"link_name":"Sheep shearing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheep_shearing"},{"link_name":"shearer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheep_shearer"},{"link_name":"wool-classers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wool-classer"},{"link_name":"wool classing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wool_classing"},{"link_name":"micron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micron_(wool)"},{"link_name":"vegetable matter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vegetable_matter"},{"link_name":"staple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staple_(wool)"}],"sub_title":"Shearing","text":"Fine Merino shearing in Lismore, VictoriaSheep shearing is the process in which a worker (a shearer) cuts off the woollen fleece of a sheep. After shearing, wool-classers separate the wool into four main categories:fleece (which makes up the vast bulk)\nbroken\nbellies\nlocksThe quality of fleeces is determined by a technique known as wool classing, whereby a qualified person, called a wool classer, groups wools of similar grading together to maximize the return for the farmer or sheep owner. In Australia, before being auctioned, all Merino fleece wool is objectively measured for average diameter (micron), yield (including the amount of vegetable matter), staple length, staple strength, and sometimes color and comfort factor.","title":"Processing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_11160_Siroscour.jpg"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AWEX_w-8"},{"link_name":"lanolin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanolin"},{"link_name":"detergent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Detergent"},{"link_name":"alkali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alkali"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"north west England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_west_England"},{"link_name":"potash pits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potash_pit"},{"link_name":"potash","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potash"},{"link_name":"carbonization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbonization"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"water-resistant mittens or sweaters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aran_jumper"},{"link_name":"Aran Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aran_Islands"},{"link_name":"cosmetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cosmetics"},{"link_name":"hand creams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hand_cream"}],"sub_title":"Scouring","text":"Wool before and after scouringWool straight off a sheep is known as \"raw wool\", \"greasy wool\"[8] or \"wool in the grease\". This wool contains a high level of valuable lanolin, as well as the sheep's dead skin and sweat residue, and generally also contains pesticides and vegetable matter from the animal's environment. Before the wool can be used for commercial purposes, it must be scoured, a process of cleaning the greasy wool. Scouring may be as simple as a bath in warm water or as complicated as an industrial process using detergent and alkali in specialized equipment.[9]\nIn north west England, special potash pits were constructed to produce potash used in the manufacture of a soft soap for scouring locally produced white wool.Vegetable matter in commercial wool is often removed by chemical carbonization.[10]\nIn less-processed wools, vegetable matter may be removed by hand and some of the lanolin left intact through the use of gentler detergents. This semigrease wool can be worked into yarn and knitted into particularly water-resistant mittens or sweaters, such as those of the Aran Island fishermen. Lanolin removed from wool is widely used in cosmetic products such as hand creams.","title":"Processing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wool_samples_2.JPG"},{"link_name":"crimp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wool_classing#crimp"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Australia-12"},{"link_name":"Merino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merino"},{"link_name":"hoggets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Domestic_sheep"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"pilling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pill_(textile)"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"Wool Products Labeling Act","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wool_Products_Labeling_Act"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Freer-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Freer-16"},{"link_name":"recycled wool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recycled_wool"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Freer-16"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Freer-16"}],"text":"Raw wool has many impurities; vegetable matter, sand, dirt and yolk which is a mixture of suint (sweat), grease, urine stains and dung locks. The sheep's body yields many types of wool with differing strengths, thicknesses, length of staple and impurities. The raw wool (greasy) is processed into 'top'. 'Worsted top' requires strong straight and parallel fibres.Various types and natural colors of wool, and a picture made from woolThe quality of wool is determined by its fiber diameter, crimp, yield, color, and staple strength. Fiber diameter is the single most important wool characteristic determining quality and price.Merino wool is typically 90–115 mm (3.5–4.5 in) in length and is very fine (between 12 and 24 microns).[12] The finest and most valuable wool comes from Merino hoggets. Wool taken from sheep produced for meat is typically coarser, and has fibers 40–150 mm (1.5–6 in) in length. Damage or breaks in the wool can occur if the sheep is stressed while it is growing its fleece, resulting in a thin spot where the fleece is likely to break.[13]Wool is also separated into grades based on the measurement of the wool's diameter in microns and also its style. These grades may vary depending on the breed or purpose of the wool. For example:Any wool finer than 25 microns can be used for garments, while coarser grades are used for outerwear or rugs. The finer the wool, the softer it is, while coarser grades are more durable and less prone to pilling.The finest Australian and New Zealand Merino wools are known as 1PP, which is the industry benchmark of excellence for Merino wool 16.9 microns and finer. This style represents the top level of fineness, character, color, and style as determined on the basis of a series of parameters in accordance with the original dictates of British wool as applied by the Australian Wool Exchange (AWEX) Council. Only a few dozen of the millions of bales auctioned every year can be classified and marked 1PP.[15]In the United States, three classifications of wool are named in the Wool Products Labeling Act of 1939.[16] Wool is \"the fiber from the fleece of the sheep or lamb or hair of the Angora or Cashmere goat (and may include the so-called specialty fibers from the hair of the camel, alpaca, llama, and vicuna) which has never been reclaimed from any woven or felted wool product\".[16] \"Virgin wool\" and \"new wool\" are also used to refer to such never used wool. There are two categories of recycled wool (also called reclaimed or shoddy wool). \"Reprocessed wool\" identifies \"wool which has been woven or felted into a wool product and subsequently reduced to a fibrous state without having been used by the ultimate consumer\".[16] \"Reused wool\" refers to such wool that has been used by the ultimate consumer.[16]","title":"Fineness and yield"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"History of clothing and textiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_clothing_and_textiles"},{"link_name":"The medieval English wool trade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_medieval_English_wool_trade"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tibetan_spinning_wool.jpg"},{"link_name":"Wild sheep","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouflon"},{"link_name":"statuary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statuary"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Danish bog","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bog_people"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"Iron Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iron_Age"},{"link_name":"bronze","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bronze"},{"link_name":"Roman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"linen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linen"},{"link_name":"Silk Road","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silk_Road"},{"link_name":"luxury goods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luxury_goods"},{"link_name":"Pliny the Elder","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pliny_the_Elder"},{"link_name":"Natural History","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_History_(Pliny)"},{"link_name":"Tarentum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taranto"},{"link_name":"Champagne fairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Champagne_fairs"},{"link_name":"Provins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Provins"},{"link_name":"Naples","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naples"},{"link_name":"Cyprus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyprus"},{"link_name":"Majorca","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Majorca"},{"link_name":"Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Braudel-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Low Countries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Countries"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Braudel-21"},{"link_name":"guild","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guild"},{"link_name":"Arte della Lana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arte_della_Lana"},{"link_name":"convent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Convent"},{"link_name":"Abruzzo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abruzzo"},{"link_name":"Garbo workshops","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Garbo_workshops&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Iberia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iberia"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Braudel-21"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"sheepwalks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sheepwalk"},{"link_name":"Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_(historical_region)"},{"link_name":"House of Lords","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/House_of_Lords"},{"link_name":"Woolsack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolsack"},{"link_name":"Economies of scale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economies_of_scale"},{"link_name":"Cistercian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cistercian"},{"link_name":"North Sea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Sea"},{"link_name":"Flanders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flanders"},{"link_name":"Ypres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ypres"},{"link_name":"Ghent","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghent"},{"link_name":"Black Death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Death"},{"link_name":"owling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Owling_(legal_term)"},{"link_name":"Restoration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Restoration_(England)"},{"link_name":"Navigation Acts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation_Acts"},{"link_name":"dyeing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dyeing"},{"link_name":"finishing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finishing_(textiles)"},{"link_name":"Harris tweeds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harris_tweed"},{"link_name":"Fernand Braudel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fernand_Braudel"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Braudel-21"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Medici","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medici"},{"link_name":"Arte della Lana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arte_della_Lana"},{"link_name":"Francesco Datini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francesco_Datini"},{"link_name":"Castile","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Castile_(historical_region)"},{"link_name":"Mesta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesta"},{"link_name":"meseta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meseta_Central"},{"link_name":"Merino","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merino"},{"link_name":"Industrial Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Industrial_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Bradford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bradford"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sheep_club2.jpg"},{"link_name":"World War I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_War_I"},{"link_name":"United States Department of Agriculture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Agriculture"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Melbourne","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melbourne"},{"link_name":"kilotex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilotex"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"auctioned","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auction"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"International Year of Natural Fibres","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Year_of_Natural_Fibres"},{"link_name":"natural fibers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_fiber"}],"text":"Further information: History of clothing and textiles and The medieval English wool tradeA 1905 illustration of a Tibetan man spinning woolWild sheep were more hairy than woolly. Although sheep were domesticated some 9,000 to 11,000 years ago, archaeological evidence from statuary found at sites in Iran suggests selection for woolly sheep may have begun around 6000 BC,[17][18] with the earliest woven wool garments having only been dated to two to three thousand years later.[19] Woolly sheep were introduced into Europe from the Near East in the early part of the 4th millennium BC. The oldest known European wool textile, c. 1500 BC, was preserved in a Danish bog.[20] Prior to invention of shears—probably in the Iron Age—the wool was plucked out by hand or by bronze combs. In Roman times, wool, linen, and leather clothed the European population; cotton from India was a curiosity of which only naturalists had heard, and silks, imported along the Silk Road from China, were extravagant luxury goods. Pliny the Elder records in his Natural History that the reputation for producing the finest wool was enjoyed by Tarentum, where selective breeding had produced sheep with superior fleeces, but which required special care.In medieval times, as trade connections expanded, the Champagne fairs revolved around the production of wool cloth in small centers such as Provins. The network developed by the annual fairs meant the woolens of Provins might find their way to Naples, Sicily, Cyprus, Majorca, Spain, and even Constantinople.[21] The wool trade developed into serious business, a generator of capital.[22] In the 13th century, the wool trade became the economic engine of the Low Countries and central Italy. By the end of the 14th century, Italy predominated.[21] The Florentine wool guild, Arte della Lana, sent the imported English wool to the San Martino convent for processing. Italian wool from Abruzzo and Spanish merino wools were processed at Garbo workshops. Abruzzo wool had once been the most accessible for the Florentine guild, until improved relations with merchants in Iberia made merino wool more available. By the 16th century Italian wool exports to the Levant had declined, eventually replaced by silk production.[21][23]The value of exports of English raw wool were rivaled only by the 15th-century sheepwalks of Castile and were a significant source of income to the English crown, which in 1275 had imposed an export tax on wool called the \"Great Custom\". The importance of wool to the English economy can be seen in the fact that since the 14th century, the presiding officer of the House of Lords has sat on the \"Woolsack\", a chair stuffed with wool.Economies of scale were instituted in the Cistercian houses, which had accumulated great tracts of land during the 12th and early 13th centuries, when land prices were low and labor still scarce. Raw wool was baled and shipped from North Sea ports to the textile cities of Flanders, notably Ypres and Ghent, where it was dyed and worked up as cloth. At the time of the Black Death, English textile industries consumed about 10% of English wool production. The English textile trade grew during the 15th century, to the point where export of wool was discouraged. Over the centuries, various British laws controlled the wool trade or required the use of wool even in burials. The smuggling of wool out of the country, known as owling, was at one time punishable by the cutting off of a hand. After the Restoration, fine English woolens began to compete with silks in the international market, partly aided by the Navigation Acts; in 1699, the English crown forbade its American colonies to trade wool with anyone but England herself.A great deal of the value of woollen textiles was in the dyeing and finishing of the woven product. In each of the centers of the textile trade, the manufacturing process came to be subdivided into a collection of trades, overseen by an entrepreneur in a system called by the English the \"putting-out\" system, or \"cottage industry\", and the Verlagssystem by the Germans. In this system of producing wool cloth, once perpetuated in the production of Harris tweeds, the entrepreneur provides the raw materials and an advance, the remainder being paid upon delivery of the product. Written contracts bound the artisans to specified terms. Fernand Braudel traces the appearance of the system in the 13th-century economic boom, quoting a document of 1275.[21] The system effectively bypassed the guilds' restrictions.Before the flowering of the Renaissance, the Medici and other great banking houses of Florence had built their wealth and banking system on their textile industry based on wool, overseen by the Arte della Lana, the wool guild: wool textile interests guided Florentine policies. Francesco Datini, the \"merchant of Prato\", established in 1383 an Arte della Lana for that small Tuscan city. The sheepwalks of Castile were controlled by the Mesta union of sheep owners.\nThey shaped the landscape and the fortunes of the meseta that lies in the heart of the Iberian peninsula; in the 16th century, a unified Spain allowed export of Merino lambs only with royal permission. The German wool market – based on sheep of Spanish origin – did not overtake British wool until comparatively late. Later, the Industrial Revolution introduced mass production technology into wool and wool cloth manufacturing. Australia's colonial economy was based on sheep raising, and the Australian wool trade eventually overtook that of the Germans by 1845, furnishing wool for Bradford, which developed as the heart of industrialized woolens production.A World War I-era poster sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture encouraging children to raise sheep to provide needed war suppliesDue to decreasing demand with increased use of synthetic fibers, wool production is much less than what it was in the past. The collapse in the price of wool began in late 1966 with a 40% drop; with occasional interruptions, the price has tended down. The result has been sharply reduced production and movement of resources into production of other commodities, in the case of sheep growers, to production of meat.[24][25][26]Superwash wool (or washable wool) technology first appeared in the early 1970s to produce wool that has been specially treated so it is machine washable and may be tumble-dried. This wool is produced using an acid bath that removes the \"scales\" from the fiber, or by coating the fiber with a polymer that prevents the scales from attaching to each other and causing shrinkage. This process results in a fiber that holds longevity and durability over synthetic materials, while retaining its shape.[27]In December 2004, a bale of the then world's finest wool, averaging 11.8 microns, sold for AU$3,000 per kilogram at auction in Melbourne. This fleece wool tested with an average yield of 74.5%, 68 mm (2.7 in) long, and had 40 newtons per kilotex strength. The result was A$279,000 for the bale.[28]\nThe finest bale of wool ever auctioned was sold for a seasonal record of AU$2690 per kilo during June 2008. This bale was produced by the Hillcreston Pinehill Partnership and measured 11.6 microns, 72.1% yield, and had a 43 newtons per kilotex strength measurement. The bale realized $247,480 and was exported to India.[29]In 2007, a new wool suit was developed and sold in Japan that can be washed in the shower, and which dries off ready to wear within hours with no ironing required. The suit was developed using Australian Merino wool, and it enables woven products made from wool, such as suits, trousers, and skirts, to be cleaned using a domestic shower at home.[30]In December 2006, the General Assembly of the United Nations proclaimed 2009 to be the International Year of Natural Fibres, so as to raise the profile of wool and other natural fibers.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Braaten_2005-1"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Lincoln","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lincoln_(sheep)"},{"link_name":"Romney","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romney_(sheep)"},{"link_name":"Drysdale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Drysdale_(sheep)"},{"link_name":"Elliotdale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elliotdale"},{"link_name":"Texas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas"},{"link_name":"New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"Colorado","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colorado"},{"link_name":"Rambouillet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rambouillet_(sheep)"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"polypropylene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polypropylene"},{"link_name":"carpets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carpetlayer"},{"link_name":"formaldehyde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formaldehyde"},{"link_name":"Animal rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal_rights"},{"link_name":"mulesing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mulesing"}],"text":"Global wool production is about 2 million tonnes (2.2 million short tons) per year, of which 60% goes into apparel. Wool comprises ca 3% of the global textile market, but its value is higher owing to dyeing and other modifications of the material.[1] Australia is a leading producer of wool which is mostly from Merino sheep but has been eclipsed by China in terms of total weight.[31] New Zealand (2016) is the third-largest producer of wool, and the largest producer of crossbred wool. Breeds such as Lincoln, Romney, Drysdale, and Elliotdale produce coarser fibers, and wool from these sheep is usually used for making carpets.In the United States, Texas, New Mexico, and Colorado have large commercial sheep flocks and their mainstay is the Rambouillet (or French Merino). Also, a thriving home-flock contingent of small-scale farmers raise small hobby flocks of specialty sheep for the hand-spinning market. These small-scale farmers offer a wide selection of fleece. \nGlobal woolclip (total amount of wool shorn) 2020[32]China: 19% of global wool-clip (334 million kilograms [740 million pounds] greasy, 2020)\nAustralia: 16%\nNew Zealand: 8%\nTurkey: 4%\nUnited Kingdom: 4%\nMorocco: 3%\nIran: 3%\nRussia: 3%\nSouth Africa: 3%\nIndia: 3%Organic wool has gained in popularity. This wool is limited in supply and much of it comes from New Zealand and Australia.[33] Organic wool has become easier to find in clothing and other products, but these products often carry a higher price.Wool is environmentally preferable (as compared to petroleum-based nylon or polypropylene) as a material for carpets, as well, in particular when combined with a natural binding and the use of formaldehyde-free glues.Animal rights groups have noted issues with the production of wool, such as mulesing.","title":"Production"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Marketing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_1054_Wool_Fibre_of_the_gods.jpg"},{"link_name":"CSIRO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CSIRO"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wool_samples.JPG"},{"link_name":"auction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auction"},{"link_name":"New South Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"auction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auction"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:ABS-7215.0-LivestockProductsAustralia-BrokersDealersReceivalsTaxableWool-AllSeries-BrokersDealersReceivalsTaxableWool-Australia-A2060656A.svg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wool_auction.JPG"}],"sub_title":"Australia","text":"\"Wool: Fibre of the gods, created – not man-made\" CSIRO marketing poster describing the benefits of woolMerino wool samples for sale by auction, Newcastle, New South WalesAbout 85% of wool sold in Australia is sold by open cry auction.[34]Wool received by Australian brokers and dealers (tonnes/quarter) since 1973Wool buyers' room at a wool auction, Newcastle, New South Wales","title":"Marketing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wanha_Villatehdas.jpg"},{"link_name":"Hyvinkää","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyvink%C3%A4%C3%A4"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"British Wool Marketing Board","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Wool_Marketing_Board"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"sub_title":"Other countries","text":"Wanha Villatehdas, a former wool factory in Hyvinkää, FinlandThe British Wool Marketing Board operates a central marketing system for UK fleece wool with the aim of achieving the best possible net returns for farmers.Less than half of New Zealand's wool is sold at auction, while around 45% of farmers sell wool directly to private buyers and end-users.[35]United States sheep producers market wool with private or cooperative wool warehouses, but wool pools are common in many states. In some cases, wool is pooled in a local market area, but sold through a wool warehouse. Wool offered with objective measurement test results is preferred. Imported apparel wool and carpet wool goes directly to central markets, where it is handled by the large merchants and manufacturers.[36]","title":"Marketing"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Worsted_wool_yarn.JPG"},{"link_name":"yarn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarn"},{"link_name":"Shoddy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoddy"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kadolph-37"},{"link_name":"noil","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noil"},{"link_name":"yarns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yarn"},{"link_name":"weft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weft"},{"link_name":"warp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warp_(weaving)"},{"link_name":"Heavy Woollen District","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heavy_Woollen_District"},{"link_name":"West Yorkshire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/West_Yorkshire"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Worsted","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Worsted"},{"link_name":"staple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staple_(wool)"},{"link_name":"combed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combing"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kadolph-37"},{"link_name":"Woolen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woolen"},{"link_name":"carded","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carding"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kadolph-37"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"}],"text":"Woollen yarnShoddy or recycled wool is made by cutting or tearing apart existing wool fabric and respinning the resulting fibers.[37] As this process makes the wool fibers shorter, the remanufactured fabric is inferior to the original. The recycled wool may be mixed with raw wool, wool noil, or another fiber such as cotton to increase the average fiber length. Such yarns are typically used as weft yarns with a cotton warp. This process was invented in the Heavy Woollen District of West Yorkshire and created a microeconomy in this area for many years.[38]Worsted is a strong, long-staple, combed wool yarn with a hard surface.[37]Woolen is a soft, short-staple, carded wool yarn typically used for knitting.[37] In traditional weaving, woolen weft yarn (for softness and warmth) is frequently combined with a worsted warp yarn for strength on the loom.[39]","title":"Yarn"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"horse rugs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Horse_blanket"},{"link_name":"cloth diapers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloth_diapers"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"hygroscopic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hygroscopic"},{"link_name":"lanolin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lanolin"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal_Melbourne_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"Kevlar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevlar"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"text":"In addition to clothing, wool has been used for blankets, horse rugs, saddle cloths, carpeting, insulation and upholstery. Dyed wool can be used to create other forms of art such as wet and needle felting. Wool felt covers piano hammers, and it is used to absorb odors and noise in heavy machinery and stereo speakers. Ancient Greeks lined their helmets with felt, and Roman legionnaires used breastplates made of wool felt.Wool as well as cotton has also been traditionally used for cloth diapers.[40] Wool fiber exteriors are hydrophobic (repel water) and the interior of the wool fiber is hygroscopic (attracts water); this makes a wool garment suitable cover for a wet diaper by inhibiting wicking, so outer garments remain dry. Wool felted and treated with lanolin is water resistant, air permeable, and slightly antibacterial, so it resists the buildup of odor. Some modern cloth diapers use felted wool fabric for covers, and there are several modern commercial knitting patterns for wool diaper covers.Initial studies of woollen underwear have found it prevented heat and sweat rashes because it more readily absorbs the moisture than other fibers.[41]As an animal protein, wool can be used as a soil fertilizer, being a slow-release source of nitrogen.Researchers at the Royal Melbourne Institute of Technology school of fashion and textiles have discovered a blend of wool and Kevlar, the synthetic fiber widely used in body armor, was lighter, cheaper and worked better in damp conditions than Kevlar alone. Kevlar, when used alone, loses about 20% of its effectiveness when wet, so required an expensive waterproofing process. Wool increased friction in a vest with 28–30 layers of fabric, to provide the same level of bullet resistance as 36 layers of Kevlar alone.[42]","title":"Uses"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lady_Weaving_Wool.JPG"},{"link_name":"Andean","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andes"},{"link_name":"Los Aleros","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Los_Aleros"},{"link_name":"Mérida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9rida,_M%C3%A9rida"},{"link_name":"Venezuela","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venezuela"},{"link_name":"Merino wool","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merino_wool"},{"link_name":"Ermenegildo Zegna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ermenegildo_Zegna_(businessman)"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"Loro Piana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loro_Piana"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"New England","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_England_(Australia)"},{"link_name":"Walcha, New South Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walcha,_New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"Armidale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Armidale"},{"link_name":"New South Wales","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_South_Wales"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Braaten_2005-1"},{"link_name":"Bendigo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bendigo"},{"link_name":"Victoria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria,_Australia"},{"link_name":"Northern Tablelands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Tablelands"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"text":"Andean woman sorting wool as part of the theme park Los Aleros in Mérida, VenezuelaA buyer of Merino wool, Ermenegildo Zegna, has offered awards for Australian wool producers. In 1963, the first Ermenegildo Zegna Perpetual Trophy was presented in Tasmania for growers of \"Superfine skirted Merino fleece\". In 1980, a national award, the Ermenegildo Zegna Trophy for Extrafine Wool Production, was launched. In 2004, this award became known as the Ermenegildo Zegna Unprotected Wool Trophy. In 1998, an Ermenegildo Zegna Protected Wool Trophy was launched for fleece from sheep coated for around nine months of the year.In 2002, the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy was launched for wool that is 13.9 microns or finer. Wool from Australia, New Zealand, Argentina, and South Africa may enter, and a winner is named from each country.[43] In April 2008, New Zealand won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum Trophy for the first time with a fleece that measured 10.8 microns. This contest awards the winning fleece weight with the same weight in gold as a prize, hence the name.In 2010, an ultrafine, 10-micron fleece, from Windradeen, near Pyramul, New South Wales, won the Ermenegildo Zegna Vellus Aureum International Trophy.[44]Since 2000, Loro Piana has awarded a cup for the world's finest bale of wool that produces just enough fabric for 50 tailor-made suits. The prize is awarded to an Australian or New Zealand wool grower who produces the year's finest bale.[45]The New England Merino Field days which display local studs, wool, and sheep are held during January, in even numbered years around the Walcha, New South Wales district. The Annual Wool Fashion Awards, which showcase the use of Merino wool by fashion designers, are hosted by the city of Armidale, New South Wales, in March each year. This event encourages young and established fashion designers to display their talents. During each May, Armidale hosts the annual New England Wool Expo to display wool fashions, handicrafts, demonstrations, shearing competitions, yard dog trials, and more.[1]In July, the annual Australian Sheep and Wool Show is held in Bendigo, Victoria. This is the largest sheep and wool show in the world, with goats and alpacas, as well as woolcraft competitions and displays, fleece competitions, sheepdog trials, shearing, and wool handling. The largest competition in the world for objectively measured fleeces is the Australian Fleece Competition, which is held annually at Bendigo. In 2008, 475 entries came from all states of Australia, with first and second prizes going to the Northern Tablelands fleeces.[46]","title":"Events"}]

[{"image_text":"Wool before processing","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Royal_Winter_Fair_Wool_2.jpg/220px-Royal_Winter_Fair_Wool_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Unshorn Merino sheep","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Sheep_eating_grass_edit02.jpg/220px-Sheep_eating_grass_edit02.jpg"},{"image_text":"Shorn sheep","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Sheep_at_Llanddewi_Brefi%2C_in_Ceredigion%2C_Wales.jpg/220px-Sheep_at_Llanddewi_Brefi%2C_in_Ceredigion%2C_Wales.jpg"},{"image_text":"Champion hogget fleece, Walcha Show","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Hogget_fleece.JPG/220px-Hogget_fleece.JPG"},{"image_text":"Fleece of fine New Zealand Merino wool and combed wool top on a wool table","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Wool_fleece_and_top.jpg/220px-Wool_fleece_and_top.jpg"},{"image_text":"Fine Merino shearing in Lismore, Victoria","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Merino_shearing.jpg/220px-Merino_shearing.jpg"},{"image_text":"Wool before and after scouring","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/CSIRO_ScienceImage_11160_Siroscour.jpg/220px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_11160_Siroscour.jpg"},{"image_text":"Various types and natural colors of wool, and a picture made from wool","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Wool_samples_2.JPG/220px-Wool_samples_2.JPG"},{"image_text":"A 1905 illustration of a Tibetan man spinning wool","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Tibetan_spinning_wool.jpg/220px-Tibetan_spinning_wool.jpg"},{"image_text":"A World War I-era poster sponsored by the United States Department of Agriculture encouraging children to raise sheep to provide needed war supplies","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Sheep_club2.jpg/220px-Sheep_club2.jpg"},{"image_text":"\"Wool: Fibre of the gods, created – not man-made\" CSIRO marketing poster describing the benefits of wool","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/71/CSIRO_ScienceImage_1054_Wool_Fibre_of_the_gods.jpg/220px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_1054_Wool_Fibre_of_the_gods.jpg"},{"image_text":"Merino wool samples for sale by auction, Newcastle, New South Wales","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Wool_samples.JPG/220px-Wool_samples.JPG"},{"image_text":"Wool received by Australian brokers and dealers (tonnes/quarter) since 1973","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/ABS-7215.0-LivestockProductsAustralia-BrokersDealersReceivalsTaxableWool-AllSeries-BrokersDealersReceivalsTaxableWool-Australia-A2060656A.svg/220px-ABS-7215.0-LivestockProductsAustralia-BrokersDealersReceivalsTaxableWool-AllSeries-BrokersDealersReceivalsTaxableWool-Australia-A2060656A.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Wool buyers' room at a wool auction, Newcastle, New South Wales","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Wool_auction.JPG/220px-Wool_auction.JPG"},{"image_text":"Wanha Villatehdas, a former wool factory in Hyvinkää, Finland","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Wanha_Villatehdas.jpg/220px-Wanha_Villatehdas.jpg"},{"image_text":"Woollen yarn","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Worsted_wool_yarn.JPG/220px-Worsted_wool_yarn.JPG"},{"image_text":"Andean woman sorting wool as part of the theme park Los Aleros in Mérida, Venezuela","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/53/Lady_Weaving_Wool.JPG/220px-Lady_Weaving_Wool.JPG"}]

[{"title":"Timeline of clothing and textiles technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timeline_of_clothing_and_textiles_technology"}]

[{"reference":"Braaten, Ann W. (2005). \"Wool\". In Steele, Valerie (ed.). Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion. Vol. 3. Thomson Gale. pp. 441–443. ISBN 0-684-31394-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofcl00vale","url_text":"Encyclopedia of Clothing and Fashion"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomson_Gale","url_text":"Thomson Gale"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/encyclopediaofcl00vale/page/n471","url_text":"441"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-684-31394-4","url_text":"0-684-31394-4"}]},{"reference":"Simmons, Paula (2009). Storey's Guide to Raising Sheep. North Adams, MA: Storey Publishing. pp. 315–316.","urls":[]},{"reference":"D'Arcy, John B. (1986). Sheep and Wool Technology. Kensington: NSW University Press. ISBN 0-86840-106-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86840-106-4","url_text":"0-86840-106-4"}]},{"reference":"Admani, Shehla; Jacob, Sharon E. (2014-04-01). \"Allergic contact dermatitis in children: review of the past decade\". Current Allergy and Asthma Reports. 14 (4): 421. doi:10.1007/s11882-014-0421-0. PMID 24504525. S2CID 33537360.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11882-014-0421-0","url_text":"10.1007/s11882-014-0421-0"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)","url_text":"PMID"},{"url":"https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24504525","url_text":"24504525"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:33537360","url_text":"33537360"}]},{"reference":"\"Technology in Australia 1788–1988\". Australian Science and Technology Heritage Center. 2001. Archived from the original on 2006-05-14. Retrieved 2006-04-30.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au/tia/267.html","url_text":"\"Technology in Australia 1788–1988\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20060514094411/http://www.austehc.unimelb.edu.au/tia/267.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Wu Zhao (1987). A study of wool carbonizing (PhD). University of New South Wales. School of Fibre Science and Technology. Archived from the original on 30 October 2014.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20141030125807/http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/18809758?selectedversion=NBD5989374","url_text":"A study of wool carbonizing"},{"url":"http://trove.nla.gov.au/work/18809758?selectedversion=NBD5989374","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Merino Sheep in Australia\". Archived from the original on 2006-11-05. Retrieved 2006-11-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20061105005633/http://www.merinos.com.au/history.asp","url_text":"\"Merino Sheep in Australia\""},{"url":"http://www.merinos.com.au/history.asp","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Van Nostran, Don. \"Wool Management – Maximizing Wool Returns\". Mid-States Wool growers Cooperative Association. Archived from the original on 2010-01-01. Retrieved 2006-11-10.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20100101063804/http://www.midstateswoolgrowers.com/management.htm","url_text":"\"Wool Management – Maximizing Wool Returns\""},{"url":"http://www.midstateswoolgrowers.com/management.htm","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"D'Arcy, John B. (1986). Sheep Management & Wool Technology. NSW University Press. ISBN 0-86840-106-4.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-86840-106-4","url_text":"0-86840-106-4"}]},{"reference":"\"1PP Certification\". Australian Wool Exchange. Archived from the original on 2012-07-18.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20120718231815/http://www.awex.com.au/standards/1pp-certification.html","url_text":"\"1PP Certification\""},{"url":"http://www.awex.com.au/standards/1pp-certification.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Ensminger, M. E.; R. O. Parker (1986). Sheep and Goat Science, Fifth Edition. Danville, Illinois: The Interstate Printers and Publishers Inc. ISBN 0-8134-2464-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8134-2464-X","url_text":"0-8134-2464-X"}]},{"reference":"Weaver, Sue (2005). Sheep: small-scale sheep keeping for pleasure and profit. Irvine, CA: Hobby Farm Press, an imprint of BowTie Press, a division of BowTie Inc. ISBN 1-931993-49-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931993-49-1","url_text":"1-931993-49-1"}]},{"reference":"Smith, Barbara; Kennedy, Gerald; Aseltine, Mark (1997). Beginning Shepherd's Manual, Second Edition. Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press. ISBN 0-8138-2799-X.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8138-2799-X","url_text":"0-8138-2799-X"}]},{"reference":"\"Fibre history\". Woolmark. Archived from the original on 2006-08-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20060828001755/http://www.woolmark.com/about_education_fibre.php?PHPSESSID=10d80556668ed0847e77b83c64c3c225","url_text":"\"Fibre history\""},{"url":"http://www.woolmark.com/about_education_fibre.php?PHPSESSID=10d80556668ed0847e77b83c64c3c225","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Bell, Adrian R.; Brooks, Chris; Dryburgh, Paul (2007). The English Wool Market, c.1230–1327. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521859417.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Brooks_(academic)","url_text":"Brooks, Chris"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/englishwoolmarke0000bell","url_text":"The English Wool Market, c.1230–1327"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521859417","url_text":"9780521859417"}]},{"reference":"\"Florentine Woolen Manufacture in the Sixteenth Century:Crisis and New Entrepreneurial Strategies\" (PDF). THe Business History Conference.","urls":[{"url":"https://thebhc.org/sites/default/files/ammannati.pdf","url_text":"\"Florentine Woolen Manufacture in the Sixteenth Century:Crisis and New Entrepreneurial Strategies\""}]},{"reference":"\"Sheep 101\". Archived from the original on 28 November 2016. Retrieved 17 September 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.sheep101.info/wool.html","url_text":"\"Sheep 101\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20161128052739/http://www.sheep101.info/wool.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"FAOSTAT\". FAOSTAT (Food And Agriculture Organization Of The United Nations Statistics). Retrieved May 17, 2020.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/visualize","url_text":"\"FAOSTAT\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FAOSTAT","url_text":"FAOSTAT"}]},{"reference":"Speer, Jordan K. (2006-05-01). \"Shearing the Edge of Innovation\". Apparel Magazine. Archived from the original on 2015-05-26.","urls":[{"url":"http://apparel.edgl.com/old-magazine/Shearing-the-Edge-of-Innovation64530","url_text":"\"Shearing the Edge of Innovation\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150526050846/http://apparel.edgl.com/old-magazine/Shearing-the-Edge-of-Innovation64530","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Bolt, C (2004-04-07). \"AWH to set up wool auctions\". The Age. Retrieved 2019-05-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theage.com.au/business/awh-to-set-up-wool-auctions-20040407-gdxmtw.html","url_text":"\"AWH to set up wool auctions\""}]},{"reference":"Kadolph, Sara J, ed. (2007). Textiles (10 ed.). Pearson/Prentice-Hall. p. 63. ISBN 978-0-13-118769-6.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/textiles0010kado/page/63","url_text":"Textiles"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/textiles0010kado/page/63","url_text":"63"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-118769-6","url_text":"978-0-13-118769-6"}]},{"reference":"Shell, Hanna Rose. \"Leftovers / Devil's Dust\". cabinetmagazine.org.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.cabinetmagazine.org/issues/60/shell.php","url_text":"\"Leftovers / Devil's Dust\""}]},{"reference":"Østergård, Else (2004). Woven into the Earth: Textiles from Norse Greenland. Aarhus University Press. p. 50. ISBN 87-7288-935-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/87-7288-935-7","url_text":"87-7288-935-7"}]},{"reference":"Snodgrass, Mary Ellen (2015). 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_bear

Brown bear

["1 Etymology","2 Evolution and taxonomy","2.1 Evolution","2.2 Subspecies","2.3 Hybrids","3 Description","3.1 Coloration","3.2 Cranial morphology and size","3.3 Claws and feet","4 Distribution and habitat","4.1 Conservation status","5 Behavior and life history","5.1 Communication","5.2 Home ranges","5.3 Reproduction","5.4 Dietary habits","5.5 Interspecific predatory relationships","5.6 Longevity and mortality","5.7 Hibernation physiology","6 Relationship with humans","6.1 Attacks on humans","6.2 Bear hunting","6.3 In captivity","6.4 Culture","7 References","8 Notes","9 Bibliography","10 External links"]

Species of large bear This article is about the animal. For the athletics teams at Brown University, see Brown Bears. For the research ship, see MV Brown Bear. Brown bearTemporal range: 0.5–0 Ma PreꞒ Ꞓ O S D C P T J K Pg N ↓ Middle Pleistocene-Holocene Kodiak bear on Kodiak Island Conservation status Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1) CITES Appendix II (CITES) Scientific classification Domain: Eukaryota Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Ursidae Genus: Ursus Species: U. arctos Binomial name Ursus arctosLinnaeus, 1758 Subspecies 15, see text and article Brown bear range map The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is a large bear species found across Eurasia and North America. It is one of the largest living terrestrial members of the order Carnivora, rivaled in size only by its closest relative, the polar bear, which is much less variable in size and slightly bigger on average. Adults of different subspecies range in weight from 80 to 600 kg (180 to 1,320 lb), with males being heavier than females. Despite its name, brown bears aren't entirely brown; the pelage can be reddish to yellowish-brown, and dark brown to cream in color. During winter, brown bears in some populations hibernate and emerge during spring to regain up to 180 kg (400 lb) of weight. They have well developed dentition and claws, ideal for their lifestyle. The brown bear is mostly found in forested habitats in elevations of up to 5,000 m (16,000 ft). It is omnivorous, and consumes a variety of plant and animal species, with the former comprising 90% of its diet. The bear hunts animals as small as rodents, to those as large as moose or muskoxen. In parts of coastal Alaska, brown bears predominately feed on spawning salmon that come ashore to lay their eggs. The brown bear is a solitary animal, except in the breeding season. A female will give birth to an average litter of 1–3 cubs, and will protect her young for an average of 1.5 to 4.5 years. Brown bears have one of the largest skulls of any land-based carnivore, and are able to make use of tools. They are long lived animals, with an average lifespan of 25 years in the wild. Attacks on humans, though reported, are generally rare. While the brown bear's range has shrunk, and it has faced local extinctions across its wide range, it remains listed as a least concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) with a total estimated population in 2017 of 110,000. Populations that were hunted to extinction in the 19th and 20th centuries are the Atlas bear of North Africa and the Californian, Ungavan and Mexican populations of the grizzly bear of North America. Many of the populations in the southern parts of Eurasia are highly endangered as well. One of the smaller-bodied forms, the Himalayan brown bear, is critically endangered, occupying only 2% of its former range and threatened by uncontrolled poaching for its body parts. The Marsican brown bear of central Italy is one of several currently isolated populations of the Eurasian brown bear and is believed to have a population of just c. 50 bears. Etymology The brown bear is sometimes referred to as the bruin, from Middle English. This name originated in the fable History of Reynard the Fox translated by William Caxton from Middle Dutch bruun or bruyn, meaning brown (the color). In the mid-19th century United States, the brown bear was termed "Old Ephraim" and sometimes as "Moccasin Joe". The scientific name of the brown bear, Ursus arctos, comes from the Latin ursus, meaning "bear", and the Greek ἄρκτος/arktos, also meaning "bear". Evolution and taxonomy Evolution The brown bear is one of eight extant species in the bear family Ursidae and of six extant species in the subfamily Ursinae. A possible phylogeny based on complete mitochondrial DNA sequences from Yu et al. (2007). Ursidae Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) Spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus) Ursinae Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) Sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus) American black bear (Ursus americanus) Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) Brown bear (Ursus arctos) The polar bear and the brown bear form a close grouping, while the relationships of the other species are not very well resolved.A more recent phylogeny based on the genetic study of Kumar et al. (2017). Ursidae Giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) Spectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus) Ursinae Sloth bear (Melursus ursinus) Sun bear (Helarctos malayanus) Asian black bear (Ursus thibetanus) American black bear (Ursus americanus) Polar bear (Ursus maritimus) Brown bear (Ursus arctos) The study concludes that Ursine bears originated around 5 million years ago and show extensive hybridization of species in their lineage. During the Pleistocene, brown bears were sympatric with extinct Ursinae species in North America. Brown bears are thought to have evolved from Ursus etruscus in Asia. The brown bear, per Kurten (1976), has been stated as "clearly derived from the Asian population of Ursus savini about 800,000 years ago; spread into Europe, to the New World." A genetic analysis indicated that the brown bear lineage diverged from the cave bear species complex approximately 1.2–1.4 million years ago, but did not clarify if U. savini persisted as a paraspecies for the brown bear before perishing. The oldest fossils positively identified as from this species occur in China from about 0.5 million years ago. In Yakutia, brown bears are known to have been present from at least 400,000 to 300,000 years ago. Brown bears entered Europe about 250,000 years ago and North Africa shortly after. Brown bears were present in the Zagros Mountains by the Late Pleistocene. Brown bear remains from the Pleistocene period are common in the British Isles, where amongst other factors, they may have contributed to the extinction of cave bears (Ursus spelaeus). Brown bears (along with lions, bison and red foxes) first emigrated to North America from Eurasia via Beringia during the Illinoian Glaciation. Although Björn Kurtén hypothesized skull shape as an indicator of evolutionary history, genetic evidence suggests several different populations of brown bear migrated into North America, aligning with the glacial cycles of the Pleistocene. The founding population of most North American brown bears arrived first, with the genetic lineage developing around ~177,000 BP, with fossils being first recovered ~111,000 BP from East Beringia. Genetic divergences suggest brown bears first migrated south during MIS-5 (~92,000–83,000 BP) upon the opening of the ice-free corridor, with the first fossils being near Edmonton (26,000 BP). The Alexander and Haida Gwaii archipelagoes have a separate lineage, which first appears around 20,000 BP. After a local extinction in Beringia ~33,000 BP, two new but closely related lineages repopulated Alaska and northern Canada from Eurasia after the Last Glacial Maximum (>25,000 BP). Brown bear fossils discovered in Ontario, Ohio, Kentucky and Labrador show that the species occurred farther east than indicated in historic records. In North America, two types of the subspecies Ursus arctos horribilis are generally recognized—the coastal brown bear and the inland grizzly bear. Subspecies Main article: Subspecies of brown bear Adult female Eurasian brown bear, the nominate subspecies Brown bear taxonomy and subspecies classification has been described as "formidable and confusing," with few authorities listing the same specific set of subspecies. There are hundreds of obsolete brown bear subspecies, each with its own name, so this can become confusing. As many as 90 subspecies have been proposed. However, recent DNA analysis has identified as few as five main clades which contain all extant brown bears, while a 2017 phylogenetic study revealed nine clades, including one representing polar bears. As of 2005, 15 extant or recently extinct subspecies were recognized by the general scientific community. As well as the exact number of overall brown bear subspecies, its precise relationship to the polar bear also remains in debate. The polar bear is a recent offshoot of the brown bear. The point at which the polar bear diverged from the brown bear is unclear, with estimations based on genetics and fossils ranging from 400,000 to 70,000 years ago, but most recent analysis has indicated that the polar bear split somewhere between 275,000 and 150,000 years ago. Under some definitions, the brown bear can be construed as the paraspecies for the polar bear. DNA analysis shows that, apart from recent human-caused population fragmentation, brown bears in North America are generally part of a single interconnected population system, with the exception of the population (or subspecies) in the Kodiak Archipelago, which has probably been isolated since the end of the last Ice Age. These data demonstrate that U. a. gyas, U. a. horribilis, U. a. sitkensis and U. a. stikeenensis are not distinct or cohesive groups, and would more accurately be described as ecotypes. For example, brown bears in any particular region of the Alaska coast are more closely related to adjacent grizzly bears than to distant populations of brown bears, the morphological distinction seemingly driven by brown bears having access to a rich salmon food source, while grizzly bears live at higher elevation, or further from the coast, where plant material is the base of the diet. The history of the bears of the Alexander Archipelago is unusual in that these island populations carry polar bear DNA, presumably originating from a population of polar bears that was left behind at the end of the Pleistocene, but have since been connected with adjacent mainland populations through movement of males, to the point where their nuclear genomes are now more than 90% of brown bear ancestry. MtDNA analysis revealed that brown bears are apparently divided into five different clades, some of which coexist or co-occur in different regions. Hybrids See also: Grizzly–black bear hybrid and Grizzly–polar bear hybrid Possible grizzly-black bear hybrid in the Yukon Territory, Canada A grizzly–polar bear hybrid is a rare ursid hybrid resulting from a crossbreeding of a brown bear and a polar bear. It has occurred both in captivity and in the wild. In 2006, the occurrence of this hybrid in nature was confirmed by testing the DNA of a strange-looking bear that had been shot in the Canadian Arctic, and seven more hybrids have since been confirmed in the same region, all descended from a single female polar bear. Previously, the hybrid had been produced in zoos and was considered a "cryptid" (a hypothesized animal for which there is no scientific proof of existence in the wild). Analyses of the genomes of bears have shown that introgression between species was widespread during the evolution of the genus Ursus, including the introgression of polar bear DNA introduced to brown bears during the Pleistocene. Description Brown bears are highly variable in size. Eurasian brown bears often fall around the middle to low sizes for the species. The brown bear is the most variable in size of modern bears. The typical size depends upon which population it is from, and most accepted subtypes vary widely in size. This is in part due to sexual dimorphism, as male brown bears average at least 30% larger in most subtypes. Individual bears vary in size seasonally, weighing the least in spring due to lack of foraging during hibernation, and the most in late fall, after a period of hyperphagia to put on additional weight to prepare for hibernation. Therefore, a bear may need to be weighed in both spring and fall to get an idea of its mean annual weight. Generally, brown bears weigh anywhere from 80 to 600 kg (180 to 1,320 lb), with males outweighing females. The normal range of physical dimensions for a brown bear is a head-and-body length of 1.4 to 2.8 m (4 ft 7 in to 9 ft 2 in) and a shoulder height of 70 to 153 cm (2 ft 4 in to 5 ft 0 in). The tail is relatively short, as in all bears, ranging from 6 to 22 cm (2.4 to 8.7 in) in length. The smallest brown bears, females during spring among barren-ground populations, can weigh so little as to roughly match the body mass of males of the smallest living bear species, the sun bear (Helarctos malayanus), while the largest coastal populations attain sizes broadly similar to those of the largest living bear species, the polar bear. Interior brown bears are generally smaller than is often perceived, being around the same weight as an average lion, at an estimate average of 180 kg (400 lb) in males and 135 kg (298 lb) in females, whereas adults of the coastal populations weigh about twice as much. The average weight of adult male bears from 19 populations, from around the world and various subspecies (including both large- and small-bodied subspecies), was found to be 217 kg (478 lb) while adult females from 24 populations were found to average 152 kg (335 lb). Coloration A brown bear in Slovenia Brown bears are often not fully brown. They have long, thick fur, with a moderately long mane at the back of the neck which varies somewhat across the types. In India, brown bears can be reddish with silver-tipped hairs, while in China brown bears are bicolored, with a yellowish-brown or whitish collar across the neck, chest and shoulders. Even within well-defined subspecies, individuals may show highly variable hues of brown. North American grizzlies can be dark brown (almost black) to cream (almost white) or yellowish-brown and often have darker-colored legs. The common name "grizzly" stems from their typical coloration, with the hairs on their back usually being brownish-black at the base and whitish-cream at the tips, giving them their distinctive "grizzled" color. Apart from the cinnamon subspecies of the American black bear (U. americanus cinnamonum), the brown bear is the only modern bear species to typically appear truly brown. The winter fur is very thick and long, especially in northern subspecies, and can reach 11 to 12 centimetres (4 to 5 in) at the withers. The winter hairs are thin, yet rough to the touch. The summer fur is much shorter and sparser, with its length and density varying geographically. Cranial morphology and size Brown bear skeletonSkull Adults have massive, heavily built concave skulls, which are large in proportion to the body. The projections of the skull are well developed. Skull lengths of Russian brown bears tend to be 31.5 to 45.5 centimetres (12.4 to 17.9 in) for males, and 27.5 to 39.7 centimetres (10.8 to 15.6 in) for females. The width of the zygomatic arches in males is 17.5 to 27.7 centimetres (6.9 to 11 in), and 14.7 to 24.7 centimetres (5.8 to 9.7 in) in females. Brown bears have very strong teeth: the incisors are relatively big and the canine teeth are large, the lower ones being strongly curved. The first three molars of the upper jaw are underdeveloped and single crowned with one root. The second upper molar is smaller than the others, and is usually absent in adults. It is usually lost at an early age, leaving no trace of the alveolus in the jaw. The first three molars of the lower jaw are very weak, and are often lost at an early age. The teeth of brown bears reflect their dietary plasticity and are broadly similar to other bears. The teeth are reliably larger than American black bears, but average smaller in molar length than polar bears. Brown bears have the broadest skull of any extant ursine bear. Claws and feet Front paws Brown bears have very large and curved claws, those present on the forelimbs being longer than those on the hind limbs. They may reach 5 to 6 centimetres (2.0 to 2.4 in) and may measure 7 to 10 centimetres (2.8 to 3.9 in) along the curve. They are generally dark with a light tip, with some forms having completely light claws. Brown bear claws are longer and straighter than those of American black bears (Ursus americanus). The claws are blunt, while those of a black bear are sharp. Due to their claw structure, in addition to their excessive weight, adult brown bears cannot typically climb trees as well as black bears, although in rare cases adult female brown bears have been seen scaling trees. The claws of a polar bear are quite different, being notably shorter but broader with a strong curve and sharper point. The paws of the brown bear are quite large. The rear feet of adult bears measure 21 to 36 cm (8.3 to 14.2 in) long, while the forefeet tend to measure about 40% less in length. Brown bears are the only extant bears with a hump at the top of their shoulder, which is made entirely of muscle, this feature having developed presumably for imparting more force in digging, which is habitual during foraging for the bear and also used heavily in den construction prior to hibernation. The brown bear's strength has been roughly estimated as 2.5 to 5 times that of a human. Distribution and habitat Main article: Distribution of brown bears Brown bear at Brooks Falls Brown bears were once native to Europe, much of Asia, the Atlas Mountains of Africa, and North America, but are now extirpated in some areas, and their populations have greatly decreased in other areas. There are approximately 200,000 brown bears left in the world. The largest populations are in Russia with 130,000, the United States with 32,500, and Canada with around 25,000. Brown bears live in Alaska, east through the Yukon and Northwest Territories, south through British Columbia and through the western half of Alberta. The Alaskan population is estimated at a healthy 30,000 individuals. In the lower 48 states, they are repopulating slowly, but steadily along the Rockies and the western Great Plains. In Europe, in 2010, there were 14,000 brown bears in ten fragmented populations, from Spain (estimated at only 20–25 animals in the Pyrenees in 2010, in a range shared between Spain, France and Andorra, and some 210 animals in Asturias, Cantabria, Galicia and León, in the Picos de Europa and adjacent areas in 2013) in the west, to Russia in the east, and from Sweden and Finland in the north to Romania (5000–6000), Bulgaria (900–1200), Slovakia (with about 600–800 animals), Slovenia (500–700 animals) and Greece (with Karamanlidis et al. 2015 estimating >450 animals) in the south. In Asia, brown bears are found primarily throughout Russia, thence more spottily southwest to parts of the Middle East, including almost all parts of Kurdistan, to as far south as southwestern Iran, and to the southeast in Northeast China. Brown bears are also found in Western China, Kyrgyzstan, North Korea, Pakistan, Afghanistan and India. A population of brown bear can be found on the Japanese island of Hokkaidō, which holds the largest number of non-Russian brown bears in eastern Asia with about 2,000–3,000 animals. This species inhabits the broadest range of habitats of any living bear species. They seem to have no altitudinal preferences and have been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 5,000 m (16,000 ft) in the Himalayas. In most of their range, brown bears generally seem to prefer semiopen country, with a scattering of vegetation that can allow them a resting spot during the day. However, they have been recorded as inhabiting every variety of northern temperate forest known to occur. Conservation status A Marsican brown bear, with a range restricted to the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park, Italy While the brown bear's range has shrunk and it has faced local extinctions, it remains listed as a least-concern species by the IUCN, with a total population of approximately 200,000. As of 2012, this and the American black bear are the only bear species not classified as threatened by the IUCN. However, the California grizzly bear, Ungava brown bear, Atlas bear and Mexican grizzly bear, as well as brown bear populations in the Pacific Northwest, were hunted to extinction in the 19th and early 20th centuries and many of the southern Asian subspecies are highly endangered. The Syrian brown bear (U. a. syriacus) is very rare and it has been extirpated from more than half of its historic range. One of the smallest-bodied subspecies, the Himalayan brown bear (U. a. isabellinus), is critically endangered, occupying only 2% of its former range and threatened by uncontrolled poaching for its body parts. The Marsican brown bear in central Italy is believed to have a population of just 50 bears. Behavior and life history Like all bears, brown bears can stand on their hindlegs and walk for a few steps in this position, usually motivated to do so by curiosity, hunger or alarm The brown bear is often described as nocturnal. However, it frequently seems to peak in activity in the morning and early evening hours. Activity can occur at nearly any time of night or day, with bears who dwell in areas with more extensive human contact being more likely to be fully nocturnal. Furthermore, yearling and newly independent bears are more likely to be active diurnally and many adult bears in low-disturbance areas are largely crepuscular. In summer through autumn, a brown bear can double its weight from the spring, gaining up to 180 kg (400 lb) of fat, on which it relies to make it through winter, when it becomes very lethargic. Although they are not full hibernators and can be woken easily, both sexes like to den in a protected spot during the winter months. Hibernation dens may consist of any spot that provides cover from the elements and that can accommodate their bodies, such as a cave, crevice, cavernous tree roots, or hollow logs. Brown bears have one of the largest brains of any extant carnivoran relative to their body size and have been shown to engage in tool use, which requires advanced cognitive abilities. This species is mostly solitary, although bears may gather in large numbers at major food sources (e.g., open garbage dumps or rivers holding spawning salmon) and form social hierarchies based on age and size. Adult male bears are particularly aggressive and are avoided by adolescent and subadult males, both at concentrated feeding opportunities and chance encounters. Female bears with cubs rival adult males in aggression and are much more intolerant of other bears than single females. Young adolescent males tend to be least aggressive and have been observed in nonantagonistic interactions with each other. Dominance between bears is asserted by making a frontal orientation, showing off canines, muzzle twisting and neck stretching to which a subordinate will respond with a lateral orientation, by turning away and dropping the head and by sitting or lying down. During combat, bears use their paws to strike their opponents in the chest or shoulders and bite the head or neck. Communication Brown bear sounds Brown bear sounds including huffing, jaw popping and growling Brown bear roars Brown bears roaring over a carcass Problems playing these files? See media help. Several different facial expressions have been documented in brown bears. The "relaxed-face" is made in everyday activities and has the ears pointed to the sides and the mouth closed or slackly open. During social play, bears make "relaxed open-mouth face" in which the mouth is open, with a curled upper lip and hanging lower lip, and the ears alert and shifting. When looking at another animal at a distance, the bear makes an "alert face" as the ears are cocked and alert, the eyes wide open but the mouth is closed or only open slightly. The "tense closed mouth face" is made with the ears laid back and the mouth closed and occurs when the bear feels threatened. When approached by another individual, the animal makes a "puckered-lip face" with a protruding upper lip and ears which go from cocked and alert when at a certain distance to laid back when closer or when retreating. The "jaw gape face" consists of an open mouth with visible lower canines and hanging lips while the "biting face" is similar to the "relaxed open-mouth face" except the ears are flattened and the eyes are wide enough to expose the sclera. Both the "jaw gape face" and the "biting face" are made in aggression and bears switch between them. Brown bears also produce various vocalizations. Huffing occurs when the animal is tense while woofing is made when alarmed. Both sounds are produced by exhalations though huffing is harsher and is made continuously (two per second). Growls and roars are made in aggression. Growling is "harsh" and "guttural" and can range from a simple grrr to a rumble. A rumbling growl can escalate into a roar when the bear is charging. Roaring is described as "thunderous" and can travel 2 km (1.2 mi). Mothers and cubs wanting physical contact will bawl, which is heard as waugh!, waugh!. Home ranges Brown bears usually occur over vast home ranges; however, they are not highly territorial. Several adult bears often roam freely over the same vicinity without issue, unless rights to a fertile female or food sources are being contested. Males always cover more area than females each year. Despite their lack of traditional territorial behavior, adult males can seem to have a "personal zone" in which other bears are not tolerated if they are seen. Males always wander further than females, due to both increasing access to females and food sources, while females are advantaged by smaller territories in part since it decreases the likelihood of encounters with male bears who may endanger their cubs. In areas where food is abundant and concentrated, such as coastal Alaska, home ranges for females are up to 24 km2 (9.3 sq mi) and for males are up to 89 km2 (34 sq mi). Similarly, in British Columbia, bears of the two sexes travel relatively compact home ranges of 115 and 318 km2 (44 and 123 sq mi). In Yellowstone National Park, home ranges for females are up to 281 km2 (108 sq mi) and up to 874 km2 (337 sq mi) for males. In Romania, the largest home range was recorded for adult males (3,143 km2; 1,214 sq mi). In the central Arctic of Canada, where food sources are quite sparse, home ranges range up to 2,434 km2 (940 sq mi) in females and 8,171 km2 (3,155 sq mi) in males. Reproduction Pair of mating brown bears at the Ähtäri Zoo in Ähtäri, Finland The mating season is from mid-May to early July, shifting later the further north the bears are found. Being serially monogamous, brown bears remain with the same mate from a couple of days to a couple of weeks. Outside of this narrow time frame, adult male and female brown bears show no sexual interest in each other. Females mature sexually between the age of four and eight years of age, with an average age at sexual maturity of 5.2–5.5 years old, while males first mate about a year later on average, when they are large and strong enough to successfully compete with other males for mating rights. Males will try to mate with as many females as they can; usually a successful one mates with two females in a span of one to three weeks. The adult female brown bear is similarly promiscuous, mating with up to four, rarely even eight, males while in heat and potentially breeding with two males in a single day. Females come into oestrus on average every three to four years, with a full range of 2.4 to 5.7 years. The urine markings of a female in oestrus can attract several males via scent. Dominant males may try to sequester a female for her entire oestrus period of approximately two weeks, but usually are unable to retain her for the entire time. Copulation is vigorous and prolonged and can last up to an hour, although the mean time is about 23–24 minutes. Grizzly bear cubs often imitate their mothers closely. Males take no part in raising their cubs – parenting is left entirely to the females. Through the process of delayed implantation, a female's fertilized egg divides and floats freely in the uterus for six months. During winter dormancy, the fetus attaches to the uterine wall. The cubs are born eight weeks later while the mother sleeps. If the mother does not gain enough weight to survive through the winter while gestating, the embryo does not implant and is reabsorbed into the body. There have been cases of brown bears with as many as six cubs, although the average litter size is one to three, with more than four being considered uncommon. There are records of females sometimes adopting stray cubs or even trading or kidnapping cubs when they emerge from hibernation (a larger female may claim cubs away from a smaller one). Older and larger females within a population tend to give birth to larger litters. The size of a litter also depends on factors such as geographic location and food supply. At birth, the cubs are blind, toothless and hairless and may weigh from 350 to 510 g (0.77 to 1.12 lb), again reportedly based on the age and condition of the mother. They feed on their mother's milk until spring or even early summer, depending on climate conditions. At this time, the cubs weigh 7 to 9 kg (15 to 20 lb) and have developed enough to follow her over long distances and begin to forage for solid food. Kodiak bear cubs play-fighting The cubs are fully dependent on the mother and a close bond is formed. During the dependency stage, the cubs learn (rather than inherit as instincts from birth) survival techniques, such as which foods have the highest nutritional value and where to obtain them; how to hunt, fish and defend themselves; and where to den. Increased brain size in large carnivores has been positively linked to whether a given species is solitary, as is the brown bear, or raises their offspring communally, thus female brown bears have relatively large, well-developed brains, presumably key in teaching behavior. The cubs learn by following and imitating their mother's actions during the period they are with her. Cubs remain with their mother for an average of 2.5 years in North America, uncommonly being independent as early as 1.5 years of age or as late as 4.5 years of age. The stage at which independence is attained may generally be earlier in some parts of Eurasia, as the latest date which mother and cubs were together was 2.3 years, most families separated in under two years in a study from Hokkaido and in Sweden most cubs on their own were still yearlings. Brown bears practice infanticide, as an adult male bear may kill the cubs of another. When an adult male brown bear kills a cub, it is usually because he is trying to bring the female into oestrus, as she will enter that state within two to four days after the death of her cubs. Cubs may flee up a tree when they see a strange male bear approaching. The mother often successfully defends them, even though the male may be twice as heavy as her. However, females have been known to die in such confrontations. Dietary habits Main article: Dietary biology of the brown bear Brown bear feeding on salmon The brown bear is one of the most omnivorous animals in the world and has been recorded as consuming the greatest variety of foods of any bear. Despite their reputation, most brown bears are not highly carnivorous, as they derive up to 90% of their dietary food energy from vegetable matter. They often feed on a variety of plant life, including berries, grasses, flowers, acorns and pine cones, as well as fungi such as mushrooms. Among all bears, brown bears are uniquely equipped to dig for tough foods such as roots, bulbs and shoots. They use their long, strong claws to dig out earth to reach the roots and their powerful jaws to bite through them. In spring, winter-provided carrion, grasses, shoots, sedges, moss and forbs are the dietary mainstays for brown bears internationally. Fruits, including berries, become increasingly important during summer and early autumn. Roots and bulbs become critical in autumn for some inland bear populations if fruit crops are poor. They will also commonly consume animal matter, which in summer and autumn may regularly be in the form of insects, larvae and grubs, including beehives. Bears in Yellowstone eat an enormous number of moths during the summer, sometimes as many as 40,000 army cutworm moths in a single day, and may derive up to half of their annual food energy from these insects. Brown bears living near coastal regions will regularly eat crabs and clams. In Alaska, bears along the beaches of estuaries regularly dig through the sand for clams. This species may eat birds and their eggs, including almost entirely ground- or rock-nesting species. The diet may be supplemented by rodents or similar smallish mammals, including marmots, ground squirrels, mice, rats, lemmings and voles. With particular regularity, bears in Denali National Park will wait at burrows of Arctic ground squirrels hoping to pick off a few of the 1 kg (2.2 lb) rodents. In the Kamchatka peninsula and several parts of coastal Alaska, brown bears feed mostly on spawning salmon, whose nutrition and abundance explain the enormous size of the bears in these areas. The fishing techniques of bears are well-documented. They often congregate around falls when the salmon are forced to breach the water, at which point the bears will try to catch the fish in mid-air (often with their mouths). They will also wade into shallow waters, hoping to pin a slippery salmon with their claws. While they may eat almost all the parts of the fish, bears at the peak of spawning, when there is usually a glut of fish to feed on, may eat only the most nutrious parts of the salmon (including the eggs and head) and then indifferently leave the rest of the carcass to scavengers, which can include red foxes, bald eagles, common ravens and gulls. Despite their normally solitary habits, brown bears will gather rather closely in numbers at good spawning sites. The largest and most powerful males claim the most fruitful fishing spots and bears (especially males) will sometimes fight over the rights to a prime fishing spot. A cow moose with calves being approached by an inland brown bear, Denali National Park, Alaska Beyond the regular predation of salmon, most brown bears are not particularly active predators. While perhaps a majority of bears of the species will charge at large prey at one point in their lives and most eat carrion, many predation attempts start with the bear clumsily and half-heartedly pursuing the prey and end with the prey escaping alive. On the other hand, some brown bears are quite self-assured predators who habitually pursue and catch large prey items. Such bears are usually taught how to hunt by their mothers from an early age. Large mammals preyed on can include various ungulate species such as elk, moose, caribou, muskoxen and wild boar. When brown bears attack these large animals, they usually target young or infirm ones, as they are easier to catch. Typically when hunting (especially with young prey), the bear pins its prey to the ground and then immediately tears and eats it alive. It will also bite or swipe some prey to stun it enough to knock it over for consumption. To pick out young or infirm individuals, bears will charge at herds so the slower-moving and more vulnerable individuals will be made apparent. Brown bears may ambush young animals by finding them via scent. When emerging from hibernation, brown bears, whose broad paws allow them to walk over most ice and snow, may pursue large prey such as moose whose hooves cannot support them on encrusted snow. Similarly, predatory attacks on large prey sometimes occur at riverbeds, when it is more difficult for the prey specimen to run away due to muddy or slippery soil. On rare occasions, while confronting fully-grown, dangerous prey, bears kill them by hitting with their powerful forearms, which can break the necks and backs of large creatures such as adult moose and adult bison. They feed on carrion, and use their size to intimidate other predators, such as wolves, cougars, tigers, and American black bears from their kills. Carrion is especially important in the early spring (when the bears are emerging from hibernation), much of it comprising winter-killed big game. Cannibalism is not unheard of, though predation is not normally believed to be the primary motivation when brown bears attack each other. When forced to live in close proximity with humans and their domesticated animals, bears may potentially predate any type of domestic animal. Among these, domestic cattle are sometimes exploited as prey. Cattle are bitten on the neck, back or head and then the abdominal cavity is opened for eating. Plants and fruit farmed by humans are readily consumed as well, including corn, wheat, sorghum, melons and any form of berries. They may feed on domestic bee yards, readily consuming both honey and the brood (grubs and pupae) of the honey bee colony. Human foods and trash are eaten when possible. When an open garbage dump was kept in Yellowstone, brown bears were one of the most voracious and regular scavengers. The dump was closed after both brown and American black bears came to associate humans with food and lost their natural fear of them. Interspecific predatory relationships Brown bear being followed by a wolf Adult bears are generally immune to predatory attacks except from large Siberian (Amur) tigers and other bears. Following a decrease of ungulate populations from 1944 to 1959, 32 cases of Siberian tigers attacking both Ussuri brown bears (Ursus arctos lasiotus) and Ussuri black bears (U. thibetanus ussuricus) were recorded in the Russian Far East, and hair of bears were found in several tiger scat samples. Tigers attack black bears less often than brown bears, since the brown bears live in more open habitats and are not able to climb trees. In the same time period, four cases of brown bears killing female tigers and young cubs were reported, both in disputes over prey and in self-defense. Tigers mainly feed on the bear's fat deposits, such as the back, hams and groin. In rare cases, when Amur tigers prey on brown bears, they usually target young and sub-adult bears, besides small female adults taken outside their dens, generally when lethargic from hibernation. Predation by tigers on denned brown bears was not detected during a study carried between 1993 and 2002. Ussuri brown bears, along with the smaller black bears constitute 2.1% of the Siberian tiger's annual diet, of which 1.4% are brown bears. The effect the presence of tigers have on a brown bears behavior seems to vary. In the winters of 1970–1973, Yudakov and Nikolaev recorded two cases of bears showing no fear of tigers and another case of a brown bear changing path upon crossing tiger tracks. Other researchers have observed bears following tiger tracks to scavenge tiger kills and to potentially prey on tigers. Despite the threat of predation, some brown bears actually benefit from the presence of tigers by appropriating tiger kills that the bears may not be able to successfully hunt themselves. During telemetry research in the Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve, 44 direct confrontations between bears and tigers were observed, in which bears (not just brown bears) in general were killed in 22 cases, and tigers in 12 cases. There are reports of brown bears specifically targeting Amur leopards and tigers to abstract their prey. In the Sikhote-Alin reserve, 35% of tiger kills were stolen by bears, with tigers either departing entirely or leaving part of the kill for the bear. Some studies show that bears frequently track down tigers to usurp their kills, with occasional fatal outcomes for the tiger. A report from 1973 describes twelve known cases of brown bears killing tigers, including adult males. In all cases, the tigers were subsequently eaten by the bears. Brown bears regularly intimidate wolves to drive them away from their kills. In Yellowstone National Park, bears pirate wolf kills so often, Yellowstone's Wolf Project director Doug Smith wrote, "It's not a matter of if the bears will come calling after a kill, but when." Despite the high animosity between the two species, most confrontations at kill sites or large carcasses end without bloodshed on either side. Though conflict over carcasses is common, on rare occasions, the two predators tolerate each other on the same kill. To date, there is a single recorded case of fully-grown wolves being killed by a grizzly bear. Given the opportunity, however, both species will prey on the other's cubs. In some areas, grizzly bears regularly displace cougars from their kills. Cougars kill small bear cubs on rare occasions, but there was one report of a bear killing a cougar of unknown age and condition between 1993 and 1996. Smaller carnivorous animals, including coyotes, wolverines, lynxes, and any other sympatric carnivores or raptorial birds, are dominated by grizzly bears and generally avoid direct interactions with them, unless attempting to steal scraps of food. However, wolverines have been persistent enough to fend off a grizzly bear as much as ten times their weight off a kill. There is one record of a golden eagle preying on a brown bear cub. Brown bears usually dominate other bear species in areas where they coexist. Due to their smaller size, American black bears are at a competitive disadvantage to grizzly bears in open, unforested areas. Although displacement of black bears by grizzly bears has been documented, actual interspecific killing of black bears by grizzlies has only occasionally been reported. Confrontation is mostly avoided due to the black bear's diurnal habits and preference for heavily forested areas, as opposed to the grizzly's largely nocturnal habits and preference for open spaces. Brown bears may also kill Asian black bears, though the latter species probably largely avoids conflicts with the brown bear, due to similar habits and habitat preferences to the American black species. As of the 21st century, there has been an increase in interactions between brown bears and polar bears, theorized to be caused by climate change. Brown and grizzly bears have been seen moving increasingly northward into territories formerly claimed by polar bears. They tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses, and dead polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens. Longevity and mortality Front paw imprintRear paw imprint The brown bear has a naturally long life. Wild females have been observed reproducing up to 28 years of age, which is the oldest known age for reproduction of any ursid in the wild. The peak reproductive age for females ranges from four to 20 years old. The lifespan of brown bears of both sexes within minimally hunted populations is estimated at an average of 25 years. The oldest wild brown bear on record was nearly 37 years old. The oldest recorded female in captivity was nearly 40 years old, while males in captivity have been verified to live up to 47 years, with one captive male possibly attaining 50 years of age. While male bears potentially live longer in captivity, female grizzly bears have a greater annual survival rate than males within wild populations per a study done in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Annual mortality for bears of any age is estimated at 10% in most protected areas. Around 13% to 44% of cubs die within their first year even in well-protected areas. Beyond predation by large predators including wolves, Siberian tigers and other brown bears, starvation and accidents also claim the lives of cubs. Studies have indicated that the most prevalent source of mortality for first-year cubs is malnutrition. Brown bears are susceptible to parasites such as flukes, ticks, tapeworms, roundworms and biting lices. It is thought that brown bears may catch canine distemper virus (CDV) from other Caniforms like stray dogs and wolves. A captive individual allegedly succumbed to Aujeszky's disease. Hibernation physiology Scientists are interested in understanding the hibernation physiology of brown bears, specifically in how they stay healthy after six months of inactivity. It has been suggested by scientists that understanding how brown bears stay healthy during hibernation may potentially help lead to cures for human diseases such as diabetes or cardiovascular disease. A study conducted through the Scandinavian Brown Bear Research Project did a proteomic analysis of the brown bear's blood, organs, and tissues to pinpoint proteins and peptides that either increased or decreased in expression in the winter and summer months. One major finding was that the plasma protein sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) increased during the brown bear's hibernation period by 45 times. Although scientists do not yet understand the role of SHBG in maintaining the brown bear's health, some scientists believe these findings could potentially be a factor in preventing human diseases that come from a sedentary life style. Relationship with humans Attacks on humans Main article: Bear attack A statue of the Ussuri brown bear from Hokkaido, Japan Brown bears usually avoid areas where extensive development or urbanization has occurred. They rarely attack humans on sight and usually avoid people. They are, however, unpredictable in temperament, and may attack if they are surprised or feel threatened. The two most common causes for bear attacks are surprise and curiosity. Mothers defending cubs are the most prone to attacking, being responsible for 70% of brown bear-caused human fatalities in North America. Brown bear attacks tend to result in serious injury and, in some cases, death. Due to the bears' enormous physical strength, even a single bite or swipe can be deadly. Violent encounters with brown bears usually last only a few minutes, though they can be prolonged if the victims fight back. A study conducted in 2019 found that 664 bear attacks were reported during a 15-year period (2000–2015) throughout North America and Eurasia. There were 568 injuries and 95 casualties. Around 10 people a year are killed by brown bears in Russia, more than all the other parts of the brown bear's range combined. In Japan, a large brown bear nicknamed "Kesagake" ("kesa-style slasher") caused the worst brown bear attack in Japanese history at Tomamae, Hokkaidō during numerous encounters during December 1915. It killed seven people and wounded three others before being gunned down after a large-scale beast-hunt. A study by U.S. and Canadian researchers has found bear spray to be more effective at stopping aggressive bear behavior than guns, working in 92% of studied incidents versus 67% for guns. Bear hunting Main article: Bear hunting Hunting of brown bears has occurred since ancient times, mainly for sports and royal showings of power. Humans have been recorded hunting brown bears for over 10,300–9,300 years. In Europe, between the 17th and 18th centuries, humans sought to control brown bear numbers by awarding those who managed to kill one. This bounty scheme pushed the brown bear population to the brink of extinction before comprehensive protection was offered in the 1900s. In northern Europe, hunting still persists in the 21st century, contributing significantly to the drop in brown bear numbers. In some places in Europe, bears are tricked into entering traps with the help of a bait. Brown bears are also legally hunted in some American states, such as Alaska. However, a hunting license is required and killings of females with cubs will result in a prison sentence. Their meat is sometimes consumed and used in recipes such as dumplings, hams and stews. The Indigenous people of James Bay (Eastern) Cree use their flesh in traditional dishes. In Asia and Romania, the paws are consumed as exotic delectables; brown bear paws have been a prevalent component of traditional Chinese food since 500 BC. The total weight of commercially sold brown bear meat is estimated at 17 tons annually. In captivity There are more than 700 brown bears in zoos and wildlife parks worldwide. Captive bears are largely lethargic and spend a considerable amount of time doing nothing. When active, captive bears may be subject to repetitive back and forth motion, known widely as pacing. This behavior is most prevalent in bears kept in small, cramped cages often with no natural setting. Pacing is a way of coping with stress that comes with being trapped in unnaturally small spaces. Stereotyped behavior has decreased due to better and larger enclosures being built, and more sustainable management from zoo staff. They are also exploited as dancing bears. The process begins at an early age. Cubs, for example, are positioned on hot metal plates, causing them to exhibit dancing movements, and at the same time, violin music is running in the background. The process is repeated, resulting in bears being trained to dance when a violin is played. Similarly, brown bears are also displayed in tiny enclosures near a restaurant, mainly for the purpose of luring customers. Privately owned bears are often placed in insufficient environments and often suffer from malnutrition and obesity. According to a 2009 analysis, the brown bear was the second most exploited circus animal after the tiger. Culture Further information: Cultural depictions of bears "The Story of the Three Bears", illustration from Childhood's Favorites and Fairy StoriesCover of an American humor magazine Puck at 20 January 1904 Brown bears often figure into the literature of Europe and North America as "cute and cuddly", in particular that which is written for children. "The Brown Bear of Norway" is a Scottish fairy tale telling the adventures of a girl who married a prince magically turned into a bear and who managed to get him back into a human form by the force of her love and after many trials and difficulties. With "Goldilocks and the Three Bears", a story from England, the Three Bears are usually depicted as brown bears. In German-speaking countries, children are often told the fairytale of "Snow White and Rose Red"; the handsome prince in this tale has been transfigured into a brown bear. In the United States, parents often read their preschool age children the book Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? to teach them their colors and how they are associated with different animals. In Ancient Greek mythology, bears have been compared to humans as similar, mainly due to their ability of standing upright. In many western stories and older fables the portrayed attributes of bears are sluggishness, foolishness and gullibility, which contradicts actual species. For example, bears have been reported tricking hunters by backtracking in the snow. The Romans built small carved figures of bears that were used during burials of infants. The earliest cave paintings of bears occurred in the Paleolithic, with over 100 recorded paintings. The Russian bear is a common national personification for Russia (as well as the former Soviet Union), despite the country having no officially-designated national animal. The brown bear is Finland's national animal. The grizzly bear is the state animal of Montana. The California golden bear is the state animal of California, despite being extinct. In North America, the brown bear is considered a charismatic megafauna and has long piqued people's interest. The death of Bear 148 at the hands of a trophy hunter in 2017, sparked media outrage and the continued disapproval of trophy hunting. The coat of arms of Madrid depicts a bear reaching up into a madroño or strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) to eat some of its fruit, whereas the Swiss city of Bern's coat of arms also depicts a bear and the city's name is popularly thought to derive from the German word for bear. The brown bear is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 5 kuna coin, minted since 1993. 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Retrieved 24 September 2011. ^ Hughes, Courtney; Foote, Lee; Yarmey, Nicholas T.; Hwang, Christina; Thorlakson, Jessica; Nielsen, Scott (April 2020). "From human invaders to problem bears: A media content analysis of grizzly bear conservation". Conservation Science and Practice. 2 (4). Bibcode:2020ConSP...2E.176H. doi:10.1111/csp2.176. ISSN 2578-4854. ^ Deyermond, A. D. (1997). Festschrift. Tamesis. pp. 177–187. ISBN 978-1-85566-051-9. ^ Swenson, Jon E.; Europe, Council of (1 January 2000). Action Plan for the Conservation of the Brown Bear in Europe (Ursus Arctos). Council of Europe. p. 69. ISBN 978-92-871-4426-3. ^ Majić, Aleksandra; Marino Taussig de Bodonia, Agnese; Huber, Đuro; Bunnefeld, Nils (December 2011). "Dynamics of public attitudes toward bears and the role of bear hunting in Croatia". Biological Conservation. 144 (12): 3018–3027. Bibcode:2011BCons.144.3018M. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.09.005. ISSN 0006-3207. Notes ^ Populations of Bhutan, China, Mexico and Mongolia are included in Appendix I. All other populations are included in Appendix II. Bibliography Vaisfeld, M.A. and Chestin I. E., ed. (1993). Bears: Brown Bear, Polar Bear, Asian Black Bear. Distribution, ecology, use and protection (in Russian and English). Moscow: Nauka. ISBN 978-5020035676. External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to: Ursus arctos (category) Wikispecies has information related to Ursus arctos. Brown Bear profile from National Geographic Bear Hunting Altered Genetics More Than Ice Age Isolation Ancient Fossil Offers New Clues To Brown Bears Past vteBrown bear subspecies or populations Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Carnivora Family: Ursidae Genus: Ursus Species: arctos Old World †Atlas bear (U. a. crowtheri) †Steppe brown bear (U. a. priscus) Eurasian brown bear(provisionallyU. a. arctos)In Asia Kamchatkan brown bear (provisionally U. a. beringianus) East Siberian brown bear (provisionally U. a. collaris) Gobi bear (provisionally U. a. gobiensis) Himalayan brown bear (provisionally U. a. isabellinus) Ussuri brown bear (provisionally U. a. lasiotus) Syrian brown bear (provisionally U. a. syriacus) Tibetan blue bear (provisionally U. a. pruinosus) In Europe Marsican brown bear (provisionally U. a. marsicanus) Cantabrian brown bear (formerly U. a. pyrenaicus) New WorldGrizzly bear(provisionallyU. a. horribilis) †California grizzly bear (provisionally U. a. californicus) †Mexican grizzly bear (formerly U. a. nelsoni) In Alaska Dall Island brown bear (formerly U. a. dalli) Peninsular giant bear (provisionally U. a. gyas) Kodiak bear (provisionally U. a. middendorffi) Sitka brown bear (provisionally U. a. sitkensis; hybrid) In Canada Stickeen brown bear (provisionally U. a. stikeenensis) †Ungava brown bear (formerly U. a. ungavaesis) ^ Genetic tests demonstrate this population to have mixed brown bear and polar bear ancestry. vteExtant Carnivora species Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Infraclass: Eutheria Superorder: Laurasiatheria Suborder FeliformiaNandiniidaeNandinia African palm civet (N. binotata) Herpestidae(Mongooses)Atilax Marsh mongoose (A. paludinosus) Bdeogale Bushy-tailed mongoose (B. crassicauda) Jackson's mongoose (B. jacksoni) Black-footed mongoose (B. nigripes) Crossarchus Alexander's kusimanse (C. alexandri) Angolan kusimanse (C. ansorgei) Common kusimanse (C. obscurus) Flat-headed kusimanse (C. platycephalus) Cynictis Yellow mongoose (C. penicillata) Dologale Pousargues's mongoose (D. dybowskii) Helogale Ethiopian dwarf mongoose (H. hirtula) Common dwarf mongoose (H. parvula) Herpestes Angolan slender mongoose (H. flavescens) Egyptian mongoose (H. ichneumon) Somalian slender mongoose (H. ochracea) Cape gray mongoose (H. pulverulenta) Common slender mongoose (H. sanguinea) Ichneumia White-tailed mongoose (I. albicauda) Liberiictus Liberian mongoose (L. kuhni) Mungos Gambian mongoose (M. gambianus) Banded mongoose (M. mungo) Paracynictis Selous's mongoose (P. selousi) Rhynchogale Meller's mongoose (R. melleri) Suricata Meerkat (S. suricatta) Urva Small Indian mongoose (U. auropunctata) Short-tailed mongoose (U. brachyura) Indian grey mongoose (U. edwardsii) Indian brown mongoose (U. fusca) Javan mongoose (U. javanica) Collared mongoose (U. semitorquata) Ruddy mongoose (U. smithii) Crab-eating mongoose (U. urva) Stripe-necked mongoose (U. vitticolla) Xenogale Long-nosed mongoose (X. naso) Hyaenidae(Hyenas)Crocuta Spotted hyena (C. crocuta) Hyaena Striped hyena (H. hyaena) Parahyaena Brown hyena (P. brunnea) Proteles Aardwolf (P. cristata) FelidaeLarge family listed belowViverridaeLarge family listed belowEupleridaeSmall family listed belowFamily FelidaeFelinaeAcinonyx Cheetah (A. jubatus) Caracal African golden cat (C. aurata) Caracal (C. caracal) Catopuma Bay cat (C. badia) Asian golden cat (C. temminckii) Felis Chinese mountain cat (F. bieti) Domestic cat (F. catus) Jungle cat (F. chaus) African wildcat (F. lybica) Sand cat (F. margarita) Black-footed cat (F. nigripes) European wildcat (F. silvestris) Herpailurus Jaguarundi (H. yagouaroundi) Leopardus Pampas cat (L. colocola) Geoffroy's cat (L. geoffroyi) Kodkod (L. guigna) Southern tiger cat (L. guttulus) Andean mountain cat (L. jacobita) Ocelot (L. pardalis) Oncilla (L. tigrinus) Margay (L. wiedii) Leptailurus Serval (L. serval) Lynx Canada lynx (L. canadensis) Eurasian lynx (L. lynx) Iberian lynx (L. pardinus) Bobcat (L. rufus) Otocolobus Pallas's cat (O. manul) Pardofelis Marbled cat (P. marmorata) Prionailurus Leopard cat (P. bengalensis) Sunda leopard cat (P. javanensis) Flat-headed cat (P. planiceps) Rusty-spotted cat (P. rubiginosus) Fishing cat (P. viverrinus) Puma Cougar (P. concolor) PantherinaePanthera Lion (P. leo) Jaguar (P. onca) Leopard (P. pardus) Tiger (P. tigris) Snow leopard (P. uncia) Neofelis Sunda clouded leopard (N. diardi) Clouded leopard (N. nebulosa) PrionodontidaePrionodon Banded linsang (P. linsang) Spotted linsang (P. pardicolor) Family ViverridaeParadoxurinaeArctictis Binturong (A. binturong) Arctogalidia Small-toothed palm civet (A. trivirgata) Macrogalidia Sulawesi palm civet (M. musschenbroekii) Paguma Masked palm civet (P. larvata) Paradoxurus Asian palm civet (P. hermaphroditus) Brown palm civet (P. jerdoni) Golden palm civet (P. zeylonensis) HemigalinaeChrotogale Owston's palm civet (C. owstoni) Cynogale Otter civet (C. bennettii) Diplogale Hose's palm civet (D. hosei) Hemigalus Banded palm civet (H. derbyanus) ViverrinaeCivettictis African civet (C. civetta) Viverra Malabar large-spotted civet (V. civettina) Large-spotted civet (V. megaspila) Malayan civet (V. tangalunga) Large Indian civet (V. zibetha) Viverricula Small Indian civet (V. indica) GenettinaeGenetta(Genets) Abyssinian genet (G. abyssinica) Angolan genet (G. angolensis) Bourlon's genet (G. bourloni) Crested servaline genet (G. cristata) Common genet (G. genetta) Johnston's genet (G. johnstoni) Letaba genet (G. letabae) Rusty-spotted genet (G. maculata) Pardine genet (G. pardina) Aquatic genet (G. piscivora) King genet (G. poensis) Servaline genet (G. servalina) Hausa genet (G. thierryi) Cape genet (G. tigrina) Giant forest genet (G. victoriae) South African small-spotted genet (G. felina) Poiana Central African oyan (P. richardsonii) West African oyan (P. leightoni) Family EupleridaeEuplerinaeCryptoprocta Fossa (C. ferox) Eupleres Eastern falanouc (E. goudotii) Western falanouc (E. major) Fossa Malagasy civet (F. fossana) GalidiinaeGalidia Ring-tailed vontsira (G. elegans) Galidictis Broad-striped Malagasy mongoose (G. fasciata) Grandidier's mongoose (G. grandidieri) Mungotictis Narrow-striped mongoose (M. decemlineata) Salanoia Brown-tailed mongoose (S. concolor) Durrell's vontsira (S. durrelli) Suborder Caniformia (cont. below)Ursidae(Bears)Ailuropoda Giant panda (A. melanoleuca) Helarctos Sun bear (H. malayanus) Melursus Sloth bear (M. ursinus) Tremarctos Spectacled bear (T. ornatus) Ursus American black bear (U. americanus) Brown bear (U. arctos) Polar bear (U. maritimus) Asian black bear (U. thibetanus) Mephitidae(Skunks)Conepatus(Hog-nosedskunks) Molina's hog-nosed skunk (C. chinga) Humboldt's hog-nosed skunk (C. humboldtii) American hog-nosed skunk (C. leuconotus) Striped hog-nosed skunk (C. semistriatus) Mephitis Hooded skunk (M. macroura) Striped skunk (M. mephitis) Mydaus Sunda stink badger (M. javanensis) Palawan stink badger (M. marchei) Spilogale(Spotted skunks) Southern spotted skunk (S. angustifrons) Western spotted skunk (S. gracilis) Eastern spotted skunk (S. putorius) Pygmy spotted skunk (S. pygmaea) Procyonidae(Raccoons, coatis, olingos)Bassaricyon(Olingos) Eastern lowland olingo (B. alleni) Northern olingo (B. gabbii) Western lowland olingo (B. medius) Olinguito (B. neblina) Bassariscus Ringtail (B. astutus) Cacomistle (B. sumichrasti) Nasua(Coatis inclusive) White-nosed coati (N. narica) South American coati (N. nasua) Nasuella(Coatis inclusive) Eastern mountain coati (N. meridensis) Western mountain coati (N. olivacea) Potos Kinkajou (P. flavus) Procyon Crab-eating raccoon (P. cancrivorus) Raccoon (P. lotor) Cozumel raccoon (P. pygmaeus) AiluridaeAilurus Red panda (A. fulgens) Suborder Caniformia (cont. above)Otariidae(Eared seals)(includes fur sealsand sea lions)(Pinniped inclusive)Arctocephalus South American fur seal (A. australis) Australasian fur seal (A. forsteri) Galápagos fur seal (A. galapagoensis) Antarctic fur seal (A. gazella) Juan Fernández fur seal (A. philippii) Brown fur seal (A. pusillus) Guadalupe fur seal (A. townsendi) Subantarctic fur seal (A. tropicalis) Callorhinus Northern fur seal (C. ursinus) Eumetopias Steller sea lion (E. jubatus) Neophoca Australian sea lion (N. cinerea) Otaria South American sea lion (O. flavescens) Phocarctos New Zealand sea lion (P. hookeri) Zalophus California sea lion (Z. californianus) Galápagos sea lion (Z. wollebaeki) Odobenidae(Pinniped inclusive)Odobenus Walrus (O. rosmarus) Phocidae(Earless seals)(Pinniped inclusive)Cystophora Hooded seal (C. cristata) Erignathus Bearded seal (E. barbatus) Halichoerus Grey seal (H. grypus) Histriophoca Ribbon seal (H. fasciata) Hydrurga Leopard seal (H. leptonyx) Leptonychotes Weddell seal (L. weddellii) Lobodon Crabeater seal (L. carcinophagus) Mirounga(Elephant seals) Northern elephant seal (M. angustirostris) Southern elephant seal (M. leonina) Monachus Mediterranean monk seal (M. monachus) Neomonachus Hawaiian monk seal (N. schauinslandi) Ommatophoca Ross seal (O. rossi) Pagophilus Harp seal (P. groenlandicus) Phoca Spotted seal (P. largha) Harbor seal (P. vitulina) Pusa Caspian seal (P. caspica) Ringed seal (P. hispida) Baikal seal (P. sibirica) CanidaeLarge family listed belowMustelidaeLarge family listed belowFamily CanidaeAtelocynus Short-eared dog (A. microtis) Canis Golden jackal (C. aureus) Domestic dog (C. familiaris) Coyote (C. latrans) African wolf (C. lupaster) Wolf (C. lupus) Eastern wolf (C. lycaon) Red wolf (C. rufus) Ethiopian wolf (C. simensis) Cerdocyon Crab-eating fox (C. thous) Chrysocyon Maned wolf (C. brachyurus) Cuon Dhole (C. alpinus) Lupulella Side-striped jackal (L. adustus) Black-backed jackal (L. mesomelas) Lycalopex Culpeo (L. culpaeus) Darwin's fox (L. fulvipes) South American gray fox (L. griseus) Pampas fox (L. gymnocercus) Sechuran fox (L. sechurae) Hoary fox (L. vetulus) Lycaon African wild dog (L. pictus) Nyctereutes Common raccoon dog (N. procyonoides) Japanese raccoon dog (N. viverrinus) Otocyon Bat-eared fox (O. megalotis) Speothos Bush dog (S. venaticus) Urocyon Gray fox (U. cinereoargenteus) Island fox (U. littoralis) Vulpes (Foxes) Bengal fox (V. bengalensis) Blanford's fox (V. cana) Cape fox (V. chama) Corsac fox (V. corsac) Tibetan fox (V. ferrilata) Arctic fox (V. lagopus) Kit fox (V. macrotis) Pale fox (V. pallida) Rüppell's fox (V. rueppelli) Swift fox (V. velox) Red fox (V. vulpes) Fennec fox (V. zerda) Family MustelidaeHelictidinae(Ferret-badgers)Melogale Vietnam ferret-badger (M. cucphuongensis) Bornean ferret badger (M. everetti) Chinese ferret-badger (M. moschata) Javan ferret-badger (M. orientalis) Burmese ferret-badger (M. personata) Formosan ferret-badger (M. subaurantiaca) Guloninae(Martens and wolverines)Eira Tayra (E. barbara) Gulo Wolverine (G. gulo) Martes(Martens) American marten (M. americana) Pacific marten (M. caurina) Yellow-throated marten (M. flavigula) Beech marten (M. foina) Nilgiri marten (M. gwatkinsii) European pine marten (M. martes) Japanese marten (M. melampus) Sable (M. zibellina) Pekania Fisher (P. pennanti) Ictonychinae(African polecats and grisons)Galictis Lesser grison (G. cuja) Greater grison (G. vittata) Ictonyx Saharan striped polecat (I. libyca) Striped polecat (I. striatus) Lyncodon Patagonian weasel (L. patagonicus) Poecilogale African striped weasel (P. albinucha) Vormela Marbled polecat (V. peregusna) Lutrinae(Otters)Aonyx African clawless otter (A. capensis) Asian small-clawed otter (A. cinereus) Congo clawless otter (A. congicus) Enhydra Sea otter (E. lutris) Hydrictis Spotted-necked otter (H. maculicollis) Lontra North American river otter (L. canadensis) Marine otter (L. felina) Neotropical otter (L. longicaudis) Southern river otter (L. provocax) Lutra Eurasian otter (L. lutra) Hairy-nosed otter (L. sumatrana) Lutrogale Smooth-coated otter (L. perspicillata) Pteronura Giant otter (P. brasiliensis) Melinae(Eurasian badgers)Arctonyx Northern hog badger (A. albogularis) Greater hog badger (A. collaris) Sumatran hog badger (A. hoevenii) Meles Japanese badger (M. anakuma) Caucasian badger (M. canescens) Asian badger (M. leucurus) European badger (M. meles) MellivorinaeMellivora Honey badger (M. capensis) Mustelinae(Weasels and minks)Mustela(Weasels and ferrets) Sichuan weasel (M. aistoodonnivalis) Mountain weasel (M. altaica) Stoat/Beringian ermine (M. erminea) Steppe polecat (M. eversmannii) Ferret (M. furo) Haida ermine (M. haidarum) Japanese weasel (M. itatsi) Yellow-bellied weasel (M. kathiah) European mink (M. lutreola) Indonesian mountain weasel (M. lutreolina) Black-footed ferret (M. nigripes) Least weasel (M. nivalis) Malayan weasel (M. nudipes) European polecat (M. putorius) American ermine (M. richardsonii) Siberian weasel (M. sibirica) Back-striped weasel (M. strigidorsa) Neogale Amazon weasel (N. africana) Colombian weasel (N. felipei) Long-tailed weasel (N. frenata) American mink (N. vison) TaxidiinaeTaxidea American badger (T. taxus) vteGame animals and shooting in North AmericaGame birds Bobwhite quail Chukar Hungarian partridge Prairie chicken Mourning dove Ring-necked pheasant Ptarmigan Ruffed grouse Sharp-tailed grouse Snipe (common snipe) Spruce grouse Turkey Woodcock Waterfowl huntersWaterfowl Black duck Canada goose Canvasback Gadwall Greater scaup Lesser scaup Mallard Northern pintail Redhead Ross's goose Snow goose Wood duck Big game Bighorn sheep Black bear Razorback Brown bear Bison (buffalo) Caribou Cougar (mountain lion) Elk Moose White-tailed deer Wolf Mountain goat Mule deer Pronghorn Muskox Dall sheep Polar bear Whales Other quarry American alligator Badger Bobcat Coyote Fox squirrel Gray fox Gray squirrel Opossum Rabbit Raccoon Red fox Snowshoe hare See also Bear hunting Big-game hunting Bison hunting Deer hunting Fox hunting Waterfowl hunting Whaling Fishing Wolf hunting Upland hunting Taxon identifiersUrsus arctos Wikidata: Q36341 Wikispecies: Ursus arctos ADW: Ursus_arctos BioLib: 1827 BOLD: 12510 CoL: 7F2KB ECOS: 6591 EoL: 328581 EUNIS: 1568 Fauna Europaea: 305356 Fauna Europaea (new): dbaefc4b-0b7f-4aa2-bd3d-d03cea8e2e14 GBIF: 2433433 iNaturalist: 41641 IRMNG: 10198727 ITIS: 180543 IUCN: 41688 MDD: 1005935 MSW: 14000970 NatureServe: 2.102187 NBN: NBNSYS0000005185 NCBI: 9644 Observation.org: 79362 OBIS: 1506697 Open Tree of Life: 872567 Paleobiology Database: 52604 SeaLifeBase: 69193 Species+: 9829 TSA: 18472 uBio: 105410 ZooBank: 967F41D2-464B-4D55-AE9C-D19FE452B814 Authority control databases International FAST National France BnF data Germany Israel United States Latvia Japan Czech Republic

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi"},{"link_name":"Brown Bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_Bears"},{"link_name":"MV Brown Bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MV_Brown_Bear"},{"link_name":"bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear"},{"link_name":"Eurasia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasia"},{"link_name":"North America","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_America"},{"link_name":"Carnivora","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivora"},{"link_name":"polar bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bear"},{"link_name":"hibernate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibernate"},{"link_name":"dentition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dentition"},{"link_name":"claws","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claws"},{"link_name":"forested habitats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forest"},{"link_name":"omnivorous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivorous"},{"link_name":"rodents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodents"},{"link_name":"moose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moose"},{"link_name":"muskoxen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskoxen"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"spawning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spawning"},{"link_name":"salmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmon"},{"link_name":"solitary animal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solitary_animal"},{"link_name":"least concern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least_concern"},{"link_name":"International Union for Conservation of Nature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature"},{"link_name":"Atlas bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_bear"},{"link_name":"North Africa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Africa"},{"link_name":"Californian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_grizzly_bear"},{"link_name":"Ungavan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungava_brown_bear"},{"link_name":"Mexican","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_grizzly_bear"},{"link_name":"Himalayan brown bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayan_brown_bear"},{"link_name":"Marsican brown bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsican_brown_bear"},{"link_name":"Eurasian brown bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_brown_bear"}],"text":"Species of large bearThis article is about the animal. For the athletics teams at Brown University, see Brown Bears. For the research ship, see MV Brown Bear.The brown bear (Ursus arctos) is a large bear species found across Eurasia and North America. It is one of the largest living terrestrial members of the order Carnivora, rivaled in size only by its closest relative, the polar bear, which is much less variable in size and slightly bigger on average. Adults of different subspecies range in weight from 80 to 600 kg (180 to 1,320 lb), with males being heavier than females. Despite its name, brown bears aren't entirely brown; the pelage can be reddish to yellowish-brown, and dark brown to cream in color. During winter, brown bears in some populations hibernate and emerge during spring to regain up to 180 kg (400 lb) of weight. They have well developed dentition and claws, ideal for their lifestyle.The brown bear is mostly found in forested habitats in elevations of up to 5,000 m (16,000 ft). It is omnivorous, and consumes a variety of plant and animal species, with the former comprising 90% of its diet. The bear hunts animals as small as rodents, to those as large as moose or muskoxen. In parts of coastal Alaska, brown bears predominately feed on spawning salmon that come ashore to lay their eggs. The brown bear is a solitary animal, except in the breeding season. A female will give birth to an average litter of 1–3 cubs, and will protect her young for an average of 1.5 to 4.5 years. Brown bears have one of the largest skulls of any land-based carnivore, and are able to make use of tools. They are long lived animals, with an average lifespan of 25 years in the wild. Attacks on humans, though reported, are generally rare.While the brown bear's range has shrunk, and it has faced local extinctions across its wide range, it remains listed as a least concern species by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) with a total estimated population in 2017 of 110,000. Populations that were hunted to extinction in the 19th and 20th centuries are the Atlas bear of North Africa and the Californian, Ungavan and Mexican populations of the grizzly bear of North America. Many of the populations in the southern parts of Eurasia are highly endangered as well. One of the smaller-bodied forms, the Himalayan brown bear, is critically endangered, occupying only 2% of its former range and threatened by uncontrolled poaching for its body parts. The Marsican brown bear of central Italy is one of several currently isolated populations of the Eurasian brown bear and is believed to have a population of just c. 50 bears.","title":"Brown bear"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Middle English","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_English"},{"link_name":"Reynard the Fox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reynard_the_Fox"},{"link_name":"William Caxton","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Caxton"},{"link_name":"Middle Dutch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Dutch"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-rooseeltv-6"},{"link_name":"ursus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear#Etymology"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"}],"text":"The brown bear is sometimes referred to as the bruin, from Middle English. This name originated in the fable History of Reynard the Fox translated by William Caxton from Middle Dutch bruun or bruyn, meaning brown (the color).[3][4] In the mid-19th century United States, the brown bear was termed \"Old Ephraim\" and sometimes as \"Moccasin Joe\".[5]The scientific name of the brown bear, Ursus arctos, comes from the Latin ursus, meaning \"bear\",[6] and the Greek ἄρκτος/arktos, also meaning \"bear\".[7]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Evolution and taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear"},{"link_name":"Ursinae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursinae"},{"link_name":"mitochondrial DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitochondrial_DNA"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Giant panda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_panda"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Recherches_pour_servir_%C3%A0_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_mammif%C3%A8res_(Pl._50)_(white_background).jpg"},{"link_name":"Spectacled bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectacled_bear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spectacled_bear_(1829).jpg"},{"link_name":"Ursinae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursinae"},{"link_name":"Sloth bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloth_bear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tremarctos_ornatus_1824_(flipped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Sun bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_bear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ursus_malayanus_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_(white_background).jpg"},{"link_name":"Asian black bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_black_bear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ursus_thibetanus_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-(white_background).jpg"},{"link_name":"American black bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_black_bear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ursus_americanus_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_(white_background).jpg"},{"link_name":"Polar bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lossy-page1-2518px-Ursus_maritimus_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_(white_background).jpg"},{"link_name":"Brown bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ursus_arctos_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_(white_background).jpg"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Servheen1999-10"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kumar2017-11"},{"link_name":"Giant panda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_panda"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Recherches_pour_servir_%C3%A0_l%27histoire_naturelle_des_mammif%C3%A8res_(Pl._50)_(white_background).jpg"},{"link_name":"Spectacled bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectacled_bear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Spectacled_bear_(1829).jpg"},{"link_name":"Ursinae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursinae"},{"link_name":"Sloth bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sloth_bear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tremarctos_ornatus_1824_(flipped).jpg"},{"link_name":"Sun bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_bear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ursus_malayanus_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_(white_background).jpg"},{"link_name":"Asian black bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_black_bear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ursus_thibetanus_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-(white_background).jpg"},{"link_name":"American black bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_black_bear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ursus_americanus_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_(white_background).jpg"},{"link_name":"Polar bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bear"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Lossy-page1-2518px-Ursus_maritimus_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_(white_background).jpg"},{"link_name":"Brown bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ursus_arctos_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_(white_background).jpg"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kumar2017-11"},{"link_name":"Pleistocene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleistocene"},{"link_name":"sympatric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sympatric_speciation"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:156-13"},{"link_name":"Ursus etruscus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursus_etruscus"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-evolution-14"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kurten_1976-16"},{"link_name":"cave bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_bear"},{"link_name":"paraspecies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraspecies"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Loreille-17"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-evolution-14"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Herrero,_S._1972-18"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-evolution-14"},{"link_name":"Zagros Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zagros_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"British Isles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Isles"},{"link_name":"cave bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cave_bear"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-evolution2-21"},{"link_name":"lions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_lion"},{"link_name":"bison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bison"},{"link_name":"red foxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_fox"},{"link_name":"Beringia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beringia"},{"link_name":"Illinoian Glaciation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Illinoian_(stage)"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:19-22"},{"link_name":"Björn Kurtén","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bj%C3%B6rn_Kurt%C3%A9n"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-evolution2-21"},{"link_name":"MIS-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_Isotope_Stage_5"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:19-22"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:14-23"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:156-13"},{"link_name":"Alexander","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Archipelago"},{"link_name":"Haida Gwaii archipelagoes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haida_Gwaii"},{"link_name":"Last Glacial Maximum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Last_Glacial_Maximum"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:19-22"},{"link_name":"Ontario","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ontario"},{"link_name":"Ohio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohio"},{"link_name":"Kentucky","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentucky"},{"link_name":"Labrador","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Labrador_Peninsula"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-evolution-14"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"}],"sub_title":"Evolution","text":"The brown bear is one of eight extant species in the bear family Ursidae and of six extant species in the subfamily Ursinae.A possible phylogeny based on complete mitochondrial DNA sequences from Yu et al. (2007).[8]\n\n\n\n\n\nUrsidae\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nGiant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSpectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nUrsinae\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSloth bear (Melursus ursinus) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSun bear (Helarctos malayanus) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAsian black bear (Ursus thibetanus) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAmerican black bear (Ursus americanus) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPolar bear (Ursus maritimus) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBrown bear (Ursus arctos) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe polar bear and the brown bear form a close grouping, while the relationships of the other species are not very well resolved.[9]A more recent phylogeny based on the genetic study of Kumar et al. (2017).[10]\n\n\n\n\n\nUrsidae\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nGiant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSpectacled bear (Tremarctos ornatus) \n\n\n\n\n\n\nUrsinae\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSloth bear (Melursus ursinus) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nSun bear (Helarctos malayanus) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAsian black bear (Ursus thibetanus) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nAmerican black bear (Ursus americanus) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nPolar bear (Ursus maritimus) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nBrown bear (Ursus arctos) \n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nThe study concludes that Ursine bears originated around 5 million years ago and show extensive hybridization of species in their lineage.[10]During the Pleistocene, brown bears were sympatric with extinct Ursinae species in North America.[11][12] Brown bears are thought to have evolved from Ursus etruscus in Asia.[13][14] The brown bear, per Kurten (1976), has been stated as \"clearly derived from the Asian population of Ursus savini about 800,000 years ago; spread into Europe, to the New World.\"[15] A genetic analysis indicated that the brown bear lineage diverged from the cave bear species complex approximately 1.2–1.4 million years ago, but did not clarify if U. savini persisted as a paraspecies for the brown bear before perishing.[16] The oldest fossils positively identified as from this species occur in China from about 0.5 million years ago.[13][17] In Yakutia, brown bears are known to have been present from at least 400,000 to 300,000 years ago.[18] Brown bears entered Europe about 250,000 years ago and North Africa shortly after.[13] Brown bears were present in the Zagros Mountains by the Late Pleistocene.[19] Brown bear remains from the Pleistocene period are common in the British Isles, where amongst other factors, they may have contributed to the extinction of cave bears (Ursus spelaeus).[20]Brown bears (along with lions, bison and red foxes) first emigrated to North America from Eurasia via Beringia during the Illinoian Glaciation.[21] Although Björn Kurtén hypothesized skull shape as an indicator of evolutionary history,[20] genetic evidence suggests several different populations of brown bear migrated into North America, aligning with the glacial cycles of the Pleistocene. The founding population of most North American brown bears arrived first, with the genetic lineage developing around ~177,000 BP, with fossils being first recovered ~111,000 BP from East Beringia. Genetic divergences suggest brown bears first migrated south during MIS-5 (~92,000–83,000 BP) upon the opening of the ice-free corridor,[21][22] with the first fossils being near Edmonton (26,000 BP).[12] The Alexander and Haida Gwaii archipelagoes have a separate lineage, which first appears around 20,000 BP. After a local extinction in Beringia ~33,000 BP, two new but closely related lineages repopulated Alaska and northern Canada from Eurasia after the Last Glacial Maximum (>25,000 BP).[21]Brown bear fossils discovered in Ontario, Ohio, Kentucky and Labrador show that the species occurred farther east than indicated in historic records.[13] In North America, two types of the subspecies Ursus arctos horribilis are generally recognized—the coastal brown bear and the inland grizzly bear.[23]","title":"Evolution and taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eurasian_brown_bear_(Ursus_arctos_arctos)_female_1.jpg"},{"link_name":"Eurasian brown bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian_brown_bear"},{"link_name":"nominate subspecies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nominate_subspecies"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Harris-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Storer1955-27"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-29"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-lan-30"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brown_bear&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MSW3-31"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"polar bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bear"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"paraspecies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraspecies"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"population fragmentation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Population_fragmentation"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"Kodiak Archipelago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodiak_Archipelago"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Waits-37"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"Alexander Archipelago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_Archipelago"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Shapiro_al.2013-39"},{"link_name":"MtDNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MtDNA"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Servheen-40"}],"sub_title":"Subspecies","text":"Adult female Eurasian brown bear, the nominate subspeciesBrown bear taxonomy and subspecies classification has been described as \"formidable and confusing,\" with few authorities listing the same specific set of subspecies.[24] There are hundreds of obsolete brown bear subspecies, each with its own name, so this can become confusing. As many as 90 subspecies have been proposed.[25][26] However, recent DNA analysis has identified as few as five main clades which contain all extant brown bears,[27][28] while a 2017 phylogenetic study revealed nine clades, including one representing polar bears.[29] As of 2005[update], 15 extant or recently extinct subspecies were recognized by the general scientific community.[30][31]As well as the exact number of overall brown bear subspecies, its precise relationship to the polar bear also remains in debate. The polar bear is a recent offshoot of the brown bear. The point at which the polar bear diverged from the brown bear is unclear, with estimations based on genetics and fossils ranging from 400,000 to 70,000 years ago, but most recent analysis has indicated that the polar bear split somewhere between 275,000 and 150,000 years ago.[32] Under some definitions, the brown bear can be construed as the paraspecies for the polar bear.[33]DNA analysis shows that, apart from recent human-caused population fragmentation,[34] brown bears in North America are generally part of a single interconnected population system, with the exception of the population (or subspecies) in the Kodiak Archipelago, which has probably been isolated since the end of the last Ice Age.[35][36] These data demonstrate that U. a. gyas, U. a. horribilis, U. a. sitkensis and U. a. stikeenensis are not distinct or cohesive groups, and would more accurately be described as ecotypes. For example, brown bears in any particular region of the Alaska coast are more closely related to adjacent grizzly bears than to distant populations of brown bears,[37] the morphological distinction seemingly driven by brown bears having access to a rich salmon food source, while grizzly bears live at higher elevation, or further from the coast, where plant material is the base of the diet. The history of the bears of the Alexander Archipelago is unusual in that these island populations carry polar bear DNA, presumably originating from a population of polar bears that was left behind at the end of the Pleistocene, but have since been connected with adjacent mainland populations through movement of males, to the point where their nuclear genomes are now more than 90% of brown bear ancestry.[38] MtDNA analysis revealed that brown bears are apparently divided into five different clades, some of which coexist or co-occur in different regions.[39]","title":"Evolution and taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Grizzly–black bear hybrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grizzly%E2%80%93black_bear_hybrid"},{"link_name":"Grizzly–polar bear hybrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grizzly%E2%80%93polar_bear_hybrid"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:To_replace_picture_in_%27Ursid_hybrid%27.jpg"},{"link_name":"grizzly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grizzly_bear"},{"link_name":"black bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_black_bear"},{"link_name":"Yukon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yukon"},{"link_name":"ursid hybrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ursid_hybrid"},{"link_name":"polar bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bear"},{"link_name":"DNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA"},{"link_name":"Arctic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"zoos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo"},{"link_name":"cryptid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryptozoology"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"introgression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Introgression"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"}],"sub_title":"Hybrids","text":"See also: Grizzly–black bear hybrid and Grizzly–polar bear hybridPossible grizzly-black bear hybrid in the Yukon Territory, CanadaA grizzly–polar bear hybrid is a rare ursid hybrid resulting from a crossbreeding of a brown bear and a polar bear. It has occurred both in captivity and in the wild. In 2006, the occurrence of this hybrid in nature was confirmed by testing the DNA of a strange-looking bear that had been shot in the Canadian Arctic, and seven more hybrids have since been confirmed in the same region, all descended from a single female polar bear.[40] Previously, the hybrid had been produced in zoos and was considered a \"cryptid\" (a hypothesized animal for which there is no scientific proof of existence in the wild).[41]Analyses of the genomes of bears have shown that introgression between species was widespread during the evolution of the genus Ursus,[42] including the introgression of polar bear DNA introduced to brown bears during the Pleistocene.[43]","title":"Evolution and taxonomy"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brown_bear_(Ursus_arctos_arctos)_smiling.jpg"},{"link_name":"sexual dimorphism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism"},{"link_name":"hyperphagia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hyperphagia_(ecology)"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-McLellan-46"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Walker-49"},{"link_name":"sun bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_bear"},{"link_name":"polar bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bear"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Christiansen3-50"},{"link_name":"lion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panthera_leo_melanochaita"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feldhamer-51"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Swenson2-52"}],"text":"Brown bears are highly variable in size. Eurasian brown bears often fall around the middle to low sizes for the species.The brown bear is the most variable in size of modern bears. The typical size depends upon which population it is from, and most accepted subtypes vary widely in size. This is in part due to sexual dimorphism, as male brown bears average at least 30% larger in most subtypes. Individual bears vary in size seasonally, weighing the least in spring due to lack of foraging during hibernation, and the most in late fall, after a period of hyperphagia to put on additional weight to prepare for hibernation. Therefore, a bear may need to be weighed in both spring and fall to get an idea of its mean annual weight.[44][45]Generally, brown bears weigh anywhere from 80 to 600 kg (180 to 1,320 lb), with males outweighing females.[46] The normal range of physical dimensions for a brown bear is a head-and-body length of 1.4 to 2.8 m (4 ft 7 in to 9 ft 2 in) and a shoulder height of 70 to 153 cm (2 ft 4 in to 5 ft 0 in). The tail is relatively short, as in all bears, ranging from 6 to 22 cm (2.4 to 8.7 in) in length.[47][48] The smallest brown bears, females during spring among barren-ground populations, can weigh so little as to roughly match the body mass of males of the smallest living bear species, the sun bear (Helarctos malayanus), while the largest coastal populations attain sizes broadly similar to those of the largest living bear species, the polar bear.[49] Interior brown bears are generally smaller than is often perceived, being around the same weight as an average lion, at an estimate average of 180 kg (400 lb) in males and 135 kg (298 lb) in females, whereas adults of the coastal populations weigh about twice as much.[50] The average weight of adult male bears from 19 populations, from around the world and various subspecies (including both large- and small-bodied subspecies), was found to be 217 kg (478 lb) while adult females from 24 populations were found to average 152 kg (335 lb).[23][51]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Eurasian_brown_bear_(Ursus_arctos_arctos)_female_2.jpg"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jones-53"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Swenson-54"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Jones-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"cinnamon subspecies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cinnamon_bear"},{"link_name":"American black bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_black_bear"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"withers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Withers"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soviet-57"}],"sub_title":"Coloration","text":"A brown bear in SloveniaBrown bears are often not fully brown.[52] They have long, thick fur, with a moderately long mane at the back of the neck which varies somewhat across the types.[53] In India, brown bears can be reddish with silver-tipped hairs, while in China brown bears are bicolored, with a yellowish-brown or whitish collar across the neck, chest and shoulders.[52][54] Even within well-defined subspecies, individuals may show highly variable hues of brown. North American grizzlies can be dark brown (almost black) to cream (almost white) or yellowish-brown and often have darker-colored legs. The common name \"grizzly\" stems from their typical coloration, with the hairs on their back usually being brownish-black at the base and whitish-cream at the tips, giving them their distinctive \"grizzled\" color. Apart from the cinnamon subspecies of the American black bear (U. americanus cinnamonum), the brown bear is the only modern bear species to typically appear truly brown.[55] The winter fur is very thick and long, especially in northern subspecies, and can reach 11 to 12 centimetres (4 to 5 in) at the withers. The winter hairs are thin, yet rough to the touch. The summer fur is much shorter and sparser, with its length and density varying geographically.[56]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Description_iconographique_compar%C3%A9e_du_squelette_et_du_syst%C3%A8me_dentaire_des_mammif%C3%A8res_r%C3%A9cents_et_fossiles_(Ursus_arctos_californicus).jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Catalogue_of_the_mammals_of_Western_Europe_(Europe_exclusive_of_Russia)_in_the_collection_of_the_British_museum_(fig._50,_51_%26_52).png"},{"link_name":"concave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/concave"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soviet-57"},{"link_name":"zygomatic arches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zygomatic_arch"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soviet-57"},{"link_name":"incisors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Incisor"},{"link_name":"canine teeth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canine_teeth"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soviet-57"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Christiansen2-58"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"American black bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_black_bear"},{"link_name":"polar bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bear"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feldhamer-51"}],"sub_title":"Cranial morphology and size","text":"Brown bear skeletonSkullAdults have massive, heavily built concave skulls, which are large in proportion to the body.[55] The projections of the skull are well developed.[56] Skull lengths of Russian brown bears tend to be 31.5 to 45.5 centimetres (12.4 to 17.9 in) for males, and 27.5 to 39.7 centimetres (10.8 to 15.6 in) for females. The width of the zygomatic arches in males is 17.5 to 27.7 centimetres (6.9 to 11 in), and 14.7 to 24.7 centimetres (5.8 to 9.7 in) in females.[56] Brown bears have very strong teeth: the incisors are relatively big and the canine teeth are large, the lower ones being strongly curved. The first three molars of the upper jaw are underdeveloped and single crowned with one root. The second upper molar is smaller than the others, and is usually absent in adults. It is usually lost at an early age, leaving no trace of the alveolus in the jaw. The first three molars of the lower jaw are very weak, and are often lost at an early age.[56] The teeth of brown bears reflect their dietary plasticity and are broadly similar to other bears.[57][58] The teeth are reliably larger than American black bears, but average smaller in molar length than polar bears.[59] Brown bears have the broadest skull of any extant ursine bear.[50]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brown_Bear_Paws.jpg"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soviet-57"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soviet-57"},{"link_name":"American black bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_black_bear"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Herrero,_S._1972-18"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-62"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hunter-63"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"}],"sub_title":"Claws and feet","text":"Front pawsBrown bears have very large and curved claws, those present on the forelimbs being longer than those on the hind limbs. They may reach 5 to 6 centimetres (2.0 to 2.4 in) and may measure 7 to 10 centimetres (2.8 to 3.9 in) along the curve.[56] They are generally dark with a light tip, with some forms having completely light claws.[56] Brown bear claws are longer and straighter than those of American black bears (Ursus americanus).[55] The claws are blunt, while those of a black bear are sharp. Due to their claw structure, in addition to their excessive weight, adult brown bears cannot typically climb trees as well as black bears, although in rare cases adult female brown bears have been seen scaling trees.[60] The claws of a polar bear are quite different, being notably shorter but broader with a strong curve and sharper point.[17][61] The paws of the brown bear are quite large. The rear feet of adult bears measure 21 to 36 cm (8.3 to 14.2 in) long, while the forefeet tend to measure about 40% less in length.[62] Brown bears are the only extant bears with a hump at the top of their shoulder, which is made entirely of muscle, this feature having developed presumably for imparting more force in digging, which is habitual during foraging for the bear and also used heavily in den construction prior to hibernation.[55] The brown bear's strength has been roughly estimated as 2.5 to 5 times that of a human.[63]","title":"Description"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brown_bear_seaguls.jpg"},{"link_name":"Atlas Mountains","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_Mountains"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"},{"link_name":"extirpated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extirpated"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown_Bear_|_Species_|_WWF-66"},{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-67"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"Northwest Territories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northwest_Territories"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Alberta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alberta"},{"link_name":"[67]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-68"},{"link_name":"[68]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-69"},{"link_name":"Pyrenees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pyrenees"},{"link_name":"[69]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-70"},{"link_name":"Andorra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andorra"},{"link_name":"Asturias","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asturias"},{"link_name":"Cantabria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cantabria"},{"link_name":"Galicia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galicia_(Spain)"},{"link_name":"León","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Province_of_Le%C3%B3n"},{"link_name":"Picos de Europa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picos_de_Europa"},{"link_name":"[70]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-71"},{"link_name":"Finland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finland"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"Slovakia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovakia"},{"link_name":"Slovenia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Slovenia"},{"link_name":"Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greece"},{"link_name":"[71]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pax-Romana-72"},{"link_name":"[72]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ARCTUROS-73"},{"link_name":"Kurdistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurdistan"},{"link_name":"Iran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran"},{"link_name":"China","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/China"},{"link_name":"Kyrgyzstan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kyrgyzstan"},{"link_name":"North Korea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_Korea"},{"link_name":"Pakistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pakistan"},{"link_name":"Afghanistan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Afghanistan"},{"link_name":"India","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Hokkaidō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkaid%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hunter-63"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hunter-63"},{"link_name":"Himalayas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayas"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hunter-63"},{"link_name":"temperate forest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temperate_forest"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hunter-63"}],"text":"Brown bear at Brooks FallsBrown bears were once native to Europe, much of Asia, the Atlas Mountains of Africa, and North America,[64] but are now extirpated in some areas, and their populations have greatly decreased in other areas. There are approximately 200,000 brown bears left in the world.[65] The largest populations are in Russia with 130,000,[66] the United States with 32,500, and Canada with around 25,000. Brown bears live in Alaska, east through the Yukon and Northwest Territories, south through British Columbia and through the western half of Alberta. The Alaskan population is estimated at a healthy 30,000 individuals.[67] In the lower 48 states, they are repopulating slowly, but steadily along the Rockies and the western Great Plains.[68]In Europe, in 2010, there were 14,000 brown bears in ten fragmented populations, from Spain (estimated at only 20–25 animals in the Pyrenees in 2010,[69] in a range shared between Spain, France and Andorra, and some 210 animals in Asturias, Cantabria, Galicia and León, in the Picos de Europa and adjacent areas in 2013[70]) in the west, to Russia in the east, and from Sweden and Finland in the north to Romania (5000–6000), Bulgaria (900–1200), Slovakia (with about 600–800 animals), Slovenia (500–700 animals) and Greece (with Karamanlidis et al. 2015 estimating >450 animals) in the south.[71][72]In Asia, brown bears are found primarily throughout Russia, thence more spottily southwest to parts of the Middle East, including almost all parts of Kurdistan, to as far south as southwestern Iran, and to the southeast in Northeast China. Brown bears are also found in Western China, Kyrgyzstan, North Korea, Pakistan, Afghanistan and India. A population of brown bear can be found on the Japanese island of Hokkaidō, which holds the largest number of non-Russian brown bears in eastern Asia with about 2,000–3,000 animals.[62]This species inhabits the broadest range of habitats of any living bear species.[62]\nThey seem to have no altitudinal preferences and have been recorded from sea level to an elevation of 5,000 m (16,000 ft) in the Himalayas.[62] In most of their range, brown bears generally seem to prefer semiopen country, with a scattering of vegetation that can allow them a resting spot during the day. However, they have been recorded as inhabiting every variety of northern temperate forest known to occur.[62]","title":"Distribution and habitat"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Orso_bruno_marsicano.jpg"},{"link_name":"Marsican brown bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsican_brown_bear"},{"link_name":"Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abruzzo,_Lazio_and_Molise_National_Park"},{"link_name":"least-concern species","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Least-concern_species"},{"link_name":"IUCN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brown_bear&action=edit"},{"link_name":"American black bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_black_bear"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-iucn_status_19_November_2021-1"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Servheen-40"},{"link_name":"California grizzly bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_grizzly_bear"},{"link_name":"Ungava brown bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungava_brown_bear"},{"link_name":"Atlas bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atlas_bear"},{"link_name":"Mexican grizzly bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mexican_grizzly_bear"},{"link_name":"Pacific Northwest","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Northwest"},{"link_name":"[73]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Miller_&_Waits_2006-74"},{"link_name":"Syrian brown bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrian_brown_bear"},{"link_name":"[74]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Calvignac_et_al._2009-75"},{"link_name":"Himalayan brown bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Himalayan_brown_bear"},{"link_name":"[75]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-enews-76"},{"link_name":"Marsican brown bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marsican_brown_bear"},{"link_name":"[76]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-77"}],"sub_title":"Conservation status","text":"A Marsican brown bear, with a range restricted to the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park, ItalyWhile the brown bear's range has shrunk and it has faced local extinctions, it remains listed as a least-concern species by the IUCN, with a total population of approximately 200,000. As of 2012[update], this and the American black bear are the only bear species not classified as threatened by the IUCN.[1][39] However, the California grizzly bear, Ungava brown bear, Atlas bear and Mexican grizzly bear, as well as brown bear populations in the Pacific Northwest, were hunted to extinction in the 19th and early 20th centuries and many of the southern Asian subspecies are highly endangered.[73] The Syrian brown bear (U. a. syriacus) is very rare and it has been extirpated from more than half of its historic range.[74] One of the smallest-bodied subspecies, the Himalayan brown bear (U. a. isabellinus), is critically endangered, occupying only 2% of its former range and threatened by uncontrolled poaching for its body parts.[75] The Marsican brown bear in central Italy is believed to have a population of just 50 bears.[76]","title":"Distribution and habitat"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Ursus_arctos_-_Norway.jpg"},{"link_name":"nocturnal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nocturnal"},{"link_name":"[77]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-78"},{"link_name":"crepuscular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crepuscular"},{"link_name":"[78]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-79"},{"link_name":"[79]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-80"},{"link_name":"[80]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-81"},{"link_name":"[81]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-82"},{"link_name":"[82]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-83"},{"link_name":"hibernators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibernation"},{"link_name":"den","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maternity_den"},{"link_name":"[83]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-84"},{"link_name":"[84]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-85"},{"link_name":"[85]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-86"},{"link_name":"salmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmon"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-87"},{"link_name":"[87]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-88"},{"link_name":"[88]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-89"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dahle-90"},{"link_name":"Dominance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominance_(ethology)"},{"link_name":"[86]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:2-87"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Egbert-91"}],"text":"Like all bears, brown bears can stand on their hindlegs and walk for a few steps in this position, usually motivated to do so by curiosity, hunger or alarmThe brown bear is often described as nocturnal. However, it frequently seems to peak in activity in the morning and early evening hours.[77] Activity can occur at nearly any time of night or day, with bears who dwell in areas with more extensive human contact being more likely to be fully nocturnal. Furthermore, yearling and newly independent bears are more likely to be active diurnally and many adult bears in low-disturbance areas are largely crepuscular.[78][79][80] In summer through autumn, a brown bear can double its weight from the spring, gaining up to 180 kg (400 lb) of fat, on which it relies to make it through winter, when it becomes very lethargic.[81][82] Although they are not full hibernators and can be woken easily, both sexes like to den in a protected spot during the winter months. Hibernation dens may consist of any spot that provides cover from the elements and that can accommodate their bodies, such as a cave, crevice, cavernous tree roots, or hollow logs.[83][84]Brown bears have one of the largest brains of any extant carnivoran relative to their body size and have been shown to engage in tool use, which requires advanced cognitive abilities.[85] This species is mostly solitary, although bears may gather in large numbers at major food sources (e.g., open garbage dumps or rivers holding spawning salmon) and form social hierarchies based on age and size.[86][87] Adult male bears are particularly aggressive and are avoided by adolescent and subadult males, both at concentrated feeding opportunities and chance encounters. Female bears with cubs rival adult males in aggression and are much more intolerant of other bears than single females. Young adolescent males tend to be least aggressive and have been observed in nonantagonistic interactions with each other.[88][89] Dominance between bears is asserted by making a frontal orientation, showing off canines, muzzle twisting and neck stretching to which a subordinate will respond with a lateral orientation, by turning away and dropping the head and by sitting or lying down.[86] During combat, bears use their paws to strike their opponents in the chest or shoulders and bite the head or neck.[90]","title":"Behavior and life history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Brown bear sounds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yellowstone_sound_library_-_Grizzly_Bear_Eating_-_003.mp3"},{"link_name":"Brown bear roars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Yellowstone_sound_library_-_Grizzly_Bear_Eating_-_002.mp3"},{"link_name":"media help","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:Media"},{"link_name":"sclera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sclera"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Egbert-91"},{"link_name":"Growls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Growling"},{"link_name":"roars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roar_(vocalization)"},{"link_name":"guttural","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guttural"},{"link_name":"[90]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Egbert-91"}],"sub_title":"Communication","text":"Brown bear sounds\n\nBrown bear sounds including huffing, jaw popping and growling\nBrown bear roars\n\nBrown bears roaring over a carcass\nProblems playing these files? See media help.Several different facial expressions have been documented in brown bears. The \"relaxed-face\" is made in everyday activities and has the ears pointed to the sides and the mouth closed or slackly open. During social play, bears make \"relaxed open-mouth face\" in which the mouth is open, with a curled upper lip and hanging lower lip, and the ears alert and shifting. When looking at another animal at a distance, the bear makes an \"alert face\" as the ears are cocked and alert, the eyes wide open but the mouth is closed or only open slightly. The \"tense closed mouth face\" is made with the ears laid back and the mouth closed and occurs when the bear feels threatened. When approached by another individual, the animal makes a \"puckered-lip face\" with a protruding upper lip and ears which go from cocked and alert when at a certain distance to laid back when closer or when retreating. The \"jaw gape face\" consists of an open mouth with visible lower canines and hanging lips while the \"biting face\" is similar to the \"relaxed open-mouth face\" except the ears are flattened and the eyes are wide enough to expose the sclera. Both the \"jaw gape face\" and the \"biting face\" are made in aggression and bears switch between them.[90]Brown bears also produce various vocalizations. Huffing occurs when the animal is tense while woofing is made when alarmed. Both sounds are produced by exhalations though huffing is harsher and is made continuously (two per second). Growls and roars are made in aggression. Growling is \"harsh\" and \"guttural\" and can range from a simple grrr to a rumble. A rumbling growl can escalate into a roar when the bear is charging. Roaring is described as \"thunderous\" and can travel 2 km (1.2 mi). Mothers and cubs wanting physical contact will bawl, which is heard as waugh!, waugh!.[90]","title":"Behavior and life history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dahle-90"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pearson-92"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bellemain-93"},{"link_name":"British Columbia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Columbia"},{"link_name":"Yellowstone National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Romania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romania"},{"link_name":"[93]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-94"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Novak-95"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dahle-90"}],"sub_title":"Home ranges","text":"Brown bears usually occur over vast home ranges; however, they are not highly territorial. Several adult bears often roam freely over the same vicinity without issue, unless rights to a fertile female or food sources are being contested.[23][89] Males always cover more area than females each year. Despite their lack of traditional territorial behavior, adult males can seem to have a \"personal zone\" in which other bears are not tolerated if they are seen.[91] Males always wander further than females, due to both increasing access to females and food sources, while females are advantaged by smaller territories in part since it decreases the likelihood of encounters with male bears who may endanger their cubs.[23][92] In areas where food is abundant and concentrated, such as coastal Alaska, home ranges for females are up to 24 km2 (9.3 sq mi) and for males are up to 89 km2 (34 sq mi). Similarly, in British Columbia, bears of the two sexes travel relatively compact home ranges of 115 and 318 km2 (44 and 123 sq mi). In Yellowstone National Park, home ranges for females are up to 281 km2 (108 sq mi) and up to 874 km2 (337 sq mi) for males. In Romania, the largest home range was recorded for adult males (3,143 km2; 1,214 sq mi).[93] In the central Arctic of Canada, where food sources are quite sparse, home ranges range up to 2,434 km2 (940 sq mi) in females and 8,171 km2 (3,155 sq mi) in males.[94][89]","title":"Behavior and life history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%C3%84ht%C3%A4rin_karhut_24.jpg"},{"link_name":"Ähtäri Zoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84ht%C3%A4ri_Zoo"},{"link_name":"Ähtäri","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%84ht%C3%A4ri"},{"link_name":"mating season","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mating_season"},{"link_name":"[95]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-96"},{"link_name":"serially monogamous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Serially_monogamous"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Craighead-97"},{"link_name":"[91]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pearson-92"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White-98"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Walker-49"},{"link_name":"[97]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-White-98"},{"link_name":"[98]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ambarl-99"},{"link_name":"urine markings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urine_marking"},{"link_name":"[99]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-100"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feldhamer-51"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bellemain-93"},{"link_name":"Copulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copulation_(zoology)"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feldhamer-51"},{"link_name":"[100]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-101"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grizzly_Bear-_Sow_and_cubs_(5728173840).jpg"},{"link_name":"[89]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Dahle-90"},{"link_name":"[101]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-102"},{"link_name":"delayed implantation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delayed_implantation"},{"link_name":"uterine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uterus"},{"link_name":"[96]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Craighead-97"},{"link_name":"[102]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-103"},{"link_name":"[103]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-104"},{"link_name":"[104]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-105"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hunter-63"},{"link_name":"[105]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-106"},{"link_name":"[106]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-107"},{"link_name":"[107]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-108"},{"link_name":"[108]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Steyaert-109"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"[109]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-110"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kodiak_brown_bears_FWS_18385.jpg"},{"link_name":"[94]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Novak-95"},{"link_name":"[110]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-111"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hunter-63"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Feldhamer-51"},{"link_name":"Eurasia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasia"},{"link_name":"Hokkaido","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hokkaido"},{"link_name":"[111]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mano-112"},{"link_name":"[112]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-113"},{"link_name":"infanticide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Infanticide_(zoology)"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bellemain-93"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bellemain-93"},{"link_name":"[92]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Bellemain-93"},{"link_name":"[113]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-114"},{"link_name":"[114]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-M%C3%B6rner-115"}],"sub_title":"Reproduction","text":"Pair of mating brown bears at the Ähtäri Zoo in Ähtäri, FinlandThe mating season is from mid-May to early July, shifting later the further north the bears are found.[95] Being serially monogamous, brown bears remain with the same mate from a couple of days to a couple of weeks.[23] Outside of this narrow time frame, adult male and female brown bears show no sexual interest in each other.[23] Females mature sexually between the age of four and eight years of age, with an average age at sexual maturity of 5.2–5.5 years old,[96] while males first mate about a year later on average, when they are large and strong enough to successfully compete with other males for mating rights.[91][97] Males will try to mate with as many females as they can; usually a successful one mates with two females in a span of one to three weeks.[48][97] The adult female brown bear is similarly promiscuous, mating with up to four, rarely even eight, males while in heat and potentially breeding with two males in a single day.[98] Females come into oestrus on average every three to four years, with a full range of 2.4 to 5.7 years. The urine markings of a female in oestrus can attract several males via scent.[99] Dominant males may try to sequester a female for her entire oestrus period of approximately two weeks, but usually are unable to retain her for the entire time.[50][92] Copulation is vigorous and prolonged and can last up to an hour, although the mean time is about 23–24 minutes.[50][100]Grizzly bear cubs often imitate their mothers closely.Males take no part in raising their cubs – parenting is left entirely to the females.[89][101] Through the process of delayed implantation, a female's fertilized egg divides and floats freely in the uterus for six months. During winter dormancy, the fetus attaches to the uterine wall. The cubs are born eight weeks later while the mother sleeps. If the mother does not gain enough weight to survive through the winter while gestating, the embryo does not implant and is reabsorbed into the body.[96][102][103] There have been cases of brown bears with as many as six cubs, although the average litter size is one to three, with more than four being considered uncommon.[104] There are records of females sometimes adopting stray cubs or even trading or kidnapping cubs when they emerge from hibernation (a larger female may claim cubs away from a smaller one).[62][105][106] Older and larger females within a population tend to give birth to larger litters.[107] The size of a litter also depends on factors such as geographic location and food supply.[108] At birth, the cubs are blind, toothless and hairless and may weigh from 350 to 510 g (0.77 to 1.12 lb), again reportedly based on the age and condition of the mother. They feed on their mother's milk until spring or even early summer, depending on climate conditions. At this time, the cubs weigh 7 to 9 kg (15 to 20 lb) and have developed enough to follow her over long distances and begin to forage for solid food.[23][109]Kodiak bear cubs play-fightingThe cubs are fully dependent on the mother and a close bond is formed. During the dependency stage, the cubs learn (rather than inherit as instincts from birth) survival techniques, such as which foods have the highest nutritional value and where to obtain them; how to hunt, fish and defend themselves; and where to den.[94] Increased brain size in large carnivores has been positively linked to whether a given species is solitary, as is the brown bear, or raises their offspring communally, thus female brown bears have relatively large, well-developed brains, presumably key in teaching behavior.[110] The cubs learn by following and imitating their mother's actions during the period they are with her.[62] Cubs remain with their mother for an average of 2.5 years in North America, uncommonly being independent as early as 1.5 years of age or as late as 4.5 years of age.[50] The stage at which independence is attained may generally be earlier in some parts of Eurasia, as the latest date which mother and cubs were together was 2.3 years, most families separated in under two years in a study from Hokkaido and in Sweden most cubs on their own were still yearlings.[111][112] Brown bears practice infanticide, as an adult male bear may kill the cubs of another.[92] When an adult male brown bear kills a cub, it is usually because he is trying to bring the female into oestrus, as she will enter that state within two to four days after the death of her cubs.[92] Cubs may flee up a tree when they see a strange male bear approaching. The mother often successfully defends them, even though the male may be twice as heavy as her. However, females have been known to die in such confrontations.[92][113][114]","title":"Behavior and life history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Brown_Bear_Feeding_on_Salmon.jpg"},{"link_name":"salmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmon"},{"link_name":"omnivorous","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Omnivorous"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hunter-63"},{"link_name":"food energy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Food_energy"},{"link_name":"[115]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-116"},{"link_name":"berries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berry"},{"link_name":"flowers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flower"},{"link_name":"acorns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acorn"},{"link_name":"pine cones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pine_cone"},{"link_name":"mushrooms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mushroom"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"roots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root"},{"link_name":"bulbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulb"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ursus_arctos_Brown_bear-117"},{"link_name":"shoots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shoot_(botany)"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"sedges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carex"},{"link_name":"moss","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moss"},{"link_name":"[116]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Ursus_arctos_Brown_bear-117"},{"link_name":"forbs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Forb"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hunter-63"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hunter-63"},{"link_name":"larvae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larvae"},{"link_name":"grubs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larva"},{"link_name":"beehives","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beehive"},{"link_name":"moths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moth"},{"link_name":"army cutworm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Army_cutworm"},{"link_name":"[117]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-118"},{"link_name":"clams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clam"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"eggs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Egg_(biology)"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"rodents","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rodent"},{"link_name":"mammals","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mammal"},{"link_name":"marmots","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marmot"},{"link_name":"ground squirrels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ground_squirrel"},{"link_name":"mice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mouse"},{"link_name":"lemmings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lemming"},{"link_name":"voles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vole"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"Denali National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denali_National_Park"},{"link_name":"Arctic ground squirrels","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arctic_ground_squirrel"},{"link_name":"[118]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Brown-119"},{"link_name":"salmon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salmon"},{"link_name":"red foxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_fox"},{"link_name":"bald eagles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bald_eagle"},{"link_name":"common ravens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_raven"},{"link_name":"gulls","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gull"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Moose_mom_with_calves_and_a_bear,_Deanli_National_Park.png"},{"link_name":"Denali National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denali_National_Park"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"ungulate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ungulate"},{"link_name":"elk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elk"},{"link_name":"moose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moose"},{"link_name":"caribou","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reindeer"},{"link_name":"muskoxen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muskox"},{"link_name":"wild boar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wild_boar"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"[119]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-120"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macdonald-121"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"[120]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Macdonald-121"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"carrion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carrion"},{"link_name":"wolves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf"},{"link_name":"cougars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cougar"},{"link_name":"American black bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_black_bear"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"corn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maize"},{"link_name":"sorghum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorghum"},{"link_name":"berries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Berry"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"bee yards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beekeeping"},{"link_name":"honey bee","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_bee"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"}],"sub_title":"Dietary habits","text":"Brown bear feeding on salmonThe brown bear is one of the most omnivorous animals in the world and has been recorded as consuming the greatest variety of foods of any bear.[62] Despite their reputation, most brown bears are not highly carnivorous, as they derive up to 90% of their dietary food energy from vegetable matter.[115] They often feed on a variety of plant life, including berries, grasses, flowers, acorns and pine cones, as well as fungi such as mushrooms.[23] Among all bears, brown bears are uniquely equipped to dig for tough foods such as roots, bulbs[116] and shoots. They use their long, strong claws to dig out earth to reach the roots and their powerful jaws to bite through them.[23] In spring, winter-provided carrion, grasses, shoots, sedges, moss[116] and forbs are the dietary mainstays for brown bears internationally.[62] Fruits, including berries, become increasingly important during summer and early autumn. Roots and bulbs become critical in autumn for some inland bear populations if fruit crops are poor.[62] They will also commonly consume animal matter, which in summer and autumn may regularly be in the form of insects, larvae and grubs, including beehives. Bears in Yellowstone eat an enormous number of moths during the summer, sometimes as many as 40,000 army cutworm moths in a single day, and may derive up to half of their annual food energy from these insects.[117] Brown bears living near coastal regions will regularly eat crabs and clams. In Alaska, bears along the beaches of estuaries regularly dig through the sand for clams.[55] This species may eat birds and their eggs, including almost entirely ground- or rock-nesting species.[55] The diet may be supplemented by rodents or similar smallish mammals, including marmots, ground squirrels, mice, rats, lemmings and voles.[23] With particular regularity, bears in Denali National Park will wait at burrows of Arctic ground squirrels hoping to pick off a few of the 1 kg (2.2 lb) rodents.[118]In the Kamchatka peninsula and several parts of coastal Alaska, brown bears feed mostly on spawning salmon, whose nutrition and abundance explain the enormous size of the bears in these areas. The fishing techniques of bears are well-documented. They often congregate around falls when the salmon are forced to breach the water, at which point the bears will try to catch the fish in mid-air (often with their mouths). They will also wade into shallow waters, hoping to pin a slippery salmon with their claws. While they may eat almost all the parts of the fish, bears at the peak of spawning, when there is usually a glut of fish to feed on, may eat only the most nutrious parts of the salmon (including the eggs and head) and then indifferently leave the rest of the carcass to scavengers, which can include red foxes, bald eagles, common ravens and gulls. Despite their normally solitary habits, brown bears will gather rather closely in numbers at good spawning sites. The largest and most powerful males claim the most fruitful fishing spots and bears (especially males) will sometimes fight over the rights to a prime fishing spot.[55]A cow moose with calves being approached by an inland brown bear, Denali National Park, AlaskaBeyond the regular predation of salmon, most brown bears are not particularly active predators.[55] While perhaps a majority of bears of the species will charge at large prey at one point in their lives and most eat carrion, many predation attempts start with the bear clumsily and half-heartedly pursuing the prey and end with the prey escaping alive.[55] On the other hand, some brown bears are quite self-assured predators who habitually pursue and catch large prey items. Such bears are usually taught how to hunt by their mothers from an early age.[55] Large mammals preyed on can include various ungulate species such as elk, moose, caribou, muskoxen and wild boar.[23] When brown bears attack these large animals, they usually target young or infirm ones, as they are easier to catch. Typically when hunting (especially with young prey), the bear pins its prey to the ground and then immediately tears and eats it alive.[119] It will also bite or swipe some prey to stun it enough to knock it over for consumption.[120] To pick out young or infirm individuals, bears will charge at herds so the slower-moving and more vulnerable individuals will be made apparent. Brown bears may ambush young animals by finding them via scent.[23] When emerging from hibernation, brown bears, whose broad paws allow them to walk over most ice and snow, may pursue large prey such as moose whose hooves cannot support them on encrusted snow.[120] Similarly, predatory attacks on large prey sometimes occur at riverbeds, when it is more difficult for the prey specimen to run away due to muddy or slippery soil.[23] On rare occasions, while confronting fully-grown, dangerous prey, bears kill them by hitting with their powerful forearms, which can break the necks and backs of large creatures such as adult moose and adult bison.[55] They feed on carrion, and use their size to intimidate other predators, such as wolves, cougars, tigers, and American black bears from their kills. Carrion is especially important in the early spring (when the bears are emerging from hibernation), much of it comprising winter-killed big game.[23] Cannibalism is not unheard of, though predation is not normally believed to be the primary motivation when brown bears attack each other.[55]When forced to live in close proximity with humans and their domesticated animals, bears may potentially predate any type of domestic animal. Among these, domestic cattle are sometimes exploited as prey. Cattle are bitten on the neck, back or head and then the abdominal cavity is opened for eating.[23] Plants and fruit farmed by humans are readily consumed as well, including corn, wheat, sorghum, melons and any form of berries.[55] They may feed on domestic bee yards, readily consuming both honey and the brood (grubs and pupae) of the honey bee colony.[55] Human foods and trash are eaten when possible. When an open garbage dump was kept in Yellowstone, brown bears were one of the most voracious and regular scavengers. The dump was closed after both brown and American black bears came to associate humans with food and lost their natural fear of them.[55]","title":"Behavior and life history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Wolfbear.jpg"},{"link_name":"wolf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf"},{"link_name":"Siberian (Amur) tigers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siberian_tiger"},{"link_name":"Ussuri brown bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussuri_brown_bear"},{"link_name":"Ussuri black bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ussuri_black_bear"},{"link_name":"Russian Far East","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Far_East"},{"link_name":"bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear"},{"link_name":"groin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Groin"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soviet-57"},{"link_name":"hibernation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hibernation"},{"link_name":"[121]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FBW-122"},{"link_name":"[122]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Denning-123"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seryodkin2-124"},{"link_name":"[124]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seryodkin_PhD-125"},{"link_name":"[125]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-126"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-soviet-57"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seryodkin2-124"},{"link_name":"[123]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seryodkin2-124"},{"link_name":"telemetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telemetry"},{"link_name":"Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sikhote-Alin_Nature_Reserve"},{"link_name":"[126]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-127"},{"link_name":"Amur leopards","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amur_leopard"},{"link_name":"[127]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-128"},{"link_name":"[128]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-129"},{"link_name":"[129]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-130"},{"link_name":"wolves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf"},{"link_name":"Yellowstone National Park","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yellowstone_National_Park"},{"link_name":"[130]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-131"},{"link_name":"[131]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-132"},{"link_name":"cougars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cougar"},{"link_name":"[132]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-133"},{"link_name":"[133]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-134"},{"link_name":"[134]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-135"},{"link_name":"coyotes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coyote"},{"link_name":"wolverines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolverine"},{"link_name":"lynxes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lynx"},{"link_name":"carnivores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carnivora"},{"link_name":"raptorial birds","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birds_of_prey"},{"link_name":"steal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kleptoparasitism"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brown-56"},{"link_name":"golden eagle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_eagle"},{"link_name":"[135]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-136"},{"link_name":"American black bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_black_bear"},{"link_name":"[136]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-137"},{"link_name":"Asian black bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asian_black_bear"},{"link_name":"[137]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-denning-138"},{"link_name":"polar bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polar_bear"},{"link_name":"climate change","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climate_change"},{"link_name":"[138]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-139"},{"link_name":"[139]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-140"}],"sub_title":"Interspecific predatory relationships","text":"Brown bear being followed by a wolfAdult bears are generally immune to predatory attacks except from large Siberian (Amur) tigers and other bears. Following a decrease of ungulate populations from 1944 to 1959, 32 cases of Siberian tigers attacking both Ussuri brown bears (Ursus arctos lasiotus) and Ussuri black bears (U. thibetanus ussuricus) were recorded in the Russian Far East, and hair of bears were found in several tiger scat samples. Tigers attack black bears less often than brown bears, since the brown bears live in more open habitats and are not able to climb trees. In the same time period, four cases of brown bears killing female tigers and young cubs were reported, both in disputes over prey and in self-defense. Tigers mainly feed on the bear's fat deposits, such as the back, hams and groin.[56]In rare cases, when Amur tigers prey on brown bears, they usually target young and sub-adult bears, besides small female adults taken outside their dens, generally when lethargic from hibernation.[121] Predation by tigers on denned brown bears was not detected during a study carried between 1993 and 2002.[122] Ussuri brown bears, along with the smaller black bears constitute 2.1% of the Siberian tiger's annual diet, of which 1.4% are brown bears.[123][124]The effect the presence of tigers have on a brown bears behavior seems to vary. In the winters of 1970–1973, Yudakov and Nikolaev recorded two cases of bears showing no fear of tigers and another case of a brown bear changing path upon crossing tiger tracks.[125] Other researchers have observed bears following tiger tracks to scavenge tiger kills and to potentially prey on tigers.[56][123] Despite the threat of predation, some brown bears actually benefit from the presence of tigers by appropriating tiger kills that the bears may not be able to successfully hunt themselves.[123] During telemetry research in the Sikhote-Alin Nature Reserve, 44 direct confrontations between bears and tigers were observed, in which bears (not just brown bears) in general were killed in 22 cases, and tigers in 12 cases.[126] There are reports of brown bears specifically targeting Amur leopards and tigers to abstract their prey. In the Sikhote-Alin reserve, 35% of tiger kills were stolen by bears, with tigers either departing entirely or leaving part of the kill for the bear.[127] Some studies show that bears frequently track down tigers to usurp their kills, with occasional fatal outcomes for the tiger. A report from 1973 describes twelve known cases of brown bears killing tigers, including adult males. In all cases, the tigers were subsequently eaten by the bears.[128][129]Brown bears regularly intimidate wolves to drive them away from their kills. In Yellowstone National Park, bears pirate wolf kills so often, Yellowstone's Wolf Project director Doug Smith wrote, \"It's not a matter of if the bears will come calling after a kill, but when.\" Despite the high animosity between the two species, most confrontations at kill sites or large carcasses end without bloodshed on either side. Though conflict over carcasses is common, on rare occasions, the two predators tolerate each other on the same kill. To date, there is a single recorded case of fully-grown wolves being killed by a grizzly bear.[130] Given the opportunity, however, both species will prey on the other's cubs.[131]In some areas, grizzly bears regularly displace cougars from their kills.[132] Cougars kill small bear cubs on rare occasions, but there was one report of a bear killing a cougar of unknown age and condition between 1993 and 1996.[133][134] Smaller carnivorous animals, including coyotes, wolverines, lynxes, and any other sympatric carnivores or raptorial birds, are dominated by grizzly bears and generally avoid direct interactions with them, unless attempting to steal scraps of food. However, wolverines have been persistent enough to fend off a grizzly bear as much as ten times their weight off a kill.[55] There is one record of a golden eagle preying on a brown bear cub.[135]Brown bears usually dominate other bear species in areas where they coexist. Due to their smaller size, American black bears are at a competitive disadvantage to grizzly bears in open, unforested areas. Although displacement of black bears by grizzly bears has been documented, actual interspecific killing of black bears by grizzlies has only occasionally been reported. Confrontation is mostly avoided due to the black bear's diurnal habits and preference for heavily forested areas, as opposed to the grizzly's largely nocturnal habits and preference for open spaces.[136] Brown bears may also kill Asian black bears, though the latter species probably largely avoids conflicts with the brown bear, due to similar habits and habitat preferences to the American black species.[137]As of the 21st century, there has been an increase in interactions between brown bears and polar bears, theorized to be caused by climate change. Brown and grizzly bears have been seen moving increasingly northward into territories formerly claimed by polar bears. They tend to dominate polar bears in disputes over carcasses,[138] and dead polar bear cubs have been found in brown bear dens.[139]","title":"Behavior and life history"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:B%C3%A4renspurP1050395.jpg"},{"link_name":"paw","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paw"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Grizzly_rear_paw_print.jpg"},{"link_name":"ursid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hunter-63"},{"link_name":"[140]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-141"},{"link_name":"[141]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-142"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Walker-49"},{"link_name":"Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greater_Yellowstone_Ecosystem"},{"link_name":"[142]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-143"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hunter-63"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"wolves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolf"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Smith-24"},{"link_name":"flukes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fluke_(flatworm)"},{"link_name":"ticks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ticks"},{"link_name":"tapeworms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapeworms"},{"link_name":"roundworms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roundworm"},{"link_name":"biting lices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mallophaga"},{"link_name":"[143]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-144"},{"link_name":"[144]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-145"},{"link_name":"canine distemper virus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canine_distemper"},{"link_name":"Caniforms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caniform"},{"link_name":"stray dogs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stray_dog"},{"link_name":"wolves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wolves"},{"link_name":"[145]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-146"},{"link_name":"Aujeszky's disease","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aujeszky%27s_disease"},{"link_name":"[146]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-147"}],"sub_title":"Longevity and mortality","text":"Front paw imprintRear paw imprintThe brown bear has a naturally long life. Wild females have been observed reproducing up to 28 years of age, which is the oldest known age for reproduction of any ursid in the wild. The peak reproductive age for females ranges from four to 20 years old.[62][140] The lifespan of brown bears of both sexes within minimally hunted populations is estimated at an average of 25 years. The oldest wild brown bear on record was nearly 37 years old.[141] The oldest recorded female in captivity was nearly 40 years old, while males in captivity have been verified to live up to 47 years, with one captive male possibly attaining 50 years of age.[23][48]While male bears potentially live longer in captivity, female grizzly bears have a greater annual survival rate than males within wild populations per a study done in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.[142] Annual mortality for bears of any age is estimated at 10% in most protected areas.[62] Around 13% to 44% of cubs die within their first year even in well-protected areas.[23] Beyond predation by large predators including wolves, Siberian tigers and other brown bears, starvation and accidents also claim the lives of cubs. Studies have indicated that the most prevalent source of mortality for first-year cubs is malnutrition.[23]Brown bears are susceptible to parasites such as flukes, ticks, tapeworms, roundworms and biting lices.[143][144] It is thought that brown bears may catch canine distemper virus (CDV) from other Caniforms like stray dogs and wolves.[145] A captive individual allegedly succumbed to Aujeszky's disease.[146]","title":"Behavior and life history"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-148"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-148"},{"link_name":"Scandinavian Brown Bear Research Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.brownbearproject.com"},{"link_name":"proteomic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proteomics"},{"link_name":"peptides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peptide"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-148"},{"link_name":"sex hormone-binding globulin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sex_hormone-binding_globulin"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-148"},{"link_name":"[147]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:1-148"}],"sub_title":"Hibernation physiology","text":"Scientists are interested in understanding the hibernation physiology of brown bears, specifically in how they stay healthy after six months of inactivity.[147] It has been suggested by scientists that understanding how brown bears stay healthy during hibernation may potentially help lead to cures for human diseases such as diabetes or cardiovascular disease.[147] A study conducted through the Scandinavian Brown Bear Research Project did a proteomic analysis of the brown bear's blood, organs, and tissues to pinpoint proteins and peptides that either increased or decreased in expression in the winter and summer months.[147] One major finding was that the plasma protein sex hormone-binding globulin (SHBG) increased during the brown bear's hibernation period by 45 times.[147] Although scientists do not yet understand the role of SHBG in maintaining the brown bear's health, some scientists believe these findings could potentially be a factor in preventing human diseases that come from a sedentary life style.[147]","title":"Behavior and life history"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Relationship with humans"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sankebetsu_BrownBear01.png"},{"link_name":"[148]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-149"},{"link_name":"[149]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kistchinski-150"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-151"},{"link_name":"[151]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-akscience-152"},{"link_name":"[152]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-153"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-151"},{"link_name":"[153]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-154"},{"link_name":"[150]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-151"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-155"},{"link_name":"[155]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-156"},{"link_name":"kesa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kesa_(clothing)"},{"link_name":"worst brown bear attack in Japanese history","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sankebetsu_brown_bear_incident"},{"link_name":"Tomamae, Hokkaidō","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tomamae,_Hokkaid%C5%8D"},{"link_name":"[156]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-157"},{"link_name":"bear spray","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bear_spray"},{"link_name":"[157]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-158"}],"sub_title":"Attacks on humans","text":"A statue of the Ussuri brown bear from Hokkaido, JapanBrown bears usually avoid areas where extensive development or urbanization has occurred.[148] They rarely attack humans on sight and usually avoid people.[149] They are, however, unpredictable in temperament, and may attack if they are surprised or feel threatened.[150] The two most common causes for bear attacks are surprise and curiosity.[151] Mothers defending cubs are the most prone to attacking, being responsible for 70% of brown bear-caused human fatalities in North America.[152] Brown bear attacks tend to result in serious injury and, in some cases, death.[150] Due to the bears' enormous physical strength, even a single bite or swipe can be deadly.[153] Violent encounters with brown bears usually last only a few minutes, though they can be prolonged if the victims fight back.[150] A study conducted in 2019 found that 664 bear attacks were reported during a 15-year period (2000–2015) throughout North America and Eurasia. There were 568 injuries and 95 casualties.[154] Around 10 people a year are killed by brown bears in Russia, more than all the other parts of the brown bear's range combined.[155] In Japan, a large brown bear nicknamed \"Kesagake\" (\"kesa-style slasher\") caused the worst brown bear attack in Japanese history at Tomamae, Hokkaidō during numerous encounters during December 1915. It killed seven people and wounded three others before being gunned down after a large-scale beast-hunt.[156] A study by U.S. and Canadian researchers has found bear spray to be more effective at stopping aggressive bear behavior than guns, working in 92% of studied incidents versus 67% for guns.[157]","title":"Relationship with humans"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sports","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trophy_hunting"},{"link_name":"[158]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-159"},{"link_name":"northern Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Northern_Europe"},{"link_name":"[159]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-160"},{"link_name":"[154]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:3-155"},{"link_name":"American states","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._state"},{"link_name":"Alaska","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska"},{"link_name":"hunting license","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hunting_license"},{"link_name":"[160]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-161"},{"link_name":"James Bay (Eastern) Cree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/East_Cree"},{"link_name":"traditional Chinese food","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese_cuisine"},{"link_name":"[161]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-162"}],"sub_title":"Bear hunting","text":"Hunting of brown bears has occurred since ancient times, mainly for sports and royal showings of power. Humans have been recorded hunting brown bears for over 10,300–9,300 years.[158] In Europe, between the 17th and 18th centuries, humans sought to control brown bear numbers by awarding those who managed to kill one. This bounty scheme pushed the brown bear population to the brink of extinction before comprehensive protection was offered in the 1900s. In northern Europe, hunting still persists in the 21st century, contributing significantly to the drop in brown bear numbers.[159] In some places in Europe, bears are tricked into entering traps with the help of a bait.[154] Brown bears are also legally hunted in some American states, such as Alaska. However, a hunting license is required and killings of females with cubs will result in a prison sentence.[160]Their meat is sometimes consumed and used in recipes such as dumplings, hams and stews. The Indigenous people of James Bay (Eastern) Cree use their flesh in traditional dishes. In Asia and Romania, the paws are consumed as exotic delectables; brown bear paws have been a prevalent component of traditional Chinese food since 500 BC. The total weight of commercially sold brown bear meat is estimated at 17 tons annually.[161]","title":"Relationship with humans"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"zoos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zoo"},{"link_name":"wildlife parks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safari_park"},{"link_name":"[162]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-163"},{"link_name":"Stereotyped behavior","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stereotypical_behavior"},{"link_name":"[163]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-164"},{"link_name":"dancing bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tame_bear"},{"link_name":"violin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Violin"},{"link_name":"malnutrition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malnutrition"},{"link_name":"obesity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obesity"},{"link_name":"[164]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-165"},{"link_name":"[165]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-166"}],"sub_title":"In captivity","text":"There are more than 700 brown bears in zoos and wildlife parks worldwide. Captive bears are largely lethargic and spend a considerable amount of time doing nothing. When active, captive bears may be subject to repetitive back and forth motion, known widely as pacing. This behavior is most prevalent in bears kept in small, cramped cages often with no natural setting. Pacing is a way of coping with stress that comes with being trapped in unnaturally small spaces.[162] Stereotyped behavior has decreased due to better and larger enclosures being built, and more sustainable management from zoo staff.[163]They are also exploited as dancing bears. The process begins at an early age. Cubs, for example, are positioned on hot metal plates, causing them to exhibit dancing movements, and at the same time, violin music is running in the background. The process is repeated, resulting in bears being trained to dance when a violin is played. Similarly, brown bears are also displayed in tiny enclosures near a restaurant, mainly for the purpose of luring customers. Privately owned bears are often placed in insufficient environments and often suffer from malnutrition and obesity.[164] According to a 2009 analysis, the brown bear was the second most exploited circus animal after the tiger.[165]","title":"Relationship with humans"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cultural depictions of bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_depictions_of_bears"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:The_Three_Bears_-_Project_Gutenberg_etext_19993.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Story of the Three Bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Story_of_the_Three_Bears"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:A_house_of_cards,_Puck_cover.jpg"},{"link_name":"The Brown Bear of Norway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Brown_Bear_of_Norway"},{"link_name":"fairy tale","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fairy_tale"},{"link_name":"Goldilocks and the Three Bears","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goldilocks_and_the_Three_Bears"},{"link_name":"Snow White and Rose Red","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow_White_and_Rose_Red"},{"link_name":"Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brown_Bear,_Brown_Bear,_What_Do_You_See%3F"},{"link_name":"[166]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-167"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_mythology"},{"link_name":"western stories","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_literature"},{"link_name":"fables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fable"},{"link_name":"[167]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-168"},{"link_name":"[168]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-169"},{"link_name":"Paleolithic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paleolithic"},{"link_name":"[169]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-170"},{"link_name":"Russian bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_bear"},{"link_name":"national personification","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_personification"},{"link_name":"Soviet Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"[170]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-171"},{"link_name":"[171]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-172"},{"link_name":"Montana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Montana"},{"link_name":"[172]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-173"},{"link_name":"California golden bear","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California_grizzly_bear"},{"link_name":"[173]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ca.gov-174"},{"link_name":"charismatic megafauna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charismatic_megafauna"},{"link_name":"[174]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-175"},{"link_name":"Madrid","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Madrid"},{"link_name":"strawberry tree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arbutus_unedo"},{"link_name":"Bern","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bern"},{"link_name":"[175]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-176"},{"link_name":"[176]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-177"},{"link_name":"kuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Croatian_kuna"},{"link_name":"[177]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-178"}],"sub_title":"Culture","text":"Further information: Cultural depictions of bears\"The Story of the Three Bears\", illustration from Childhood's Favorites and Fairy StoriesCover of an American humor magazine Puck at 20 January 1904Brown bears often figure into the literature of Europe and North America as \"cute and cuddly\", in particular that which is written for children. \"The Brown Bear of Norway\" is a Scottish fairy tale telling the adventures of a girl who married a prince magically turned into a bear and who managed to get him back into a human form by the force of her love and after many trials and difficulties. With \"Goldilocks and the Three Bears\", a story from England, the Three Bears are usually depicted as brown bears. In German-speaking countries, children are often told the fairytale of \"Snow White and Rose Red\"; the handsome prince in this tale has been transfigured into a brown bear. In the United States, parents often read their preschool age children the book Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See? to teach them their colors and how they are associated with different animals.[166]In Ancient Greek mythology, bears have been compared to humans as similar, mainly due to their ability of standing upright. In many western stories and older fables the portrayed attributes of bears are sluggishness, foolishness and gullibility, which contradicts actual species. For example, bears have been reported tricking hunters by backtracking in the snow.[167] The Romans built small carved figures of bears that were used during burials of infants.[168] The earliest cave paintings of bears occurred in the Paleolithic, with over 100 recorded paintings.[169]The Russian bear is a common national personification for Russia (as well as the former Soviet Union), despite the country having no officially-designated national animal. The brown bear is Finland's national animal.[170][171] The grizzly bear is the state animal of Montana.[172] The California golden bear is the state animal of California, despite being extinct.[173] In North America, the brown bear is considered a charismatic megafauna and has long piqued people's interest. The death of Bear 148 at the hands of a trophy hunter in 2017, sparked media outrage and the continued disapproval of trophy hunting.[174]The coat of arms of Madrid depicts a bear reaching up into a madroño or strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo) to eat some of its fruit, whereas the Swiss city of Bern's coat of arms also depicts a bear and the city's name is popularly thought to derive from the German word for bear.[175][176] The brown bear is depicted on the reverse of the Croatian 5 kuna coin, minted since 1993.[177]","title":"Relationship with humans"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"}],"text":"^ Populations of Bhutan, China, Mexico and Mongolia are included in Appendix I. All other populations are included in Appendix \nII.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-5020035676","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-5020035676"}],"text":"Vaisfeld, M.A. and Chestin I. E., ed. (1993). Bears: Brown Bear, Polar Bear, Asian Black Bear. Distribution, ecology, use and protection (in Russian and English). Moscow: Nauka. ISBN 978-5020035676.","title":"Bibliography"}]

[{"image_text":"Adult female Eurasian brown bear, the nominate subspecies","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/Eurasian_brown_bear_%28Ursus_arctos_arctos%29_female_1.jpg/220px-Eurasian_brown_bear_%28Ursus_arctos_arctos%29_female_1.jpg"},{"image_text":"Possible grizzly-black bear hybrid in the Yukon Territory, Canada","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/To_replace_picture_in_%27Ursid_hybrid%27.jpg/220px-To_replace_picture_in_%27Ursid_hybrid%27.jpg"},{"image_text":"Brown bears are highly variable in size. Eurasian brown bears often fall around the middle to low sizes for the species.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Brown_bear_%28Ursus_arctos_arctos%29_smiling.jpg/220px-Brown_bear_%28Ursus_arctos_arctos%29_smiling.jpg"},{"image_text":"A brown bear in Slovenia","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Eurasian_brown_bear_%28Ursus_arctos_arctos%29_female_2.jpg/220px-Eurasian_brown_bear_%28Ursus_arctos_arctos%29_female_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Front paws","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Brown_Bear_Paws.jpg/220px-Brown_Bear_Paws.jpg"},{"image_text":"Brown bear at Brooks Falls","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Brown_bear_seaguls.jpg/220px-Brown_bear_seaguls.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Marsican brown bear, with a range restricted to the Abruzzo, Lazio and Molise National Park, Italy","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Orso_bruno_marsicano.jpg/220px-Orso_bruno_marsicano.jpg"},{"image_text":"Like all bears, brown bears can stand on their hindlegs and walk for a few steps in this position, usually motivated to do so by curiosity, hunger or alarm","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Ursus_arctos_-_Norway.jpg/170px-Ursus_arctos_-_Norway.jpg"},{"image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png"},{"image_text":"Pair of mating brown bears at the Ähtäri Zoo in Ähtäri, Finland","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/49/%C3%84ht%C3%A4rin_karhut_24.jpg/220px-%C3%84ht%C3%A4rin_karhut_24.jpg"},{"image_text":"Grizzly bear cubs often imitate their mothers closely.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Grizzly_Bear-_Sow_and_cubs_%285728173840%29.jpg/220px-Grizzly_Bear-_Sow_and_cubs_%285728173840%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Kodiak bear cubs play-fighting","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Kodiak_brown_bears_FWS_18385.jpg/220px-Kodiak_brown_bears_FWS_18385.jpg"},{"image_text":"Brown bear feeding on salmon","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Brown_Bear_Feeding_on_Salmon.jpg/170px-Brown_Bear_Feeding_on_Salmon.jpg"},{"image_text":"A cow moose with calves being approached by an inland brown bear, Denali National Park, Alaska","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Moose_mom_with_calves_and_a_bear%2C_Deanli_National_Park.png/220px-Moose_mom_with_calves_and_a_bear%2C_Deanli_National_Park.png"},{"image_text":"Brown bear being followed by a wolf","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Wolfbear.jpg/220px-Wolfbear.jpg"},{"image_text":"A statue of the Ussuri brown bear from Hokkaido, Japan","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/Sankebetsu_BrownBear01.png/220px-Sankebetsu_BrownBear01.png"},{"image_text":"Waterfowl hunters","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c6/BgforhuntingCrop.JPG/65px-BgforhuntingCrop.JPG"}]

[{"reference":"McLellan, B.N.; Proctor, M.F.; Huber, D.; Michel, S. (2017). \"Ursus arctos\". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. 2017: e.T41688A121229971. doi:10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T41688A121229971.en. Retrieved 19 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iucnredlist.org/species/41688/121229971","url_text":"\"Ursus arctos\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IUCN_Red_List","url_text":"IUCN Red List of Threatened Species"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2305%2FIUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T41688A121229971.en","url_text":"10.2305/IUCN.UK.2017-3.RLTS.T41688A121229971.en"}]},{"reference":"\"Appendices | CITES\". cites.org. Archived from the original on 5 December 2017. 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ISBN 978-1-85566-051-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=h04IHDeA4bkC&dq=info:hy5lQfAZSAIJ:scholar.google.com/&pg=PA177","url_text":"Festschrift"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85566-051-9","url_text":"978-1-85566-051-9"}]},{"reference":"Swenson, Jon E.; Europe, Council of (1 January 2000). Action Plan for the Conservation of the Brown Bear in Europe (Ursus Arctos). Council of Europe. p. 69. ISBN 978-92-871-4426-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=I9553WUdBnYC","url_text":"Action Plan for the Conservation of the Brown Bear in Europe (Ursus Arctos)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-92-871-4426-3","url_text":"978-92-871-4426-3"}]},{"reference":"Majić, Aleksandra; Marino Taussig de Bodonia, Agnese; Huber, Đuro; Bunnefeld, Nils (December 2011). \"Dynamics of public attitudes toward bears and the role of bear hunting in Croatia\". Biological Conservation. 144 (12): 3018–3027. Bibcode:2011BCons.144.3018M. doi:10.1016/j.biocon.2011.09.005. 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Security_testing

Security testing

["1 Confidentiality","2 Integrity","3 Authentication","4 Authorization","5 Availability","6 Non-repudiation","7 Taxonomy","8 Tools","9 See also","10 References"]

The process of finding flaws in the security of information systems This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Security testing" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2019) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Security testing is a process intended to detect flaws in the security mechanisms of an information system and as such help enable it to protect data and maintain functionality as intended. Due to the logical limitations of security testing, passing the security testing process is not an indication that no flaws exist or that the system adequately satisfies the security requirements. Typical security requirements may include specific elements of confidentiality, integrity, authentication, availability, authorization and non-repudiation. Actual security requirements tested depend on the security requirements implemented by the system. Security testing as a term has a number of different meanings and can be completed in a number of different ways. As such, a Security Taxonomy helps us to understand these different approaches and meanings by providing a base level to work from. Confidentiality A security measure which protects against the disclosure of information to parties other than the intended recipient is by no means the only way of ensuring the security. Integrity Integrity of information refers to protecting information from being modified by unauthorized parties A measure intended to allow the receiver to determine that the information provided by a system is correct. Integrity schemes often use some of the same underlying technologies as confidentiality schemes, but they usually involve adding information to a communication, to form the basis of an algorithmic check, rather than the encoding all of the communication. To check if the correct information is transferred from one application to other. Authentication This might involve confirming the identity of a person, tracing the origins of an artifact, ensuring that a product is what its packaging and labelling claims to be, or assuring that a computer program is a trusted one. Authorization The process of determining that a requester is allowed to receive a service or perform an operation. Access control is an example of authorization. Availability Assuring information and communications services will be ready for use when expected. Information must be kept available to authorized persons when they need it. Non-repudiation In reference to digital security, non-repudiation means to ensure that a transferred message has been sent and received by the parties claiming to have sent and received the message. Non-repudiation is a way to guarantee that the sender of a message cannot later deny having sent the message and that the recipient cannot deny having received the message. A sender-id is usually a header transmitted along with message which recognises the message source. Taxonomy Common terms used for the delivery of security testing: Discovery - The purpose of this stage is to identify systems within scope and the services in use. It is not intended to discover vulnerabilities, but version detection may highlight deprecated versions of software / firmware and thus indicate potential vulnerabilities. Vulnerability Scan - Following the discovery stage this looks for known security issues by using automated tools to match conditions with known vulnerabilities. The reported risk level is set automatically by the tool with no manual verification or interpretation by the test vendor. This can be supplemented with credential based scanning that looks to remove some common false positives by using supplied credentials to authenticate with a service (such as local windows accounts). Vulnerability Assessment - This uses discovery and vulnerability scanning to identify security vulnerabilities and places the findings into the context of the environment under test. An example would be removing common false positives from the report and deciding risk levels that should be applied to each report finding to improve business understanding and context. Security Assessment - Builds upon Vulnerability Assessment by adding manual verification to confirm exposure, but does not include the exploitation of vulnerabilities to gain further access. Verification could be in the form of authorized access to a system to confirm system settings and involve examining logs, system responses, error messages, codes, etc. A Security Assessment is looking to gain a broad coverage of the systems under test but not the depth of exposure that a specific vulnerability could lead to. Penetration Test - Penetration test simulates an attack by a malicious party. Building on the previous stages and involves exploitation of found vulnerabilities to gain further access. Using this approach will result in an understanding of the ability of an attacker to gain access to confidential information, affect data integrity or availability of a service and the respective impact. Each test is approached using a consistent and complete methodology in a way that allows the tester to use their problem solving abilities, the output from a range of tools and their own knowledge of networking and systems to find vulnerabilities that would or could not be identified by automated tools. This approach looks at the depth of attack as compared to the Security Assessment approach that looks at the broader coverage. Security Audit - Driven by an Audit and Risk function to look at a specific control or compliance issue. Characterized by a narrow scope, this type of engagement could make use of any of the earlier approaches discussed (vulnerability assessment, security assessment, penetration test). Security Review - Verification that industry or internal security standards have been applied to system components or product. This is typically completed through gap analysis and utilizes build and code reviews or by reviewing design documents and architecture diagrams. This activity does not utilize any of the earlier approaches (Vulnerability Assessment, Security Assessment, Penetration Test, Security Audit) Tools Container and Infrastructure Security Analysis SAST - Static Application Security Testing DAST - Dynamic Application Security Testing IAST - Interactive Application Security Testing DLP - Data Loss Prevention IDS, IPS - Intrusion Detection System, Intrusion Prevention System OSS Scanning - Open Source Software Scanning (see Open-source software security) RASP - Runtime Application Self-Protection SCA - Software Composition Analysis WAF - Web Application Firewall See also National Information Assurance Glossary References ^ M Martellini, & Malizia, A. (2017). Cyber and chemical, biological, radiological, nuclear, explosives challenges : threats and counter efforts. Springer. ^ "Introduction to Information Security" US-CERT https://www.us-cert.gov/security-publications/introduction-information-security ^ "Container Security Verification Standard". GitHub. 20 July 2022. ^ "Infrastructure as Code Security - OWASP Cheat Sheet Series". ^ "OWASP DevSecOps Guideline - v-0.2 | OWASP Foundation". ^ "Component Analysis | OWASP Foundation". vteInformation securityRelated security categories Computer security Automotive security Cybercrime Cybersex trafficking Computer fraud Cybergeddon Cyberterrorism Cyberwarfare Electromagnetic warfare Information warfare Internet security Mobile security Network security Copy protection Digital rights management vectorial versionThreats Adware Advanced persistent threat Arbitrary code execution Backdoors Hardware backdoors Code injection Crimeware Cross-site scripting Cross-site leaks DOM clobbering History sniffing Cryptojacking Botnets Data breach Drive-by download Browser Helper Objects Viruses Data scraping Denial-of-service attack Eavesdropping Email fraud Email spoofing Exploits Hacktivism Insecure direct object reference Keystroke loggers Logic bombs Time bombs Fork bombs Zip bombs Fraudulent dialers Malware Payload Phishing Voice Polymorphic engine Privilege escalation Ransomware Rootkits Scareware Shellcode Spamming Social engineering Spyware Software bugs Trojan horses Hardware Trojans Remote access trojans Vulnerability Web shells Wiper Worms SQL injection Rogue security software Zombie Defenses Application security Secure coding Secure by default Secure by design Misuse case Computer access control Authentication Multi-factor authentication Authorization Computer security software Antivirus software Security-focused operating system Data-centric security Obfuscation (software) Data masking Encryption Firewall Intrusion detection system Host-based intrusion detection system (HIDS) Anomaly detection Security information and event management (SIEM) Mobile secure gateway Runtime application self-protection Site isolation vteSoftware testingThe "box" approach Black-box testing All-pairs testing Exploratory testing Fuzz testing Model-based testing Scenario testing Grey-box testing White-box testing API testing Mutation testing Static testing Testing levels Acceptance testing Integration testing System testing Unit testing Testing types, techniques,and tactics A/B testing Benchmark Compatibility testing Concolic testing Concurrent testing Conformance testing Continuous testing Destructive testing Development testing Differential testing Dynamic program analysis Installation testing Negative testing Random testing Regression testing Security testing Smoke testing (software) Software performance testing Stress testing Symbolic execution Test automation Usability testing See also Graphical user interface testing Manual testing Orthogonal array testing Pair testing Soak testing Software reliability testing Stress testing Web testing

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["1 Disambiguation link notification for August 30","2 DYK for Cherokee Apartments","3 I have reverted your edit to Homosexual behavior in animals","4 DYK for Treasury General Account"]

This is Rublov's talk page, where you can send them messages and comments. Put new text under old text. Click here to start a new topic. New to Wikipedia? Welcome! Learn to edit; get help. Assume good faith Be polite and avoid personal attacks Be welcoming to newcomers Seek dispute resolution if needed Archives: 1Auto-archiving period: 90 days  Archives Archive 1 This page has archives. Sections older than 90 days may be automatically archived by Lowercase sigmabot III when more than 3 sections are present. Disambiguation link notification for August 30 An automated process has detected that when you recently edited One Court Square, you added a link pointing to the disambiguation page Citicorp Center. (Opt-out instructions.) --DPL bot (talk) 06:22, 30 August 2023 (UTC) DYK for Cherokee Apartments On 8 October 2023, Did you know was updated with a fact from the article Cherokee Apartments, which you recently created, substantially expanded, or brought to good article status. The fact was ... that in 2014, one could pay half a million US dollars to live in a former residence for people with tuberculosis? The nomination discussion and review may be seen at Template:Did you know nominations/Cherokee Apartments. You are welcome to check how many pageviews the nominated article or articles got while on the front page (here's how, Cherokee Apartments), and the hook may be added to the statistics page after its run on the Main Page has completed. Finally, if you know of an interesting fact from another recently created article, then please feel free to suggest it on the Did you know talk page. RoySmith (talk) 00:03, 8 October 2023 (UTC) I have reverted your edit to Homosexual behavior in animals In accordance with WP:BRD I have started a discussion at Talk:Homosexual behavior in animals#Removal of Short Description and you are invited to contribute. 🇺🇦 FiddleTimtrent FaddleTalk to me 🇺🇦 18:37, 29 October 2023 (UTC) DYK for Treasury General Account On 26 February 2024, Did you know was updated with a fact from the article Treasury General Account, which you recently created, substantially expanded, or brought to good article status. The fact was ... that the US federal government's "checking account" held more than $800 billion at the beginning of February 2024? The nomination discussion and review may be seen at Template:Did you know nominations/Treasury General Account. You are welcome to check how many pageviews the nominated article or articles got while on the front page (here's how, Treasury General Account), and the hook may be added to the statistics page after its run on the Main Page has completed. Finally, if you know of an interesting fact from another recently created article, then please feel free to suggest it on the Did you know talk page. theleekycauldron (talk • she/her) 00:03, 26 February 2024 (UTC)

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The fact was ... that in 2014, one could pay half a million US dollars to live in a former residence for people with tuberculosis? The nomination discussion and review may be seen at Template:Did you know nominations/Cherokee Apartments. You are welcome to check how many pageviews the nominated article or articles got while on the front page (here's how, Cherokee Apartments), and the hook may be added to the statistics page after its run on the Main Page has completed. Finally, if you know of an interesting fact from another recently created article, then please feel free to suggest it on the Did you know talk page.RoySmith (talk) 00:03, 8 October 2023 (UTC)[reply]I have reverted your edit to Homosexual behavior in animals[edit]In accordance with WP:BRD I have started a discussion at Talk:Homosexual behavior in animals#Removal of Short Description and you are invited to contribute. 🇺🇦 FiddleTimtrent FaddleTalk to me 🇺🇦 18:37, 29 October 2023 (UTC)[reply]DYK for Treasury General Account[edit]On 26 February 2024, Did you know was updated with a fact from the article Treasury General Account, which you recently created, substantially expanded, or brought to good article status. The fact was ... that the US federal government's \"checking account\" held more than $800 billion at the beginning of February 2024? The nomination discussion and review may be seen at Template:Did you know nominations/Treasury General Account. You are welcome to check how many pageviews the nominated article or articles got while on the front page (here's how, Treasury General Account), and the hook may be added to the statistics page after its run on the Main Page has completed. Finally, if you know of an interesting fact from another recently created article, then please feel free to suggest it on the Did you know talk page.theleekycauldron (talk • she/her) 00:03, 26 February 2024 (UTC)[reply]","title":"User talk:Rublov"}]

[]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-door_academic_policy

Open-door academic policy

["1 History","2 Pros and cons","3 Demographics","4 Limiting factors","5 Notable institutions with open-door policies","6 See also","7 References"]

University admissions policy An open-door academic policy, or open-door policy, is a policy whereby a university enrolls students without asking for evidence of previous education, experience, or references. Usually, payment of the academic fees (or financial support) is all that is required to enroll. Universities may not employ the open-door policy for all their courses, and those that have a universal open-door policy where all courses have no entry requirements are called open universities. The policy is sometimes characterized as a part of an educational revolution. From the dictionary meaning of the open-door policy, which is the idea of granting access to all those who want access, a similar idea can be drawn in terms of education. According to Deepa Rao, the open-door academic policy is one of the main ways in which adult learners become a part of university/college life. The recognized demand for post-secondary education made many institutions commit strongly to the policy, but many concealed limitations in the policy can prevent some from securing a degree. History In the early 20th century, higher education institutions opened at a rapid clip in western countries, and acceptance rates were generally low. This approach was strained as businesses increasingly demanded more employees who had earned advanced degrees. The Civil Rights Movement and the Baby Boom also encouraged administrators to expand the open-door academic policy. As time went on, colleges and universities lowered their admission standards and increasingly offered financial support to attract more students. In some instances, this practice developed into an open-door policy, and institutions saw increased enrollment. Pros and cons Open-door academic policies have been credited with increasing enrollment in underservedd communities facing adverse social or economic factors. The policy has also been credited with producing a skilled workforce and thereby economic benefits for greater society. Critics of such policies say that graduation rates of colleges are closely tied to their admissions policies. Six years after beginning a four-year program, an average of 60 percent of students nationwide will have graduated. However, that rate varies from 89 percent at colleges that accept less than one-quarter of applicants to 36 percent at those with an open admissions policy. Others have argued that the reduced revenue associated with open-door policies can lead to disinvestment in other aspects of higher education such as employee salaries and technology costs. Demographics Students at open-door universities tend to: Be non-traditional students, for example those who have delayed enrollment (those who did not go straight into university education after completing secondary education). Be older than students pursuing college directly after secondary education, their average age being 29. Possess an adult diploma or GED, rather than a normal high school diploma. Limiting factors Limiting factors restrict the student acceptance rate due to the following situations: Funding cuts, which can be supported by further funding. For example, funding through the school e.g. school fairs, raffles etc. Budget rearrangement is also a consideration in terms of allocating a smaller portion of funding for the open-door academic policy courses Lack of teaching staff, teachers resources, classroom space Over-subscription Legal terms restricting access for some students Waiting lists Prioritizing of students who have submitted Increase in education levels of students who submit Notable institutions with open-door policies The open-door academic policy's requirements can differ not only between different countries, but also between sub-national jurisdictions (states, provinces, regions). The following is a list of some universities and colleges around the world that have an open-door academic policy: Athabasca University (Canada) Delta College (United States) SIM University (Singapore) Open University (United Kingdom) Open Universities Australia (Australia) See also College admissions in the United States Cooling out Open admissions Transfer admissions in the United States University and college admissions References ^ Ng, Pedro Pak-Tao (1980). "Open-Door Education in Chinese Communes: Rationale, Problems, and Recent Changes". Modern China. 6 (3): 327–356. doi:10.1177/009770048000600305. JSTOR 189007. S2CID 143069578. ^ "Open-door policy | meaning of open-door policy in Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English | LDOCE". ^ "open-door policy - Definition from Longman English Dictionary Online". www.ldoceonline.com. Retrieved 2016-05-03. ^ a b c d e "NCSALL: The Open Door Policy". www.ncsall.net. Retrieved 2016-05-03. ^ a b c d e f Hendrick, Ruth Zimmer; Hightower, William H.; Gregory, Dennis E. (2006). "State Funding Limitations and Community College Open Door Policy: Conflicting Priorities?". Community College Journal of Research and Practice. 30 (8): 627–640. doi:10.1080/10668920600746078. S2CID 143762610. ^ Cohen & Brawer, A & F (2003). The American Community College. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. ^ "What are the graduation rates for students obtaining a bachelor's degree?". Fast Facts. National Center for Education Statistics. May 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2016. vteFree culture and open contentConcepts andpracticesKey concepts Commons-based peer production Crowdsourcing Gratis versus libre Open collaboration Open source Openness Participatory culture Sharism Social peer-to-peer processes Peer-to-peer banking Peer-to-peer carsharing Peer-to-peer lending Peer-to-peer ridesharing Research and science Citizen science Open science Access Notebook science Research Science data Plan S Data, information,and knowledge Free content Knowledge commons Open communication Open knowledge Content Data Communicationand learningMedia Collaborative writing Democratic media Open publishing Participatory media Peer review Education Open education Educational resources University Admissions Open-door academic policy Journalism Citizen media Citizen journalism and Wiki journalism Open-source journalism Economy, production,and developmentProducts Free and open-source software (FOSS) Free/libre software Open-source software Open-design movement Robotics Open gaming Open-source architecture Open-source hardware Economic principles Gift economy Open innovation Open patent Open standard Sharing economy Politics and governance Open government Open-source governance Organizations Creative Commons Free Software Foundation Open Architecture Network Openmod Initiative Open Knowledge Foundation Open Rights Group Open Source Initiative Open Web Foundation Pirate Party PLOS SPARC Activists Tim Berners-Lee Alexandra Elbakyan Lawrence Lessig Peter Murray-Rust Douglas Rushkoff Richard Stallman Peter Suber Peter Sunde Aaron Swartz John Wilbanks Projects andmovements DIYbio Free-culture movement Free software movement Open science movement Open Source Ecology Open-source software movement OpenCores OpenWetWare Sci-Hub Tools Licenses Creative Commons GPL Definition docs Free Cultural Works Free Software Open Open Source Open Data Indices Open educational resources Open music model Open Web movement

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazi-Maruttash

Nazi-Maruttash

["1 Conflict with Assyria","2 Other conflicts","3 Building works","4 The Hemerology for Nazi-Maruttaš","5 See also","6 Inscriptions","7 References","8 External links"]

King of Babylon Nazi-MaruttašKing of BabylonIrregular block of chalcedony with votive inscription of Nazi-Maruttaš in the LouvreReign1307–1282 BCPredecessorKurigalzu IISuccessorKadašman-TurguHouseKassite Nazi-Maruttaš, typically inscribed Na-zi-Ma-ru-ut-ta-aš or mNa-zi-Múru-taš, Maruttaš (a Kassite god synonymous with Ninurta) protects him, was a Kassite king of Babylon c. 1307–1282 BC (short chronology) and self-proclaimed šar kiššati, or "King of the World", according to the votive inscription pictured. He was the 23rd of the dynasty, the son and successor of Kurigalzu II, and reigned for twenty six years. His reign can be seen as the peak of the Kassite Dynasty, exemplified by his successful military campaigns against Assyria and Elam, the glyptic style of cylinder seals, the literature inspired by him (Hemerology for Nazi-Maruttaš), and his appearance in the period piece Ludlul bēl nēmeqi, which was set during his reign. Conflict with Assyria Nazi-Maruttaš faced a growing threat from the ascendancy of Assyria under Arik-den-ili and his successor Adad-Nīrāri I. The containment of Assyria was conducted through a strategy of flank attacks supported by his agents, eastern hillmen such as the Gutians, in a protracted war, avoiding a full frontal assault. Under Arik-den-ili, he seems to have had the upper hand, because Adad-Nīrāri, who styles himself "King of the Universe", later recounts that "my father could not rectify the calamities inflicted by the army of the king of the Kassite land" in a contemporary Assyrian epic. He is mentioned in the Synchronistic Chronicle as having fought a battle with Adad-Nīrāri's forces at "Kār-Ištar of Ugarsallu". The Assyrians claimed a complete victory over the Babylonians in this battle, plundering their camp and seizing the royal standards, thereby acquiring territory from them and causing the Assyro-Babylonian boundary to be adjusted southward. The conflict is fondly remembered in the Tukulti-Ninurta Epic, in its recounting of past Assyro-Babylonian conflicts, where he says, "And like Adad – I will send a devastating flood upon your camp!" Other conflicts There is evidence of a successful attack on Elam, because texts of this period concerning ration lists and foreign prisoners of war mention Nazi-Maruttaš in sections concerning the Elamites. A historical letter details his campaign in Mat Namri, a Hurrian region, and possibly his conquest of its twelve cities. A fragment of a tablet relates that "Marduk ca all the lands at his feet". A treasury list catalogues more than 125 precious artifacts and their move from Dūr-Kurigalzu and Nippur to Ardi-Bêlit during his 5th year, possibly for safe keeping. Building works Kudurru of Nazi-Maruttaš He is known to have made at least three Kudurru boundary stones, although the one pictured is a later stone copy made during the reign of Marduk-apla-iddina I to replace the clay original (narū ša haṣbi) which was crushed by a falling temple wall. A shrine to Gula was uncovered in 1946 in an eroded building with a pavement of much damaged kiln-baked bricks, some inscribed for Nazi-Maruttaš. This was located in the palace area at the Kassite capital, Dūr-Kurigalzu. Work was also undertaken at Nippur, and excavations have yielded various tablets. He was also active in building as far south as Uruk, the cella of the Eḫiliana of Nanâ, as attested to by a later inscription by Esarhaddon. Other cities formerly abandoned such as Larsa, Ur, Adab, and Isin show evidence of revival in his reign. There are nearly 400 economic texts dated to years up to the twenty fourth of his reign, detailing things as mundane as the receipt of barley and malt, the issuing of grain, goats, hides, sheep and oil. A tablet found in Tell Kirbasi, on the south side of the central Hor al-Hammar 30 km west of Basra, lists 47 head of cattle in the sixteenth year of Nazi-Maruttaš, showing the extent of trade. The Hemerology for Nazi-Maruttaš A single standard hemerology, or uttuku, was collated during his time. A 'hemerology' was a sort of almanac stating which days of each month were favorable, unfavorable, or dangerous for activities of interest to the king, such as those propitious for begetting children, or setting taxes. It was typically used by scribes, temple administrators, priests, cultic singers and exorcists and provided detailed instructions for "auspicious days". The colophon of the work reads, "Auspicious days according to the seven a originals from Sippar, Nippur, Babylon, Ur, Larsa, Uruk and Eridu. The scholars excerpted, selected, and gave to Nazi-Maruttaš, king of the world." Five extant examples have been found, including a bilingual copy in Dur-Kurigalzu, another found in the house of LÚ.NAR.GAL "cultic singers" in Aššur and a third in the house of Kiṣir-Aššur, exorcist of the temple of Aššur during the reign of Aššurbanipal. Lambert has argued that Ludlul bēl nēmeqi was composed during his reign based upon the identification of the protagonist Šubši-mašrâ-Šakkan with that of a character in a fragment of an epic of the Kassite times, and to the governor, or lúgar kur, of Ur during his 16th regnal year. Nazi-Maruttaš’ name appears on the reverse of a literary text fragment known as KAR 116 which Lambert identified as belonging to this work. The prominent physician, or asû, from Nippur, Rabâ-ša-Marduk, began his lengthy, well-attested career during Nazi-Maruttaš’ reign. See also Nazimaruttaš kudurru stone Maruts Inscriptions ^ a b AO 7704, an irregular block of chalcedony with a nine-line Sumerian inscription, now held in the Louvre, transcribed: na-zi-ma-ru-ut-ta-aš, šàr kiššati (šár), mār ku-ri-gal-zu, šàr bābili (ká.dingir.ra)ki, ša šumi, ša-aṭ-ra, ip-pa-aš-ši-ṭú, dŠamaš u dAdad, šum-šu lip-ši-ṭú. ^ According to the Kinglist A tablet, BM 33332, column 2, line 2, in the British Museum. ^ In the Epic of Adad-Nārāri, tablet VAT 9820 line 12: hi-ib-lat um-ma-ni MAN KUR ka.-.i-i a-bi ul ul-te-.èr. ^ Synchronistic Chronicle (ABC 21) tablet C, column 1, lines 24 to 31. ^ Tukulti-Ninurta Epic, extant in fragments BM 98496, BM 98730, BM 98731, BM 121033. ^ Ration lists Ni 6932 Šagarakti-Šuriaš year 9 and Ni 7050 Kaštiliašu IV accession year. ^ Tablet CBS 11014. ^ K 11536 published in MSKH I as U.2.26, p. 282. ^ CBS 14180. ^ a b Kudurru Sb. 21, a later stone copy of clay original. ^ Esarhaddon inscription YBC 2146. ^ KAR 147, KAR 177 (=VAT 9663), etc. ^ K 9952 W G Lambert BWL pl. 12 pp 296f., BM 35322, Sp. II,893. ^ KAR 116, tablet VAT 11245 r. 10. References ^ Wilfred G. Lambert (2007). Babylonian Oracle Questions. Eisenbrauns. p. 3. ^ Donald M. Matthews (1992). The Kassite Glyptic of Nippur. Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht. p. 62. ^ Devecchi, Elena. "4. Of Kings, Princesses, and Messengers: Babylonia’s International Relations during the 13th Century BC". Volume 1 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 1, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 112-122 ^ a b c I. E. S. Edwards, ed. (1975). Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2, Part 2, History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region, c. 1380-1000 BC. Cambridge University Press. pp. 32, 274–275. ^ a b c J. A. Brinkman (1976). Materials for the Study of Kassite History, Vol. I. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 262–286, 385. ^ Christopher Morgan (2006). Mark William Chavalas (ed.). The ancient Near East: historical sources in translation. Blackwell Publishing. p. 150. column 4, line 34. ^ H. W. F. Saggs (2000). Babylonians. British Museum. p. 119. ^ a b Leon Legrain (1922). Historical Fragments. Philadelphia: University Museum. pp. 97–99, 102–106. ^ Dominique Charpin (2011). Reading and Writing in Babylon. Harvard University Press. p. 216. ^ Clayden, Tim. "16. Dūr-Kurigalzu: New Perspectives". Volume 2 Karduniaš. Babylonia under the Kassites 2, edited by Alexa Bartelmus and Katja Sternitzke, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2017, pp. 437-478 ^ "VI. The Kassite and Neo-Babylonian Periods in Southern Iraq (c.1600–550 B.C.)" (PDF). Ashmolean Museum: 136. {{cite journal}}: Cite journal requires |journal= (help) ^ R. L. Zettler (1993). Nippur, Volume 3: Kassite Building in Area WC-3. Oriental Institute Publications. pp. 100, 106. ^ Clayden, Tim. "Ur in the Kassite Period". Babylonia under the Sealand and Kassite Dynasties, edited by Susanne Paulus and Tim Clayden, Berlin, Boston: De Gruyter, 2020, pp. 88-124 ^ M. Sigrist, H. H. Figulla and C. B. F. Walker (1996). Catalogue of Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, Volume II. British Museum Press. p. 82. BM 17729. ^ H. H. Figulla (1961). Catalogue of Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, Volume I. British Museum Press. p. 100. BM 13278. ^ Daniel T. Potts (1997). Mesopotamian civilization: the material foundations. Cornell University Press. p. 36. ^ Ralph Mark Rosen (2004). Time and Temporality in the Ancient World. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. p. 65. ^ a b Alasdair Livingstone (2007). "The Babylonian Almanac: A Text for Specialists?". In Brigitte Groneberg, Hermann Spieckermann (ed.). Die Welt der Götterbilder. pp. 85–101. ^ Simo Parpola (Jan 1983). "Assyrian Library Records". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 42 (1): 7. doi:10.1086/372983. S2CID 162337066. ^ Enrique Jiménez. “Loose Threads of Tradition: Two Late Hemerological Compilations.” Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 68, 2016, pp. 197–227 ^ William W. Hallo (2009). The World's Oldest Literature: Studies in Sumerian Belles Lettres. Brill. p. 242. ^ W. G. Lambert (1998). John Day; Robert P. Gordon; Hugh Godfrey Maturin Williamson (eds.). Wisdom in Ancient Israel. Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–34. ^ Nils P. Heeßel (2009). "The Babylonian Physician Rabâ-ša-Marduk: Another Look at Physicians and Exorcists in the Ancient Near East". In A. Attia, G. Buisson (ed.). Advances in Mesopotamian Medicine from Hammurabi to Hippocrates. Brill. pp. 13–28. External links Kudurru Image Article discussing Nazimaruttaš Kudurru, (Boundary Stone). vteKings of Babylon List of kings of Babylon Royal titles PeriodDynastyKings  (foreign rulervassal kingfemale♀)Old Babylonian Empire(1894–1595 BC)I Sumu-abum Sumu-la-El Sabium Apil-Sin Sin-Muballit Hammurabi Samsu-iluna Abi-Eshuh Ammi-Ditana Ammi-Saduqa Samsu-Ditana II Ilum-ma-ili Itti-ili-nibi Unknown king (?) Damqi-ilishu Ishkibal Shushushi Gulkishar mDIŠ+U-EN Peshgaldaramesh Ayadaragalama Akurduana Melamkurkurra Ea-gamil Kassite period(1729–1157 BC)III Gandash Agum I Kashtiliash I Unknown king Abi-Rattash Kashtiliash II Urzigurumash Agum II Harba-Shipak Shipta'ulzi Unknown king Burnaburiash I Ulamburiash Kashtiliash III Agum III Kadashman-Sah Karaindash Kadashman-Harbe I Kurigalzu I Kadashman-Enlil I Burna-Buriash II Kara-hardash Nazi-Bugash Kurigalzu II Nazi-Maruttash Kadashman-Turgu Kadashman-Enlil II Kudur-Enlil Shagarakti-Shuriash Kashtiliash IV Enlil-nadin-shumi Kadashman-Harbe II Adad-shuma-iddina Adad-shuma-usur Meli-Shipak Marduk-apla-iddina I Zababa-shuma-iddin Enlil-nadin-ahi Middle Babylonian period(1157–732 BC)IV Marduk-kabit-ahheshu Itti-Marduk-balatu Ninurta-nadin-shumi Nebuchadnezzar I Enlil-nadin-apli Marduk-nadin-ahhe Marduk-shapik-zeri Adad-apla-iddina Marduk-ahhe-eriba Marduk-zer-X Nabu-shum-libur V Simbar-shipak Ea-mukin-zeri Kashshu-nadin-ahi VI Eulmash-shakin-shumi Ninurta-kudurri-usur I Shirikti-shuqamuna VII Mar-biti-apla-usur VIII Nabû-mukin-apli Ninurta-kudurri-usur II Mar-biti-ahhe-iddina Shamash-mudammiq Nabu-shuma-ukin I Nabu-apla-iddina Marduk-zakir-shumi I Marduk-balassu-iqbi Baba-aha-iddina Ninurta-apla-X Marduk-bel-zeri Marduk-apla-usur Eriba-Marduk Nabu-shuma-ishkun Nabonassar Nabu-nadin-zeri Nabu-suma-ukin II Neo-Assyrian period(732–626 BC)IX Nabu-mukin-zeri Tiglath-Pileser III Shalmaneser V Marduk-apla-iddina II Sargon II Sennacherib Marduk-zakir-shumi II Marduk-apla-iddina II Bel-ibni Aššur-nādin-šumi Nergal-ushezib Mushezib-Marduk Sennacherib Esarhaddon Ashurbanipal Šamaš-šuma-ukin Ashurbanipal Kandalanu Sîn-šumu-līšir Sinsharishkun Neo-Babylonian Empire(626–539 BC)X Nabopolassar Nebuchadnezzar II Amel-Marduk Neriglissar Labashi-Marduk Nabonidus Babylon under foreign rule (539 BC – AD 224)Persian period(539–331 BC)XI Cyrus II Cambyses II Bardiya Nebuchadnezzar III Darius I Nebuchadnezzar IV Xerxes I Shamash-eriba Bel-shimanni Artaxerxes I Xerxes II Sogdianus Darius II Artaxerxes II Artaxerxes III Artaxerxes IV Nidin-Bel (?) Darius III Hellenistic period(331–141 BC)XII Alexander III Philip III Arrhidaeus Alexander IV Antigonus I Monophthalmus XIII Seleucus I Nicator Antiochus I Soter Seleucus Antiochus II Theos Seleucus II Callinicus Seleucus III Ceraunus Antiochus III Megas Antiochus Seleucus IV Philopator Antiochus IV Epiphanes Antiochus Antiochus V Eupator Demetrius I Soter Timarchus Demetrius I Soter Alexander Balas Demetrius II Nicator Parthian period(141 BC – AD 224)XIV Mithridates I Phraates II Rinnu♀ Antiochus VII Sidetes Phraates II Ubulna♀ Hyspaosines Artabanus I Mithridates II Gotarzes I Asi'abatar♀ Orodes I Ispubarza♀ Sinatruces Phraates III Piriustana♀ Teleuniqe♀ Orodes II Phraates IV Phraates V Orodes III Vonones I Artabanus II Vardanes I Gotarzes II Vonones II Vologases I Pacorus II Artabanus III Osroes I Vologases III Parthamaspates Vologases IV Vologases V Vologases VI Artabanus IV Category

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kassite god","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassite_deities"},{"link_name":"Ninurta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ninurta"},{"link_name":"Kassite","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kassites"},{"link_name":"Babylon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylon"},{"link_name":"short chronology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Short_chronology"},{"link_name":"šar kiššati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_of_the_Universe"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[i 1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-chalcedony-1"},{"link_name":"Kurigalzu II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurigalzu_II"},{"link_name":"[i 2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Assyria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria"},{"link_name":"Elam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elam"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"Ludlul bēl nēmeqi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludlul_b%C4%93l_n%C4%93meqi"}],"text":"Nazi-Maruttaš, typically inscribed Na-zi-Ma-ru-ut-ta-aš or mNa-zi-Múru-taš, Maruttaš (a Kassite god synonymous with Ninurta) protects him, was a Kassite king of Babylon c. 1307–1282 BC (short chronology) and self-proclaimed šar kiššati, or \"King of the World\", according to the votive inscription pictured.[1][i 1] He was the 23rd of the dynasty, the son and successor of Kurigalzu II, and reigned for twenty six years.[i 2]His reign can be seen as the peak of the Kassite Dynasty, exemplified by his successful military campaigns against Assyria and Elam, the glyptic style of cylinder seals,[2] the literature inspired by him (Hemerology for Nazi-Maruttaš), and his appearance in the period piece Ludlul bēl nēmeqi, which was set during his reign.","title":"Nazi-Maruttash"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Assyria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Assyria"},{"link_name":"Arik-den-ili","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arik-den-ili"},{"link_name":"Adad-Nīrāri I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adad-Nirari_I"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Gutians","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gutian_people"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edwards-6"},{"link_name":"[i 3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edwards-6"},{"link_name":"Synchronistic Chronicle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Babylonian_Chronicles"},{"link_name":"[i 4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"battle with Adad-Nīrāri's forces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle_of_K%C4%81r_I%C5%A1tar"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-edwards-6"},{"link_name":"Tukulti-Ninurta Epic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tukulti-Ninurta_Epic"},{"link_name":"[i 5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brinkman-10"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"Nazi-Maruttaš faced a growing threat from the ascendancy of Assyria under Arik-den-ili and his successor Adad-Nīrāri I.[3] The containment of Assyria was conducted through a strategy of flank attacks supported by his agents, eastern hillmen such as the Gutians, in a protracted war, avoiding a full frontal assault.[4] Under Arik-den-ili, he seems to have had the upper hand, because Adad-Nīrāri, who styles himself \"King of the Universe\", later recounts[i 3] that \"my father could not rectify the calamities inflicted by the army of the king of the Kassite land\" in a contemporary Assyrian epic.[4]He is mentioned in the Synchronistic Chronicle[i 4] as having fought a battle with Adad-Nīrāri's forces at \"Kār-Ištar of Ugarsallu\". The Assyrians claimed a complete victory over the Babylonians in this battle, plundering their camp and seizing the royal standards, thereby acquiring territory from them and causing the Assyro-Babylonian boundary to be adjusted southward.[4] The conflict is fondly remembered in the Tukulti-Ninurta Epic,[i 5] in its recounting of past Assyro-Babylonian conflicts,[5] where he says, \"And like Adad – I will send a devastating flood upon your camp!\"[6]","title":"Conflict with Assyria"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Elam","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Elam"},{"link_name":"[i 6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[i 7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-legrain-15"},{"link_name":"[i 8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Marduk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marduk"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brinkman-10"},{"link_name":"[i 9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"Dūr-Kurigalzu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dur-Kurigalzu"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-legrain-15"}],"text":"There is evidence of a successful attack on Elam, because texts[i 6] of this period concerning ration lists and foreign prisoners of war mention Nazi-Maruttaš in sections concerning the Elamites.[7] A historical letter[i 7] details his campaign in Mat Namri, a Hurrian region, and possibly his conquest of its twelve cities.[8]A fragment of a tablet[i 8] relates that \"Marduk ca[used] all the lands [to bow down] at his feet\".[5] A treasury list[i 9] catalogues more than 125 precious artifacts and their move from Dūr-Kurigalzu and Nippur to Ardi-Bêlit during his 5th year, possibly for safe keeping.[8]","title":"Other conflicts"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kudurru_of_Nazi-Maruttash.jpg"},{"link_name":"[i 10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kudurru-18"},{"link_name":"Kudurru","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kudurru"},{"link_name":"[i 10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-kudurru-18"},{"link_name":"Marduk-apla-iddina I","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marduk-apla-iddina_I"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"Gula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gula_(goddess)"},{"link_name":"bricks, some inscribed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mudbrick_stamp"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"Nippur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nippur"},{"link_name":"tablets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clay_tablet"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"Uruk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruk"},{"link_name":"cella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cella"},{"link_name":"Esarhaddon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esarhaddon"},{"link_name":"[i 11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"Larsa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larsa"},{"link_name":"Ur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur"},{"link_name":"Adab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adab_(city)"},{"link_name":"Isin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isin"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-brinkman-10"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"economic texts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Text_corpus"},{"link_name":"barley","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barley"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"goats","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goat"},{"link_name":"Basra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basra"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"}],"text":"Kudurru of Nazi-Maruttaš[i 10]He is known to have made at least three Kudurru boundary stones, although the one pictured[i 10] is a later stone copy made during the reign of Marduk-apla-iddina I to replace the clay original (narū ša haṣbi) which was crushed by a falling temple wall.[9]A shrine to Gula was uncovered in 1946 in an eroded building with a pavement of much damaged kiln-baked bricks, some inscribed for Nazi-Maruttaš. This was located in the palace area at the Kassite capital, Dūr-Kurigalzu.[10][11] Work was also undertaken at Nippur, and excavations have yielded various tablets.[12] He was also active in building as far south as Uruk, the cella of the Eḫiliana of Nanâ, as attested to by a later inscription by Esarhaddon.[i 11] Other cities formerly abandoned such as Larsa, Ur, Adab, and Isin show evidence of revival in his reign.[5][13]There are nearly 400 economic texts dated to years up to the twenty fourth of his reign, detailing things as mundane as the receipt of barley and malt,[14] the issuing of grain,[15] goats, hides, sheep and oil. A tablet found in Tell Kirbasi, on the south side of the central Hor al-Hammar 30 km west of Basra, lists 47 head of cattle in the sixteenth year of Nazi-Maruttaš, showing the extent of trade.[16]","title":"Building works"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"scribes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scribe"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-livingstone-29"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"colophon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colophon_(publishing)"},{"link_name":"Sippar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sippar"},{"link_name":"Uruk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uruk"},{"link_name":"Eridu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eridu"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[i 12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"Aššurbanipal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashurbanipal"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-livingstone-29"},{"link_name":"Šubši-mašrâ-Šakkan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0ub%C5%A1i-ma%C5%A1r%C3%A2-%C5%A0akkan"},{"link_name":"[i 13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"Ur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur"},{"link_name":"KAR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keilschrifttexte_aus_Assur_religi%C3%B6sen_Inhalts"},{"link_name":"[i 14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Rabâ-ša-Marduk","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rab%C3%A2-%C5%A1a-Marduk"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-heessel-37"}],"text":"A single standard hemerology, or uttuku, was collated during his time. A 'hemerology' was a sort of almanac stating which days of each month were favorable, unfavorable, or dangerous for activities of interest to the king, such as those propitious for begetting children, or setting taxes.[17] It was typically used by scribes, temple administrators, priests, cultic singers and exorcists[18] and provided detailed instructions for \"auspicious days\".[19]The colophon of the work reads, \"Auspicious days according to the seven a[pkallī?] originals from Sippar, Nippur, Babylon, Ur, Larsa, Uruk and Eridu.[20] The scholars excerpted, selected, and gave to Nazi-Maruttaš, king of the world.\"[21] Five extant examples[i 12] have been found, including a bilingual copy in Dur-Kurigalzu, another found in the house of LÚ.NAR.GAL \"cultic singers\" in Aššur and a third in the house of Kiṣir-Aššur, exorcist of the temple of Aššur during the reign of Aššurbanipal.[18]Lambert has argued that Ludlul bēl nēmeqi was composed during his reign based upon the identification of the protagonist Šubši-mašrâ-Šakkan with that of a character in a fragment of an epic of the Kassite times,[i 13] and to the governor, or lúgar kur, of Ur during his 16th regnal year. Nazi-Maruttaš’ name appears on the reverse of a literary text fragment known as KAR 116[i 14] which Lambert identified as belonging to this work.[22]The prominent physician, or asû, from Nippur, Rabâ-ša-Marduk, began his lengthy, well-attested career during Nazi-Maruttaš’ reign.[23]","title":"The Hemerology for Nazi-Maruttaš"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-chalcedony_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-chalcedony_1-1"},{"link_name":"Louvre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mus%C3%A9e_du_Louvre"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"British Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/British_Museum"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-8"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-9"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-12"},{"link_name":"Šagarakti-Šuriaš","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shagarakti-Shuriash"},{"link_name":"Kaštiliašu IV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashtiliash_IV"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-14"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-16"},{"link_name":"K 11536","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.cdli.ucla.edu/cdlisearch/search/index.php?SearchMode=Browse&ResultCount=1&txtID_Txt=P239010"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-17"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-kudurru_18-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-kudurru_18-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-23"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-33"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-34"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-35"},{"link_name":"KAR 116","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//oracc.museum.upenn.edu/cgi-bin/oracc?prod=list&project=cams/ludlul&seq=period,genre,provenience,designation&perpage=25&k0=_all&page=1&item=12"},{"link_name":"tablet VAT 11245","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//cdli.ucla.edu/cdlisearch/search/index.php?SearchMode=Text&txtID_Txt=P369096"}],"text":"^ a b AO 7704, an irregular block of chalcedony with a nine-line Sumerian inscription, now held in the Louvre, transcribed: na-zi-ma-ru-ut-ta-aš, šàr kiššati (šár), mār ku-ri-gal-zu, šàr bābili (ká.dingir.ra)ki, ša šumi, ša-aṭ-ra, ip-pa-aš-ši-ṭú, dŠamaš u dAdad, šum-šu lip-ši-ṭú.\n\n^ According to the Kinglist A tablet, BM 33332, column 2, line 2, in the British Museum.\n\n^ In the Epic of Adad-Nārāri, tablet VAT 9820 line 12: hi-ib-lat um-ma-ni MAN KUR ka.-.i-i a-bi ul ul-te-.èr.\n\n^ Synchronistic Chronicle (ABC 21) tablet C, column 1, lines 24 to 31.\n\n^ Tukulti-Ninurta Epic, extant in fragments BM 98496, BM 98730, BM 98731, BM 121033.\n\n^ Ration lists Ni 6932 Šagarakti-Šuriaš year 9 and Ni 7050 Kaštiliašu IV accession year.\n\n^ Tablet CBS 11014.\n\n^ K 11536 published in MSKH I as U.2.26, p. 282.\n\n^ CBS 14180.\n\n^ a b Kudurru Sb. 21, a later stone copy of clay original.\n\n^ Esarhaddon inscription YBC 2146.\n\n^ KAR 147, KAR 177 (=VAT 9663), etc.\n\n^ K 9952 W G Lambert BWL pl. 12 pp 296f., BM 35322, Sp. II,893.\n\n^ KAR 116, \ntablet VAT 11245 r. 10.","title":"Inscriptions"}]

[{"image_text":"Kudurru of Nazi-Maruttaš[i 10]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Kudurru_of_Nazi-Maruttash.jpg/160px-Kudurru_of_Nazi-Maruttash.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Nazimaruttaš kudurru stone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nazimarutta%C5%A1_kudurru_stone"},{"title":"Maruts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maruts"}]

[{"reference":"Wilfred G. Lambert (2007). Babylonian Oracle Questions. Eisenbrauns. p. 3.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/babylonianoracle00lamb_591","url_text":"Babylonian Oracle Questions"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/babylonianoracle00lamb_591/page/n24","url_text":"3"}]},{"reference":"Donald M. Matthews (1992). The Kassite Glyptic of Nippur. Vandenhoeck and Ruprecht. p. 62.","urls":[]},{"reference":"I. E. S. Edwards, ed. (1975). Cambridge Ancient History, Volume 2, Part 2, History of the Middle East and the Aegean Region, c. 1380-1000 BC. Cambridge University Press. pp. 32, 274–275.","urls":[]},{"reference":"J. A. Brinkman (1976). Materials for the Study of Kassite History, Vol. I. Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. pp. 262–286, 385.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Christopher Morgan (2006). Mark William Chavalas (ed.). The ancient Near East: historical sources in translation. Blackwell Publishing. p. 150.","urls":[]},{"reference":"H. W. F. Saggs (2000). Babylonians. British Museum. p. 119.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Leon Legrain (1922). Historical Fragments. Philadelphia: University Museum. pp. 97–99, 102–106.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.281470","url_text":"Historical Fragments"}]},{"reference":"Dominique Charpin (2011). Reading and Writing in Babylon. Harvard University Press. p. 216.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dominique_Charpin","url_text":"Dominique Charpin"}]},{"reference":"\"VI. The Kassite and Neo-Babylonian Periods in Southern Iraq (c.1600–550 B.C.)\" (PDF). Ashmolean Museum: 136.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.ashmolean.org/ash/amocats/anet/pdf-files/ANET-27Bronze1MesVI.pdf","url_text":"\"VI. The Kassite and Neo-Babylonian Periods in Southern Iraq (c.1600–550 B.C.)\""}]},{"reference":"R. L. Zettler (1993). Nippur, Volume 3: Kassite Building in Area WC-3. Oriental Institute Publications. pp. 100, 106.","urls":[]},{"reference":"M. Sigrist, H. H. Figulla and C. B. F. Walker (1996). Catalogue of Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, Volume II. British Museum Press. p. 82.","urls":[]},{"reference":"H. H. Figulla (1961). Catalogue of Babylonian Tablets in the British Museum, Volume I. British Museum Press. p. 100.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Daniel T. Potts (1997). Mesopotamian civilization: the material foundations. Cornell University Press. p. 36.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Ralph Mark Rosen (2004). Time and Temporality in the Ancient World. University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology. p. 65.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/timetemporalitya00rose","url_text":"Time and Temporality in the Ancient World"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/timetemporalitya00rose/page/n35","url_text":"65"}]},{"reference":"Alasdair Livingstone (2007). \"The Babylonian Almanac: A Text for Specialists?\". In Brigitte Groneberg, Hermann Spieckermann (ed.). Die Welt der Götterbilder. pp. 85–101.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dieweltdergotter00gron","url_text":"Die Welt der Götterbilder"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/dieweltdergotter00gron/page/n93","url_text":"85"}]},{"reference":"Simo Parpola (Jan 1983). \"Assyrian Library Records\". Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 42 (1): 7. doi:10.1086/372983. S2CID 162337066.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1086%2F372983","url_text":"10.1086/372983"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162337066","url_text":"162337066"}]},{"reference":"William W. Hallo (2009). The World's Oldest Literature: Studies in Sumerian Belles Lettres. Brill. p. 242.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/worldsoldestlite00hall","url_text":"The World's Oldest Literature: Studies in Sumerian Belles Lettres"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/worldsoldestlite00hall/page/n274","url_text":"242"}]},{"reference":"W. G. Lambert (1998). John Day; Robert P. Gordon; Hugh Godfrey Maturin Williamson (eds.). Wisdom in Ancient Israel. Cambridge University Press. pp. 33–34.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Nils P. Heeßel (2009). \"The Babylonian Physician Rabâ-ša-Marduk: Another Look at Physicians and Exorcists in the Ancient Near East\". In A. Attia, G. Buisson (ed.). Advances in Mesopotamian Medicine from Hammurabi to Hippocrates. Brill. pp. 13–28.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/advancesmesopota00atti","url_text":"Advances in Mesopotamian Medicine from Hammurabi to Hippocrates"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/advancesmesopota00atti/page/n30","url_text":"13"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network_interface_controller

Wireless network interface controller

["1 Modes of operation","2 Specifications","3 Range","4 FullMAC and SoftMAC devices","5 See also","6 References"]

Hardware component that connects a computer to a wireless computer network This article needs to be updated. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (July 2013) A wireless network interface device with a USB interface and internal antenna A Bluetooth interface card A wireless network interface controller (WNIC) is a network interface controller which connects to a wireless network, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or LTE (4G) or 5G rather than a wired network, such as an Ethernet network. A WNIC, just like other NICs, works on the layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model and uses an antenna to communicate via radio waves. A wireless network interface controller may be implemented as an expansion card and connected using PCI bus or PCIe bus, or connected via USB, PC Card, ExpressCard, Mini PCIe or M.2. The low cost and ubiquity of the Wi-Fi standard means that many newer mobile computers have a wireless network interface built into the motherboard. The term is usually applied to IEEE 802.11 adapters; it may also apply to a NIC using protocols other than 802.11, such as one implementing Bluetooth connections. Modes of operation An 802.11 WNIC can operate in two modes known as infrastructure mode and ad hoc mode: Infrastructure mode In an infrastructure mode network the WNIC needs a wireless access point: all data is transferred using the access point as the central hub. All wireless nodes in an infrastructure mode network connect to an access point. All nodes connecting to the access point must have the same service set identifier (SSID) as the access point. If wireless security is enabled on the access point (such as WEP or WPA), the NIC must have valid authentication parameters in order to connect to the access point. Ad hoc mode In an ad hoc mode network the WNIC does not require an access point, but rather can interface with all other wireless nodes directly. All the nodes in an ad hoc network must have the same channel and SSID. Specifications The IEEE 802.11 standard sets out low-level specifications for how all 802.11 wireless networks operate. Earlier 802.11 interface controllers are usually only compatible with earlier variants of the standard, while newer cards support both current and old standards. Specifications commonly used in marketing materials for WNICs include: Wireless data transfer rates (measured in Mbit/s) Wireless transmit power (measured in dBm) Wireless network standards supported, such as 802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ac, 802.11ax Most WNICs support one or more of 802.11, Bluetooth and 3GPP (2G, 3G, 4G, 5G) network standards. Range Wireless range may be substantially affected by objects in the way of the signal and by the quality of the antenna. Large electrical appliances, such as refrigerators, fuse boxes, metal plumbing, and air conditioning units can impede a wireless network signal. The theoretical maximum range of IEEE 802.11 is only reached under ideal circumstances and true effective range is typically about half of the theoretical range. Specifically, the maximum throughput speed is only achieved at extremely close range (less than 25 feet (7.6 m) or so); at the outer reaches of a device's effective range, speed may decrease to around 1 Mbit/s before it drops out altogether. The reason is that wireless devices dynamically negotiate the top speed at which they can communicate without dropping too many data packets. FullMAC and SoftMAC devices Main article: Comparison of open-source wireless drivers In an 802.11 WNIC, the MAC Sublayer Management Entity (MLME) can be implemented either in the NIC's hardware or firmware, or in host-based software that is executed on the main CPU. A WNIC that implements the MLME function in hardware or firmware is called a FullMAC WNIC or a HardMAC NIC and a NIC that implements it in host software is called a SoftMAC NIC. A FullMAC device hides the complexity of the 802.11 protocol from the main CPU, instead providing an 802.3 (Ethernet) interface; a SoftMAC design implements only the timing-critical part of the protocol in hardware/firmware and the rest on the host. FullMAC chips are typically used in mobile devices because: they are easier to integrate in complete products power is saved by having a specialized CPU perform the 802.11 processing; the chip vendor has tighter control of the MLME. Popular example of FullMAC chips is the one implemented on the Raspberry Pi 3. Linux kernel's mac80211 framework provides capabilities for SoftMAC devices and additional capabilities (such as mesh networking, which is known as the IEEE 802.11s standard) for devices with limited functionality. FreeBSD also supports SoftMAC drivers. See also List of device bandwidths Wi-Fi operating system support References ^ Meyers, Mike: Network+ Certification All-in-One Exam Guide, McGraw-Hill, 2004, p. 230. ^ "Linux Wireless glossary". Definition of FullMAC. Retrieved 23 July 2020. ^ a b "Linux Wireless glossary". Definition of SoftMAC. Retrieved 23 July 2020. ^ Al-Sakib Khan Pathan (2010). Security of Self-Organizing Networks: MANET, WSN, WMN, VANET. Taylor & Francis. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-4398-1919-7. ^ "mac80211 documentation". kernel.org. ^ "FreeBSD 11.0 - man page for upgt (freebsd section 4) - Unix & Linux Commands". Retrieved 1 June 2016.

[{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:USB-wireless-adapter.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:DELL_TrueMobile_350_Bluetooth_card.jpg"},{"link_name":"network interface controller","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_interface_controller"},{"link_name":"wireless network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network"},{"link_name":"Wi-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth"},{"link_name":"LTE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LTE_(telecommunication)"},{"link_name":"5G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/5G"},{"link_name":"Ethernet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethernet"},{"link_name":"OSI model","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OSI_model"},{"link_name":"antenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(radio)"},{"link_name":"radio waves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio_wave"},{"link_name":"expansion card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Expansion_card"},{"link_name":"PCI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_Component_Interconnect"},{"link_name":"PCIe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PCIe"},{"link_name":"USB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/USB"},{"link_name":"PC Card","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PC_Card"},{"link_name":"ExpressCard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ExpressCard"},{"link_name":"Mini PCIe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mini_PCIe"},{"link_name":"M.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/M.2"},{"link_name":"Wi-Fi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi"},{"link_name":"motherboard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motherboard"},{"link_name":"IEEE 802.11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11"},{"link_name":"Bluetooth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bluetooth"}],"text":"A wireless network interface device with a USB interface and internal antennaA Bluetooth interface cardA wireless network interface controller (WNIC) is a network interface controller which connects to a wireless network, such as Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, or LTE (4G) or 5G rather than a wired network, such as an Ethernet network. A WNIC, just like other NICs, works on the layers 1 and 2 of the OSI model and uses an antenna to communicate via radio waves.A wireless network interface controller may be implemented as an expansion card and connected using PCI bus or PCIe bus, or connected via USB, PC Card, ExpressCard, Mini PCIe or M.2.The low cost and ubiquity of the Wi-Fi standard means that many newer mobile computers have a wireless network interface built into the motherboard.The term is usually applied to IEEE 802.11 adapters; it may also apply to a NIC using protocols other than 802.11, such as one implementing Bluetooth connections.","title":"Wireless network interface controller"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ad hoc mode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_ad_hoc_network"},{"link_name":"wireless access point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_access_point"},{"link_name":"nodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Node_(networking)"},{"link_name":"service set identifier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_set_identifier"},{"link_name":"WEP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wired_Equivalent_Privacy"},{"link_name":"WPA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi_Protected_Access"},{"link_name":"authentication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Authentication"},{"link_name":"nodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Node_(networking)"}],"text":"An 802.11 WNIC can operate in two modes known as infrastructure mode and ad hoc mode:Infrastructure mode\nIn an infrastructure mode network the WNIC needs a wireless access point: all data is transferred using the access point as the central hub. All wireless nodes in an infrastructure mode network connect to an access point. All nodes connecting to the access point must have the same service set identifier (SSID) as the access point. If wireless security is enabled on the access point (such as WEP or WPA), the NIC must have valid authentication parameters in order to connect to the access point.Ad hoc mode\nIn an ad hoc mode network the WNIC does not require an access point, but rather can interface with all other wireless nodes directly. All the nodes in an ad hoc network must have the same channel and SSID.","title":"Modes of operation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IEEE 802.11","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11"},{"link_name":"wireless networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wireless_network"},{"link_name":"data transfer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_transfer"},{"link_name":"dBm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DBm"},{"link_name":"802.11b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.11b"},{"link_name":"802.11a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11a-1999"},{"link_name":"802.11g","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.11g"},{"link_name":"802.11n","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.11n"},{"link_name":"802.11ac","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11ac-2013"},{"link_name":"802.11ax","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi_6"}],"text":"The IEEE 802.11 standard sets out low-level specifications for how all 802.11 wireless networks operate. Earlier 802.11 interface controllers are usually only compatible with earlier variants of the standard, while newer cards support both current and old standards.Specifications commonly used in marketing materials for WNICs include:Wireless data transfer rates (measured in Mbit/s)\nWireless transmit power (measured in dBm)\nWireless network standards supported, such as 802.11b, 802.11a, 802.11g, 802.11n, 802.11ac, 802.11axMost WNICs support one or more of 802.11, Bluetooth and 3GPP (2G, 3G, 4G, 5G) network standards.","title":"Specifications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Meyers-1"}],"text":"Wireless range may be substantially affected by objects in the way of the signal and by the quality of the antenna. Large electrical appliances, such as refrigerators, fuse boxes, metal plumbing, and air conditioning units can impede a wireless network signal. The theoretical maximum range of IEEE 802.11 is only reached under ideal circumstances and true effective range is typically about half of the theoretical range.[1] Specifically, the maximum throughput speed is only achieved at extremely close range (less than 25 feet (7.6 m) or so); at the outer reaches of a device's effective range, speed may decrease to around 1 Mbit/s before it drops out altogether. The reason is that wireless devices dynamically negotiate the top speed at which they can communicate without dropping too many data packets.","title":"Range"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-glossary-softmac-3"},{"link_name":"802.3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/802.3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Pathan2010-4"},{"link_name":"Raspberry Pi 3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raspberry_Pi"},{"link_name":"Linux kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel"},{"link_name":"IEEE 802.11s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IEEE_802.11s"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-glossary-softmac-3"},{"link_name":"FreeBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBSD"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"In an 802.11 WNIC, the MAC Sublayer Management Entity (MLME) can be implemented either in the NIC's hardware or firmware, or in host-based software that is executed on the main CPU. A WNIC that implements the MLME function in hardware or firmware is called a FullMAC WNIC or a HardMAC NIC[2] and a NIC that implements it in host software is called a SoftMAC NIC.[3]A FullMAC device hides the complexity of the 802.11 protocol from the main CPU, instead providing an 802.3 (Ethernet) interface; a SoftMAC design implements only the timing-critical part of the protocol in hardware/firmware and the rest on the host.[4]FullMAC chips are typically used in mobile devices because:they are easier to integrate in complete products\npower is saved by having a specialized CPU perform the 802.11 processing;\nthe chip vendor has tighter control of the MLME.Popular example of FullMAC chips is the one implemented on the Raspberry Pi 3.Linux kernel's mac80211 framework provides capabilities for SoftMAC devices and additional capabilities (such as mesh networking, which is known as the IEEE 802.11s standard) for devices with limited functionality.[5][3]FreeBSD also supports SoftMAC drivers.[6]","title":"FullMAC and SoftMAC devices"}]

[{"image_text":"A wireless network interface device with a USB interface and internal antenna","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/USB-wireless-adapter.jpg/250px-USB-wireless-adapter.jpg"},{"image_text":"A Bluetooth interface card","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/28/DELL_TrueMobile_350_Bluetooth_card.jpg/220px-DELL_TrueMobile_350_Bluetooth_card.jpg"}]

[{"title":"List of device bandwidths","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_device_bandwidths"},{"title":"Wi-Fi operating system support","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wi-Fi_operating_system_support"}]

[{"reference":"\"Linux Wireless glossary\". Definition of FullMAC. Retrieved 23 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://wireless.wiki.kernel.org/en/developers/documentation/glossary#fullmac","url_text":"\"Linux Wireless glossary\""}]},{"reference":"\"Linux Wireless glossary\". Definition of SoftMAC. Retrieved 23 July 2020.","urls":[{"url":"https://wireless.wiki.kernel.org/en/developers/documentation/glossary#softmac","url_text":"\"Linux Wireless glossary\""}]},{"reference":"Al-Sakib Khan Pathan (2010). Security of Self-Organizing Networks: MANET, WSN, WMN, VANET. Taylor & Francis. p. 28. ISBN 978-1-4398-1919-7.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtBnZoijaDcC&pg=PA28","url_text":"Security of Self-Organizing Networks: MANET, WSN, WMN, VANET"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4398-1919-7","url_text":"978-1-4398-1919-7"}]},{"reference":"\"mac80211 documentation\". kernel.org.","urls":[{"url":"http://wireless.kernel.org/en/developers/Documentation/mac80211","url_text":"\"mac80211 documentation\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel.org","url_text":"kernel.org"}]},{"reference":"\"FreeBSD 11.0 - man page for upgt (freebsd section 4) - Unix & Linux Commands\". Retrieved 1 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.unix.com/man-page/FreeBSD/4/upgt/","url_text":"\"FreeBSD 11.0 - man page for upgt (freebsd section 4) - Unix & Linux Commands\""}]}]

[{"Link":"https://wireless.wiki.kernel.org/en/developers/documentation/glossary#fullmac","external_links_name":"\"Linux Wireless glossary\""},{"Link":"https://wireless.wiki.kernel.org/en/developers/documentation/glossary#softmac","external_links_name":"\"Linux Wireless glossary\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtBnZoijaDcC&pg=PA28","external_links_name":"Security of Self-Organizing Networks: MANET, WSN, WMN, VANET"},{"Link":"http://wireless.kernel.org/en/developers/Documentation/mac80211","external_links_name":"\"mac80211 documentation\""},{"Link":"http://www.unix.com/man-page/FreeBSD/4/upgt/","external_links_name":"\"FreeBSD 11.0 - man page for upgt (freebsd section 4) - Unix & Linux Commands\""}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicolas_Sanson

Nicolas Sanson

["1 Life and work","2 Principal works","3 References","3.1 Footnotes","3.2 Sources"]

French cartographer (1600–1667) Sanson A 1650 map of Sanson's showing North America (with California depicted as an island) Temeswar, now Timișoara in Romania, view by Sanson of 1656 Sanson's map of West Africa, 1655 Nicolas Sanson (20 December 1600 – 7 July 1667) was a French cartographer who served under two kings in matters of geography. He has been called the "father of French cartography." Life and work He was born of an old Picard family of Scottish descent, at Abbeville, on 20 (or 31) December 1600, and was educated by the Jesuits at Amiens. In 1627 he attracted the attention of Richelieu by a map of Gaul which he had constructed (or at least begun) while only eighteen. Sanson was royal geographer. He gave lessons in geography both to Louis XIII and to Louis XIV; and when Louis XIII, it is said, came to Abbeville, he preferred to be the guest of Sanson (then employed on the fortifications), instead of occupying the lodgings provided by the town. At the conclusion of this visit the king made Sanson a councillor of state. Active from 1627, Sanson issued his first map of importance, the "Postes de France", which was published by Melchior Tavernier in 1632. After publishing several general atlases himself he became the associate of Pierre Mariette, a publisher of prints. In 1647 Sanson accused the Jesuit Philippe Labbe of plagiarizing him in his Pharus Galliae Antiquae; in 1648 he lost his eldest son Nicolas, killed during the Fronde. Among the friends of his later years was the great Condé. He died in Paris on 7 July 1667. Two younger sons, Adrien (d. 1708) and Guillaume (d. 1703), succeeded him as geographers to the king. In 1692 Hubert Jaillot collected Sanson's maps in an Atlas nouveau. See also the 18th-century editions of some of Sanson's works on Delamarche under the titles of Atlas de géographie ancienne and Atlas britannique; and the Catalogue des cartes et livres de géographie de Sanson (1702). Sanson's maps were used as a model by his son, Guillaume, and, at least initially, by Duval, his nephew, in his 1664 folio map and 1660 atlas minor map. Outside of France, Sanson influenced the Italian mapmakers Nicolosi, Giacomo De Rossi (1677), and Paolo Petrini. In England, Blome (1669) used his map. Sanson continued to influence later mapmakers to 1700 through his association with Jaillot and, to a lesser degree, Duval. Principal works Sanson's principal works are: Galilee antiquae descriptio geographica (1627); Graeciae antiquae descriptio (1636); L'Empire romain (1637); Britannia, ou recherches de l'antiquité d'Abbeville (1638), in which he seeks to identify Strabo's Britannia with Abbeville; La France (1644); Tables méthodiques pour les divisions des Gaules (1644); L'Angleterre, l'Espagne, l'Italie et l'Allemagne (1644); Le Cours du Rhin (1646); In Pharum Galliae antiquae Philippi L'Abbe disquisitiones (1647–1648); Remarques sur la carte de l'ancienne Gaule de César (1651); L'Asie (1652); Index geographicus (1653); Les Estats de la Couronne d'Arragon en Espagne (1653); Geographia sacra (1653); L'Afrique (1656) Sanson, Nicolas (1656), Le Canada ou Nouvelle France, &c., Paris: Chez Pierre Mariette, OCLC 32881783 Sanson, Nicolas (1658), Cartes générales de toutes les parties du monde, Paris: P. Mariette, OCLC 11510414 Tables geographiques des divisions du globe terrestre (1677). Paris: H. Jalliot. 26 p. References Footnotes ^ a b "Guiana and Caribana". World Digital Library. 1700–1799. Retrieved 2013-10-25. ^ Betz, Richard L. (2007). The Mapping of Africa A Cartobibliography of Printed Maps of the African Continent to 1700. Brill. p. 68. ISBN 9789061944898. Sources  This article incorporates text from a publication now in the public domain: Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Sanson, Nicolas". Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 24 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 183. Wikimedia Commons has media related to Nicolas Sanson. Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Spain France BnF data Catalonia Germany Italy Israel Finland Belgium United States Sweden Czech Republic Australia Greece Netherlands Poland Portugal 2 Vatican Artists Scientific illustrators People Netherlands Deutsche Biographie Trove Other SNAC IdRef

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He has been called the \"father of French cartography.\"[1]","title":"Nicolas Sanson"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Picard","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Picardy"},{"link_name":"Scottish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scotland"},{"link_name":"Abbeville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbeville"},{"link_name":"Jesuits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jesuits"},{"link_name":"Amiens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amiens"},{"link_name":"Richelieu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cardinal_Richelieu"},{"link_name":"Gaul","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaul"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-WDL-1"},{"link_name":"Louis XIII","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIII_of_France"},{"link_name":"Louis XIV","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis_XIV_of_France"},{"link_name":"Melchior Tavernier","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melchior_Tavernier"},{"link_name":"Philippe Labbe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippe_Labbe"},{"link_name":"plagiarizing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plagiarizing"},{"link_name":"Fronde","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fronde"},{"link_name":"Condé","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Louis,_Grand_Cond%C3%A9"},{"link_name":"Hubert Jaillot","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hubert_Jaillot"},{"link_name":"Delamarche","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delamarche"},{"link_name":"Duval","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pierre_Duval_(geographer)"},{"link_name":"Nicolosi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giovan_Battista_Nicolosi"},{"link_name":"Blome","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Blome"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"}],"text":"He was born of an old Picard family of Scottish descent, at Abbeville, on 20 (or 31) December 1600, and was educated by the Jesuits at Amiens.In 1627 he attracted the attention of Richelieu by a map of Gaul which he had constructed (or at least begun) while only eighteen. Sanson was royal geographer.[1] He gave lessons in geography both to Louis XIII and to Louis XIV; and when Louis XIII, it is said, came to Abbeville, he preferred to be the guest of Sanson (then employed on the fortifications), instead of occupying the lodgings provided by the town. At the conclusion of this visit the king made Sanson a councillor of state.Active from 1627, Sanson issued his first map of importance, the \"Postes de France\", which was published by Melchior Tavernier in 1632. After publishing several general atlases himself he became the associate of Pierre Mariette, a publisher of prints.In 1647 Sanson accused the Jesuit Philippe Labbe of plagiarizing him in his Pharus Galliae Antiquae; in 1648 he lost his eldest son Nicolas, killed during the Fronde. Among the friends of his later years was the great Condé. He died in Paris on 7 July 1667. Two younger sons, Adrien (d. 1708) and Guillaume (d. 1703), succeeded him as geographers to the king.In 1692 Hubert Jaillot collected Sanson's maps in an Atlas nouveau. See also the 18th-century editions of some of Sanson's works on Delamarche under the titles of Atlas de géographie ancienne and Atlas britannique; and the Catalogue des cartes et livres de géographie de Sanson (1702).Sanson's maps were used as a model by his son, Guillaume, and, at least initially, by Duval, his nephew, in his 1664 folio map and 1660 atlas minor map. Outside of France, Sanson influenced the Italian mapmakers Nicolosi, Giacomo De Rossi (1677), and Paolo Petrini. In England, Blome (1669) used his map. Sanson continued to influence later mapmakers to 1700 through his association with Jaillot and, to a lesser degree, Duval.[2]","title":"Life and work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Strabo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strabo"},{"link_name":"Britannia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Britannia"},{"link_name":"Abbeville","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abbeville"},{"link_name":"Le Canada ou Nouvelle France, &c.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//services.banq.qc.ca/sdx/cep/document.xsp?app=ca.BAnQ.sdx.cep&db=notice&id=0002663301&n=4&dbrf0=xtgpleintexte_fr_FR&dbrv0=Le+Canada+ou+la+Nouvelle+France&sBtn=Lancer&qlang=fr-FR&db=notice&dbrn=1&sortfield=titre_trie&order=ascendant&col=*&chpp=20&dbrqp=search_notice&qid=sdx_q0"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"32881783","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/32881783"},{"link_name":"OCLC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"11510414","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/oclc/11510414"},{"link_name":"Tables geographiques des divisions du globe terrestre","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//digitalna.kniznica.info/s/yXciBnSYww"}],"text":"Sanson's principal works are:Galilee antiquae descriptio geographica (1627);\nGraeciae antiquae descriptio (1636);\nL'Empire romain (1637);\nBritannia, ou recherches de l'antiquité d'Abbeville (1638), in which he seeks to identify Strabo's Britannia with Abbeville;\nLa France (1644);\nTables méthodiques pour les divisions des Gaules (1644);\nL'Angleterre, l'Espagne, l'Italie et l'Allemagne (1644);\nLe Cours du Rhin (1646);\nIn Pharum Galliae antiquae Philippi L'Abbe disquisitiones (1647–1648);\nRemarques sur la carte de l'ancienne Gaule de César (1651);\nL'Asie (1652);\nIndex geographicus (1653);\nLes Estats de la Couronne d'Arragon en Espagne (1653);\nGeographia sacra (1653);\nL'Afrique (1656)\nSanson, Nicolas (1656), Le Canada ou Nouvelle France, &c., Paris: Chez Pierre Mariette, OCLC 32881783\nSanson, Nicolas (1658), Cartes générales de toutes les parties du monde, Paris: P. Mariette, OCLC 11510414\nTables geographiques des divisions du globe terrestre (1677). Paris: H. Jalliot. 26 p.","title":"Principal works"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_9370

IBM 9370

["1 History","2 Models and options","2.1 Early models","2.2 Enterprise systems architecture models","3 See also","4 Notes","5 References","6 Further reading","7 External links"]

IBM mainframe-compatible low-end system IBM 9370The 9370 system - three IBM 9309 racks, equipped with: compute nodes; storage modules; network modules.Also known asES/9370DeveloperIBMRelease date1986; 38 years ago (1986)Discontinued1989 (1989)Operating systemMVS, VM, VSE, AIX/370, DPPX The IBM 9370 systems are "baby mainframe" midrange computers, released 1986 at the very low end of, and compatible with System/370. The media of the day, referring to the VAX systems manufactured by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), carried IBM's alleged "VAX Killer" phrase, albeit often skeptically. History The IBM 9370 was created in the aftermath of the failed Fort Knox project, which attempted to consolidate all of IBM's midrange systems into a single IBM 801-based hardware platform. The announcement described the IBM 9370 as a "super-mini computer" for commercial and engineering/scientific use—compact, rack-mounted, designed for an office environment, not needing a data center to be used. At the time of announcement the systems were positioned between IBM's midrange systems (IBM System/36 and IBM System/38), and the IBM 4300 mainframe series in performance. The IBM 9370 was partially a replacement for the also-not-so-successful IBM 8100 distributed processing engine. High-level 9370 models were mentioned as a substitution when low-level 4300 models were withdrawn from marketing 1987. Intended to be sold in large amounts as departmental machines ("VAX killers"), the 9370 initially suffered from lack of software and the failure of IBM to market it properly. Nevertheless, the systems were popular at least with users actually needing System/370 compatibility while not wanting to accept the expense of a larger system (like e.g. smaller software houses) or with users (like some large IBM customers) preferring hierarchically structured distributed processing solutions rigidly managed by central communication controllers like IBM 37xx. By 1990 the 9370 line had around 6,300 installed systems and generated over 2 billion dollars in sales for IBM. The relatively lacklustre commercial success of the 9370 served as an impetus for the creation of the much more successful AS/400 midrange systems. While becoming part of the IBM Enterprise Systems Architecture in 1988 ("ES/9370" like "ES/4300" and "ES/3090"), the 9370s weren't XA systems. In 1990 IBM announced the "ES/9000" series; the rack-mounted models 120-170 with 31-bit Enterprise Systems Architecture (ESA) and ESCON were the suggested upgrades for ES/9370 users. Models and options Single-rack 9375 system Early models Model Model No. Level Memory (MB) I/O card slots DASD/Tape Controller Workstation Controller MVS/SP capability 20, 30 9373 low priced, entry level 4, 8, 16 7 1-2 2 no 40, 50, 55, 60 9375 mid-size 8, 16 17 1-4 2-4 larger Mod.60 only 80, 90 9377 highest (5x Mod.20) 8, 16 54 1-12 2-12 yes The original 9370 hardware was based on technology created for the Fort Knox project - reusing some of the IBM 801-based processor design, and the SPD I/O bus which was derived from the Series/1 bus. All models included a floating-point accelerator as well as a processor console to install, operate and maintain the system. A militarized variant of the 9370 named the System/MIL-370 was announced alongside the original 9370 models, designed to operate in harsher environmental conditions than the standard 9370 hardware. Each DASD/Tape Controller had eight device addresses and provided a data transfer rate of 3 MB. IBM 9332 (368 MB) and IBM 9335 (824 MB) DASD and IBM 9347 nine-track half-inch tape have been announced for the 9370s. Each Workstation Controller could interface up to 32 IBM 3270 terminals / printers. Software for all models included VM/SP+VM/IS, VSE/SP, and VM/SP+IX/370, while MVS/SP was only available for larger models. Enterprise systems architecture models An upgrade (Miscellaneous Equipment Specification, MES) was available which involved - among other things - replacing the 9332 FBA drives with CKD enabled DASDs. In 1988, Distributed Processing Programming Executive DPPX/370 for ES/9370 was made available to customers wanting to migrate from the IBM 8100 running DPPX. The "Micro Channel 370" Models 010, 012, 014 (later 110, 112, 114) ES/9371 introduced in 1990 used the Micro Channel bus and a 386 CPU for input/output (I/O) processing. Additionally, a dual-processor model was offered, providing a second 386 CPU for DOS and OS/2 applications, implementing a high-speed link between the processors. With the models mentioned, APPC support was added, using LU6.2 based on SNA PU2.1. See also Mainframe System/370 IBM 4300 IBM System/36 / IBM System/38 IBM 7437 Notes References ^ "IBM ES/9370: Extending enterprise solutions". IBM. 1989. Retrieved July 9, 2022. ^ David E. Sanger (October 8, 1986). "I.B.M.'s Overseas Sales Slowing; Stock Plunges". The New York Times. ...the introduction of a new series of small mainframe computers, called the I.B.M. 9370 Information System, that the company is counting on to revive its offerings in the midrange computer market. ^ David E. Sanger (January 3, 1988). "The Moment of Truth for Big Blue". The New York Times. appears to be slaying precious few Vaxes ^ a b Frank G. Soltis (1997). Inside the AS/400, Second Edition. Duke Press. ISBN 978-1882419661. ^ a b IBM 9370 INFORMATION SYSTEM OVERVIEW ^ Network World article Dec.22, 1986 p.28 ^ June 16th 1989 CW article Archived 2012-07-31 at archive.today mentioning 8100-9370 replacement (in German) ^ Network World article Jun.29, 1987 p.27 ^ Christine Winter (June 20, 1988). "New IBM Midrange To Debut". Chicago Tribune. The 9370, a midrange computer nicknamed the VAX-killer because it reportedly was designed to attack Digital`s stronghold, its VAX line... ^ a b Hamilton, Rosemary (February 5, 1990). "IBM 9370 user survives battle of misconceptions". Computerworld. Retrieved February 22, 2013. ^ Christine Winter (June 20, 1988). "NEW IBM MIDRANGE TO DEBUT". Chicago Tribune. ^ IBM Corporation (January 23, 2003). "System/390 ES/9000 Processor characteristics". IBM Archives. Retrieved February 22, 2013. ^ Mitchell, James (September 1988). "Implementing a mainframe architecture in a 9370 processor". ACM SIGMICRO Newsletter. 19 (3): 3–10. doi:10.1145/62185.62186. ISSN 1050-916X. S2CID 14602753. ^ Cocke, John; Markstein, Victoria (January 1990). "The evolution of RISC technology at IBM" (PDF). IBM Journal of Research and Development. 34 (1): 4–11. doi:10.1147/rd.341.0004. ^ IEEE Xplore - Porting DPPX from the IBM 8100 to the IBM ES/9370 Further reading Prasad, N.S. (1989). IBM Mainframes: Architecture and Design. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0070506862. — Chapter 12 (pp. 277–286) describes the 9370. External links IBM Archives: 1986 IBM z systems history in the 1980s (With photos of IBM 9370) IBM 9370 product announcement vteIBM System/370ModelsSystem/370(1970–1977) Model 115 Model 125 Model 135 Model 138 Model 145 Model 148 Model 155 Model 158 Model 165 Model 168 Model 195 30XX(1977–1990) 303X series 308X series 3090 Low-end 43xx models 9370 models Peripherals 270x communications controllers 3705 Communications Controller 2540 punched-card reader–writer Software DOS/360 and successors OS/360 and successors OS/VS1 TSS/370 Related Basic Assembly Language and successors Bus and Tag Channel I/O ES EVM Hexadecimal floating-point Hercules Language for Systems Development PC-based IBM mainframe-compatible systems Program status word System/360 System/370 IBM System/390 IBM zSeries System z9 System z10 IBM zEnterprise System IBM Z Authority control databases: National Israel United States

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The media of the day, referring to the VAX systems manufactured by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC), carried IBM's alleged \"VAX Killer\" phrase, albeit often skeptically.[3]","title":"IBM 9370"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Fort Knox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_AS/400#Fort_Knox"},{"link_name":"IBM 801","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_801"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inside-as400-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9370-announcement-5"},{"link_name":"super-mini computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Superminicomputer"},{"link_name":"data center","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_center"},{"link_name":"IBM System/36","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/36"},{"link_name":"IBM System/38","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_System/38"},{"link_name":"IBM 4300","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_4300"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"IBM 8100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_8100"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"VAX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAX"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hamilton1990-10"},{"link_name":"communication controllers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Front-end_processor"},{"link_name":"IBM 37xx","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_37xx"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Hamilton1990-10"},{"link_name":"AS/400","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AS/400"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"IBM Enterprise Systems Architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Enterprise_Systems_Architecture"},{"link_name":"ES/9000","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ES/9000"},{"link_name":"ESCON","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ESCON"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"}],"text":"The IBM 9370 was created in the aftermath of the failed Fort Knox project, which attempted to consolidate all of IBM's midrange systems into a single IBM 801-based hardware platform.[4] The announcement[5] described the IBM 9370 as a \"super-mini computer\" for commercial and engineering/scientific use—compact, rack-mounted, designed for an office environment, not needing a data center to be used.At the time of announcement the systems were positioned between IBM's midrange systems (IBM System/36 and IBM System/38), and the IBM 4300 mainframe series in performance.[6] The IBM 9370 was partially a replacement[7] for the also-not-so-successful IBM 8100 distributed processing engine. High-level 9370 models were mentioned as a substitution[8] when low-level 4300 models were withdrawn from marketing 1987.Intended to be sold in large amounts as departmental machines (\"VAX killers\"),[9] the 9370 initially suffered from lack of software and the failure of IBM to market it properly.[10] Nevertheless, the systems were popular at least with users actually needing System/370 compatibility while not wanting to accept the expense of a larger system (like e.g. smaller software houses) or with users (like some large IBM customers) preferring hierarchically structured distributed processing solutions rigidly managed by central communication controllers like IBM 37xx. By 1990 the 9370 line had around 6,300 installed systems and generated over 2 billion dollars in sales for IBM.[10] The relatively lacklustre commercial success of the 9370 served as an impetus for the creation of the much more successful AS/400 midrange systems.[11]While becoming part of the IBM Enterprise Systems Architecture in 1988 (\"ES/9370\" like \"ES/4300\" and \"ES/3090\"), the 9370s weren't XA systems. In 1990 IBM announced the \"ES/9000\" series; the rack-mounted models 120-170 with 31-bit Enterprise Systems Architecture (ESA) and ESCON were the suggested upgrades for ES/9370 users.[12]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:IBM_9375_system_(1).jpg"}],"text":"Single-rack 9375 system","title":"Models and options"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IBM 801","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_801"},{"link_name":"Series/1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Series/1"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-inside-as400-4"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mitchell1988-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"floating-point","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_hexadecimal_floating-point"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9370-announcement-5"},{"link_name":"IBM 9332","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives#9330_family_of_disk_drives"},{"link_name":"IBM 9335","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_IBM_magnetic_disk_drives#9330_family_of_disk_drives"},{"link_name":"IBM 3270","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_3270"},{"link_name":"VM/SP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VM/SP"},{"link_name":"VSE/SP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DOS/360_and_successors"},{"link_name":"IX/370","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_AIX"}],"sub_title":"Early models","text":"The original 9370 hardware was based on technology created for the Fort Knox project - reusing some of the IBM 801-based processor design, and the SPD I/O bus which was derived from the Series/1 bus.[4][13][14] All models included a floating-point accelerator as well as a processor console to install, operate and maintain the system. A militarized variant of the 9370 named the System/MIL-370 was announced alongside the original 9370 models, designed to operate in harsher environmental conditions than the standard 9370 hardware.[5]Each DASD/Tape Controller had eight device addresses and provided a data transfer rate of 3 MB. IBM 9332 (368 MB) and IBM 9335 (824 MB) DASD and IBM 9347 nine-track half-inch tape have been announced for the 9370s.Each Workstation Controller could interface up to 32 IBM 3270 terminals / printers.Software for all models included VM/SP+VM/IS, VSE/SP, and VM/SP+IX/370, while MVS/SP was only available for larger models.","title":"Models and options"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"DPPX/370","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_DPPX"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"IBM 8100","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_8100"},{"link_name":"Micro Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Micro_Channel"},{"link_name":"386 CPU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intel_80386"},{"link_name":"APPC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_Advanced_Program-to-Program_Communication"},{"link_name":"LU6.2","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM_LU6.2"},{"link_name":"SNA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systems_Network_Architecture"}],"sub_title":"Enterprise systems architecture models","text":"An upgrade (Miscellaneous Equipment Specification, MES) was available which involved - among other things - replacing the 9332 FBA drives with CKD enabled DASDs.In 1988, Distributed Processing Programming Executive DPPX/370 for ES/9370 was made available to customers wanting to migrate[15] from the IBM 8100 running DPPX.The \"Micro Channel 370\" Models 010, 012, 014 (later 110, 112, 114) ES/9371 introduced in 1990 used the Micro Channel bus and a 386 CPU for input/output (I/O) processing. Additionally, a dual-processor model was offered, providing a second 386 CPU for DOS and OS/2 applications, implementing a high-speed link between the processors. With the models mentioned, APPC support was added, using LU6.2 based on SNA PU2.1.","title":"Models and options"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IBM Mainframes: Architecture and Design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/ibmmainframesarc00pras"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0070506862","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0070506862"}],"text":"Prasad, N.S. (1989). IBM Mainframes: Architecture and Design. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0070506862. — Chapter 12 (pp. 277–286) describes the 9370.","title":"Further reading"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dedicated_hosting_service

Dedicated hosting service

["1 Operating system support","2 Bandwidth and connectivity","2.1 95th percentile method","2.2 Unmetered method","2.3 Total transfer method","2.4 Bandwidth pooling","3 Management","4 Security","5 Software","6 Limitations","7 See also","8 References"]

Type of Internet hosting "Dedicated server" redirects here. For information about dedicated servers in multiplayer video gaming, see Game server § Types. This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article possibly contains original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting only of original research should be removed. (August 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Dedicated hosting service" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (March 2018) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Part of a series onInternet hosting service Full-featured hosting Virtual private server Dedicated hosting Colocation centre Cloud computing Peer-to-peer Web hosting Shared Clustered Application-specific web hosting Blog (comments) Guild hosting service Image Video Wiki farms Application Social network By content format File Image Video Music Other types Remote backup Game server Home server DNS Email vte A dedicated hosting service, dedicated server, or managed hosting service is a type of Internet hosting in which the client leases an entire server not shared with anyone else. This is more flexible than shared hosting, as organizations have full control over the server(s), including choice of operating system, hardware, etc. There is also another level of dedicated or managed hosting commonly referred to as complex managed hosting. Complex Managed Hosting applies to both physical dedicated servers, Hybrid server and virtual servers, with many companies choosing a hybrid (combination of physical and virtual) hosting solution. There are many similarities between standard and complex managed hosting but the key difference is the level of administrative and engineering support that the customer pays for – owing to both the increased size and complexity of the infrastructure deployment. The provider steps in to take over most of the management, including security, memory, storage and IT support. The service is primarily proactive in nature. Server administration can usually be provided by the hosting company as an add-on service. In some cases a dedicated server can offer less overhead and a larger return on investment. Dedicated servers are hosted in data centers, often providing redundant power sources and HVAC systems. In contrast to colocation, the server hardware is owned by the provider and in some cases they will provide support for operating systems or applications. Using a dedicated hosting service offers the benefits of high performance, security, email stability, and control. Due to the relatively high price of dedicated hosting, it is mostly used by websites that receive a large volume of traffic. Operating system support Availability, price and employee familiarity often determines which operating systems are offered on dedicated servers. Variations of Linux and Unix (open source operating systems) are often included at no charge to the customer. Commercial operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server, provided through a special program called Microsoft Services Provider License Agreement, or SPLA. Red Hat Enterprise is a commercial version of Linux offered to hosting providers on a monthly fee basis. The monthly fee provides OS updates through the Red Hat Network using an application called Yum. Other operating systems are available from the open source community at no charge. These include CentOS, Fedora Core, Debian, and many other Linux distributions or BSD systems FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD. Support for any of these operating systems typically depends on the level of management offered with a particular dedicated server plan. Operating system support may include updates to the core system in order to acquire the latest security fixes, patches, and system-wide vulnerability resolutions. Updates to core operating systems include kernel upgrades, service packs, application updates, and security patches that keep the server secure and safe. Operating system updates and support relieves the burden of server management from the dedicated server owner. Bandwidth and connectivity Bandwidth refers to the data transfer rate or the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a given time period (usually a second) and is often represented in bits (of data) per second (bit/s). 95th percentile method Line speed, billed on the 95th percentile, refers to the speed in which data flows from the server or device, measured every five minutes for the month, and dropping the top 5% of measurements that are highest, and basing the usage for the month on the next-highest measurement. This is similar to a median measurement, which can be thought of as a 50th percentile measurement (with 50% of measurements above, and 50% of measurements below), whereas this sets the cutoff at 95th percentile, with 5% of measurements above the value, and 95% of measurements below the value. This is also known as Burstable billing. Line speed is measured in bits per second (or kilobits per second, megabits per second or gigabits per second). Unmetered method The second bandwidth measurement is unmetered service where providers cap or control the "top line" speed for a server. Top line speed in unmetered bandwidth is the total Mbit/s allocated to the server and configured on the switch level. Unmetered bandwidth services usually incur an additional charge. Total transfer method Some providers will calculate the Total Transfer, which is the measurement of actual data leaving and arriving, measured in bytes. Although it is typically the sum of all traffic into and out of the server, some providers measure only outbound traffic (traffic from the server to the internet). Bandwidth pooling One of the reasons for choosing to outsource dedicated servers is the availability of high powered networks from multiple providers. As dedicated server providers utilize massive amounts of bandwidth, they are able to secure lower volume based pricing to include a multi-provider blend of bandwidth. To achieve the same type of network without a multi-provider blend of bandwidth, a large investment in core routers, long term contracts, and expensive monthly bills would need to be in place. The expenses needed to develop a network without a multi-provider blend of bandwidth does not make sense economically for hosting providers. Many dedicated server providers include a service level agreement based on network up-time. Some dedicated server hosting providers offer a 100% up-time guarantee on their network. By securing multiple vendors for connectivity and using redundant hardware, providers are able to guarantee higher up-times; usually between 99 and 100% up-time if they are a higher quality provider. One aspect of higher quality providers is they are most likely to be multi-homed across multiple quality up-link providers, which in turn, provides significant redundancy in the event one goes down in addition to potentially improved routes to destinations. Bandwidth consumption over the last several years has shifted from a per megabit usage model to a per gigabyte usage model. Bandwidth was traditionally measured inline speed access that included the ability to purchase needed megabits at a given monthly cost. As the shared hosting model developed, the trend towards gigabyte or total bytes transferred, replaced the megabit line speed model so dedicated server providers started offering per gigabyte. Management Dedicated hosting services primarily differ from managed hosting services in that managed hosting services usually offer more support and other services. As such, managed hosting is targeted towards clients with less technical knowledge, whereas dedicated hosting services, or unmanaged hosting services, are suitable for web development and system administrator professionals. To date, no industry standards have been set to clearly define the management role of dedicated server providers. What this means is that each provider will use industry standard terms, but each provider will define them differently. For some dedicated server providers, fully managed is defined as having a web based control panel while other providers define it as having dedicated system engineers readily available to handle all server and network related functions of the dedicated server provider. Server management can include some or all of the following: Operating system updates Application updates Server monitoring SNMP hardware monitoring Application monitoring Application management Technical support Firewall services Anti-spam software Antivirus updates Security audits DDoS protection and mitigation Intrusion detection Backups and restoration Disaster recovery DNS hosting service Load balancing Database administration Performance tuning Out-of-band Management Software installation and configuration User management Programming consultation Dedicated hosting server providers define their level of management based on the services they provide. In comparison, fully managed could equal self managed from provider to provider. Administrative maintenance of the operating system, often including upgrades, security patches, and sometimes even daemon updates are included. Differing levels of management may include adding users, domains, daemon configuration, or even custom programming. Dedicated server hosting providers may provide the following types of server managed support: Fully managed – Includes monitoring, software updates, reboots, security patches and operating system upgrades. Customers are completely hands-off. Managed – Includes medium level of management, monitoring, updates, and a limited amount of support. Customers may perform specific tasks. Self-managed – Includes regular monitoring and some maintenance. Customers provide most operations and tasks on dedicated server. Unmanaged – Little to no involvement from service provider. Customers provide all maintenance, upgrades, patches, and security. Security Dedicated hosting server providers utilize extreme security measures to ensure the safety of data stored on their network of servers. Providers will often deploy various software programs for scanning systems and networks for obtrusive invaders, spammers, hackers, and other harmful problems such as Trojans, worms, and crashers (Sending multiple connections). Linux and Windows use different software for security protection. Software Providers often bill for dedicated servers on a fixed monthly price to include specific software packages. Over the years, software vendors realized the significant market opportunity to bundle their software with dedicated servers. They have since started introducing pricing models that allow dedicated hosting providers the ability to purchase and resell software based on reduced monthly fees. Microsoft offers software licenses through a program called the Service Provider License Agreement. The SPLA model provides use of Microsoft products through a monthly user or processor based fee. SPLA software includes the Windows Operating System, Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Exchange Server, Microsoft SharePoint and shoutcast hosting, and many other server based products. Other software applications available are specialized web hosting specific programs called control panels. Control panel software is an all-inclusive set of software applications, server applications, and automation tools that can be installed on a dedicated server. Control panels include integration into web servers, database applications, programming languages, application deployment, server administration tasks, and include the ability to automate tasks via a web based front end. Limitations Many providers do not allow IRC (bots, clients or daemons). This is due to rogue IRC users triggering DDoS attacks against the provider, which may overwhelm their networks, lowering service quality for all customers. Adult content is disallowed by many providers as it may either be of questionable legality or consume large amounts of bandwidth. Copyright violations – Hosting copyrighted material of which an individual does not own the copyright to is against the terms of service of most hosting companies. See also Data center Hosting environment Virtual private server Cloud computing References ^ "Internet Infrastructure Technology" Structure Research, 5 September 2012 ^ "Licensing Options: Service Providers". Microsoft Volume Licensing. 3 May 2018. Retrieved 16 February 2022.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Game server § Types","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Game_server#Types"},{"link_name":"Internet hosting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_hosting"},{"link_name":"server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Server_(computing)"},{"link_name":"shared hosting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shared_hosting"},{"link_name":"organizations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organization"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"hardware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_hardware"},{"link_name":"Hybrid server","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hybrid_server"},{"link_name":"virtual servers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virtual_private_server"},{"link_name":"infrastructure","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IT_infrastructure"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"return on investment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Return_on_investment"},{"link_name":"data centers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_centre"},{"link_name":"redundant power","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emergency_power_system"},{"link_name":"HVAC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heating,_Ventilating,_and_Air_Conditioning"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"\"Dedicated server\" redirects here. For information about dedicated servers in multiplayer video gaming, see Game server § Types.A dedicated hosting service, dedicated server, or managed hosting service is a type of Internet hosting in which the client leases an entire server not shared with anyone else. This is more flexible than shared hosting, as organizations have full control over the server(s), including choice of operating system, hardware, etc.There is also another level of dedicated or managed hosting commonly referred to as complex managed hosting. Complex Managed Hosting applies to both physical dedicated servers, Hybrid server and virtual servers, with many companies choosing a hybrid (combination of physical and virtual) hosting solution.There are many similarities between standard and complex managed hosting but the key difference is the level of administrative and engineering support that the customer pays for – owing to both the increased size and complexity of the infrastructure deployment. The provider steps in to take over most of the management, including security, memory, storage and IT support. The service is primarily proactive in nature.[1] Server administration can usually be provided by the hosting company as an add-on service. In some cases a dedicated server can offer less overhead and a larger return on investment. Dedicated servers are hosted in data centers, often providing redundant power sources and HVAC systems. In contrast to colocation, the server hardware is owned by the provider and in some cases they will provide support for operating systems or applications.[citation needed]Using a dedicated hosting service offers the benefits of high performance, security, email stability, and control. Due to the relatively high price of dedicated hosting, it is mostly used by websites that receive a large volume of traffic.[citation needed]","title":"Dedicated hosting service"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"link_name":"operating systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_systems"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Services Provider License Agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Services_Provider_License_Agreement"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Red Hat Enterprise","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Hat_Enterprise_Linux"},{"link_name":"Red Hat Network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red_Hat_Network"},{"link_name":"Yum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yum_(software)"},{"link_name":"CentOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/CentOS"},{"link_name":"Fedora Core","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fedora_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"Debian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debian"},{"link_name":"FreeBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FreeBSD"},{"link_name":"NetBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NetBSD"},{"link_name":"OpenBSD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OpenBSD"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Availability, price and employee familiarity often determines which operating systems are offered on dedicated servers. Variations of Linux and Unix (open source operating systems) are often included at no charge to the customer.[citation needed] Commercial operating systems include Microsoft Windows Server,[citation needed] provided through a special program called Microsoft Services Provider License Agreement, or SPLA.[2]Red Hat Enterprise is a commercial version of Linux offered to hosting providers on a monthly fee basis. The monthly fee provides OS updates through the Red Hat Network using an application called Yum. Other operating systems are available from the open source community at no charge. These include CentOS, Fedora Core, Debian, and many other Linux distributions or BSD systems FreeBSD, NetBSD, OpenBSD.[citation needed]Support for any of these operating systems typically depends on the level of management offered with a particular dedicated server plan. Operating system support may include updates to the core system in order to acquire the latest security fixes, patches, and system-wide vulnerability resolutions. Updates to core operating systems include kernel upgrades, service packs, application updates, and security patches that keep the server secure and safe. Operating system updates and support relieves the burden of server management from the dedicated server owner.[citation needed]","title":"Operating system support"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)"},{"link_name":"data transfer rate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bit_rate"}],"text":"Bandwidth refers to the data transfer rate or the amount of data that can be carried from one point to another in a given time period (usually a second) and is often represented in bits (of data) per second (bit/s).","title":"Bandwidth and connectivity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Burstable billing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burstable_billing"}],"sub_title":"95th percentile method","text":"Line speed, billed on the 95th percentile, refers to the speed in which data flows from the server or device, measured every five minutes for the month, and dropping the top 5% of measurements that are highest, and basing the usage for the month on the next-highest measurement. This is similar to a median measurement, which can be thought of as a 50th percentile measurement (with 50% of measurements above, and 50% of measurements below), whereas this sets the cutoff at 95th percentile, with 5% of measurements above the value, and 95% of measurements below the value. This is also known as Burstable billing. Line speed is measured in bits per second (or kilobits per second, megabits per second or gigabits per second).","title":"Bandwidth and connectivity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)"}],"sub_title":"Unmetered method","text":"The second bandwidth measurement is unmetered service where providers cap or control the \"top line\" speed for a server. Top line speed in unmetered bandwidth is the total Mbit/s allocated to the server and configured on the switch level. Unmetered bandwidth services usually incur an additional charge.","title":"Bandwidth and connectivity"},{"links_in_text":[],"sub_title":"Total transfer method","text":"Some providers will calculate the Total Transfer, which is the measurement of actual data leaving and arriving, measured in bytes. Although it is typically the sum of all traffic into and out of the server, some providers measure only outbound traffic (traffic from the server to the internet).","title":"Bandwidth and connectivity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"service level agreement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_level_agreement"},{"link_name":"network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_network"},{"link_name":"multi-homed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multihoming"},{"link_name":"Bandwidth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bandwidth_(computing)"}],"sub_title":"Bandwidth pooling","text":"One of the reasons for choosing to outsource dedicated servers is the availability of high powered networks from multiple providers. As dedicated server providers utilize massive amounts of bandwidth, they are able to secure lower volume based pricing to include a multi-provider blend of bandwidth. To achieve the same type of network without a multi-provider blend of bandwidth, a large investment in core routers, long term contracts, and expensive monthly bills would need to be in place. The expenses needed to develop a network without a multi-provider blend of bandwidth does not make sense economically for hosting providers.Many dedicated server providers include a service level agreement based on network up-time. Some dedicated server hosting providers offer a 100% up-time guarantee on their network. By securing multiple vendors for connectivity and using redundant hardware, providers are able to guarantee higher up-times; usually between 99 and 100% up-time if they are a higher quality provider. One aspect of higher quality providers is they are most likely to be multi-homed across multiple quality up-link providers, which in turn, provides significant redundancy in the event one goes down in addition to potentially improved routes to destinations.Bandwidth consumption over the last several years has shifted from a per megabit usage model to a per gigabyte usage model. Bandwidth was traditionally measured inline speed access that included the ability to purchase needed megabits at a given monthly cost. As the shared hosting model developed, the trend towards gigabyte or total bytes transferred, replaced the megabit line speed model so dedicated server providers started offering per gigabyte.","title":"Bandwidth and connectivity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"Server monitoring","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Server_Monitoring"},{"link_name":"SNMP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simple_Network_Management_Protocol"},{"link_name":"Firewall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Firewall_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Anti-spam software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anti-spam_techniques"},{"link_name":"Antivirus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antivirus_software"},{"link_name":"Security audits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_technology_security_audit"},{"link_name":"DDoS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Denial-of-service_attack"},{"link_name":"Intrusion detection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intrusion_detection"},{"link_name":"Backups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Backup"},{"link_name":"Disaster recovery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disaster_recovery"},{"link_name":"DNS hosting service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNS_hosting_service"},{"link_name":"Load balancing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_balancing_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Out-of-band Management","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Out-of-band_Management"},{"link_name":"security patches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patch_(computing)"},{"link_name":"daemon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daemon_(computer_software)"},{"link_name":"service provider","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Service_provider"}],"text":"Dedicated hosting services primarily differ from managed hosting services in that managed hosting services usually offer more support and other services. As such, managed hosting is targeted towards clients with less technical knowledge, whereas dedicated hosting services, or unmanaged hosting services, are suitable for web development and system administrator professionals.To date, no industry standards have been set to clearly define the management role of dedicated server providers. What this means is that each provider will use industry standard terms, but each provider will define them differently. For some dedicated server providers, fully managed is defined as having a web based control panel while other providers define it as having dedicated system engineers readily available to handle all server and network related functions of the dedicated server provider.Server management can include some or all of the following:Operating system updates\nApplication updates\nServer monitoring\nSNMP hardware monitoring\nApplication monitoring\nApplication management\nTechnical support\n\nFirewall services\nAnti-spam software\nAntivirus updates\nSecurity audits\nDDoS protection and mitigation\nIntrusion detection\nBackups and restoration\n\nDisaster recovery\nDNS hosting service\nLoad balancing\nDatabase administration\nPerformance tuning\nOut-of-band Management\nSoftware installation and configuration\nUser management\nProgramming consultationDedicated hosting server providers define their level of management based on the services they provide. In comparison, fully managed could equal self managed from provider to provider.Administrative maintenance of the operating system, often including upgrades, security patches, and sometimes even daemon updates are included. Differing levels of management may include adding users, domains, daemon configuration, or even custom programming.Dedicated server hosting providers may provide the following types of server managed support:Fully managed – Includes monitoring, software updates, reboots, security patches and operating system upgrades. Customers are completely hands-off.\nManaged – Includes medium level of management, monitoring, updates, and a limited amount of support. Customers may perform specific tasks.\nSelf-managed – Includes regular monitoring and some maintenance. Customers provide most operations and tasks on dedicated server.\nUnmanaged – Little to no involvement from service provider. Customers provide all maintenance, upgrades, patches, and security.","title":"Management"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trojans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"}],"text":"Dedicated hosting server providers utilize extreme security measures to ensure the safety of data stored on their network of servers. Providers will often deploy various software programs for scanning systems and networks for obtrusive invaders, spammers, hackers, and other harmful problems such as Trojans, worms, and crashers (Sending multiple connections). Linux and Windows use different software for security protection.","title":"Security"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Providers often bill for dedicated servers on a fixed monthly price to include specific software packages. Over the years, software vendors realized the significant market opportunity to bundle their software with dedicated servers. They have since started introducing pricing models that allow dedicated hosting providers the ability to purchase and resell software based on reduced monthly fees.Microsoft offers software licenses through a program called the Service Provider License Agreement. The SPLA model provides use of Microsoft products through a monthly user or processor based fee. SPLA software includes the Windows Operating System, Microsoft SQL Server, Microsoft Exchange Server, Microsoft SharePoint and shoutcast hosting, and many other server based products.Other software applications available are specialized web hosting specific programs called control panels. Control panel software is an all-inclusive set of software applications, server applications, and automation tools that can be installed on a dedicated server. Control panels include integration into web servers, database applications, programming languages, application deployment, server administration tasks, and include the ability to automate tasks via a web based front end.","title":"Software"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"IRC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_Relay_Chat"},{"link_name":"DDoS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DDoS"},{"link_name":"Adult content","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pornography"},{"link_name":"Copyright violations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyright_violation"},{"link_name":"terms of service","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terms_of_service"}],"text":"Many providers do not allow IRC (bots, clients or daemons). This is due to rogue IRC users triggering DDoS attacks against the provider, which may overwhelm their networks, lowering service quality for all customers.Adult content is disallowed by many providers as it may either be of questionable legality or consume large amounts of bandwidth.\nCopyright violations – Hosting copyrighted material of which an individual does not own the copyright to is against the terms of service of most hosting companies.","title":"Limitations"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Leon_Post

Emil Leon Post

["1 Life","2 Early work","3 Recursion theory","4 Polyadic groups","5 Selected papers","6 See also","7 Notes","8 References","9 Further reading","10 External links"]

American mathematician and logician (1897 – 1954) Emil Leon PostBornFebruary 11, 1897Augustów, Suwałki Governorate, Congress Poland, Russian Empire(now Poland)DiedApril 21, 1954(1954-04-21) (aged 57)New York City, U.S.Alma materCity College of New York (B.S., 1917)Columbia University (A.M. 1918, Ph.D. 1920)Known forFormulation 1Post correspondence problemCompleteness-proof of Principia's propositional calculusPost's inversion formulaPost's latticePost's theoremScientific careerFieldsMathematics, logicInstitutionsPrinceton UniversityThesis Introduction to a General Theory of Elementary Propositions  (1920)Doctoral advisorCassius Jackson Keyser Emil Leon Post (/poʊst/; February 11, 1897 – April 21, 1954) was an American mathematician and logician. He is best known for his work in the field that eventually became known as computability theory. Life Post was born in Augustów, Suwałki Governorate, Congress Poland, Russian Empire (now Poland) into a Polish-Jewish family that immigrated to New York City in May 1904. His parents were Arnold and Pearl Post. Post had been interested in astronomy, but at the age of twelve lost his left arm in a car accident. This loss was a significant obstacle to being a professional astronomer, leading to his decision to pursue mathematics rather than astronomy. Post attended the Townsend Harris High School and continued on to graduate from City College of New York in 1917 with a B.S. in mathematics. After completing his Ph.D. in mathematics in 1920 at Columbia University, supervised by Cassius Jackson Keyser, he did a post-doctorate at Princeton University in the 1920–1921 academic year. Post then became a high school mathematics teacher in New York City. Post married Gertrude Singer in 1929, with whom he had a daughter, Phyllis Post Goodman (1932–1995). Post spent at most three hours a day on research on the advice of his doctor in order to avoid manic attacks, which he had been experiencing since his year at Princeton. In 1936, he was appointed to the mathematics department at the City College of New York. He died in 1954 of a heart attack following electroshock treatment for depression; he was 57. Early work In his doctoral thesis, later shortened and published as "Introduction to a General Theory of Elementary Propositions" (1921), Post proved, among other things, that the propositional calculus of Principia Mathematica was complete: all tautologies are theorems, given the Principia axioms and the rules of substitution and modus ponens. Post also devised truth tables independently of C. S. Peirce and Ludwig Wittgenstein and put them to good mathematical use. Jean van Heijenoort's well-known source book on mathematical logic (1966) reprinted Post's classic 1921 article setting out these results. While at Princeton, Post came very close to discovering the incompleteness of Principia Mathematica, which Kurt Gödel proved in 1931. Post initially failed to publish his ideas as he believed he needed a 'complete analysis' for them to be accepted. As Post said in a postcard to Gödel in 1938: I would have discovered Gödel's theorem in 1921—if I had been Gödel. Recursion theory In 1936, Post developed, independently of Alan Turing, a mathematical model of computation that was essentially equivalent to the Turing machine model. Intending this as the first of a series of models of equivalent power but increasing complexity, he titled his paper Formulation 1. This model is sometimes called "Post's machine" or a Post–Turing machine, but is not to be confused with Post's tag machines or other special kinds of Post canonical system, a computational model using string rewriting and developed by Post in the 1920s but first published in 1943. Post's rewrite technique is now ubiquitous in programming language specification and design, and so with Church's lambda calculus is a salient influence of classical modern logic on practical computing. Post devised a method of 'auxiliary symbols' by which he could canonically represent any Post-generative language, and indeed any computable function or set at all. Correspondence systems were introduced by Post in 1946 to give simple examples of undecidability. He showed that the Post correspondence problem (PCP) of satisfying their constraints is, in general, undecidable. The undecidability of the correspondence problem turned out to be exactly what was needed to obtain undecidability results in the theory of formal languages. In an influential address to the American Mathematical Society in 1944, he raised the question of the existence of an uncomputable recursively enumerable set whose Turing degree is less than that of the halting problem. This question, which became known as Post's problem, stimulated much research. It was solved in the affirmative in the 1950s by the introduction of the powerful priority method in computability theory. Polyadic groups Post made a fundamental and still-influential contribution to the theory of polyadic, or n-ary, groups in a long paper published in 1940. His major theorem showed that a polyadic group is the iterated multiplication of elements of a normal subgroup of a group, such that the quotient group is cyclic of order n − 1. He also demonstrated that a polyadic group operation on a set can be expressed in terms of a group operation on the same set. The paper contains many other important results. Selected papers Post, Emil Leon (1919). "The Generalized Gamma Functions". Annals of Mathematics. Second Series. 20 (3): 202–217. doi:10.2307/1967871. JSTOR 1967871. Post, Emil Leon (1921). "Introduction to a General Theory of Elementary Propositions". American Journal of Mathematics. 43 (3): 163–185. doi:10.2307/2370324. hdl:2027/uiuo.ark:/13960/t9j450f7q. JSTOR 2370324. Post, Emil Leon (1936). "Finite Combinatory Processes – Formulation 1". Journal of Symbolic Logic. 1 (3): 103–105. doi:10.2307/2269031. JSTOR 2269031. S2CID 40284503. Post, Emil Leon (1940). "Polyadic groups". Transactions of the American Mathematical Society. 48 (2): 208–350. doi:10.2307/1990085. JSTOR 1990085. Post, Emil Leon (1943). "Formal Reductions of the General Combinatorial Decision Problem". American Journal of Mathematics. 65 (2): 197–215. doi:10.2307/2371809. JSTOR 2371809. Post, Emil Leon (1944). "Recursively enumerable sets of positive integers and their decision problems". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 50 (5): 284–316. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1944-08111-1. Introduces the important concept of many-one reduction. See also Arithmetical hierarchy Functional completeness List of multiple discoveries List of pioneers in computer science Notes ^ a b Urquhart (2008) ^ a b c O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., "Emil Leon Post", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews ^ Urquhart (2008), p. 429. ^ "Phyllis Post Goodman Park". NYC Parks. ^ a b Urquhart (2008), p. 430. ^ Baaz, Matthias, ed. (2011). Kurt Gödel and the Foundations of Mathematics: Horizons of Truth (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139498432. ^ Stillwell, John (2004). "Emil Post and His Anticipation of Gödel and Turing". Mathematics Magazine. 77 (1): 3–14. doi:10.2307/3219226. ISSN 0025-570X. JSTOR 3219226. ^ E. L. Post (1946). "A variant of a recursively unsolvable problem" (PDF). Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 52 (4): 264–269. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1946-08555-9. References Stillwell, John (2004), "Emil Post and His Anticipation of Gödel and Turing" (PDF), Mathematics Magazine, 77 (1): 3–14, doi:10.2307/3219226, JSTOR 3219226 Urquhart, Alasdair (2008). "Emil Post" (PDF). In Gabbay, Dov M.; Woods, John Woods (eds.). Logic from Russell to Church. Handbook of the History of Logic. Vol. 5. Elsevier BV. Neary, Turlough (2015), "Undecidability in binary tag systems and the post correspondence problem for five pairs of words", International Symposium on Theoretical Aspects of Computer Science, Leibniz International Proceedings in Informatics (LIPIcs), pages 649–661, 2015. Further reading Anshel, Iris Lee; Anshel, Michael (November 1993). "From the Post–Markov Theorem Through Decision Problems to Public-Key Cryptography". The American Mathematical Monthly. 100 (9). Mathematical Association of America: 835–844. doi:10.2307/2324657. JSTOR 2324657. Dedicated to Emil Post and contains special material on Post. This includes "Post's Relation to the Cryptology and Cryptographists of his Era: ... Steven Brams, the noted game theorist and political scientist, has remarked to us that the life and legacy of Emil Post represents one aspect of New York intellectual life during the first half of the twentieth century that is very much in need of deeper exploration. The authors hope that this paper serves to further this pursuit". (pp. 842–843) Davis, Martin, ed. (1993). The Undecidable. Dover. pp. 288–406. ISBN 0-486-43228-9. Reprints several papers by Post. Davis, Martin (1994). "Emil L. Post: His Life and Work". Solvability, Provability, Definability: The Collected Works of Emil L. Post. Birkhäuser. pp. xi–xxviii. A biographical essay. Jackson, Allyn (May 2008). "An interview with Martin Davis". Notices of the AMS. 55 (5): 560–571. Much material on Emil Post from his first-hand recollections. Jackson, Allyn (October 2018). "Emil Post: Psychological Fidelity". Inference: International Review of Science. doi:10.37282/991819.18.48. S2CID 240012225. A biographical article. External links Emil Leon Post Papers 1927-1991, American Philosophical Society, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. "Celebrating Emil Post & His "Intractable Problem" of Tag: 100 Years Later". YouTube. Wolfram. May 19, 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21. Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National France BnF data Germany Italy Israel United States Sweden Netherlands Poland Academics DBLP MathSciNet Mathematics Genealogy Project zbMATH Other SNAC IdRef

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"/poʊst/","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/English"},{"link_name":"mathematician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematician"},{"link_name":"logician","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Logician"},{"link_name":"computability theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability_theory"}],"text":"Emil Leon Post (/poʊst/; February 11, 1897 – April 21, 1954) was an American mathematician and logician. He is best known for his work in the field that eventually became known as computability theory.","title":"Emil Leon Post"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Augustów","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August%C3%B3w"},{"link_name":"Suwałki Governorate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suwa%C5%82ki_Governorate"},{"link_name":"Congress Poland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congress_Poland"},{"link_name":"Russian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Polish-Jewish","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polish_Jews"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacTutor-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"Townsend Harris High School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Townsend_Harris_High_School"},{"link_name":"City College of New York","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/City_College_of_New_York"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Urquhart-1"},{"link_name":"Ph.D.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doctor_of_philosophy"},{"link_name":"Columbia University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Columbia_University"},{"link_name":"Cassius Jackson Keyser","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cassius_Jackson_Keyser"},{"link_name":"Princeton University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princeton_University"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Urquhart_2008,_p._430-5"},{"link_name":"heart attack","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myocardial_infarction"},{"link_name":"electroshock treatment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electroconvulsive_therapy"},{"link_name":"depression","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Depression_(mood)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Urquhart_2008,_p._430-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Post was born in Augustów, Suwałki Governorate, Congress Poland, Russian Empire (now Poland) into a Polish-Jewish family that immigrated to New York City in May 1904. His parents were Arnold and Pearl Post.[2]Post had been interested in astronomy, but at the age of twelve lost his left arm in a car accident. This loss was a significant obstacle to being a professional astronomer, leading to his decision to pursue mathematics rather than astronomy.[3]Post attended the Townsend Harris High School and continued on to graduate from City College of New York in 1917 with a B.S. in mathematics.[1]After completing his Ph.D. in mathematics in 1920 at Columbia University, supervised by Cassius Jackson Keyser, he did a post-doctorate at Princeton University in the 1920–1921 academic year. Post then became a high school mathematics teacher in New York City.Post married Gertrude Singer in 1929, with whom he had a daughter, Phyllis Post Goodman (1932–1995).[4] Post spent at most three hours a day on research on the advice of his doctor in order to avoid manic attacks, which he had been experiencing since his year at Princeton.[5]In 1936, he was appointed to the mathematics department at the City College of New York. He died in 1954 of a heart attack following electroshock treatment for depression;[5][6] he was 57.","title":"Life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"propositional calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propositional_calculus"},{"link_name":"Principia Mathematica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Principia_Mathematica"},{"link_name":"tautologies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tautology_(logic)"},{"link_name":"theorems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theorem"},{"link_name":"substitution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Substitution_(logic)"},{"link_name":"modus ponens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modus_ponens"},{"link_name":"truth tables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truth_table"},{"link_name":"C. S. Peirce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce"},{"link_name":"Ludwig Wittgenstein","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein"},{"link_name":"Jean van Heijenoort","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_van_Heijenoort"},{"link_name":"Kurt Gödel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurt_G%C3%B6del"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MacTutor-2"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"In his doctoral thesis, later shortened and published as \"Introduction to a General Theory of Elementary Propositions\" (1921), Post proved, among other things, that the propositional calculus of Principia Mathematica was complete: all tautologies are theorems, given the Principia axioms and the rules of substitution and modus ponens. Post also devised truth tables independently of C. S. Peirce and Ludwig Wittgenstein and put them to good mathematical use. Jean van Heijenoort's well-known source book on mathematical logic (1966) reprinted Post's classic 1921 article setting out these results.While at Princeton, Post came very close to discovering the incompleteness of Principia Mathematica, which Kurt Gödel proved in 1931. Post initially failed to publish his ideas as he believed he needed a 'complete analysis' for them to be accepted.[2] As Post said in a postcard to Gödel in 1938:I would have discovered Gödel's theorem in 1921—if I had been Gödel.[7]","title":"Early work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Alan Turing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alan_Turing"},{"link_name":"Turing machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_machine"},{"link_name":"Formulation 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formulation_1"},{"link_name":"Post–Turing machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post%E2%80%93Turing_machine"},{"link_name":"Post's tag machines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tag_system"},{"link_name":"Post canonical system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_canonical_system"},{"link_name":"string rewriting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_rewriting"},{"link_name":"Church","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alonzo_Church"},{"link_name":"lambda calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_calculus"},{"link_name":"undecidability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Undecidable_problem"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Post46-8"},{"link_name":"Post correspondence problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post_correspondence_problem"},{"link_name":"formal languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Formal_languages"},{"link_name":"American Mathematical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Mathematical_Society"},{"link_name":"recursively enumerable set","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recursively_enumerable_set"},{"link_name":"Turing degree","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_degree"},{"link_name":"halting problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halting_problem"},{"link_name":"Post's problem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Post%27s_problem"},{"link_name":"priority method","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turing_degree#Post's_problem_and_the_priority_method"},{"link_name":"computability theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computability_theory"}],"text":"In 1936, Post developed, independently of Alan Turing, a mathematical model of computation that was essentially equivalent to the Turing machine model. Intending this as the first of a series of models of equivalent power but increasing complexity, he titled his paper Formulation 1. This model is sometimes called \"Post's machine\" or a Post–Turing machine, but is not to be confused with Post's tag machines or other special kinds of Post canonical system, a computational model using string rewriting and developed by Post in the 1920s but first published in 1943. Post's rewrite technique is now ubiquitous in programming language specification and design, and so with Church's lambda calculus is a salient influence of classical modern logic on practical computing. Post devised a method of 'auxiliary symbols' by which he could canonically represent any Post-generative language, and indeed any computable function or set at all.Correspondence systems were introduced by Post in 1946 to give simple examples of undecidability.[8] He showed that the Post correspondence problem (PCP) of satisfying their constraints is, in general, undecidable. The undecidability of the correspondence problem turned out to be exactly what was needed to obtain undecidability results in the theory of formal languages.In an influential address to the American Mathematical Society in 1944, he raised the question of the existence of an uncomputable recursively enumerable set whose Turing degree is less than that of the halting problem. This question, which became known as Post's problem, stimulated much research. It was solved in the affirmative in the 1950s by the introduction of the powerful priority method in computability theory.","title":"Recursion theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"polyadic, or n-ary, groups","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-ary_group"},{"link_name":"normal subgroup","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normal_subgroup"},{"link_name":"group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Group_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"quotient group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quotient_group"},{"link_name":"cyclic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cyclic_group"}],"text":"Post made a fundamental and still-influential contribution to the theory of polyadic, or n-ary, groups in a long paper published in 1940. His major theorem showed that a polyadic group is the iterated multiplication of elements of a normal subgroup of a group, such that the quotient group is cyclic of order n − 1. He also demonstrated that a polyadic group operation on a set can be expressed in terms of a group operation on the same set. The paper contains many other important results.","title":"Polyadic groups"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"The Generalized Gamma Functions\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F1967871"},{"link_name":"Annals of Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Mathematics"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/1967871","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F1967871"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1967871","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1967871"},{"link_name":"American Journal of Mathematics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Mathematics"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/2370324","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F2370324"},{"link_name":"hdl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2027/uiuo.ark:/13960/t9j450f7q","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuiuo.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft9j450f7q"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2370324","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2370324"},{"link_name":"Journal of Symbolic Logic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Symbolic_Logic"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/2269031","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F2269031"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2269031","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2269031"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"40284503","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40284503"},{"link_name":"\"Polyadic groups\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ams.org/journals/tran/1940-048-02/S0002-9947-1940-0002894-7/home.html"},{"link_name":"Transactions of the American Mathematical Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactions_of_the_American_Mathematical_Society"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/1990085","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F1990085"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"1990085","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/1990085"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/2371809","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F2371809"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2371809","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2371809"},{"link_name":"\"Recursively enumerable sets of positive integers and their decision problems\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ams.org/journals/bull/1944-50-05/S0002-9904-1944-08111-1/home.html"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1090/s0002-9904-1944-08111-1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1944-08111-1"},{"link_name":"many-one reduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Many-one_reduction"}],"text":"Post, Emil Leon (1919). \"The Generalized Gamma Functions\". Annals of Mathematics. Second Series. 20 (3): 202–217. doi:10.2307/1967871. JSTOR 1967871.\nPost, Emil Leon (1921). \"Introduction to a General Theory of Elementary Propositions\". American Journal of Mathematics. 43 (3): 163–185. doi:10.2307/2370324. hdl:2027/uiuo.ark:/13960/t9j450f7q. JSTOR 2370324.\nPost, Emil Leon (1936). \"Finite Combinatory Processes – Formulation 1\". Journal of Symbolic Logic. 1 (3): 103–105. doi:10.2307/2269031. JSTOR 2269031. S2CID 40284503.\nPost, Emil Leon (1940). \"Polyadic groups\". Transactions of the American Mathematical Society. 48 (2): 208–350. doi:10.2307/1990085. JSTOR 1990085.\nPost, Emil Leon (1943). \"Formal Reductions of the General Combinatorial Decision Problem\". American Journal of Mathematics. 65 (2): 197–215. doi:10.2307/2371809. JSTOR 2371809.\nPost, Emil Leon (1944). \"Recursively enumerable sets of positive integers and their decision problems\". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 50 (5): 284–316. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1944-08111-1. Introduces the important concept of many-one reduction.","title":"Selected papers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Urquhart_1-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Urquhart_1-1"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-MacTutor_2-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-MacTutor_2-1"},{"link_name":"c","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-MacTutor_2-2"},{"link_name":"Robertson, Edmund F.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson"},{"link_name":"\"Emil Leon Post\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Post.html"},{"link_name":"MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive"},{"link_name":"University of St Andrews","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-3"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-4"},{"link_name":"\"Phyllis Post Goodman Park\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nycgovparks.org/parks/phyliss-post-goodman-park/history"},{"link_name":"a","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Urquhart_2008,_p._430_5-0"},{"link_name":"b","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Urquhart_2008,_p._430_5-1"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-6"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9781139498432","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139498432"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-7"},{"link_name":"\"Emil Post and His Anticipation of Gödel and Turing\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/3219226"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/3219226","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F3219226"},{"link_name":"ISSN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0025-570X","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.worldcat.org/issn/0025-570X"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3219226","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/3219226"},{"link_name":"^","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_ref-Post46_8-0"},{"link_name":"E. L. Post","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Post"},{"link_name":"\"A variant of a recursively unsolvable problem\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ams.org/bull/1946-52-04/S0002-9904-1946-08555-9/S0002-9904-1946-08555-9.pdf"},{"link_name":"Bull. Amer. Math. Soc.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull._Amer._Math._Soc."},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1090/s0002-9904-1946-08555-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1946-08555-9"}],"text":"^ a b Urquhart (2008)\n\n^ a b c O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., \"Emil Leon Post\", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews\n\n^ Urquhart (2008), p. 429.\n\n^ \"Phyllis Post Goodman Park\". NYC Parks.\n\n^ a b Urquhart (2008), p. 430.\n\n^ Baaz, Matthias, ed. (2011). Kurt Gödel and the Foundations of Mathematics: Horizons of Truth (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139498432.\n\n^ Stillwell, John (2004). \"Emil Post and His Anticipation of Gödel and Turing\". Mathematics Magazine. 77 (1): 3–14. doi:10.2307/3219226. ISSN 0025-570X. JSTOR 3219226.\n\n^ E. L. Post (1946). \"A variant of a recursively unsolvable problem\" (PDF). Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 52 (4): 264–269. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1946-08555-9.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.2307/2324657","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.2307%2F2324657"},{"link_name":"JSTOR","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2324657","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.jstor.org/stable/2324657"},{"link_name":"The Undecidable","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/undecidablebasic00davi_950"},{"link_name":"288","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.org/details/undecidablebasic00davi_950/page/n291"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-486-43228-9","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-486-43228-9"},{"link_name":"\"An interview with Martin Davis\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.ams.org/notices/200805/"},{"link_name":"\"Emil Post: Psychological Fidelity\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//inference-review.com/article/psychological-fidelity/"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.37282/991819.18.48","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.37282%2F991819.18.48"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"240012225","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240012225"}],"text":"Anshel, Iris Lee; Anshel, Michael (November 1993). \"From the Post–Markov Theorem Through Decision Problems to Public-Key Cryptography\". The American Mathematical Monthly. 100 (9). Mathematical Association of America: 835–844. doi:10.2307/2324657. JSTOR 2324657.\nDedicated to Emil Post and contains special material on Post. This includes \"Post's Relation to the Cryptology and Cryptographists of his Era: ... Steven Brams, the noted game theorist and political scientist, has remarked to us that the life and legacy of Emil Post represents one aspect of New York intellectual life during the first half of the twentieth century that is very much in need of deeper exploration. The authors hope that this paper serves to further this pursuit\". (pp. 842–843)\nDavis, Martin, ed. (1993). The Undecidable. Dover. pp. 288–406. ISBN 0-486-43228-9.\nReprints several papers by Post.\nDavis, Martin (1994). \"Emil L. Post: His Life and Work\". Solvability, Provability, Definability: The Collected Works of Emil L. Post. Birkhäuser. pp. xi–xxviii.\nA biographical essay.\nJackson, Allyn (May 2008). \"An interview with Martin Davis\". Notices of the AMS. 55 (5): 560–571.\nMuch material on Emil Post from his first-hand recollections.\nJackson, Allyn (October 2018). \"Emil Post: Psychological Fidelity\". Inference: International Review of Science. doi:10.37282/991819.18.48. S2CID 240012225.\nA biographical article.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"title":"Arithmetical hierarchy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arithmetical_hierarchy"},{"title":"Functional completeness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_completeness"},{"title":"List of multiple discoveries","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_multiple_discoveries#20th_century"},{"title":"List of pioneers in computer science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_pioneers_in_computer_science"}]

[{"reference":"Post, Emil Leon (1919). \"The Generalized Gamma Functions\". Annals of Mathematics. Second Series. 20 (3): 202–217. doi:10.2307/1967871. JSTOR 1967871.","urls":[{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1967871","url_text":"\"The Generalized Gamma Functions\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annals_of_Mathematics","url_text":"Annals of Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1967871","url_text":"10.2307/1967871"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1967871","url_text":"1967871"}]},{"reference":"Post, Emil Leon (1921). \"Introduction to a General Theory of Elementary Propositions\". American Journal of Mathematics. 43 (3): 163–185. doi:10.2307/2370324. hdl:2027/uiuo.ark:/13960/t9j450f7q. JSTOR 2370324.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Journal_of_Mathematics","url_text":"American Journal of Mathematics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2370324","url_text":"10.2307/2370324"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)","url_text":"hdl"},{"url":"https://hdl.handle.net/2027%2Fuiuo.ark%3A%2F13960%2Ft9j450f7q","url_text":"2027/uiuo.ark:/13960/t9j450f7q"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2370324","url_text":"2370324"}]},{"reference":"Post, Emil Leon (1936). \"Finite Combinatory Processes – Formulation 1\". Journal of Symbolic Logic. 1 (3): 103–105. doi:10.2307/2269031. JSTOR 2269031. S2CID 40284503.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Symbolic_Logic","url_text":"Journal of Symbolic Logic"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2269031","url_text":"10.2307/2269031"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2269031","url_text":"2269031"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:40284503","url_text":"40284503"}]},{"reference":"Post, Emil Leon (1940). \"Polyadic groups\". Transactions of the American Mathematical Society. 48 (2): 208–350. doi:10.2307/1990085. JSTOR 1990085.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ams.org/journals/tran/1940-048-02/S0002-9947-1940-0002894-7/home.html","url_text":"\"Polyadic groups\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transactions_of_the_American_Mathematical_Society","url_text":"Transactions of the American Mathematical Society"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1990085","url_text":"10.2307/1990085"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/1990085","url_text":"1990085"}]},{"reference":"Post, Emil Leon (1943). \"Formal Reductions of the General Combinatorial Decision Problem\". American Journal of Mathematics. 65 (2): 197–215. doi:10.2307/2371809. JSTOR 2371809.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2371809","url_text":"10.2307/2371809"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2371809","url_text":"2371809"}]},{"reference":"Post, Emil Leon (1944). \"Recursively enumerable sets of positive integers and their decision problems\". Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society. 50 (5): 284–316. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1944-08111-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.ams.org/journals/bull/1944-50-05/S0002-9904-1944-08111-1/home.html","url_text":"\"Recursively enumerable sets of positive integers and their decision problems\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1944-08111-1","url_text":"10.1090/s0002-9904-1944-08111-1"}]},{"reference":"O'Connor, John J.; Robertson, Edmund F., \"Emil Leon Post\", MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive, University of St Andrews","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson","url_text":"Robertson, Edmund F."},{"url":"https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Post.html","url_text":"\"Emil Leon Post\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive","url_text":"MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews","url_text":"University of St Andrews"}]},{"reference":"\"Phyllis Post Goodman Park\". NYC Parks.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nycgovparks.org/parks/phyliss-post-goodman-park/history","url_text":"\"Phyllis Post Goodman Park\""}]},{"reference":"Baaz, Matthias, ed. (2011). Kurt Gödel and the Foundations of Mathematics: Horizons of Truth (1st ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9781139498432.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781139498432","url_text":"9781139498432"}]},{"reference":"Stillwell, John (2004). \"Emil Post and His Anticipation of Gödel and Turing\". Mathematics Magazine. 77 (1): 3–14. doi:10.2307/3219226. ISSN 0025-570X. JSTOR 3219226.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3219226","url_text":"\"Emil Post and His Anticipation of Gödel and Turing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3219226","url_text":"10.2307/3219226"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0025-570X","url_text":"0025-570X"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3219226","url_text":"3219226"}]},{"reference":"E. L. Post (1946). \"A variant of a recursively unsolvable problem\" (PDF). Bull. Amer. Math. Soc. 52 (4): 264–269. doi:10.1090/s0002-9904-1946-08555-9.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emil_Post","url_text":"E. L. Post"},{"url":"https://www.ams.org/bull/1946-52-04/S0002-9904-1946-08555-9/S0002-9904-1946-08555-9.pdf","url_text":"\"A variant of a recursively unsolvable problem\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bull._Amer._Math._Soc.","url_text":"Bull. Amer. Math. Soc."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1090%2Fs0002-9904-1946-08555-9","url_text":"10.1090/s0002-9904-1946-08555-9"}]},{"reference":"Stillwell, John (2004), \"Emil Post and His Anticipation of Gödel and Turing\" (PDF), Mathematics Magazine, 77 (1): 3–14, doi:10.2307/3219226, JSTOR 3219226","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Stillwell","url_text":"Stillwell, John"},{"url":"https://www.maa.org/sites/default/files/321922608817.pdf.bannered.pdf","url_text":"\"Emil Post and His Anticipation of Gödel and Turing\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematics_Magazine","url_text":"Mathematics Magazine"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3219226","url_text":"10.2307/3219226"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/3219226","url_text":"3219226"}]},{"reference":"Urquhart, Alasdair (2008). \"Emil Post\" (PDF). In Gabbay, Dov M.; Woods, John Woods (eds.). Logic from Russell to Church. Handbook of the History of Logic. Vol. 5. Elsevier BV.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alasdair_Urquhart","url_text":"Urquhart, Alasdair"},{"url":"https://www.ualberta.ca/~francisp/papers/UrquhartPost.pdf","url_text":"\"Emil Post\""}]},{"reference":"Anshel, Iris Lee; Anshel, Michael (November 1993). \"From the Post–Markov Theorem Through Decision Problems to Public-Key Cryptography\". The American Mathematical Monthly. 100 (9). Mathematical Association of America: 835–844. doi:10.2307/2324657. JSTOR 2324657.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.2307%2F2324657","url_text":"10.2307/2324657"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)","url_text":"JSTOR"},{"url":"https://www.jstor.org/stable/2324657","url_text":"2324657"}]},{"reference":"Davis, Martin, ed. (1993). The Undecidable. Dover. pp. 288–406. 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S2CID 240012225.","urls":[{"url":"https://inference-review.com/article/psychological-fidelity/","url_text":"\"Emil Post: Psychological Fidelity\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.37282%2F991819.18.48","url_text":"10.37282/991819.18.48"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:240012225","url_text":"240012225"}]},{"reference":"\"Celebrating Emil Post & His \"Intractable Problem\" of Tag: 100 Years Later\". YouTube. Wolfram. May 19, 2021. Archived from the original on 2021-12-21.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ultMxODJE7o","url_text":"\"Celebrating Emil Post & His \"Intractable Problem\" of Tag: 100 Years Later\""},{"url":"https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/ultMxODJE7o","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foster_School_of_Business

Foster School of Business

["1 History","2 Academics","3 Admissions","4 Campus","4.1 Seattle Buildings","4.2 Kirkland Buildings","5 Centers and Programs","6 Student Life/Foster Community","7 Achievements","8 Publication","9 Notable alumni","10 See also","11 References","12 External links"]

Coordinates: 47°39′32″N 122°18′26″W / 47.65889°N 122.30722°W / 47.65889; -122.30722Foster School of BusinessMottoThink differently, make a differenceTypePublicEstablished1917DeanFrank HodgeLocationSeattle, Washington, U.S.AffiliationsUniversity of WashingtonWebsitefoster.uw.edu The Michael G. Foster School of Business at the University of Washington (also known as UW Foster) is the business school of the University of Washington in Seattle. Founded in 1917 as the University of Washington School of Business Administration, the school was the second business school in the western United States. Accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, the school offers bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees, as well as a undergraduate minor and certificate programs. Enrollment each year is about 2,500 students in its undergraduate and graduate programs and more than 1,000 working professionals in its executive education seminars and lifelong learning programs. History Founded in 1917, the University of Washington School of Business Administration was the second business school in the western United States. In 1981, American businesswoman and University of Washington alumna Nancy Jacob became the ninth dean of the School of Business Administration, making her the first woman to lead a major American business school. On September 7, 2007, the University of Washington announced that the Business School would be renamed for Michael G. Foster, a businessman who has pledged a total of $50 million in gifts. Michael G. Foster founded Foster & Marshall, which was the first locally-owned brokerage in Seattle with a seat on the New York Stock Exchange. Academics Business RankingsU.S. MBABloomberg (2024)23QS (2024)27U.S. News & World Report (2024)20Global MBAQS (2024)65Financial Times (2024)32 Paccar Hall At the undergraduate level, Foster offers a Bachelor of Arts in Business Administration (BABA) degree, with 7 formal options of study: accounting, entrepreneurship, finance, human resources management, information systems, marketing, and operations & supply chain management. Students pursue a common curriculum in the lower division and upper division core courses, then specialize in their area of focus. Foster undergraduates can also earn a Certificate of International Studies in Business (CISB) or participate in the Foster Honors Program. Meanwhile, entrepreneurship and business minors are available for non-business UW students. Non-business UW Students may also earn a Sales Certificate or participate in the Lavin Entrepreneurship Program. At the graduate level, the University of Washington Foster School offers a full-time Master of Business Administration (MBA) program, Global Executive MBA program, Evening MBA, Executive MBA, Hybrid MBA (online program), Technology Management MBA, and a doctoral program. The school also offers one-year master's programs in entrepreneurship, accounting, information systems, and supply chain management. For the 2015-2016 academic year, there are total of 102 full-time faculty with 44 endowed chairs, professorships, and research fellowships. The Financial Times ranked the Foster School 24th in the world for research in 2014 and 2015. Foster School of Business also has a PhD Program in Business Administration, a full-time and year-round research-based program. Admissions Admission into the Foster School of Business is highly competitive. At the undergraduate level, the majority of students are admitted through Standard Admission. Through Standard Admission, students first matriculate to the University of Washington as pre-major students, then apply to Foster after completing certain prerequisite courses, prior to their sophomore or junior year. A small number of students are admitted through the Freshman Direct program, directly out of high school. These students are selected from the pool of students admitted into the University of Washington, and exhibit "exceptionally competitive" academic records. In 2018, admitted Freshman Direct students had an average high school unweighted GPA of 3.91 (on a 4.0 scale). The MBA program is one of the top 20 most competitive in the nation, with an average undergraduate gpa of 3.3 and a GMAT of 710. Rankings The Foster School of Business MBA program is ranked 23rd in the nation by Bloomberg, 27th by US News and 16th by Financial Times. The Financial Times Global rankings lists the Foster School of Business at #30 in the world. An objective ranking of Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index by Academic Analytics ranks University of Washington #1 in research productivity in Business Administration and #8 in marketing. U.S. News & World Report ranked Foster's Evening MBA program 5th among public universities in 2024. U.S. News ranks Foster's undergraduate program #17 nationwide on their list of Best Undergraduate Business Programs, out of 504 U.S. schools, and #9 among public universities. Campus Paccar Hall during Fall Quarter Dempsey Hall The University of Washington Foster School of Business campus comprises five buildings, four in Seattle, Washington, and one in Kirkland, Washington. Seattle Buildings Paccar Hall, constructed in 2010, serves as the business school's flagship building. It contains faculty offices, classrooms, and a cafe and commons. The Shansby Auditorium, the business school's largest lecture hall, is located on the first floor. The Foster Business Library is also accessible from PACCAR. A multi-level skybridge connects Paccar Hall to Dempsey Hall. Founders Hall, constructed in 2022, was funded entirely by private gifts from leadership donors. In addition to classrooms, Founder's Hall is home to the offices of the Foster School's Consulting & Business Development Center, the Global Business Center, the Center for Leadership and Strategic Thinking, as well as the Foster School Advancement and Alumni teams. It is one of the greenest buildings on the University of Washington campus, designed to achieve a 79% reduction in energy consumption over the next 60 years. Dempsey Hall, named for Neal Dempsey, general partner with Bay Partners and lifelong supporter of the University of Washington. Dempsey Hall opened in 2012. It contains a number of classrooms and offices, including the office of the Dean. The Bank of America Executive Education Center houses the offices, classrooms, and lounge spaces for the Executive Education and Executive MBA programs for the Foster School of Business. Kirkland Buildings Eastside Executive Center is located in Kirkland, Washington, and houses offices and classrooms, and collaborative study spaces for the Technology Management MBA Program. Centers and Programs The following centers and specialty programs are part of the UW Foster School of Business: Arthur W. Buerk Center for Entrepreneurship. The University of Washington supports Seattle and the Pacific Northwest, one of the primary venture capital and entrepreneur communities in the West Coast, United States. The Buerk Center for Entrepreneurship connects students, faculty and business community members together and serves as resource for start-ups and companies. Center for Leadership and Strategic Thinking. The Center for Leadership and Strategic Thinking (CSLT) examines methods and effectiveness of leadership in various industries including health care, defense, and aviation. Center research employs simulations and game theory as new approaches to teaching business management Center for Sales and Marketing Strategy. The Center for Sales and Marketing Strategy aligns important sales and marketing problems with academic research and analysis techniques to develop strategies that improve business performance, and facilitate business-academic collaboration to create and disseminate sales and marketing knowledge. Consulting and Business Development Center. The Consulting and Business Development Center provides students with consulting experience, pairing student teams with growing businesses in economically distressed and under-represented minority communities. Global Business Center. The UW Global Business Center works in partnership with the United States Department of Education to contribute to the international competitiveness of American business by developing and supporting international business programs for students, faculty, and the business community. Certificate in International Studies in Business. Created in 1992 with support from the Center for International Business, Education and Research, the Certificate of International Studies in Business at the University of Washington enables undergraduate business students to gain knowledge of international issues and global business practices. The Product Management Center. The Product Management Center USTC-UW Institute for Global Business and Finance Innovation. The University of Science and Technology of China-UW Institute for Global Business and Finance Innovation fosters collaborative research, promotes student exchange, and supports international education and training through a partnership between the School of Management at the University of Science and Technology of China and the University of Washington Michael G. Foster School of Business. Foster Customer Analytics Center. The Foster Customer Analytics Center develops and fosters relationships between businesses, researchers, and students in the fields of machine learning and marketing analytics. Creative Destruction Lab. Student Life/Foster Community Interior of PACCAR UW students can join over 1,000 registered student organizations. Some registered student organizations include: Out in Business, a student organization that positions Foster MBA students to be "leaders of LGBTQ+ inclusion" in business. Global Business Association, a student organization that enhances Foster MBA candidates’ understanding of cross-border and cross-cultural business issues that permeate the modern business environment. Business Ethics Association, a student organization that spotlights the importance of ethical business practices. Business Impact Group UW, a student organization that works with the UW’s Consulting & Business Development Center to develop tactical strategies for small business. Asian Business Student Association. Diversity in Business, a student organization in the Foster MBA program. Alpha Kappa Psi Business Fraternity, a student organization for those who have an interest in business to be provided with opportunities to learn and grow through professional development, philanthropy, and social events. Association of Black Business Students, a student organization that recruits, assists, and organizes to promote the interest and success of students from underrepresented communities majoring in or interested in business. Achievements Some achievements of the University of Washington Business School: UW Foster School of Business has the 2nd most productive management research faculty in North America, according to a joint study out of Texas A&M University and the University of Florida. UW Team won the Leeds 2011 Net Impact Case Competition, the nation’s premier case competition built around businesses facing sustainability challenges. University of Washington Foster School of Business PhD Program in Accounting ranks among the top five in the world in a study conducted by Brigham Young University and Utah State University. Publication Foster Business. Business magazine reports on the news from the UW business school. Journal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis. It highlights theoretical and empirical research in financial economics. Seattle Growth podcast is led by UW Foster professor, Jeff Shulman, and discusses the thoughts of residents, businesses, and city leaders about what Seattle’s economic and population growth means to them. Conversations on Careers and Professional Life, hosted by Senior Associate Director of MBA Career Management, Gregory Heller, this podcast goes into conversations with UW and UW Foster faculty, staff, alumni, executives, current MBA candidates and other experts relating to career development, planning, and resilience. Frank Discussions, a series of brief executive interviews hosted by UW Foster Dean Frank Hodge. UW Foster Blog, reports on the news of the UW Foster business school Notable alumni Arts and Entertainment Kenny G, American smooth jazz saxophonist Chika Yoshida, Japanese YouTuber Athletics Jim Beattie, former pitcher for the New York Yankees and Seattle Mariners Fred Beckey, American rock climber and mountaineer Paige Mackenzie, professional golfer Edgar Martínez, former Seattle Mariner and MLB Hall of Famer Robert Moch, American rower in the 1936 Olympics Courtney Thompson, former volleyball player, former member of the United States women’s national volleyball team Marques Tuiasosopo, retired quarterback for the Oakland Raiders Banking/Financial David Bonderman, founding partner of TPG Yoshihiko Miyauchi, chairman and CEO of Japanese financial services group ORIX Corp Ronald Oliveira, CEO of Revolut USA Richard Roll (MBA 1963), American economist, best known for his work on portfolio theory and asset pricing Beauty/Fashion Michelle Gass, CEO and Director of Kohl’s Bruce Nordstrom, former chairman and CEO of Nordstrom Annie Young-Scrivner, CEO of Wella Education Hean Tat Keh (PhD 1998), Professor of Marketing and Director of Research at Monash University Food Marcus Charles, restaurateur and entrepreneur Fran Bigelow, founder of Fran’s Chocolates Ivar Haglund, founder of Ivar’s Orin C. Smith, former president and CEO of Starbucks Corporation Government and Judiciary Andrew Brimmer, the first African American to serve as governor of the Federal Reserve System Suzan DelBene, American politician and businesswoman John Eng, the first Asian American elected to the Washington state legislature Tobias Read (MBA 2003), Oregon State Treasurer and former businessman Gaming Robert Khoo, President of Penny Arcade Peter Adkison, game designer and founder of Wizards of the Coast Healthcare Ivan Liachko, Founder and CEO of Phase Genomics Real Estate Donald Bren, Chairman of the Irvine Company Travel William S. Ayer, president and CEO of Alaska Airlines Stanley McDonald, founder of Princess Cruises Brad Tilden, CEO of the Alaska Air Group See also List of United States business school rankings List of business schools in the United States MBA References ^ "About Foster". Foster School of Business. Retrieved 2023-03-13. ^ "School of Business Administration established". Archived from the original on 17 January 2018. Retrieved 3 November 2021. ^ "Nancy Jacob named ninth dean". Archived from the original on 2 November 2021. Retrieved 2 November 2021. ^ FREY, CHRISTINE (2007-09-07). "UW business school will be renamed for major donor". Seattle Post-Intelligencer. Retrieved 2023-03-13. ^ "Business school at UW renamed for major donor". The Seattle Times. 7 September 2007. Archived from the original on 24 May 2011. Retrieved 2 November 2015. ^ "About Michael G. Foster". Foster School of Business. Retrieved 2023-03-13. ^ "Best B-Schools". Bloomberg Businessweek. ^ "2023 QS Global MBA:United States". Quacquarelli Symonds. ^ "2023 Best Business Schools Rankings". U.S. News & World Report. ^ "QS Global MBA Rankings 2023". Quacquarelli Symonds. ^ "Global MBA Ranking 2023". Financial Times. ^ "Undergraduate Programs". Archived from the original on 2019-12-11. Retrieved 2019-11-28. ^ "Financial Times". Archived from the original on 2017-08-25. Retrieved 2015-10-07. ^ "Foster School of Business". Archived from the original on 2019-12-12. Retrieved 2019-11-28. ^ "Freshman Direct". Archived from the original on 2019-12-11. Retrieved 2019-11-28. ^ "Class Profile | Full-time MBA". Foster School of Business. Retrieved 2024-05-27. ^ a b "Rankings". Foster School of Business. Retrieved 2024-05-27. ^ Fischbein, Stephanie. "Academic Analytics - HOMEPAGE". Academic Analytics. Archived from the original on 2022-08-02. Retrieved 2022-08-29. ^ "The Chronicle of Higher Education". Archived from the original on 2011-06-11. Retrieved 2007-01-23. ^ "Foster jumps two spots to #17 in U.S. News ranking of best undergraduate business schools". Foster Blog. 2023-09-18. Retrieved 2024-05-27. ^ "Mackenzie Hall demolition begins, making way for Founders Hall". Foster Blog. July 17, 2020. Archived from the original on November 8, 2021. Retrieved November 8, 2021. ^ "Arthur W. Buerk Center for Entrepreneurship". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 14 October 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015. ^ "Center for Leadership and Strategic Thinking". University of Washington. Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 8 October 2012. ^ Elizabeth Padilla (16 December 2010). "UW Business School Ties Up With Game Maker | Washington and Puget Sound Business News Source | Seattle Business Magazine". Seattlebusinessmag.com. Archived from the original on 2012-07-17. Retrieved 2012-10-08. ^ "Gaming Technology: A tool for productivity | Washington and Puget Sound Business News Source | Seattle Business Magazine". Seattlebusinessmag.com. 16 December 2010. Archived from the original on 2022-08-29. Retrieved 2012-10-08. ^ "Center for Sales and Marketing Strategy". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 2 November 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015. ^ "Consulting and Business Development Center". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 6 November 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015. ^ "Global Business Center". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 2 November 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015. ^ "Certificate of International Studies in Business". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 2022-04-27. Retrieved 2022-08-29. ^ "The Product Management Center". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 2021-11-08. Retrieved 2021-11-08. ^ "USTC-UW Institute for Global Business and Finance Innovation". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 2021-11-08. Retrieved 2021-11-08. ^ "Home". Archived from the original on 2021-11-05. Retrieved 2021-11-08. ^ "Seattle". Creative Destruction Lab. Archived from the original on 2022-08-24. Retrieved 2022-08-29. ^ "Rankings". tamu.edu. 12 March 2015. Archived from the original on 8 November 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015. ^ "Leeds 2011 Net Impact Case Competition". Archived from the original on 2013-12-02. Retrieved 2013-11-25. ^ "Tippie College of Business - The University of Iowa". uiowa.edu. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2015. ^ "Publications". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 5 November 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015. ^ "JFQA - home frame". washington.edu. Archived from the original on 1 November 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015. External links Interview with Erin Ernst - Foster MBA Admissions Director vteUniversity of WashingtonLocated in: Seattle, WashingtonSchools Arts and Sciences Art + Art History + Design Drama International Studies Built Environments Business Dentistry Education Engineering Computer Science and Engineering Environment Graduate School Information Law Medicine Nursing Pharmacy Public Health Public Policy and Governance Social Work Departments Bioengineering Continuum College Geography Global Health AthleticsTeams Washington Huskies Football Seasons Bowls QBs NFL Draft Men's basketball Women's basketball Baseball Crew Conibear Shellhouse Softball Men's soccer Women's soccer Women's volleyball Venues Husky Stadium Hec Edmundson Pavilion Husky Ballpark Other Apple Cup Dubs Harry the Husky Hendrix the Husky Campus Benson Hall Condon Hall Denny Hall Drumheller Fountain Gerberding Hall Hill-Crest Mansion Husky Union Building Odegaard Undergraduate Library Off the Rez Planetarium Jones Playhouse Meany Hall Quad Red Square Suzzallo Library Sylvan Grove Theater and Columns Magnuson Health Sciences Center William H. 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Odegaard 2001 firebombing incident 2024 occupation protest Transition School and Early Entrance Program UW Academy for Young Scholars Founded: 1861 47°39′32″N 122°18′26″W / 47.65889°N 122.30722°W / 47.65889; -122.30722 Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Israel United States

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"business school","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_school"},{"link_name":"University of Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington"},{"link_name":"Seattle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"western United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_United_States"},{"link_name":"Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_to_Advance_Collegiate_Schools_of_Business"}],"text":"The Michael G. Foster School of Business at the University of Washington (also known as UW Foster) is the business school of the University of Washington in Seattle.[1] Founded in 1917 as the University of Washington School of Business Administration, the school was the second business school in the western United States.Accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business, the school offers bachelor's, master's, and doctoral degrees, as well as a undergraduate minor and certificate programs. Enrollment each year is about 2,500 students in its undergraduate and graduate programs and more than 1,000 working professionals in its executive education seminars and lifelong learning programs.","title":"Foster School of Business"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"New York Stock Exchange","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Stock_Exchange"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"text":"Founded in 1917, the University of Washington School of Business Administration was the second business school in the western United States.[2]In 1981, American businesswoman and University of Washington alumna Nancy Jacob became the ninth dean of the School of Business Administration, making her the first woman to lead a major American business school.[3]On September 7, 2007, the University of Washington announced that the Business School would be renamed for Michael G. Foster, a businessman who has pledged a total of $50 million in gifts.[4][5] Michael G. Foster founded Foster & Marshall, which was the first locally-owned brokerage in Seattle with a seat on the New York Stock Exchange.[6]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paccar_Hall.jpg"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"Master of Business Administration","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_of_Business_Administration"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"Paccar HallAt the undergraduate level, Foster offers a Bachelor of Arts in Business Administration (BABA) degree, with 7 formal options of study: accounting, entrepreneurship, finance, human resources management, information systems, marketing, and operations & supply chain management. Students pursue a common curriculum in the lower division and upper division core courses, then specialize in their area of focus.[12] Foster undergraduates can also earn a Certificate of International Studies in Business (CISB) or participate in the Foster Honors Program. Meanwhile, entrepreneurship and business minors are available for non-business UW students. Non-business UW Students may also earn a Sales Certificate or participate in the Lavin Entrepreneurship Program.At the graduate level, the University of Washington Foster School offers a full-time Master of Business Administration (MBA) program, Global Executive MBA program, Evening MBA, Executive MBA, Hybrid MBA (online program), Technology Management MBA, and a doctoral program. The school also offers one-year master's programs in entrepreneurship, accounting, information systems, and supply chain management. For the 2015-2016 academic year, there are total of 102 full-time faculty with 44 endowed chairs, professorships, and research fellowships. The Financial Times ranked the Foster School 24th in the world for research in 2014 and 2015.[13]Foster School of Business also has a PhD Program in Business Administration, a full-time and year-round research-based program.","title":"Academics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"Bloomberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_Businessweek"},{"link_name":"US News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report"},{"link_name":"Financial Times","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Financial_Times"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Academic_Analytics-18"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-AA_Chronicle-19"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-17"},{"link_name":"U.S. News","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._News_%26_World_Report"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"}],"text":"Admission into the Foster School of Business is highly competitive. At the undergraduate level, the majority of students are admitted through Standard Admission. Through Standard Admission, students first matriculate to the University of Washington as pre-major students, then apply to Foster after completing certain prerequisite courses, prior to their sophomore or junior year.[14]A small number of students are admitted through the Freshman Direct program, directly out of high school. These students are selected from the pool of students admitted into the University of Washington, and exhibit \"exceptionally competitive\" academic records. In 2018, admitted Freshman Direct students had an average high school unweighted GPA of 3.91 (on a 4.0 scale).[15]The MBA program is one of the top 20 most competitive in the nation, with an average undergraduate gpa of 3.3 and a GMAT of 710.[16]RankingsThe Foster School of Business MBA program is ranked 23rd in the nation by Bloomberg, 27th by US News and 16th by Financial Times. The Financial Times Global rankings lists the Foster School of Business at #30 in the world.[17] An objective ranking of Faculty Scholarly Productivity Index by Academic Analytics ranks University of Washington #1 in research productivity in Business Administration and #8 in marketing.[18][19] U.S. News & World Report ranked Foster's Evening MBA program 5th among public universities in 2024.[17]U.S. News ranks Foster's undergraduate program #17 nationwide on their list of Best Undergraduate Business Programs, out of 504 U.S. schools, and #9 among public universities.[20]","title":"Admissions"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Paccar_Hall_during_Fall_Quarter.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Dempsey_Hall.jpg"}],"text":"Paccar Hall during Fall QuarterDempsey HallThe University of Washington Foster School of Business campus comprises five buildings, four in Seattle, Washington, and one in Kirkland, Washington.","title":"Campus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Foster Business Library","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foster_Business_Library"},{"link_name":"skybridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skyway"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Founders_Hall-21"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Seattle Buildings","text":"Paccar Hall, constructed in 2010, serves as the business school's flagship building. It contains faculty offices, classrooms, and a cafe and commons. The Shansby Auditorium, the business school's largest lecture hall, is located on the first floor. The Foster Business Library is also accessible from PACCAR. A multi-level skybridge connects Paccar Hall to Dempsey Hall.\nFounders Hall, constructed in 2022,[21] was funded entirely by private gifts from leadership donors. In addition to classrooms, Founder's Hall is home to the offices of the Foster School's Consulting & Business Development Center, the Global Business Center, the Center for Leadership and Strategic Thinking, as well as the Foster School Advancement and Alumni teams. It is one of the greenest buildings on the University of Washington campus, designed to achieve a 79% reduction in energy consumption over the next 60 years.[citation needed]\nDempsey Hall, named for Neal Dempsey, general partner with Bay Partners and lifelong supporter of the University of Washington. Dempsey Hall opened in 2012. It contains a number of classrooms and offices, including the office of the Dean.\nThe Bank of America Executive Education Center houses the offices, classrooms, and lounge spaces for the Executive Education and Executive MBA programs for the Foster School of Business.","title":"Campus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kirkland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kirkland,_Washington"},{"link_name":"Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington_(U.S._state)"}],"sub_title":"Kirkland Buildings","text":"Eastside Executive Center is located in Kirkland, Washington, and houses offices and classrooms, and collaborative study spaces for the Technology Management MBA Program.","title":"Campus"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"venture capital","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venture_capital"},{"link_name":"entrepreneur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Entrepreneur"},{"link_name":"United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Buerk_Center-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seattle_Business_Release-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Seattle_Business_Article-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Center_for_Sales_and_Marketing_Strategy-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CBDC-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-GBC-28"},{"link_name":"United States Department of Education","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Education"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-CISB-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-PMC-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-USTC-UW_Institute_for_Global_Business_and_Finance_Innovation-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Foster_Customer_Analytics_Center-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Creative_Destruction_Lab-33"}],"text":"The following centers and specialty programs are part of the UW Foster School of Business:Arthur W. Buerk Center for Entrepreneurship. The University of Washington supports Seattle and the Pacific Northwest, one of the primary venture capital and entrepreneur communities in the West Coast, United States. The Buerk Center for Entrepreneurship[22] connects students, faculty and business community members together and serves as resource for start-ups and companies.\nCenter for Leadership and Strategic Thinking. The Center for Leadership and Strategic Thinking (CSLT)[23] examines methods and effectiveness of leadership in various industries including health care, defense, and aviation. Center research employs simulations and game theory as new approaches to teaching business management[24][25]\nCenter for Sales and Marketing Strategy. The Center for Sales and Marketing Strategy[26] aligns important sales and marketing problems with academic research and analysis techniques to develop strategies that improve business performance, and facilitate business-academic collaboration to create and disseminate sales and marketing knowledge.\nConsulting and Business Development Center. The Consulting and Business Development Center[27] provides students with consulting experience, pairing student teams with growing businesses in economically distressed and under-represented minority communities.\nGlobal Business Center. The UW Global Business Center[28] works in partnership with the United States Department of Education to contribute to the international competitiveness of American business by developing and supporting international business programs for students, faculty, and the business community.\nCertificate in International Studies in Business. Created in 1992 with support from the Center for International Business, Education and Research, the Certificate of International Studies in Business[29] at the University of Washington enables undergraduate business students to gain knowledge of international issues and global business practices.\nThe Product Management Center. The Product Management Center[30]\nUSTC-UW Institute for Global Business and Finance Innovation. The University of Science and Technology of China-UW Institute for Global Business and Finance Innovation[31] fosters collaborative research, promotes student exchange, and supports international education and training through a partnership between the School of Management at the University of Science and Technology of China and the University of Washington Michael G. Foster School of Business.\nFoster Customer Analytics Center. The Foster Customer Analytics Center[32] develops and fosters relationships between businesses, researchers, and students in the fields of machine learning and marketing analytics.\nCreative Destruction Lab.[33]","title":"Centers and Programs"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:PACCAR_Interior.jpg"}],"text":"Interior of PACCARUW students can join over 1,000 registered student organizations. Some registered student organizations include:Out in Business, a student organization that positions Foster MBA students to be \"leaders of LGBTQ+ inclusion\" in business.\nGlobal Business Association, a student organization that enhances Foster MBA candidates’ understanding of cross-border and cross-cultural business issues that permeate the modern business environment.\nBusiness Ethics Association, a student organization that spotlights the importance of ethical business practices.\nBusiness Impact Group UW, a student organization that works with the UW’s Consulting & Business Development Center to develop tactical strategies for small business.\nAsian Business Student Association.\nDiversity in Business, a student organization in the Foster MBA program.\nAlpha Kappa Psi Business Fraternity, a student organization for those who have an interest in business to be provided with opportunities to learn and grow through professional development, philanthropy, and social events.\nAssociation of Black Business Students, a student organization that recruits, assists, and organizes to promote the interest and success of students from underrepresented communities majoring in or interested in business.","title":"Student Life/Foster Community"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Washington"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"}],"text":"Some achievements of the University of Washington Business School:UW Foster School of Business has the 2nd most productive management research faculty in North America, according to a joint study out of Texas A&M University and the University of Florida.[34]\nUW Team won the Leeds 2011 Net Impact Case Competition, the nation’s premier case competition built around businesses facing sustainability challenges.[35]\nUniversity of Washington Foster School of Business PhD Program in Accounting ranks among the top five in the world in a study conducted by Brigham Young University and Utah State University.[36]","title":"Achievements"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"}],"text":"Foster Business. Business magazine reports on the news from the UW business school.[37]\nJournal of Financial and Quantitative Analysis. It highlights theoretical and empirical research in financial economics.[38]\nSeattle Growth podcast is led by UW Foster professor, Jeff Shulman, and discusses the thoughts of residents, businesses, and city leaders about what Seattle’s economic and population growth means to them.\nConversations on Careers and Professional Life, hosted by Senior Associate Director of MBA Career Management, Gregory Heller, this podcast goes into conversations with UW and UW Foster faculty, staff, alumni, executives, current MBA candidates and other experts relating to career development, planning, and resilience.\nFrank Discussions, a series of brief executive interviews hosted by UW Foster Dean Frank Hodge.\nUW Foster Blog, reports on the news of the UW Foster business school","title":"Publication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kenny G","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenny_G"},{"link_name":"Chika Yoshida","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilingirl"},{"link_name":"YouTuber","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/YouTuber"},{"link_name":"Jim Beattie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Beattie_(baseball)"},{"link_name":"New York Yankees","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_York_Yankees"},{"link_name":"Seattle Mariners","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Mariners"},{"link_name":"Fred Beckey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fred_Beckey"},{"link_name":"Paige Mackenzie","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paige_Mackenzie"},{"link_name":"Edgar Martínez","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edgar_Mart%C3%ADnez"},{"link_name":"Seattle Mariner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seattle_Mariners"},{"link_name":"MLB Hall of Famer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MLB_Hall_of_Fame"},{"link_name":"Robert Moch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Moch"},{"link_name":"rower","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rowing_(sport)"},{"link_name":"1936 Olympics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1936_Summer_Olympics"},{"link_name":"Courtney Thompson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Courtney_Thompson"},{"link_name":"United States women’s national volleyball team","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_women%27s_national_volleyball_team"},{"link_name":"Marques Tuiasosopo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marques_Tuiasosopo"},{"link_name":"Oakland Raiders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oakland_Raiders"},{"link_name":"David Bonderman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David_Bonderman"},{"link_name":"TPG","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TPG_Capital"},{"link_name":"Yoshihiko Miyauchi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoshihiko_Miyauchi"},{"link_name":"ORIX Corp","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orix"},{"link_name":"Ronald Oliveira","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ronald_Oliveira"},{"link_name":"Revolut","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Revolut"},{"link_name":"Richard Roll","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Roll"},{"link_name":"portfolio theory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portfolio_theory"},{"link_name":"asset pricing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asset_pricing"},{"link_name":"Michelle Gass","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michelle_Gass"},{"link_name":"Kohl’s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kohl%27s"},{"link_name":"Bruce Nordstrom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Nordstrom"},{"link_name":"Nordstrom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nordstrom"},{"link_name":"Annie Young-Scrivner","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annie_Young-Scrivner"},{"link_name":"Hean Tat Keh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hean_Tat_Keh"},{"link_name":"Marketing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marketing"},{"link_name":"Monash University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monash_University"},{"link_name":"Marcus Charles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marcus_Charles"},{"link_name":"Fran Bigelow","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran_Bigelow"},{"link_name":"Fran’s Chocolates","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fran%27s_Chocolates"},{"link_name":"Ivar Haglund","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivar_Haglund"},{"link_name":"Ivar’s","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivar%27s"},{"link_name":"Orin C. Smith","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orin_C._Smith"},{"link_name":"Starbucks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starbucks"},{"link_name":"Andrew Brimmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_Brimmer"},{"link_name":"Federal Reserve System","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federal_reserve_system"},{"link_name":"Suzan DelBene","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suzan_DelBene"},{"link_name":"John Eng","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Eng"},{"link_name":"Tobias Read","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tobias_Read"},{"link_name":"Oregon State Treasurer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oregon_State_Treasurer"},{"link_name":"Robert Khoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert_Khoo"},{"link_name":"Penny Arcade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penny_Arcade"},{"link_name":"Peter Adkison","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter_Adkison"},{"link_name":"Wizards of the Coast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wizards_of_the_Coast"},{"link_name":"Ivan Liachko","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivan_Liachko"},{"link_name":"Phase Genomics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase_Genomics"},{"link_name":"Donald Bren","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Donald_Bren"},{"link_name":"Irvine Company","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irvine_Company"},{"link_name":"William S. Ayer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_S._Ayer"},{"link_name":"Alaska Airlines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Airlines"},{"link_name":"Stanley McDonald","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanley_McDonald"},{"link_name":"Princess Cruises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Princess_Cruises"},{"link_name":"Brad Tilden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brad_Tilden"},{"link_name":"Alaska Air Group","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alaska_Air_Group"}],"text":"Arts and EntertainmentKenny G, American smooth jazz saxophonist\nChika Yoshida, Japanese YouTuberAthleticsJim Beattie, former pitcher for the New York Yankees and Seattle Mariners\nFred Beckey, American rock climber and mountaineer\nPaige Mackenzie, professional golfer\nEdgar Martínez, former Seattle Mariner and MLB Hall of Famer\nRobert Moch, American rower in the 1936 Olympics\nCourtney Thompson, former volleyball player, former member of the United States women’s national volleyball team\nMarques Tuiasosopo, retired quarterback for the Oakland RaidersBanking/FinancialDavid Bonderman, founding partner of TPG\nYoshihiko Miyauchi, chairman and CEO of Japanese financial services group ORIX Corp\nRonald Oliveira, CEO of Revolut USA\nRichard Roll (MBA 1963), American economist, best known for his work on portfolio theory and asset pricingBeauty/FashionMichelle Gass, CEO and Director of Kohl’s\nBruce Nordstrom, former chairman and CEO of Nordstrom\nAnnie Young-Scrivner, CEO of WellaEducationHean Tat Keh (PhD 1998), Professor of Marketing and Director of Research at Monash UniversityFoodMarcus Charles, restaurateur and entrepreneur\nFran Bigelow, founder of Fran’s Chocolates\nIvar Haglund, founder of Ivar’s\nOrin C. Smith, former president and CEO of Starbucks CorporationGovernment and JudiciaryAndrew Brimmer, the first African American to serve as governor of the Federal Reserve System\nSuzan DelBene, American politician and businesswoman\nJohn Eng, the first Asian American elected to the Washington state legislature\nTobias Read (MBA 2003), Oregon State Treasurer and former businessmanGamingRobert Khoo, President of Penny Arcade\nPeter Adkison, game designer and founder of Wizards of the CoastHealthcareIvan Liachko, Founder and CEO of Phase GenomicsReal EstateDonald Bren, Chairman of the Irvine CompanyTravelWilliam S. Ayer, president and CEO of Alaska Airlines\nStanley McDonald, founder of Princess Cruises\nBrad Tilden, CEO of the Alaska Air Group","title":"Notable alumni"}]

[{"image_text":"Paccar Hall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Paccar_Hall.jpg/220px-Paccar_Hall.jpg"},{"image_text":"Paccar Hall during Fall Quarter","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Paccar_Hall_during_Fall_Quarter.jpg/220px-Paccar_Hall_during_Fall_Quarter.jpg"},{"image_text":"Dempsey Hall","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Dempsey_Hall.jpg/220px-Dempsey_Hall.jpg"},{"image_text":"Interior of PACCAR","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/PACCAR_Interior.jpg/220px-PACCAR_Interior.jpg"}]

[{"title":"List of United States business school rankings","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_business_school_rankings"},{"title":"List of business schools in the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_business_schools_in_the_United_States"},{"title":"MBA","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MBA"}]

[{"reference":"\"About Foster\". Foster School of Business. Retrieved 2023-03-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://foster.uw.edu/about-foster-school/","url_text":"\"About Foster\""}]},{"reference":"\"School of Business Administration established\". Archived from the original on 17 January 2018. Retrieved 3 November 2021.","urls":[{"url":"http://depts.washington.edu/century/1917/10/07/the-school-of-business-administration-is-established-at-the-university-of-washington/","url_text":"\"School of Business Administration established\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180117124033/http://depts.washington.edu/century/1917/10/07/the-school-of-business-administration-is-established-at-the-university-of-washington/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Nancy Jacob named ninth dean\". Archived from the original on 2 November 2021. 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Retrieved 2 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2003872955_uwbiz07m.html","url_text":"\"Business school at UW renamed for major donor\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20110524063755/http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/localnews/2003872955_uwbiz07m.html","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"About Michael G. Foster\". Foster School of Business. Retrieved 2023-03-13.","urls":[{"url":"https://foster.uw.edu/about-foster-school/office-of-the-dean/about-michael-g-foster/","url_text":"\"About Michael G. Foster\""}]},{"reference":"\"Best B-Schools\". Bloomberg Businessweek.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.bloomberg.com/business-schools/regions/us/","url_text":"\"Best B-Schools\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bloomberg_Businessweek","url_text":"Bloomberg Businessweek"}]},{"reference":"\"2023 QS Global MBA:United States\". Quacquarelli Symonds.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.topuniversities.com/university-rankings/mba-rankings/us/2023","url_text":"\"2023 QS Global MBA:United States\""}]},{"reference":"\"2023 Best Business Schools Rankings\". U.S. News & World Report.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.usnews.com/best-graduate-schools/top-business-schools/mba-rankings","url_text":"\"2023 Best Business Schools Rankings\""}]},{"reference":"\"QS Global MBA Rankings 2023\". Quacquarelli Symonds.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.topuniversities.com/mba-rankings/2023","url_text":"\"QS Global MBA Rankings 2023\""}]},{"reference":"\"Global MBA Ranking 2023\". Financial Times.","urls":[{"url":"https://rankings.ft.com/home/masters-in-business-administration2","url_text":"\"Global MBA Ranking 2023\""}]},{"reference":"\"Undergraduate Programs\". Archived from the original on 2019-12-11. Retrieved 2019-11-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://foster.uw.edu/academics/degree-programs/undergraduate-programs/","url_text":"\"Undergraduate Programs\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191211201736/https://foster.uw.edu/academics/degree-programs/undergraduate-programs/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Financial Times\". Archived from the original on 2017-08-25. Retrieved 2015-10-07.","urls":[{"url":"http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-ranking-2015","url_text":"\"Financial Times\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20170825024210/http://rankings.ft.com/businessschoolrankings/global-mba-ranking-2015","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Foster School of Business\". Archived from the original on 2019-12-12. Retrieved 2019-11-28.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.washington.edu/students/gencat/academic/school_business.html#UNDER","url_text":"\"Foster School of Business\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191212101420/https://www.washington.edu/students/gencat/academic/school_business.html#UNDER","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Freshman Direct\". Archived from the original on 2019-12-11. Retrieved 2019-11-28.","urls":[{"url":"https://foster.uw.edu/academics/degree-programs/undergraduate-programs/admissions/freshman-direct/","url_text":"\"Freshman Direct\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20191211212628/https://foster.uw.edu/academics/degree-programs/undergraduate-programs/admissions/freshman-direct/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Class Profile | Full-time MBA\". Foster School of Business. 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Retrieved November 8, 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://blog.foster.uw.edu/mackenzie-hall-demolition-begins-making-way-founders-hall/","url_text":"\"Mackenzie Hall demolition begins, making way for Founders Hall\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211108193005/https://blog.foster.uw.edu/mackenzie-hall-demolition-begins-making-way-founders-hall/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Arthur W. Buerk Center for Entrepreneurship\". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 14 October 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://foster.uw.edu/centers/buerk-ctr-entrepreneurship/","url_text":"\"Arthur W. Buerk Center for Entrepreneurship\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151014182352/http://foster.uw.edu/centers/buerk-ctr-entrepreneurship","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Center for Leadership and Strategic Thinking\". University of Washington. Archived from the original on 2 March 2015. Retrieved 8 October 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://foster.uw.edu/centers/leadership/","url_text":"\"Center for Leadership and Strategic Thinking\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150302000741/http://foster.uw.edu/centers/leadership/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"Elizabeth Padilla (16 December 2010). \"UW Business School Ties Up With Game Maker | Washington and Puget Sound Business News Source | Seattle Business Magazine\". Seattlebusinessmag.com. Archived from the original on 2012-07-17. 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Retrieved 2 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://foster.uw.edu/centers/consulting-and-business-development-center/","url_text":"\"Consulting and Business Development Center\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151106213239/http://foster.uw.edu/centers/consulting-and-business-development-center","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Global Business Center\". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 2 November 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://foster.uw.edu/centers/gbc/","url_text":"\"Global Business Center\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151102034757/http://foster.uw.edu/centers/gbc/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Certificate of International Studies in Business\". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 2022-04-27. Retrieved 2022-08-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://foster.uw.edu/academics/certificates-and-minors/certificate-of-international-studies-in-business/","url_text":"\"Certificate of International Studies in Business\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220427062224/https://foster.uw.edu/academics/certificates-and-minors/certificate-of-international-studies-in-business/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"The Product Management Center\". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 2021-11-08. Retrieved 2021-11-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://foster.uw.edu/centers/the-product-management-center/","url_text":"\"The Product Management Center\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211108191822/https://foster.uw.edu/centers/the-product-management-center/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"USTC-UW Institute for Global Business and Finance Innovation\". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 2021-11-08. Retrieved 2021-11-08.","urls":[{"url":"https://foster.uw.edu/centers/ustc-institute/","url_text":"\"USTC-UW Institute for Global Business and Finance Innovation\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211108192033/https://foster.uw.edu/centers/ustc-institute/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Home\". Archived from the original on 2021-11-05. Retrieved 2021-11-08.","urls":[{"url":"http://fcac.foster.uw.edu/","url_text":"\"Home\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20211105111621/http://fcac.foster.uw.edu/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Seattle\". Creative Destruction Lab. Archived from the original on 2022-08-24. Retrieved 2022-08-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://creativedestructionlab.com/locations/seattle/","url_text":"\"Seattle\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220824092148/https://creativedestructionlab.com/locations/seattle/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Rankings\". tamu.edu. 12 March 2015. Archived from the original on 8 November 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://mays.tamu.edu/department-of-management/rankings/","url_text":"\"Rankings\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151108170415/http://mays.tamu.edu/department-of-management/rankings/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Leeds 2011 Net Impact Case Competition\". Archived from the original on 2013-12-02. Retrieved 2013-11-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20131202223048/http://leeds.colorado.edu/competition/46","url_text":"\"Leeds 2011 Net Impact Case Competition\""},{"url":"http://leeds.colorado.edu/competition/46/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Tippie College of Business - The University of Iowa\". uiowa.edu. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://tippie.uiowa.edu/accounting/accounting_rankings.pdf/","url_text":"\"Tippie College of Business - The University of Iowa\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160304210206/http://tippie.uiowa.edu/accounting/accounting_rankings.pdf/","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"Publications\". Foster School of Business. Archived from the original on 5 November 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://foster.uw.edu/about-foster-school/publications/","url_text":"\"Publications\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151105172827/http://foster.uw.edu/about-foster-school/publications","url_text":"Archived"}]},{"reference":"\"JFQA - home frame\". washington.edu. Archived from the original on 1 November 2015. Retrieved 2 November 2015.","urls":[{"url":"http://depts.washington.edu/jfqa/","url_text":"\"JFQA - home frame\""},{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20151101110137/http://depts.washington.edu/jfqa/","url_text":"Archived"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_art

Greek art

["1 Ancient period","2 Byzantine period","3 Post-Byzantine and modern period","4 Major museums and galleries in Greece","4.1 Attica","4.2 Thessaloniki","4.3 Crete","4.4 Corfu","4.5 Rest of Greece","5 See also","6 References","7 External links"]

Part of a series on theCulture of Greece History Ancient regions and tribes Byzantine and Ottoman Greeks Christianization Colonization Coups d'état Demographic (Modern) Economic Geographical name changes Greek countries and regions Greek Muslims Renaissance scholars Hellenic languages and Proto-Greek Inventions and discoveries Language question Military Monarchy (Kings and royal family) Phanariotes Polis Population exchange of 1923 People Languages Mythology Cuisine Festivals Religion Ancient religion (Origins, Modern Revival) Aerico Buddhism Catholicism Drosoulites Eastern Orthodox Church (Timeline: Antiquity, Early Middle Ages, Late Middle Ages, Early Modern Era, 19th century, Early 20th century, Late 20th century, Contemporary) Fairy tales Gello Greek Orthodox Church (Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople, Church of Greece, Flag) Greek Old Calendarists Hinduism Hypertimos Islam Judaism (History) Kallikantzaros Lamia Mormo Mount Athos Mythology (Primordial deities, Titans, Twelve Olympians, Heracles, Odysseus, Jason, Oedipus, Perseus, Daedalus, Orpheus, Theseus, Bellerephon, Satyr, Centaur) Nymph Protestantism Psychai Sikhism Thymiaterion Name days Vrykolakas Wayside shrine Art Literature Ancient (to 4th century AD) Byzantine (4th–15th century) Modern (post 11th century) Music and performing arts Theatre Media Radio Television Cinema Sport Ancient Olympics Baseball Basketball Cricket Football Hockey Ice hockey Modern Olympics (1896, 1906, 2004) Rugby league Monuments World Heritage Sites Symbols Flag Coat of arms National anthem Greece portalvte Part of a series on theHistory of Greek art Greek Bronze Age Cycladic art Minoan art Mycenaean art Ancient Greece Archaic Greek art Ancient Greek art Ancient Greek architecture Ancient Greek pottery Ancient Greek sculpture Hellenistic art see also: Greco-Buddhist art Medieval Greece Byzantine art Byzantine Iconoclasm Macedonian art Post-Byzantine Greece Cretan School Heptanese School Modern Greece Modern Greek art Modern Greek architecture Munich School Contemporary Greek art vte Greek art began in the Cycladic and Minoan civilization, and gave birth to Western classical art in the subsequent Geometric, Archaic and Classical periods (with further developments during the Hellenistic Period). It absorbed influences of Eastern civilizations, of Roman art and its patrons, and the new religion of Orthodox Christianity in the Byzantine era and absorbed Italian and European ideas during the period of Romanticism (with the invigoration of the Greek Revolution), until the Modernist and Postmodernist. Greek art is mainly five forms: architecture, sculpture, painting, pottery and jewelry making. Ancient period Further information: Cycladic art, Minoan civilization, Mycenean Greece, Archaic Greek art, Ancient Greek art, Ancient Greek sculpture, Ancient Greek pottery, and Hellenistic art The Stag Hunt Mosaic at the Archaeological Museum of Pella (3rd BC) Artistic production in Greece began in the prehistoric pre-Greek Cycladic and the Minoan civilizations, both of which were influenced by local traditions and the art of ancient Egypt. There are three scholarly divisions of the stages of later ancient Greek art that correspond roughly with historical periods of the same names. These are the Archaic, the Classical and the Hellenistic. The Archaic period is usually dated from 1000 BC. The Persian Wars of 480 BC to 448 BC are usually taken as the dividing line between the Archaic and the Classical periods, and the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC is regarded as the event separating the Classical from the Hellenistic period. Of course, different forms of art developed at different speeds in different parts of the Greek world, and varied to a degree from artist to artist. There was a sharp transition from one period to another. The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times until the present, particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture. In the West, the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models. In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Greco-Buddhist art, with ramifications as far as Japan. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Pottery was either blue with black designs or black with blue designs. Byzantine period Main articles: Byzantine art and Macedonian art (Byzantine) Mosaic of Daphni Monastery (ca. 1100) Byzantine art is the term created for the Eastern Roman Empire from about the 5th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. (The Roman Empire during this period is conventionally known as the Byzantine Empire.) The term can also be used for the art of states which were contemporary with the Byzantine Empire and shared a common culture with it, without actually being part of it, such as Bulgaria, or Russia, and also Venice, which had close ties to the Byzantine Empire despite being in other respects part of western European culture. It can also be used for the art of people of the former Byzantine Empire under the rule of Ottoman Empire after 1453. In some respects, the Byzantine artistic tradition has continued in Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the present day. Byzantine art grew from the art of ancient Greece and, at least before 1453, never lost sight of its classical heritage, but was distinguished from it in a number of ways. The most profound of these was that the humanist ethic of ancient Greek art was replaced by the Christian ethic. If the purpose of classical art was the glorification of man, the purpose of Byzantine art was the glorification of God. In place of the nude, the figures of God the Father, Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary and the saints and martyrs of Christian tradition were elevated and became the dominant - indeed almost exclusive - focus of Byzantine art. One of the most important forms of Byzantine art was, and still is, the Cretan school as the leading school of Greek post-Byzantine painting after Crete fell to the Ottomans in 1669. Like the Cretan school, it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasing Western European artistic influence, and also saw the first signiand the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C. Post-Byzantine and modern period Main articles: Cretan School, Heptanese School (painting), and Modern Greek art St Theodora icon by Emmanuel Tzanes, an example of the Cretan School Ηistoria (Allegory of History) by Nikolaos Gyzis (1892) Athena column by Leonidas Drosis in front of the Academy of Athens (modern) Cretan School describes the school of icon painting, also known as Post-Byzantine art, which flourished while Crete was under Venetian rule during the late Middle Ages, reaching its climax after the Fall of Constantinople, becoming the central force in Greek painting during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The Cretan artists developed a particular style of painting under the influence of both Eastern and Western artistic traditions and movements; the most famous product of the school, El Greco, was the most successful of the many artists who tried to build a career in Western Europe, and also the one who left the Byzantine style farthest behind him in his later career. The Heptanese School of painting (Greek: Επτανησιακή Σχολή, lit. 'The School of the seven islands', also known as the Ionian Islands' School) succeeded the Cretan School as the leading school of Greek post-Byzantine painting after Crete fell to the Ottomans in 1669. Like the Cretan school it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasing Western European artistic influence, and also saw the first significant depiction of secular subjects. The school was based in the Ionian Islands, which were not part of Ottoman Greece, from the middle of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th century. Modern Greek art, after the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, began to be developed around the time of Romanticism. Greek artists absorbed many elements from their European colleagues, resulting in the culmination of the distinctive style of Greek Romantic art, inspired by revolutionary ideals as well as the country's geography and history. After centuries of Ottoman rule, few opportunities for an education in the arts existed in the newly independent Greece, so studying abroad was imperative for artists. Munich, as an important international center for the arts at that time, was the place where the majority of the Greek artists of the 19th century chose to study. Later on, they would return to Greece and pass on their knowledge. Both academic and personal bonds developed between early Greek painters and Munich artistry giving birth to the Greek "Munich School" (Greek academic art of the 19th century). Nikolaos Gysis was an important teacher and artist at the Munich Academy and he soon became a leading figure among Greek artists. Many of these Munich School artists chose subjects such as everyday Greek life, local customs, and living conditions. Several important painters emerged at this time. Theodoros Vryzakis specialized in historical painting and especially inspired by the 1821 Greek War of Independence. Nikiphoros Lytras concentrated on realistic depictions of Greek life. Georgios Jakobides devoted his attention to infants and children and he would laterbecome the first Director of the new National Gallery of Athens. Georgios Roilos was another leading painter of the period closely associated with the Munich School, especially in his early career. Konstantinos Volanakis was inspired mostly by the Greek sea. Other notable painters of the era are Theodore Ralli, Ioannis Altamouras and the folk painter Theofilos Hatzimichail. Notable sculptors of the era are Leonidas Drosis (his major work was the extensive neo-classical architectural ornament at the Academy of Athens, Lazaros Sochos, Georgios Vitalis, Dimitrios Filippotis, Ioannis Kossos, Yannoulis Chalepas, Georgios Bonanos and Lazaros Fytalis. Major museums and galleries in Greece See also: List of museums in Greece Attica Acropolis Museum National Archaeological Museum, Athens National Gallery (Athens) Byzantine and Christian Museum National Museum of Contemporary Art, Athens Benaki Museum Goulandris Museum of Cycladic Art Stoa of Attalos Numismatic Museum of Athens Archaeological Museum of Piraeus Thessaloniki Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki Museum of Byzantine Culture Crete Heraklion Archaeological Museum Archaeological Museum of Chania Agia Triada Monastery Corfu Archaeological Museum of Corfu Byzantine Museum of Antivouniotissa Rest of Greece Archaeological Museum of Patras Archaeological Museum of Volos Archaeological Museum of Dion Archaeological Museum of Amphipolis Archaeological Museum of Pella Archaeological Museum of Veroia Archaeological Museum of Thasos Archaeological Museum of Delos Archaeological Museum of Rhodes Archaeological Museum of Epidaurus Archaeological Museum of Olympia Delphi Archaeological Museum Nea Moni of Chios Florina Museum of Modern Art See also History of Greece Culture of Greece Modern Greek art Byzantine and Christian Museum References ^ Henri Stierlin. Greece: From Mycenae to the Parthenon. Taschen, 2004. ^ C. Mango, ed., The art of the Byzantine Empire, 312-1453: sources and documents (Inglewood Cliffs, 1972) ^ "Theodoros Stamos". Toomey-tourell.com. 2021-03-08. Retrieved 2021-03-19. ^ "archive.gr - Διαδρομές στην Νεοελληνική Τέχνη". Archived from the original on September 27, 2007. ^ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2011-06-06. Retrieved 2007-02-06.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (link) External links Wikimedia Commons has media related to Art of Greece. Ancient Greece website Art History Resources on the Web: Greek Art A History of Greek Art by Frank Bigelow Tarbell A History Of Greek Art by F. B. Tarbell Byzantine Art Charles Diehl National Gallery of Athens Modern Greek Painters vteGreece topics Basic topics Alphabetical index of topics HistoryPrehistory (pre-1100 BC) Neolithic Age Bronze Age Pelasgians Cycladic civilization Minoan civilization Helladic period Mycenaean period Bronze Age collapse Antiquity (1100 BC-330 AD) Greek Dark Ages Iron Age migrations Archaic period Greco-Persian Wars Classical period Delian and Peloponnesian League Peloponnesian War League of Corinth Wars of Alexander the Great Hellenistic period Wars of the Diadochi Roman–Greek wars Roman era Foundation of Constantinople Middle Ages (330–1453) Byzantine period Persecution of paganism Migration period Plague of Justinian Arab–Byzantine wars Iconoclasm Macedonian Renaissance East–West Schism Fourth Crusade Frankokratia Empire of Nicaea, Despotate of Epirus and Despotate of the Morea Fall of Constantinople Early modernand Modern era (post-1453) Stato da Màr (Venetian Ionian islands, Kingdom of Candia) 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Milos, Mykonos, Naxos, Paros, Santorini, Syros, Tinos) Dodecanese (Agathonisi, Astypalaia, Chalki, Kalymnos, Karpathos, Kasos, Kos, Leipsoi, Leros, Nisyros, Patmos, Rhodes, Symi, Tilos, Kastellorizo) Epirus (Arta, Ioannina, Preveza, Thesprotia) Ionian Islands (Corfu, Ithaca, Kefalonia, Kythira, Lefkada, Paxi, Zakynthos) Macedonia (Chalkidiki, Drama, Florina, Grevena, Imathia, Kastoria, Kavala, Kilkis, Kozani, Pella, Pieria, Serres, Thasos, Thessaloniki) North Aegean islands (Chios, Ikaria, Lemnos, Lesbos, Samos) Peloponnese (Arcadia, Argolis, Corinthia, Laconia, Messenia, Achaea, Elis) Thessaly (Karditsa, Larissa, Magnesia, Trikala, Sporades) Thrace (Evros, Rhodope, Xanthi) Terrain Canyons and gorges Caves Geology Islands (Aegean, Ionian, Crete) Mountains (Olympus, Pindus, Rhodopes) Peninsulas Plains Volcanoes Water Coasts Lakes Rivers Mediterranean Sea Aegean Sea (Sea of Crete, Icarian Sea, Myrtoan Sea, Thracian Sea) Ionian Sea Libyan Sea Environment Climate Natural disasters 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cycladic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycladic_civilization"},{"link_name":"Minoan civilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization"},{"link_name":"Western classical art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classicism"},{"link_name":"Geometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geometric_art"},{"link_name":"Archaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_Greece"},{"link_name":"Classical","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Classical_Greece"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic"},{"link_name":"Orthodox Christianity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church"},{"link_name":"Byzantine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Italian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Italy"},{"link_name":"European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"Romanticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"},{"link_name":"Greek Revolution","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Revolution"},{"link_name":"Modernist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modernist"},{"link_name":"Postmodernist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postmodernist"},{"link_name":"architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_architecture"},{"link_name":"sculpture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture"},{"link_name":"painting","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Painting"},{"link_name":"pottery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pottery_of_ancient_Greece"},{"link_name":"jewelry making","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jewellery"}],"text":"Greek art began in the Cycladic and Minoan civilization, and gave birth to Western classical art in the subsequent Geometric, Archaic and Classical periods (with further developments during the Hellenistic Period). It absorbed influences of Eastern civilizations, of Roman art and its patrons, and the new religion of Orthodox Christianity in the Byzantine era and absorbed Italian and European ideas during the period of Romanticism (with the invigoration of the Greek Revolution), until the Modernist and Postmodernist. \nGreek art is mainly five forms: architecture, sculpture, painting, pottery and jewelry making.","title":"Greek art"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cycladic art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycladic_art"},{"link_name":"Minoan civilization","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization"},{"link_name":"Mycenean Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycenean_Greece"},{"link_name":"Archaic Greek art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_Greek_art"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_art"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek sculpture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_sculpture"},{"link_name":"Ancient Greek pottery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Greek_pottery"},{"link_name":"Hellenistic art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hellenistic_art"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Stag_hunt_mosaic,_Pella.jpg"},{"link_name":"Stag Hunt Mosaic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stag_Hunt_Mosaic"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Pella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Pella"},{"link_name":"Cycladic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycladic_civilization"},{"link_name":"Minoan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minoan_civilization"},{"link_name":"art of ancient Egypt","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Art_of_ancient_Egypt"},{"link_name":"Archaic period","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaic_Greece"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"sculpture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sculpture"},{"link_name":"architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Architecture"},{"link_name":"Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Alexander the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexander_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Indian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/India"},{"link_name":"Greco-Buddhist art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greco-Buddhist_art"},{"link_name":"Japan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Japan"},{"link_name":"Renaissance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renaissance"},{"link_name":"Europe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Europe"},{"link_name":"humanist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Humanism"}],"text":"Further information: Cycladic art, Minoan civilization, Mycenean Greece, Archaic Greek art, Ancient Greek art, Ancient Greek sculpture, Ancient Greek pottery, and Hellenistic artThe Stag Hunt Mosaic at the Archaeological Museum of Pella (3rd BC)Artistic production in Greece began in the prehistoric pre-Greek Cycladic and the Minoan civilizations, both of which were influenced by local traditions and the art of ancient Egypt.There are three scholarly divisions of the stages of later ancient Greek art that correspond roughly with historical periods of the same names. These are the Archaic, the Classical and the Hellenistic. The Archaic period is usually dated from 1000 BC. The Persian Wars of 480 BC to 448 BC are usually taken as the dividing line between the Archaic and the Classical periods, and the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC is regarded as the event separating the Classical from the Hellenistic period. Of course, different forms of art developed at different speeds in different parts of the Greek world, and varied to a degree from artist to artist.[1] There was a sharp transition from one period to another.The art of ancient Greece has exercised an enormous influence on the culture of many countries from ancient times until the present, particularly in the areas of sculpture and architecture. In the West, the art of the Roman Empire was largely derived from Greek models. In the East, Alexander the Great's conquests initiated several centuries of exchange between Greek, Central Asian and Indian cultures, resulting in Greco-Buddhist art, with ramifications as far as Japan. Following the Renaissance in Europe, the humanist aesthetic and the high technical standards of Greek art inspired generations of European artists. Pottery was either blue with black designs or black with blue designs.","title":"Ancient period"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mosaic_from_Daphni_Monastery_in_Greece.jpg"},{"link_name":"Daphni Monastery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daphni_Monastery"},{"link_name":"Eastern Roman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Roman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constantinople"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Empire"},{"link_name":"Bulgaria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulgaria"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Venice","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Venice"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russia"},{"link_name":"Eastern Orthodox","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Ottomans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Western European","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_European"},{"link_name":"National Gallery of Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Art"},{"link_name":"Washington, D.C.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Washington,_D.C."},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"Mosaic of Daphni Monastery (ca. 1100)Byzantine art is the term created for the Eastern Roman Empire from about the 5th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453. (The Roman Empire during this period is conventionally known as the Byzantine Empire.)\nThe term can also be used for the art of states which were contemporary with the Byzantine Empire and shared a common culture with it, without actually being part of it, such as Bulgaria, or Russia, and also Venice, which had close ties to the Byzantine Empire despite being in other respects part of western European culture. It can also be used for the art of people of the former Byzantine Empire under the rule of Ottoman Empire after 1453. In some respects, the Byzantine artistic tradition has continued in Russia and other Eastern Orthodox countries to the present day.[2]Byzantine art grew from the art of ancient Greece and, at least before 1453, never lost sight of its classical heritage, but was distinguished from it in a number of ways. The most profound of these was that the humanist ethic of ancient Greek art was replaced by the Christian ethic. If the purpose of classical art was the glorification of man, the purpose of Byzantine art was the glorification of God.In place of the nude, the figures of God the Father, Jesus Christ, the Virgin Mary and the saints and martyrs of Christian tradition were elevated and became the dominant - indeed almost exclusive - focus of Byzantine art. One of the most important forms of Byzantine art was, and still is, the Cretan school as the leading school of Greek post-Byzantine painting after Crete fell to the Ottomans in 1669. Like the Cretan school, it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasing Western European artistic influence, and also saw the first signiand the National Gallery of Art in Washington, D.C.[3]","title":"Byzantine period"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Theodora_by_Emmanouel_Tzanes_(1671,_Byzantine_museum).jpg"},{"link_name":"Emmanuel Tzanes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emmanuel_Tzanes"},{"link_name":"Cretan School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_School"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Nikolaos_Gyzis_-_Historia.jpg"},{"link_name":"Nikolaos Gyzis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaos_Gyzis"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Athena_column-Academy_of_Athens.jpg"},{"link_name":"Athena","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athena"},{"link_name":"Leonidas Drosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonidas_Drosis"},{"link_name":"Academy of Athens (modern)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Athens_(modern)"},{"link_name":"icon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icon"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"Venetian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Republic_of_Venice"},{"link_name":"Middle Ages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Middle_Ages"},{"link_name":"Fall of Constantinople","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople"},{"link_name":"El Greco","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/El_Greco"},{"link_name":"Cretan School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cretan_School"},{"link_name":"Crete","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crete"},{"link_name":"Ottomans","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Ionian Islands","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ionian_Islands"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-abc-4"},{"link_name":"Greek Kingdom","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_Kingdom"},{"link_name":"Romanticism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanticism"},{"link_name":"Munich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich"},{"link_name":"Greek academic art of the 19th century","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_academic_art_of_the_19th_century"},{"link_name":"Nikolaos Gysis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikolaos_Gysis"},{"link_name":"Munich Academy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Munich_Academy"},{"link_name":"Theodoros Vryzakis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodoros_Vryzakis"},{"link_name":"Greek War of Independence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greek_War_of_Independence"},{"link_name":"Nikiphoros Lytras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikiphoros_Lytras"},{"link_name":"Georgios Jakobides","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgios_Jakobides"},{"link_name":"National Gallery of Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery_of_Athens"},{"link_name":"Georgios Roilos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgios_Roilos"},{"link_name":"Konstantinos Volanakis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konstantinos_Volanakis"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-autogenerated2-5"},{"link_name":"Theodore Ralli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodore_Ralli"},{"link_name":"Ioannis Altamouras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannis_Altamouras"},{"link_name":"Theofilos Hatzimichail","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theofilos_Hatzimichail"},{"link_name":"Leonidas Drosis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonidas_Drosis"},{"link_name":"Academy of Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academy_of_Athens_(modern)"},{"link_name":"Lazaros Sochos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lazaros_Sochos"},{"link_name":"Ioannis Kossos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ioannis_Kossos"},{"link_name":"Yannoulis Chalepas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yannoulis_Chalepas"},{"link_name":"Georgios Bonanos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgios_Bonanos"}],"text":"St Theodora icon by Emmanuel Tzanes, an example of the Cretan SchoolΗistoria (Allegory of History) by Nikolaos Gyzis (1892)Athena column by Leonidas Drosis in front of the Academy of Athens (modern)Cretan School describes the school of icon painting, also known as Post-Byzantine art, which flourished while Crete was under Venetian rule during the late Middle Ages, reaching its climax after the Fall of Constantinople, becoming the central force in Greek painting during the 15th, 16th and 17th centuries. The Cretan artists developed a particular style of painting under the influence of both Eastern and Western artistic traditions and movements; the most famous product of the school, El Greco, was the most successful of the many artists who tried to build a career in Western Europe, and also the one who left the Byzantine style farthest behind him in his later career.The Heptanese School of painting (Greek: Επτανησιακή Σχολή, lit. 'The School of the seven islands', also known as the Ionian Islands' School) succeeded the Cretan School as the leading school of Greek post-Byzantine painting after Crete fell to the Ottomans in 1669. Like the Cretan school it combined Byzantine traditions with an increasing Western European artistic influence, and also saw the first significant depiction of secular subjects. The school was based in the Ionian Islands, which were not part of Ottoman Greece, from the middle of the 17th century until the middle of the 19th century.[4]Modern Greek art, after the establishment of the Greek Kingdom, began to be developed around the time of Romanticism. Greek artists absorbed many elements from their European colleagues, resulting in the culmination of the distinctive style of Greek Romantic art, inspired by revolutionary ideals as well as the country's geography and history. After centuries of Ottoman rule, few opportunities for an education in the arts existed in the newly independent Greece, so studying abroad was imperative for artists. Munich, as an important international center for the arts at that time, was the place where the majority of the Greek artists of the 19th century chose to study. Later on, they would return to Greece and pass on their knowledge. Both academic and personal bonds developed between early Greek painters and Munich artistry giving birth to the Greek \"Munich School\" (Greek academic art of the 19th century). Nikolaos Gysis was an important teacher and artist at the Munich Academy and he soon became a leading figure among Greek artists. Many of these Munich School artists chose subjects such as everyday Greek life, local customs, and living conditions. Several important painters emerged at this time. Theodoros Vryzakis specialized in historical painting and especially inspired by the 1821 Greek War of Independence. Nikiphoros Lytras concentrated on realistic depictions of Greek life. Georgios Jakobides devoted his attention to infants and children and he would laterbecome the first Director of the new National Gallery of Athens. Georgios Roilos was another leading painter of the period closely associated with the Munich School, especially in his early career. Konstantinos Volanakis was inspired mostly by the Greek sea.[5]Other notable painters of the era are Theodore Ralli, Ioannis Altamouras and the folk painter Theofilos Hatzimichail. Notable sculptors of the era are Leonidas Drosis (his major work was the extensive neo-classical architectural ornament at the Academy of Athens, Lazaros Sochos, Georgios Vitalis, Dimitrios Filippotis, Ioannis Kossos, Yannoulis Chalepas, Georgios Bonanos and Lazaros Fytalis.","title":"Post-Byzantine and modern period"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"List of museums in Greece","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_museums_in_Greece"}],"text":"See also: List of museums in Greece","title":"Major museums and galleries in Greece"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Acropolis Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acropolis_Museum"},{"link_name":"National Archaeological Museum, Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Archaeological_Museum,_Athens"},{"link_name":"National Gallery (Athens)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Gallery_(Athens)"},{"link_name":"Byzantine and Christian Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_and_Christian_Museum"},{"link_name":"National Museum of Contemporary Art, Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Contemporary_Art,_Athens"},{"link_name":"Benaki Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Benaki_Museum"},{"link_name":"Goulandris Museum of Cycladic Art","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goulandris_Museum_of_Cycladic_Art"},{"link_name":"Stoa of Attalos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stoa_of_Attalos"},{"link_name":"Numismatic Museum of Athens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numismatic_Museum_of_Athens"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Piraeus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Piraeus"}],"sub_title":"Attica","text":"Acropolis Museum\nNational Archaeological Museum, Athens\nNational Gallery (Athens)\nByzantine and Christian Museum\nNational Museum of Contemporary Art, Athens\nBenaki Museum\nGoulandris Museum of Cycladic Art\nStoa of Attalos\nNumismatic Museum of Athens\nArchaeological Museum of Piraeus","title":"Major museums and galleries in Greece"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Thessaloniki"},{"link_name":"Museum of Byzantine Culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Museum_of_Byzantine_Culture"}],"sub_title":"Thessaloniki","text":"Archaeological Museum of Thessaloniki\nMuseum of Byzantine Culture","title":"Major museums and galleries in Greece"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Heraklion Archaeological Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heraklion_Archaeological_Museum"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Chania","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Chania"},{"link_name":"Agia Triada Monastery","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agia_Triada_Monastery"}],"sub_title":"Crete","text":"Heraklion Archaeological Museum\nArchaeological Museum of Chania\nAgia Triada Monastery","title":"Major museums and galleries in Greece"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Corfu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Corfu"},{"link_name":"Byzantine Museum of Antivouniotissa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byzantine_Museum_of_Antivouniotissa"}],"sub_title":"Corfu","text":"Archaeological Museum of Corfu\nByzantine Museum of Antivouniotissa","title":"Major museums and galleries in Greece"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Patras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Patras"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Volos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Volos"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Dion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Dion"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Amphipolis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Amphipolis"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Pella","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Pella"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Veroia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Veroia"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Thasos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Thasos"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Delos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Delos"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Rhodes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Rhodes"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Epidaurus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Epidaurus"},{"link_name":"Archaeological Museum of Olympia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaeological_Museum_of_Olympia"},{"link_name":"Delphi Archaeological Museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphi_Archaeological_Museum"},{"link_name":"Nea Moni of 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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potemkin_village

Potemkin village

["1 Origin","1.1 Historical accuracy","2 Modern usage","3 See also","4 References","5 Bibliography","6 External links"]

Structure built solely to deceive others into thinking that a situation is better than it really is Because of a newly painted façade, the whole building looks as if it has been reconstructed, although the rest is still in decay (castle brewery in Kolín, Czech Republic). In politics and economics, a Potemkin village (Russian: потёмкинские деревни, romanized: potyomkinskiye derevni) is a construction (literal or figurative) whose purpose is to provide an external façade to a situation, to make people believe that the situation is better than it is. The term comes from stories of a fake portable village built by Grigory Potemkin, a field marshal and former lover of Empress Catherine II, solely to impress the Empress during her journey to Crimea in 1787. Modern historians agree that accounts of this portable village are exaggerated. The original story was that Potemkin erected phony portable settlements along the banks of the Dnieper River in order to impress the Russian Empress and foreign guests. The structures would be disassembled after she passed, and re-assembled farther along her route to be seen again. Origin Grigory Potemkin, namesake of the concept Grigory Potemkin was a minister and lover of the Russian Empress Catherine II. After the 1783 Russian annexation of Crimea from the Ottoman Empire and liquidation of the Cossack Zaporozhian Sich (see New Russia), Potemkin became governor of the region. Crimea had been devastated by the war, and the Muslim Tatar inhabitants of Crimea were viewed as a potential fifth column of the Ottoman Empire. Potemkin's major tasks were to pacify and rebuild by bringing in Russian settlers. In 1787, as a new war was about to break out between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, Catherine II, with her court and several ambassadors, made an unprecedented six-month trip to New Russia. One purpose of this trip was to impress Russia's allies prior to the war. To help accomplish this, Potemkin was said to have set up "mobile villages" on the banks of the Dnieper River. As soon as the barge carrying the Empress and ambassadors arrived, Potemkin's men, dressed as peasants, would populate the village. Once the barge left, the village was disassembled, then rebuilt downstream overnight. Historical accuracy According to Simon Sebag-Montefiore, Potemkin's most comprehensive English-language biographer, the tale of elaborate, fake settlements, with glowing fires designed to comfort the monarch and her entourage as they surveyed the barren territory at night, is largely fictional. Aleksandr Panchenko, an established specialist on 19th-century Russia, used original correspondence and memoirs to conclude that the Potemkin villages are a myth. He writes: "Based on the above said we must conclude that the myth of 'Potemkin villages' is exactly a myth, and not an established fact." He writes that "Potyomkin indeed decorated existing cities and villages, but made no secret that this was a decoration". The close relationship between Potemkin and the empress could have made it difficult for him to deceive her. Thus, if there were deception, it would have been mainly directed towards the foreign ambassadors accompanying the imperial party. Although "Potemkin village" has come to mean, especially in a political context, any hollow or false construct, physical or figurative, meant to hide an undesirable or potentially damaging situation, it is possible that the phrase cannot be applied accurately to its own original historical inspiration. According to some historians, some of the buildings were real, and others were constructed to show what the region would look like in the near future, and at least Catherine and possibly also her foreign visitors knew which were which. According to these historians, the claims of deception were part of a defamation campaign against Potemkin. According to a legend, in 1787, when Catherine passed through Tula on her way back from the trip, the local governor Mikhail Krechetnikov attempted a deception of that kind in order to hide the effects of a bad harvest. Modern usage Further information: Façade The North Korean Peace Village, located inside the Demilitarized Zone, appears empty despite its advertised population of two hundred families. False front commercial buildings in Greenhorn, Oregon, 1913 In the Old West of the United States, Western false front architecture was often used to create the illusion of affluence and stability in a new frontier town. The style included a tall vertical façade with a square top in front of a wood-framed building, often hiding a gable roof. The goal for the architecture was to project an image of stability and success for the town, while the business owners did not invest much in buildings that might be temporary. These towns often did not last long before becoming ghost towns, so businessmen wanted to get started quickly but did not want to spend a lot on their stores. Many Western movies feature this kind of architecture because, just like the original buildings, it is quick and cheap to create. As told in his book, The Gulag Archipelago, Solzhenitsyn declined to visit the Kriukovo Gulag with a Soviet official, seemingly chosen by the Soviets well in advance of their meeting, as Solzhenitsyn assumed it would be a "Potemkin structure." Many of the newly constructed base areas at ski resorts are referred to as Potemkin villages. These create the illusion of a quaint mountain town, but are actually carefully planned theme shopping centers, hotels and restaurants designed for maximum revenue. Similarly, in The Geography of Nowhere, American writer James Howard Kunstler refers to contemporary suburban shopping centers as "Potemkin village shopping plazas". Motorists and pedestrians in Bothell, Washington, can see a forest-like view at this construction site. Sometimes, instead of the full phrase, just "Potemkin" is used, as an adjective. For example, the use of a row of trees to screen a clearcut area from motorists has been called a "Potemkin forest". For example, the glossary entry for "clearcut" in We Have The Right To Exist: A Translation of Aboriginal Indigenous Thought states that "Much of the extensive clearcut in northern Minnesota is insulated from scrutiny by the urbanized public by a Potemkin forest, or, as the D.N.R. terms it, an aesthetic strip – a thin illusion of forest about six trees deep, along most highways and fronting waters frequented by tourists." Another example is the phrase "Potemkin court", which implies that the court's reason to exist is being called into question (differing from the phrase "kangaroo court" with which the court's standard of justice is being impugned). "Potemkin village" is a phrase that has been used by American judges, especially members of a multiple-judge panel who dissent from the majority's opinion on a particular matter, to refer to an inaccurate or tortured interpretation and/or application of a particular legal doctrine to the specific facts at issue. Use of the phrase is meant to imply that the reasons espoused by the panel's majority in support of its decision are not based on accurate or sound law, and their restrictive application is merely a masquerade for the court's desire to avoid a difficult decision. For example, in Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey (1992), chief justice of the United States William Rehnquist wrote that Roe v. Wade "stands as a sort of judicial Potemkin Village, which may be pointed out to passers-by as a monument to the importance of adhering to precedent". Similarly, Judge William G. Young of the District of Massachusetts described the use of affidavits in U.S. litigation as "the Potemkin Village of today's litigation landscape" because "adjudication by affidavit is like walking down a street between two movie sets, all lawyer-painted façade and no interior architecture." See also Theresienstadt (1944 film) Theresienstadt Ghetto and the Red Cross Czech Dream Disneyfication Potemkin Island The Truman Show Legends of Catherine the Great Novorossiya ("New Russia"), historical region in the Russian Empire Folly, architecture vernacular Fake building Façadism Sportswashing Kijong-dong References ^ "Grigory Potemkin | Biography, Villages, & Facts | Britannica". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 22 December 2021. ^ a b Norman Davies (30 September 2010). Europe: A History. Random House. pp. 658–. ISBN 978-1-4070-9179-2. ^ Tharoor, Ishaan (6 August 2010). "Top 10 Weird Government Secrets". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 1 September 2017. ^ "Did 'Potemkin villages' really exist?". The Straight Dope. 14 November 2003. ^ Aleksandr Panchenko, "Potyomkin villages as a cultural myth", (rus) in Panchenko, O russkoi istorii i kul´ture (Saint-Petersburg, Azbuka, 2000), 416. "В связи с вышесказанным должно сделать заключение, что миф о «потемкинских деревнях» – именно миф, а не достоверно установленный факт." ^ Aleksandr Panchenko, "Potemkinskie derevni' kak kul´turnyi mif", in Panchenko, O russkoi istorii i kul´ture (Saint-Petersburg, Azbuka, 2000), 416. "Потемкин действительно декорировал города и селения, но никогда не скрывал, что это декорации." ^ Davies, Norman. Europe: A history, London, Pimlico, 1997, p. 658. ^ Joseph A. Maxwell (8 June 2012). Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach. SAGE Publications. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-1-4522-8583-2. ^ "The Straight Dope: Did "Potemkin villages" really exist?". 14 November 2003. Retrieved 5 June 2016. ^ Kulke, Ulli (28 February 2011). "Katharina die Grosse: An Fürst Potemkin war alles echt. Auch die Dörfer" . Die Welt (in German). ^ "Русский литературный анекдот XVIII-XIX вв". fershal.narod.ru. 18 November 2010. Retrieved 20 March 2011. ^ Clifford, Hal (2002). Downhill Slide: Why the Corporate Ski Industry is Bad for Skiing, Ski Towns, and the Environment. Sierra Club Books. pp. 106–110. ISBN 9781578050710. ^ "Colorado Ski Areas – SKI BUM". Retrieved 22 March 2017. ^ Kunstler, James Howard (1993). The Geography of Nowhere: The Rise and Decline of America's Man-Made Landscape. New York, Touchstone. ^ "Humanity is waging an inexplicable war on trees. It's not going to work out for either side - Los Angeles Times". 2 May 2018. ^ Wub-e-ke-niew. "We Have The Right To Exist: A Translation of Aboriginal Indigenous Thought". Maquah.net. Retrieved 15 November 2016. ^ Shahabuddeen, Mohamed (1 November 2012). International Criminal Justice at the Yugoslav Tribunal: A Judge's Recollection. OUP Oxford. ISBN 9780191649851. ^ Sinclair, Timothy J. (2004). Global Governance: Critical Concepts in Political Science, Volumen 1. Taylor & Francis. p. 56. ISBN 9780415276627. ^ Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey, 505 U.S. 833, 966 (29 June 1992) ("Roe v. Wade stands as a sort of judicial Potemkin Village, which may be pointed out to passers-by as a monument to the importance of adhering to precedent. But behind the façade, an entirely new method of analysis, without any roots in constitutional law, is imported to decide the constitutionality of state laws regulating abortion."). ^ United States v. Massachusetts, 781 F. Supp. 2d 1, 22 n.25 (D.Mass 2011). Bibliography EircomTribunal, "2003 Potemkin Village Award," EircomTribunal.com, "ET – 2003 Potemkin Village Award". Eircomtribunal.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 20 March 2011. * Goldberg, Jonah. "Potemkin Village in Cuba: Let's make one of our own". National Review. 18 April 2000. Retrieved 25 October 2018. National Review, 19 April 2000. Ivan Katchanovski and La Porte, Todd. "Cyberdemocracy or Potemkin E-Villages? Electronic Governments in OECD and Post-Communist Countries," International Journal of Public Administration, Volume 28, Number 7–8, July 2005. Ledeen, Michael. "Potemkin WMDs? Really?", National Review, 2 February 2004 "Michael Ledeen on WMDs & Iraq on National Review Online". National Review. 2 February 2004. Retrieved 20 March 2011. Smith, Douglas (ed. and trans). Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin ISBN 0-87580-324-5 Potemkin Court as a description of The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (from the Washington Post) Potemkin Parliament as a description of the European Parliament (New Statesman, 20 September 2004) Sullivan, Kevin. "Borderline Absurdity", Washington Post, 11 January 1998. Buchan, James. "Potemkin democracy" as a description of Russia. "New Statesman", 17 July 2006. External links New York Review of Books, "An Affair to Remember", review by Simon Sebag Montefiore of Douglas Smith, Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin Smith, Douglas. Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin vteDisinformation and misinformationTypes Algorithmic radicalization Alternative facts Big lie Cherry picking Circular reporting Cognitive bias List of cognitive biases Conspiracy theory (list) Deception Denialism Disinformation attack Doublespeak Euphemistic misspeaking Factoid Fake news online list of websites Lying press Fallacy List of fallacies False accusation False dilemma False flag Fear, uncertainty, and doubt Firehose of falsehood Forgery as covert operation Gaslighting Half-truth Historical negationism Hoax Infodemic Internet manipulation Manipulation (psychology) Media culture Media manipulation Potemkin village Post-truth politics Psychological warfare Memetic warfare Military deception Propaganda black propaganda counterpropaganda State-sponsored Internet propaganda Quote mining Scientific fabrication Smearing Social bot Spin Truthiness Urban legend Whataboutism Yellow journalism Books and documentaries Disinformation by Ion Mihai Pacepa Dezinformatsia: Active Measures in Soviet Strategy The KGB and Soviet Disinformation Who's Who in the CIA Merchants of Doubt After Truth: Disinformation and the Cost of Fake News Examples Bermuda Triangle Congo Free State propaganda war Climate change denial Free energy suppression Genocide denial Illuminati International Jewish conspiracy Disinformation in the 2023 Israel–Hamas war Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine New World Order Red mercury Reptilians Rothschilds Strategy of tension Health 5G COVID-19 misinformation by governments Ebola HIV/AIDS denialism Mental illness denial Misinformation related to abortion Vaccines anti-vaccination autism COVID-19 Water fluoridation controversy Operations and events by countryCanadaJihadunspun.comChina Chinese information operations 50 Cent Party cyberwarfare Little Pink Internet Water Army PLA Unit 61398 Spamouflage COVID-19 Global Times CzechoslovakiaOperation NeptuneGermany Funkspiel Propaganda in Nazi Germany Myth of the clean Wehrmacht India Fake news in India Godi-media Paid news in India OpIndia IsraelTeam JorgeKoreaVoluntary Agency Network of KoreaKuwaitFintas GroupMexicoPeñabotsPhilippines COVID-19 misinformation in the Philippines Fake news in the Philippines Historical distortion regarding Ferdinand Marcos Russia /Soviet UnionSoviet era Active Measures K-1000 battleship Operation INFEKTION Operation Toucan Seat 12 Soviet influence on the peace movement U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B Useful idiot Post-Soviet era Cyberwarfare on Estonia during the Russo-Georgian War Information war against Ukraine Disinformation in the Russian invasion of Ukraine On US elections 2016 2018 2020 2016 Brexit referendum Russian Institute for Strategic Studies Trolls from Olgino Web brigades South AfricaHIV/AIDS denialismTurkey Conspiracy theories Media censorship and disinformation during the Gezi Park protests AK Trolls United Kingdom Bell Pottinger Double-Cross System Clockwork Orange plot Euromyth Lancet MMR autism fraud Operation Mass Appeal Psychological Warfare Division Zinoviev letter United States 1995 CIA disinformation controversy Attempts to overturn the 2020 election Conspiracy theories 9/11 conspiracy theories CIA Kennedy assassination QAnon Sandy Hook COVID-19 Fake news online Election denial movement in the United States The Freedom Fighter's Manual Habbush letter Information Operations Roadmap Litter boxes in schools Mohamed Atta's alleged Prague connection Niger uranium forgeries Tobacco industry playbook Operation Shocker Yellow rain VenezuelaBolivarian Army of TrollsVietnam Public opinion brigades Force 47 Opposition Fact-checking Fact-checking website Active Measures Working Group Counter disinformation unit Counter Misinformation Team Countering Foreign Propaganda and Disinformation Act The Disinformation Project East StratCom Task Force FactCheck.org Full Fact Logically NewsGuard PolitiFact Snopes StopFake United States Information Agency USAFacts

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The term comes from stories of a fake portable village built by Grigory Potemkin, a field marshal and former lover of Empress Catherine II, solely to impress the Empress during her journey to Crimea in 1787.[1] Modern historians agree that accounts of this portable village are exaggerated. The original story was that Potemkin erected phony portable settlements along the banks of the Dnieper River in order to impress the Russian Empress and foreign guests. The structures would be disassembled after she passed, and re-assembled farther along her route to be seen again.","title":"Potemkin village"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Princepotemkin.jpg"},{"link_name":"Grigory Potemkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigory_Potemkin"},{"link_name":"Grigory Potemkin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grigory_Potemkin"},{"link_name":"Catherine II","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Catherine_the_Great"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davies2010-2"},{"link_name":"annexation of Crimea","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Annexation_of_Crimea_by_the_Russian_Empire"},{"link_name":"Ottoman Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ottoman_Empire"},{"link_name":"Zaporozhian Sich","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zaporozhian_Sich"},{"link_name":"New Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_Russia"},{"link_name":"Tatar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_Tatars"},{"link_name":"fifth column","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fifth_column"},{"link_name":"six-month trip to New Russia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crimean_journey_of_Catherine_the_Great"},{"link_name":"Dnieper River","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dnieper_River"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Davies2010-2"}],"text":"Grigory Potemkin, namesake of the conceptGrigory Potemkin was a minister and lover of the Russian Empress Catherine II.[2] After the 1783 Russian annexation of Crimea from the Ottoman Empire and liquidation of the Cossack Zaporozhian Sich (see New Russia), Potemkin became governor of the region. Crimea had been devastated by the war, and the Muslim Tatar inhabitants of Crimea were viewed as a potential fifth column of the Ottoman Empire. Potemkin's major tasks were to pacify and rebuild by bringing in Russian settlers. In 1787, as a new war was about to break out between Russia and the Ottoman Empire, Catherine II, with her court and several ambassadors, made an unprecedented six-month trip to New Russia. One purpose of this trip was to impress Russia's allies prior to the war. To help accomplish this, Potemkin was said to have set up \"mobile villages\" on the banks of the Dnieper River.[3] As soon as the barge carrying the Empress and ambassadors arrived, Potemkin's men, dressed as peasants, would populate the village. Once the barge left, the village was disassembled, then rebuilt downstream overnight.[2]","title":"Origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Simon Sebag-Montefiore","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Sebag-Montefiore"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Maxwell2012-8"},{"link_name":"who?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"Tula","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tula,_Russia"},{"link_name":"Mikhail Krechetnikov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mikhail_Krechetnikov"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Historical accuracy","text":"According to Simon Sebag-Montefiore, Potemkin's most comprehensive English-language biographer, the tale of elaborate, fake settlements, with glowing fires designed to comfort the monarch and her entourage as they surveyed the barren territory at night, is largely fictional.[4] Aleksandr Panchenko, an established specialist on 19th-century Russia, used original correspondence and memoirs to conclude that the Potemkin villages are a myth. He writes: \"Based on the above said we must conclude that the myth of 'Potemkin villages' is exactly a myth, and not an established fact.\"[5] He writes that \"Potyomkin indeed decorated existing cities and villages, but made no secret that this was a decoration\".[6]The close relationship between Potemkin and the empress could have made it difficult for him to deceive her. Thus, if there were deception, it would have been mainly directed towards the foreign ambassadors accompanying the imperial party.[7]Although \"Potemkin village\" has come to mean, especially in a political context, any hollow or false construct, physical or figurative, meant to hide an undesirable or potentially damaging situation,[8] it is possible that the phrase cannot be applied accurately to its own original historical inspiration. According to some historians,[who?] some of the buildings were real, and others were constructed to show what the region would look like in the near future, and at least Catherine and possibly also her foreign visitors knew which were which. According to these historians, the claims of deception were part of a defamation campaign against Potemkin.[9][10]According to a legend, in 1787, when Catherine passed through Tula on her way back from the trip, the local governor Mikhail Krechetnikov attempted a deception of that kind in order to hide the effects of a bad harvest.[11]","title":"Origin"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Façade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%C3%A7ade"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:North_Korean_village_Kijong-dong.JPEG"},{"link_name":"Peace Village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace_Village_(North_Korea)"},{"link_name":"Demilitarized Zone","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korean_Demilitarized_Zone"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Greenhorn_7.JPG"},{"link_name":"Greenhorn, Oregon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhorn,_Oregon"},{"link_name":"Old West","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Old_West"},{"link_name":"Western false front architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_false_front_architecture"},{"link_name":"ghost towns","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost_town"},{"link_name":"Western movies","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Western_movies"},{"link_name":"The Gulag Archipelago","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Gulag_Archipelago"},{"link_name":"Solzhenitsyn","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aleksandr_Solzhenitsyn"},{"link_name":"Gulag","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulag"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"James Howard Kunstler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Howard_Kunstler"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Bothell-fence-3466.jpg"},{"link_name":"Bothell, Washington","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bothell,_Washington"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"D.N.R.","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota_Department_of_Natural_Resources"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-We_Have_a_Right_to_Exist:_A_Translation_of_Aboriginal_Indigenous_Thought-16"},{"link_name":"kangaroo court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangaroo_court"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"judges","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Judge"},{"link_name":"legal doctrine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legal_doctrine"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey"},{"link_name":"chief justice of the United States","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Justice_of_the_United_States"},{"link_name":"William Rehnquist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Rehnquist"},{"link_name":"Roe v. Wade","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roe_v._Wade"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"William G. Young","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_G._Young"},{"link_name":"District of Massachusetts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Massachusetts"},{"link_name":"affidavits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affidavits"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-usvmass-20"}],"text":"Further information: FaçadeThe North Korean Peace Village, located inside the Demilitarized Zone, appears empty despite its advertised population of two hundred families.False front commercial buildings in Greenhorn, Oregon, 1913In the Old West of the United States, Western false front architecture was often used to create the illusion of affluence and stability in a new frontier town. The style included a tall vertical façade with a square top in front of a wood-framed building, often hiding a gable roof. The goal for the architecture was to project an image of stability and success for the town, while the business owners did not invest much in buildings that might be temporary. These towns often did not last long before becoming ghost towns, so businessmen wanted to get started quickly but did not want to spend a lot on their stores. Many Western movies feature this kind of architecture because, just like the original buildings, it is quick and cheap to create.As told in his book, The Gulag Archipelago, Solzhenitsyn declined to visit the Kriukovo Gulag with a Soviet official, seemingly chosen by the Soviets well in advance of their meeting, as Solzhenitsyn assumed it would be a \"Potemkin structure.\"Many of the newly constructed base areas at ski resorts are referred to as Potemkin villages.[12][13] These create the illusion of a quaint mountain town, but are actually carefully planned theme shopping centers, hotels and restaurants designed for maximum revenue. Similarly, in The Geography of Nowhere, American writer James Howard Kunstler refers to contemporary suburban shopping centers as \"Potemkin village shopping plazas\".[14]Motorists and pedestrians in Bothell, Washington, can see a forest-like view at this construction site.Sometimes, instead of the full phrase, just \"Potemkin\" is used, as an adjective. For example, the use of a row of trees to screen a clearcut area from motorists has been called a \"Potemkin forest\".[15] For example, the glossary entry for \"clearcut\" in We Have The Right To Exist: A Translation of Aboriginal Indigenous Thought states that \"Much of the extensive clearcut in northern Minnesota is insulated from scrutiny by the urbanized public by a Potemkin forest, or, as the D.N.R. terms it, an aesthetic strip – a thin illusion of forest about six trees deep, along most highways and fronting waters frequented by tourists.\"[16] Another example is the phrase \"Potemkin court\", which implies that the court's reason to exist is being called into question (differing from the phrase \"kangaroo court\" with which the court's standard of justice is being impugned).[17]\"Potemkin village\" is a phrase that has been used by American judges, especially members of a multiple-judge panel who dissent from the majority's opinion on a particular matter, to refer to an inaccurate or tortured interpretation and/or application of a particular legal doctrine to the specific facts at issue. Use of the phrase is meant to imply that the reasons espoused by the panel's majority in support of its decision are not based on accurate or sound law, and their restrictive application is merely a masquerade for the court's desire to avoid a difficult decision.[18] For example, in Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey (1992), chief justice of the United States William Rehnquist wrote that Roe v. Wade \"stands as a sort of judicial Potemkin Village, which may be pointed out to passers-by as a monument to the importance of adhering to precedent\".[19] Similarly, Judge William G. Young of the District of Massachusetts described the use of affidavits in U.S. litigation as \"the Potemkin Village of today's litigation landscape\" because \"adjudication by affidavit is like walking down a street between two movie sets, all lawyer-painted façade and no interior architecture.\"[20]","title":"Modern usage"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"ET – 2003 Potemkin Village Award\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//archive.today/20070927062834/http://www.eircomtribunal.com/2003award2.html"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.eircomtribunal.com/2003award2.html"},{"link_name":"\"Potemkin Village in Cuba: Let's make one of our own\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.nationalreview.com/2000/04/potemkin-village-cuba-jonah-goldberg/"},{"link_name":"National Review","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Review"},{"link_name":"Ivan Katchanovski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ivan_Katchanovski&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"\"Michael Ledeen on WMDs & Iraq on National Review Online\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.nationalreview.com/ledeen/ledeen200402020833.asp"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-87580-324-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87580-324-5"},{"link_name":"Potemkin Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2005/12/20/AR2005122000685.html"},{"link_name":"dead link","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot"},{"link_name":"Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Foreign_Intelligence_Surveillance_Court"},{"link_name":"Potemkin Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140824192456/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m0FQP/is_4706_133/ai_n6247300"},{"link_name":"European Parliament","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_Parliament"}],"text":"EircomTribunal, \"2003 Potemkin Village Award,\" EircomTribunal.com, \"ET – 2003 Potemkin Village Award\". Eircomtribunal.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 20 March 2011.\n* Goldberg, Jonah. \"Potemkin Village in Cuba: Let's make one of our own\". National Review. 18 April 2000. Retrieved 25 October 2018. National Review, 19 April 2000.\nIvan Katchanovski and La Porte, Todd. \"Cyberdemocracy or Potemkin E-Villages? Electronic Governments in OECD and Post-Communist Countries,\" International Journal of Public Administration, Volume 28, Number 7–8, July 2005.\nLedeen, Michael. \"Potemkin WMDs? Really?\", National Review, 2 February 2004 \"Michael Ledeen on WMDs & Iraq on National Review Online\". National Review. 2 February 2004. Retrieved 20 March 2011.\nSmith, Douglas (ed. and trans). Love and Conquest: Personal Correspondence of Catherine the Great and Prince Grigory Potemkin ISBN 0-87580-324-5\nPotemkin Court[dead link] as a description of The Foreign Intelligence Surveillance Court (from the Washington Post)\nPotemkin Parliament as a description of the European Parliament (New Statesman, 20 September 2004)\nSullivan, Kevin. \"Borderline Absurdity\", Washington Post, 11 January 1998.\nBuchan, James. \"Potemkin democracy\" as a description of Russia. \"New Statesman\", 17 July 2006.","title":"Bibliography"}]

[{"image_text":"Because of a newly painted façade, the whole building looks as if it has been reconstructed, although the rest is still in decay (castle brewery in Kolín, Czech Republic).","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Castle_and_brewery_in_Kol%C3%ADn_2.jpg/220px-Castle_and_brewery_in_Kol%C3%ADn_2.jpg"},{"image_text":"Grigory Potemkin, namesake of the concept","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Princepotemkin.jpg/220px-Princepotemkin.jpg"},{"image_text":"The North Korean Peace Village, located inside the Demilitarized Zone, appears empty despite its advertised population of two hundred families.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/North_Korean_village_Kijong-dong.JPEG/220px-North_Korean_village_Kijong-dong.JPEG"},{"image_text":"False front commercial buildings in Greenhorn, Oregon, 1913","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Greenhorn_7.JPG/220px-Greenhorn_7.JPG"},{"image_text":"Motorists and pedestrians in Bothell, Washington, can see a forest-like view at this construction site.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Bothell-fence-3466.jpg/220px-Bothell-fence-3466.jpg"}]

[{"title":"Theresienstadt (1944 film)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresienstadt_(1944_film)"},{"title":"Theresienstadt Ghetto and the Red Cross","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theresienstadt_Ghetto_and_the_Red_Cross"},{"title":"Czech Dream","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czech_Dream"},{"title":"Disneyfication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disneyfication"},{"title":"Potemkin Island","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potemkin_Island"},{"title":"The Truman Show","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Truman_Show"},{"title":"Legends of Catherine the Great","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legends_of_Catherine_the_Great"},{"title":"Novorossiya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Novorossiya"},{"title":"Russian Empire","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russian_Empire"},{"title":"Folly","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folly"},{"title":"Fake building","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fake_building"},{"title":"Façadism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fa%C3%A7adism"},{"title":"Sportswashing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sportswashing"},{"title":"Kijong-dong","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kijong-dong"}]

[{"reference":"\"Grigory Potemkin | Biography, Villages, & Facts | Britannica\". www.britannica.com. Retrieved 22 December 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.britannica.com/biography/Grigory-Potemkin","url_text":"\"Grigory Potemkin | Biography, Villages, & Facts | Britannica\""}]},{"reference":"Norman Davies (30 September 2010). Europe: A History. Random House. pp. 658–. ISBN 978-1-4070-9179-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=vD7SWb5lXBAC&pg=PA658","url_text":"Europe: A History"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4070-9179-2","url_text":"978-1-4070-9179-2"}]},{"reference":"Tharoor, Ishaan (6 August 2010). \"Top 10 Weird Government Secrets\". Time. ISSN 0040-781X. Retrieved 1 September 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://content.time.com/time/specials/packages/article/0,28804,2008962_2008964_2009010,00.html","url_text":"\"Top 10 Weird Government Secrets\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/0040-781X","url_text":"0040-781X"}]},{"reference":"\"Did 'Potemkin villages' really exist?\". The Straight Dope. 14 November 2003.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2479/did-potemkin-villages-really-exist/","url_text":"\"Did 'Potemkin villages' really exist?\""}]},{"reference":"Joseph A. Maxwell (8 June 2012). Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach. SAGE Publications. pp. 139–. ISBN 978-1-4522-8583-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=xAHCOmtAZd0C&pg=PA139","url_text":"Qualitative Research Design: An Interactive Approach"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4522-8583-2","url_text":"978-1-4522-8583-2"}]},{"reference":"\"The Straight Dope: Did \"Potemkin villages\" really exist?\". 14 November 2003. Retrieved 5 June 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.straightdope.com/columns/read/2479/did-potemkin-villages-really-exist","url_text":"\"The Straight Dope: Did \"Potemkin villages\" really exist?\""}]},{"reference":"Kulke, Ulli (28 February 2011). \"Katharina die Grosse: An Fürst Potemkin war alles echt. Auch die Dörfer\" [Everything about Prince Potemkin was real. Including the villages]. Die Welt (in German).","urls":[{"url":"https://www.welt.de/kultur/history/article12607459/An-Fuerst-Potemkin-war-alles-echt-Auch-die-Doerfer.html","url_text":"\"Katharina die Grosse: An Fürst Potemkin war alles echt. Auch die Dörfer\""}]},{"reference":"\"Русский литературный анекдот XVIII-XIX вв\". fershal.narod.ru. 18 November 2010. Retrieved 20 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://fershal.narod.ru/Memories/Texts/Anekdot/12_Naryshkin.htm","url_text":"\"Русский литературный анекдот XVIII-XIX вв\""}]},{"reference":"Clifford, Hal (2002). Downhill Slide: Why the Corporate Ski Industry is Bad for Skiing, Ski Towns, and the Environment. Sierra Club Books. pp. 106–110. ISBN 9781578050710.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.org/details/downhillslidewhy00clif/page/106","url_text":"Downhill Slide: Why the Corporate Ski Industry is Bad for Skiing, Ski Towns, and the Environment"},{"url":"https://archive.org/details/downhillslidewhy00clif/page/106","url_text":"106–110"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781578050710","url_text":"9781578050710"}]},{"reference":"\"Colorado Ski Areas – SKI BUM\". Retrieved 22 March 2017.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.skibum.net/rocky-mountains/colorado-ski-areas/","url_text":"\"Colorado Ski Areas – SKI BUM\""}]},{"reference":"\"Humanity is waging an inexplicable war on trees. It's not going to work out for either side - Los Angeles Times\". 2 May 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-ol-patt-morrison-richard-powers-20180502-htmlstory.html","url_text":"\"Humanity is waging an inexplicable war on trees. It's not going to work out for either side - Los Angeles Times\""}]},{"reference":"Wub-e-ke-niew. \"We Have The Right To Exist: A Translation of Aboriginal Indigenous Thought\". Maquah.net. Retrieved 15 November 2016.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.maquah.net/We_Have_The_Right_To_Exist/","url_text":"\"We Have The Right To Exist: A Translation of Aboriginal Indigenous Thought\""}]},{"reference":"Shahabuddeen, Mohamed (1 November 2012). International Criminal Justice at the Yugoslav Tribunal: A Judge's Recollection. OUP Oxford. ISBN 9780191649851.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=Fbj7mv3j2uUC&q=Potemkin+court&pg=PT23","url_text":"International Criminal Justice at the Yugoslav Tribunal: A Judge's Recollection"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780191649851","url_text":"9780191649851"}]},{"reference":"Sinclair, Timothy J. (2004). Global Governance: Critical Concepts in Political Science, Volumen 1. Taylor & Francis. p. 56. ISBN 9780415276627.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780415276627","url_text":"9780415276627"}]},{"reference":"Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planned_Parenthood_v._Casey","url_text":"Planned Parenthood of Southeastern Pennsylvania v. Casey"}]},{"reference":"\"ET – 2003 Potemkin Village Award\". Eircomtribunal.com. Archived from the original on 27 September 2007. Retrieved 20 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20070927062834/http://www.eircomtribunal.com/2003award2.html","url_text":"\"ET – 2003 Potemkin Village Award\""},{"url":"http://www.eircomtribunal.com/2003award2.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Potemkin Village in Cuba: Let's make one of our own\". National Review. 18 April 2000. Retrieved 25 October 2018.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.nationalreview.com/2000/04/potemkin-village-cuba-jonah-goldberg/","url_text":"\"Potemkin Village in Cuba: Let's make one of our own\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Review","url_text":"National Review"}]},{"reference":"\"Michael Ledeen on WMDs & Iraq on National Review Online\". National Review. 2 February 2004. Retrieved 20 March 2011.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nationalreview.com/ledeen/ledeen200402020833.asp","url_text":"\"Michael Ledeen on WMDs & Iraq on National Review Online\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Source_Initiative

Open Source Initiative

["1 History","2 Governance","3 Open Source Definition","4 License approval process","5 History","6 Relationship with the free software movement","7 Board members","8 See also","9 References","10 External links"]

Non-profit organization promoting open-source software Not to be confused with Open Software Foundation, Open Access Initiative, or National Open Source Enterprise. Open Source InitiativeFormationFebruary 8, 1998 (26 years ago) (1998-02-08)TypeStandards organizationLocationCalifornia, U.S.Area served WorldwideExecutive DirectorStefano Maffulli (September 2021 – present)Budget US$209,500 (2019)Revenue US$209,500 (2019)Websiteopensource.org The Open Source Initiative (OSI) is the steward of the Open Source Definition, the most widely used standard for open-source software. Founded in 1998, the Open Source Initiative coined the term open source in opposition to the free software movement. While free software is the same thing as open-source software, OSI preferred to make a pragmatic and business-friendly case for open-source software. For most of its existence, the OSI's activities have been focused on the definition and certifying software licenses as compliant with it. OSI originally had a closed organizational model, but began to switch towards a membership organization in the 2010s to raise more money and expand its activities. History In 1998, Netscape released the open-source Navigator browser. On 8 February, Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens founded the Open Source Initiative (OSI) and coined the term open source to refer to what had previously been called free software. The OSI prefers the label "open source" to "free software" because the latter term has undesirable ideological and political freight, and it wants to focus on the pragmatic and business-friendly arguments for open-source software. OSI defines open source as a "development method for software that harnesses the power of distributed peer review and transparency of process. The promise of open source is better quality, higher reliability, more flexibility, lower cost, and an end to predatory vendor lock-in". Perens drafted a set of open-source guidelines, which were adopted by the OSI as the Open Source Definition. In January 2020, Perens left OSI over controversy regarding a new license (the Cryptographic Autonomy License), which had been proposed for the OSI's approval. Raymond was banned from the OSI mailing list in March 2020. In 2022, OSI began work on an Open Source AI Definition, inviting dozens of researchers and corporate representatives to make a draft. Even companies with accessible code often do not release the data set used to train the model and impose usage restrictions on what can be done with the trained model. Maffulli said a new definition was necessary because artificial intelligence "is different from regular software and forces all stakeholders to review how the Open Source principles apply to this space". Governance The OSI is a California public-benefit nonprofit corporation, with 501(c)(3) tax-exempt status. It adopted a closed rather than membership-driven organizational model in order to build consensus around its definition. All authority is vested in its Board of Directors, and future boards are appointed by the current board. This governance model has hampered OSI's efforts to achieve other goals not related to the definition. Unlike other free and open-source organizations, it does not develop software, which means that volunteer efforts have been directed elsewhere. In 2008, the OSI attempted to reform its governance, inviting fifty people onto a private mailing list, but this attempt led to no publicly available result. In 2012, the organization again tried to transition towards a membership-based structure, creating affiliate and individual memberships without any formal say over the organization. A plan for corporate membership was also announced, but has not materialized as of 2022. The motivation for adopting a membership-based structure is to obtain greater financial resources, enabling full-time positions to increase the organization's effectiveness. In March 2021, the OSI organization held a vote for executive director among its members, but the results were annulled because the election was hacked. The election was re-run and Stefano Maffulli appointed its first executive director in September 2021. Open Source Definition Main article: the Open Source Definition The Open Source Definition is the most widely accepted standard for open-source software. Providing access to the source code is not enough for software to be considered "open-source": it must also allow modification and redistribution under the same terms and all uses, including commercial use. The Open Source Definition requires that ten criteria be met for a license to be approved. It allows both copyleft—where redistribution and derivative works must be released under a free license—and permissive licenses—where derivative works can be released under any license. Software licenses covered by the Open Source Definition also meet the Free Software Definition and vice versa. Both the Free Software Foundation and the OSI share the goal of supporting free and open-source software. License approval process The OSI approves certain licenses as compatible with the definition, and maintains a list of compliant licenses. New licenses have to submit a formal proposal explaining the rationale for the license, comparison with existing approved licenses, and any legal analysis. The proposal is discussed on the OSI mailing list for at least 30 days before being brought to a vote and approved or rejected by the OSI board. Although the OSI has made an effort to have a transparent process, the approval process has been a source of controversy. Seven approved licenses are particularly recommended by the OSI as "popular, widely used, or having strong communities": Apache License 2.0 BSD 3-Clause and BSD 2-Clause Licenses All versions of the GPL All versions of the LGPL MIT License Mozilla Public License 2.0 Common Development and Distribution License (CDDL) Eclipse Public License version 2.0 History As a campaign of sorts, "open source" was launched in 1998 by Christine Peterson, Jon "maddog" Hall, Larry Augustin, Eric S. Raymond, Bruce Perens, and others. The group adopted the Open Source Definition for open-source software, based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines. They also established the Open Source Initiative (OSI) as a steward organization for the movement. However, they were unsuccessful in their attempt to secure a trademark for 'open source' to control the use of the term. In 2008, in an apparent effort to reform governance of the organization, the OSI Board invited 50 individuals to join a "Charter Members" group; by 26 July 2008, 42 of the original invitees had accepted the invitations. The full membership of the Charter Members has never been publicly revealed, and the Charter Members group communicated by way of a closed-subscription mailing list, "osi-discuss", with non-public archives. In 2012, under the leadership of OSI director and then-president Simon Phipps, the OSI began transitioning towards a membership-based governance structure. The OSI initiated an Affiliate Membership program for "government-recognized non-profit charitable and not-for-profit industry associations and academic institutions anywhere in the world". Subsequently, the OSI announced an Individual Membership program and listed a number of Corporate Sponsors. On November 8, 2013, OSI appointed Patrick Masson as its general manager. From August 2020 to September 2021, Deb Nicholson was the interim general manager. Under the direction of Deborah Nicholson, the interim manager, the voting and election was held with results and then halted and set for re-election due to vulnerabilities in the election process. "This week we found a vulnerability in our voting processes that was exploited and had an impact on the outcome of the recent Board Election." No election results or further updates are posted as of June 2021. In January 2020, founder Bruce Perens left OSI over controversy regarding a new license (the Cryptographic Autonomy License), which had been proposed for the OSI's approval. Later, in August 2020, Perens elaborated on his concerns: "We created a tower of babel of licenses. We did not design-in license compliance, and we have a tremendous noncompliance problem that isn't getting better. We can't afford to sue our copyright infringers." Eric S. Raymond, another co-founder of the OSI, was later banned from the OSI mailing list in March 2020. In November 2020 the board of directors announced a search for an executive director which was concluded in September 2021 with the appointment of Stefano Maffulli. At the same time, the role of president of the board was abandoned in favor of chair of the board. Relationship with the free software movement Both the modern free software movement and the Open Source Initiative were born from a common history of Unix, Internet free software, and the hacker culture, but their basic goals and philosophy differ, the free software movement being more focused on the ethics of software, and their open source counterparts being more focused on practical benefits. The Open Source Initiative chose the term "open source", in founding member Michael Tiemann's words, to "dump the moralizing and confrontational attitude that had been associated with 'free software'" and instead promote open source ideas on "pragmatic, business-case grounds". As early as 1999, OSI co-founder Perens objected to the "schism" that was developing between supporters of the Free Software Foundation (FSF) and the OSI because of their disparate approaches. Perens had hoped the OSI would merely serve as an "introduction" to FSF principles for "non-hackers." Richard Stallman of FSF has sharply criticized the OSI for its pragmatic focus and for ignoring what he considers the central "ethical imperative" and emphasis on "freedom" underlying free software as he defines it. Nevertheless, Stallman has described his free software movement and the Open Source Initiative as separate camps within the same broad free-software community and acknowledged that despite philosophical differences, proponents of open source and free software "often work together on practical projects." On March 23, 2021, in response to Richard Stallman's reappointment to the Board of the Free Software Foundation, the OSI released a statement calling upon the FSF to "hold Stallman responsible for past behavior, remove him from the organization's leadership and work to address the harm he caused to all those he has excluded: those he considers less worthy, and those he has hurt with his words and actions." The OSI also stated that they would not participate in any events that include Stallman and "cannot collaborate with the Free Software Foundation until Stallman is removed from the organization's leadership." Board members As of February 2024, the Open Source Initiative Board of Directors is: Aeva Black Anne-Marie Scott Pamela Chestek Gaël Blondelle Carlo Piana Tracy Hinds Thierry Carrez Sayeed Choudhury Catharina Maracke Josh Berkus Justin Colannino Past board members include: Matt Asay Brian Behlendorf L. Peter Deutsch Ken Coar Danese Cooper Molly de Blanc Chris DiBona Karl Fogel Richard Fontana Rishab Aiyer Ghosh Mike Godwin Harshad Gune Christine Hall Leslie Hawthorn Joi Ito Jim Jagielski Fabio Kon Raj Mathur Martin Michlmayr Mike Milinkovich Ian Murdock Russ Nelson Nnenna Nwakanma Andrew C. Oliver Bruce Perens Simon Phipps Allison Randal Eric S. Raymond Guido van Rossum Chip Salzenberg Tim Sailer Alolita Sharma Josh Simmons Carol Smith Bruno Souza Paul Tagliamonte Michael Tiemann Luis Villa Tony Wasserman Sanjiva Weerawarana Stefano Zacchiroli Chris Lamb Faidon Liambotis See also Free and open-source software portal Digital rights Comparison of open-source and closed-source software Business models for open-source software Commons-based peer production – an economic model for organizing projects without leaders or financial compensation Open-source governance – use of open-source principles to transform human social governance Techno-progressivism – a stance of active support for the convergence of technological change and social progress Open-source-software movement – the evolution and evidence of the open-source ideology References ^ a b c d e f g h i Gardler, Ross; Walli, Stephen R (2022). "Evolving Perspective on Community and Governance". Open Source Law, Policy and Practice. Oxford University Press. pp. 47–48, 52. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198862345.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-886234-5. ^ "Charity Navigator - Unrated Profile for Open Source Initiative". Archived from the original on 2019-05-12. ^ "Charity Navigator - Unrated Profile for Open Source Initiative". Archived from the original on 2019-05-12. ^ "Charity Navigator - Unrated Profile for Open Source Initiative". Archived from the original on 2019-05-12. ^ a b "The Ins and Outs of Open Source" Kalina, Ira; Czyzycki, Alice.  Consulting to Management; Washington Vol. 16, Iss. 3, (Sep 2005): 41-46. ^ a b Vaughan-Nichols, Steven (March 24, 2021). "Open Source Initiative election hacked". ZDNET. Retrieved 19 May 2024. ^ a b Boehm, Mirko; Eisape, Davis (2021). "Standard setting organizations and open source communities: Partners or competitors?". First Monday. doi:10.5210/fm.v26i7.10806. ISSN 1396-0466. ^ Hahn, Erin N. "An Overview of Open-Source Software Licenses and the Value of Open-Source Software to Public Health Initiatives" (PDF). Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest: 692. ^ Overly, Michael R. (2003). The Open Source Handbook. Pike & Fischer. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-937275-12-2. ^ Katz, Andrew (2022). "Everything Open". Open Source Law, Policy and Practice. Oxford University Press. p. 521. ISBN 978-0-19-260687-7. ^ "OSI co-founder leaves initiative over new license". ^ "Co-founder of OSI Banned from Mailing Lists". ^ Claburn, Thomas (16 May 2024). "Open Source Initiative tries to define Open Source AI". www.theregister.com. Retrieved 18 May 2024. ^ Gent, Ed (March 25, 2024). "The tech industry can't agree on what open-source AI means. That's a problem". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 18 May 2024. ^ Vaughan-Nichols, Steven (18 July 2012). "New life for the Open Source Initiative". ZDNET. Retrieved 19 May 2024. ^ Vaughan-Nichols, Steven J. "The Open Source Initiative names Stefano Maffulli as its first Executive Director". ZDNet. Retrieved 2021-09-20. ^ Mertic, John (2023). Open Source Projects - Beyond Code: A blueprint for scalable and sustainable open source projects. Packt Publishing Ltd. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-83763-385-2. ^ De Maria, Carmelo; Díaz Lantada, Andrés; Di Pietro, Licia; Ravizza, Alice; Ahluwalia, Arti (2022). "Open-Source Medical Devices: Concept, Trends, and Challenges Toward Equitable Healthcare Technology". Engineering Open-Source Medical Devices. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 4. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-79363-0_1. ISBN 978-3-030-79362-3. ^ Greenleaf, Graham; Lindsay, David (2018). Public Rights: Copyright's Public Domains. Cambridge University Press. p. 485. ISBN 978-1-107-13406-5. ^ Erlich, Zippy (2007). "Open Source Software". Handbook of Research on Open Source Software. IGI Global. pp. 187–188. ISBN 978-1591409991. ^ Meeker, Heather J. (2008). The Open Source Alternative: Understanding Risks and Leveraging Opportunities. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-0-470-25581-0. ^ Laurent, Andrew M. St (2004). Understanding Open Source and Free Software Licensing: Guide to Navigating Licensing Issues in Existing & New Software. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-596-55395-1. ^ a b Smith, P McCoy (2022). "Copyright, Contract, and Licensing in Open Source". Open Source Law, Policy and Practice. Oxford University PressOxford. pp. 108–111. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198862345.003.0003. ISBN 978-0-19-886234-5. ^ "History of the OSI". ^ "A Look Back at 10 Years of OSI". Archived from the original on 2018-04-29. ^ http://www.opensource.org/pressreleases/certified-open-source.php Announcement of losing 'open source' trademark ^ "OSI Charter Member Discuss List". Archived from the original on 2013-04-21. Retrieved 2012-06-19. ^ "Become an OSI Affiliate". 22 May 2012. ^ "OSI Announces Individual Membership". ^ "OSI Corporate Sponsors". 23 July 2023. ^ "OSI Names New General Manager". LWN. 2013-10-23. Retrieved 2014-01-27. ^ "Deb Nicholson to Join Open Source Initiative as Interim General Manager". Software Freedom Conservancy. Retrieved 2021-02-16. ^ "OSI election update". ^ "OSI co-founder leaves initiative over new license". ^ Perens, Bruce (2020-08-24). "What comes after Open Source?". DebConf20. Retrieved 2021-06-01. ^ "Co-founder of OSI Banned from Mailing Lists". ^ "OSI Seeks to Hire Executive Director | Open Source Initiative". opensource.org. 19 November 2020. Retrieved 2021-09-20. ^ Tiemann, Michael (2006-09-19). "History of the OSI". Open Source Initiative. Retrieved 2009-04-25. ^ "It's Time to Talk About Free Software Again". 2014-11-19. Archived from the original on 2014-07-16. Retrieved 2014-11-19. ^ a b Stallman, Richard (2009-04-21). "Why 'Open Source' Misses the Point of Free Software". Free Software Foundation. Retrieved 2009-04-25. ^ "OSI Response to RMS's reappointment to the Board of the Free Software Foundation | Open Source Initiative". opensource.org. 23 March 2021. Retrieved 2021-04-03. ^ "Current composition of OSI board of directors". Open Source Initiative. 20 September 2022. ^ "OSI Emeritus Members | Open Source Initiative". Open Source Initiative. Retrieved 17 February 2019. ^ "2009 OSI Board Elections held in April". Archived from the original on 2022-04-07. Retrieved 2009-05-23. External links Official website List of OSI approved licenses vteFree and open-source softwareGeneral Alternative terms for free software Comparison of open-source and closed-source software Comparison of source-code-hosting facilities Free software Free software project directories Gratis versus libre Long-term support Open-source software Open-source software development Outline Timeline Softwarepackages Audio Bioinformatics Codecs Configuration management Drivers Graphics Wireless Health Mathematics Office suites Operating systems Routing Television Video games Web applications E-commerce Android apps iOS apps Commercial Formerly proprietary Formerly open-source Community Free software movement History Open-source-software movement Events Advocacy Organisations Free Software Movement of India Free Software Foundation Licenses AFL Apache APSL Artistic Beerware BSD Creative Commons CDDL EPL Free Software Foundation GNU GPL GNU AGPL GNU LGPL ISC MIT MPL Python Python Software Foundation License Shared Source Initiative Sleepycat Unlicense WTFPL zlib Types and standards Comparison of licenses Contributor License Agreement Copyleft Debian Free Software Guidelines Definition of Free Cultural Works Free license The Free Software Definition The Open Source Definition Open-source license Permissive software license Public domain Viral license Challenges Digital rights management License proliferation Mozilla software rebranding Proprietary device drivers Proprietary firmware Proprietary software SCO/Linux controversies Software patents Software security Trusted Computing Related topics Forking GNU Manifesto Microsoft Open Specification Promise Open-core model Open-source hardware Shared Source Initiative Source-available software The Cathedral and the Bazaar Revolution OS Portal Category vteFree culture and open contentConcepts andpracticesKey concepts Commons-based peer production Crowdsourcing Gratis versus libre Open collaboration Open source Openness Participatory culture Sharism Social peer-to-peer processes Peer-to-peer banking Peer-to-peer carsharing Peer-to-peer lending Peer-to-peer ridesharing Research and science Citizen science Open science Access Notebook science Research Science data Plan S Data, information,and knowledge Free content Knowledge commons Open communication Open knowledge Content Data Communicationand learningMedia Collaborative writing Democratic media Open publishing Participatory media Peer review Education Open education Educational resources University Admissions Open-door academic policy Journalism Citizen media Citizen journalism and Wiki journalism Open-source journalism Economy, production,and developmentProducts Free and open-source software (FOSS) Free/libre software Open-source software Open-design movement Robotics Open gaming Open-source architecture Open-source hardware Economic principles Gift economy Open innovation Open patent Open standard Sharing economy Politics and governance Open government Open-source governance Organizations Creative Commons Free Software Foundation Open Architecture Network Openmod Initiative Open Knowledge Foundation Open Rights Group Open Source Initiative Open Web Foundation Pirate Party PLOS SPARC Activists Tim Berners-Lee Alexandra Elbakyan Lawrence Lessig Peter Murray-Rust Douglas Rushkoff Richard Stallman Peter Suber Peter Sunde Aaron Swartz John Wilbanks Projects andmovements DIYbio Free-culture movement Free software movement Open science movement Open Source Ecology Open-source software movement OpenCores OpenWetWare Sci-Hub Tools Licenses Creative Commons GPL Definition docs Free Cultural Works Free Software Open Open Source Open Data Indices Open educational resources Open music model Open Web movement

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While free software is the same thing as open-source software, OSI preferred to make a pragmatic and business-friendly case for open-source software.For most of its existence, the OSI's activities have been focused on the definition and certifying software licenses as compliant with it. OSI originally had a closed organizational model, but began to switch towards a membership organization in the 2010s to raise more money and expand its activities.","title":"Open Source Initiative"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Netscape","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscape"},{"link_name":"Navigator","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Netscape_Navigator"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kalina-5"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hack-6"},{"link_name":"Eric Raymond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_Raymond"},{"link_name":"Bruce Perens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Perens"},{"link_name":"open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source"},{"link_name":"free software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Kalina-5"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boehm-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b733-1"},{"link_name":"development method for software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_development"},{"link_name":"vendor lock-in","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vendor_lock-in"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-f571-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Open Source Definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Source_Definition"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b733-1"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"artificial intelligence","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"the Open Source principles apply to this space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_artificial_intelligence"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"text":"In 1998, Netscape released the open-source Navigator browser.[5] On 8 February,[6] Eric Raymond and Bruce Perens founded the Open Source Initiative (OSI) and coined the term open source to refer to what had previously been called free software.[5][7] The OSI prefers the label \"open source\" to \"free software\" because the latter term has undesirable ideological and political freight, and it wants to focus on the pragmatic and business-friendly arguments for open-source software.[1] OSI defines open source as a \"development method for software that harnesses the power of distributed peer review and transparency of process. The promise of open source is better quality, higher reliability, more flexibility, lower cost, and an end to predatory vendor lock-in\".[8] Perens drafted a set of open-source guidelines,[9] which were adopted by the OSI as the Open Source Definition.[1][10]In January 2020, Perens left OSI over controversy regarding a new license (the Cryptographic Autonomy License), which had been proposed for the OSI's approval.[11] Raymond was banned from the OSI mailing list in March 2020.[12]In 2022, OSI began work on an Open Source AI Definition, inviting dozens of researchers and corporate representatives to make a draft. Even companies with accessible code often do not release the data set used to train the model and impose usage restrictions on what can be done with the trained model. Maffulli said a new definition was necessary because artificial intelligence \"is different from regular software and forces all stakeholders to review how the Open Source principles apply to this space\".[13][14]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"California","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/California"},{"link_name":"public-benefit nonprofit corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public-benefit_nonprofit_corporation"},{"link_name":"501(c)(3)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/501(c)(3)"},{"link_name":"tax-exempt status","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tax-exempt_status"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Boehm-7"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b733-1"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b733-1"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Open_Source_Initiative&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b733-1"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hack-6"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"}],"text":"The OSI is a California public-benefit nonprofit corporation, with 501(c)(3) tax-exempt status.[7] It adopted a closed rather than membership-driven organizational model in order to build consensus around its definition. All authority is vested in its Board of Directors, and future boards are appointed by the current board. This governance model has hampered OSI's efforts to achieve other goals not related to the definition. Unlike other free and open-source organizations, it does not develop software, which means that volunteer efforts have been directed elsewhere.[1]In 2008, the OSI attempted to reform its governance, inviting fifty people onto a private mailing list, but this attempt led to no publicly available result.[1] In 2012, the organization again tried to transition towards a membership-based structure, creating affiliate and individual memberships without any formal say over the organization. A plan for corporate membership was also announced, but has not materialized as of 2022[update]. The motivation for adopting a membership-based structure is to obtain greater financial resources, enabling full-time positions to increase the organization's effectiveness.[1][15]In March 2021, the OSI organization held a vote for executive director among its members, but the results were annulled because the election was hacked.[6] The election was re-run and Stefano Maffulli appointed its first executive director in September 2021.[16]","title":"Governance"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"The Open Source Definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Open_Source_Definition"},{"link_name":"open-source software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Mertic-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-j787-18"},{"link_name":"Providing access to the source code","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Source-available_software"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-v459-20"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b733-1"},{"link_name":"copyleft","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Copyleft"},{"link_name":"permissive licenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permissive_license"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b733-1"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Laurent-22"},{"link_name":"Software licenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_license"},{"link_name":"Free Software Definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Definition"},{"link_name":"Free Software Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation"},{"link_name":"free and open-source software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_and_open-source_software"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-b733-1"}],"text":"The Open Source Definition is the most widely accepted standard for open-source software.[17][18] Providing access to the source code is not enough for software to be considered \"open-source\": it must also allow modification and redistribution under the same terms and all uses, including commercial use.[19] The Open Source Definition requires that ten criteria be met for a license to be approved.[20][1] It allows both copyleft—where redistribution and derivative works must be released under a free license—and permissive licenses—where derivative works can be released under any license.[1][21][22] Software licenses covered by the Open Source Definition also meet the Free Software Definition and vice versa. Both the Free Software Foundation and the OSI share the goal of supporting free and open-source software.[1]","title":"Open Source Definition"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-l662-23"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-l662-23"},{"link_name":"Apache License 2.0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_License_2.0"},{"link_name":"BSD 3-Clause and BSD 2-Clause Licenses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BSD_licenses"},{"link_name":"GPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GPL"},{"link_name":"LGPL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGPL"},{"link_name":"MIT License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_License"},{"link_name":"Mozilla Public License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mozilla_Public_License"},{"link_name":"Common Development and Distribution License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Common_Development_and_Distribution_License"},{"link_name":"Eclipse Public License","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eclipse_Public_License"}],"text":"The OSI approves certain licenses as compatible with the definition, and maintains a list of compliant licenses. New licenses have to submit a formal proposal explaining the rationale for the license, comparison with existing approved licenses, and any legal analysis. The proposal is discussed on the OSI mailing list for at least 30 days before being brought to a vote and approved or rejected by the OSI board. Although the OSI has made an effort to have a transparent process, the approval process has been a source of controversy.[23]Seven approved licenses are particularly recommended by the OSI as \"popular, widely used, or having strong communities\":[23]Apache License 2.0\nBSD 3-Clause and BSD 2-Clause Licenses\nAll versions of the GPL\nAll versions of the LGPL\nMIT License\nMozilla Public License 2.0\nCommon Development and Distribution License (CDDL)\nEclipse Public License version 2.0","title":"License approval process"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Christine Peterson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Christine_Peterson"},{"link_name":"Jon \"maddog\" Hall","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jon_Hall_(programmer)"},{"link_name":"Larry Augustin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Larry_Augustin"},{"link_name":"Eric S. Raymond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond"},{"link_name":"Bruce Perens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Perens"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-osihistory-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"Open Source Definition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_Source_Definition"},{"link_name":"Debian Free Software Guidelines","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debian_Free_Software_Guidelines"},{"link_name":"trademark","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trademark"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"Simon Phipps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Phipps_(programmer)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"Deb Nicholson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deb_Nicholson&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Open_Source_Initiative&action=edit"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-35"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"As a campaign of sorts, \"open source\" was launched in 1998 by Christine Peterson, Jon \"maddog\" Hall, Larry Augustin, Eric S. Raymond, Bruce Perens, and others.[24][25]The group adopted the Open Source Definition for open-source software, based on the Debian Free Software Guidelines. They also established the Open Source Initiative (OSI) as a steward organization for the movement. However, they were unsuccessful in their attempt to secure a trademark for 'open source' to control the use of the term.[26] In 2008, in an apparent effort to reform governance of the organization, the OSI Board invited 50 individuals to join a \"Charter Members\" group; by 26 July 2008, 42 of the original invitees had accepted the invitations. The full membership of the Charter Members has never been publicly revealed, and the Charter Members group communicated by way of a closed-subscription mailing list, \"osi-discuss\", with non-public archives.[27]In 2012, under the leadership of OSI director and then-president Simon Phipps, the OSI began transitioning towards a membership-based governance structure. The OSI initiated an Affiliate Membership program for \"government-recognized non-profit charitable and not-for-profit industry associations and academic institutions anywhere in the world\".[28] Subsequently, the OSI announced an Individual Membership program[29] and listed a number of Corporate Sponsors.[30]On November 8, 2013, OSI appointed Patrick Masson as its general manager.[31] From August 2020 to September 2021, Deb Nicholson was the interim general manager.[32] Under the direction of Deborah Nicholson, the interim manager, the voting and election was held with results and then halted and set for re-election due to vulnerabilities in the election process. \"This week we found a vulnerability in our voting processes that was exploited and had an impact on the outcome of the recent Board Election.\"[33] No election results or further updates are posted as of June 2021[update].[citation needed]In January 2020, founder Bruce Perens left OSI over controversy regarding a new license (the Cryptographic Autonomy License), which had been proposed for the OSI's approval.[34] Later, in August 2020, Perens elaborated on his concerns: \"We created a tower of babel of licenses. We did not design-in license compliance, and we have a tremendous noncompliance problem that isn't getting better. We can't afford to sue our copyright infringers.\"[35]Eric S. Raymond, another co-founder of the OSI, was later banned from the OSI mailing list in March 2020.[36]In November 2020 the board of directors announced a search for an executive director[37] which was concluded in September 2021 with the appointment of Stefano Maffulli. At the same time, the role of president of the board was abandoned in favor of chair of the board.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"free software movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software_movement"},{"link_name":"Unix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unix"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"free software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software"},{"link_name":"hacker culture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hacker_(programmer_subculture)"},{"link_name":"free software movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software_movement"},{"link_name":"Michael Tiemann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Tiemann"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-OSI_History-38"},{"link_name":"Free Software Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"Richard Stallman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Stallman"},{"link_name":"free software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Misses_Point-40"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Misses_Point-40"},{"link_name":"Free Software Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_Software_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"}],"text":"Both the modern free software movement and the Open Source Initiative were born from a common history of Unix, Internet free software, and the hacker culture, but their basic goals and philosophy differ, the free software movement being more focused on the ethics of software, and their open source counterparts being more focused on practical benefits. The Open Source Initiative chose the term \"open source\", in founding member Michael Tiemann's words, to \"dump the moralizing and confrontational attitude that had been associated with 'free software'\" and instead promote open source ideas on \"pragmatic, business-case grounds\".[38]As early as 1999, OSI co-founder Perens objected to the \"schism\" that was developing between supporters of the Free Software Foundation (FSF) and the OSI because of their disparate approaches. Perens had hoped the OSI would merely serve as an \"introduction\" to FSF principles for \"non-hackers.\"[39] Richard Stallman of FSF has sharply criticized the OSI for its pragmatic focus and for ignoring what he considers the central \"ethical imperative\" and emphasis on \"freedom\" underlying free software as he defines it.[40] Nevertheless, Stallman has described his free software movement and the Open Source Initiative as separate camps within the same broad free-software community and acknowledged that despite philosophical differences, proponents of open source and free software \"often work together on practical projects.\"[40]On March 23, 2021, in response to Richard Stallman's reappointment to the Board of the Free Software Foundation, the OSI released a statement calling upon the FSF to \"hold Stallman responsible for past behavior, remove him from the organization's leadership and work to address the harm he caused to all those he has excluded: those he considers less worthy, and those he has hurt with his words and actions.\" The OSI also stated that they would not participate in any events that include Stallman and \"cannot collaborate with the Free Software Foundation until Stallman is removed from the organization's leadership.\"[41]","title":"Relationship with the free software movement"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Open_Source_Initiative&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"},{"link_name":"Carlo Piana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carlo_Piana"},{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"},{"link_name":"Brian Behlendorf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_Behlendorf"},{"link_name":"L. Peter Deutsch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/L._Peter_Deutsch"},{"link_name":"Ken Coar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ken_Coar"},{"link_name":"Danese Cooper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danese_Cooper"},{"link_name":"Molly de Blanc","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Molly_de_Blanc&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Chris DiBona","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_DiBona"},{"link_name":"Richard Fontana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Fontana"},{"link_name":"Rishab Aiyer Ghosh","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rishab_Aiyer_Ghosh"},{"link_name":"Mike Godwin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mike_Godwin"},{"link_name":"Harshad Gune","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harshad_Gune&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Joi Ito","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joi_Ito"},{"link_name":"Jim Jagielski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jim_Jagielski"},{"link_name":"Fabio Kon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fabio_Kon"},{"link_name":"Martin Michlmayr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Martin_Michlmayr"},{"link_name":"Ian Murdock","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ian_Murdock"},{"link_name":"Russ Nelson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Russ_Nelson"},{"link_name":"Nnenna Nwakanma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nnenna_Nwakanma"},{"link_name":"Andrew C. Oliver","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Andrew_C._Oliver"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-elections2009-44"},{"link_name":"Bruce Perens","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruce_Perens"},{"link_name":"Simon Phipps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simon_Phipps_(programmer)"},{"link_name":"Allison Randal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allison_Randal"},{"link_name":"Eric S. Raymond","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_S._Raymond"},{"link_name":"Guido van Rossum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guido_van_Rossum"},{"link_name":"Chip Salzenberg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Chip_Salzenberg&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Bruno Souza","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bruno_Souza_(programmer)"},{"link_name":"Michael Tiemann","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Tiemann"},{"link_name":"Luis Villa","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luis_Villa"},{"link_name":"Tony Wasserman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tony_Wasserman"},{"link_name":"Sanjiva Weerawarana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanjiva_Weerawarana"},{"link_name":"Stefano Zacchiroli","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefano_Zacchiroli"},{"link_name":"Chris Lamb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chris_Lamb_(software_developer)"}],"text":"As of February 2024[update], the Open Source Initiative Board of Directors is:[42]Aeva Black\nAnne-Marie Scott\nPamela Chestek\nGaël Blondelle\n\n\nCarlo Piana\nTracy Hinds\nThierry Carrez\nSayeed Choudhury\n\n\nCatharina Maracke\nJosh Berkus\nJustin ColanninoPast board members include:[43]Matt Asay\nBrian Behlendorf\nL. Peter Deutsch\nKen Coar\nDanese Cooper\nMolly de Blanc\nChris DiBona\nKarl Fogel\nRichard Fontana\nRishab Aiyer Ghosh\nMike Godwin\nHarshad Gune\nChristine Hall\nLeslie Hawthorn\nJoi Ito\n\n\nJim Jagielski\nFabio Kon\nRaj Mathur\nMartin Michlmayr\nMike Milinkovich\nIan Murdock\nRuss Nelson\nNnenna Nwakanma\nAndrew C. Oliver[44]\nBruce Perens\nSimon Phipps\nAllison Randal\nEric S. Raymond\nGuido van Rossum\nChip Salzenberg\n\n\nTim Sailer\nAlolita Sharma\nJosh Simmons\nCarol Smith\nBruno Souza\nPaul Tagliamonte\nMichael Tiemann\nLuis Villa\nTony Wasserman\nSanjiva Weerawarana\nStefano Zacchiroli\nChris Lamb\nFaidon Liambotis","title":"Board members"}]

[]

[{"title":"Free and open-source software portal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portal:Free_and_open-source_software"},{"title":"Digital rights","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_rights"},{"title":"Comparison of open-source and closed-source software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_open-source_and_closed-source_software"},{"title":"Business models for open-source software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_models_for_open-source_software"},{"title":"Commons-based peer production","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Commons-based_peer_production"},{"title":"Open-source governance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_governance"},{"title":"Techno-progressivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Techno-progressivism"},{"title":"Open-source-software movement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source-software_movement"}]

[{"reference":"Gardler, Ross; Walli, Stephen R (2022). \"Evolving Perspective on Community and Governance\". Open Source Law, Policy and Practice. Oxford University Press. pp. 47–48, 52. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198862345.003.0002. ISBN 978-0-19-886234-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198862345.003.0002","url_text":"10.1093/oso/9780198862345.003.0002"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-886234-5","url_text":"978-0-19-886234-5"}]},{"reference":"\"Charity Navigator - Unrated Profile for Open Source Initiative\". Archived from the original on 2019-05-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20190512053355/https://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay=search.profile&ein=912037395","url_text":"\"Charity Navigator - Unrated Profile for Open Source Initiative\""},{"url":"https://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay=search.profile&ein=912037395","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Charity Navigator - Unrated Profile for Open Source Initiative\". Archived from the original on 2019-05-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20190512053355/https://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay=search.profile&ein=912037395","url_text":"\"Charity Navigator - Unrated Profile for Open Source Initiative\""},{"url":"https://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay=search.profile&ein=912037395","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Charity Navigator - Unrated Profile for Open Source Initiative\". Archived from the original on 2019-05-12.","urls":[{"url":"https://archive.today/20190512053355/https://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay=search.profile&ein=912037395","url_text":"\"Charity Navigator - Unrated Profile for Open Source Initiative\""},{"url":"https://www.charitynavigator.org/index.cfm?bay=search.profile&ein=912037395","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Vaughan-Nichols, Steven (March 24, 2021). \"Open Source Initiative election hacked\". ZDNET. Retrieved 19 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/open-source-initiative-election-hacked/","url_text":"\"Open Source Initiative election hacked\""}]},{"reference":"Boehm, Mirko; Eisape, Davis (2021). \"Standard setting organizations and open source communities: Partners or competitors?\". First Monday. doi:10.5210/fm.v26i7.10806. ISSN 1396-0466.","urls":[{"url":"https://firstmonday.org/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/10806","url_text":"\"Standard setting organizations and open source communities: Partners or competitors?\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.5210%2Ffm.v26i7.10806","url_text":"10.5210/fm.v26i7.10806"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISSN"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/issn/1396-0466","url_text":"1396-0466"}]},{"reference":"Hahn, Erin N. \"An Overview of Open-Source Software Licenses and the Value of Open-Source Software to Public Health Initiatives\" (PDF). Johns Hopkins APL Technical Digest: 692.","urls":[{"url":"https://secwww.jhuapl.edu/techdigest/Content/techdigest/pdf/V32-N04/32-04-Hahn.pdf","url_text":"\"An Overview of Open-Source Software Licenses and the Value of Open-Source Software to Public Health Initiatives\""}]},{"reference":"Overly, Michael R. (2003). The Open Source Handbook. Pike & Fischer. p. 5. ISBN 978-0-937275-12-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-937275-12-2","url_text":"978-0-937275-12-2"}]},{"reference":"Katz, Andrew (2022). \"Everything Open\". Open Source Law, Policy and Practice. Oxford University Press. p. 521. 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Retrieved 18 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.theregister.com/2024/05/16/open_source_initiative_ai/","url_text":"\"Open Source Initiative tries to define Open Source AI\""}]},{"reference":"Gent, Ed (March 25, 2024). \"The tech industry can't agree on what open-source AI means. That's a problem\". MIT Technology Review. Retrieved 18 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.technologyreview.com/2024/03/25/1090111/tech-industry-open-source-ai-definition-problem/","url_text":"\"The tech industry can't agree on what open-source AI means. That's a problem\""}]},{"reference":"Vaughan-Nichols, Steven (18 July 2012). \"New life for the Open Source Initiative\". ZDNET. Retrieved 19 May 2024.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/new-life-for-the-open-source-initiative/","url_text":"\"New life for the Open Source Initiative\""}]},{"reference":"Vaughan-Nichols, Steven J. \"The Open Source Initiative names Stefano Maffulli as its first Executive Director\". ZDNet. Retrieved 2021-09-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.zdnet.com/article/the-open-source-initiative-names-stefano-maffulli-its-first-executive-director/","url_text":"\"The Open Source Initiative names Stefano Maffulli as its first Executive Director\""}]},{"reference":"Mertic, John (2023). Open Source Projects - Beyond Code: A blueprint for scalable and sustainable open source projects. Packt Publishing Ltd. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-83763-385-2.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-83763-385-2","url_text":"978-1-83763-385-2"}]},{"reference":"De Maria, Carmelo; Díaz Lantada, Andrés; Di Pietro, Licia; Ravizza, Alice; Ahluwalia, Arti (2022). \"Open-Source Medical Devices: Concept, Trends, and Challenges Toward Equitable Healthcare Technology\". Engineering Open-Source Medical Devices. Cham: Springer International Publishing. p. 4. doi:10.1007/978-3-030-79363-0_1. ISBN 978-3-030-79362-3.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-030-79363-0_1","url_text":"10.1007/978-3-030-79363-0_1"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-030-79362-3","url_text":"978-3-030-79362-3"}]},{"reference":"Greenleaf, Graham; Lindsay, David (2018). Public Rights: Copyright's Public Domains. Cambridge University Press. p. 485. ISBN 978-1-107-13406-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-13406-5","url_text":"978-1-107-13406-5"}]},{"reference":"Erlich, Zippy (2007). \"Open Source Software\". Handbook of Research on Open Source Software. IGI Global. pp. 187–188. ISBN 978-1591409991.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1591409991","url_text":"978-1591409991"}]},{"reference":"Meeker, Heather J. (2008). The Open Source Alternative: Understanding Risks and Leveraging Opportunities. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 21–22. ISBN 978-0-470-25581-0.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-470-25581-0","url_text":"978-0-470-25581-0"}]},{"reference":"Laurent, Andrew M. St (2004). Understanding Open Source and Free Software Licensing: Guide to Navigating Licensing Issues in Existing & New Software. O'Reilly Media, Inc. pp. 9–11. ISBN 978-0-596-55395-1.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-596-55395-1","url_text":"978-0-596-55395-1"}]},{"reference":"Smith, P McCoy (2022). \"Copyright, Contract, and Licensing in Open Source\". Open Source Law, Policy and Practice. Oxford University PressOxford. pp. 108–111. doi:10.1093/oso/9780198862345.003.0003. ISBN 978-0-19-886234-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780198862345.003.0003","url_text":"10.1093/oso/9780198862345.003.0003"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-886234-5","url_text":"978-0-19-886234-5"}]},{"reference":"\"History of the OSI\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.opensource.org/history","url_text":"\"History of the OSI\""}]},{"reference":"\"A Look Back at 10 Years of OSI\". Archived from the original on 2018-04-29.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20180429095902/http://www.onlamp.com/pub/a/onlamp/2008/02/12/a-look-back-at-10-years-of-osi.html","url_text":"\"A Look Back at 10 Years of OSI\""},{"url":"http://onlamp.com/pub/a/onlamp/2008/02/12/a-look-back-at-10-years-of-osi.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"OSI Charter Member Discuss List\". Archived from the original on 2013-04-21. Retrieved 2012-06-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20130421094608/http://members.opensource.org/mailman/listinfo/osi-discuss","url_text":"\"OSI Charter Member Discuss List\""},{"url":"http://members.opensource.org/mailman/listinfo/osi-discuss","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"Become an OSI Affiliate\". 22 May 2012.","urls":[{"url":"http://opensource.org/affiliates/about","url_text":"\"Become an OSI Affiliate\""}]},{"reference":"\"OSI Announces Individual Membership\".","urls":[{"url":"http://opensource.org/members/1207-release","url_text":"\"OSI Announces Individual Membership\""}]},{"reference":"\"OSI Corporate Sponsors\". 23 July 2023.","urls":[{"url":"http://opensource.org/sponsors","url_text":"\"OSI Corporate Sponsors\""}]},{"reference":"\"OSI Names New General Manager\". LWN. 2013-10-23. Retrieved 2014-01-27.","urls":[{"url":"https://lwn.net/Articles/571460/","url_text":"\"OSI Names New General Manager\""}]},{"reference":"\"Deb Nicholson to Join Open Source Initiative as Interim General Manager\". Software Freedom Conservancy. Retrieved 2021-02-16.","urls":[{"url":"https://sfconservancy.org/news/2020/aug/20/debleaving/","url_text":"\"Deb Nicholson to Join Open Source Initiative as Interim General Manager\""}]},{"reference":"\"OSI election update\".","urls":[{"url":"https://opensource.org/election_update","url_text":"\"OSI election update\""}]},{"reference":"\"OSI co-founder leaves initiative over new license\".","urls":[{"url":"https://sdtimes.com/os/osi-co-founder-leaves-initiative-over-new-license/","url_text":"\"OSI co-founder leaves initiative over new license\""}]},{"reference":"Perens, Bruce (2020-08-24). \"What comes after Open Source?\". DebConf20. Retrieved 2021-06-01.","urls":[{"url":"https://debconf20.debconf.org/talks/10-what-comes-after-open-source/","url_text":"\"What comes after Open Source?\""}]},{"reference":"\"Co-founder of OSI Banned from Mailing Lists\".","urls":[{"url":"https://www.i-programmer.info/news/136-open-source/13535-co-founder-of-osi-banned-from-.html","url_text":"\"Co-founder of OSI Banned from Mailing Lists\""}]},{"reference":"\"OSI Seeks to Hire Executive Director | Open Source Initiative\". opensource.org. 19 November 2020. Retrieved 2021-09-20.","urls":[{"url":"https://blog.opensource.org/executive_director/","url_text":"\"OSI Seeks to Hire Executive Director | Open Source Initiative\""}]},{"reference":"Tiemann, Michael (2006-09-19). \"History of the OSI\". Open Source Initiative. Retrieved 2009-04-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_Tiemann","url_text":"Tiemann, Michael"},{"url":"http://www.opensource.org/history","url_text":"\"History of the OSI\""}]},{"reference":"\"It's Time to Talk About Free Software Again\". 2014-11-19. Archived from the original on 2014-07-16. Retrieved 2014-11-19.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20140716055445/https://lists.debian.org/debian-devel/1999/02/msg01641.html","url_text":"\"It's Time to Talk About Free Software Again\""},{"url":"https://lists.debian.org/debian-devel/1999/02/msg01641.html","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Stallman, Richard (2009-04-21). \"Why 'Open Source' Misses the Point of Free Software\". Free Software Foundation. Retrieved 2009-04-25.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard_Stallman","url_text":"Stallman, Richard"},{"url":"https://www.gnu.org/philosophy/free-software-for-freedom.html","url_text":"\"Why 'Open Source' Misses the Point of Free Software\""}]},{"reference":"\"OSI Response to RMS's reappointment to the Board of the Free Software Foundation | Open Source Initiative\". opensource.org. 23 March 2021. Retrieved 2021-04-03.","urls":[{"url":"https://blog.opensource.org/osi_response/","url_text":"\"OSI Response to RMS's reappointment to the Board of the Free Software Foundation | Open Source Initiative\""}]},{"reference":"\"Current composition of OSI board of directors\". Open Source Initiative. 20 September 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://opensource.org/about/board-of-directors/","url_text":"\"Current composition of OSI board of directors\""}]},{"reference":"\"OSI Emeritus Members | Open Source Initiative\". Open Source Initiative. Retrieved 17 February 2019.","urls":[{"url":"https://opensource.org/docs/osi-emeritus-members","url_text":"\"OSI Emeritus Members | Open Source Initiative\""}]},{"reference":"\"2009 OSI Board Elections held in April\". Archived from the original on 2022-04-07. Retrieved 2009-05-23.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20220407151152/https://opensource.org/node/431","url_text":"\"2009 OSI Board Elections held in April\""},{"url":"http://www.opensource.org/node/431","url_text":"the original"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Steven_N._Durlauf

Steven Durlauf

["1 Education","2 Personal life","3 Honors, awards and positions","4 External links","5 References"]

American economist This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This biographical article is written like a résumé. Please help improve it by revising it to be neutral and encyclopedic. (June 2023) This biography of a living person needs additional citations for verification. Please help by adding reliable sources. Contentious material about living persons that is unsourced or poorly sourced must be removed immediately from the article and its talk page, especially if potentially libelous.Find sources: "Steven Durlauf" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article relies excessively on references to primary sources. Please improve this article by adding secondary or tertiary sources. Find sources: "Steven Durlauf" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (September 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Steven Neil DurlaufBorn (1958-08-12) August 12, 1958 (age 65)Encino, CaliforniaAlma materHarvard University (BA) Yale University (PhD)Scientific careerFieldsEconomics, Public PolicyInstitutionsUniversity of ChicagoThesis (1986)Doctoral advisorPeter C. B. Phillips Steven N. Durlauf, Director of the Stone Center for Research on Wealth Inequality and Mobility, and Steans Professor of Educational Policy at the Harris School of Public Policy at the University of Chicago. Steven Neil Durlauf (born August 12, 1958) is an American social scientist and economist. He is currently Steans Professor in Educational Policy and the inaugural Director of the Stone Center for Research on Wealth Inequality and Mobility at the Harris School of Public Policy Studies at the University of Chicago. Durlauf was previously the William F. Vilas Research Professor and Kenneth J. Arrow Professor of Economics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. As of 2021, is also a Part Time Professor at the New Economic School. Durlauf's research spans many topics in microeconomics and macroeconomics. His most important substantive contributions involve the areas of poverty, inequality and economic growth. Much of his research has attempted to integrate sociological ideas into economic analysis. His major methodological contributions include both economic theory and econometrics. He helped pioneer the application of statistical mechanics techniques to the modelling of socioeconomic behavior and has also developed identification analyses for the empirical analogs of these models. Other research has focused on the development of techniques for policy evaluation and the construction of an econometrics of cross country income differences. Durlauf is also known as a critic of the use of the concept of social capital by social scientists and has also challenged the ways that agent-based modelling and complexity theory have been employed by social and natural scientists to study socioeconomic phenomena. Finally, Durlauf has written on issues of fairness and justice, developing normative justifications for "associational redistribution" which refers to the idea that policies such as affirmative action should be understood as redistributing various social and economic ties. Education Durlauf received his B.A. in Economics from Harvard University in 1980, and his Ph.D. in Economics from Yale University in 1986. Personal life Durlauf is married to Olga Nikolayevna Durlauf, a cardiologist and medical school professor. He has three children. Honors, awards and positions Durlauf was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2011. He is also a Fellow of the Econometric Society, the Society for Economic Measurement, the Society for the Advancement of Economic Theory and the International Association for Applied Econometrics. He is a research associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research. From 2010 to 2022, Durlauf was a co-director of the Human Capital and Economic Opportunity Global Working group. Durlauf was Editor of the Journal of Economic Literature from 2013 to 2022. He previously served as General Editor of the New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. In late 2022, he was selected as the inaugural director of the Stone Center for Research on Wealth Inequality and Mobility. This research center is housed in the University of Chicago's Harris School of Public Policy and is a member of a network of research institutions funded by the James M. and Cathleen D. Stone Foundation. The center will pursue interdisciplinary research on the nature of wealth inequality and barriers to mobility with a particular interest in intergenerational mobility. External links Faculty Homepage References ^ "Steven Durlauf | The University of Chicago Harris School of Public Policy". harris.uchicago.edu. 2023-08-24. Retrieved 2023-08-24. ^ "Stone Center for Research on Wealth Inequality and Mobility Launches with $5 Million Gift". The University of Chicago Harris School of Public Policy. 2023-08-28. Retrieved 2023-08-24. Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway Germany Israel Belgium United States Latvia Czech Republic Australia Croatia Netherlands Academics CiNii MathSciNet Mathematics Genealogy Project zbMATH People Trove Other IdRef

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Durlauf, Director of the Stone Center for Research on Wealth Inequality and Mobility, and Steans Professor of Educational Policy at the Harris School of Public Policy at the University of Chicago.Steven Neil Durlauf (born August 12, 1958) is an American social scientist and economist. He is currently Steans Professor in Educational Policy and the inaugural Director of the Stone Center for Research on Wealth Inequality and Mobility at the Harris School of Public Policy Studies at the University of Chicago.[1] [2] Durlauf was previously the William F. Vilas Research Professor and Kenneth J. Arrow Professor of Economics at the University of Wisconsin-Madison. As of 2021, is also a Part Time Professor at the New Economic School.Durlauf's research spans many topics in microeconomics and macroeconomics. His most important substantive contributions involve the areas of poverty, inequality and economic growth. Much of his research has attempted to integrate sociological ideas into economic analysis. His major methodological contributions include both economic theory and econometrics. He helped pioneer the application of statistical mechanics techniques to the modelling of socioeconomic behavior and has also developed identification analyses for the empirical analogs of these models. Other research has focused on the development of techniques for policy evaluation and the construction of an econometrics of cross country income differences. Durlauf is also known as a critic of the use of the concept of social capital by social scientists and has also challenged the ways that agent-based modelling and complexity theory have been employed by social and natural scientists to study socioeconomic phenomena. Finally, Durlauf has written on issues of fairness and justice, developing normative justifications for \"associational redistribution\" which refers to the idea that policies such as affirmative action should be understood as redistributing various social and economic ties.","title":"Steven Durlauf"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Harvard University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_University"},{"link_name":"Yale University","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yale_University"}],"text":"Durlauf received his B.A. in Economics from Harvard University in 1980, and his Ph.D. in Economics from Yale University in 1986.","title":"Education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Durlauf is married to Olga Nikolayevna Durlauf, a cardiologist and medical school professor. He has three children.[citation needed]","title":"Personal life"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"American Academy of Arts and Sciences","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/American_Academy_of_Arts_and_Sciences"},{"link_name":"Econometric Society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Econometric_Society"},{"link_name":"National Bureau of Economic Research","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Bureau_of_Economic_Research"},{"link_name":"Journal of Economic Literature","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Journal_of_Economic_Literature"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Durlauf was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2011. He is also a Fellow of the Econometric Society, the Society for Economic Measurement, the Society for the Advancement of Economic Theory and the International Association for Applied Econometrics. He is a research associate at the National Bureau of Economic Research.From 2010 to 2022, Durlauf was a co-director of the Human Capital and Economic Opportunity Global Working group. Durlauf was Editor of the Journal of Economic Literature from 2013 to 2022. He previously served as General Editor of the New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics. In late 2022, he was selected as the inaugural director of the Stone Center for Research on Wealth Inequality and Mobility. This research center is housed in the University of Chicago's Harris School of Public Policy and is a member of a network of research institutions funded by the James M. and Cathleen D. Stone Foundation. The center will pursue interdisciplinary research on the nature of wealth inequality and barriers to mobility with a particular interest in intergenerational mobility.[citation needed]","title":"Honors, awards and positions"}]

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[{"reference":"\"Steven Durlauf | The University of Chicago Harris School of Public Policy\". harris.uchicago.edu. 2023-08-24. Retrieved 2023-08-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://harris.uchicago.edu/directory/steven-durlauf","url_text":"\"Steven Durlauf | The University of Chicago Harris School of Public Policy\""}]},{"reference":"\"Stone Center for Research on Wealth Inequality and Mobility Launches with $5 Million Gift\". The University of Chicago Harris School of Public Policy. 2023-08-28. Retrieved 2023-08-24.","urls":[{"url":"https://harris.uchicago.edu/news-events/news/stone-center-research-wealth-inequality-and-mobility-launches-5-million-gift","url_text":"\"Stone Center for Research on Wealth Inequality and Mobility Launches with $5 Million Gift\""}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eric_(robot)

Eric (robot)

["1 George","2 References"]

Early British robot Eric rebuilt in 2017 Eric was the first British robot, built in 1928 by First World War veteran Captain William Richards, and aircraft engineer Alan Reffell. He was constructed to open the Exhibition of the Society of Model Engineers at London's Royal Horticultural Hall in 1928, after George VI (then the Duke of York) cancelled and an exasperated Richards, the exhibition's secretary, offered to "make a man of tin" to take the Duke's place. At the event's opening, Eric rose to his feet, bowed and gave a four-minute opening address. The robot was operated by two people, and Eric's voice was received live by a radio signal, Richards claiming to be working under a license of the Marconi Company. Although able to sit and stand, Eric could not move his legs to walk. His chest bore the letters "R.U.R.", a reference to the robot manufacturer in Karel Čapek's 1920 play of the same name. Following his first appearance, Eric was taken on a US tour, introducing himself to an audience in New York in 1929 as "Eric the robot, the man without a soul". The New York Press described him as "the perfect man". Some time after this, Eric disappeared. Having researched Eric's story, Science Museum curator Ben Russell concluded that "no-one quite knows what happened to him, whether he was blown-up or taken to pieces for spare parts". In 2016, the London Science Museum raised funds through a Kickstarter campaign to rebuild Eric, working from archive material including Illustrated London News photographs. Eric was added to the museum's permanent collection, and appeared as part of a 2017 robots exhibition. George George, a later model of Eric, taking breakfast with his inventor William Richards in Berlin, 1930 In the 1930s, William Richards built a similar robot called "George", which toured the world including Germany and Australia. George could deliver speeches in French, German, Hindustani, Chinese and Danish. He cost almost £2,000 to build, compared to Eric's £140, and The Age newspaper described him as "the educated gentleman, alongside his rough-hewn awkward brother". References ^ a b Riskin, Jessica (10 March 2016). The Restless Clock: A History of the Centuries-Long Argument Over What Makes Living Things Tick. University of Chicago Press. p. 301. ISBN 9780226302928. ^ a b c d Knapton, Sarah (10 May 2016). "Britain's first robot 'Eric' to rise again after lost plans found". The Telegraph. Retrieved 7 March 2017. ^ a b "English Robot Adds Lecture To Repertoire". Chronicle Telegram. 26 Nov 1928. ^ "An Aluminium "Man" That Rises, Bows, And Makes A "Speech": A Knight-Like Robot". Illustrated London News. 1928. ^ Wright, Will; Kaplan, Steven (1994). The Image of Technology in Literature, the Media, and Society: Selected Papers from the 1994 Conference Society for the Interdisciplinary Study of Social Imagery. The Society. p. 3. ^ Schaut, Scott (2006). Robots of Westinghouse, 1924-today. Scott Schautt, Mansfield Memorial Museum. p. 61. ISBN 9780978584412. ^ ""Robot" Is A Mystery". Evening Tribune. 29 Jan 1929. ^ Jozuka, Emiko (May 19, 2016). "The Sad Story of Eric, the UK's First Robot Who Was Loved Then Forsaken". Motherboard. Retrieved 7 March 2017. ^ "Meet Mr. Robot - Not Forgetting His Master". The Age. 20 September 1935. Archived from the original on 7 March 2017. Retrieved 7 March 2017. vteHumanoid robotsLeggedMini Bioloid Coco FemiSapien RoboSapien Robosapien v2 Ropid RS Media HOAP JO-ZERO KHR-1 Kirobo and Mirata Manav Nao PINO Plen QRIO SIGMO Small,medium Archie ASIMO Flame GuRoo HUBO iCub Murata Boy and Murata Girl REEM Toyota Partner Robot Xianxingzhe Human-sized Ai-Da Ameca Atlas E series Eric FEDOR George IsaacRobot Kobian Leonardo's robot MAHRU & AHRA Musa Optimus P series PETMAN Robot Man of Szeged Sophia Surena TOPIO Big Elektro Land Walker Wheeled GuRoo EMIEW Enon i-SOBOT Justin Pepper Sanbot Seropi TOPIO Dio Wakamaru Mitra Robot Tracked Battlefield Extraction-Assist Robot (BEAR) Upper torso Domo Gakutensoku Geoff Peterson Mindar Robonaut Shalu Telenoid R1 See also Androids Cyborgs Robot fetishism

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_network

Global network

["1 Satellite global networks","2 Mobile wireless networks","3 Network interconnection","4 Social and economic impact","5 See also","6 References"]

Communication network covering the Earth Global submarine cables in 2007 Eastern Telegraph cable network in 1901 A global network is any communication network which spans the entire Earth. The term, as used in this article, refers in a more restricted way to bidirectional communication networks based on technology. Early networks such as international mail and unidirectional communication networks, such as radio and television, are described elsewhere. The first global network was established using electrical telegraphy and global span was achieved in 1899. The telephony network was the second to achieve global status, in the 1950s. More recently, interconnected IP networks (principally the Internet, with estimated 2.5 billion users worldwide in 2014), and the GSM mobile communication network (with over 6 billion worldwide users in 2014) form the largest global networks of all. Setting up global networks requires immensely costly and lengthy efforts lasting for decades. Elaborate interconnections, switching and routing devices, laying out physical carriers of information, such as land and submarine cables and earth stations must be set in operation. In addition, international communication protocols, legislation and agreements are involved. Global networks might also refer to networks of individuals (such as scientists), communities (such as cities) and organizations (such as civil organizations) worldwide which, for instance, might have formed for the management, mitigation and resolution of global issues. Satellite global networks Communication satellites are an important part of global networks. However, there are specific low Earth orbit (LEO) global satellite constellations, such as Iridium, Globalstar and Orbcomm, which are comprised by dozens of similar satellites which are put in orbit at regularly spaced positions and form a mesh network, sometimes sending and receiving information directly among themselves. Using VSAT technology, satellite internet access has become possible. Mobile wireless networks It is estimated that 80% of the global mobile market uses the GSM standard, present in more than 212 countries and territories. Its ubiquity makes international roaming very common between mobile phone operators, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts of the world. In order to achieve this, these networks must be interconnected by way of peering arrangements, and therefore the GSM network is a truly global one. Network interconnection The telegraph and telex communication networks have been phased out, so interconnection among existing global networks arise at several points, such as between the voice telephony and digital data networks, and between these and satellite networks. Many applications run now on several networks, such as VoIP (voice over IP). Mobile communication (voice and data) networks are also intimately intertwined, because the majority of 21st century cell phones have both voice and data (internet navigation and emailing) capabilities. Digital global networks require huge carrying capacity in the main backbones. This is currently achieved by fiber-optic cables. Social and economic impact The Canadian sociologist Marshall McLuhan was the first to forecast the huge impact of the matrix of global networks upon society, coining the term global village. His work, however, related to radio and television networks, which are broadcast (unidirectional) networks, thus predating the much larger impact of the internet. Global networks have revolutionized human communication several times. The first to do so was the electrical telegraph. Its impact was so large that it has been dubbed the Victorian Internet. It was expanded many times in its coverage with the advent of radiotelegraphy, and with text messaging using telex machines. The Internet and mobile communication networks have made possible entirely new forms of social interaction, activities and organizing, thanks to its basic features such as widespread usability and access, and instant communication from any connected point to another. Thus, its social impact has been, and still is, enormous. Finally, the impact on governance have been significant facilitating the emergence of 'transnational policy networks' See also History of telecommunication History of the Internet History of radio History of television History of the telephone History of telegraphy Mobile telecommunications Computer networking Communication protocol Network architecture Global network positioning Quantum Internet Telephony Fiber-optic cable Telegraphy References ^ "Global Internet Usage Stats" (PDF). KoMarketing Associates. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2022-12-19. Retrieved 2022-09-29. ^ Harasim, L. (Ed.) - Global Networks: Computers and International Networks, 1993 ^ Stone, Diane. Knowledge actors and transnational governance: The private-public policy nexus in the global agora. 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The term, as used in this article, refers in a more restricted way to bidirectional communication networks based on technology. Early networks such as international mail and unidirectional communication networks, such as radio and television, are described elsewhere.The first global network was established using electrical telegraphy and global span was achieved in 1899. The telephony network was the second to achieve global status, in the 1950s. More recently, interconnected IP networks (principally the Internet, with estimated 2.5 billion users worldwide in 2014[1]), and the GSM mobile communication network (with over 6 billion worldwide users in 2014) form the largest global networks of all.Setting up global networks requires immensely costly and lengthy efforts lasting for decades. Elaborate interconnections, switching and routing devices, laying out physical carriers of information, such as land and submarine cables and earth stations must be set in operation. In addition, international communication protocols, legislation and agreements are involved.Global networks might also refer to networks of individuals (such as scientists), communities (such as cities) and organizations (such as civil organizations) worldwide which, for instance, might have formed for the management, mitigation and resolution of global issues.","title":"Global network"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Communication satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_satellite"},{"link_name":"low Earth orbit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_Earth_orbit"},{"link_name":"satellite constellations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_constellation"},{"link_name":"Iridium","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iridium_satellite_constellation"},{"link_name":"Globalstar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalstar"},{"link_name":"Orbcomm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbcomm"},{"link_name":"mesh network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesh_network"},{"link_name":"VSAT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VSAT"},{"link_name":"satellite internet access","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Satellite_internet_access"}],"text":"Communication satellites are an important part of global networks. However, there are specific low Earth orbit (LEO) global satellite constellations, such as Iridium, Globalstar and Orbcomm, which are comprised by dozens of similar satellites which are put in orbit at regularly spaced positions and form a mesh network, sometimes sending and receiving information directly among themselves. Using VSAT technology, satellite internet access has become possible.","title":"Satellite global networks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ubiquity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wiktionary.org/wiki/ubiquity"},{"link_name":"roaming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roaming"},{"link_name":"peering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peering"}],"text":"It is estimated that 80% of the global mobile market uses the GSM standard, present in more than 212 countries and territories. Its ubiquity makes international roaming very common between mobile phone operators, enabling subscribers to use their phones in many parts of the world. In order to achieve this, these networks must be interconnected by way of peering arrangements, and therefore the GSM network is a truly global one.","title":"Mobile wireless networks"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"telex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telex"},{"link_name":"interconnection","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interconnection"},{"link_name":"telephony","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telephony"},{"link_name":"data networks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_network"},{"link_name":"VoIP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VoIP"},{"link_name":"Mobile communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mobile_communication"},{"link_name":"cell phones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_phone"},{"link_name":"emailing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Email"},{"link_name":"backbones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_backbone"},{"link_name":"fiber-optic cables","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiber-optic_cable"}],"text":"The telegraph and telex communication networks have been phased out, so interconnection among existing global networks arise at several points, such as between the voice telephony and digital data networks, and between these and satellite networks. 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This is currently achieved by fiber-optic cables.","title":"Network interconnection"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sociologist","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sociologist"},{"link_name":"Marshall McLuhan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marshall_McLuhan"},{"link_name":"society","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Society"},{"link_name":"global village","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_village_(term)"},{"link_name":"broadcast","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Broadcast"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"Victorian Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victorian_Internet"},{"link_name":"radiotelegraphy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radiotelegraphy"},{"link_name":"telex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telex"},{"link_name":"social interaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_interaction"},{"link_name":"usability","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usability"},{"link_name":"social impact","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet#Social_impact"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"}],"text":"The Canadian sociologist Marshall McLuhan was the first to forecast the huge impact of the matrix of global networks upon society, coining the term global village. His work, however, related to radio and television networks, which are broadcast (unidirectional) networks, thus predating the much larger impact of the internet.[2]Global networks have revolutionized human communication several times. The first to do so was the electrical telegraph. Its impact was so large that it has been dubbed the Victorian Internet. It was expanded many times in its coverage with the advent of radiotelegraphy, and with text messaging using telex machines.The Internet and mobile communication networks have made possible entirely new forms of social interaction, activities and organizing, thanks to its basic features such as widespread usability and access, and instant communication from any connected point to another. Thus, its social impact has been, and still is, enormous. Finally, the impact on governance have been significant facilitating the emergence of 'transnational policy networks' [3]","title":"Social and economic impact"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch

Somatosensory system

["1 Society and culture","2 Touch Communication","2.1 Tactile Signing","2.2 Emotion Communication","3 Somatosensory System overview","3.1 Sensory receptors","3.2 Somatosensory cortex","4 Structure","5 General somatosensory pathway","5.1 Tactile feedback","5.2 Balance","5.3 Fine touch and crude touch","5.4 Neural processing of social touch","5.5 Individual variation","6 Clinical significance","7 See also","8 Notes","9 References","10 Further reading","11 External links"]

Nerve system for sensing touch, temperature, body position, and pain "Touch" redirects here. For other uses, see Touch (disambiguation). This article has multiple issues. Please help improve it or discuss these issues on the talk page. (Learn how and when to remove these template messages) This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Somatosensory system" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (August 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article may be too technical for most readers to understand. Please help improve it to make it understandable to non-experts, without removing the technical details. (May 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Touch is a crucial means of receiving information. This photo shows tactile markings identifying stairs for visually impaired people. Touch is perceiving the environment using skin. Specialized receptors in the skin send signals to the brain indicating light and soft pressure, hot and cold, body position and pain. It is a subset of the sensory nervous system, which also includes the visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and vestibular senses. In physiology touch is called the Somatosensory system, a network of neural structures in the brain and body that produce the perception of touch (haptic perception), as well as temperature (thermoception), body position (proprioception), and pain (nociception). Somatosensation begins when mechano- and thermosensitive structures in the skin or internal organs sense physical stimuli such as pressure on the skin (see mechanotransduction, nociception). Activation of these structures, or receptors, leads to activation of peripheral sensory neurons that convey signals to the spinal cord as patterns of action potentials. Sensory information is then processed locally in the spinal cord to drive reflexes, and is also conveyed to the brain for conscious perception of touch and proprioception. Note, somatosensory information from the face and head enters the brain through peripheral sensory neurons in the cranial nerves, such as the trigeminal nerve. The neural pathways that go to the brain are structured such that information about the location of the physical stimulus is preserved. In this way, neighboring neurons in the somatosensory cerebral cortex in the brain represent nearby locations on the skin or in the body, creating a map, also called a cortical homunculus. Society and culture Main articles: Haptic technology and Haptic communication Haptic technology can provide touch sensation in virtual and real environments. In the field of speech therapy, tactile feedback can be used to treat speech disorders. Affectionate touch is present in everyday life and can take multiple forms. These actions, however, seem to carry specific functions even though the evolutionary benefit from such a wide range of behaviours is not entirely understood. Researchers investigated the expression patterns and characteristics of 8 different affectionate touch actions - embracing, holding, kissing, leaning, petting, squeezing, stroking, and tickling - in a self-report study. It was found that the affectionate touch has distinct target areas on the body, different associated affect, comfort-value, and expression frequency based on the type of touch action that is performed. Besides the rather obvious sensory consequences of touch, it can also affect higher-level aspects of cognition such as social judgements and decision-making. This effect might arise due to a physical-to-mental scaffolding process in early development, whereby sensorimotor experiences are linked to the emergence of conceptual knowledge. Such links might be maintained throughout life, and so touching an object may cue the physical sensation to its related conceptual processing. Indeed, it was found that different physical properties - weight, texture, and hardness - of a touched object can influence social judgement and decision-making. For example, participants described a passage of a social interaction to be harsher when they touched a hard wooden block instead of a soft blanket prior to the task. Building on these findings, the ability of touch to have an unconscious influence on such higher-order thoughts may provide a novel tool for marketing and communication strategies. Touch Communication Stub Image Tactile Signing Tactile signing is a common means of communication used by people with deafblindness. It is based on a sign language or another system of manual communication. Emotion Communication Humans can communicate specific emotions through touch alone including anger, fear, disgust, love, gratitude, and sympathy via touch at much-better-than-chance levels. Somatosensory System overview This diagram linearly (unless otherwise mentioned) tracks the projections of all known structures that allow for touch to their relevant endpoints in the human brain. Sensory receptors The four mechanoreceptors in the skin each respond to different stimuli for short or long periods. Merkel cell nerve endings are found in the basal epidermis and hair follicles; they react to low vibrations (5–15 Hz) and deep static touch such as shapes and edges. Due to having a small receptive field (extremely detailed information), they are used in areas like fingertips the most; they are not covered (shelled) and thus respond to pressures over long periods. Tactile corpuscles react to moderate vibration (10–50 Hz) and light touch. They are located in the dermal papillae; due to their reactivity, they are primarily located in fingertips and lips. They respond in quick action potentials, unlike Merkel nerve endings. They are responsible for the ability to read Braille and feel gentle stimuli. Pacinian corpuscles determine gross touch and distinguish rough and soft substances. They react in quick action potentials, especially to vibrations around 250 Hz (even up to centimeters away). They are the most sensitive to vibrations and have large receptor fields. Pacinian corpuscles react only to sudden stimuli so pressures like clothes that are always compressing their shape are quickly ignored. They have also been implicated in detecting the location of touch sensations on handheld tools. Bulbous corpuscles react slowly and respond to sustained skin stretch. They are responsible for the feeling of object slippage and play a major role in the kinesthetic sense and control of finger position and movement. Merkel and bulbous cells - slow-response - are myelinated; the rest - fast-response - are not. All of these receptors are activated upon pressures that squish their shape causing an action potential. Somatosensory cortex Gray's Anatomy, figure 759: the sensory tract, showing the pathway (blue) up the spinal cord, through the somatosensory thalamus, to S1 (Brodmann areas 3, 1, and 2), S2, and BA7 Gray's Anatomy, figure 717: detail showing path adjacent to the insular cortex (marked insula in this figure), adjacent to S1, S2, and BA7 The postcentral gyrus includes the primary somatosensory cortex (Brodmann areas 3, 2 and 1) collectively referred to as S1. BA3 receives the densest projections from the thalamus. BA3a is involved with the sense of relative position of neighboring body parts and amount of effort being used during movement. BA3b is responsible for distributing somatosensory information, it projects texture information to BA1 and shape and size information to BA2. Region S2 (secondary somatosensory cortex) divides into Area S2 and parietal ventral area. Area S2 is involved with specific touch perception and is thus integrally linked with the amygdala and hippocampus to encode and reinforce memories. Parietal ventral area is the somatosensory relay to the premotor cortex and somatosensory memory hub, BA5. BA5 is the topographically organized somato memory field and association area. BA1 processes texture info while BA2 processes size and shape information. Area S2 processes light touch, pain, visceral sensation, and tactile attention. S1 processes the remaining info (crude touch, pain, temperature). BA7 integrates visual and proprioceptive info to locate objects in space. The insular cortex (insula) plays a role in the sense of bodily-ownership, bodily self-awareness, and perception. Insula also plays a role in conveying info about sensual touch, pain, temperature, itch, and local oxygen status. Insula is a highly connected relay and thus is involved in numerous functions. Structure The somatosensory system is spread through all major parts of the vertebrate body. It consists both of sensory receptors and sensory neurons in the periphery (skin, muscle and organs for example), to deeper neurons within the central nervous system. General somatosensory pathway See also: Dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway All afferent touch/vibration info ascends the spinal cord via the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway via gracilis (T7 and below) or cuneatus (T6 and above). Cuneatus sends signals to the cochlear nucleus indirectly via spinal grey matter, this info is used in determining if a perceived sound is just villi noise/irritation. All fibers cross (left becomes right) in the medulla. A somatosensory pathway will typically have three neurons: first-order, second-order, and third-order. The first-order neuron is a type of pseudounipolar neuron and always has its cell body in the dorsal root ganglion of the spinal nerve with a peripheral axon innervating touch mechanoreceptors and a central axon synapsing on the second-order neuron. If the somatosensory pathway is in parts of the head or neck not covered by the cervical nerves, the first-order neuron will be the trigeminal nerve ganglia or the ganglia of other sensory cranial nerves). The second-order neuron has its cell body either in the spinal cord or in the brainstem. This neuron's ascending axons will cross (decussate) to the opposite side either in the spinal cord or in the brainstem. In the case of touch and certain types of pain, the third-order neuron has its cell body in the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus and ends in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe in the primary somatosensory cortex (or S1). Touch can result in many different physiological reactions. Here, a baby laughs at being tickled by an older sister. Photoreceptors, similar to those found in the retina of the eye, detect potentially damaging ultraviolet radiation (ultraviolet A specifically), inducing increased production of melanin by melanocytes. Thus tanning potentially offers the skin rapid protection from DNA damage and sunburn caused by ultraviolet radiation (DNA damage caused by ultraviolet B). However, whether this offers protection is debatable, because the amount of melanin released by this process is modest in comparison to the amounts released in response to DNA damage caused by ultraviolet B radiation. Tactile feedback The tactile feedback from proprioception is derived from the proprioceptors in the skin, muscles, and joints. Balance The receptor for the sense of balance resides in the vestibular system in the ear (for the three-dimensional orientation of the head, and by inference, the rest of the body). Balance is also mediated by the kinesthetic reflex fed by proprioception (which senses the relative location of the rest of the body to the head). In addition, proprioception estimates the location of objects which are sensed by the visual system (which provides confirmation of the place of those objects relative to the body), as input to the mechanical reflexes of the body. Fine touch and crude touch See also: Two-point discrimination The cortical homunculus, a map of somatosensory areas of the brain, was devised by Wilder Penfield. Fine touch (or discriminative touch) is a sensory modality that allows a subject to sense and localize touch. The form of touch where localization is not possible is known as crude touch. The posterior column–medial lemniscus pathway is the pathway responsible for the sending of fine touch information to the cerebral cortex of the brain. Crude touch (or non-discriminative touch) is a sensory modality that allows the subject to sense that something has touched them, without being able to localize where they were touched (contrasting "fine touch"). Its fibres are carried in the spinothalamic tract, unlike the fine touch, which is carried in the dorsal column. As fine touch normally works in parallel to crude touch, a person will be able to localize touch until fibres carrying fine touch (Posterior column–medial lemniscus pathway) have been disrupted. Then the subject will feel the touch, but be unable to identify where they were touched. Neural processing of social touch The somatosensory cortex encodes incoming sensory information from receptors all over the body. Affective touch is a type of sensory information that elicits an emotional reaction and is usually social in nature, such as a physical human touch. This type of information is actually coded differently than other sensory information. Intensity of affective touch is still encoded in the primary somatosensory cortex and is processed in a similar way to emotions invoked by sight and sound, as exemplified by the increase of adrenaline caused by the social touch of a loved one, as opposed to the physical inability to touch someone you do not love. Meanwhile, the feeling of pleasantness associated with affective touch activates the anterior cingulate cortex more than the primary somatosensory cortex. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data shows that increased blood-oxygen-level contrast (BOLD) signal in the anterior cingulate cortex as well as the prefrontal cortex is highly correlated with pleasantness scores of an affective touch. Inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the primary somatosensory cortex inhibits the perception of affective touch intensity, but not affective touch pleasantness. Therefore, the S1 is not directly involved in processing socially affective touch pleasantness, but still plays a role in discriminating touch location and intensity. Tactile interaction is important amongst some animals. Usually, tactile contact between two animals occurs through stroking, licking, or grooming. These behaviours are essential for the individual's social healthcare, as in the hypothalamus they induce the release of oxytocin, a hormone that decreases stress and anxiety and increases social bonding between animals. More precisely, the consistency of oxytocin neuron activation in rats stroked by humans has been observed, especially in the caudal paraventricular nucleus. It was found that this affiliative relationship induced by tactile contact is common no matter the relationship between the two individuals (mother-infant, male-female, human-animal). It has also been discovered that the level of oxytocin release through this behaviour correlates with the time course of social interaction as longer stroking induced a greater release of the hormone. The importance of somatosensory stimulation in social animals such as primates has also been observed. Grooming is part of the social interaction primates exert on their conspecifics. This interaction is required between individuals to maintain the affiliative relationship within the group, avoid internal conflict and increase group bonding. However, such social interaction requires the recognition of every member in the group. As such, it has been observed that the size of the neocortex is positively correlated with the size of the group, reflecting a limit to the number of recognizable members amongst which grooming can occur. Furthermore, the time course of grooming is related to vulnerability due to predation to which animals are exposed to whilst performing such social interaction. The relationship between tactile interaction, stress reduction and social bonding depends on the evaluation of risks that occur during conducting such behaviours in the wild life, and further research is required to unveil the connection between tactile caring and fitness level. Studies show a correlation between touch a soft or hard object and how a person thinks or even makes decisions and between the firmness of a touch and the evoking of gender stereotyping. Individual variation A variety of studies have measured and investigated the causes for differences between individuals in the sense of fine touch. One well-studied area is passive tactile spatial acuity, the ability to resolve the fine spatial details of an object pressed against the stationary skin. A variety of methods have been used to measure passive tactile spatial acuity, perhaps the most rigorous being the grating orientation task. In this task subjects identify the orientation of a grooved surface presented in two different orientations, which can be applied manually or with automated equipment. Many studies have shown a decline in passive tactile spatial acuity with age; the reasons for this decline are unknown, but may include loss of tactile receptors during normal aging. Remarkably, index finger passive tactile spatial acuity is better among adults with smaller index fingertips; this effect of finger size has been shown to underlie the better passive tactile spatial acuity of women, on average, compared to men. The density of tactile corpuscles, a type of mechanoreceptor that detects low-frequency vibrations, is greater in smaller fingers; the same may hold for Merkel cells, which detect the static indentations important for fine spatial acuity. Among children of the same age, those with smaller fingers also tend to have better tactile acuity. Many studies have shown that passive tactile spatial acuity is enhanced among blind individuals compared to sighted individuals of the same age, possibly because of cross modal plasticity in the cerebral cortex of blind individuals. Perhaps also due to cortical plasticity, individuals who have been blind since birth reportedly consolidate tactile information more rapidly than sighted people. Clinical significance Main article: Somatosensory disorder A somatosensory deficiency may be caused by a peripheral neuropathy involving peripheral nerves of the somatosensory system. This may present as numbness or paresthesia. See also Allochiria Cell signalling Golgi tendon organ Haptic communication Haptic perception Interoception Muscle spindle Molecular cellular cognition Phantom limb Physical intimacy Sensory maps Special senses Supramarginal gyrus Tactile illusion Vibratese, method of communication through touch Tactile imaging Notes References ^ Sherman, Carl (August 12, 2019). "The Senses: The Somatosensory system". Dana Foundation. New York. ^ Gabriel Robles-De-La-Torre. "International Society for Haptics: Haptic technology, an animated explanation". Isfh.org. Archived from the original on 2010-03-07. Retrieved 2010-02-26. ^ Schirmer, Annett; Chiu, Man Hey; Croy, Ilona (September 2021). "More than one kind: Different sensory signatures and functions divide affectionate touch". Emotion. 21 (6): 1268–1280. doi:10.1037/emo0000966. ISSN 1931-1516. PMID 34435843. ^ Williams, Lawrence E.; Huang, Julie Y.; Bargh, John A. (2009-12-01). "The Scaffolded Mind: Higher mental processes are grounded in early experience of the physical world". European Journal of Social Psychology. 39 (7): 1257–1267. doi:10.1002/ejsp.665. ISSN 0046-2772. PMC 2799930. PMID 20046813. ^ Ackerman, Joshua M.; Nocera, Christopher C.; Bargh, John A. (2010-06-25). "Incidental haptic sensations influence social judgments and decisions". Science. 328 (5986): 1712–1715. Bibcode:2010Sci...328.1712A. doi:10.1126/science.1189993. ISSN 1095-9203. PMC 3005631. PMID 20576894. ^ Hertenstein, Matthew J.; Keltner, Dacher; App, Betsy; Bulleit, Brittany A.; Jaskolka, Ariane R. (August 2006). "Touch communicates distinct emotions". Emotion. 6 (3): 528–533. doi:10.1037/1528-3542.6.3.528. ISSN 1528-3542. PMID 16938094. ^ Sima, Richard (23 December 2019). "The Brain Senses Touch beyond the Body". Scientific American. Retrieved 16 February 2020. ^ Paré, Michel; Behets, Catherine; Cornu, Olivier (2003-02-10). "Paucity of presumptive ruffini corpuscles in the index finger pad of humans". Journal of Comparative Neurology. 456 (3): 260–266. doi:10.1002/cne.10519. ISSN 0021-9967. PMID 12528190. S2CID 13396416. ^ Scheibert J, Leurent S, Prevost A, Debrégeas G (March 2009). "The role of fingerprints in the coding of tactile information probed with a biomimetic sensor". Science. 323 (5920): 1503–6. arXiv:0911.4885. Bibcode:2009Sci...323.1503S. doi:10.1126/science.1166467. PMID 19179493. S2CID 14459552. ^ Biswas A, Manivannan M, Srinivasan MA (2015). "Vibrotactile sensitivity threshold: nonlinear stochastic mechanotransduction model of the Pacinian Corpuscle". IEEE Transactions on Haptics. 8 (1): 102–13. doi:10.1109/TOH.2014.2369422. PMID 25398183. S2CID 15326972. ^ Paré, Michel; Elde, Robert; Mazurkiewicz, Joseph E.; Smith, Allan M.; Rice, Frank L. (2001-09-15). "The Meissner Corpuscle Revised: A Multiafferented Mechanoreceptor with Nociceptor Immunochemical Properties". The Journal of Neuroscience. 21 (18): 7236–7246. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.21-18-07236.2001. ISSN 0270-6474. PMC 6763005. PMID 11549734. ^ Hashim IH, Kumamoto S, Takemura K, Maeno T, Okuda S, Mori Y (November 2017). "Tactile Evaluation Feedback System for Multi-Layered Structure Inspired by Human Tactile Perception Mechanism". Sensors. 17 (11): 2601. Bibcode:2017Senso..17.2601H. doi:10.3390/s17112601. PMC 5712818. PMID 29137128. ^ Buccino G, Binkofski F, Fink GR, Fadiga L, Fogassi L, Gallese V, Seitz RJ, Zilles K, Rizzolatti G, Freund HJ (January 2001). "Action observation activates premotor and parietal areas in a somatotopic manner: an fMRI study". The European Journal of Neuroscience. 13 (2): 400–4. doi:10.1111/j.1460-9568.2001.01385.x. PMID 11168545. S2CID 107700. ^ Seelke AM, Padberg JJ, Disbrow E, Purnell SM, Recanzone G, Krubitzer L (August 2012). "Topographic Maps within Brodmann's Area 5 of macaque monkeys". Cerebral Cortex. 22 (8): 1834–50. doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr257. PMC 3388892. PMID 21955920. ^ Geyer S, Schleicher A, Zilles K (July 1999). "Areas 3a, 3b, and 1 of Human Primary Somatosensory Cortex". NeuroImage. 10 (1): 63–83. doi:10.1006/nimg.1999.0440. PMID 10385582. S2CID 22498933. ^ Disbrow E (June 2002). "Thalamocortical connections of the parietal ventral area (PV) and the second somatosensory area (S2) in macaque monkeys". Thalamus & Related Systems. 1 (4): 289–302. doi:10.1016/S1472-9288(02)00003-1. ^ Saladin KS. Anatomy and Physiology 3rd edd. 2004. McGraw-Hill, New York. ^ "Second Order Neuron". Encyclopedia of Pain. Springer. 2013. p. 3448. doi:10.1007/978-3-642-28753-4_201964. ISBN 978-3-642-28752-7. Retrieved 2 December 2022. ^ a b Zukerman, Wendy. "Skin 'sees' the light to protect against sunshine". newscientist.com. New Scientist. Retrieved 2015-01-22. ^ Proske U, Gandevia SC (October 2012). "The proprioceptive senses: their roles in signaling body shape, body position and movement, and muscle force". Physiological Reviews. 92 (4): 1651–97. doi:10.1152/physrev.00048.2011. PMID 23073629. S2CID 1512089. ^ Proske U, Gandevia SC (September 2009). "The kinaesthetic senses". The Journal of Physiology. 587 (Pt 17): 4139–46. doi:10.1113/jphysiol.2009.175372. PMC 2754351. PMID 19581378. ^ a b Case LK, Laubacher CM, Olausson H, Wang B, Spagnolo PA, Bushnell MC (May 2016). "Encoding of Touch Intensity But Not Pleasantness in Human Primary Somatosensory Cortex". The Journal of Neuroscience. 36 (21): 5850–60. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1130-15.2016. PMC 4879201. PMID 27225773. ^ Knobloch, H. Sophie; Grinevich, Valery (2014). "Evolution of oxytocin pathways in the brain of vertebrates". Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience. 8: 31. doi:10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00031. ISSN 1662-5153. PMC 3924577. PMID 24592219. ^ Okabe, Shota; Takayanagi, Yuki; Yoshida, Masahide; Onaka, Tatsushi (2020-06-04). "Gentle stroking stimuli induce affiliative responsiveness to humans in male rats". Scientific Reports. 10 (1): 9135. Bibcode:2020NatSR..10.9135O. doi:10.1038/s41598-020-66078-7. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 7272613. PMID 32499488. ^ Tang, Yan; Benusiglio, Diego; Lefevre, Arthur; Hilfiger, Louis; Althammer, Ferdinand; Bludau, Anna; Hagiwara, Daisuke; Baudon, Angel; Darbon, Pascal; Schimmer, Jonas; Kirchner, Matthew K.; Roy, Ranjan K.; Wang, Shiyi; Eliava, Marina; Wagner, Shlomo (September 2020). "Social touch promotes interfemale communication via activation of parvocellular oxytocin neurons" (PDF). Nature Neuroscience. 23 (9): 1125–1137. doi:10.1038/s41593-020-0674-y. ISSN 1546-1726. PMID 32719563. S2CID 220810651. ^ a b Lehmann, J.; Korstjens, A. H.; Dunbar, R. I. M. (2007-12-01). "Group size, grooming and social cohesion in primates". Animal Behaviour. 74 (6): 1617–1629. doi:10.1016/j.anbehav.2006.10.025. ISSN 0003-3472. S2CID 14866172. ^ "Just a Touch Can Influence Thoughts and Decisions". Live Science. 24 June 2010. ^ "Firmness of Touch May Evoke Gender Stereotyping". Live Science. 12 January 2011. ^ Van Boven, R. W.; Johnson, K. O. (1 December 1994). "The limit of tactile spatial resolution in humans: Grating orientation discrimination at the lip, tongue, and finger". Neurology. 44 (12): 2361–6. doi:10.1212/WNL.44.12.2361. PMID 7991127. S2CID 32255147. ^ Craig JC (1999). "Grating orientation as a measure of tactile spatial acuity". Somatosensory & Motor Research. 16 (3): 197–206. doi:10.1080/08990229970456. PMID 10527368. ^ Goldreich D, Wong M, Peters RM, Kanics IM (June 2009). "A Tactile Automated Passive-Finger Stimulator (TAPS)". Journal of Visualized Experiments (28). doi:10.3791/1374. PMC 2726582. PMID 19578327. ^ Stevens JC, Alvarez-Reeves M, Dipietro L, Mack GW, Green BG (2003). "Decline of tactile acuity in aging: a study of body site, blood flow, and lifetime habits of smoking and physical activity". Somatosensory & Motor Research. 20 (3–4): 271–9. doi:10.1080/08990220310001622997. PMID 14675966. S2CID 19729552. ^ Manning H, Tremblay F (2006). "Age differences in tactile pattern recognition at the fingertip". Somatosensory & Motor Research. 23 (3–4): 147–55. doi:10.1080/08990220601093460. PMID 17178550. S2CID 24407285. ^ a b Goldreich D, Kanics IM (April 2003). "Tactile acuity is enhanced in blindness". The Journal of Neuroscience. 23 (8): 3439–45. doi:10.1523/jneurosci.23-08-03439.2003. PMC 6742312. PMID 12716952. ^ a b c Peters RM, Hackeman E, Goldreich D (December 2009). "Diminutive digits discern delicate details: fingertip size and the sex difference in tactile spatial acuity". The Journal of Neuroscience. 29 (50): 15756–61. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.3684-09.2009. PMC 3849661. PMID 20016091. ^ Dillon YK, Haynes J, Henneberg M (November 2001). "The relationship of the number of Meissner's corpuscles to dermatoglyphic characters and finger size". Journal of Anatomy. 199 (Pt 5): 577–84. doi:10.1046/j.1469-7580.2001.19950577.x. PMC 1468368. PMID 11760888. ^ Peters RM, Goldreich D (2013). "Tactile spatial acuity in childhood: effects of age and fingertip size". PLOS ONE. 8 (12): e84650. Bibcode:2013PLoSO...884650P. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0084650. PMC 3891499. PMID 24454612. ^ Stevens, Joseph C.; Foulke, Emerson; Patterson, Matthew Q. (1996). "Tactile acuity, aging, and braille reading in long-term blindness". Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied. 2 (2): 91–106. doi:10.1037/1076-898X.2.2.91. ^ Van Boven RW, Hamilton RH, Kauffman T, Keenan JP, Pascual-Leone A (June 2000). "Tactile spatial resolution in blind braille readers". Neurology. 54 (12): 2230–6. doi:10.1212/wnl.54.12.2230. PMID 10881245. S2CID 12053536. ^ Goldreich D, Kanics IM (November 2006). "Performance of blind and sighted humans on a tactile grating detection task". Perception & Psychophysics. 68 (8): 1363–71. doi:10.3758/bf03193735. PMID 17378422. ^ Wong M, Gnanakumaran V, Goldreich D (May 2011). "Tactile spatial acuity enhancement in blindness: evidence for experience-dependent mechanisms". The Journal of Neuroscience. 31 (19): 7028–37. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.6461-10.2011. PMC 6703211. PMID 21562264. ^ Bhattacharjee A, Ye AJ, Lisak JA, Vargas MG, Goldreich D (October 2010). "Vibrotactile masking experiments reveal accelerated somatosensory processing in congenitally blind braille readers". The Journal of Neuroscience. 30 (43): 14288–98. doi:10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1447-10.2010. PMC 3449316. PMID 20980584. Further reading Boron WF, Boulpaep EL (2003). Medical Physiology. Saunders. pp. 352–358. ISBN 0-7216-3256-4. Flanagan, J.R., Lederman, S.J. Neurobiology: Feeling bumps and holes, News and Views, Nature, 2001 July 26;412(6845):389-91. Hayward V, Astley OR, Cruz-Hernandez M, Grant D, Robles-De-La-Torre G (2004). "Haptic interfaces and devices" (PDF). Sensor Review. 24 (1): 16–29. doi:10.1108/02602280410515770. S2CID 3136266. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-07-18. Retrieved 2006-10-03. Purves, Dale (2012). Neuroscience, Fifth Edition. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. pp. 202–203. ISBN 978-0-87893-695-3. Robles-De-La-Torre G, Hayward V (July 2001). "Force can overcome object geometry in the perception of shape through active touch" (PDF). Nature. 412 (6845): 445–8. Bibcode:2001Natur.412..445R. doi:10.1038/35086588. PMID 11473320. S2CID 4413295. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-10-03. Retrieved 2006-10-03. Robles-De-La-Torre, G (2006). "The Importance of the Sense of Touch in Virtual and Real Environments" (PDF). IEEE MultiMedia. 13 (3): 24–30. doi:10.1109/mmul.2006.69. S2CID 16153497. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-24. Retrieved 2006-10-07. Grunwald, M. (Ed.) Human Haptic Perception – Basics and Applications. Boston/Basel/Berlin: Birkhäuser, 2008, ISBN 978-3-7643-7611-6 Encyclopedia of Touch Scholarpedia Expert articles External links Media related to Somatosensation at Wikimedia Commons Anatomy of Touch. Factual documentary series by BBC Radio 4. vteSensation and perceptionProcesses and conceptsSensation Stimulus Sensory receptor Transduction (physiology) Sensory processing Active sensory system Perception Multimodal integration Awareness Consciousness Cognition Feeling Motion perception Qualia HumanExternalSensory organs Eyes Ears Inner ear Nose Mouth Skin Sensory systems Visual system (sense of vision) Auditory system (sense of hearing) Vestibular system (sense of balance) Olfactory system (sense of smell) Gustatory system (sense of taste) Somatosensory system (sense of touch) Sensory cranial and spinal nerves Optic (II) Vestibulocochlear (VIII) Olfactory (I) Facial (VII) Glossopharyngeal (IX) Trigeminal (V) Spinal Cerebral cortices Visual cortex Auditory cortex Vestibular cortex Olfactory cortex Gustatory cortex Somatosensory cortex Perceptions Visual perception (vision) Auditory perception (hearing) Equilibrioception (balance) Olfaction (smell) Gustation (taste or flavor) Touch mechanoreception nociception (pain) thermoception Internal Proprioception Hunger Thirst Suffocation Nausea NonhumanAnimal Electroreception Magnetoreception Echolocation Infrared sensing in vampire bats Infrared sensing in snakes Surface wave detection Frog hearing Toad vision Plant Photomorphogenesis Gravitropism Artificial Robotic sensing Computer vision Machine hearing Types of sensory receptorsMechanoreceptor Baroreceptor Mechanotransduction Lamellar corpuscle Tactile corpuscle Merkel nerve ending Bulbous corpuscle Campaniform sensilla Slit sensilla Stretch receptor Photoreceptor Photoreceptor cell Cone cell Rod cell ipRGC Photopigment Aureochrome Chemoreceptor Taste receptor Olfactory receptor Osmoreceptor Thermoreceptor Cilium TRP channels Nociceptor Nociceptin receptor Juxtacapillary receptor DisordersVisual Visual impairment Alice in Wonderland syndrome Amaurosis Anopsia Color blindness Diplopia Hemeralopia and Nyctalopia Optic neuropathy Oscillopsia Palinopsia Papilledema Photophobia Photopsia Polyopia Scotoma Stereoblindness Visual snow Auditory Amblyaudia Auditory agnosia Auditory hallucination Auditory verbal agnosia Cortical deafness Hearing loss Microwave auditory effect Music-specific disorders Palinopsia Spatial hearing loss Tinnitus Vestibular Vertigo BPPV Labyrinthine fistula Labyrinthitis Ménière's disease Olfactory Anosmia Dysosmia Hyperosmia Hyposmia Olfactory reference syndrome Parosmia Phantosmia Gustatory Ageusia Hypergeusia Hypogeusia Parageusia Tactile Astereognosis CMT disease Formication Hyperesthesia Hypoesthesia Paresthesia Tactile hallucination Nociception (pain) Hyperalgesia Hypoalgesia Pain dissociation Phantom pain Proprioception Asomatognosia Phantom limb syndrome Somatoparaphrenia Supernumerary phantom limb Multimodal Aura Agnosia Allochiria Derealization Hallucination HSAN Sensory processing disorder Synesthesia Biases and errors Pareidolia vteSensory receptorsTouch Mechanoreceptor Vibration Lamellar corpuscle Light touch Tactile corpuscle Pressure Merkel nerve ending Stretch Bulbous corpuscle Pain Free nerve ending Nociceptors Temperature Thermoreceptors Proprioception Golgi organ Muscle spindle Intrafusal muscle fiber Nuclear chain fiber Nuclear bag fiber Other Hair cells Baroreceptor Authority control databases: National Germany

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Touch (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Touch_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tactile_markings_stairs_for_visually_impaired.jpg"},{"link_name":"sensory nervous system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_nervous_system"},{"link_name":"visual","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_system"},{"link_name":"auditory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Auditory_system"},{"link_name":"olfactory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olfactory"},{"link_name":"gustatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gustatory"},{"link_name":"vestibular","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vestibular_system"},{"link_name":"physiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physiology"},{"link_name":"neural structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervous_system"},{"link_name":"haptic perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptic_perception"},{"link_name":"thermoception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoception"},{"link_name":"proprioception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception"},{"link_name":"pain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pain"},{"link_name":"nociception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nociception"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"mechano-","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanoreceptor"},{"link_name":"thermosensitive structures","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermoreceptor"},{"link_name":"mechanotransduction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanotransduction"},{"link_name":"peripheral sensory neurons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_root_ganglion"},{"link_name":"spinal cord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cord"},{"link_name":"action potentials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potential"},{"link_name":"locally in the spinal cord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_horn_of_spinal_cord"},{"link_name":"conveyed to the brain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_column%E2%80%93medial_lemniscus_pathway"},{"link_name":"cranial nerves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranial_nerve"},{"link_name":"trigeminal nerve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigeminal_nerve"},{"link_name":"somatosensory cerebral cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortex_(anatomy)"},{"link_name":"cortical homunculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortical_homunculus"}],"text":"\"Touch\" redirects here. For other uses, see Touch (disambiguation).Touch is a crucial means of receiving information. This photo shows tactile markings identifying stairs for visually impaired people.Touch is perceiving the environment using skin. Specialized receptors in the skin send signals to the brain indicating light and soft pressure, hot and cold, body position and pain. It is a subset of the sensory nervous system, which also includes the visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory and vestibular senses.In physiology touch is called the Somatosensory system, a network of neural structures in the brain and body that produce the perception of touch (haptic perception), as well as temperature (thermoception), body position (proprioception), and pain (nociception).[1]Somatosensation begins when mechano- and thermosensitive structures in the skin or internal organs sense physical stimuli such as pressure on the skin (see mechanotransduction, nociception). Activation of these structures, or receptors, leads to activation of peripheral sensory neurons that convey signals to the spinal cord as patterns of action potentials. Sensory information is then processed locally in the spinal cord to drive reflexes, and is also conveyed to the brain for conscious perception of touch and proprioception. Note, somatosensory information from the face and head enters the brain through peripheral sensory neurons in the cranial nerves, such as the trigeminal nerve.The neural pathways that go to the brain are structured such that information about the location of the physical stimulus is preserved. In this way, neighboring neurons in the somatosensory cerebral cortex in the brain represent nearby locations on the skin or in the body, creating a map, also called a cortical homunculus.","title":"Somatosensory system"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Haptic technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptic_technology"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"speech therapy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speech_therapy"},{"link_name":"speech disorders","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Communication_disorder#Speech_disorders"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Haptic technology can provide touch sensation in virtual and real environments.[2] In the field of speech therapy, tactile feedback can be used to treat speech disorders.[citation needed]Affectionate touch is present in everyday life and can take multiple forms. These actions, however, seem to carry specific functions even though the evolutionary benefit from such a wide range of behaviours is not entirely understood. Researchers investigated the expression patterns and characteristics of 8 different affectionate touch actions - embracing, holding, kissing, leaning, petting, squeezing, stroking, and tickling - in a self-report study.[3] It was found that the affectionate touch has distinct target areas on the body, different associated affect, comfort-value, and expression frequency based on the type of touch action that is performed.Besides the rather obvious sensory consequences of touch, it can also affect higher-level aspects of cognition such as social judgements and decision-making. This effect might arise due to a physical-to-mental scaffolding process in early development, whereby sensorimotor experiences are linked to the emergence of conceptual knowledge.[4] Such links might be maintained throughout life, and so touching an object may cue the physical sensation to its related conceptual processing. Indeed, it was found that different physical properties - weight, texture, and hardness - of a touched object can influence social judgement and decision-making.[5] For example, participants described a passage of a social interaction to be harsher when they touched a hard wooden block instead of a soft blanket prior to the task. Building on these findings, the ability of touch to have an unconscious influence on such higher-order thoughts may provide a novel tool for marketing and communication strategies.","title":"Society and culture"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Somatosensory_System.png"}],"text":"Stub Image","title":"Touch Communication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Tactile signing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactile_signing"}],"sub_title":"Tactile Signing","text":"Tactile signing is a common means of communication used by people with deafblindness. It is based on a sign language or another system of manual communication.","title":"Touch Communication"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"}],"sub_title":"Emotion Communication","text":"Humans can communicate specific emotions through touch alone including anger, fear, disgust, love, gratitude, and sympathy via touch at much-better-than-chance levels.[6]","title":"Touch Communication"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Somatosensory_System.png"}],"text":"This diagram linearly (unless otherwise mentioned) tracks the projections of all known structures that allow for touch to their relevant endpoints in the human brain.","title":"Somatosensory System overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"mechanoreceptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanoreceptor"},{"link_name":"skin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human_skin"},{"link_name":"Merkel cell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merkel_cell"},{"link_name":"epidermis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epidermis"},{"link_name":"hair follicles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hair_follicles"},{"link_name":"Hz","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hertz"},{"link_name":"Tactile corpuscles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactile_corpuscle"},{"link_name":"dermal papillae","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dermal_papillae"},{"link_name":"action potentials","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Action_potentials"},{"link_name":"Pacinian corpuscles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacinian_corpuscle"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"Bulbous corpuscles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulbous_corpuscle"},{"link_name":"kinesthetic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception"},{"link_name":"myelinated","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Myelinated"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"sub_title":"Sensory receptors","text":"The four mechanoreceptors in the skin each respond to different stimuli for short or long periods.Merkel cell nerve endings are found in the basal epidermis and hair follicles; they react to low vibrations (5–15 Hz) and deep static touch such as shapes and edges. Due to having a small receptive field (extremely detailed information), they are used in areas like fingertips the most; they are not covered (shelled) and thus respond to pressures over long periods.Tactile corpuscles react to moderate vibration (10–50 Hz) and light touch. They are located in the dermal papillae; due to their reactivity, they are primarily located in fingertips and lips. They respond in quick action potentials, unlike Merkel nerve endings. They are responsible for the ability to read Braille and feel gentle stimuli.Pacinian corpuscles determine gross touch and distinguish rough and soft substances. They react in quick action potentials, especially to vibrations around 250 Hz (even up to centimeters away). They are the most sensitive to vibrations and have large receptor fields. Pacinian corpuscles react only to sudden stimuli so pressures like clothes that are always compressing their shape are quickly ignored. They have also been implicated in detecting the location of touch sensations on handheld tools.[7]Bulbous corpuscles react slowly and respond to sustained skin stretch. They are responsible for the feeling of object slippage and play a major role in the kinesthetic sense and control of finger position and movement. Merkel and bulbous cells - slow-response - are myelinated; the rest - fast-response - are not. All of these receptors are activated upon pressures that squish their shape causing an action potential.[8][9][10][11]","title":"Somatosensory System overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray759.png"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Gray717.png"},{"link_name":"insular cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_cortex"},{"link_name":"primary somatosensory cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex"},{"link_name":"Brodmann areas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area"},{"link_name":"3, 2 and 1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area#BAsByAreaNumber"},{"link_name":"BA3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex#Brodmann_areas_3,_1_and_2"},{"link_name":"thalamus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thalamus"},{"link_name":"secondary somatosensory cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Secondary_somatosensory_cortex"},{"link_name":"BA5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area_5"},{"link_name":"BA1","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex#Brodmann_areas_3,_1_and_2"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid29137128-12"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid11168545-13"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-pmid21955920-14"},{"link_name":"BA7","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brodmann_area_7"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"insular cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Insular_cortex"}],"sub_title":"Somatosensory cortex","text":"Gray's Anatomy, figure 759: the sensory tract, showing the pathway (blue) up the spinal cord, through the somatosensory thalamus, to S1 (Brodmann areas 3, 1, and 2), S2, and BA7Gray's Anatomy, figure 717: detail showing path adjacent to the insular cortex (marked insula in this figure), adjacent to S1, S2, and BA7The postcentral gyrus includes the primary somatosensory cortex (Brodmann areas 3, 2 and 1) collectively referred to as S1.BA3 receives the densest projections from the thalamus. BA3a is involved with the sense of relative position of neighboring body parts and amount of effort being used during movement. BA3b is responsible for distributing somatosensory information, it projects texture information to BA1 and shape and size information to BA2.Region S2 (secondary somatosensory cortex) divides into Area S2 and parietal ventral area. Area S2 is involved with specific touch perception and is thus integrally linked with the amygdala and hippocampus to encode and reinforce memories.Parietal ventral area is the somatosensory relay to the premotor cortex and somatosensory memory hub, BA5.BA5 is the topographically organized somato memory field and association area.BA1 processes texture info while BA2 processes size and shape information.Area S2 processes light touch, pain, visceral sensation, and tactile attention.S1 processes the remaining info (crude touch, pain, temperature).[12][13][14]BA7 integrates visual and proprioceptive info to locate objects in space.[15][16]The insular cortex (insula) plays a role in the sense of bodily-ownership, bodily self-awareness, and perception. Insula also plays a role in conveying info about sensual touch, pain, temperature, itch, and local oxygen status. Insula is a highly connected relay and thus is involved in numerous functions.","title":"Somatosensory System overview"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vertebrate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vertebrate"},{"link_name":"sensory receptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_receptor"},{"link_name":"sensory neurons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_neuron"},{"link_name":"central nervous system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Central_nervous_system"}],"text":"The somatosensory system is spread through all major parts of the vertebrate body. It consists both of sensory receptors and sensory neurons in the periphery (skin, muscle and organs for example), to deeper neurons within the central nervous system.","title":"Structure"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_column%E2%80%93medial_lemniscus_pathway"},{"link_name":"dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_column-medial_lemniscus_pathway"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Springer-18"},{"link_name":"pseudounipolar neuron","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pseudounipolar_neuron"},{"link_name":"cell body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_body"},{"link_name":"dorsal root ganglion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dorsal_root_ganglion"},{"link_name":"spinal nerve","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_nerve"},{"link_name":"axon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axon"},{"link_name":"mechanoreceptors","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechanoreceptor"},{"link_name":"trigeminal nerve ganglia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trigeminal_ganglion"},{"link_name":"cranial nerves","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cranial_nerves"},{"link_name":"cell body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_body"},{"link_name":"axons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Axons"},{"link_name":"decussate","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Decussate"},{"link_name":"spinal cord","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinal_cord"},{"link_name":"brainstem","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brainstem"},{"link_name":"cell body","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_body"},{"link_name":"ventral posterior nucleus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ventral_posterior_nucleus"},{"link_name":"postcentral gyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postcentral_gyrus"},{"link_name":"parietal lobe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parietal_lobe"},{"link_name":"primary somatosensory cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primary_somatosensory_cortex"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Tickle.jpg"},{"link_name":"tickled","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tickling"},{"link_name":"retina","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Retina"},{"link_name":"eye","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eye"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_A"},{"link_name":"melanin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanin"},{"link_name":"melanocytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melanocytes"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_Scientist-19"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet radiation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_radiation"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_B"},{"link_name":"ultraviolet B","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ultraviolet_B"},{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-New_Scientist-19"}],"text":"See also: Dorsal column–medial lemniscus pathwayAll afferent touch/vibration info ascends the spinal cord via the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway via gracilis (T7 and below) or cuneatus (T6 and above). Cuneatus sends signals to the cochlear nucleus indirectly via spinal grey matter, this info is used in determining if a perceived sound is just villi noise/irritation. All fibers cross (left becomes right) in the medulla.A somatosensory pathway will typically have three neurons:[17] first-order, second-order, and third-order.[18]The first-order neuron is a type of pseudounipolar neuron and always has its cell body in the dorsal root ganglion of the spinal nerve with a peripheral axon innervating touch mechanoreceptors and a central axon synapsing on the second-order neuron. If the somatosensory pathway is in parts of the head or neck not covered by the cervical nerves, the first-order neuron will be the trigeminal nerve ganglia or the ganglia of other sensory cranial nerves).\nThe second-order neuron has its cell body either in the spinal cord or in the brainstem. This neuron's ascending axons will cross (decussate) to the opposite side either in the spinal cord or in the brainstem.\nIn the case of touch and certain types of pain, the third-order neuron has its cell body in the ventral posterior nucleus of the thalamus and ends in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe in the primary somatosensory cortex (or S1).Touch can result in many different physiological reactions. Here, a baby laughs at being tickled by an older sister.Photoreceptors, similar to those found in the retina of the eye, detect potentially damaging ultraviolet radiation (ultraviolet A specifically), inducing increased production of melanin by melanocytes.[19] Thus tanning potentially offers the skin rapid protection from DNA damage and sunburn caused by ultraviolet radiation (DNA damage caused by ultraviolet B). However, whether this offers protection is debatable, because the amount of melanin released by this process is modest in comparison to the amounts released in response to DNA damage caused by ultraviolet B radiation.[19]","title":"General somatosensory pathway"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"proprioception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Proske2012-20"}],"sub_title":"Tactile feedback","text":"The tactile feedback from proprioception is derived from the proprioceptors in the skin, muscles, and joints.[20]","title":"General somatosensory pathway"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"vestibular system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Equilibrioception#Vestibular_system"},{"link_name":"proprioception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprioception"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Proske2009-21"},{"link_name":"visual system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_system"}],"sub_title":"Balance","text":"The receptor for the sense of balance resides in the vestibular system in the ear (for the three-dimensional orientation of the head, and by inference, the rest of the body). Balance is also mediated by the kinesthetic reflex fed by proprioception (which senses the relative location of the rest of the body to the head).[21] In addition, proprioception estimates the location of objects which are sensed by the visual system (which provides confirmation of the place of those objects relative to the body), as input to the mechanical reflexes of the body.","title":"General somatosensory pathway"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Two-point discrimination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-point_discrimination"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Sensory_Homunculus.png"},{"link_name":"cortical homunculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cortical_homunculus"},{"link_name":"Wilder Penfield","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilder_Penfield"},{"link_name":"posterior column–medial lemniscus pathway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_column%E2%80%93medial_lemniscus_pathway"},{"link_name":"cerebral cortex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cerebral_cortex"},{"link_name":"spinothalamic tract","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spinothalamic_tract"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-22"},{"link_name":"Posterior column–medial lemniscus pathway","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Posterior_column%E2%80%93medial_lemniscus_pathway"}],"sub_title":"Fine touch and crude touch","text":"See also: Two-point discriminationThe cortical homunculus, a map of somatosensory areas of the brain, was devised by Wilder Penfield.Fine touch (or discriminative touch) is a sensory modality that allows a subject to sense and localize touch. The form of touch where localization is not possible is known as crude touch. The posterior column–medial lemniscus pathway is the pathway responsible for the sending of fine touch information to the cerebral cortex of the brain.Crude touch (or non-discriminative touch) is a sensory modality that allows the subject to sense that something has touched them, without being able to localize where they were touched (contrasting \"fine touch\"). Its fibres are carried in the spinothalamic tract, unlike the fine touch, which is carried in the dorsal column.\n[22]\nAs fine touch normally works in parallel to crude touch, a person will be able to localize touch until fibres carrying fine touch (Posterior column–medial lemniscus pathway) have been disrupted. Then the subject will feel the touch, but be unable to identify where they were touched.","title":"General somatosensory pathway"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Functional magnetic resonance imaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_magnetic_resonance_imaging"},{"link_name":"transcranial magnetic stimulation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transcranial_magnetic_stimulation"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ReferenceA-22"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"clarification needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-26"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-:0-26"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-28"}],"sub_title":"Neural processing of social touch","text":"The somatosensory cortex encodes incoming sensory information from receptors all over the body. Affective touch is a type of sensory information that elicits an emotional reaction and is usually social in nature, such as a physical human touch. This type of information is actually coded differently than other sensory information. Intensity of affective touch is still encoded in the primary somatosensory cortex and is processed in a similar way to emotions invoked by sight and sound, as exemplified by the increase of adrenaline caused by the social touch of a loved one, as opposed to the physical inability to touch someone you do not love.Meanwhile, the feeling of pleasantness associated with affective touch activates the anterior cingulate cortex more than the primary somatosensory cortex. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) data shows that increased blood-oxygen-level contrast (BOLD) signal in the anterior cingulate cortex as well as the prefrontal cortex is highly correlated with pleasantness scores of an affective touch. Inhibitory transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) of the primary somatosensory cortex inhibits the perception of affective touch intensity, but not affective touch pleasantness. Therefore, the S1 is not directly involved in processing socially affective touch pleasantness, but still plays a role in discriminating touch location and intensity.[22]Tactile interaction is important amongst some animals. Usually, tactile contact between two animals occurs through stroking, licking, or grooming. These behaviours are essential for the individual's social healthcare, as in the hypothalamus they induce the release of oxytocin, a hormone that decreases stress and anxiety and increases social bonding between animals.[23][clarification needed]More precisely, the consistency of oxytocin neuron activation in rats stroked by humans has been observed, especially in the caudal paraventricular nucleus.[24] It was found that this affiliative relationship induced by tactile contact is common no matter the relationship between the two individuals (mother-infant, male-female, human-animal). It has also been discovered that the level of oxytocin release through this behaviour correlates with the time course of social interaction as longer stroking induced a greater release of the hormone.[25]The importance of somatosensory stimulation in social animals such as primates has also been observed. Grooming is part of the social interaction primates exert on their conspecifics. This interaction is required between individuals to maintain the affiliative relationship within the group, avoid internal conflict and increase group bonding.[26] However, such social interaction requires the recognition of every member in the group. As such, it has been observed that the size of the neocortex is positively correlated with the size of the group, reflecting a limit to the number of recognizable members amongst which grooming can occur.[26] Furthermore, the time course of grooming is related to vulnerability due to predation to which animals are exposed to whilst performing such social interaction. The relationship between tactile interaction, stress reduction and social bonding depends on the evaluation of risks that occur during conducting such behaviours in the wild life, and further research is required to unveil the connection between tactile caring and fitness level.Studies show a correlation between touch a soft or hard object and how a person thinks or even makes decisions[27] and between the firmness of a touch and the evoking of gender stereotyping.[28]","title":"General somatosensory pathway"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-32"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-33"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goldreich_Kanics_2003-34"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peters_etal_2009-35"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peters_etal_2009-35"},{"link_name":"tactile corpuscles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactile_corpuscle"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-36"},{"link_name":"Merkel cells","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merkel_nerve_ending"},{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Peters_etal_2009-35"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Goldreich_Kanics_2003-34"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"cross modal plasticity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cross_modal_plasticity"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"Individual variation","text":"A variety of studies have measured and investigated the causes for differences between individuals in the sense of fine touch. One well-studied area is passive tactile spatial acuity, the ability to resolve the fine spatial details of an object pressed against the stationary skin. A variety of methods have been used to measure passive tactile spatial acuity, perhaps the most rigorous being the grating orientation task.[29] In this task subjects identify the orientation of a grooved surface presented in two different orientations,[30] which can be applied manually or with automated equipment.[31] Many studies have shown a decline in passive tactile spatial acuity with age;[32][33][34] the reasons for this decline are unknown, but may include loss of tactile receptors during normal aging. Remarkably, index finger passive tactile spatial acuity is better among adults with smaller index fingertips;[35] this effect of finger size has been shown to underlie the better passive tactile spatial acuity of women, on average, compared to men.[35] The density of tactile corpuscles, a type of mechanoreceptor that detects low-frequency vibrations, is greater in smaller fingers;[36] the same may hold for Merkel cells, which detect the static indentations important for fine spatial acuity.[35] Among children of the same age, those with smaller fingers also tend to have better tactile acuity.[37] Many studies have shown that passive tactile spatial acuity is enhanced among blind individuals compared to sighted individuals of the same age,[34][38][39][40][41] possibly because of cross modal plasticity in the cerebral cortex of blind individuals. Perhaps also due to cortical plasticity, individuals who have been blind since birth reportedly consolidate tactile information more rapidly than sighted people.[42]","title":"General somatosensory pathway"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"peripheral neuropathy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_neuropathy"},{"link_name":"numbness","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numbness"},{"link_name":"paresthesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paresthesia"}],"text":"A somatosensory deficiency may be caused by a peripheral neuropathy involving peripheral nerves of the somatosensory system. This may present as numbness or paresthesia.","title":"Clinical significance"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Boron WF","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter_Boron"},{"link_name":"Boulpaep EL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emile_Boulpaep"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"0-7216-3256-4","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7216-3256-4"},{"link_name":"Neurobiology: Feeling bumps and holes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//brain.phgy.queensu.ca/flanagan/papers/FlaLed_NAT_01.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"Haptic interfaces and devices\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20060718011328/http://www.roblesdelatorre.com/gabriel/VH-OA-MC-DG-GR-04.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1108/02602280410515770","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1108%2F02602280410515770"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"3136266","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3136266"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.roblesdelatorre.com/gabriel/VH-OA-MC-DG-GR-04.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-87893-695-3","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87893-695-3"},{"link_name":"\"Force can overcome object geometry in the perception of shape through active touch\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20061003225801/http://www.roblesdelatorre.com/gabriel/GR-VH-Nature2001.pdf"},{"link_name":"Bibcode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"2001Natur.412..445R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001Natur.412..445R"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1038/35086588","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1038%2F35086588"},{"link_name":"PMID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PMID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"11473320","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11473320"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"4413295","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4413295"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.roblesdelatorre.com/gabriel/GR-VH-Nature2001.pdf"},{"link_name":"\"The Importance of the Sense of Touch in Virtual and Real Environments\"","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//web.archive.org/web/20140124073640/http://www.roblesdelatorre.com/gabriel/GR-IEEE-MM-2006.pdf"},{"link_name":"doi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"10.1109/mmul.2006.69","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//doi.org/10.1109%2Fmmul.2006.69"},{"link_name":"S2CID","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"16153497","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:16153497"},{"link_name":"the original","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.roblesdelatorre.com/gabriel/GR-IEEE-MM-2006.pdf"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-7643-7611-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-7643-7611-6"},{"link_name":"Encyclopedia of Touch","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.scholarpedia.org/article/Encyclopedia:Touch"},{"link_name":"Scholarpedia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scholarpedia"}],"text":"Boron WF, Boulpaep EL (2003). Medical Physiology. Saunders. pp. 352–358. ISBN 0-7216-3256-4.\nFlanagan, J.R., Lederman, S.J. Neurobiology: Feeling bumps and holes, News and Views, Nature, 2001 July 26;412(6845):389-91.\nHayward V, Astley OR, Cruz-Hernandez M, Grant D, Robles-De-La-Torre G (2004). \"Haptic interfaces and devices\" (PDF). Sensor Review. 24 (1): 16–29. doi:10.1108/02602280410515770. S2CID 3136266. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-07-18. Retrieved 2006-10-03.\nPurves, Dale (2012). Neuroscience, Fifth Edition. Sunderland, MA: Sinauer Associates, Inc. pp. 202–203. ISBN 978-0-87893-695-3.\nRobles-De-La-Torre G, Hayward V (July 2001). \"Force can overcome object geometry in the perception of shape through active touch\" (PDF). Nature. 412 (6845): 445–8. Bibcode:2001Natur.412..445R. doi:10.1038/35086588. PMID 11473320. S2CID 4413295. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2006-10-03. Retrieved 2006-10-03.\nRobles-De-La-Torre, G (2006). \"The Importance of the Sense of Touch in Virtual and Real Environments\" (PDF). IEEE MultiMedia. 13 (3): 24–30. doi:10.1109/mmul.2006.69. S2CID 16153497. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-01-24. Retrieved 2006-10-07.\nGrunwald, M. (Ed.) Human Haptic Perception – Basics and Applications. Boston/Basel/Berlin: Birkhäuser, 2008, ISBN 978-3-7643-7611-6\nEncyclopedia of Touch Scholarpedia Expert articles","title":"Further reading"}]

[{"image_text":"Touch is a crucial means of receiving information. This photo shows tactile markings identifying stairs for visually impaired people.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Tactile_markings_stairs_for_visually_impaired.jpg/220px-Tactile_markings_stairs_for_visually_impaired.jpg"},{"image_text":"Stub Image","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Somatosensory_System.png/220px-Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Somatosensory_System.png"},{"image_text":"This diagram linearly (unless otherwise mentioned) tracks the projections of all known structures that allow for touch to their relevant endpoints in the human brain.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Somatosensory_System.png/220px-Comprehensive_List_of_Relevant_Pathways_for_the_Somatosensory_System.png"},{"image_text":"Gray's Anatomy, figure 759: the sensory tract, showing the pathway (blue) up the spinal cord, through the somatosensory thalamus, to S1 (Brodmann areas 3, 1, and 2), S2, and BA7","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Gray759.png/220px-Gray759.png"},{"image_text":"Gray's Anatomy, figure 717: detail showing path adjacent to the insular cortex (marked insula in this figure), adjacent to S1, S2, and BA7","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/20/Gray717.png/220px-Gray717.png"},{"image_text":"Touch can result in many different physiological reactions. Here, a baby laughs at being tickled by an older sister.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Tickle.jpg/220px-Tickle.jpg"},{"image_text":"The cortical homunculus, a map of somatosensory areas of the brain, was devised by Wilder Penfield.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Sensory_Homunculus.png/220px-Sensory_Homunculus.png"}]

[{"title":"Allochiria","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Allochiria"},{"title":"Cell signalling","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_signalling"},{"title":"Golgi tendon organ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golgi_tendon_organ"},{"title":"Haptic communication","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptic_communication"},{"title":"Haptic perception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Haptic_perception"},{"title":"Interoception","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Interoception"},{"title":"Muscle spindle","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Muscle_spindle"},{"title":"Molecular cellular cognition","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_cellular_cognition"},{"title":"Phantom limb","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phantom_limb"},{"title":"Physical intimacy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_intimacy"},{"title":"Sensory maps","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensory_maps"},{"title":"Special senses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special_senses"},{"title":"Supramarginal gyrus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supramarginal_gyrus"},{"title":"Tactile illusion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactile_illusion"},{"title":"Vibratese","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vibratese"},{"title":"Tactile imaging","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tactile_imaging"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency-resolved_optical_gating

Frequency-resolved optical gating

["1 Theory","2 Experiment","3 Retrieval algorithm","4 Measurement confirmation","5 See also","5.1 FROG techniques","5.2 Competing techniques","6 References","7 External links"]

Frequency-resolved optical gating (FROG) is a general method for measuring the spectral phase of ultrashort laser pulses, which range from subfemtosecond to about a nanosecond in length. Invented in 1991 by Rick Trebino and Daniel J. Kane, FROG was the first technique to solve this problem, which is difficult because, ordinarily, to measure an event in time, a shorter event is required with which to measure it. For example, to measure a soap bubble popping requires a strobe light with a shorter duration to freeze the action. Because ultrashort laser pulses are the shortest events ever created, before FROG, it was thought by many that their complete measurement in time was not possible. FROG, however, solved the problem by measuring an "auto-spectrogram" of the pulse, in which the pulse gates itself in a nonlinear-optical medium and the resulting gated piece of the pulse is then spectrally resolved as a function of the delay between the two pulses. Retrieval of the pulse from its FROG trace is accomplished by using a two-dimensional phase-retrieval algorithm. FROG is currently the standard technique for measuring ultrashort laser pulses replacing an older method called autocorrelation, which only gave a rough estimate for the pulse length. FROG is simply a spectrally resolved autocorrelation, which allows the use of a phase-retrieval algorithm to retrieve the precise pulse intensity and phase vs. time. It can measure both very simple and very complex ultrashort laser pulses, and it has measured the most complex pulse ever measured without the use of a reference pulse. Simple versions of FROG exist (with the acronym, GRENOUILLE, the French word for FROG), utilizing only a few easily aligned optical components. Both FROG and GRENOUILLE are in common use in research and industrial labs around the world. Theory A schematic of a typical experimental, multishot SHG FROG setup. FROG and autocorrelation share the idea of combining a pulse with itself in a nonlinear medium. Since a nonlinear medium will only produce the desired signal when both pulses are present at the same time (i.e. “optical gating”), varying the delay between the pulse copies and measuring the signal at each delay gives a vague estimate of the pulse length. Autocorrelators measure a pulse by measuring the intensity of the nonlinear signal field. Estimating the pulse length requires assuming a pulse shape, and the phase of the pulse electric field cannot be measured at all. FROG extends this idea by measuring the spectrum of the signal at each delay (hence “frequency-resolved”), instead of just the intensity. This measurement creates a spectrogram of the pulse, which can be used to determine the complex electric field as a function of time or frequency as long as the nonlinearity of the medium is known. The FROG spectrogram (usually called a FROG trace) is a graph of intensity as a function of frequency ω {\displaystyle \omega } and delay τ {\displaystyle \tau } . The signal field from the nonlinear interaction is easier to express in the time domain, however, so the typical expression for the FROG trace includes a Fourier transform. I FROG ( ω , τ ) = | E sig ( ω , τ ) | 2 = | F T [ E sig ( t , τ ) ] | 2 = | ∫ − ∞ ∞ E s i g ( t , τ ) e − i ω t d t | 2 . {\displaystyle I_{\text{FROG}}(\omega ,\tau )=\left|E_{\text{sig}}(\omega ,\tau )\right|^{2}=\left|FT\right|^{2}=\left|\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }E_{sig}(t,\tau )e^{-i\omega t}\,dt\right|^{2}.} The nonlinear signal field E sig ( t , τ ) {\displaystyle E_{\text{sig}}(t,\tau )} depends on the original pulse, E ( t ) {\displaystyle E(t)} , and the nonlinear process used, which can almost always be expressed as E gate ( t − τ ) {\displaystyle E_{\text{gate}}(t-\tau )} , such that E sig ( t , τ ) = E ( t ) E gate ( t − τ ) {\displaystyle E_{\text{sig}}(t,\tau )=E(t)E_{\text{gate}}(t-\tau )} . The most common nonlinearity is second harmonic generation, where E gate ( t − τ ) = E ( t − τ ) {\displaystyle E_{\text{gate}}(t-\tau )=E(t-\tau )} . The expression for the trace in terms of the pulse field is then: I SHG FROG ( ω , τ ) = | ∫ − ∞ ∞ E ( t ) E ( t − τ ) e − i ω t d t | 2 . {\displaystyle I_{\text{SHG FROG}}(\omega ,\tau )=\left|\int _{-\infty }^{\infty }E(t)E(t-\tau )e^{-i\omega t}\,dt\right|^{2}.} There are many possible variations on this basic setup. If a well-known reference pulse is available, then it may be used as a gating pulse instead of a copy of the unknown pulse. This is referred to as cross-correlation FROG or XFROG. In addition, other non-linear effects besides second harmonic generation may be used, such as third harmonic generation (THG) or polarization gating (PG). These changes will affect the expression for E gate ( t − τ ) {\displaystyle E_{\text{gate}}(t-\tau )} . Experiment In a typical multi-shot FROG setup, the unknown pulse is split into two copies with a beamsplitter. One copy is delayed by a known amount relative to the other. Both pulses are focused to the same point in a nonlinear medium, and the spectrum of the nonlinear signal is measured with a spectrometer. This process is repeated for many delay points. A FROG measurement can be performed on a single shot with some minor adjustments. The two pulse copies are crossed at an angle and focused to a line instead of a point. This creates a varying delay between the two pulses along the line focus. In this configuration, it is common to use a home-made spectrometer, consisting of a diffraction grating and a camera, to capture the measurement. Retrieval algorithm Although it is theoretically somewhat complex, the method of generalized projections has proven to be an extremely reliable method for retrieving pulses from FROG traces. Unfortunately, its sophistication is the source of some misunderstanding and mistrust from scientists in the optics community. Hence, this section will attempt to give some insight into the basic philosophy and implementation of the method, if not its detailed workings. First, imagine a space that contains all possible signal electric fields. For a given measurement, there is a set of these fields that will satisfy the measured FROG trace. We refer to these fields as satisfying the data constraint. There is another set that consists of the signal fields that can be expressed using the form for the nonlinear interaction used in the measurement. For second-harmonic generation (SHG), this is the set of fields that can be expressed in the form E sig ( t , τ ) = E ( t ) E ( t − τ ) {\displaystyle E_{\text{sig}}(t,\tau )=E(t)E(t-\tau )} . This is referred to as satisfying the mathematical form constraint. These two sets intersect at exactly one point. There is only one possible signal field that both has the correct intensity to match the data trace and fits the mathematical form dictated by the nonlinear interaction. To find that point, which will give the pulse we are trying to measure, generalized projections is used. The generalized projections algorithm operates in this electric field space. At each step, we find the closest point to the current guess point that will satisfy the constraint for the other set. That is, the current guess is “projected” onto the other set. This closest point becomes the new current guess, and the closest point on the first set is found. By alternating between projecting onto the mathematical constraint set and projecting onto the data constraint set, we eventually end up at the solution. Projecting onto the data constraint set is simple. To be in that set, the magnitude squared of the signal field has to match the intensity measured by the trace. The signal field E sig ( t , τ ) {\displaystyle E_{\text{sig}}(t,\tau )} is Fourier-transformed to E sig ( ω , τ ) {\displaystyle E_{\text{sig}}(\omega ,\tau )} . The closest point in the data constraint set is found by replacing the magnitude of E sig ( ω , τ ) {\displaystyle E_{\text{sig}}(\omega ,\tau )} by the magnitude of the data, leaving the phase of E sig ( ω , τ ) {\displaystyle E_{\text{sig}}(\omega ,\tau )} intact. Projecting onto the mathematical constraint set is not simple. Unlike the data constraint, there is not an easy way to tell which point in the mathematical constraint set is closest. A general expression for the distance between the current point and any point in the mathematical constraint set is created, and then that expression is minimized by taking the gradient of that distance with respect the current field guess. This process is discussed in more detail in this paper. This cycle is repeated until the error between the signal guess and the data constraint (after applying the mathematical constraint) reaches some target minimum value. E ( t ) {\displaystyle E(t)} can be found by simply integrating E sig ( t , τ ) {\displaystyle E_{\text{sig}}(t,\tau )} with respect to delay τ {\displaystyle \tau } . A second FROG trace is usually constructed mathematically from the solution and compared with the original measurement. Measurement confirmation One important feature of a FROG measurement is that many more data points are collected than are strictly necessary to find the pulse electric field. For example, say that the measured trace consists of 128 points in the delay direction and 128 points in the frequency direction. There are 128×128 total points in the trace. Using these points, an electric field is retrieved that has 2×128 points (128 for magnitude and another 128 for the phase). This is a massively overdetermined system, meaning that the number of equations is much larger than the number of unknowns. Thus the importance of each individual data point being absolutely correct is greatly reduced. This is very helpful for real-world measurements that can be affected by detector noise and systematic errors. Noise is extremely unlikely to affect the measured trace in a way that could be confused with a physical phenomenon in the pulse. The FROG algorithm tends to “see through” these effects due to the amount of extra information available and the use of a mathematical form constraint in finding a solution. This means that the error between an experimental FROG trace and a retrieved FROG trace is rarely zero, although it should be quite small for traces without systematic errors. Consequently, significant differences between measured and retrieved FROG traces should be investigated. The experimental setup may be misaligned, or there may be significant spatio-temporal distortions in the pulse. If the measurement averages over several or many pulses, then those pulses may vary significantly from each other. See also FROG techniques Grating-eliminated no-nonsense observation of ultrafast incident laser light e-fields (GRENOUILLE), a simplified version of FROG Double-Blind FROG, for measuring two pulses simultaneously Competing techniques Optical autocorrelation, in its intensity or fringe-resolved (interferometric) version Spectral phase interferometry for direct electric-field reconstruction (SPIDER) Multiphoton intrapulse interference phase scan (MIIPS), a method to characterize and manipulate the ultrashort pulse. Frequency-resolved electro-absorption gating (FREAG) References ^ Kolesnichenko, Pavel; Zigmantas, Donatas (2023). "Neural-network-powered pulse reconstruction from one-dimensional interferometric correlation traces". Optics Express. 31 (7): 11806–11819. arXiv:2111.01014. doi:10.1364/OE.479638. Rick Trebino (2002). Frequency-Resolved Optical Gating: The Measurement of Ultrashort Laser Pulses. Springer. ISBN 1-4020-7066-7. R. Trebino, K. W. DeLong, D. N. Fittinghoff, J. N. Sweetser, M. A. Krumbügel, and D. J. Kane, "Measuring Ultrashort Laser Pulses in the Time-Frequency Domain Using Frequency-Resolved Optical Gating," Review of Scientific Instruments 68, 3277-3295 (1997). External links FROG Page by Rick Trebino (co-inventor of FROG)

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"autocorrelation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Optical_autocorrelation"},{"link_name":"GRENOUILLE","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GRENOUILLE"}],"text":"FROG is currently the standard technique for measuring ultrashort laser pulses replacing an older method called autocorrelation, which only gave a rough estimate for the pulse length. FROG is simply a spectrally resolved autocorrelation, which allows the use of a phase-retrieval algorithm to retrieve the precise pulse intensity and phase vs. time. It can measure both very simple and very complex ultrashort laser pulses, and it has measured the most complex pulse ever measured without the use of a reference pulse. Simple versions of FROG exist (with the acronym, GRENOUILLE, the French word for FROG), utilizing only a few easily aligned optical components. Both FROG and GRENOUILLE are in common use in research and industrial labs around the world.","title":"Frequency-resolved optical gating"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SHG_FROG.png"},{"link_name":"spectrogram","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrogram"},{"link_name":"Fourier transform","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fourier_transform"},{"link_name":"second harmonic generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second_harmonic_generation"}],"text":"A schematic of a typical experimental, multishot SHG FROG setup.FROG and autocorrelation share the idea of combining a pulse with itself in a nonlinear medium. Since a nonlinear medium will only produce the desired signal when both pulses are present at the same time (i.e. “optical gating”), varying the delay between the pulse copies and measuring the signal at each delay gives a vague estimate of the pulse length. Autocorrelators measure a pulse by measuring the intensity of the nonlinear signal field. Estimating the pulse length requires assuming a pulse shape, and the phase of the pulse electric field cannot be measured at all. FROG extends this idea by measuring the spectrum of the signal at each delay (hence “frequency-resolved”), instead of just the intensity. This measurement creates a spectrogram of the pulse, which can be used to determine the complex electric field as a function of time or frequency as long as the nonlinearity of the medium is known.The FROG spectrogram (usually called a FROG trace) is a graph of intensity as a function of frequency \n \n \n \n ω\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\omega }\n \n and delay \n \n \n \n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\tau }\n \n. The signal field from the nonlinear interaction is easier to express in the time domain, however, so the typical expression for the FROG trace includes a Fourier transform.I\n \n FROG\n \n \n (\n ω\n ,\n τ\n )\n =\n \n \n |\n \n \n E\n \n sig\n \n \n (\n ω\n ,\n τ\n )\n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n |\n \n F\n T\n [\n \n E\n \n sig\n \n \n (\n t\n ,\n τ\n )\n ]\n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n =\n \n \n |\n \n \n ∫\n \n −\n ∞\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n \n E\n \n s\n i\n g\n \n \n (\n t\n ,\n τ\n )\n \n e\n \n −\n i\n ω\n t\n \n \n \n d\n t\n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{FROG}}(\\omega ,\\tau )=\\left|E_{\\text{sig}}(\\omega ,\\tau )\\right|^{2}=\\left|FT[E_{\\text{sig}}(t,\\tau )]\\right|^{2}=\\left|\\int _{-\\infty }^{\\infty }E_{sig}(t,\\tau )e^{-i\\omega t}\\,dt\\right|^{2}.}The nonlinear signal field \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n sig\n \n \n (\n t\n ,\n τ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{sig}}(t,\\tau )}\n \n depends on the original pulse, \n \n \n \n E\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E(t)}\n \n, and the nonlinear process used, which can almost always be expressed as \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n gate\n \n \n (\n t\n −\n τ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{gate}}(t-\\tau )}\n \n, such that \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n sig\n \n \n (\n t\n ,\n τ\n )\n =\n E\n (\n t\n )\n \n E\n \n gate\n \n \n (\n t\n −\n τ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{sig}}(t,\\tau )=E(t)E_{\\text{gate}}(t-\\tau )}\n \n. The most common nonlinearity is second harmonic generation, where \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n gate\n \n \n (\n t\n −\n τ\n )\n =\n E\n (\n t\n −\n τ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{gate}}(t-\\tau )=E(t-\\tau )}\n \n. The expression for the trace in terms of the pulse field is then:I\n \n SHG FROG\n \n \n (\n ω\n ,\n τ\n )\n =\n \n \n |\n \n \n ∫\n \n −\n ∞\n \n \n ∞\n \n \n E\n (\n t\n )\n E\n (\n t\n −\n τ\n )\n \n e\n \n −\n i\n ω\n t\n \n \n \n d\n t\n \n |\n \n \n 2\n \n \n .\n \n \n {\\displaystyle I_{\\text{SHG FROG}}(\\omega ,\\tau )=\\left|\\int _{-\\infty }^{\\infty }E(t)E(t-\\tau )e^{-i\\omega t}\\,dt\\right|^{2}.}There are many possible variations on this basic setup. If a well-known reference pulse is available, then it may be used as a gating pulse instead of a copy of the unknown pulse. This is referred to as cross-correlation FROG or XFROG. In addition, other non-linear effects besides second harmonic generation may be used, such as third harmonic generation (THG) or polarization gating (PG). These changes will affect the expression for \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n gate\n \n \n (\n t\n −\n τ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{gate}}(t-\\tau )}\n \n.","title":"Theory"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"diffraction grating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diffraction_grating"}],"text":"In a typical multi-shot FROG setup, the unknown pulse is split into two copies with a beamsplitter. One copy is delayed by a known amount relative to the other. Both pulses are focused to the same point in a nonlinear medium, and the spectrum of the nonlinear signal is measured with a spectrometer. This process is repeated for many delay points.A FROG measurement can be performed on a single shot with some minor adjustments. The two pulse copies are crossed at an angle and focused to a line instead of a point. This creates a varying delay between the two pulses along the line focus. In this configuration, it is common to use a home-made spectrometer, consisting of a diffraction grating and a camera, to capture the measurement.","title":"Experiment"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"second-harmonic generation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second-harmonic_generation"},{"link_name":"this paper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//frog.gatech.edu/Pubs/DeLong-GenProj-OptLett19-1994.pdf"}],"text":"Although it is theoretically somewhat complex, the method of generalized projections has proven to be an extremely reliable method for retrieving pulses from FROG traces. Unfortunately, its sophistication is the source of some misunderstanding and mistrust from scientists in the optics community. Hence, this section will attempt to give some insight into the basic philosophy and implementation of the method, if not its detailed workings.First, imagine a space that contains all possible signal electric fields. For a given measurement, there is a set of these fields that will satisfy the measured FROG trace. We refer to these fields as satisfying the data constraint. There is another set that consists of the signal fields that can be expressed using the form for the nonlinear interaction used in the measurement. For second-harmonic generation (SHG), this is the set of fields that can be expressed in the form \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n sig\n \n \n (\n t\n ,\n τ\n )\n =\n E\n (\n t\n )\n E\n (\n t\n −\n τ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{sig}}(t,\\tau )=E(t)E(t-\\tau )}\n \n. This is referred to as satisfying the mathematical form constraint.These two sets intersect at exactly one point. There is only one possible signal field that both has the correct intensity to match the data trace and fits the mathematical form dictated by the nonlinear interaction. To find that point, which will give the pulse we are trying to measure, generalized projections is used. The generalized projections algorithm operates in this electric field space. At each step, we find the closest point to the current guess point that will satisfy the constraint for the other set. That is, the current guess is “projected” onto the other set. This closest point becomes the new current guess, and the closest point on the first set is found. By alternating between projecting onto the mathematical constraint set and projecting onto the data constraint set, we eventually end up at the solution.Projecting onto the data constraint set is simple. To be in that set, the magnitude squared of the signal field has to match the intensity measured by the trace. The signal field \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n sig\n \n \n (\n t\n ,\n τ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{sig}}(t,\\tau )}\n \n is Fourier-transformed to \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n sig\n \n \n (\n ω\n ,\n τ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{sig}}(\\omega ,\\tau )}\n \n. The closest point in the data constraint set is found by replacing the magnitude of \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n sig\n \n \n (\n ω\n ,\n τ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{sig}}(\\omega ,\\tau )}\n \n by the magnitude of the data, leaving the phase of \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n sig\n \n \n (\n ω\n ,\n τ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{sig}}(\\omega ,\\tau )}\n \n intact.Projecting onto the mathematical constraint set is not simple. Unlike the data constraint, there is not an easy way to tell which point in the mathematical constraint set is closest. A general expression for the distance between the current point and any point in the mathematical constraint set is created, and then that expression is minimized by taking the gradient of that distance with respect the current field guess. This process is discussed in more detail in this paper.This cycle is repeated until the error between the signal guess and the data constraint (after applying the mathematical constraint) reaches some target minimum value. \n \n \n \n E\n (\n t\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E(t)}\n \n can be found by simply integrating \n \n \n \n \n E\n \n sig\n \n \n (\n t\n ,\n τ\n )\n \n \n {\\displaystyle E_{\\text{sig}}(t,\\tau )}\n \n with respect to delay \n \n \n \n τ\n \n \n {\\displaystyle \\tau }\n \n. A second FROG trace is usually constructed mathematically from the solution and compared with the original measurement.","title":"Retrieval algorithm"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"overdetermined system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overdetermined_system"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"One important feature of a FROG measurement is that many more data points are collected than are strictly necessary to find the pulse electric field. For example, say that the measured trace consists of 128 points in the delay direction and 128 points in the frequency direction. There are 128×128 total points in the trace. Using these points, an electric field is retrieved that has 2×128 points (128 for magnitude and another 128 for the phase). This is a massively overdetermined system,[1] meaning that the number of equations is much larger than the number of unknowns. Thus the importance of each individual data point being absolutely correct is greatly reduced. This is very helpful for real-world measurements that can be affected by detector noise and systematic errors. Noise is extremely unlikely to affect the measured trace in a way that could be confused with a physical phenomenon in the pulse. The FROG algorithm tends to “see through” these effects due to the amount of extra information available and the use of a mathematical form constraint in finding a solution. This means that the error between an experimental FROG trace and a retrieved FROG trace is rarely zero, although it should be quite small for traces without systematic errors.Consequently, significant differences between measured and retrieved FROG traces should be investigated. The experimental setup may be misaligned, or there may be significant spatio-temporal distortions in the pulse. If the measurement averages over several or many pulses, then those pulses may vary significantly from each other.","title":"Measurement confirmation"}]

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81la

Kāla

["1 Etymology","2 Deity","2.1 Epics and the Puranas","2.2 Bhagavad Gita","2.3 In other cultures","3 Jainism","4 See also","5 References","6 Sources"]

Hindu deity and concept For other uses of "Kala", see Kala (disambiguation). "Kaal" redirects here. For other uses, see Kaal (disambiguation). This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Kāla" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (June 2011) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Statue of the deity Kala, Bangkok City Pillar Shrine Kala (Sanskrit: काल, romanized: Kālá/Kālam, IPA: ) is a Sanskrit term that means 'time' or 'death'. As time personified, destroying all things, Kala is a god of death, and often used as one of the epithets of Yama. In Shaivism, Kala is known as the fiery avatar of Shiva, Kala Bhairava or Kalagni Rudra; and in Vaishnavism Kala is also associated with Narasimha and Pralaya. As applied to gods and goddesses, Kālá is not always distinguishable from kāla, meaning 'black'. Etymology Monier-Williams's widely used Sanskrit-English dictionary lists two distinct words with the form kāla: kāla 1 means "black, of a dark colour, dark-blue ..." and has a feminine form ending in ī – kālī – as mentioned in Pāṇini 4–1, 42. kālá 2 means "a fixed or right point of time, a space of time, time ... destiny, fate ... death" and has a feminine form (found at the end of compounds) ending in ā, as mentioned in the ṛgveda Prātiśākhya. As a traditional Hindu unit of time, one kālá corresponds to 144 seconds. According to Monier-Williams, kāla 2 is from the verbal root kal "to calculate", while the root of kāla 1 is uncertain, though possibly the same. As applied to gods and goddesses in works such as the Devī Māhātmya and the Skanda Purāṇa, kāla 1 and kāla 2 are not readily distinguishable. Thus Wendy Doniger, translating a conversation between Śiva and Pārvatī from the Skanda Purāṇa, says Mahākāla may mean " 'the Great Death' ... or 'the Great Black One' ". And Swāmī Jagadīśvarānanda, a Hindu translator of the Devī Māhātmya, renders the feminine compound kāla-rātri (where rātri means "night") as "dark night of periodic dissolution". Deity Murti of Kala, National Museum of Indonesia. Epics and the Puranas Kala appears as an impersonal deity within the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavata Purana. In the Mahabharata, Krishna, one of the main characters, reveals his identity as Time personified. He states to Arjuna that both sides on the battlefield of the Kurukshetra War have already been annihilated. At the end of the epic, the entire Yadu dynasty (Krishna's dynasty) is similarly annihilated. Kala appears in the Uttara Kanda of the Ramayana, as the messenger of Death (Yama). At the end of the story, Time, in the form of inevitability or necessity, informs Rama that his reign on Earth is now over. By a trick or dilemma, he forces the death of Lakshmana, and informs Rama that he must return to the realm of the gods. Lakshmana willingly passes away with Rama's blessing and Rama returns to Vaikuntha. Time appears in the Bhagavata Purana as the force that is responsible for the imperceptible and inevitable change in the entire creation. According to the Purana, all created things are illusory, and thereby subject to creation and annihilation, this imperceptible and inconceivable impermanence is said to be due to the march of Time. Similarly, Time is considered to be the unmanifest aspect of God that remains after the destruction of the entire world at the end of a lifespan of Brahma. According to Soifer, Narasimha is explicitly linked with Pralaya or Yuganta itself in Bhagavata Purana, Linga Purana, and Kurma Purana versions; he is said to appear like Kala or the fire of destruction, both agents of Pralaya. In the Chaitanya Bhagavata, a Gaudiya Vaishnava text and biography of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, it is said that the fire that emerges from the mouth of Sankarshana at the End of Time is the Kālānala, or "fire of Time". One of the names of Sankarshana is kālāgni, also "fire of time". The Vishnu Purana also states that Time (kala) is one of the four primary forms of Vishnu, the others being matter (Pradhana), visible substance (vyakta), and Spirit (Purusha). According to Pinchman, "It is said that at the time of primordial creation, three forms arise from Vishnu: time (kala), purusha, and prakrti". Bhagavad Gita At Bhagavad Gita 11.32, Krishna takes on the form of kāla, the destroyer, announcing to Arjuna that all the warriors on both sides will be killed, apart from the Pandavas: कालो ऽस्मि लोकक्षयकृत् प्रवृद्धो लोकान् समाहर्तुम् इह प्रवृत्तः । Time (kāla) I am, the great destroyer of the worlds, and I have come here to destroy all people.— Bhagavad Gita, Verse 11.32 This phrase is famous for being quoted by J. Robert Oppenheimer as he reflected on the Manhattan Project's explosion of the first nuclear bomb in 1945. In other cultures In Javanese mythology, Batara Kala is the god of destruction. It is a very huge mighty and powerful god depicted as giant, born of the sperm of Shiva, the kings of gods. In Borobudur, the gate to the stairs is adorned with a giant head, making the gate look like the open mouth of the giant. Many other gates in Javanese traditional buildings have this kind of ornament. Perhaps the most detailed Kala Face in Java is on the south side of Candi Kalasan. In Thailand, he is popular worshipped together with Lak Mueang within Tai folk religion and Chitragupta in Hinduism. Jainism kalachakras in Jainism Main article: Ajiva Logarithmic scale of time used in Jain texts. In Jainism, Kāla (Time) is infinite and is explained in two different ways: The measure of duration, known in the form of hours, days, like that. The cause of the continuity of function of things. However Jainism recognizes a very small measurement of time known as samaya which is an infinitely small part of a second. There are cycles (kalachakras) in it. Each cycle having two eras of equal duration described as the avasarpini and the utsarpini. See also Kalachakra Kālī Mahakala Father Time References ^ "ศาลหลักเมืองกรุงเทพมหานคร (Bangkok City Pillar Shrine)". ^ www.wisdomlib.org (14 September 2019). "Kalam: 6 definitions". www.wisdomlib.org. Retrieved 4 November 2022. ^ Dalal 2011, p. 185. ^ a b c d Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). "Sanskrit Dictionary". Retrieved 4 October 2023. ^ a b Soifer 1991, p. 102. ^ Doniger O'Flaherty, Wendy; Hindu Myths; Penguin, 1975; ISBN 0-14-044306-1 footnote to page 253. ^ Jagadīśvarānanda trans; Devi Mahatmyam (Sanskrit and English); Sri Ramakrishna Math, Madras, 1953; chapter 1 verse 78. ^ Thakura, Vrndavana Dasa. Chaitanya-Bhagavata. Translated by Sarvabhavana Dasa. p. 203. ^ "A Thousand Names of Lord Balarama". ^ Wilson, Horace H. (1840). "Preface". The Vishńu Puráńa: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition. pp. ix. ^ Roy, Janmajit (2002). "Signs and Symptoms of Avatārahood". Theory of Avatāra and Divinity of Chaitanya. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 66. ^ Pintchman 2001, p. 83. ^ See text and translation ^ "ศาลหลักเมืองกรุงเทพมหานคร (Bangkok City Pillar Shrine)". Sources Dalal, Roshen (5 October 2011). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6. Retrieved 19 December 2012. Pintchman, Tracy, ed. (2001), Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess, SUNY Press Soifer, Deborah A. (1991). The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana: Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791407998. vteHindu deities and textsGods Trimurti Brahma Vishnu Shiva Agni Ashvins Chandra Dattatreya Ganesha Hanuman Indra Kama Kartikeya Krishna Kubera Rama Shasta Surya Varuna Vayu Vishvakarma Yama more Goddesses Tridevi Saraswati Lakshmi Parvati Aditi Bhumi Chhaya Durga Ganga Shachi Kali Mahadevi Mahavidya Matangi Matrikas Radha Rati Rohini Rukmini Sanjna Sati Shakti Shashthi Sita more Other deities Apsaras Asuras Daitya Danava Devata Dikpāla Gandharvas Gana Kuladevatas Gramadevatas Rakshasas Vahanas Yakshas / Yakshini Texts (list) Vedas Rig Sama Yajur Atharva Upanishads Puranas Ramayana Mahabharata Bhagavad Gita Yoga Sutras of Patanjali more Hinduism Hindu mythology vteTimeKey concepts Past Present Future Eternity Measurementand standardsChronometry UTC UT TAI Unit of time Orders of magnitude (time) Measurementsystems Italian six-hour clock Thai six-hour clock 12-hour clock 24-hour clock Relative hour Daylight saving time Chinese Decimal Hexadecimal Hindu Metric Roman Sidereal Solar Time zone Calendars Main types Solar Lunar Lunisolar Gregorian Julian Hebrew Islamic Solar Hijri Chinese Hindu Panchang Maya List Clocks Main types astronomical astrarium atomic quantum hourglass marine sundial watch mechanical stopwatch water-based Cuckoo clock Digital clock Grandfather clock History Timeline ChronologyHistory Astronomical chronology Big History Calendar era Deep time Periodization Regnal year Timeline Philosophy of time A series and B series B-theory of time Chronocentrism Duration Endurantism Eternal return Eternalism Event Perdurantism Presentism Temporal finitism Temporal parts The Unreality of Time ReligionMythology Ages of Man Destiny Immortality Dreamtime Kāla Time and fate deities Father Time Wheel of time Kalachakra Human experienceand use of time Chronemics Generation time Mental chronometry Music tempo time signature Rosy retrospection Tense–aspect–mood Time management Yesterday – Today – Tomorrow Time in scienceGeology Geological time age chron eon epoch era period Geochronology Geological history of Earth Physics Absolute space and time Arrow of time Chronon Coordinate time Instant Proper time Spacetime Theory of relativity Time domain Time translation symmetry Time reversal symmetry Other fields Chronological dating Chronobiology Circadian rhythms Clock reaction Glottochronology Time geography Related Leap year Memory Moment Space System time Tempus fugit Time capsule Time immemorial Time travel Category Commons vteTime in religion and mythology Calendar Deities Destiny Divination Eschatology Eternity Eviternity Heortology Golden Age Prophecy Wheel of the Year Yuga Wikimedia Commons has media related to Kala.

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kala (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kala_(disambiguation)"},{"link_name":"Kaal (disambiguation)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaal_(disambiguation)"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3_%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3_(7).jpg"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"Sanskrit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit_language"},{"link_name":"romanized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Romanization_of_Sanskrit"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"[kɑːˈlə]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Help:IPA/Sanskrit"},{"link_name":"Sanskrit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanskrit"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDalal2011185-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MW-4"},{"link_name":"time personified","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_personified"},{"link_name":"death","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Death"},{"link_name":"Yama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yama"},{"link_name":"Shaivism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shaivism"},{"link_name":"Kala Bhairava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhairava"},{"link_name":"Vaishnavism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaishnavism"},{"link_name":"Narasimha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narasimha"},{"link_name":"Pralaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pralaya"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoifer1991102-5"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MW-4"}],"text":"For other uses of \"Kala\", see Kala (disambiguation).\"Kaal\" redirects here. For other uses, see Kaal (disambiguation).Statue of the deity Kala, Bangkok City Pillar Shrine[1]Kala (Sanskrit: काल, romanized: Kālá/Kālam,[2] IPA: [kɑːˈlə]) is a Sanskrit term that means 'time'[3] or 'death'.[4] As time personified, destroying all things, Kala is a god of death, and often used as one of the epithets of Yama. In Shaivism, Kala is known as the fiery avatar of Shiva, Kala Bhairava or Kalagni Rudra; and in Vaishnavism Kala is also associated with Narasimha and Pralaya.[5] As applied to gods and goddesses, Kālá is not always distinguishable from kāla, meaning 'black'.[4]","title":"Kāla"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Monier-Williams","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Monier-Williams"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MW-4"},{"link_name":"Pāṇini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/P%C4%81%E1%B9%87ini"},{"link_name":"traditional Hindu unit of time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_units_of_measurement"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MW-4"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"}],"text":"Monier-Williams's widely used Sanskrit-English dictionary[4] lists two distinct words with the form kāla:kāla 1 means \"black, of a dark colour, dark-blue ...\" and has a feminine form ending in ī – kālī – as mentioned in Pāṇini 4–1, 42.\nkālá 2 means \"a fixed or right point of time, a space of time, time ... destiny, fate ... death\" and has a feminine form (found at the end of compounds) ending in ā, as mentioned in the ṛgveda Prātiśākhya. As a traditional Hindu unit of time, one kālá corresponds to 144 seconds.According to Monier-Williams, kāla 2 is from the verbal root kal \"to calculate\", while the root of kāla 1 is uncertain, though possibly the same.[4]As applied to gods and goddesses in works such as the Devī Māhātmya and the Skanda Purāṇa, kāla 1 and kāla 2 are not readily distinguishable. Thus Wendy Doniger, translating a conversation between Śiva and Pārvatī from the Skanda Purāṇa, says Mahākāla may mean \" 'the Great Death' ... or 'the Great Black One' \".[6] And Swāmī Jagadīśvarānanda, a Hindu translator of the Devī Māhātmya, renders the feminine compound kāla-rātri (where rātri means \"night\") as \"dark night of periodic dissolution\".[7]","title":"Etymology"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Mahakala_Statue_5516.jpg"},{"link_name":"Murti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murti"},{"link_name":"National Museum of Indonesia","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Museum_of_Indonesia"}],"text":"Murti of Kala, National Museum of Indonesia.","title":"Deity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Mahabharata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata"},{"link_name":"Ramayana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramayana"},{"link_name":"Bhagavata Purana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana"},{"link_name":"Krishna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna"},{"link_name":"Arjuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arjuna"},{"link_name":"Kurukshetra War","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurukshetra_War"},{"link_name":"Yadu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yadu"},{"link_name":"Uttara Kanda","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uttara_Kanda"},{"link_name":"Rama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama"},{"link_name":"Lakshmana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshmana"},{"link_name":"Vaikuntha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vaikuntha"},{"link_name":"Brahma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahma"},{"link_name":"Narasimha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Narasimha"},{"link_name":"Pralaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pralaya"},{"link_name":"Bhagavata Purana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavata_Purana"},{"link_name":"Linga Purana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linga_Purana"},{"link_name":"Kurma Purana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurma_Purana"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTESoifer1991102-5"},{"link_name":"Chaitanya Bhagavata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaitanya_Bhagavata"},{"link_name":"Gaudiya Vaishnava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaudiya_Vaishnavism"},{"link_name":"Chaitanya Mahaprabhu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chaitanya_Mahaprabhu"},{"link_name":"Sankarshana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Balarama"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Vishnu Purana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu_Purana"},{"link_name":"Pradhana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pradhana"},{"link_name":"Purusha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purusha"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"},{"link_name":"Vishnu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu"},{"link_name":"purusha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Purusha"},{"link_name":"prakrti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prakriti"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPintchman200183-12"}],"sub_title":"Epics and the Puranas","text":"Kala appears as an impersonal deity within the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Bhagavata Purana. In the Mahabharata, Krishna, one of the main characters, reveals his identity as Time personified. He states to Arjuna that both sides on the battlefield of the Kurukshetra War have already been annihilated. At the end of the epic, the entire Yadu dynasty (Krishna's dynasty) is similarly annihilated.Kala appears in the Uttara Kanda of the Ramayana, as the messenger of Death (Yama). At the end of the story, Time, in the form of inevitability or necessity, informs Rama that his reign on Earth is now over. By a trick or dilemma, he forces the death of Lakshmana, and informs Rama that he must return to the realm of the gods. Lakshmana willingly passes away with Rama's blessing and Rama returns to Vaikuntha.Time appears in the Bhagavata Purana as the force that is responsible for the imperceptible and inevitable change in the entire creation. According to the Purana, all created things are illusory, and thereby subject to creation and annihilation, this imperceptible and inconceivable impermanence is said to be due to the march of Time. Similarly, Time is considered to be the unmanifest aspect of God that remains after the destruction of the entire world at the end of a lifespan of Brahma. According to Soifer, Narasimha is explicitly linked with Pralaya or Yuganta itself in Bhagavata Purana, Linga Purana, and Kurma Purana versions; he is said to appear like Kala or the fire of destruction, both agents of Pralaya.[5]In the Chaitanya Bhagavata, a Gaudiya Vaishnava text and biography of Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, it is said that the fire that emerges from the mouth of Sankarshana at the End of Time is the Kālānala, or \"fire of Time\".[8] One of the names of Sankarshana is kālāgni, also \"fire of time\".[9]The Vishnu Purana also states that Time (kala) is one of the four primary forms of Vishnu, the others being matter (Pradhana), visible substance (vyakta), and Spirit (Purusha).[10][11] According to Pinchman, \"It is said that at the time of primordial creation, three forms arise from Vishnu: time (kala), purusha, and prakrti\".[12]","title":"Deity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Bhagavad Gita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita"},{"link_name":"Krishna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"J. Robert Oppenheimer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/J._Robert_Oppenheimer"},{"link_name":"Manhattan Project","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manhattan_Project"}],"sub_title":"Bhagavad Gita","text":"At Bhagavad Gita 11.32, Krishna takes on the form of kāla, the destroyer, announcing to Arjuna that all the warriors on both sides will be killed, apart from the Pandavas:कालो ऽस्मि लोकक्षयकृत् प्रवृद्धो लोकान् समाहर्तुम् इह प्रवृत्तः ।\nTime (kāla) I am, the great destroyer of the worlds, and I have come here to destroy all people.[13]— Bhagavad Gita, Verse 11.32This phrase is famous for being quoted by J. Robert Oppenheimer as he reflected on the Manhattan Project's explosion of the first nuclear bomb in 1945.","title":"Deity"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Batara Kala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batara_Kala"},{"link_name":"giant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant_(mythology)"},{"link_name":"Shiva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiva"},{"link_name":"Borobudur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Borobudur"},{"link_name":"Candi Kalasan","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Candi_Kalasan"},{"link_name":"Thailand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thailand"},{"link_name":"Lak Mueang","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lak_Mueang"},{"link_name":"Tai folk religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tai_folk_religion"},{"link_name":"Chitragupta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chitragupta"},{"link_name":"Hinduism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"}],"sub_title":"In other cultures","text":"In Javanese mythology, Batara Kala is the god of destruction. It is a very huge mighty and powerful god depicted as giant, born of the sperm of Shiva, the kings of gods.In Borobudur, the gate to the stairs is adorned with a giant head, making the gate look like the open mouth of the giant. Many other gates in Javanese traditional buildings have this kind of ornament. Perhaps the most detailed Kala Face in Java is on the south side of Candi Kalasan.In Thailand, he is popular worshipped together with Lak Mueang within Tai folk religion and Chitragupta in Hinduism.[14]","title":"Deity"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jain_Cosmic_Time_Cycle.jpg"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Jain_scale_of_time.JPG"},{"link_name":"Jainism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism"},{"link_name":"Jainism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jainism"},{"link_name":"measurement","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Measurement"},{"link_name":"second","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Second"},{"link_name":"avasarpini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avasarpini"},{"link_name":"utsarpini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utsarpini"}],"text":"kalachakras in JainismLogarithmic scale of time used in Jain texts.In Jainism, Kāla (Time) is infinite and is explained in two different ways:The measure of duration, known in the form of hours, days, like that.\nThe cause of the continuity of function of things.However Jainism recognizes a very small measurement of time known as samaya which is an infinitely small part of a second. There are cycles (kalachakras) in it. Each cycle having two eras of equal duration described as the avasarpini and the utsarpini.","title":"Jainism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA185"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-14-341421-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-341421-6"},{"link_name":"The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana: Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//books.google.com/books?id=OoFDK_sDGHwC"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"9780791407998","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791407998"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Hindu_deities_and_texts"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Hindu_deities_and_texts"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hindu_deities_and_texts"},{"link_name":"Hindu deities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_deities"},{"link_name":"texts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hindu_texts"},{"link_name":"Gods","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Deva_(Hinduism)"},{"link_name":"Trimurti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimurti"},{"link_name":"Brahma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brahma"},{"link_name":"Vishnu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishnu"},{"link_name":"Shiva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shiva"},{"link_name":"Agni","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agni"},{"link_name":"Ashvins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ashvins"},{"link_name":"Chandra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chandra"},{"link_name":"Dattatreya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dattatreya"},{"link_name":"Ganesha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganesha"},{"link_name":"Hanuman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanuman"},{"link_name":"Indra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indra"},{"link_name":"Kama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kamadeva"},{"link_name":"Kartikeya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kartikeya"},{"link_name":"Krishna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krishna"},{"link_name":"Kubera","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kubera"},{"link_name":"Rama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rama"},{"link_name":"Shasta","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shasta_(deity)"},{"link_name":"Surya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surya"},{"link_name":"Varuna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Varuna"},{"link_name":"Vayu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vayu"},{"link_name":"Vishvakarma","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vishvakarma"},{"link_name":"Yama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yama"},{"link_name":"more","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Hindu_gods"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism"},{"link_name":"Goddesses","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devi"},{"link_name":"Tridevi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tridevi"},{"link_name":"Saraswati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saraswati"},{"link_name":"Lakshmi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lakshmi"},{"link_name":"Parvati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parvati"},{"link_name":"Aditi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aditi"},{"link_name":"Bhumi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhumi_(goddess)"},{"link_name":"Chhaya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chhaya"},{"link_name":"Durga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Durga"},{"link_name":"Ganga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ganga_(goddess)"},{"link_name":"Shachi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Indrani"},{"link_name":"Kali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kali"},{"link_name":"Mahadevi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahadevi"},{"link_name":"Mahavidya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahavidya"},{"link_name":"Matangi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matangi"},{"link_name":"Matrikas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrikas"},{"link_name":"Radha","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radha"},{"link_name":"Rati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rati"},{"link_name":"Rohini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rohini_(goddess)"},{"link_name":"Rukmini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rukmini"},{"link_name":"Sanjna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sanjna"},{"link_name":"Sati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sati_(Hindu_goddess)"},{"link_name":"Shakti","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shakti"},{"link_name":"Shashthi","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shashthi"},{"link_name":"Sita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sita"},{"link_name":"more","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Hindu_goddesses"},{"link_name":"Apsaras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apsara"},{"link_name":"Asuras","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asura"},{"link_name":"Daitya","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daitya"},{"link_name":"Danava","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Danava_(Hinduism)"},{"link_name":"Devata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Devata"},{"link_name":"Dikpāla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guardians_of_the_directions"},{"link_name":"Gandharvas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gandharva"},{"link_name":"Gana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gana"},{"link_name":"Kuladevatas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuladevata"},{"link_name":"Gramadevatas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramadevata"},{"link_name":"Rakshasas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakshasa"},{"link_name":"Vahanas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vahana"},{"link_name":"Yakshas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaksha"},{"link_name":"Yakshini","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yakshini"},{"link_name":"list","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hindu_texts"},{"link_name":"Vedas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedas"},{"link_name":"Rig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rigveda"},{"link_name":"Sama","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaveda"},{"link_name":"Yajur","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yajurveda"},{"link_name":"Atharva","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atharvaveda"},{"link_name":"Upanishads","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Upanishads"},{"link_name":"Puranas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puranas"},{"link_name":"Ramayana","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ramayana"},{"link_name":"Mahabharata","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahabharata"},{"link_name":"Bhagavad Gita","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita"},{"link_name":"Yoga Sutras of Patanjali","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yoga_Sutras_of_Patanjali"},{"link_name":"more","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Hindu_texts"},{"link_name":"Hinduism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hinduism"},{"link_name":"Hindu 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return","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eternal_return"},{"link_name":"Eternalism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eternalism_(philosophy_of_time)"},{"link_name":"Event","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Event_(philosophy)"},{"link_name":"Perdurantism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perdurantism"},{"link_name":"Presentism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophical_presentism"},{"link_name":"Temporal finitism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_finitism"},{"link_name":"Temporal parts","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Temporal_parts"},{"link_name":"The Unreality of Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Unreality_of_Time"},{"link_name":"Religion","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Time_in_religion"},{"link_name":"Ages of Man","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ages_of_Man"},{"link_name":"Destiny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny"},{"link_name":"Immortality","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immortality"},{"link_name":"Dreamtime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Dreaming"},{"link_name":"Kāla","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orgundefined/"},{"link_name":"Time and fate deities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_and_fate_deities"},{"link_name":"Father Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_Time"},{"link_name":"Wheel of time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_of_time"},{"link_name":"Kalachakra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalachakra"},{"link_name":"Human experience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_perception"},{"link_name":"use of time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time-use_research"},{"link_name":"Chronemics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronemics"},{"link_name":"Generation 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time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arrow_of_time"},{"link_name":"Chronon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronon"},{"link_name":"Coordinate time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coordinate_time"},{"link_name":"Instant","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instant"},{"link_name":"Proper time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proper_time"},{"link_name":"Spacetime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spacetime"},{"link_name":"Theory of relativity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_relativity"},{"link_name":"Time domain","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_domain"},{"link_name":"Time translation symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_translation_symmetry"},{"link_name":"Time reversal symmetry","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/T-symmetry"},{"link_name":"Chronological dating","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronological_dating"},{"link_name":"Chronobiology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chronobiology"},{"link_name":"Circadian rhythms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Circadian_rhythm"},{"link_name":"Clock reaction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical_clock"},{"link_name":"Glottochronology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Glottochronology"},{"link_name":"Time geography","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_geography"},{"link_name":"Leap year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leap_year"},{"link_name":"Memory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memory"},{"link_name":"Moment","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moment_(unit)"},{"link_name":"Space","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Space"},{"link_name":"System time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System_time"},{"link_name":"Tempus fugit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tempus_fugit"},{"link_name":"Time capsule","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_capsule"},{"link_name":"Time immemorial","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_immemorial"},{"link_name":"Time travel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_travel"},{"link_name":"Category","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Time"},{"link_name":"Commons","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Time"},{"link_name":"v","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template:Time_in_religion_and_mythology"},{"link_name":"t","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Template_talk:Time_in_religion_and_mythology"},{"link_name":"e","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Time_in_religion_and_mythology"},{"link_name":"Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time"},{"link_name":"religion and mythology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religion_and_mythology"},{"link_name":"Calendar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calendar"},{"link_name":"Deities","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_and_fate_deities"},{"link_name":"Destiny","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Destiny"},{"link_name":"Divination","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divination"},{"link_name":"Eschatology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eschatology"},{"link_name":"Eternity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eternity"},{"link_name":"Eviternity","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aevum"},{"link_name":"Heortology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heortology"},{"link_name":"Golden Age","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Golden_Age"},{"link_name":"Prophecy","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prophecy"},{"link_name":"Wheel of the Year","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wheel_of_the_Year"},{"link_name":"Yuga","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yuga"},{"link_name":"Kala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Kala"}],"text":"Dalal, Roshen (5 October 2011). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6. Retrieved 19 December 2012.\nPintchman, Tracy, ed. (2001), Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess, SUNY Press\nSoifer, Deborah A. (1991). The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana: Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791407998.vteHindu deities and textsGods\nTrimurti\nBrahma\nVishnu\nShiva\nAgni\nAshvins\nChandra\nDattatreya\nGanesha\nHanuman\nIndra\nKama\nKartikeya\nKrishna\nKubera\nRama\nShasta\nSurya\nVaruna\nVayu\nVishvakarma\nYama\nmore\nGoddesses\nTridevi\nSaraswati\nLakshmi\nParvati\nAditi\nBhumi\nChhaya\nDurga\nGanga\nShachi\nKali\nMahadevi\nMahavidya\nMatangi\nMatrikas\nRadha\nRati\nRohini\nRukmini\nSanjna\nSati\nShakti\nShashthi\nSita\nmore\nOther deities\nApsaras\nAsuras\nDaitya\nDanava\nDevata\nDikpāla\nGandharvas\nGana\nKuladevatas\nGramadevatas\nRakshasas\nVahanas\nYakshas / Yakshini\nTexts (list)\nVedas\nRig\nSama\nYajur\nAtharva\nUpanishads\nPuranas\nRamayana\nMahabharata\nBhagavad Gita\nYoga Sutras of Patanjali\nmore\n\nHinduism\nHindu mythologyvteTimeKey concepts\nPast\nPresent\nFuture\nEternity\nMeasurementand standardsChronometry\nUTC\nUT\nTAI\nUnit of time\nOrders of magnitude (time)\nMeasurementsystems\nItalian six-hour clock\nThai six-hour clock\n12-hour clock\n24-hour clock\nRelative hour\nDaylight saving time\nChinese\nDecimal\nHexadecimal\nHindu\nMetric\nRoman\nSidereal\nSolar\nTime zone\nCalendars\nMain types\nSolar\nLunar\nLunisolar\nGregorian\nJulian\nHebrew\nIslamic\nSolar Hijri\nChinese\nHindu Panchang\nMaya\nList\nClocks\nMain types\nastronomical\nastrarium\natomic\nquantum\nhourglass\nmarine\nsundial\nwatch\nmechanical\nstopwatch\nwater-based\nCuckoo clock\nDigital clock\nGrandfather clock\nHistory\nTimeline\nChronologyHistory\nAstronomical chronology\nBig History\nCalendar era\nDeep time\nPeriodization\nRegnal year\nTimeline\nPhilosophy of time\nA series and B series\nB-theory of time\nChronocentrism\nDuration\nEndurantism\nEternal return\nEternalism\nEvent\nPerdurantism\nPresentism\nTemporal finitism\nTemporal parts\nThe Unreality of Time\nReligionMythology\nAges of Man\nDestiny\nImmortality\nDreamtime\nKāla\nTime and fate deities\nFather Time\nWheel of time\nKalachakra\nHuman experienceand use of time\nChronemics\nGeneration time\nMental chronometry\nMusic\ntempo\ntime signature\nRosy retrospection\nTense–aspect–mood\nTime management\nYesterday – Today – Tomorrow\nTime in scienceGeology\nGeological time\nage\nchron\neon\nepoch\nera\nperiod\nGeochronology\nGeological history of Earth\nPhysics\nAbsolute space and time\nArrow of time\nChronon\nCoordinate time\nInstant\nProper time\nSpacetime\nTheory of relativity\nTime domain\nTime translation symmetry\nTime reversal symmetry\nOther fields\nChronological dating\nChronobiology\nCircadian rhythms\nClock reaction\nGlottochronology\nTime geography\nRelated\nLeap year\nMemory\nMoment\nSpace\nSystem time\nTempus fugit\nTime capsule\nTime immemorial\nTime travel\n\n Category\n CommonsvteTime in religion and mythology\nCalendar\nDeities\nDestiny\nDivination\nEschatology\nEternity\nEviternity\nHeortology\nGolden Age\nProphecy\nWheel of the Year\nYugaWikimedia Commons has media related to Kala.","title":"Sources"}]

[{"image_text":"Statue of the deity Kala, Bangkok City Pillar Shrine[1]","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3_%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3_%287%29.jpg/250px-%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%82%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3_%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%87%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3_%287%29.jpg"},{"image_text":"Murti of Kala, National Museum of Indonesia.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Mahakala_Statue_5516.jpg/250px-Mahakala_Statue_5516.jpg"},{"image_text":"kalachakras in Jainism","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Jain_Cosmic_Time_Cycle.jpg/220px-Jain_Cosmic_Time_Cycle.jpg"},{"image_text":"Logarithmic scale of time used in Jain texts.","image_url":"https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Jain_scale_of_time.JPG/220px-Jain_scale_of_time.JPG"}]

[{"title":"Kalachakra","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalachakra"},{"title":"Kālī","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C4%81l%C4%AB"},{"title":"Mahakala","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mahakala"},{"title":"Father Time","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Father_Time"}]

[{"reference":"\"ศาลหลักเมืองกรุงเทพมหานคร (Bangkok City Pillar Shrine)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://bangkokcitypillarshrine.com/Content/God/3/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AC%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5","url_text":"\"ศาลหลักเมืองกรุงเทพมหานคร (Bangkok City Pillar Shrine)\""}]},{"reference":"www.wisdomlib.org (14 September 2019). \"Kalam: 6 definitions\". www.wisdomlib.org. Retrieved 4 November 2022.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/kalam","url_text":"\"Kalam: 6 definitions\""}]},{"reference":"Monier-Williams, Monier (1899). \"Sanskrit Dictionary\". Retrieved 4 October 2023.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/2020/web/webtc/indexcaller.php","url_text":"\"Sanskrit Dictionary\""}]},{"reference":"Thakura, Vrndavana Dasa. Chaitanya-Bhagavata. Translated by Sarvabhavana Dasa. p. 203.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"A Thousand Names of Lord Balarama\".","urls":[{"url":"http://www.stephen-knapp.com/thousand_names_of_lord_balarama.htm","url_text":"\"A Thousand Names of Lord Balarama\""}]},{"reference":"Wilson, Horace H. (1840). \"Preface\". The Vishńu Puráńa: A System of Hindu Mythology and Tradition. pp. ix.","urls":[]},{"reference":"Roy, Janmajit (2002). \"Signs and Symptoms of Avatārahood\". Theory of Avatāra and Divinity of Chaitanya. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers & Distributors. p. 66.","urls":[]},{"reference":"\"ศาลหลักเมืองกรุงเทพมหานคร (Bangkok City Pillar Shrine)\".","urls":[{"url":"https://bangkokcitypillarshrine.com/Content/God/","url_text":"\"ศาลหลักเมืองกรุงเทพมหานคร (Bangkok City Pillar Shrine)\""}]},{"reference":"Dalal, Roshen (5 October 2011). Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide. Penguin Books India. ISBN 978-0-14-341421-6. Retrieved 19 December 2012.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA185","url_text":"Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-14-341421-6","url_text":"978-0-14-341421-6"}]},{"reference":"Pintchman, Tracy, ed. (2001), Seeking Mahadevi: Constructing the Identities of the Hindu Great Goddess, SUNY Press","urls":[]},{"reference":"Soifer, Deborah A. (1991). The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana: Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective. SUNY Press. ISBN 9780791407998.","urls":[{"url":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OoFDK_sDGHwC","url_text":"The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana: Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780791407998","url_text":"9780791407998"}]}]

[{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?as_eq=wikipedia&q=%22K%C4%81la%22","external_links_name":"\"Kāla\""},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbm=nws&q=%22K%C4%81la%22+-wikipedia&tbs=ar:1","external_links_name":"news"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?&q=%22K%C4%81la%22&tbs=bkt:s&tbm=bks","external_links_name":"newspapers"},{"Link":"https://www.google.com/search?tbs=bks:1&q=%22K%C4%81la%22+-wikipedia","external_links_name":"books"},{"Link":"https://scholar.google.com/scholar?q=%22K%C4%81la%22","external_links_name":"scholar"},{"Link":"https://www.jstor.org/action/doBasicSearch?Query=%22K%C4%81la%22&acc=on&wc=on","external_links_name":"JSTOR"},{"Link":"https://bangkokcitypillarshrine.com/Content/God/3/%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AC%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B5","external_links_name":"\"ศาลหลักเมืองกรุงเทพมหานคร (Bangkok City Pillar Shrine)\""},{"Link":"https://www.wisdomlib.org/definition/kalam","external_links_name":"\"Kalam: 6 definitions\""},{"Link":"https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/MWScan/2020/web/webtc/indexcaller.php","external_links_name":"\"Sanskrit Dictionary\""},{"Link":"http://www.stephen-knapp.com/thousand_names_of_lord_balarama.htm","external_links_name":"\"A Thousand Names of Lord Balarama\""},{"Link":"https://www.bhagavad-gita.us/bhagavad-gita-11-32/","external_links_name":"text and translation"},{"Link":"https://bangkokcitypillarshrine.com/Content/God/","external_links_name":"\"ศาลหลักเมืองกรุงเทพมหานคร (Bangkok City Pillar Shrine)\""},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=DH0vmD8ghdMC&pg=PA185","external_links_name":"Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide"},{"Link":"https://books.google.com/books?id=OoFDK_sDGHwC","external_links_name":"The Myths of Narasimha and Vamana: Two Avatars in Cosmological Perspective"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_analyzer

Antenna analyzer

["1 Types of analysers","1.1 Antenna bridge","1.2 Complex voltage and current meters","1.3 High and low power methods","2 See also","3 References"]

For the San Francisco hackerspace/makerspace, see Noisebridge. An antenna analyzer measuring SWR and complex impedance of a dummy load. MFJ-269, MFJ Enterprises Inc. An antenna analyzer or in British aerial analyser (also known as a noise bridge, RX bridge, SWR analyzer, or RF analyzer) is a device used for measuring the input impedance of antenna systems in radio electronics applications. In radio communications systems, including amateur radio, an antenna analyzer is a common tool used for fine tuning antenna and feedline performance, as well as troubleshooting them. Antenna bridges have long been used in the broadcast industry to tune antennas. A bridge is available which measures complex impedance while the transmitter is operating, practically a necessity when tuning multi-tower antenna systems. In more recent times the direct-reading network analyzers have become more common. Types of analysers There are several different instruments of varying complexity and accuracy for testing antennas and their feed lines. All can also be used to measure other electrical circuits and components (at least, in principle). The simplest is an SWR meter, which only indicates the degree of mismatch; the actual mismatched impedance must be inferred by measuring several nearby frequencies and performing a few simple calculations. The SWR meter requires a transmitter or signal generator to provide a few watts power test signal. An antenna bridge is able to measure at low power, but also requires a supplied test signal; depending on the bridge circuit, it can be used to measure both reactance and resistance by reading values marked on knobs that have been adjusted for a match. The noise bridge and network analyzers both supply their own very low-power test signals; both are able to measure both resistance and reactance, either by calculation or by reading knobs adjusted for a match. Modern analyzers directly display resistance and reactance, with the calculations done internally by a microprocessor. Antenna bridge A typical antenna bridge, the trimmer capacitor (C) is adjusted to make the bridge balance when the variable capacitor on the left is half meshed. Hence the bridge will be able to detect if an antenna is either a capacitive or inductive load.A bridge circuit has two legs which are frequency-dependent complex-valued impedances. One leg is a circuit in the analyzer with calibrated components whose combined impedance can be read on a scale. The other leg is the unknown – either an antenna or a reactive component. To measure impedance, the bridge is adjusted, so that the two legs have the same impedance. When the two impedances are the same, the bridge is balanced. Using this circuit it is possible to either measure the impedance of the antenna connected between ANT and GND, or it is possible to adjust an antenna, until it has the same impedance as the network on the left side of the diagram below. The bridge can be driven either with white noise or a simple carrier (connected to drive). In the case of white noise the amplitude of the exciting signal can be very low and a radio receiver used as the detector. In the case where a simple carrier is used then depending on the level either a diode detector or a receiver can be used. In both cases a null will indicate when the bridge is balanced. Complex voltage and current meters A second type of antenna analyzer measures the complex voltage across and current into the antenna. The operator then uses mathematical methods to calculate complex impedance, or reads it off a calibrated meter or a digital display. Professional instruments of this type are usually called network analyzers. Modern analyzers do not require the operator to adjust any R and X knobs as with the bridge-type analyzers. Many of these instruments have the ability to automatically sweep the frequency over a wide range and then plot the antenna characteristics on a graphical display. Doing this with a manually-operated bridge would be time-consuming, requiring one to change the frequency and adjust the knobs at each frequency for a match. High and low power methods Many transmitters include an SWR meter in the output circuits which works by measuring the reflected wave from the antenna back to the transmitter, which is minimal when the antenna is matched. Reflected power from a badly tuned antenna can present an improper load at the transmitter which can damage it. The SWR meter requires about 5–10 watts of outgoing signal from the radio to register the reflected power (if any), and then only indicates the relative degree of mismatch, not the reactive and resistive impedance seen at the end of the antenna's feedline. A complex-impedance antenna analyzer typically only requires a few milliwatts of power be applied to the antenna, and typically provides its own signal, not requiring any test signal from a transmitter. Using a low-power test signal avoids damaging the analyzer when testing a badly-matched antenna. In addition, because its signal power is very low, the analyzer can be used for frequencies outside of the transmit bands licensed to its operator, and thus measure antenna performance over an unrestricted range of frequencies. See also Impedance matching Transmitter References ^ Wilson, Mark J.; Reed, Dana G., eds. (2007). The ARRL Handbook for Radio Communications. Newington, CT: The American Radio Relay League. ISBN 978-0-87259-976-5. The comprehensive RF engineering reference ISBN 978-0-87259-976-5 ^ Battison, John. "Using the operating impedance bridge". Radio magazine (online ed.). New Bay Media. Archived from the original on 18 July 2016. Retrieved 20 July 2016. The Radio Technology Leader ^ Hallas, Joel R. (W1ZR) (August 2016). "Antenna analyzers - the basics". QST Magazine. American Radio Relay League. pp. 32–34. ISSN 0033-4812.{{cite magazine}}: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link) ^ Carr, Joseph J. (11 December 2000). "Chapter 17 Building and using an RF noise bridge". Secrets of RF Circuit Design (3rd ed.). McGraw-Hill / TAB Electronics. p. 319. ISBN 0-07-137067-6, ISBN 978-0071370677 ^ a b Carr, Joseph J. (1 October 1999). "Chapter 5 Spectrum and network analyzers; Chapter 12 Antenna and transmission line measurements". Practical Radio Frequency Test and Measurement: A technician's handbook (1st ed.). Newnes. pp. 102, 319. ISBN 0-7506-7161-0, ISBN 978-0-7506-7161-3

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Noisebridge","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noisebridge"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:SWR_analyzer_measuring_a_dummy_load.jpg"},{"link_name":"MFJ Enterprises","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MFJ_Enterprises"},{"link_name":"antenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(radio)"},{"link_name":"radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio"},{"link_name":"electronics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics"},{"link_name":"amateur radio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amateur_radio"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"},{"link_name":"complex impedance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_Impedance"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Radiomag-2"}],"text":"For the San Francisco hackerspace/makerspace, see Noisebridge.An antenna analyzer measuring SWR and complex impedance of a dummy load. MFJ-269, MFJ Enterprises Inc.An antenna analyzer or in British aerial analyser (also known as a noise bridge, RX bridge, SWR analyzer, or RF analyzer) is a device used for measuring the input impedance of antenna systems in radio electronics applications.In radio communications systems, including amateur radio, an antenna analyzer is a common tool used for fine tuning antenna and feedline performance, as well as troubleshooting them.[1]Antenna bridges have long been used in the broadcast industry to tune antennas. A bridge is available which measures complex impedance while the transmitter is operating, practically a necessity when tuning multi-tower antenna systems.[2] In more recent times the direct-reading network analyzers have become more common.","title":"Antenna analyzer"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"SWR meter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWR_meter"},{"link_name":"SWR meter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWR_meter"},{"link_name":"microprocessor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microprocessor"}],"text":"There are several different instruments of varying complexity and accuracy for testing antennas and their feed lines. All can also be used to measure other electrical circuits and components (at least, in principle).[3]The simplest is an SWR meter, which only indicates the degree of mismatch; the actual mismatched impedance must be inferred by measuring several nearby frequencies and performing a few simple calculations. The SWR meter requires a transmitter or signal generator to provide a few watts power test signal.\nAn antenna bridge is able to measure at low power, but also requires a supplied test signal; depending on the bridge circuit, it can be used to measure both reactance and resistance by reading values marked on knobs that have been adjusted for a match.\nThe noise bridge and network analyzers both supply their own very low-power test signals; both are able to measure both resistance and reactance, either by calculation or by reading knobs adjusted for a match. Modern analyzers directly display resistance and reactance, with the calculations done internally by a microprocessor.","title":"Types of analysers"},{"links_in_text":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Antennabridge.png"},{"link_name":"trimmer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trimmer_(electronics)"},{"link_name":"capacitor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capacitor"},{"link_name":"antenna","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antenna_(radio)"},{"link_name":"bridge circuit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bridge_circuit"},{"link_name":"frequency","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frequency"},{"link_name":"complex","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number"},{"link_name":"impedances","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_impedance"},{"link_name":"reactive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electrical_reactance"},{"link_name":"the same impedance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impedance_matching"},{"link_name":"amplitude","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amplitude"},{"link_name":"diode","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carr-1999-4"},{"link_name":"null","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Null_(mathematics)"}],"sub_title":"Antenna bridge","text":"A typical antenna bridge, the trimmer capacitor (C) is adjusted to make the bridge balance when the variable capacitor on the left is half meshed. Hence the bridge will be able to detect if an antenna is either a capacitive or inductive load.A bridge circuit has two legs which are frequency-dependent complex-valued impedances. One leg is a circuit in the analyzer with calibrated components whose combined impedance can be read on a scale. The other leg is the unknown – either an antenna or a reactive component.To measure impedance, the bridge is adjusted, so that the two legs have the same impedance. When the two impedances are the same, the bridge is balanced. Using this circuit it is possible to either measure the impedance of the antenna connected between ANT and GND, or it is possible to adjust an antenna, until it has the same impedance as the network on the left side of the diagram below. The bridge can be driven either with white noise or a simple carrier (connected to drive). In the case of white noise the amplitude of the exciting signal can be very low and a radio receiver used as the detector. In the case where a simple carrier is used then depending on the level either a diode detector or a receiver can be used.[4] In both cases a null will indicate when the bridge is balanced.","title":"Types of analysers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"network analyzers","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network_analyzer_(electrical)"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carr-2000-5"}],"sub_title":"Complex voltage and current meters","text":"A second type of antenna analyzer measures the complex voltage across and current into the antenna. The operator then uses mathematical methods to calculate complex impedance, or reads it off a calibrated meter or a digital display. Professional instruments of this type are usually called network analyzers.[5]Modern analyzers do not require the operator to adjust any R and X knobs as with the bridge-type analyzers. Many of these instruments have the ability to automatically sweep the frequency over a wide range and then plot the antenna characteristics on a graphical display. Doing this with a manually-operated bridge would be time-consuming, requiring one to change the frequency and adjust the knobs at each frequency for a match.","title":"Types of analysers"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"SWR meter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWR_meter"},{"link_name":"reflected wave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection_(electrical)"},{"link_name":"transmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter"},{"link_name":"SWR meter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SWR_meter"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Carr-2000-5"}],"sub_title":"High and low power methods","text":"Many transmitters include an SWR meter in the output circuits which works by measuring the reflected wave from the antenna back to the transmitter, which is minimal when the antenna is matched. Reflected power from a badly tuned antenna can present an improper load at the transmitter which can damage it. The SWR meter requires about 5–10 watts of outgoing signal from the radio to register the reflected power (if any), and then only indicates the relative degree of mismatch, not the reactive and resistive impedance seen at the end of the antenna's feedline.A complex-impedance antenna analyzer typically only requires a few milliwatts of power be applied to the antenna, and typically provides its own signal, not requiring any test signal from a transmitter. Using a low-power test signal avoids damaging the analyzer when testing a badly-matched antenna.[5] In addition, because its signal power is very low, the analyzer can be used for frequencies outside of the transmit bands licensed to its operator, and thus measure antenna performance over an unrestricted range of frequencies.","title":"Types of analysers"}]

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[{"title":"Impedance matching","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impedance_matching"},{"title":"Transmitter","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transmitter"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZeroAccess_botnet

ZeroAccess botnet

["1 History and propagation","2 Operation","3 See also","4 References","5 External links"]

Windows-platform based Trojan horse computer malware ZeroAccess is a Trojan horse computer malware that affects Microsoft Windows operating systems. It is used to download other malware on an infected machine from a botnet while remaining hidden using rootkit techniques. History and propagation The ZeroAccess botnet was discovered at least around May 2011. The ZeroAccess rootkit responsible for the botnet's spread is estimated to have been present on at least 9 million systems. Estimates botnet size vary across sources; antivirus vendor Sophos estimated the botnet size at around 1 million active and infected machines in the third quarter of 2012, and security firm Kindsight estimated 2.2 million infected and active systems. The bot itself is spread through the ZeroAccess rootkit through a variety of attack vectors. One attack vector is a form of social engineering, where a user is persuaded to execute malicious code either by disguising it as a legitimate file, or including it hidden as an additional payload in an executable that announces itself as, for example, bypassing copyright protection (a keygen). A second attack vector utilizes an advertising network in order to have the user click on an advertisement that redirects them to a site hosting the malicious software itself. Finally, a third infection vector used is an affiliate scheme where third-party persons are paid for installing the rootkit on a system. In December 2013 a coalition led by Microsoft moved to destroy the command and control network for the botnet. The attack was ineffective though because not all C&C were seized, and its peer-to-peer command and control component was unaffected - meaning the botnet could still be updated at will. Operation Once a system has been infected with the ZeroAccess rootkit it will start one of the two main botnet operations: bitcoin mining or click fraud. Machines involved in bitcoin mining generate bitcoins for their controller, the estimated worth of which was 2.7 million US dollars per year in September 2012. The machines used for click fraud simulate clicks on website advertisements paid for on a pay per click basis. The estimated profit for this activity may be as high as 100,000 US dollars per day, costing advertisers $900,000 a day in fraudulent clicks. Typically, ZeroAccess infects the Master Boot Record (MBR) of the infected machine. It may alternatively infect a random driver in C:\Windows\System32\Drivers giving it total control over the operating system. It also disables the Windows Security Center, Firewall, and Windows Defender from the operating system. ZeroAccess also hooks itself into the TCP/IP stack to help with the click fraud. The software also looks for the Tidserv malware and removes it if it finds it. See also Botnet Malware Command and control (malware) Zombie (computer science) Internet crime Internet security Click fraud Clickbot.A References ^ a b "Risk Detected". www.broadcom.com. ^ "Monthly Malware Statistics, May 2011". securelist.com. ^ Wyke, James (19 September 2012). "Over 9 million PCs infected – ZeroAccess botnet uncovered". Sophos. Retrieved 27 December 2012. ^ Jackson Higgins, Kelly (30 October 2012). "ZeroAccess Botnet Surges". Dark Reading. Archived from the original on 3 December 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2012. ^ Kumar, Mohit (19 September 2012). "9 million PCs infected with ZeroAccess botnet". The Hacker News. Retrieved 27 December 2012. ^ Wyke, James (4 April 2012). "The ZeroAccess rootkit". Sophos. p. 2. Retrieved 27 December 2012. ^ Mimoso, Michael (30 October 2012). "ZeroAccess Botnet Cashing in on Click Fraud and Bitcoin Mining". ThreatPost. Archived from the original on 3 December 2012. Retrieved 27 December 2012. ^ Gallagher, Sean (6 December 2013). "Microsoft disrupts botnet that generated $2.7M per month for operators". Ars Technica. Retrieved 9 December 2013. ^ Wyke, James. "The ZeroAccess Botnet: Mining and Fraud for Massive Financial Gain" (PDF). Sophos. pp. (Page 45). Retrieved 27 December 2012. ^ Leyden, John (24 September 2012). "Crooks can milk '$100k a day' from 1-million-zombie ZeroAccess army". The Register. Retrieved 27 December 2012. ^ Ragan, Steve (31 October 2012). "Millions of Home Networks Infected by ZeroAccess Botnet". SecurityWeek. Retrieved 27 December 2012. ^ Dunn, John E. (2 November 2012). "ZeroAccess bot has infected 2 million consumers, firm calculates". Techworld. Retrieved 27 December 2012. External links Analysis of the ZeroAccess botnet, created by Sophos. ZeroAccess Botnet, Kindsight Security Labs. New C&C Protocol for ZeroAccess, Kindsight Security Labs. vteHacking in the 2010s ← 2000s Timeline 2020s → Major incidents2010 Operation Aurora (publication of 2009 events) Australian cyberattacks Operation Olympic Games Operation ShadowNet Operation Payback 2011 Canadian government DigiNotar DNSChanger HBGary Federal Operation AntiSec PlayStation network outage RSA SecurID compromise 2012 LinkedIn hack Stratfor email leak Operation High Roller 2013 South Korea cyberattack Snapchat hack Cyberterrorism attack of June 25 2013 Yahoo! data breach Singapore cyberattacks 2014 Anthem medical data breach Operation Tovar 2014 celebrity nude photo leak 2014 JPMorgan Chase data breach 2014 Sony Pictures hack Russian hacker password theft 2014 Yahoo! data breach 2015 Office of Personnel Management data breach Hacking Team Ashley Madison data breach VTech data breach Ukrainian Power Grid Cyberattack SWIFT banking hack 2016 Bangladesh Bank robbery Hollywood Presbyterian Medical Center ransomware incident Commission on Elections data breach Democratic National Committee cyber attacks Vietnam Airport Hacks DCCC cyber attacks Indian Bank data breaches Surkov leaks Dyn cyberattack Russian interference in the 2016 U.S. elections 2016 Bitfinex hack 2017 SHAttered 2017 Macron e-mail leaks WannaCry ransomware attack Westminster data breach Petya and NotPetya 2017 Ukraine ransomware attacks Vault7 data breach Equifax data breach Deloitte breach Disqus breach 2018 Trustico Atlanta cyberattack SingHealth data breach 2019 Sri Lanka cyberattack Baltimore ransomware attack Bulgarian revenue agency hack WhatsApp snooping scandal Jeff Bezos phone hacking incident Hacktivism Anonymous associated events CyberBerkut GNAA Goatse Security Lizard Squad LulzRaft LulzSec New World Hackers NullCrew OurMine PayPal 14 RedHack Teamp0ison TDO UGNazi Ukrainian Cyber Alliance Advancedpersistent threats Bangladesh Black Hat Hackers Bureau 121 Charming Kitten Cozy Bear Dark Basin DarkMatter Elfin Team Equation Group Fancy Bear GOSSIPGIRL (confederation) Guccifer 2.0 Hacking Team Helix Kitten Iranian Cyber Army Lazarus Group (BlueNorOff) (AndAriel) NSO Group Numbered Panda PLA Unit 61398 PLA Unit 61486 PLATINUM Pranknet Red Apollo Rocket Kitten Stealth Falcon Syrian Electronic Army Tailored Access Operations The Shadow Brokers xDedic Yemen Cyber Army Individuals Cyber Anakin George Hotz Guccifer Jeremy Hammond Junaid Hussain Kristoffer von Hassel Mustafa Al-Bassam MLT Ryan Ackroyd Sabu Topiary Track2 The Jester Major vulnerabilitiespublicly disclosed Evercookie (2010) iSeeYou (2013) Heartbleed (2014) Shellshock (2014) POODLE (2014) Rootpipe (2014) Row hammer (2014) SS7 vulnerabilities (2014) WinShock (2014) JASBUG (2015) Stagefright (2015) DROWN (2016) Badlock (2016) Dirty COW (2016) Cloudbleed (2017) Broadcom Wi-Fi (2017) EternalBlue (2017) DoublePulsar (2017) Silent Bob is Silent (2017) KRACK (2017) ROCA vulnerability (2017) BlueBorne (2017) Meltdown (2018) Spectre (2018) EFAIL (2018) Exactis (2018) Speculative Store Bypass (2018) Lazy FP state restore (2018) TLBleed (2018) SigSpoof (2018) Foreshadow (2018) Dragonblood (2019) Microarchitectural Data Sampling (2019) BlueKeep (2019) Kr00k (2019) Malware2010 Bad Rabbit Black Energy 2 SpyEye Stuxnet 2011 Coreflood Alureon Duqu Kelihos Metulji botnet Stars 2012 Carna Dexter FBI Flame Mahdi Red October Shamoon 2013 CryptoLocker DarkSeoul 2014 Brambul Black Energy 3 Carbanak Careto DarkHotel Duqu 2.0 FinFisher Gameover ZeuS Regin 2015 Dridex Hidden Tear Rombertik TeslaCrypt 2016 Hitler Jigsaw KeRanger Necurs MEMZ Mirai Pegasus Petya and NotPetya X-Agent 2017 BrickerBot Kirk LogicLocker Rensenware Triton WannaCry XafeCopy 2018 VPNFilter 2019 Grum Joanap NetTraveler R2D2 Tinba Titanium ZeroAccess botnet vteBotnetsNotable botnets 3ve Akbot Asprox Bagle BASHLITE Bredolab Cutwail Conficker Donbot Festi Grum Gumblar Kelihos Koobface Kraken Lethic Mariposa Mega-D Mirai Metulji Nitol Rustock Sality Slenfbot Srizbi Storm TDL-4 Torpig Virut Vulcanbot Waledac ZeroAccess Zeus Main articles Browser security Computer virus Computer worm Malbot Internet security Malware Man-in-the-browser Network security Operation: Bot Roast Trojan horse

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Trojan horse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trojan_horse_(computing)"},{"link_name":"malware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware"},{"link_name":"Microsoft Windows","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microsoft_Windows"},{"link_name":"botnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botnet"},{"link_name":"rootkit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rootkit"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-1"}],"text":"ZeroAccess is a Trojan horse computer malware that affects Microsoft Windows operating systems. It is used to download other malware on an infected machine from a botnet while remaining hidden using rootkit techniques.[1]","title":"ZeroAccess botnet"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"rootkit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rootkit"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SophosUncovered-3"},{"link_name":"Sophos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sophos"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DarkReading-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-thehackernews-5"},{"link_name":"rootkit","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rootkit"},{"link_name":"social engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Social_engineering_(security)"},{"link_name":"keygen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Keygen"},{"link_name":"advertising network","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advertising_network"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ThreatPost-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gallagher-8"}],"text":"The ZeroAccess botnet was discovered at least around May 2011.[2] The ZeroAccess rootkit responsible for the botnet's spread is estimated to have been present on at least 9 million systems.[3] Estimates botnet size vary across sources; antivirus vendor Sophos estimated the botnet size at around 1 million active and infected machines in the third quarter of 2012, and security firm Kindsight estimated 2.2 million infected and active systems.[4][5]The bot itself is spread through the ZeroAccess rootkit through a variety of attack vectors. One attack vector is a form of social engineering, where a user is persuaded to execute malicious code either by disguising it as a legitimate file, or including it hidden as an additional payload in an executable that announces itself as, for example, bypassing copyright protection (a keygen). A second attack vector utilizes an advertising network in order to have the user click on an advertisement that redirects them to a site hosting the malicious software itself. Finally, a third infection vector used is an affiliate scheme where third-party persons are paid for installing the rootkit on a system.[6][7]In December 2013 a coalition led by Microsoft moved to destroy the command and control network for the botnet. The attack was ineffective though because not all C&C were seized, and its peer-to-peer command and control component was unaffected - meaning the botnet could still be updated at will.[8]","title":"History and propagation"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bitcoin mining","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitcoin_mining"},{"link_name":"click fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Click_fraud"},{"link_name":"bitcoins","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bitcoin"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SophosMassiveGain-9"},{"link_name":"pay per click","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pay_per_click"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-TheRegister-10"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-SecutiryWeek-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Techworld-12"},{"link_name":"Master Boot Record","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Master_Boot_Record"},{"link_name":"operating system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operating_system"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"TCP/IP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TCP/IP"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-auto-1"}],"text":"Once a system has been infected with the ZeroAccess rootkit it will start one of the two main botnet operations: bitcoin mining or click fraud. Machines involved in bitcoin mining generate bitcoins for their controller, the estimated worth of which was 2.7 million US dollars per year in September 2012.[9] The machines used for click fraud simulate clicks on website advertisements paid for on a pay per click basis. The estimated profit for this activity may be as high as 100,000 US dollars per day,[10][11] costing advertisers $900,000 a day in fraudulent clicks.[12] Typically, ZeroAccess infects the Master Boot Record (MBR) of the infected machine. It may alternatively infect a random driver in C:\\Windows\\System32\\Drivers giving it total control over the operating system.[citation needed] It also disables the Windows Security Center, Firewall, and Windows Defender from the operating system. ZeroAccess also hooks itself into the TCP/IP stack to help with the click fraud.The software also looks for the Tidserv malware and removes it if it finds it.[1]","title":"Operation"}]

[]

[{"title":"Botnet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botnet"},{"title":"Malware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malware"},{"title":"Command and control (malware)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_and_control_(malware)"},{"title":"Zombie (computer science)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zombie_(computer_science)"},{"title":"Internet crime","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_crime"},{"title":"Internet security","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_security"},{"title":"Click fraud","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Click_fraud"},{"title":"Clickbot.A","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clickbot.A"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermodynamicist

Thermodynamicist

["1 History of term","2 See also","3 References"]

In thermodynamics, a thermodynamicist is someone who studies thermodynamic processes and phenomena, i.e. the physics that deal with mechanical action and relations of heat. Among the well-known number of famous thermodynamicists, include Sadi Carnot, Rudolf Clausius, Willard Gibbs, Hermann von Helmholtz, and Max Planck. History of term Although most consider the French physicist Nicolas Sadi Carnot to be the first true thermodynamicist, the term thermodynamics itself wasn't coined until 1849 by Lord Kelvin in his publication An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat. The first thermodynamic textbook was written in 1859 by William Rankine, a civil and mechanical engineering professor at the University of Glasgow. See also Thermodynamicists Thermodynamics topics References ^ Kelvin, William T. (1849). "An Account of Carnot's Theory of the Motive Power of Heat - with Numerical Results Deduced from Regnault's Experiments on Steam." Transactions of the Edinburg Royal Society, XVI. January 2. Scanned Copy ^ Cengel, Yunus A.; Boles, Michael A. (2005). Thermodynamics - An Engineering Approach. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0-07-310768-9.

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[]

[{"title":"Thermodynamicists","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Thermodynamicists"},{"title":"Thermodynamics topics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Thermodynamics"}]

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[{"Link":"http://visualiseur.bnf.fr/Visualiseur?Destination=Gallica&O=NUMM-95118","external_links_name":"Scanned Copy"}]

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nexenta_OS

Nexenta OS

["1 Repositories","2 Development","3 Releases and History","4 NexentaStor","5 ReadyDATAOS","6 See also","7 References","8 External links"]

Discontinued computer operating system This article uses bare URLs, which are uninformative and vulnerable to link rot. Please consider converting them to full citations to ensure the article remains verifiable and maintains a consistent citation style. Several templates and tools are available to assist in formatting, such as reFill (documentation) and Citation bot (documentation). (September 2022) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article's factual accuracy may be compromised due to out-of-date information. Please help update this article to reflect recent events or newly available information. (May 2013) Linux distribution Nexenta OSNexenta OS Alpha 5 running GNOME 2.14DeveloperNexenta Systems / HackZone membersOS familyUnix-like (SVR4 and Linux)Working stateDiscontinuedSource modelOpen sourceFinal release3.1.3.5 (October 31, 2012; 11 years ago (2012-10-31)) Final preview3.0 Release Candidate 3 (July 28, 2010; 13 years ago (2010-07-28)) Update methodAPT (front-ends available)Package managerdpkg (front-ends like Synaptic available)Platformsi386, AMD64, SPARCKernel typeMonolithic (illumos)UserlandGNU, libc of OpenSolarisDefaultuser interfaceCommand line/GNOMELicenseVariousOfficial websitewww.nexenta.com www.nexenta.org (archive) Nexenta OS, officially known as the Nexenta Core Platform, is a discontinued computer operating system based on OpenSolaris and Ubuntu that runs on IA-32- and x86-64-based systems. It emerged in fall 2005, after Sun Microsystems started the OpenSolaris project in June of that year. Nexenta Systems, Inc. initiated the project and sponsored its development. Nexenta OS version 1.0 was released in February 2008. In late 2011, the Nexenta OS brand was terminated and replaced with Illumian, which is derived from community development for illumos and OpenIndiana, but was distinguished by its use of Debian packaging. Illumian version 1.0 was released in February 2012. Following the initial release of Illumian in 2012, the Illumian project was discontinued. Repositories There were initially two official APT repositories: "testing" and "unstable", totalling more than 9000 packages. A third "stable" was added for the first official release. Nexenta OS is available as InstallCD and VMware images. A Live CD is also available, but only for releases up to alpha 5. Nexenta repositories follow the general Debian structure (main contrib non-free). Stable releases use a subset of this structure. Packages originate from Debian GNU/Linux. The nexenta.org website was retired in early 2012. Development Since Nexenta OS does not use the Linux kernel, and Sun only recently began releasing the code of their Solaris operating system as free and open source software, it supports less diverse hardware than other Debian variants. The Nexenta OS team has decided to focus on a minimal OpenSolaris effort called the Nexenta Core Platform (NCP) which forms the basis of the NexentaStor NAS storage solution. Version 1.0 of Nexenta Core Platform was released on February 10, 2008. Nexenta Core Platform was the first operating system to combine the OpenSolaris kernel with GNU userland tools. It aimed to bring technologies such as ZFS and Zones to the GNU/Debian community. An additional purpose of the OS was to provide a kernel allowing proprietary closed source hardware drivers to be produced for inclusion in an open source operating system. Releases and History Nexenta Core Platform 1.0 was released on February 10, 2008. It was based on Ubuntu 6.06 "Dapper Drake" and OpenSolaris b82. The release included: ZFS root/boot Zones integrated with dpkg/apt-get BrandZ with preconfigured support for Debian and Ubuntu Stable toolchain Server/storage software support Xen DomU/Dom0 Nexenta Core Platform 2.0 was released on May 25, 2009. It included packages based on Ubuntu 8.04 "Hardy Heron" LTS. Nexenta Core Platform 3.0.1 was released on September 17, 2010. The release included many updated packages, support for ZFS deduplication, and Crossbow support, among other fixes. NexentaStor NexentaStor is a proprietary operating system built by Nexenta Systems on top of the Nexenta Core Platform. It is optimized for use in virtualized server environments including NAS, iSCSI, and Fibre Channel applications, and is built around the ZFS file system. It features iSCSI support, unlimited incremental backups or 'snapshots', snapshot mirroring (replication), block level mirroring (CDP), integrated search within ZFS snapshots and a custom API. Through its focus on ZFS, it carries with it potential benefits for virtualized server farms in terms of performance and thin provisioning. The operating system is currently distributed as ISO and VMware disk images with pricing determined on a per-terabyte and per-server licensing basis. A "community edition" was available free of charge for users with less than 18 terabytes of raw disk space (pre-redundancy and volume creation). This free tier model changed with the release of version 5.0 (community edition only) to a 10 terabyte limit of assigned and usable (post-redundancy and volume creation) disk space. It is the same as the enterprise version, except for the lack of paid plugins and commercial support. It can install many of the free and open source plugins that are developed and hosted on the community edition website. The "community edition" though is only intended for hobbyist use. Production use of the "community edition" is forbidden by the NexentaStor EULA. Therefore, the use of the term "community edition" remains very disputable. ReadyDATAOS The ReadyDATAOS firmware is an embedded network-attached storage (NAS) distribution based on Nexenta OS and has the same ZFS support as Nexenta OS. It runs on NetGear ReadyDATA hardware. See also Free and open-source software portal GNU variants References ^ http://distrowatch.com/table.php?distribution=nexenta ^ Milek's blog ^ "Illumian - Overview". Retrieved 2015-10-24. ^ "Announcing NexentaCP(b65) with ZFS/Boot integrated installer". Archived from the original on 2007-09-27. ^ "NexentaOS has a chance to succeed on a Desktop". Linux.com. June 16, 2006. ^ Ross, Alex (February 10, 2008). "Nexenta Core Platform 1.0 available". gnusol-devel (Mailing list). Retrieved May 25, 2011. ^ Gulecha, Anil (May 25, 2009). "Nexenta Core Platform 2 Released". gnusol-devel (Mailing list). Retrieved May 25, 2011. ^ "Distribution Release: Nexenta Core Platform 3.0.1". Retrieved 19 September 2010. ^ "Home". ^ "NexentaStor License Versions". Archived from the original on 2010-12-19. Retrieved 2010-12-14. External links Official Corporate Site vteSolarisTechnologies Direct binding Doors DTrace IPMP JumpStart mdb MPxIO SMF snoop Containers Crossbow Cluster Trusted Extensions ZFS OpenSolaris, illumos BeleniX Nexenta OS OpenIndiana OmniOS CE OpenSolaris for System z SmartOS Tribblix vteUbuntuGeneral Canonical Ltd. Releases Ubuntu philosophy People Jono Bacon Benjamin Mako Hill Ian Jackson Scott James Remnant Mark Shuttleworth Jeff Waugh Jane Silber DerivativesOfficial editions Ubuntu Ubuntu Server Ubuntu Kylin Community supported Edubuntu Kubuntu Lubuntu Ubuntu Budgie Ubuntu Cinnamon Ubuntu MATE Ubuntu Studio Ubuntu Touch Ubuntu Unity Xubuntu Third party elementary OS Emmabuntüs KDE neon Linux Lite Linux Mint Pop!_OS Trisquel Zorin OS Discontinued EasyPeasy Ubuntu GNOME Gobuntu Mythbuntu Ubuntu Netbook Edition Ubuntu JeOS Software Bazaar Juju Landscape Mir display server Startup Disk Creator Software Updater Ubiquity Discontinued OpenCD StartUp-Manager Ubuntu for Android Ubuntu One Ubuntu Software Center Unity interface Upstart Usplash Wubi XSplash Third party Brasero GNOME Files Technology and user interface LightDM Side Stage Snappy Uncomplicated Firewall Third party AppArmor APT deb format dpkg Hardware System76 Tuxedo Computers Ubuntu Edge Support Ask Ubuntu Launchpad Medibuntu Paper cut bug Personal Package Archive Restricted extras Ubuntu Professional Certification Ubuntu Forums Ubuntu One Account (Ubuntu SSO) Third party GetDeb Fonts Ubuntu (typeface) Ubuntu Titling Media Full Circle Ubuntu User Related topics Debian aptitude dash Debian configuration system Linux portal Free and open-source software portal Category Commons Wikiversity vteUnix and Unix-like operating systems and compatibility layers Architecture Filesystem History Philosophy Security Shell OperatingsystemsBSD 386BSD FreeBSD NetBSD OpenBSD DragonFly BSD NeXTSTEP Darwin macOS iOS audioOS iPadOS tvOS watchOS bridgeOS SunOS Ultrix Linux Android Arch ChromeOS Debian Fedora Gentoo Red Hat SUSE Ubuntu Other distributions System V A/UX AIX HP-UX IRIX OpenServer Solaris OpenSolaris Illumos Tru64 UNIX UnixWare Other Coherent Domain/OS GNU Hurd LynxOS Minix MOS OSF/1 QNX BlackBerry 10 Research Unix SerenityOS Xenix more... Compatibilitylayers Cygwin Darling Eunice GNV Interix MachTen Microsoft POSIX subsystem MKS Toolkit PASE P.I.P.S. PWS/VSE-AF UNIX System Services UserLAnd Technologies Windows Services for UNIX Windows Subsystem for Linux Italics indicate discontinued systems. Category Commons

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It emerged in fall 2005, after Sun Microsystems started the OpenSolaris project in June of that year.[2] Nexenta Systems, Inc. initiated the project and sponsored its development. Nexenta OS version 1.0 was released in February 2008.In late 2011, the Nexenta OS brand was terminated and replaced with Illumian, which is derived from community development for illumos and OpenIndiana, but was distinguished by its use of Debian packaging. Illumian version 1.0 was released in February 2012. Following the initial release of Illumian in 2012, the Illumian project was discontinued.[3]","title":"Nexenta OS"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"APT","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advanced_Packaging_Tool"},{"link_name":"VMware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VMware"},{"link_name":"Live CD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live_CD"}],"text":"There were initially two official APT repositories: \"testing\" and \"unstable\", totalling more than 9000 packages. A third \"stable\" was added for the first official release. Nexenta OS is available as InstallCD and VMware images. A Live CD is also available, but only for releases up to alpha 5.Nexenta repositories follow the general Debian structure (main contrib non-free). Stable releases use a subset of this structure. Packages originate from Debian GNU/Linux. The nexenta.org website was retired in early 2012.","title":"Repositories"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Linux kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux_kernel"},{"link_name":"Sun","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems"},{"link_name":"Solaris","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"free","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Free_software"},{"link_name":"open source software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open_source_software"},{"link_name":"Debian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debian"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-ncp-4"},{"link_name":"NexentaStor","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/NexentaStor"},{"link_name":"kernel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kernel_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"GNU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU"},{"link_name":"userland","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Userland_(computing)"},{"link_name":"ZFS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZFS"},{"link_name":"Zones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_Containers"},{"link_name":"GNU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU"},{"link_name":"Debian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debian"},{"link_name":"open source","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Open-source_software"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"}],"text":"Since Nexenta OS does not use the Linux kernel, and Sun only recently began releasing the code of their Solaris operating system as free and open source software, it supports less diverse hardware than other Debian variants.The Nexenta OS team has decided to focus on a minimal OpenSolaris effort called the Nexenta Core Platform (NCP)[4] which forms the basis of the NexentaStor NAS storage solution. Version 1.0 of Nexenta Core Platform was released on February 10, 2008.Nexenta Core Platform was the first operating system to combine the OpenSolaris kernel with GNU userland tools. It aimed to bring technologies such as ZFS and Zones to the GNU/Debian community. An additional purpose of the OS was to provide a kernel allowing proprietary closed source hardware drivers to be produced for inclusion in an open source operating system.[5]","title":"Development"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"ZFS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZFS"},{"link_name":"Zones","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solaris_Containers"},{"link_name":"dpkg","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dpkg"},{"link_name":"apt-get","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apt-get"},{"link_name":"BrandZ","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Branded_zones"},{"link_name":"Debian","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Debian"},{"link_name":"Ubuntu","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ubuntu_(operating_system)"},{"link_name":"Xen","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xen"},{"link_name":"DomU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DomU"},{"link_name":"Dom0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dom0"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-DW-8"}],"text":"Nexenta Core Platform 1.0 was released on February 10, 2008. It was based on Ubuntu 6.06 \"Dapper Drake\" and OpenSolaris b82.[6] The release included:\nZFS root/boot\nZones integrated with dpkg/apt-get\nBrandZ with preconfigured support for Debian and Ubuntu\nStable toolchain\nServer/storage software support\nXen DomU/Dom0\nNexenta Core Platform 2.0 was released on May 25, 2009. It included packages based on Ubuntu 8.04 \"Hardy Heron\" LTS.[7]\nNexenta Core Platform 3.0.1 was released on September 17, 2010. The release included many updated packages, support for ZFS deduplication, and Crossbow support, among other fixes.[8]","title":"Releases and History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"NAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network-attached_storage"},{"link_name":"iSCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISCSI"},{"link_name":"Fibre Channel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibre_Channel"},{"link_name":"ZFS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ZFS"},{"link_name":"iSCSI","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISCSI"},{"link_name":"CDP","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Continuous_data_protection"},{"link_name":"thin provisioning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thin_provisioning"},{"link_name":"ISO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISO_9660"},{"link_name":"VMware","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VMware"},{"link_name":"disk images","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disk_image"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"}],"text":"NexentaStor is a proprietary operating system built by Nexenta Systems on top of the Nexenta Core Platform. It is optimized for use in virtualized server environments including NAS, iSCSI, and Fibre Channel applications, and is built around the ZFS file system. It features iSCSI support, unlimited incremental backups or 'snapshots', snapshot mirroring (replication), block level mirroring (CDP), integrated search within ZFS snapshots and a custom API. Through its focus on ZFS, it carries with it potential benefits for virtualized server farms in terms of performance and thin provisioning. The operating system is currently distributed as ISO and VMware disk images with pricing determined on a per-terabyte and per-server licensing basis.[9]A \"community edition\" was available free of charge for users with less than 18 terabytes of raw disk space (pre-redundancy and volume creation).[10] This free tier model changed with the release of version 5.0 (community edition only) to a 10 terabyte limit of assigned and usable (post-redundancy and volume creation) disk space. It is the same as the enterprise version, except for the lack of paid plugins and commercial support. It can install many of the free and open source plugins that are developed and hosted on the community edition website. The \"community edition\" though is only intended for hobbyist use. Production use of the \"community edition\" is forbidden by the NexentaStor EULA. Therefore, the use of the term \"community edition\" remains very disputable.","title":"NexentaStor"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ReadyDATAOS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ReadyDATAOS&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"network-attached storage","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Network-attached_storage"}],"text":"The ReadyDATAOS firmware is an embedded network-attached storage (NAS) distribution based on Nexenta OS and has the same ZFS support as Nexenta OS. It runs on NetGear ReadyDATA hardware.","title":"ReadyDATAOS"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anatoly_Kitov

Anatoly Kitov

["1 Early life and education","2 Early research career","2.1 First computer department in the USSR","2.2 Creation of the USSR anti-missile defense system","2.3 New computer development","2.4 Writing on programming, computers and their applications","3 Advances in cybernetics","3.1 Cybernetics science in the USSR","3.2 Computer networking for national economic planning","3.3 Information retrieval systems","3.4 Theory and practice of algorithmic programming languages","3.5 Computer unification and standardisation","4 Medical cybernetics","5 Academic career","6 Later life and death","7 Bibliography","8 Recognition","9 See also","10 References","11 External links"]

Soviet military analyst, engineer, mathematician and information scientist This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.Find sources: "Anatoly Kitov" – news · newspapers · books · scholar · JSTOR (December 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message) This article may require copy editing for grammar, style, cohesion, tone, or spelling. You can assist by editing it. (April 2023) (Learn how and when to remove this message) Dr.Anatoly Ivanovich KitovАнатолий Иванович КитовBorn9 August 1920Samara, Russian SFSRDied14 October 2005(2005-10-14) (aged 85)MoscowAlma materDzerzhinsky Artillery Academy (1950)Occupations Military officer scientist engineer EmployerPlekhanov Russian University of EconomicsKnown forScientist in cybernetics, a pioneer of cybernetics in the Soviet UnionTitleDoctor of EngineeringProfessorChildren1Websitewww.kitov-anatoly.ru (in Russian)Signature Anatoly Ivanovich Kitov (9 August 1920, Samara - 14 October 2005) was a pioneer of cybernetics in the Soviet Union. Early life and education Anatoly Kitov was born in Samara in 1920. The Kitov family moved to Tashkent in 1921, as Anatoly's father, Ivan Stepanovich Kitov, had served as a junior officer in the White Army and wanted to avoid the repercussions of the Russian Civil War. Anatoly excelled at secondary school and graduated in 1939. However, his enrollment at Tashkent State Technical University was interrupted when he was called up for military service. While serving in the Red Army, his exceptional abilities caught the attention of Kliment Voroshilov, who ordered him to enlist in the High Artillery School in Leningrad. In June 1941, Kitov and his fellow students had to halt their studies and were urgently deployed to the front. Kitov was already a lieutenant at that time. During lulls between battles, Kitov pursued his studies in mathematics and other university subjects. In 1943, at the age of 22, he conducted his first analytical work, proposing a new method of anti-aircraft shooting. In August 1945, Kitov gained admission to the rocket armaments department of the Dzerzhinsky Artillery Academy, a prestigious military university in the USSR. He skipped the first academic year and joined in the second. Kitov took an active role as chairman of the academy's student scientific society. Throughout his studies, he worked on the development of a novel rocket weapon and received an "author's certificate on the invention" (patent) from the USSR State Committee on Inventions. His project proposal was later presented to Joseph Stalin, the supreme commander of the Red Army and General Secretary of the Communist Party. Furthermore, Kitov contributed to the efforts of Sergei Korolev's task force, which was engaged in the development of the Soviet R-1 missile. In August 1945, Kitov gained admission to the rocket armaments department of the Dzerzhinsky Artillery Academy, a prestigious military university in the USSR. He skipped the first academic year and joined in the second. Kitov took an active role as chairman of the academy's student scientific society. Throughout his studies, he worked on the development of a novel rocket weapon and received an "author's certificate on the invention" (patent) from the USSR State Committee on Inventions. His project proposal was later presented to Joseph Stalin, the Red Army supreme commander and General Secretary of the Communist Party. Kitov also contributed to the efforts of Sergei Korolev's task force, which was engaged in the development of the Soviet R-1 missile. In 1950, Kitov graduated from the academy with honors and received a gold medal. Early research career Kitov was the first user of the first Soviet serial computer "Strela" within the Military Ministry of the USSR. Kitov was the first in the USSR to organise and lead scientific work on solving military problems with the use of electronic computers. Previously their duties were calculations for a variety of mathematician bureaus within the General Staff of the USSR armed forces, for the Main Intelligence Directorate, for the Main Directorate of the Land Forces, and for the Directorate of Support, among others. By the mid-1950s, Kitov developed his main principles of computer-based automated military-control and management systems for defence purposes. Great measures were taken to apply these principles. Between 1953 and 1963, Kitov issued the Soviet Union's first series of scientific journal articles on military informatics. They were published by the journals Military Thought, Radioelectronics, News of the F.E. Dzerzhisky Artillery Academy, and periodical collections of works at the USSR Ministry of Defence, and other "special" (classified) sources. In Computer Center Number 1 at the Ministry of Defense of the USSR, Kitov came up with many of the ideas of modern military informatics used today. First computer department in the USSR In 1952, Kitov founded and headed the first Soviet "Department of Computers" at the Artillery Academy. At that time it was called the "Department of Mathematical Machines". Also in 1952 Kitov wrote the nation's first scientific PhD dissertation on programming, with the subject "Programming of the outer ballistics problems for the long range missiles". In 1953, Kitov published a pioneering 30-page scientific article, "Implementation and usage of electronic computers", the Union's first such article. In May 1954, when he was 33, Kitov founded the first computer centre in the USSR, the Computer Centre No 1 of the Ministry of Defense (secret number 01168) and became its first head. He enjoyed indisputable authority and respect among his colleagues and subordinates. Creation of the USSR anti-missile defense system Ballistic calculations for strategic rocket forces and for the first spaceflights took special priority in the CC No. 1's work. A description of the architecture of the highly advanced "M-100" computer became a part of Kitov's thesis for his second doctoral degree. The dissertation was titled "Implementation of Computers for solving the Problems of Antiaircraft and Antimissile Defence." He defended it in 1963 at the closed (for authorised persons only) meeting of the Scientific Council of the Institute of Management Problems. Besides the "M-100", in his dissertation research Kitov also analysed principles of designing specialised military computers. He defined specific features of their structure, invented algorithmic programming languages for solving complex anti-air defence problems with the use of computers, and performed computer modelling of dynamical systems connected with air defence systems demands. New computer development At the CC No. 1, Kitov headed and participated in the design and manufacturing of two new computers - "M-100" and "Udar" ("blow"). Both were successfully put into operation. The M-100 processed myriads of data from surveillance radar stations. "Udar" was used to prepare ballistic missiles for launch. For the principle of parallel processing of instructions, the author's certificate for invention was given to A. I. Kitov with his three colleagues on 27 June 1958. Kitov proposed to implement this principle at the CC No. 1, where it was used for the M-100, which was developed under Kitov's guidance. It was the fastest computer in the world, at one hundred thousand instructions per second. In the M-100 some of the world's first immediate access stores on ferrite cores were used. The M-100's two-level addressing of caches was an important factor in increasing its performance. Other major innovations were classified, as the whole project was secret. Kitov established a special department of mathematic for designing the M-100 computer. Writing on programming, computers and their applications The books Kitov wrote became a key part of the history of Soviet science education, as the first most complete sources on computer science, programming and automated management systems. Kitov was the author of the first Soviet book (1956) and textbook (1959) on programming, computers and their applications. Kitov published 12 scientific books translated into nine foreign languages. Kitov's books brought to general readers information and knowledge about the birth of a new branch of information technology. Advances in cybernetics Cybernetics science in the USSR From 1948 to 1955, cybernetics was officially called bourgeois pseudoscience in the USSR. From 1951 to 1952 Kitov read the book Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine by Norbert Wiener in English. He found this book in the library of the secret bass SKB-245. Kitov not only realized the scientific and social value of cybernetics, but also wrote the first positive article of it in the USSR, "The main features of cybernetics", notable for its academic boldness in the repressive Stalin era. Thusly, Kitov began the struggle for the recognition of cybernetics in the USSR. From 1953 to 1954, Kitov lectured on cybernetics in well-known Soviet organizations. Kitov invited the mathematicians Sergei Sobolev and Alexey Lyapunov to become co-authors of his article "The Main Features of Cybernetics". The article was published in the journal Voprosy Filosofii (1955, No. 4) and for the first time presented the principles of cybernetics to Soviet audiences. The victory for cybernetics was bolstered by the publication two months later of Kitov's article "Technical Cybernetics" in the popular technical monthly Radio. From 1955 to 1961, the scientific works of A.I. Kitov played a significant role in the recognition of cybernetics as a science and in its development in the USSR and other socialist countries. In his first book Digital Electronic Machines (1956) Kitov described what he called "non-arithmetic usage of computers". Large sections of the book were dedicated to usage of computers in economic planning, automation of production processes, and solving other intellectual problems. In his next book Electronic Computing Machines, released in 1958, Kitov describes in detail some perspectives of complex automation in management, including managing industrial production and solving economic problems. Kitov was the creator of the idea of automated management systems in the Soviet Union. In his paper "Programming information and logic tasks" (1967), Kitov presented "Associative programming" technology, a method for solving logical problems with large data array processing. The programming language ALGEM, created with Kitov's guidance, was described. ALGEM was used in the USSR and in the socialist countries of Eastern Europe. In his next book "Programming of economical and management tasks", Kitov generalised his experiences as the chief designer of the Automated management system (AMS) for the Ministry of Radio-Industry. That system was recognised as the basic model for AMSes for the other nine Ministries of the USSR weapons industry. The book presented basic principles of creation automated management systems for the plants and industry. Computer networking for national economic planning Kitov was the first computer scientist to demonstrate the necessity of creating a national automated system for management of the state economy, and simultaneously of the armed forces, on the basis of full-scale usage of electronic computers and mathematical methods. A newly acquired clear understanding of the AMS development's importance led Kitov, at the end of 1958, to conclude the need for automated management of the national economy and armed forces. The main point was that this automated management system should be based on a national network of regional computer centres (project "Red Book"). Kitov is famous in the former Soviet Union for being the first cyberneticist in the world to suggest a global integrated computer network for automated management of both the USSR's national economy and the armed forces. Kirov proposed that the technological structure of that system would be a global, double purpose, computer network, covering the whole of the USSR's territory, anticipating OGAS and the Internet. This network should consist of hundreds of computer centres maintained by specially qualified military personnel. In the autumn of 1959 Kitov sent his second letter on his project of global computer network (Project "Red Book") to the new General Secretary, Nikita Khrushchev. Information retrieval systems A typical example of Kitov's scientific intuition was his opinion on information retrieval systems. Kitov initiated scientific works at the CC No. 1 on computational linguistics and machine translation. Kitov proposed to concentrate the centre's initial basic efforts not on direct increases in performance, but on the development of methods, algorithms and programs which permitted extending processing, storage and retrieval semantic information. Theory and practice of algorithmic programming languages Kitov was the creator of two algorithmic programming languages - ALGEM and NORMIN. Compared with ALGOL-60, ALGEM was completed with new types of data, which made possible processing of not only numerical but also text-based information and data groups of various types. For a long time, ALGEM was a "workhorse" for Soviet programmers, who were working in the field "non-arithmetical" applications of computers. ALGEM was also used in numerous automated management systems of various levels, implemented in industry and administrative management structures, both in the USSR and in other socialist countries. In the 1970s, while working as the chief designer of the AMS ‘Healthcare’, A. I. Kitov developed an algorithmic programming language known as NORMIN, which was widely used in the USSR for medical diagnostics. NORMIN was the first Soviet query language for information retrieval on formalised natural language. Taking under consideration that medical AMS would be used by the public, who did not have special technical education, Kitov implemented a special interface in his systems, which was convenient and intuitive as much as was possible at the level of computer development of that time. The interface realised, among others, a dialogue mode called "human-computer" in the normalised natural language NORMIN, and served as a testbed for usability testing techniques. Computer unification and standardisation In his 1 July 1959 letter to Khrushchev, Kitov insisted that the introduction of automated systems in the country should be conducted under the supervision of state administrators at high levels – such as the members of the Soviet Politburo. Kitov proposed that all work in the field of computing research and automated management systems be subjected to a single state body which would be granted a monopoly to coordinate, control and implement all developments and achievements of that branch. "Only such organisation will grant successful progress, rational, without time-delays or senseless chaotic actions", he wrote. In his article "Computers – Assistants in each Thing" from 12 July 1960, A. I. Kitov declared that: "Taking under consideration exceptional importance of the computer development for the national economy and for the state defence, and also considering the fact that production of these computation means is steadily increasing, the need for centralised control over the work of computation centres of all kinds and categories and in control and coordination of usage of single computers, belonging to various organisations, is getting clear. These measures will enable the most rational usage of computers in interests of the whole country". Kitov wanted the system to perform on the national scale, and wrote about it in many of his articles. Unfortunately for him, all his ideas and proposals had not been heard and the bureaucratic machine was too slow. Medical cybernetics By the 1970s Kitov had worked in health care for more than ten years. He became a world leader in medical cybernetics, overseeing the development of the information model of the Soviet medical industry; unified software packages for forming and logical control of information arrays were worked out. Within the health care field he established scientific schools of thought, educated a number of talented followers, and guided many dissertation works. Kitov also published several conceptual articles and three monographs: "Automation of Information processing and Management in the Healthcare Field" (1976); "Introduction into Medical Cybernetics" (1977); and "Medical Cybernetics"(1983). A. I. Kitov made great contributions to the creation of "local" medical AMSes, which functioned within specific enterprises: at hospitals, clinics, and drugstores. The first AMS of that type operated at the clinical hospital No. 6, subject to the Third Directorate of the USSR Ministry of Health. Later this AMS supported a great deal of work at curing and rehabilitation of victims of the Chernobyl disaster in 1986. For 12 years, A. I. Kitov was the national representative of the USSR in the field of medical informatics at the United Nations and UNESCO, serving in top-level positions at the International Federation of Medical Informatics (MedInfo), the International Medical Informatics Association, and Technical Committee No. 4 of the International Federation for Information Processing (TC-4 IFIP). Kitov participated in the organization of three international congresses of MedInfo: The first World Congress of MedINFO (1974, Stockholm), the second World Congress (1977, Toronto), and the third World Congress (1980, Tokyo). About a thousand scientists from developed countries gathered at the second World Congress. Kitov also chaired the section on biomedical research. Academic career Pedagogical activity became of importance in Kitov's work. He had a natural interest for acquiring knowledge and studying its dissemination, and passing it on to those who surrounded him. During his tenure from 1951 to 1952, at the Dzerzhinsky Artillery Academy, Kitov conducted one of the Union's first three courses of lectures on computers and programming. More than 40 postgraduates, both Soviet and foreign, prepared and defended dissertations under Kitov's scientific supervision. In 1980, he accepted a position at the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, where he worked for seventeen years, as chair of the Computer Programming department. Later life and death This section is empty. You can help by adding to it. (April 2023) Bibliography Kitov A.I. Candidate dissertation (PhD thesis). "Programming of exterior ballistics for long-range rockets". Scientific Research Institute (SRI) – 4 USSR Ministry of Defence (MD USSR), 1952. P. 280. Kitov A.I. Application of Electronic Computers // News of F.E. Dzerzhinsky Academy, 1953. P. 30. Sobolev S.L., Kitov A.I., Lyapunov A.A. Main Traits of Cybernetics // "Problems of Philosophy". 1955. No 4. P. 136–148. Kitov A.I. Technical cybernetics // "Radio". 1955. No 11. P. 42–44. Kitov A.I. Electronic Digital Computers. М.: "Sovetskoe Radio", 1956. P. 358. Kitov A.I. Significance of electronic computers for military field // "Radioelektronika". 1956. No 12. P. Kitov A.I. Electronic computers and their military applications // "Voennaya mysl" (military thought). 1956. No 7. P. 25–35. Kitov A.I. Electronic Computers // Radio-engineering and electronics and their technical applications // Under editorship of academician A.I. Berg and prof. I.S. Dzhigit М.: published by the USSR Academy of Sciences (AS USSR), 1956. P. 106–114. Kitov A.I., Krinitsky N.A., Komolov P.N. Elements of programming (for digital electronic computers) / Under edition of A.I. Kitov. М.: published by the F.E. Dzerzhinsky Artillery Academy, 1956. P. 288. Kitov A.I. Mathematics in military field // "Voennaya mysl". 1958. No 6. P. 3–16. Kitov A.I. Electronic computers. М.: "Znanie". 1958. P. 31. Kitov A.I., Krinitsky N.A. Electronic computers. М.: "Nauka" (Science), 1958. P. 130; second – revised and enlarged – edition. М.: "Nauka", 1965. P. 176. Kitov A.I., Krinitsky N.A. Electronic computers. М.: "Nauka" (Science), 1958. P. 130; 2nd – revised and enlarged – edition. М.: "Nauka", 1965. P. 176. Kitov A.I., Mylnikov M.V. Shuvalov A.I., Seleznev O.V. Author's Certificate on special subject No 19628 from 6 May 1959. The State Committee of the USSR Council of Ministers on Inventions and Discoveries. Kitov A.I. Computing – assistant in each activity // Daily "Izvestia". 12 July 1960. P. 4 Kitov A.I. Cybernetics and management of the national economy // "Cybernetics – to serve communism" (scientific-popular series) Collection of works under edition of academician A.I. Berg. Vol. 1. М.- L.: "Gosenergoizdat", 1961. P. 203–218. Kitov A.I. Cybernetics in national economy management // Daily paper "Ekonomicheskaya gazeta". 28 August 1961. No 4. P. 9–11. Kitov A., Krinitskii N. Electronic computers. Oxford, London, New York, Paris: Pergamon Press, 1962. viii+112 p. (International Series of Monographs on Electronics and Instrumentation. Vol. 13. Kitov A.I. Cybernetics // Encyclopaedic dictionary of physics. Edition in five volumes. Vol. 2. М.: "Sovetskaya Encyclopedia", 1962. P. 357–362. Berg A.I., Kitov A.I., Lyapunov A.A. On the Possibilities of the Automation of Control in the National Economy // Soviet Computer Technology. Problems in Cybernetics. vol. 6. Translated from the Russian by Wade Holland. RAND Corporation. Memorandum RM-2919/17-PR. February 1963. P. 83–100. Kitov A.I. Cybernetics // Production automation and industrial electronics. Vol. 2. М.: "Sovetskaya Entsiclopedia". 1963. P. 24–36 Kitov A.I. Programming of information-logical problems. М.: "Sovetskoe Radio", 1967. P. 327. Kitov A.I. Programming of economic and management problems. М.: "Sovetskoe Radio", 1971. P. 370. Kitov A.I. Fundamental principles of designing information retrieval systems for medical field // Digital computers and programming. Issue 6. М.: "*Radio", 1971. P. 17–31. Kitov A.I. ALGEM // Encyclopaedia of Cybernetics. Vol. 1. Kiev: "Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopaedia", 1974. P. 108 Vorobyov E.I., Kitov A.I. Automation of management and information processing in healthcare. М.: "Sovetskoe Radio", 1976. P. 134. Kitov A.I. Fundamental principles of composing documental-factographic information-retrieval system // Algorithms and organisation of economic problems solution. Issue 7. М.: "Statistika", 1976. P. 14–25. Vorobyov E.I., Kitov A.I. Introduction in medical cybernetics. М.: "Meditsina", 1977. P. 288. Kitov A.I., Budko N.N. Normalize language of medical information "NORMIN" // Problems of Informational Theory and Practice. No 33. М.: (ВИНИТИ / VINITI), 1978. P. 64–77. Vorobyov E.I., Kitov A.I. Medical cybernetics. М.: "Radio I Svyaz’", 1983. P. 240. Kitov A.I. Problems of automated management systems creation for national economy // Collection of reports. (МДНТП). М., 1967. P. 16. Kitov A.I. (Chief designer of the AMS), Glushkov V.M. (Scientific supervisor of the AMS). Pilot project of standard automated informati on-management system for industry branch. M.: Ministry of Radio-Industry USSR, 1967. P. 150. Kitov A.I. (Scientific supervisor). User’s manual on the system of economic-mathematical problems programming automation ALGEM-ST-2. М.: USSR (MRI) and USSR (CSD), 1968. 9 p. Kitov A.I. Automated information-management system for industry branch// Collection of works of the State Committee on Science and Engineering (SCSE). М.: (SCSE), 1970. P. 24 Kitov A.I. (Chief designer). Technical and operation projects AMS «Healthcare». М.: The 3rd Main Directorate of the USSR Ministry of Healthcare, 1975. P. 100. Kitov A.I. Computers, Informatics and Biomedical research // Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on medical Informatics «MEDINFO – 77», Toronto, 1977. Kitov A.I. (Chief designer). Technical project of AMS for the 3rd Main Directorate of the USSR Ministry of Healthcare. The 3rd Main Directorate of the USSR Ministry of Healthcare // Institute of Biophysics, 1978. P. 80. Recognition Kitov Anatoliy Ivanovich at Virtual Russian Computer museum Benjamin Peters «How not to network a Nation: the Uneasy History of the Soviet Internet». The MIT Press (Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, England), 2016, 298 p. Gerovitch S. InterNyet: Why the Soviet Union Did Not Build a Nationwide Computer Network // History and Technology. 2008. Vol. 24. P. 335–350. From cybernetics and automated management systems to digital economics : On the occasion of the centenary of A. I. Kitov birth Kitov V.A., Shilov V.V., Silantiev S.A.: Trente ans ou la vie d’un scientifique. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology, vol. 487, pp. 186–202 (2016). Kitov V.A., Shilov V.V., Silantiev S.A.: Anatoly Kitov and ALGEM algorithmic language. In: AISB/IACAP World Congress 2012: Symposium on the History and Philosophy of Programming, Part of Alan Turing Year 2012 (2012). V.A.Kitov, V.V.Shilov Anatoly Kitov: Technology vs. Ideology. The story about first project of nationwide computer network // The Second Region 8 IEEE Conference on the History of Telecommunications. SESSION III. PIONEERS OF ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY. Madrid (Spain), 2010 Gerovitch, Slava. From Newspeak to Cyberspeak. A History of Soviet Cybernetics. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press 2002.– 378 p. Yannick Harrel "La Cyber Strategie Russe". NUVIS (Paris, France), 2015, 246 p. Gerovitch, Slava. «Mathematical Machines» of the Cold War: Soviet Computing, American Cybernetics and Ideological Disputes in the Early 1950s // Social Studies of Science. April 2001. Vol. 31.– P. 253–287. Gerovitch, Slava. «Russian Scandals»: Soviet Readings of American Cybernetics in the Early Years of the Cold War // Russian Review. October 2001. Vol. 60.– P. 545–568. See also OGAS Project Cybersyn Cyberocracy Cybernetics in the Soviet Union List of Internet pioneers Stafford Beer Alexey Lyapunov References ^ Kitov, V.; Shilov, V. (2010). "Anatoly Kitov: Technology vs ideology. The story about the first in the USSR project of nationwide computer network". 2010 Second Region 8 IEEE Conference on the History of Communications. pp. 1–3. doi:10.1109/HISTELCON.2010.5735293. ISBN 978-1-4244-7450-9. S2CID 265256. ^ "Anatoly Ivanovich Kitov". Retrieved 7 April 2021. External links Full biography of Anatoly Ivanovich Kitov Review of Kitov's selected publications Documentary film "The Internet of colonel Kitov" Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Germany United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Academics CiNii Scopus Other IdRef

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Kitov was already a lieutenant at that time.[citation needed]During lulls between battles, Kitov pursued his studies in mathematics and other university subjects.[which?] In 1943, at the age of 22, he conducted his first analytical work, proposing a new method of anti-aircraft shooting.In August 1945, Kitov gained admission to the rocket armaments department of the Dzerzhinsky Artillery Academy, a prestigious military university in the USSR. He skipped the first academic year and joined in the second. Kitov took an active role as chairman of the academy's student scientific society. Throughout his studies, he worked on the development of a novel rocket weapon and received an \"author's certificate on the invention\" (patent) from the USSR State Committee on Inventions. His project proposal was later presented to Joseph Stalin, the supreme commander of the Red Army and General Secretary of the Communist Party. Furthermore, Kitov contributed to the efforts of Sergei Korolev's task force, which was engaged in the development of the Soviet R-1 missile.In August 1945, Kitov gained admission to the rocket armaments department of the Dzerzhinsky Artillery Academy, a prestigious military university in the USSR. He skipped the first academic year and joined in the second. Kitov took an active role as chairman of the academy's student scientific society. Throughout his studies, he worked on the development of a novel rocket weapon and received an \"author's certificate on the invention\" (patent) from the USSR State Committee on Inventions. His project proposal was later presented to Joseph Stalin, the Red Army supreme commander and General Secretary of the Communist Party.[citation needed] Kitov also contributed to the efforts of Sergei Korolev's task force, which was engaged in the development of the Soviet R-1 missile.In 1950, Kitov graduated from the academy with honors and received a gold medal.[citation needed]","title":"Early life and education"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"further explanation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"},{"link_name":"which?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"which?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Kitov was the first user of the first Soviet serial computer \"Strela\" within the Military Ministry of the USSR. Kitov was the first in the USSR to organise and lead scientific work on solving military problems with the use of electronic computers.[citation needed] Previously their duties were calculations for a variety of mathematician bureaus within the General Staff of the USSR armed forces, for the Main Intelligence Directorate, for the Main Directorate of the Land Forces, and for the Directorate of Support, among others.By the mid-1950s, Kitov developed his main principles of computer-based automated military-control and management systems for defence purposes.[further explanation needed] Great measures[which?] were taken to apply these principles. Between 1953 and 1963, Kitov issued the Soviet Union's first series of scientific journal articles on military informatics. They were published by the journals Military Thought, Radioelectronics, News of the F.E. Dzerzhisky Artillery Academy, and periodical collections of works at the USSR Ministry of Defence, and other \"special\" (classified) sources.[citation needed] In Computer Center Number 1 at the Ministry of Defense of the USSR, Kitov came up with many of the ideas of modern military informatics used today.[which?][citation needed]","title":"Early research career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"PhD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PhD"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Ministry of Defense","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Defense_(Soviet_Union)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"First computer department in the USSR","text":"In 1952, Kitov founded and headed the first Soviet \"Department of Computers\" at the Artillery Academy. At that time it was called the \"Department of Mathematical Machines\". Also in 1952 Kitov wrote the nation's first scientific PhD dissertation on programming, with the subject \"Programming of the outer ballistics problems for the long range missiles\".[citation needed]In 1953, Kitov published a pioneering 30-page scientific article, \"Implementation and usage of electronic computers\", the Union's first such article.[citation needed]In May 1954, when he was 33, Kitov founded the first computer centre in the USSR, the Computer Centre No 1 of the Ministry of Defense (secret number 01168) and became its first head. He enjoyed indisputable authority and respect among his colleagues and subordinates.[citation needed]","title":"Early research career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"which?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words"},{"link_name":"which?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words"},{"link_name":"further explanation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify"}],"sub_title":"Creation of the USSR anti-missile defense system","text":"Ballistic calculations for strategic rocket forces and for the first spaceflights took special priority in the CC No. 1's work. A description of the architecture of the highly advanced \"M-100\" computer became a part of Kitov's thesis for his second doctoral degree.[citation needed] The dissertation was titled \"Implementation of Computers for solving the Problems of Antiaircraft and Antimissile Defence.\" He defended it in 1963 at the closed (for authorised persons only) meeting of the Scientific Council of the Institute of Management Problems.[citation needed] Besides the \"M-100\", in his dissertation research Kitov also analysed principles of designing specialised military computers. He defined specific features of their structure,[which?] invented algorithmic programming languages[which?] for solving complex anti-air defence problems with the use of computers, and performed computer modelling of dynamical systems connected with air defence systems demands.[further explanation needed]","title":"Early research career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"radar","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radar"},{"link_name":"ballistic missiles","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ballistic_missile"},{"link_name":"parallel processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"instructions per second","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instructions_per_second"},{"link_name":"ferrite cores","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferrite_core"},{"link_name":"caches","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cache_(computing)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"New computer development","text":"At the CC No. 1, Kitov headed and participated in the design and manufacturing of two new computers - \"M-100\" and \"Udar\" (\"blow\"). Both were successfully put into operation. The M-100 processed myriads of data from surveillance radar stations. \"Udar\" was used to prepare ballistic missiles for launch.For the principle of parallel processing of instructions, the author's certificate for invention was given to A. I. Kitov with his three colleagues on 27 June 1958.[citation needed] Kitov proposed to implement this principle at the CC No. 1, where it was used for the M-100, which was developed under Kitov's guidance. It was the fastest computer in the world, at one hundred thousand instructions per second. In the M-100 some of the world's first immediate access stores on ferrite cores were used. The M-100's two-level addressing of caches was an important factor in increasing its performance. Other major innovations were classified, as the whole project was secret. Kitov established a special department of mathematic for designing the M-100 computer.[citation needed]","title":"Early research career"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Writing on programming, computers and their applications","text":"The books Kitov wrote became a key part of the history of Soviet science education, as the first most complete sources on computer science, programming and automated management systems. Kitov was the author of the first Soviet book (1956) and textbook (1959) on programming, computers and their applications.[citation needed] Kitov published 12 scientific books translated into nine foreign languages. Kitov's books brought to general readers information and knowledge about the birth of a new branch of information technology.[citation needed]","title":"Early research career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Advances in cybernetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"bourgeois pseudoscience","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bourgeois_pseudoscience"},{"link_name":"Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cybernetics:_Or_Control_and_Communication_in_the_Animal_and_the_Machine"},{"link_name":"Norbert Wiener","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Norbert_Wiener"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"which?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words"},{"link_name":"Sergei Sobolev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sergei_Sobolev"},{"link_name":"Alexey Lyapunov","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexey_Lyapunov"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"economic planning","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economic_planning"},{"link_name":"automated management systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automated_information_system"},{"link_name":"Associative programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Associative_array"},{"link_name":"data array","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Array_(data_type)"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"when?","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Cybernetics science in the USSR","text":"From 1948 to 1955, cybernetics was officially called bourgeois pseudoscience in the USSR. From 1951 to 1952 Kitov read the book Cybernetics: Or Control and Communication in the Animal and the Machine by Norbert Wiener in English. He found this book in the library of the secret bass SKB-245.[citation needed] Kitov not only realized the scientific and social value of cybernetics, but also wrote the first positive article of it in the USSR, \"The main features of cybernetics\", notable for its academic boldness in the repressive Stalin era. Thusly, Kitov began the struggle for the recognition of cybernetics in the USSR.[citation needed]From 1953 to 1954, Kitov lectured on cybernetics in well-known Soviet organizations.[which?] Kitov invited the mathematicians Sergei Sobolev and Alexey Lyapunov to become co-authors of his article \"The Main Features of Cybernetics\". The article was published in the journal Voprosy Filosofii (1955, No. 4) and for the first time presented the principles of cybernetics to Soviet audiences.[citation needed] The victory for cybernetics was bolstered by the publication two months later of Kitov's article \"Technical Cybernetics\" in the popular technical monthly Radio. From 1955 to 1961, the scientific works of A.I. Kitov played a significant role in the recognition of cybernetics as a science and in its development in the USSR and other socialist countries.In his first book Digital Electronic Machines (1956) Kitov described what he called \"non-arithmetic usage of computers\". Large sections of the book were dedicated to usage of computers in economic planning, automation of production processes, and solving other intellectual problems. In his next book Electronic Computing Machines, released in 1958, Kitov describes in detail some perspectives of complex automation in management, including managing industrial production and solving economic problems.Kitov was the creator of the idea of automated management systems in the Soviet Union. In his paper \"Programming information and logic tasks\" (1967), Kitov presented \"Associative programming\" technology, a method for solving logical problems with large data array processing. The programming language ALGEM, created with Kitov's guidance, was described. ALGEM was used in the USSR and in the socialist countries of Eastern Europe.[citation needed]In his next[when?] book \"Programming of economical and management tasks\", Kitov generalised his experiences as the chief designer of the Automated management system (AMS) for the Ministry of Radio-Industry. That system was recognised as the basic model for AMSes for the other nine Ministries of the USSR weapons industry. The book presented basic principles of creation automated management systems for the plants and industry.[citation needed]","title":"Advances in cybernetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"OGAS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OGAS"},{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"Nikita Khrushchev","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nikita_Khrushchev"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Computer networking for national economic planning","text":"Kitov was the first computer scientist to demonstrate the necessity of creating a national automated system for management of the state economy, and simultaneously of the armed forces, on the basis of full-scale usage of electronic computers and mathematical methods.A newly acquired clear understanding of the AMS development's importance led Kitov, at the end of 1958, to conclude the need for automated management of the national economy and armed forces. The main point was that this automated management system should be based on a national network of regional computer centres (project \"Red Book\"). Kitov is famous in the former Soviet Union for being the first cyberneticist in the world[citation needed] to suggest a global integrated computer network for automated management of both the USSR's national economy and the armed forces.Kirov proposed that the technological structure of that system would be a global, double purpose, computer network, covering the whole of the USSR's territory, anticipating OGAS and the Internet. This network should consist of hundreds of computer centres maintained by specially qualified military personnel. In the autumn of 1959 Kitov sent his second letter on his project of global computer network (Project \"Red Book\") to the new General Secretary, Nikita Khrushchev.[citation needed]","title":"Advances in cybernetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"computational linguistics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_linguistics"},{"link_name":"machine translation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Machine_translation"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Information retrieval systems","text":"A typical example of Kitov's scientific intuition was his opinion on information retrieval systems. Kitov initiated scientific works at the CC No. 1 on computational linguistics and machine translation. Kitov proposed to concentrate the centre's initial basic efforts not on direct increases in performance, but on the development of methods, algorithms and programs which permitted extending processing, storage and retrieval semantic information.[citation needed]","title":"Advances in cybernetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"query language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Query_language"},{"link_name":"human-computer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%E2%80%93computer_information_retrieval"},{"link_name":"usability testing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usability_testing"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Theory and practice of algorithmic programming languages","text":"Kitov was the creator of two algorithmic programming languages - ALGEM and NORMIN.[citation needed] Compared with ALGOL-60, ALGEM was completed with new types of data, which made possible processing of not only numerical but also text-based information and data groups of various types.For a long time, ALGEM was a \"workhorse\" for Soviet programmers,[citation needed] who were working in the field \"non-arithmetical\" applications of computers. ALGEM was also used in numerous automated management systems of various levels, implemented in industry and administrative management structures, both in the USSR and in other socialist countries.[citation needed]In the 1970s, while working as the chief designer of the AMS ‘Healthcare’, A. I. Kitov developed an algorithmic programming language known as NORMIN, which was widely used in the USSR for medical diagnostics. NORMIN was the first Soviet query language for information retrieval on formalised natural language. Taking under consideration that medical AMS would be used by the public, who did not have special technical education, Kitov implemented a special interface in his systems, which was convenient and intuitive as much as was possible at the level of computer development of that time. The interface realised, among others, a dialogue mode called \"human-computer\" in the normalised natural language NORMIN, and served as a testbed for usability testing techniques.[citation needed]","title":"Advances in cybernetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Soviet Politburo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Politburo_of_the_Communist_Party_of_the_Soviet_Union"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"sub_title":"Computer unification and standardisation","text":"In his 1 July 1959 letter to Khrushchev, Kitov insisted that the introduction of automated systems in the country should be conducted under the supervision of state administrators at high levels – such as the members of the Soviet Politburo. Kitov proposed that all work in the field of computing research and automated management systems be subjected to a single state body which would be granted a monopoly to coordinate, control and implement all developments and achievements of that branch. \"Only such organisation will grant successful progress, rational, without time-delays or senseless chaotic actions\", he wrote.In his article \"Computers – Assistants in each Thing\" from 12 July 1960, A. I. Kitov declared that: \"Taking under consideration exceptional importance of the computer development for the national economy and for the state defence, and also considering the fact that production of these computation means is steadily increasing, the need for centralised control over the work of computation centres of all kinds and categories and in control and coordination of usage of single computers, belonging to various organisations, is getting clear. These measures will enable the most rational usage of computers in interests of the whole country\".Kitov wanted the system to perform on the national scale, and wrote about it in many of his articles. Unfortunately for him, all his ideas and proposals had not been heard and the bureaucratic machine was too slow.[citation needed]","title":"Advances in cybernetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"medical cybernetics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medical_cybernetics"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"USSR Ministry of Health","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ministry_of_Health_(Soviet_Union)"},{"link_name":"Chernobyl disaster","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chernobyl_disaster"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"United Nations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Nations"},{"link_name":"UNESCO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/UNESCO"},{"link_name":"International Federation of Medical Informatics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MedInfo"},{"link_name":"International Medical Informatics Association","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Medical_Informatics_Association"},{"link_name":"International Federation for Information Processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Federation_for_Information_Processing"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"By the 1970s Kitov had worked in health care for more than ten years. He became a world leader in medical cybernetics, overseeing the development of the information model of the Soviet medical industry; unified software packages for forming and logical control of information arrays were worked out. Within the health care field he established scientific schools of thought, educated a number of talented followers, and guided many dissertation works.[citation needed] Kitov also published several conceptual articles and three monographs: \"Automation of Information processing and Management in the Healthcare Field\" (1976); \"Introduction into Medical Cybernetics\" (1977); and \"Medical Cybernetics\"(1983).[citation needed]A. I. Kitov made great contributions to the creation of \"local\" medical AMSes, which functioned within specific enterprises: at hospitals, clinics, and drugstores. The first AMS of that type operated at the clinical hospital No. 6, subject to the Third Directorate of the USSR Ministry of Health. Later this AMS supported a great deal of work at curing and rehabilitation of victims of the Chernobyl disaster in 1986.[citation needed]For 12 years, A. I. Kitov was the national representative of the USSR in the field of medical informatics at the United Nations and UNESCO, serving in top-level positions at the International Federation of Medical Informatics (MedInfo), the International Medical Informatics Association, and Technical Committee No. 4 of the International Federation for Information Processing (TC-4 IFIP).Kitov participated in the organization of three international congresses of MedInfo: The first World Congress of MedINFO (1974, Stockholm), the second World Congress (1977, Toronto), and the third World Congress (1980, Tokyo). About a thousand scientists from developed countries gathered at the second World Congress. Kitov also chaired the section on biomedical research.[citation needed]","title":"Medical cybernetics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Plekhanov Russian University of Economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plekhanov_Russian_University_of_Economics"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"}],"text":"Pedagogical activity became of importance in Kitov's work. He had a natural interest for acquiring knowledge and studying its dissemination, and passing it on to those who surrounded him. During his tenure from 1951 to 1952, at the Dzerzhinsky Artillery Academy, Kitov conducted one of the Union's first three courses of lectures on computers and programming. More than 40 postgraduates, both Soviet and foreign, prepared and defended dissertations under Kitov's scientific supervision.[citation needed] In 1980, he accepted a position at the Plekhanov Russian University of Economics, where he worked for seventeen years, as chair of the Computer Programming department.[citation needed]","title":"Academic career"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"Later life and death"},{"links_in_text":[],"text":"Kitov A.I. Candidate dissertation (PhD thesis). \"Programming of exterior ballistics for long-range rockets\". Scientific Research Institute (SRI) – 4 USSR Ministry of Defence (MD USSR), 1952. P. 280.\nKitov A.I. Application of Electronic Computers // News of F.E. Dzerzhinsky Academy, 1953. P. 30.\nSobolev S.L., Kitov A.I., Lyapunov A.A. Main Traits of Cybernetics // \"Problems of Philosophy\". 1955. No 4. P. 136–148.\nKitov A.I. Technical cybernetics // \"Radio\". 1955. No 11. P. 42–44.\nKitov A.I. Electronic Digital Computers. М.: \"Sovetskoe Radio\", 1956. P. 358.\nKitov A.I. Significance of electronic computers for military field // \"Radioelektronika\". 1956. No 12. P.\nKitov A.I. Electronic computers and their military applications // \"Voennaya mysl\" (military thought). 1956. No 7. P. 25–35.\nKitov A.I. Electronic Computers // Radio-engineering and electronics and their technical applications // Under editorship of academician A.I. Berg and prof. I.S. Dzhigit М.: published by the USSR Academy of Sciences (AS USSR), 1956. P. 106–114.\nKitov A.I., Krinitsky N.A., Komolov P.N. Elements of programming (for digital electronic computers) / Under edition of A.I. Kitov. М.: published by the F.E. Dzerzhinsky Artillery Academy, 1956. P. 288.\nKitov A.I. Mathematics in military field // \"Voennaya mysl\". 1958. No 6. P. 3–16.\nKitov A.I. Electronic computers. М.: \"Znanie\". 1958. P. 31.\nKitov A.I., Krinitsky N.A. Electronic computers. М.: \"Nauka\" (Science), 1958. P. 130; second – revised and enlarged – edition. М.: \"Nauka\", 1965. P. 176.\nKitov A.I., Krinitsky N.A. Electronic computers. М.: \"Nauka\" (Science), 1958. P. 130; 2nd – revised and enlarged – edition. М.: \"Nauka\", 1965. P. 176.\nKitov A.I., Mylnikov M.V. Shuvalov A.I., Seleznev O.V. Author's Certificate on special subject No 19628 from 6 May 1959. The State Committee of the USSR Council of Ministers on Inventions and Discoveries.\nKitov A.I. Computing – assistant in each activity // Daily \"Izvestia\". 12 July 1960. P. 4\nKitov A.I. Cybernetics and management of the national economy // \"Cybernetics – to serve communism\" (scientific-popular series) Collection of works under edition of academician A.I. Berg. Vol. 1. М.- L.: \"Gosenergoizdat\", 1961. P. 203–218.\nKitov A.I. Cybernetics in national economy management // Daily paper \"Ekonomicheskaya gazeta\". 28 August 1961. No 4. P. 9–11.\nKitov A., Krinitskii N. Electronic computers. Oxford, London, New York, Paris: Pergamon Press, 1962. viii+112 p. (International Series of Monographs on Electronics and Instrumentation. Vol. 13.\nKitov A.I. Cybernetics // Encyclopaedic dictionary of physics. Edition in five volumes. Vol. 2. М.: \"Sovetskaya Encyclopedia\", 1962. P. 357–362.\nBerg A.I., Kitov A.I., Lyapunov A.A. On the Possibilities of the Automation of Control in the National Economy // Soviet Computer Technology. Problems in Cybernetics. vol. 6. Translated from the Russian by Wade Holland. RAND Corporation. Memorandum RM-2919/17-PR. February 1963. P. 83–100.\nKitov A.I. Cybernetics // Production automation and industrial electronics. Vol. 2. М.: \"Sovetskaya Entsiclopedia\". 1963. P. 24–36\nKitov A.I. Programming of information-logical problems. М.: \"Sovetskoe Radio\", 1967. P. 327.\nKitov A.I. Programming of economic and management problems. М.: \"Sovetskoe Radio\", 1971. P. 370.\nKitov A.I. Fundamental principles of designing information retrieval systems for medical field // Digital computers and programming. Issue 6. М.: \"*Radio\", 1971. P. 17–31.\nKitov A.I. ALGEM // Encyclopaedia of Cybernetics. Vol. 1. Kiev: \"Ukrainian Soviet Encyclopaedia\", 1974. P. 108\nVorobyov E.I., Kitov A.I. Automation of management and information processing in healthcare. М.: \"Sovetskoe Radio\", 1976. P. 134.\nKitov A.I. Fundamental principles of composing documental-factographic information-retrieval system // Algorithms and organisation of economic problems solution. Issue 7. М.: \"Statistika\", 1976. P. 14–25.\nVorobyov E.I., Kitov A.I. Introduction in medical cybernetics. М.: \"Meditsina\", 1977. P. 288.\nKitov A.I., Budko N.N. Normalize language of medical information \"NORMIN\" // Problems of Informational Theory and Practice. No 33. М.: (ВИНИТИ / VINITI), 1978. P. 64–77.\nVorobyov E.I., Kitov A.I. Medical cybernetics. М.: \"Radio I Svyaz’\", 1983. P. 240.\nKitov A.I. Problems of automated management systems creation for national economy // Collection of reports. (МДНТП). М., 1967. P. 16.\nKitov A.I. (Chief designer of the AMS), Glushkov V.M. (Scientific supervisor of the AMS). Pilot project of standard automated informati on-management system for industry branch. M.: Ministry of Radio-Industry USSR, 1967. P. 150.\nKitov A.I. (Scientific supervisor). User’s manual on the system of economic-mathematical problems programming automation ALGEM-ST-2. М.: USSR (MRI) and USSR (CSD), 1968. 9 p.\nKitov A.I. Automated information-management system for industry branch// Collection of works of the State Committee on Science and Engineering (SCSE). М.: (SCSE), 1970. P. 24\nKitov A.I. (Chief designer). Technical and operation projects AMS «Healthcare». М.: The 3rd Main Directorate of the USSR Ministry of Healthcare, 1975. P. 100.\nKitov A.I. Computers, Informatics and Biomedical research // Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on medical Informatics «MEDINFO – 77», Toronto, 1977.\nKitov A.I. (Chief designer). Technical project of AMS for the 3rd Main Directorate of the USSR Ministry of Healthcare. The 3rd Main Directorate of the USSR Ministry of Healthcare // Institute of Biophysics, 1978. P. 80.","title":"Bibliography"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Kitov Anatoliy Ivanovich at Virtual Russian Computer museum","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttp//www.computer-museum.ru/english/galglory_en/kitov0.php"},{"link_name":"From cybernetics and automated management systems to digital economics : On the occasion of the centenary of A. I. Kitov birth","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//www.computer-museum.ru/books/Kitov_from_cybernetics_to_digital_economics.pdf"}],"text":"Kitov Anatoliy Ivanovich at Virtual Russian Computer museum\nBenjamin Peters «How not to network a Nation: the Uneasy History of the Soviet Internet». The MIT Press (Cambridge, Massachusetts & London, England), 2016, 298 p.\nGerovitch S. InterNyet: Why the Soviet Union Did Not Build a Nationwide Computer Network // History and Technology. 2008. Vol. 24. P. 335–350.\nFrom cybernetics and automated management systems to digital economics : On the occasion of the centenary of A. I. Kitov birth\nKitov V.A., Shilov V.V., Silantiev S.A.: Trente ans ou la vie d’un scientifique. IFIP Advances in Information and Communication Technology, vol. 487, pp. 186–202 (2016).\nKitov V.A., Shilov V.V., Silantiev S.A.: Anatoly Kitov and ALGEM algorithmic language. In: AISB/IACAP World Congress 2012: Symposium on the History and Philosophy of Programming, Part of Alan Turing Year 2012 (2012).\nV.A.Kitov, V.V.Shilov Anatoly Kitov: Technology vs. Ideology. The story about first project of nationwide computer network // The Second Region 8 IEEE Conference on the History of Telecommunications. SESSION III. PIONEERS OF ELECTRO-TECHNOLOGY. Madrid (Spain), 2010\nGerovitch, Slava. From Newspeak to Cyberspeak. A History of Soviet Cybernetics. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press 2002.– 378 p.\nYannick Harrel \"La Cyber Strategie Russe\". NUVIS (Paris, France), 2015, 246 p.\nGerovitch, Slava. «Mathematical Machines» of the Cold War: Soviet Computing, American Cybernetics and Ideological Disputes in the Early 1950s // Social Studies of Science. April 2001. Vol. 31.– P. 253–287.\nGerovitch, Slava. «Russian Scandals»: Soviet Readings of American Cybernetics in the Early Years of the Cold War // Russian Review. October 2001. Vol. 60.– P. 545–568.","title":"Recognition"}]

[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bennett_(disambiguation)

Charles Bennett

["1 Peers","2 Politicians","3 Sportspeople","4 Scientists and academics","5 Other people","6 See also"]

Charles Bennett may refer to: Peers Charles Bennet, 1st Earl of Tankerville (1674–1722), British peer Charles Bennet, 2nd Earl of Tankerville (1697–1753), British peer and politician Charles Bennet, 3rd Earl of Tankerville (1716–1767), British peer and politician Charles Bennet, 4th Earl of Tankerville (1743–1822), cricket pioneer Charles Bennet, 5th Earl of Tankerville (1776–1859), British politician Charles Bennet, 6th Earl of Tankerville (1810–1899), British peer and Conservative politician Politicians Charles Bennett (Australian politician) (1894–1968), member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly Charles Bennett (high commissioner) (1913–1998), New Zealand soldier and public servant Charles E. Bennett (politician) (1910–2003), American Congressman Charles Fox Bennett (1793–1883), merchant and politician in Newfoundland Charles G. Bennett (1863–1914), American Congressman and Secretary of the Senate Sportspeople Charles Bennett (athlete) (1870–1949), British track and field athlete Charles Bennett (cricketer) (1872–1921), English cricketer Charles Bennett (defensive end, born 1963), American football defensive end Charles Bennett (defensive end, born 1983), American football defensive end Charles Bennett (fighter) (born 1979), known as "Krazy Horse", mixed martial arts fighter Charles Bennett (footballer) (1882–?), English footballer Charlie Bennett (1854–1927), American baseball player Chuck Bennett (1907–1973), American football halfback and coach Scientists and academics Charles E. Bennett (scholar) (1858–1921), American classical scholar Charles H. Bennett (physicist) (born 1943), American physicist and information theorist Charles L. Bennett (born 1956), American astrophysicist Other people Charles Bennett (actor) (1889–1943), American actor Charles Bennett (screenwriter) (1899–1995), English playwright and screenwriter Charles Alan Bennett (1877–1943), British barrister and judge Charles H. Bennett (illustrator) (1829–1867), Victorian illustrator who pioneered techniques in comic illustration Charles H. Bennett (soldier) (1811–1855), present at start of California Gold Rush Charles Harper Bennett (1840–1927), English photographer and inventor Charles Henry Allan Bennett (1872–1923), English Buddhist monk See also Bennett (name) Topics referred to by the same termThis disambiguation page lists articles about people with the same name. If an internal link led you here, you may wish to change the link to point directly to the intended article.

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Bennett (politician)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_E._Bennett_(politician)"},{"link_name":"Charles Fox Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Fox_Bennett"},{"link_name":"Charles G. Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_G._Bennett"}],"text":"Charles Bennett (Australian politician) (1894–1968), member of the New South Wales Legislative Assembly\nCharles Bennett (high commissioner) (1913–1998), New Zealand soldier and public servant\nCharles E. Bennett (politician) (1910–2003), American Congressman\nCharles Fox Bennett (1793–1883), merchant and politician in Newfoundland\nCharles G. Bennett (1863–1914), American Congressman and Secretary of the Senate","title":"Politicians"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Bennett (athlete)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bennett_(athlete)"},{"link_name":"Charles Bennett (cricketer)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bennett_(cricketer)"},{"link_name":"Charles Bennett (defensive end, born 1963)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bennett_(defensive_end,_born_1963)"},{"link_name":"Charles Bennett (defensive end, born 1983)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bennett_(defensive_end,_born_1983)"},{"link_name":"Charles Bennett (fighter)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bennett_(fighter)"},{"link_name":"Charles Bennett (footballer)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bennett_(footballer)"},{"link_name":"Charlie Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie_Bennett"},{"link_name":"Chuck Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chuck_Bennett"}],"text":"Charles Bennett (athlete) (1870–1949), British track and field athlete\nCharles Bennett (cricketer) (1872–1921), English cricketer\nCharles Bennett (defensive end, born 1963), American football defensive end\nCharles Bennett (defensive end, born 1983), American football defensive end\nCharles Bennett (fighter) (born 1979), known as \"Krazy Horse\", mixed martial arts fighter\nCharles Bennett (footballer) (1882–?), English footballer\nCharlie Bennett (1854–1927), American baseball player\nChuck Bennett (1907–1973), American football halfback and coach","title":"Sportspeople"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles E. Bennett (scholar)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_E._Bennett_(scholar)"},{"link_name":"Charles H. Bennett (physicist)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_H._Bennett_(physicist)"},{"link_name":"Charles L. Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_L._Bennett"}],"text":"Charles E. Bennett (scholar) (1858–1921), American classical scholar\nCharles H. Bennett (physicist) (born 1943), American physicist and information theorist\nCharles L. Bennett (born 1956), American astrophysicist","title":"Scientists and academics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Charles Bennett (actor)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bennett_(actor)"},{"link_name":"Charles Bennett (screenwriter)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Bennett_(screenwriter)"},{"link_name":"Charles Alan Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Alan_Bennett"},{"link_name":"Charles H. Bennett (illustrator)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_H._Bennett_(illustrator)"},{"link_name":"Charles H. Bennett (soldier)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_H._Bennett_(soldier)"},{"link_name":"Charles Harper Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Harper_Bennett"},{"link_name":"Charles Henry Allan Bennett","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Henry_Allan_Bennett"}],"text":"Charles Bennett (actor) (1889–1943), American actor\nCharles Bennett (screenwriter) (1899–1995), English playwright and screenwriter\nCharles Alan Bennett (1877–1943), British barrister and judge\nCharles H. Bennett (illustrator) (1829–1867), Victorian illustrator who pioneered techniques in comic illustration\nCharles H. Bennett (soldier) (1811–1855), present at start of California Gold Rush\nCharles Harper Bennett (1840–1927), English photographer and inventor\nCharles Henry Allan Bennett (1872–1923), English Buddhist monk","title":"Other people"}]

[]

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[]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_Planet_Circulars

Minor Planet Center

["1 Function","2 History","2.1 Directors","3 Periodical publications","4 Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service","5 See also","6 References","7 External links","7.1 Videos"]

International astronomical organization The Minor Planet Center (MPC) is the official body for observing and reporting on minor planets under the auspices of the International Astronomical Union (IAU). Founded in 1947, it operates at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory. Function The Minor Planet Center is the official worldwide organization in charge of collecting observational data for minor planets (such as asteroids), calculating their orbits and publishing this information via the Minor Planet Circulars. Under the auspices of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), it operates at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, which is part of the Center for Astrophysics along with the Harvard College Observatory. The MPC runs a number of free online services for observers to assist them in observing minor planets and comets. The complete catalogue of minor planet orbits (sometimes referred to as the "Minor Planet Catalogue") may also be freely downloaded. In addition to astrometric data, the MPC collects light curve photometry of minor planets. A key function of the MPC is helping observers coordinate follow up observations of possible near-Earth objects (NEOs) via its NEO web form and blog, the Near-Earth Object Confirmation Page. The MPC is also responsible for identifying, and alerting to, new NEOs with a risk of impacting Earth in the few weeks following their discovery (see Potentially hazardous objects and § Videos). History The Minor Planet Center was set up at the University of Cincinnati in 1947, under the direction of Paul Herget.: 63  Upon Herget's retirement on June 30, 1978,: 67  the MPC was moved to the SAO, under the direction of Brian G. Marsden.: 67  From 2006 to 2015, the director of the MPC was Timothy Spahr, who oversaw a staff of five. From 2015 to 2021, the Minor Planet Center was headed by interim director Matthew Holman. Under his leadership, the MPC experienced a significant period of reorganization and growth, doubling both its staff size and the volume of observations processed per year. Upon Holman's resignation on February 9, 2021 (announced on February 19, 2021) Matthew Payne became acting director of the MPC. Directors 1947–1978: Paul Herget 1978–2006: Brian Marsden 2006–2015: Timothy Spahr 2015–2021: Matthew Holman 2021–present: Matthew Payne Periodical publications "Minor Planet Circulars" and "Minor Planet Electronic Circulars" redirect here. For the publication by ALPO, see The Minor Planet Bulletin. The MPC periodically releases astrometric observations of minor planets, as well as of comets and natural satellites. These publications are the Minor Planet Circulars (MPCs), the Minor Planet Electronic Circulars (MPECs), and the Minor Planet Supplements (MPSs and MPOs). An extensive archive of publications in a PDF format is available at the Minor Planet Center's website. The archive's oldest publication dates back to 1 November 1977 (MPC 4937–5016). Minor Planet Circulars (M.P.C. or MPCs), established 1947, is a scientific journal that is generally published by the Minor Planet Center on the date of each full moon, when the number of reported observations are minimal due to the brighter night sky. The Circulars contain astrometric observations, orbits and ephemerides of minor planets, comets and certain natural satellites. The astrometric observations of comets are published in full, while the minor planet observations are summarised by observatory code (the full observations now being given in the Minor Planet Circulars Supplement). New numberings and namings of minor planets (also see Naming of Minor Planets), as well as numberings of periodic comets and natural satellites, are announced in the Circulars. New orbits for comets and natural satellites appear in the Circulars; new orbits for minor planets appear in the Minor Planets and Comets Orbit Supplement (see below). The Minor Planet Electronic Circulars (MPECs) are published by the Minor Planet Center. They generally contain positional observations and orbits of unusual minor planets and all comets. Monthly lists of observable unusual objects, observable distant objects, observable comets and the critical list of numbered minor planets also appear on these circulars. Daily Orbit Update MPECs, issued every day, contain new identifications and orbits of minor planets, obtained over the previous 24 hours. The Minor Planets and Comets Supplement (MPS) is published on behalf of IAU's Division F (Planetary Systems and Bioastronomy) by the Minor Planet Center. The Minor Planets and Comets Orbit Supplement (MPO) is published on behalf of IAU's Division F by the Minor Planet Center. Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service The Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service is an online service of the Minor Planet Center. The service provides "ephemerides, orbital elements and residual blocks for the outer irregular satellites of the giant planets". See also Central Bureau for Astronomical Telegrams IAU Circular List of astronomical societies List of minor-planet groups List of minor planets List of minor planets § Main index Meanings of minor-planet names References ^ a b Centres: Minor Planet Center. International Astronomical Union. Retrieved 20 April 2016. ^ Marsden, B. G.; Williams, G. V. (February–March 1998). "The NEO Confirmation Page". Planetary and Space Science. 46 (2–3): 299. Bibcode:1998P&SS...46..299M. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(96)00153-5. ^ "Real time reporting of NEOCP follow up". NEOCP Blog. Minor Planet Center. Archived from the original on 2016-04-13. Retrieved 20 April 2016. ^ Donald E. Osterbrock & P. Kenneth Seidelmann (1987). "Paul Herget: 1908–1981" (PDF). Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences. Vol. 57. National Academies Press. pp. 64–65. ISBN 9780585272801. OCLC 45729798. ^ a b c Brian G. Marsden (July 1980). "The Minor Planet Center". Celestial Mechanics. 22 (1): 63–71. Bibcode:1980CeMec..22...63M. doi:10.1007/BF01228757. S2CID 119526916. ^ Galoche, J.L. (6 January 2015). "Minor Planet Center Director Steps Down". The Daily Minor Planet Blog. Minor Planet Center. Archived from the original on 2015-08-14. Retrieved 20 April 2016. ^ Gareth V. Williams (18 November 2010). "MPEC 2010-W10: Brian Marsden (1937 Aug. 5 – 2010 Nov. 18)". Minor Planet Electronic Circular. ^ Galoche, J.L. (4 February 2015). "Interim Director Appointed to the Minor Planet Center". The Daily Minor Planet Blog. Minor Planet Center. Archived from the original on 2015-05-26. Retrieved 1 December 2015. ^ "New acting MPC Director – MPEC 2021-D60". Minor Planet Electronic Circular. Minor Planet Center. 19 February 2021. Retrieved 22 February 2021. ^ "Staff – Matthew Payne, MPC Acting Director". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 22 February 2021. ^ "MPC: Publications". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 6 May 2016. ^ "MPC/MPO/MPS Archive". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 6 May 2016. ^ "Division F Planetary Systems and Astrobiology". International Astronomical Union. Retrieved 2017-11-07. External links Official website MPC/MPO/MPS Archive, all published circulars since 1977 (downloadable as PDF) The MPC Orbit (MPCORB) Database The Minor Planet Center Status Report, Matthew J. Holman, 8 November 2015 Recent MPECs, list of most-recently published Minor Planet Electronic Circulars Videos Asteroid Hazards, Part 1: What Makes an Asteroid a Hazard? on YouTube (min. 6:04) Asteroid Hazards, Part 2: The Challenge of Detection on YouTube (min. 7:14) Asteroid Hazards, Part 3: Finding the Path on YouTube (min. 5:38) Portals: Astronomy Stars Spaceflight Outer space Solar System Education Science Authority control databases International ISNI VIAF National Germany 2 United States Czech Republic Other IdRef

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Founded in 1947, it operates at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory.","title":"Minor Planet Center"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"minor planets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minor_planet"},{"link_name":"asteroids","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid"},{"link_name":"orbits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orbit"},{"link_name":"Minor Planet Circulars","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Publications"},{"link_name":"International Astronomical Union","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union"},{"link_name":"Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Smithsonian_Astrophysical_Observatory"},{"link_name":"Center for Astrophysics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Center_for_Astrophysics"},{"link_name":"Harvard College Observatory","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harvard_College_Observatory"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IAU-Centres-1"},{"link_name":"astrometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrometric"},{"link_name":"near-Earth objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-Earth_object"},{"link_name":"Near-Earth Object Confirmation Page","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Near-Earth_Object_Confirmation_Page"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MPC-NEO-confirmation-2"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MPC-NEO-blog-3"},{"link_name":"Potentially hazardous objects","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Potentially_hazardous_object"},{"link_name":"§ Videos","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#Videos"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-IAU-Centres-1"}],"text":"The Minor Planet Center is the official worldwide organization in charge of collecting observational data for minor planets (such as asteroids), calculating their orbits and publishing this information via the Minor Planet Circulars. Under the auspices of the International Astronomical Union (IAU), it operates at the Smithsonian Astrophysical Observatory, which is part of the Center for Astrophysics along with the Harvard College Observatory.[1]The MPC runs a number of free online services for observers to assist them in observing minor planets and comets. The complete catalogue of minor planet orbits (sometimes referred to as the \"Minor Planet Catalogue\") may also be freely downloaded. In addition to astrometric data, the MPC collects light curve photometry of minor planets. A key function of the MPC is helping observers coordinate follow up observations of possible near-Earth objects (NEOs) via its NEO web form and blog, the Near-Earth Object Confirmation Page.[2][3] The MPC is also responsible for identifying, and alerting to, new NEOs with a risk of impacting Earth in the few weeks following their discovery (see Potentially hazardous objects and § Videos).[1]","title":"Function"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"University of Cincinnati","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_Cincinnati"},{"link_name":"Paul Herget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Herget"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hergetbio-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marsden1980-5"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Marsden1980-5"},{"link_name":"Brian G. 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Marsden.[5]: 67  From 2006 to 2015,[6] the director of the MPC was Timothy Spahr,[7] who oversaw a staff of five. From 2015 to 2021, the Minor Planet Center was headed by interim director Matthew Holman.[8] Under his leadership, the MPC experienced a significant period of reorganization and growth, doubling both its staff size and the volume of observations processed per year. Upon Holman's resignation on February 9, 2021 (announced on February 19, 2021) Matthew Payne became acting director of the MPC.[9][10]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Paul Herget","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul_Herget"},{"link_name":"Brian Marsden","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_G._Marsden"},{"link_name":"Timothy Spahr","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timothy_B._Spahr"},{"link_name":"Matthew Holman","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matthew_J._Holman"}],"sub_title":"Directors","text":"1947–1978: Paul Herget\n1978–2006: Brian Marsden\n2006–2015: Timothy Spahr\n2015–2021: Matthew Holman\n2021–present: Matthew Payne","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ALPO","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association_of_Lunar_and_Planetary_Observers"},{"link_name":"The Minor Planet Bulletin","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Minor_Planet_Bulletin"},{"link_name":"astrometric","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrometric"},{"link_name":"comets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet"},{"link_name":"natural satellites","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Natural_satellite"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MPC-Publications-11"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MPC-Circulars-Archive-12"},{"link_name":"scientific journal","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scientific_journal"},{"link_name":"full moon","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_moon"},{"link_name":"Naming of Minor Planets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naming_of_Minor_Planets"},{"link_name":"positional observations","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Astrometry"},{"link_name":"orbits","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kepler_orbit"},{"link_name":"unusual minor planets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unusual_minor_planet"},{"link_name":"comets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comet"},{"link_name":"critical list of numbered minor planets","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Critical-list_minor_planet"},{"link_name":"IAU","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"}],"text":"\"Minor Planet Circulars\" and \"Minor Planet Electronic Circulars\" redirect here. 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The astrometric observations of comets are published in full, while the minor planet observations are summarised by observatory code (the full observations now being given in the Minor Planet Circulars Supplement). New numberings and namings of minor planets (also see Naming of Minor Planets), as well as numberings of periodic comets and natural satellites, are announced in the Circulars. New orbits for comets and natural satellites appear in the Circulars; new orbits for minor planets appear in the Minor Planets and Comets Orbit Supplement (see below).\nThe Minor Planet Electronic Circulars (MPECs) are published by the Minor Planet Center. They generally contain positional observations and orbits of unusual minor planets and all comets. Monthly lists of observable unusual objects, observable distant objects, observable comets and the critical list of numbered minor planets also appear on these circulars. Daily Orbit Update MPECs, issued every day, contain new identifications and orbits of minor planets, obtained over the previous 24 hours.\nThe Minor Planets and Comets Supplement (MPS) is published on behalf of IAU's Division F (Planetary Systems and Bioastronomy)[13] by the Minor Planet Center.\nThe Minor Planets and Comets Orbit Supplement (MPO) is published on behalf of IAU's Division F by the Minor Planet Center.","title":"Periodical publications"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//minorplanetcenter.net//iau/NatSats/NaturalSatellites.html"}],"text":"The Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service is an online service of the Minor Planet Center. The service provides \"ephemerides, orbital elements and residual blocks for the outer irregular satellites of the giant planets\".[1]","title":"Natural Satellites Ephemeris Service"}]

[]

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[{"reference":"Centres: Minor Planet Center. International Astronomical Union. Retrieved 20 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iau.org/science/scientific_bodies/centres/","url_text":"Centres: Minor Planet Center"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union","url_text":"International Astronomical Union"}]},{"reference":"Marsden, B. G.; Williams, G. V. (February–March 1998). \"The NEO Confirmation Page\". Planetary and Space Science. 46 (2–3): 299. Bibcode:1998P&SS...46..299M. doi:10.1016/S0032-0633(96)00153-5.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_G._Marsden","url_text":"Marsden, B. G."},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Planetary_and_Space_Science","url_text":"Planetary and Space Science"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998P&SS...46..299M","url_text":"1998P&SS...46..299M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1016%2FS0032-0633%2896%2900153-5","url_text":"10.1016/S0032-0633(96)00153-5"}]},{"reference":"\"Real time reporting of NEOCP follow up\". NEOCP Blog. Minor Planet Center. Archived from the original on 2016-04-13. Retrieved 20 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20160413020115/http://minorplanetcenter.net/NEOCPblog/","url_text":"\"Real time reporting of NEOCP follow up\""},{"url":"http://minorplanetcenter.net/NEOCPblog/","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Donald E. Osterbrock & P. Kenneth Seidelmann (1987). \"Paul Herget: 1908–1981\" (PDF). Biographical Memoirs of the National Academy of Sciences. Vol. 57. National Academies Press. pp. 64–65. ISBN 9780585272801. OCLC 45729798.","urls":[{"url":"http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/herget-paul.pdf","url_text":"\"Paul Herget: 1908–1981\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Academies_Press","url_text":"National Academies Press"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780585272801","url_text":"9780585272801"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)","url_text":"OCLC"},{"url":"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/45729798","url_text":"45729798"}]},{"reference":"Brian G. Marsden (July 1980). \"The Minor Planet Center\". Celestial Mechanics. 22 (1): 63–71. Bibcode:1980CeMec..22...63M. doi:10.1007/BF01228757. S2CID 119526916.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brian_G._Marsden","url_text":"Brian G. Marsden"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celestial_Mechanics_and_Dynamical_Astronomy","url_text":"Celestial Mechanics"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)","url_text":"Bibcode"},{"url":"https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1980CeMec..22...63M","url_text":"1980CeMec..22...63M"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doi_(identifier)","url_text":"doi"},{"url":"https://doi.org/10.1007%2FBF01228757","url_text":"10.1007/BF01228757"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)","url_text":"S2CID"},{"url":"https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:119526916","url_text":"119526916"}]},{"reference":"Galoche, J.L. (6 January 2015). \"Minor Planet Center Director Steps Down\". The Daily Minor Planet Blog. Minor Planet Center. Archived from the original on 2015-08-14. Retrieved 20 April 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150814031126/http://minorplanetcenter.net/blog/minor-planet-center-director-steps-down/","url_text":"\"Minor Planet Center Director Steps Down\""},{"url":"http://www.minorplanetcenter.net/blog/?p=911","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"Gareth V. Williams (18 November 2010). \"MPEC 2010-W10: Brian Marsden (1937 Aug. 5 – 2010 Nov. 18)\". Minor Planet Electronic Circular.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpec/K10/K10W10.html","url_text":"\"MPEC 2010-W10: Brian Marsden (1937 Aug. 5 – 2010 Nov. 18)\""}]},{"reference":"Galoche, J.L. (4 February 2015). \"Interim Director Appointed to the Minor Planet Center\". The Daily Minor Planet Blog. Minor Planet Center. Archived from the original on 2015-05-26. Retrieved 1 December 2015.","urls":[{"url":"https://web.archive.org/web/20150526013828/http://www.minorplanetcenter.org/blog/?p=922","url_text":"\"Interim Director Appointed to the Minor Planet Center\""},{"url":"http://www.minorplanetcenter.org/blog/?p=922","url_text":"the original"}]},{"reference":"\"New acting MPC Director – MPEC 2021-D60\". Minor Planet Electronic Circular. Minor Planet Center. 19 February 2021. Retrieved 22 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/mpec/K21/K21D60.html","url_text":"\"New acting MPC Director – MPEC 2021-D60\""}]},{"reference":"\"Staff – Matthew Payne, MPC Acting Director\". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 22 February 2021.","urls":[{"url":"https://minorplanetcenter.net/about","url_text":"\"Staff – Matthew Payne, MPC Acting Director\""}]},{"reference":"\"MPC: Publications\". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 6 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://minorplanetcenter.net//iau/services/MPCServices.html","url_text":"\"MPC: Publications\""}]},{"reference":"\"MPC/MPO/MPS Archive\". Minor Planet Center. Retrieved 6 May 2016.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.minorplanetcenter.net/iau/ECS/MPCArchive/MPCArchive_TBL.html","url_text":"\"MPC/MPO/MPS Archive\""}]},{"reference":"\"Division F Planetary Systems and Astrobiology\". International Astronomical Union. Retrieved 2017-11-07.","urls":[{"url":"https://www.iau.org/science/scientific_bodies/divisions/F/","url_text":"\"Division F Planetary Systems and Astrobiology\""},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Astronomical_Union","url_text":"International Astronomical Union"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matlab

MATLAB

["1 History","1.1 Origins","1.2 Commercial development","1.3 Recent history","2 Syntax","2.1 \"Hello, world!\" example","2.2 Variables","2.3 Vectors and matrices","2.4 Structures","2.5 Functions","2.6 Function handles","2.7 Classes and object-oriented programming","3 Graphics and graphical user interface programming","4 MATLAB and other languages","5 Relations to US sanctions","6 See also","7 Notes","8 Further reading","9 External links"]

Numerical computing environment and programming language For the geographical region, see Matlab (Bangladesh). Not to be confused with MATHLAB. MATLAB (programming language)Paradigmmulti-paradigm: functional, imperative, procedural, object-oriented, arrayDesigned byCleve MolerDeveloperMathWorksFirst appearedlate 1970sStable releaseR2024a Update 3  / May 14, 2024; 34 days ago (May 14, 2024) Typing disciplinedynamic, weakFilename extensions.m, .p, .mex*, .mat, .fig, .mlx, .mlapp, .mltbx, .mlappinstall, .mlpkginstallWebsitemathworks.comMajor implementationsMATLAB Software, GNU Octave, SysquakeInfluenced by APL EISPACK Fortran LINPACK PL/0 Speakeasy Influenced Julia Octave Scilab INTLAB MATLAB Programming at Wikibooks MATLAB (software)L-shaped membrane logoDeveloper(s)MathWorksInitial release1984; 40 years ago (1984)Stable releaseR2024a Update 3  / May 14, 2024; 34 days ago (May 14, 2024) Written inC/C++, MATLABOperating systemWindows, macOS, and LinuxPlatformIA-32, x86-64, ARM64TypeNumerical computingLicenseProprietary commercial softwareWebsitemathworks.com MATLAB (an abbreviation of "MATrix LABoratory") is a proprietary multi-paradigm programming language and numeric computing environment developed by MathWorks. MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages. Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numeric computing, an optional toolbox uses the MuPAD symbolic engine allowing access to symbolic computing abilities. An additional package, Simulink, adds graphical multi-domain simulation and model-based design for dynamic and embedded systems. As of 2020, MATLAB has more than four million users worldwide. They come from various backgrounds of engineering, science, and economics. As of 2017, more than 5000 global colleges and universities use MATLAB to support instruction and research. History Origins MATLAB was invented by mathematician and computer programmer Cleve Moler. The idea for MATLAB was based on his 1960s PhD thesis. Moler became a math professor at the University of New Mexico and started developing MATLAB for his students as a hobby. He developed MATLAB's initial linear algebra programming in 1967 with his one-time thesis advisor, George Forsythe. This was followed by Fortran code for linear equations in 1971. Before version 1.0, MATLAB "was not a programming language; it was a simple interactive matrix calculator. There were no programs, no toolboxes, no graphics. And no ODEs or FFTs." The first early version of MATLAB was completed in the late 1970s. The software was disclosed to the public for the first time in February 1979 at the Naval Postgraduate School in California. Early versions of MATLAB were simple matrix calculators with 71 pre-built functions. At the time, MATLAB was distributed for free to universities. Moler would leave copies at universities he visited and the software developed a strong following in the math departments of university campuses.: 5  In the 1980s, Cleve Moler met John N. Little. They decided to reprogram MATLAB in C and market it for the IBM desktops that were replacing mainframe computers at the time. John Little and programmer Steve Bangert re-programmed MATLAB in C, created the MATLAB programming language, and developed features for toolboxes. Since 1993 an open source alternative, GNU Octave (mostly compatible with matlab) and scilab (similar to matlab) have been available. Commercial development MATLAB was first released as a commercial product in 1984 at the Automatic Control Conference in Las Vegas. MathWorks, Inc. was founded to develop the software and the MATLAB programming language was released. The first MATLAB sale was the following year, when Nick Trefethen from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology bought ten copies. By the end of the 1980s, several hundred copies of MATLAB had been sold to universities for student use. The software was popularized largely thanks to toolboxes created by experts in various fields for performing specialized mathematical tasks. Many of the toolboxes were developed as a result of Stanford students that used MATLAB in academia, then brought the software with them to the private sector. Over time, MATLAB was re-written for early operating systems created by Digital Equipment Corporation, VAX, Sun Microsystems, and for Unix PCs. Version 3 was released in 1987. The first MATLAB compiler was developed by Stephen C. Johnson in the 1990s. In 2000, MathWorks added a Fortran-based library for linear algebra in MATLAB 6, replacing the software's original LINPACK and EISPACK subroutines that were in C. MATLAB's Parallel Computing Toolbox was released at the 2004 Supercomputing Conference and support for graphics processing units (GPUs) was added to it in 2010. Recent history Some especially large changes to the software were made with version 8 in 2012. The user interface was reworked and Simulink's functionality was expanded. By 2016, MATLAB had introduced several technical and user interface improvements, including the MATLAB Live Editor notebook, and other features. Syntax The MATLAB application is built around the MATLAB programming language. Common usage of the MATLAB application involves using the "Command Window" as an interactive mathematical shell or executing text files containing MATLAB code. "Hello, world!" example An example of a "Hello, world!" program exists in MATLAB. disp('Hello, world!') It displays like so: Hello, world! Variables Variables are defined using the assignment operator, =. MATLAB is a weakly typed programming language because types are implicitly converted. It is an inferred typed language because variables can be assigned without declaring their type, except if they are to be treated as symbolic objects, and that their type can change. Values can come from constants, from computation involving values of other variables, or from the output of a function. For example: >> x = 17 x = 17 >> x = 'hat' x = hat >> x = x = 12.0000 1.5708 >> y = 3*sin(x) y = -1.6097 3.0000 Vectors and matrices A simple array is defined using the colon syntax: initial:increment:terminator. For instance: >> array = 1:2:9 array = 1 3 5 7 9 defines a variable named array (or assigns a new value to an existing variable with the name array) which is an array consisting of the values 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9. That is, the array starts at 1 (the initial value), increments with each step from the previous value by 2 (the increment value), and stops once it reaches (or is about to exceed) 9 (the terminator value). The increment value can actually be left out of this syntax (along with one of the colons), to use a default value of 1. >> ari = 1:5 ari = 1 2 3 4 5 assigns to the variable named ari an array with the values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, since the default value of 1 is used as the increment. Indexing is one-based, which is the usual convention for matrices in mathematics, unlike zero-based indexing commonly used in other programming languages such as C, C++, and Java. Matrices can be defined by separating the elements of a row with blank space or comma and using a semicolon to separate the rows. The list of elements should be surrounded by square brackets . Parentheses () are used to access elements and subarrays (they are also used to denote a function argument list). >> A = A = 16 3 2 13 5 10 11 8 9 6 7 12 4 15 14 1 >> A(2,3) ans = 11 Sets of indices can be specified by expressions such as 2:4, which evaluates to . For example, a submatrix taken from rows 2 through 4 and columns 3 through 4 can be written as: >> A(2:4,3:4) ans = 11 8 7 12 14 1 A square identity matrix of size n can be generated using the function eye, and matrices of any size with zeros or ones can be generated with the functions zeros and ones, respectively. >> eye(3,3) ans = 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 >> zeros(2,3) ans = 0 0 0 0 0 0 >> ones(2,3) ans = 1 1 1 1 1 1 Transposing a vector or a matrix is done either by the function transpose or by adding dot-prime after the matrix (without the dot, prime will perform conjugate transpose for complex arrays): >> A = , B = A.', C = transpose(A) A = 1 2 B = 1 2 C = 1 2 >> D = , D.' D = 0 3 1 5 ans = 0 1 3 5 Most functions accept arrays as input and operate element-wise on each element. For example, mod(2*J,n) will multiply every element in J by 2, and then reduce each element modulo n. MATLAB does include standard for and while loops, but (as in other similar applications such as APL and R), using the vectorized notation is encouraged and is often faster to execute. The following code, excerpted from the function magic.m, creates a magic square M for odd values of n (MATLAB function meshgrid is used here to generate square matrices I and J containing 1 : n {\displaystyle 1:n} ): = meshgrid(1:n); A = mod(I + J - (n + 3) / 2, n); B = mod(I + 2 * J - 2, n); M = n * A + B + 1; Structures MATLAB supports structure data types. Since all variables in MATLAB are arrays, a more adequate name is "structure array", where each element of the array has the same field names. In addition, MATLAB supports dynamic field names (field look-ups by name, field manipulations, etc.). Functions When creating a MATLAB function, the name of the file should match the name of the first function in the file. Valid function names begin with an alphabetic character, and can contain letters, numbers, or underscores. Variables and functions are case sensitive. rgbImage = imread('ecg.png'); grayImage = rgb2gray(rgbImage); % for non-indexed images level = graythresh(grayImage); % threshold for converting image to binary, binaryImage = im2bw(grayImage, level); % Extract the individual red, green, and blue color channels. redChannel = rgbImage(:, :, 1); greenChannel = rgbImage(:, :, 2); blueChannel = rgbImage(:, :, 3); % Make the black parts pure red. redChannel(~binaryImage) = 255; greenChannel(~binaryImage) = 0; blueChannel(~binaryImage) = 0; % Now recombine to form the output image. rgbImageOut = cat(3, redChannel, greenChannel, blueChannel); imshow(rgbImageOut); Function handles MATLAB supports elements of lambda calculus by introducing function handles, or function references, which are implemented either in .m files or anonymous/nested functions. Classes and object-oriented programming MATLAB supports object-oriented programming including classes, inheritance, virtual dispatch, packages, pass-by-value semantics, and pass-by-reference semantics. However, the syntax and calling conventions are significantly different from other languages. MATLAB has value classes and reference classes, depending on whether the class has handle as a super-class (for reference classes) or not (for value classes). Method call behavior is different between value and reference classes. For example, a call to a method: object.method(); can alter any member of object only if object is an instance of a reference class, otherwise value class methods must return a new instance if it needs to modify the object. An example of a simple class is provided below: classdef Hello methods function greet(obj) disp('Hello!') end end end When put into a file named hello.m, this can be executed with the following commands: >> x = Hello(); >> x.greet(); Hello! Graphics and graphical user interface programming Graphs are unavailable due to technical issues. There is more info on Phabricator and on MediaWiki.org. MATLAB has tightly integrated graph-plotting features. For example, the function plot can be used to produce a graph from two vectors x and y. The code: x = 0:pi/100:2*pi; y = sin(x); plot(x,y) produces the following figure of the sine function: MATLAB supports three-dimensional graphics as well: = meshgrid(-10:0.25:10,-10:0.25:10); f = sinc(sqrt((X/pi).^2+(Y/pi).^2)); mesh(X,Y,f); axis() xlabel('{\bfx}') ylabel('{\bfy}') zlabel('{\bfsinc} ({\bfR})') hidden off     = meshgrid(-10:0.25:10,-10:0.25:10); f = sinc(sqrt((X/pi).^2+(Y/pi).^2)); surf(X,Y,f); axis() xlabel('{\bfx}') ylabel('{\bfy}') zlabel('{\bfsinc} ({\bfR})') This code produces a wireframe 3D plot of the two-dimensional unnormalized sinc function:     This code produces a surface 3D plot of the two-dimensional unnormalized sinc function:     MATLAB supports developing graphical user interface (GUI) applications. UIs can be generated either programmatically or using visual design environments such as GUIDE and App Designer. MATLAB and other languages MATLAB can call functions and subroutines written in the programming languages C or Fortran. A wrapper function is created allowing MATLAB data types to be passed and returned. MEX files (MATLAB executables) are the dynamically loadable object files created by compiling such functions. Since 2014 increasing two-way interfacing with Python was being added. Libraries written in Perl, Java, ActiveX or .NET can be directly called from MATLAB, and many MATLAB libraries (for example XML or SQL support) are implemented as wrappers around Java or ActiveX libraries. Calling MATLAB from Java is more complicated, but can be done with a MATLAB toolbox which is sold separately by MathWorks, or using an undocumented mechanism called JMI (Java-to-MATLAB Interface), (which should not be confused with the unrelated Java Metadata Interface that is also called JMI). Official MATLAB API for Java was added in 2016. As alternatives to the MuPAD based Symbolic Math Toolbox available from MathWorks, MATLAB can be connected to Maple or Mathematica. Libraries also exist to import and export MathML. Relations to US sanctions In 2020, MATLAB withdrew services from two Chinese universities as a result of US sanctions. The universities said this will be responded to by increased use of open-source alternatives and by developing domestic alternatives. See also Comparison of numerical-analysis software List of numerical-analysis software Notes ^ a b https://uk.mathworks.com/help/matlab/release-notes.html. Retrieved June 13, 2024. {{cite web}}: Missing or empty |title= (help) ^ "Protect Your Source Code". MathWorks. Retrieved November 1, 2019. ^ "MEX Platform Compatibility". MathWorks. Retrieved November 1, 2019. ^ "MAT-File Versions". MathWorks. Retrieved November 1, 2019. ^ "Save Figure to Reopen in MATLAB Later". MathWorks. Retrieved November 1, 2019. ^ "Live Code File Format (.mlx)". MathWorks. Retrieved November 1, 2019. ^ "MATLAB App Designer". MathWorks. Retrieved November 1, 2019. ^ "Toolbox Distribution". MathWorks. Retrieved November 1, 2019. ^ "MATLAB App Installer File". MathWorks. Retrieved November 1, 2019. ^ "Support Package Installation". MathWorks. Retrieved November 1, 2019. ^ "An interview with CLEVE MOLER Conducted by Thomas Haigh On 8 and 9 March, 2004 Santa Barbara, California" (PDF). Computer History Museum. Archived from the original (PDF) on December 27, 2014. Retrieved December 6, 2016. So APL, Speakeasy, LINPACK, EISPACK, and PL0 were the predecessors to MATLAB. ^ Bezanson, Jeff; Karpinski, Stefan; Shah, Viral; Edelman, Alan (February 14, 2012). "Why We Created Julia". Julia Language. Retrieved December 1, 2016. ^ Eaton, John W. (May 21, 2001). "Octave: Past, Present, and Future" (PDF). Texas-Wisconsin Modeling and Control Consortium. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 9, 2017. Retrieved December 1, 2016. ^ "History". Scilab. Archived from the original on December 1, 2016. Retrieved December 1, 2016. ^ S.M. Rump: INTLAB – INTerval LABoratory. In Tibor Csendes, editor, Developments in Reliable Computing, pages 77–104. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1999. ^ Moore, R. E., Kearfott, R. B., & Cloud, M. J. (2009). Introduction to Interval Analysis. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics. ^ Rump, S. M. (2010). Verification methods: Rigorous results using floating-point arithmetic. Acta Numerica, 19, 287–449. ^ Hargreaves, G. I. (2002). Interval analysis in MATLAB. Numerical Algorithms, (2009.1). ^ "The L-Shaped Membrane". MathWorks. 2003. Retrieved February 7, 2014. ^ "System Requirements and Platform Availability". MathWorks. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Platform Road Map for MATLAB and Simulink Product Families". de.mathworks.com. Retrieved December 22, 2021. ^ "Matrices and Arrays - MATLAB & Simulink". www.mathworks.com. Retrieved May 21, 2022. ^ The MathWorks (February 2020). "Company Overview" (PDF). ^ "Current number of matlab users worldwide". Mathworks. November 9, 2017. Retrieved April 26, 2023. ^ a b c d e f g h Chonacky, N.; Winch, D. (2005). "Reviews of Maple, Mathematica, and Matlab: Coming Soon to a Publication Near You". Computing in Science & Engineering. 7 (2). Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE): 9–10. Bibcode:2005CSE.....7b...9C. doi:10.1109/mcse.2005.39. ISSN 1521-9615. S2CID 29660034. ^ a b c d e f g h Haigh, Thomas. "Cleve Moler: Mathematical Software Pioneer and Creator of Matlab" (PDF). IEEE Annals of the History of Computing. IEEE Computer Society. ^ "A Brief History of MATLAB". www.mathworks.com. Retrieved September 4, 2021. ^ a b c d e f g Moler, Cleve; Little, Jack (June 12, 2020). "A history of MATLAB". Proceedings of the ACM on Programming Languages. 4 (HOPL). Association for Computing Machinery (ACM): 1–67. doi:10.1145/3386331. ISSN 2475-1421. ^ a b Xue, D.; Press, T.U. (2020). MATLAB Programming: Mathematical Problem Solutions. De Gruyter STEM. De Gruyter. p. 21. ISBN 978-3-11-066370-9. Retrieved September 16, 2020. ^ a b Press, CRC (2008). Solving Applied Mathematical Problems with MATLAB. CRC Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-1-4200-8251-7. Retrieved September 16, 2020. ^ Woodford, C.; Phillips, C. (2011). Numerical Methods with Worked Examples: Matlab Edition. SpringerLink : Bücher. Springer Netherlands. p. 1. ISBN 978-94-007-1366-6. Retrieved September 16, 2020. ^ Tranquillo, J.V. (2011). MATLAB for Engineering and the Life Sciences. Synthesis digital library of engineering and computer science. Morgan & Claypool Publishers. ISBN 978-1-60845-710-6. Retrieved September 17, 2020. ^ LoTurco, Lori (January 28, 2020). "Accelerating the pace of engineering". MIT News. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved September 16, 2020. ^ Gatto, Marino; Rizzoli, Andrea (1993). "Review of MATLAB, Version 4.0". Natural Resource Modeling. 7 (1). Wiley: 85–88. Bibcode:1993NRM.....7...85G. doi:10.1111/j.1939-7445.1993.tb00141.x. ISSN 0890-8575. ^ Cho, M.J.; Martinez, W.L. (2014). Statistics in MATLAB: A Primer. Chapman & Hall/CRC Computer Science & Data Analysis. CRC Press. ISBN 978-1-4665-9657-3. Retrieved September 17, 2020. ^ Xue, D.; Chen, Y. (2013). System Simulation Techniques with MATLAB and Simulink. No Longer used. Wiley. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-118-69437-4. Retrieved October 15, 2020. ^ "MATLAB Documentation". MathWorks. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Comparing MATLAB with Other OO Languages". MATLAB. MathWorks. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Create Symbolic Variables and Expressions". Symbolic Math Toolbox. MathWorks. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Matrix Indexing". MathWorks. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Structures". MathWorks. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Generate Field Names from Variables". MathWorks. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Case and Space Sensitivity". MathWorks. Retrieved November 1, 2019. ^ "Function Handles". MathWorks. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Anonymous Functions". MathWorks. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Nested Functions". MathWorks. ^ "Object-Oriented Programming". MathWorks. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Comparing Handle and Value Classes". MathWorks. ^ "MATLAB GUI". MathWorks. April 30, 2011. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Create a Simple GUIDE GUI". MathWorks. Retrieved August 14, 2014. ^ "MATLAB App Designer". MathWorks. Retrieved November 1, 2019. ^ "Application Programming Interfaces to MATLAB". MathWorks. Archived from the original on September 15, 2017. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Create MEX-Files". MathWorks. Archived from the original on March 3, 2014. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ Spielman, Dan (February 10, 2004). "Connecting C and Matlab". Yale University, Computer Science Department. Retrieved May 20, 2008. ^ "MATLAB Engine for Python". MathWorks. Retrieved June 13, 2015. ^ "Call Python Libraries". MathWorks. Retrieved June 13, 2015. ^ "External Programming Language Interfaces". MathWorks. Archived from the original on March 11, 2014. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "Call Perl script using appropriate operating system executable". MathWorks. Retrieved November 7, 2013. ^ "MATLAB Builder JA". MathWorks. Retrieved June 7, 2010. ^ Altman, Yair (April 14, 2010). "Java-to-Matlab Interface". Undocumented Matlab. Archived from the original on September 5, 2015. Retrieved June 7, 2010. ^ Kaplan, Joshua. "matlabcontrol JMI". ^ "MATLAB Engine API for Java". MathWorks. Retrieved September 15, 2016. ^ Germundsson, Roger (September 30, 1998). "MaMa: Calling MATLAB from Mathematica with MathLink". Wolfram Research. Wolfram Library Archive. ^ rsmenon; szhorvat (2013). "MATLink: Communicate with MATLAB from Mathematica". Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ Weitzel, Michael (September 1, 2006). "MathML import/export". MathWorks - File Exchange. Archived from the original on February 25, 2011. Retrieved August 14, 2013. ^ "US military ban locks two Chinese universities out of popular software". South China Morning Post. June 12, 2020. Retrieved November 6, 2020. Further reading Gilat, Amos (2004). MATLAB: An Introduction with Applications 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-69420-5. Quarteroni, Alfio; Saleri, Fausto (2006). Scientific Computing with MATLAB and Octave. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-32612-0. Ferreira, A.J.M. (2009). MATLAB Codes for Finite Element Analysis. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-9199-5. Lynch, Stephen (2004). Dynamical Systems with Applications using MATLAB. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-0-8176-4321-8. 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[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Matlab (Bangladesh)","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matlab_(Bangladesh)"},{"link_name":"MATHLAB","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MATHLAB"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"proprietary","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proprietary_software"},{"link_name":"multi-paradigm","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-paradigm_programming_language"},{"link_name":"programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_language"},{"link_name":"numeric computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Numerical_analysis"},{"link_name":"MathWorks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathWorks"},{"link_name":"matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"functions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Function_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithm"},{"link_name":"user interfaces","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_interface"},{"link_name":"MuPAD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MuPAD"},{"link_name":"symbolic engine","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer_algebra_system"},{"link_name":"symbolic computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Symbolic_computing"},{"link_name":"Simulink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulink"},{"link_name":"model-based design","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Model-based_design"},{"link_name":"dynamic","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamical_system"},{"link_name":"embedded systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Embedded_system"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MATLAB&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-mathworksCompanyOverview-23"},{"link_name":"engineering","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engineering"},{"link_name":"science","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Science"},{"link_name":"economics","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics"},{"link_name":"[update]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.orghttps//en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=MATLAB&action=edit"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"text":"For the geographical region, see Matlab (Bangladesh).Not to be confused with MATHLAB.MATLAB (an abbreviation of \"MATrix LABoratory\"[22]) is a proprietary multi-paradigm programming language and numeric computing environment developed by MathWorks. MATLAB allows matrix manipulations, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user interfaces, and interfacing with programs written in other languages.Although MATLAB is intended primarily for numeric computing, an optional toolbox uses the MuPAD symbolic engine allowing access to symbolic computing abilities. An additional package, Simulink, adds graphical multi-domain simulation and model-based design for dynamic and embedded systems.As of 2020[update], MATLAB has more than four million users worldwide.[23] They come from various backgrounds of engineering, science, and economics. As of 2017[update], more than 5000 global colleges and universities use MATLAB to support instruction and research.[24]","title":"MATLAB"},{"links_in_text":[],"title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Cleve Moler","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cleve_Moler"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chonacky_Winch_2005_pp._9%E2%80%9310-25"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chonacky_Winch_2005_pp._9%E2%80%9310-25"},{"link_name":"University of New Mexico","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/University_of_New_Mexico"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chonacky_Winch_2005_pp._9%E2%80%9310-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hobby-26"},{"link_name":"George Forsythe","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George_Forsythe"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chonacky_Winch_2005_pp._9%E2%80%9310-25"},{"link_name":"Fortran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chonacky_Winch_2005_pp._9%E2%80%9310-25"},{"link_name":"ODEs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ordinary_differential_equation"},{"link_name":"FFTs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/FFT"},{"link_name":"[27]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-27"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chonacky_Winch_2005_pp._9%E2%80%9310-25"},{"link_name":"Naval Postgraduate School","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naval_Postgraduate_School"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hobby-26"},{"link_name":"matrix calculators","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moler_Little_pp._1%E2%80%9367-28"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Xue_Press_2020_p._21-29"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Press_2008_p._6-30"},{"link_name":"[31]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Woodford_Phillips_2011_p._1-31"},{"link_name":"[32]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Tranquillo_2011_p.-32"},{"link_name":"John N. Little","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_N._Little"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chonacky_Winch_2005_pp._9%E2%80%9310-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hobby-26"},{"link_name":"GNU Octave","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNU_Octave"},{"link_name":"scilab","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scilab"}],"sub_title":"Origins","text":"MATLAB was invented by mathematician and computer programmer Cleve Moler.[25] The idea for MATLAB was based on his 1960s PhD thesis.[25] Moler became a math professor at the University of New Mexico and started developing MATLAB for his students[25] as a hobby.[26] He developed MATLAB's initial linear algebra programming in 1967 with his one-time thesis advisor, George Forsythe.[25] This was followed by Fortran code for linear equations in 1971.[25]Before version 1.0, MATLAB \"was not a programming language; it was a simple interactive matrix calculator. There were no programs, no toolboxes, no graphics. And no ODEs or FFTs.\"[27]The first early version of MATLAB was completed in the late 1970s.[25] The software was disclosed to the public for the first time in February 1979 at the Naval Postgraduate School in California.[26] Early versions of MATLAB were simple matrix calculators with 71 pre-built functions.[28] At the time, MATLAB was distributed for free[29][30] to universities.[31] Moler would leave copies at universities he visited and the software developed a strong following in the math departments of university campuses.[32]: 5In the 1980s, Cleve Moler met John N. Little. They decided to reprogram MATLAB in C and market it for the IBM desktops that were replacing mainframe computers at the time.[25] John Little and programmer Steve Bangert re-programmed MATLAB in C, created the MATLAB programming language, and developed features for toolboxes.[26]Since 1993 an open source alternative, GNU Octave (mostly compatible with matlab) and scilab (similar to matlab) have been available.","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Las Vegas","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Las_Vegas"},{"link_name":"[25]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Chonacky_Winch_2005_pp._9%E2%80%9310-25"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hobby-26"},{"link_name":"MathWorks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathWorks"},{"link_name":"[30]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Press_2008_p._6-30"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moler_Little_pp._1%E2%80%9367-28"},{"link_name":"Massachusetts Institute of Technology","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hobby-26"},{"link_name":"[33]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-LoTurco_2020-33"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hobby-26"},{"link_name":"[29]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Xue_Press_2020_p._21-29"},{"link_name":"Stanford","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stanford_University"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hobby-26"},{"link_name":"Digital Equipment Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_Equipment_Corporation"},{"link_name":"VAX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/VAX"},{"link_name":"Sun Microsystems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sun_Microsystems"},{"link_name":"[26]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-hobby-26"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moler_Little_pp._1%E2%80%9367-28"},{"link_name":"[34]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Gatto_Rizzoli_1993_pp._85%E2%80%9388-34"},{"link_name":"Stephen C. Johnson","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stephen_C._Johnson"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moler_Little_pp._1%E2%80%9367-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moler_Little_pp._1%E2%80%9367-28"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moler_Little_pp._1%E2%80%9367-28"}],"sub_title":"Commercial development","text":"MATLAB was first released as a commercial product in 1984 at the Automatic Control Conference in Las Vegas.[25][26] MathWorks, Inc. was founded to develop the software[30] and the MATLAB programming language was released.[28] The first MATLAB sale was the following year, when Nick Trefethen from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology bought ten copies.[26][33]By the end of the 1980s, several hundred copies of MATLAB had been sold to universities for student use.[26] The software was popularized largely thanks to toolboxes created by experts in various fields for performing specialized mathematical tasks.[29] Many of the toolboxes were developed as a result of Stanford students that used MATLAB in academia, then brought the software with them to the private sector.[26]Over time, MATLAB was re-written for early operating systems created by Digital Equipment Corporation, VAX, Sun Microsystems, and for Unix PCs.[26][28] Version 3 was released in 1987.[34] The first MATLAB compiler was developed by Stephen C. Johnson in the 1990s.[28]In 2000, MathWorks added a Fortran-based library for linear algebra in MATLAB 6, replacing the software's original LINPACK and EISPACK subroutines that were in C.[28] MATLAB's Parallel Computing Toolbox was released at the 2004 Supercomputing Conference and support for graphics processing units (GPUs) was added to it in 2010.[28]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[35]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Cho_Martinez_2014_p.-35"},{"link_name":"citation needed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed"},{"link_name":"Simulink","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Simulink"},{"link_name":"[36]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Xue_Chen_2013_p._17-36"},{"link_name":"[28]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-Moler_Little_pp._1%E2%80%9367-28"}],"sub_title":"Recent history","text":"Some especially large changes to the software were made with version 8 in 2012.[35] The user interface was reworked[citation needed] and Simulink's functionality was expanded.[36] By 2016, MATLAB had introduced several technical and user interface improvements, including the MATLAB Live Editor notebook, and other features.[28]","title":"History"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"shell","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_line_interface"},{"link_name":"[37]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-37"}],"text":"The MATLAB application is built around the MATLAB programming language. Common usage of the MATLAB application involves using the \"Command Window\" as an interactive mathematical shell or executing text files containing MATLAB code.[37]","title":"Syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"\"Hello, world!\" program","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%22Hello,_world!%22_program"}],"sub_title":"\"Hello, world!\" example","text":"An example of a \"Hello, world!\" program exists in MATLAB.disp('Hello, world!')It displays like so:Hello, world!","title":"Syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"weakly typed","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strong_and_weak_typing"},{"link_name":"[38]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-38"},{"link_name":"[39]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-39"},{"link_name":"constants","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constant_(computer_science)"}],"sub_title":"Variables","text":"Variables are defined using the assignment operator, =. MATLAB is a weakly typed programming language because types are implicitly converted.[38] It is an inferred typed language because variables can be assigned without declaring their type, except if they are to be treated as symbolic objects,[39] and that their type can change. Values can come from constants, from computation involving values of other variables, or from the output of a function. For example:>> x = 17\nx =\n 17\n\n>> x = 'hat'\nx =\nhat\n\n>> x = [3*4, pi/2]\nx =\n 12.0000 1.5708\n\n>> y = 3*sin(x)\ny =\n -1.6097 3.0000","title":"Syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Indexing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/One-based_indexing"},{"link_name":"[40]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-40"},{"link_name":"matrices","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_(mathematics)"},{"link_name":"identity matrix","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Identity_matrix"},{"link_name":"Transposing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transpose"},{"link_name":"conjugate transpose","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conjugate_transpose"},{"link_name":"APL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/APL_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"R","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"vectorized","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Array_programming"},{"link_name":"magic square","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magic_square"}],"sub_title":"Vectors and matrices","text":"A simple array is defined using the colon syntax: initial:increment:terminator. For instance:>> array = 1:2:9\narray =\n 1 3 5 7 9defines a variable named array (or assigns a new value to an existing variable with the name array) which is an array consisting of the values 1, 3, 5, 7, and 9. That is, the array starts at 1 (the initial value), increments with each step from the previous value by 2 (the increment value), and stops once it reaches (or is about to exceed) 9 (the terminator value).The increment value can actually be left out of this syntax (along with one of the colons), to use a default value of 1.>> ari = 1:5\nari =\n 1 2 3 4 5assigns to the variable named ari an array with the values 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5, since the default value of 1 is used as the increment.Indexing is one-based,[40] which is the usual convention for matrices in mathematics, unlike zero-based indexing commonly used in other programming languages such as C, C++, and Java.Matrices can be defined by separating the elements of a row with blank space or comma and using a semicolon to separate the rows. The list of elements should be surrounded by square brackets []. Parentheses () are used to access elements and subarrays (they are also used to denote a function argument list).>> A = [16, 3, 2, 13 ; 5, 10, 11, 8 ; 9, 6, 7, 12 ; 4, 15, 14, 1]\nA =\n 16 3 2 13\n 5 10 11 8\n 9 6 7 12\n 4 15 14 1\n\n>> A(2,3)\nans =\n 11Sets of indices can be specified by expressions such as 2:4, which evaluates to [2, 3, 4]. For example, a submatrix taken from rows 2 through 4 and columns 3 through 4 can be written as:>> A(2:4,3:4)\nans =\n 11 8\n 7 12\n 14 1A square identity matrix of size n can be generated using the function eye, and matrices of any size with zeros or ones can be generated with the functions zeros and ones, respectively.>> eye(3,3)\nans =\n 1 0 0\n 0 1 0\n 0 0 1\n\n>> zeros(2,3)\nans =\n 0 0 0\n 0 0 0\n\n>> ones(2,3)\nans =\n 1 1 1\n 1 1 1Transposing a vector or a matrix is done either by the function transpose or by adding dot-prime after the matrix (without the dot, prime will perform conjugate transpose for complex arrays):>> A = [1 ; 2], B = A.', C = transpose(A)\nA =\n 1\n 2\nB =\n 1 2\nC =\n 1 2\n\n>> D = [0, 3 ; 1, 5], D.'\nD =\n 0 3\n 1 5\nans =\n 0 1\n 3 5Most functions accept arrays as input and operate element-wise on each element. For example, mod(2*J,n) will multiply every element in J by 2, and then reduce each element modulo n. MATLAB does include standard for and while loops, but (as in other similar applications such as APL and R), using the vectorized notation is encouraged and is often faster to execute. The following code, excerpted from the function magic.m, creates a magic square M for odd values of n (MATLAB function meshgrid is used here to generate square matrices I and J containing \n \n \n \n 1\n :\n n\n \n \n {\\displaystyle 1:n}\n \n):[J,I] = meshgrid(1:n);\nA = mod(I + J - (n + 3) / 2, n);\nB = mod(I + 2 * J - 2, n);\nM = n * A + B + 1;","title":"Syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[41]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-41"},{"link_name":"[42]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-42"}],"sub_title":"Structures","text":"MATLAB supports structure data types.[41] Since all variables in MATLAB are arrays, a more adequate name is \"structure array\", where each element of the array has the same field names. In addition, MATLAB supports dynamic field names[42] (field look-ups by name, field manipulations, etc.).","title":"Syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[43]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-43"}],"sub_title":"Functions","text":"When creating a MATLAB function, the name of the file should match the name of the first function in the file. Valid function names begin with an alphabetic character, and can contain letters, numbers, or underscores. Variables and functions are case sensitive.[43]rgbImage = imread('ecg.png');\ngrayImage = rgb2gray(rgbImage); % for non-indexed images\nlevel = graythresh(grayImage); % threshold for converting image to binary, \nbinaryImage = im2bw(grayImage, level); \n% Extract the individual red, green, and blue color channels.\nredChannel = rgbImage(:, :, 1);\ngreenChannel = rgbImage(:, :, 2);\nblueChannel = rgbImage(:, :, 3);\n% Make the black parts pure red.\nredChannel(~binaryImage) = 255;\ngreenChannel(~binaryImage) = 0;\nblueChannel(~binaryImage) = 0;\n% Now recombine to form the output image.\nrgbImageOut = cat(3, redChannel, greenChannel, blueChannel);\nimshow(rgbImageOut);","title":"Syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"lambda calculus","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lambda_calculus"},{"link_name":"[44]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-44"},{"link_name":"[45]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-45"},{"link_name":"[46]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-46"}],"sub_title":"Function handles","text":"MATLAB supports elements of lambda calculus by introducing function handles,[44] or function references, which are implemented either in .m files or anonymous[45]/nested functions.[46]","title":"Syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"object-oriented programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming"},{"link_name":"inheritance","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inheritance_(object-oriented_programming)"},{"link_name":"pass-by-value","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pass-by-value"},{"link_name":"pass-by-reference","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pass-by-reference"},{"link_name":"[47]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-47"},{"link_name":"[48]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-48"}],"sub_title":"Classes and object-oriented programming","text":"MATLAB supports object-oriented programming including classes, inheritance, virtual dispatch, packages, pass-by-value semantics, and pass-by-reference semantics.[47] However, the syntax and calling conventions are significantly different from other languages. MATLAB has value classes and reference classes, depending on whether the class has handle as a super-class (for reference classes) or not (for value classes).[48]Method call behavior is different between value and reference classes. For example, a call to a method:object.method();can alter any member of object only if object is an instance of a reference class, otherwise value class methods must return a new instance if it needs to modify the object.An example of a simple class is provided below:classdef Hello\n methods\n function greet(obj)\n disp('Hello!')\n end\n end\nendWhen put into a file named hello.m, this can be executed with the following commands:>> x = Hello();\n>> x.greet();\nHello!","title":"Syntax"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"sine function","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sine_wave"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Matlab_plot_sin.svg"},{"link_name":"graphical user interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graphical_user_interface"},{"link_name":"[49]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-49"},{"link_name":"[50]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-50"},{"link_name":"[51]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-51"}],"text":"MATLAB has tightly integrated graph-plotting features. For example, the function plot can be used to produce a graph from two vectors x and y. The code:x = 0:pi/100:2*pi;\ny = sin(x);\nplot(x,y)produces the following figure of the sine function:MATLAB supports three-dimensional graphics as well:MATLAB supports developing graphical user interface (GUI) applications.[49] UIs can be generated either programmatically or using visual design environments such as GUIDE and App Designer.[50][51]","title":"Graphics and graphical user interface programming"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"C","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"Fortran","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fortran"},{"link_name":"[52]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-52"},{"link_name":"MEX files","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MEX_file"},{"link_name":"[53]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-53"},{"link_name":"[54]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-54"},{"link_name":"Python","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[55]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-55"},{"link_name":"[56]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-56"},{"link_name":"Perl","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perl"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"ActiveX","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ActiveX"},{"link_name":".NET","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/.NET_Framework"},{"link_name":"[57]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-57"},{"link_name":"[58]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-58"},{"link_name":"XML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/XML"},{"link_name":"SQL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL"},{"link_name":"[59]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-59"},{"link_name":"MathWorks","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathWorks"},{"link_name":"[60]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-60"},{"link_name":"[61]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-61"},{"link_name":"Java Metadata Interface","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_Metadata_Interface"},{"link_name":"[62]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-MATLAB_Engine_API_for_Java-62"},{"link_name":"MuPAD","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MuPAD"},{"link_name":"Maple","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maple_(software)"},{"link_name":"Mathematica","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mathematica"},{"link_name":"[63]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-63"},{"link_name":"[64]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-64"},{"link_name":"MathML","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MathML"},{"link_name":"[65]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-65"}],"text":"MATLAB can call functions and subroutines written in the programming languages C or Fortran.[52] A wrapper function is created allowing MATLAB data types to be passed and returned. MEX files (MATLAB executables) are the dynamically loadable object files created by compiling such functions.[53][54] Since 2014 increasing two-way interfacing with Python was being added.[55][56]Libraries written in Perl, Java, ActiveX or .NET can be directly called from MATLAB,[57][58] and many MATLAB libraries (for example XML or SQL support) are implemented as wrappers around Java or ActiveX libraries. Calling MATLAB from Java is more complicated, but can be done with a MATLAB toolbox[59] which is sold separately by MathWorks, or using an undocumented mechanism called JMI (Java-to-MATLAB Interface),[60][61] (which should not be confused with the unrelated Java Metadata Interface that is also called JMI). Official MATLAB API for Java was added in 2016.[62]As alternatives to the MuPAD based Symbolic Math Toolbox available from MathWorks, MATLAB can be connected to Maple or Mathematica.[63][64]Libraries also exist to import and export MathML.[65]","title":"MATLAB and other languages"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[66]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-66"}],"text":"In 2020, MATLAB withdrew services from two Chinese universities as a result of US sanctions. 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So APL, Speakeasy, LINPACK, EISPACK, and PL0 were the predecessors to MATLAB.\n\n^ Bezanson, Jeff; Karpinski, Stefan; Shah, Viral; Edelman, Alan (February 14, 2012). \"Why We Created Julia\". Julia Language. Retrieved December 1, 2016.\n\n^ Eaton, John W. (May 21, 2001). \"Octave: Past, Present, and Future\" (PDF). Texas-Wisconsin Modeling and Control Consortium. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 9, 2017. Retrieved December 1, 2016.\n\n^ \"History\". Scilab. Archived from the original on December 1, 2016. Retrieved December 1, 2016.\n\n^ S.M. Rump: INTLAB – INTerval LABoratory. In Tibor Csendes, editor, Developments in Reliable Computing, pages 77–104. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, 1999.\n\n^ Moore, R. E., Kearfott, R. B., & Cloud, M. J. (2009). Introduction to Interval Analysis. Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.\n\n^ Rump, S. M. (2010). Verification methods: Rigorous results using floating-point arithmetic. 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Retrieved August 14, 2013.\n\n^ \"Create a Simple GUIDE GUI\". MathWorks. Retrieved August 14, 2014.\n\n^ \"MATLAB App Designer\". MathWorks. Retrieved November 1, 2019.\n\n^ \"Application Programming Interfaces to MATLAB\". MathWorks. Archived from the original on September 15, 2017. Retrieved August 14, 2013.\n\n^ \"Create MEX-Files\". MathWorks. Archived from the original on March 3, 2014. Retrieved August 14, 2013.\n\n^ Spielman, Dan (February 10, 2004). \"Connecting C and Matlab\". Yale University, Computer Science Department. Retrieved May 20, 2008.\n\n^ \"MATLAB Engine for Python\". MathWorks. Retrieved June 13, 2015.\n\n^ \"Call Python Libraries\". MathWorks. Retrieved June 13, 2015.\n\n^ \"External Programming Language Interfaces\". MathWorks. Archived from the original on March 11, 2014. Retrieved August 14, 2013.\n\n^ \"Call Perl script using appropriate operating system executable\". MathWorks. Retrieved November 7, 2013.\n\n^ \"MATLAB Builder JA\". MathWorks. 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Retrieved November 6, 2020.","title":"Notes"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-471-69420-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-69420-5"},{"link_name":"Quarteroni, Alfio","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfio_Quarteroni"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-3-540-32612-0","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-32612-0"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-1-4020-9199-5","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-9199-5"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-8176-4321-8","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8176-4321-8"}],"text":"Gilat, Amos (2004). MATLAB: An Introduction with Applications 2nd Edition. John Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-471-69420-5.\nQuarteroni, Alfio; Saleri, Fausto (2006). Scientific Computing with MATLAB and Octave. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-32612-0.\nFerreira, A.J.M. (2009). MATLAB Codes for Finite Element Analysis. Springer. ISBN 978-1-4020-9199-5.\nLynch, Stephen (2004). Dynamical Systems with Applications using MATLAB. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-0-8176-4321-8.","title":"Further reading"}]

[]

[{"title":"Comparison of numerical-analysis software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comparison_of_numerical-analysis_software"},{"title":"List of numerical-analysis software","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_numerical-analysis_software"}]

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Dynamical Systems with Applications using MATLAB. Birkhäuser. ISBN 978-0-8176-4321-8.","urls":[{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)","url_text":"ISBN"},{"url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8176-4321-8","url_text":"978-0-8176-4321-8"}]}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Johann_Wilhelm_Ritter

Johann Wilhelm Ritter

["1 Life and work","2 See also","3 References","4 Sources","5 External links"]

German scientist This article's lead section may be too short to adequately summarize the key points. Please consider expanding the lead to provide an accessible overview of all important aspects of the article. (January 2023) Johann Wilhelm RitterRitter in the uniform of the Bavarian Academy of Sciences, about 1804.Born(1776-12-16)16 December 1776Samitz, Margraviate of Brandenburg, Holy Roman EmpireDied23 January 1810(1810-01-23) (aged 33)Munich, BavariaNationalityGermanKnown forElectrochemistryUltraviolet lightScientific careerFieldsPhysics Johann Wilhelm Ritter (16 December 1776 – 23 January 1810) was a German chemist, physicist and philosopher. He was born in Samitz (Zamienice) near Haynau (Chojnów) in Silesia (then part of Prussia, since 1945 in Poland), and died in Munich. Life and work Johann Wilhelm Ritter's first involvement with science began when he was 14 years old. He became an apprentice to an apothecary in Liegnitz (Legnica), and acquired a deep interest in chemistry. He began medicine studies at the University of Jena in 1796. A self-taught scientist, he made many experimental researches on chemistry, electricity and other fields. Ritter belonged to the German Romantic movement. He was personally acquainted with Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Alexander von Humboldt, Johann Gottfried Herder and Clemens Brentano. He was strongly influenced by Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling, who was the main philosopher of the Naturphilosophie movement. In 1801, Hans Christian Ørsted visited Jena and became his friend. Several of Ritter's researches were later reported by Ørsted, who was also strongly influenced by the philosophical outlook of Naturphilosophie. Ritter's first scientific researches concerned some galvanic phenomena. He interpreted the physiological effects observed by Luigi Galvani and other researchers as due to the electricity generated by chemical reactions. His interpretation is closer to the one accepted nowadays than those proposed by Galvani (“animal electricity”) and Alessandro Volta (electricity generated by metallic contact), but it was not accepted at the time. Illustration of an electrolysis apparatus by Ritter, 1800 In 1800, shortly after the invention of the voltaic pile, William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle discovered that water could be decomposed by electricity. Shortly afterward, Ritter also discovered the same effect, independently. Besides that, he collected and measured the amounts of hydrogen and oxygen produced in the reaction. He also discovered the process of electroplating. In 1802 he built his first electrochemical cell, with 50 copper discs separated by cardboard disks moistened by a salt solution. Ritter made several self-experiments applying the poles of a voltaic pile to his own hands, eyes, ears, nose and tongue. He also described the difference between the physiological effects of the two poles of the pile, although some of the effects he reported were not confirmed afterwards. Many of Ritter's researches were guided by a search for polarities in the several "forces" of nature, and for the relation between those "forces" – two of the assumptions of Naturphilosophie. In 1801, after hearing about the discovery of "heat rays" (infrared radiation) by William Herschel (in 1800), Ritter looked for an opposite (cooling) radiation at the other end of the visible spectrum. He did not find exactly what he expected to find, but after a series of attempts he noticed that silver chloride was transformed faster from white to black when it was placed at the dark region of the Sun's spectrum, close to its violet end. The "chemical rays" found by him were afterwards called ultraviolet radiation. Some of Ritter's researches were acknowledged as important scientific contributions, but he also claimed the discovery of many phenomena that were not confirmed by other researchers. For instance: he reported that the Earth had electric poles that could be detected by the motion of a bimetallic needle; and he claimed that he could produce the electrolysis of water using a series of magnets, instead of Volta's piles. Ritter had no regular income and never became a university professor, although in 1804 he was elected a member of the Bavarian Academy of Science (in Munich). He married in 1804 and had four children, but he was unable to provide the needs of his family. Plagued by financial difficulties and suffering from weak health (perhaps aggravated by his electrical self-experimentation), he died young in 1810, as a poor man. See also Timeline of hydrogen technologies Timeline of particle discoveries References ^ a b c Büttner, Stefan (2003), "Ritter, Johann Wilhelm", Neue Deutsche Biographie (in German), vol. 21, Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, pp. 664–665; (full text online). ^ Walter D. Wetzels (1990), "Johann Wilhelm Ritter: Romantic Physics in Germany", in Romanticism and the Sciences, eds. Andrew Cunningham and Nicholas Jardine. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 199-212. ISBN 0-521-35602-4. ^ a b Roberto de Andrade Martins (2007), "Ørsted, Ritter and magnetochemistry", in Hans Christian Ørsted and the Romantic Legacy in Science: Ideas, Disciplines, Practices, eds. R.M. Brain, R. S. Cohen & O. Knudsen (Boston Studies in the Philosophy of Science, vol. 241), New York: Springer, pp. 339-385. (ISBN 978-1-4020-2979-0). ^ Hermann Berg (2008), "Johann Wilhelm Ritter – The Founder of Scientific Electrochemistry", Review of Polarography, Vol. 54, No. 2, pp. 99-103. ^ Walter D. Wetzels (1978), "J. W. Ritter: The Beginnings of Electrochemistry in Germany", in: Selected Topics in the History of Electrochemistry, eds. G. Dubpernell and J. H. Westbrook. Princeton: The Electrochemical Society, pp. 68-73. ^ Stuart Walker Strickland (1998), "The Ideology of Self-Knowledge and the Practice of Self-Experimentation", Eighteenth-Century Studies, Vol. 31, No. 4, pp. 453-471. ^ Armin Hermann (1987), "Unity and metamorphosis of forces (1800-1850): Schelling, Oersted and Faraday”, in Symmetries in Physics (1600-1980), eds. M. G. Doncel, A. Hermann, L. Michel and A. Pais. Barcelona: Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, pp. 51-62. ^ Jan Frercksa, Heiko Weberb, and Gerhard Wiesenfeldt (2009), "Reception and discovery: the nature of Johann Wilhelm Ritter’s invisible rays", Studies in History and Philosophy of Science Part A, Vol. 40, No. 2, pp 143-156. ^ "Ultraviolet Waves". Archived from the original on 27 January 2011. Sources Siegfried Zielinski: Electrification, tele-writing, seeing close-up: Johann Wilhelm Ritter, Joseph Chudy, and Jan Evangelista Purkyne, in: Deep Time of the Media. Toward an Archaeology of Hearing and Seeing by Technical Means (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008), ISBN 978-0-262-74032-6. External links Johann W. Ritter Authority control databases International FAST ISNI VIAF WorldCat National Norway France BnF data Germany Italy Israel Belgium United States Czech Republic Netherlands Poland Vatican Academics Mathematics Genealogy Project People Deutsche Biographie Other SNAC IdRef

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He interpreted the physiological effects observed by Luigi Galvani and other researchers as due to the electricity generated by chemical reactions. His interpretation is closer to the one accepted nowadays than those proposed by Galvani (“animal electricity”) and Alessandro Volta (electricity generated by metallic contact), but it was not accepted at the time.Illustration of an electrolysis apparatus by Ritter, 1800In 1800, shortly after the invention of the voltaic pile, William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle discovered that water could be decomposed by electricity. Shortly afterward, Ritter also discovered the same effect, independently. Besides that, he collected and measured the amounts of hydrogen and oxygen produced in the reaction. He also discovered the process of electroplating. In 1802 he built his first electrochemical cell, with 50 copper discs separated by cardboard disks moistened by a salt solution.[4][5]Ritter made several self-experiments applying the poles of a voltaic pile to his own hands, eyes, ears, nose and tongue.[6] He also described the difference between the physiological effects of the two poles of the pile, although some of the effects he reported were not confirmed afterwards.Many of Ritter's researches were guided by a search for polarities in the several \"forces\" of nature, and for the relation between those \"forces\" – two of the assumptions of Naturphilosophie. In 1801, after hearing about the discovery of \"heat rays\" (infrared radiation) by William Herschel (in 1800), Ritter looked for an opposite (cooling) radiation at the other end of the visible spectrum. He did not find exactly what he expected to find, but after a series of attempts he noticed that silver chloride was transformed faster from white to black when it was placed at the dark region of the Sun's spectrum, close to its violet end. The \"chemical rays\" found by him were afterwards called ultraviolet radiation.[7][8][9]Some of Ritter's researches were acknowledged as important scientific contributions, but he also claimed the discovery of many phenomena that were not confirmed by other researchers. For instance: he reported that the Earth had electric poles that could be detected by the motion of a bimetallic needle; and he claimed that he could produce the electrolysis of water using a series of magnets, instead of Volta's piles.[3]Ritter had no regular income and never became a university professor, although in 1804 he was elected a member of the Bavarian Academy of Science (in Munich). He married in 1804 and had four children,[1] but he was unable to provide the needs of his family. Plagued by financial difficulties and suffering from weak health (perhaps aggravated by his electrical self-experimentation),[citation needed] he died young in 1810, as a poor man.","title":"Life and work"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Siegfried Zielinski","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siegfried_Zielinski"},{"link_name":"ISBN","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)"},{"link_name":"978-0-262-74032-6","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-262-74032-6"}],"text":"Siegfried Zielinski: Electrification, tele-writing, seeing close-up: Johann Wilhelm Ritter, Joseph Chudy, and Jan Evangelista Purkyne, in: Deep Time of the Media. Toward an Archaeology of Hearing and Seeing by Technical Means (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2008), ISBN 978-0-262-74032-6.","title":"Sources"}]

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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data-intensive_computing

Data-intensive computing

["1 Introduction","2 Data-parallelism","3 Approach","4 Characteristics","5 System architectures","5.1 MapReduce","5.2 Hadoop","5.3 HPCC","6 See also","7 References"]

Class of parallel computing applications Data-intensive computing is a class of parallel computing applications which use a data parallel approach to process large volumes of data typically terabytes or petabytes in size and typically referred to as big data. Computing applications that devote most of their execution time to computational requirements are deemed compute-intensive, whereas applications are deemed data-intensive require large volumes of data and devote most of their processing time to I/O and manipulation of data. Introduction The rapid growth of the Internet and World Wide Web led to vast amounts of information available online. In addition, business and government organizations create large amounts of both structured and unstructured information, which need to be processed, analyzed, and linked. Vinton Cerf described this as an “information avalanche” and stated, “we must harness the Internet’s energy before the information it has unleashed buries us”. An IDC white paper sponsored by EMC Corporation estimated the amount of information currently stored in a digital form in 2007 at 281 exabytes and the overall compound growth rate at 57% with information in organizations growing at even a faster rate. In a 2003 study of the so-called information explosion it was estimated that 95% of all current information exists in unstructured form with increased data processing requirements compared to structured information. The storing, managing, accessing, and processing of this vast amount of data represents a fundamental need and an immense challenge in order to satisfy needs to search, analyze, mine, and visualize this data as information. Data-intensive computing is intended to address this need. Parallel processing approaches can be generally classified as either compute-intensive, or data-intensive. Compute-intensive is used to describe application programs that are compute-bound. Such applications devote most of their execution time to computational requirements as opposed to I/O, and typically require small volumes of data. Parallel processing of compute-intensive applications typically involves parallelizing individual algorithms within an application process, and decomposing the overall application process into separate tasks, which can then be executed in parallel on an appropriate computing platform to achieve overall higher performance than serial processing. In compute-intensive applications, multiple operations are performed simultaneously, with each operation addressing a particular part of the problem. This is often referred to as task parallelism. Data-intensive is used to describe applications that are I/O bound or with a need to process large volumes of data. Such applications devote most of their processing time to I/O and movement and manipulation of data. Parallel processing of data-intensive applications typically involves partitioning or subdividing the data into multiple segments which can be processed independently using the same executable application program in parallel on an appropriate computing platform, then reassembling the results to produce the completed output data. The greater the aggregate distribution of the data, the more benefit there is in parallel processing of the data. Data-intensive processing requirements normally scale linearly according to the size of the data and are very amenable to straightforward parallelization. The fundamental challenges for data-intensive computing are managing and processing exponentially growing data volumes, significantly reducing associated data analysis cycles to support practical, timely applications, and developing new algorithms which can scale to search and process massive amounts of data. Researchers coined the term BORPS for "billions of records per second" to measure record processing speed in a way analogous to how the term MIPS applies to describe computers' processing speed. Data-parallelism Computer system architectures which can support data parallel applications were promoted in the early 2000s for large-scale data processing requirements of data-intensive computing. Data-parallelism applied computation independently to each data item of a set of data, which allows the degree of parallelism to be scaled with the volume of data. The most important reason for developing data-parallel applications is the potential for scalable performance, and may result in several orders of magnitude performance improvement. The key issues with developing applications using data-parallelism are the choice of the algorithm, the strategy for data decomposition, load balancing on processing nodes, message passing communications between nodes, and the overall accuracy of the results. The development of a data parallel application can involve substantial programming complexity to define the problem in the context of available programming tools, and to address limitations of the target architecture. Information extraction from and indexing of Web documents is typical of data-intensive computing which can derive significant performance benefits from data parallel implementations since Web and other types of document collections can typically then be processed in parallel. The US National Science Foundation (NSF) funded a research program from 2009 through 2010. Areas of focus were: Approaches to parallel programming to address the parallel processing of data on data-intensive systems Programming abstractions including models, languages, and algorithms which allow a natural expression of parallel processing of data Design of data-intensive computing platforms to provide high levels of reliability, efficiency, availability, and scalability. Identifying applications that can exploit this computing paradigm and determining how it should evolve to support emerging data-intensive applications Pacific Northwest National Labs defined data-intensive computing as “capturing, managing, analyzing, and understanding data at volumes and rates that push the frontiers of current technologies”. Approach Data-intensive computing platforms typically use a parallel computing approach combining multiple processors and disks in large commodity computing clusters connected using high-speed communications switches and networks which allows the data to be partitioned among the available computing resources and processed independently to achieve performance and scalability based on the amount of data. A cluster can be defined as a type of parallel and distributed system, which consists of a collection of inter-connected stand-alone computers working together as a single integrated computing resource. This approach to parallel processing is often referred to as a “shared nothing” approach since each node consisting of processor, local memory, and disk resources shares nothing with other nodes in the cluster. In parallel computing this approach is considered suitable for data-intensive computing and problems which are “embarrassingly parallel”, i.e. where it is relatively easy to separate the problem into a number of parallel tasks and there is no dependency or communication required between the tasks other than overall management of the tasks. These types of data processing problems are inherently adaptable to various forms of distributed computing including clusters, data grids, and cloud computing. Characteristics Several common characteristics of data-intensive computing systems distinguish them from other forms of computing: The principle of collection of the data and programs or algorithms is used to perform the computation. To achieve high performance in data-intensive computing, it is important to minimize the movement of data. This characteristic allows processing algorithms to execute on the nodes where the data resides reducing system overhead and increasing performance. Newer technologies such as InfiniBand allow data to be stored in a separate repository and provide performance comparable to collocated data. The programming model utilized. Data-intensive computing systems utilize a machine-independent approach in which applications are expressed in terms of high-level operations on data, and the runtime system transparently controls the scheduling, execution, load balancing, communications, and movement of programs and data across the distributed computing cluster. The programming abstraction and language tools allow the processing to be expressed in terms of data flows and transformations incorporating new dataflow programming languages and shared libraries of common data manipulation algorithms such as sorting. A focus on reliability and availability. Large-scale systems with hundreds or thousands of processing nodes are inherently more susceptible to hardware failures, communications errors, and software bugs. Data-intensive computing systems are designed to be fault resilient. This typically includes redundant copies of all data files on disk, storage of intermediate processing results on disk, automatic detection of node or processing failures, and selective re-computation of results. The inherent scalability of the underlying hardware and software architecture. Data-intensive computing systems can typically be scaled in a linear fashion to accommodate virtually any amount of data, or to meet time-critical performance requirements by simply adding additional processing nodes. The number of nodes and processing tasks assigned for a specific application can be variable or fixed depending on the hardware, software, communications, and distributed file system architecture. System architectures A variety of system architectures have been implemented for data-intensive computing and large-scale data analysis applications including parallel and distributed relational database management systems which have been available to run on shared nothing clusters of processing nodes for more than two decades. However, most data growth is with data in unstructured form and new processing paradigms with more flexible data models were needed. Several solutions have emerged including the MapReduce architecture pioneered by Google and now available in an open-source implementation called Hadoop used by Yahoo, Facebook, and others. LexisNexis Risk Solutions also developed and implemented a scalable platform for data-intensive computing which is used by LexisNexis. MapReduce The MapReduce architecture and programming model pioneered by Google is an example of a modern systems architecture designed for data-intensive computing. The MapReduce architecture allows programmers to use a functional programming style to create a map function that processes a key–value pair associated with the input data to generate a set of intermediate key–value pairs, and a reduce function that merges all intermediate values associated with the same intermediate key. Since the system automatically takes care of details like partitioning the input data, scheduling and executing tasks across a processing cluster, and managing the communications between nodes, programmers with no experience in parallel programming can easily use a large distributed processing environment. The programming model for MapReduce architecture is a simple abstraction where the computation takes a set of input key–value pairs associated with the input data and produces a set of output key–value pairs. In the Map phase, the input data is partitioned into input splits and assigned to Map tasks associated with processing nodes in the cluster. The Map task typically executes on the same node containing its assigned partition of data in the cluster. These Map tasks perform user-specified computations on each input key–value pair from the partition of input data assigned to the task, and generates a set of intermediate results for each key. The shuffle and sort phase then takes the intermediate data generated by each Map task, sorts this data with intermediate data from other nodes, divides this data into regions to be processed by the reduce tasks, and distributes this data as needed to nodes where the Reduce tasks will execute. The Reduce tasks perform additional user-specified operations on the intermediate data possibly merging values associated with a key to a smaller set of values to produce the output data. For more complex data processing procedures, multiple MapReduce calls may be linked together in sequence. Hadoop Apache Hadoop is an open source software project sponsored by The Apache Software Foundation which implements the MapReduce architecture. Hadoop now encompasses multiple subprojects in addition to the base core, MapReduce, and HDFS distributed filesystem. These additional subprojects provide enhanced application processing capabilities to the base Hadoop implementation and currently include Avro, Pig, HBase, ZooKeeper, Hive, and Chukwa. The Hadoop MapReduce architecture is functionally similar to the Google implementation except that the base programming language for Hadoop is Java instead of C++. The implementation is intended to execute on clusters of commodity processors. Hadoop implements a distributed data processing scheduling and execution environment and framework for MapReduce jobs. Hadoop includes a distributed file system called HDFS which is analogous to GFS in the Google MapReduce implementation. The Hadoop execution environment supports additional distributed data processing capabilities which are designed to run using the Hadoop MapReduce architecture. These include HBase, a distributed column-oriented database which provides random access read/write capabilities; Hive, which is a data warehouse system built on top of Hadoop that provides SQL-like query capabilities for data summarization, ad hoc queries, and analysis of large datasets; and Pig – a high-level data-flow programming language and execution framework for data-intensive computing. Pig was developed at Yahoo! to provide a specific language notation for data analysis applications and to improve programmer productivity and reduce development cycles when using the Hadoop MapReduce environment. Pig programs are automatically translated into sequences of MapReduce programs if needed in the execution environment. Pig provides capabilities in the language for loading, storing, filtering, grouping, de-duplication, ordering, sorting, aggregation, and joining operations on the data. HPCC HPCC (High-Performance Computing Cluster) was developed and implemented by LexisNexis Risk Solutions. The development of this computing platform began in 1999 and applications were in production by late 2000. The HPCC approach also utilizes commodity clusters of hardware running the Linux operating system. Custom system software and middleware components were developed and layered on the base Linux operating system to provide the execution environment and distributed filesystem support required for data-intensive computing. LexisNexis also implemented a new high-level language for data-intensive computing. The ECL programming language is a high-level, declarative, data-centric, implicitly parallel language that allows the programmer to define what the data processing result should be and the dataflows and transformations that are necessary to achieve the result. The ECL language includes extensive capabilities for data definition, filtering, data management, and data transformation, and provides an extensive set of built-in functions to operate on records in datasets which can include user-defined transformation functions. ECL programs are compiled into optimized C++ source code, which is subsequently compiled into executable code and distributed to the nodes of a processing cluster. To address both batch and online aspects data-intensive computing applications, HPCC includes two distinct cluster environments, each of which can be optimized independently for its parallel data processing purpose. The Thor platform is a cluster whose purpose is to be a data refinery for processing massive volumes of raw data for applications such as data cleansing and hygiene, extract, transform, load (ETL), record linking and entity resolution, large-scale ad hoc analysis of data, and creation of key data and indexes to support high-performance structured queries and data warehouse applications. A Thor system is similar to the Hadoop MapReduce platform in its hardware configuration, function, execution environment, filesystem, and capabilities but provides higher performance in equivalent configurations. The Roxie platform provides an online high-performance structured query and analysis system or data warehouse delivering the parallel data access processing requirements of online applications through Web services interfaces supporting thousands of simultaneous queries and users with sub-second response times. A Roxie system is similar in its function and capabilities to Hadoop with HBase and Hive capabilities added, but provides an optimized execution environment and filesystem for high-performance online processing. Both Thor and Roxie systems utilize the same ECL programming language for implementing applications, increasing programmer productivity. See also Implicit parallelism Massively parallel Supercomputer Graph500 References ^ Handbook of Cloud Computing, "Data-Intensive Technologies for Cloud Computing," by A.M. Middleton. Handbook of Cloud Computing. Springer, 2010. ^ An Information Avalanche, by Vinton Cerf, IEEE Computer, Vol. 40, No. 1, 2007, pp. 104-105. ^ The Expanding Digital Universe Archived June 27, 2013, at the Wayback Machine, by J.F. Gantz, D. Reinsel, C. Chute, W. Schlichting, J. McArthur, S. Minton, J. Xheneti, A. Toncheva, and A. Manfrediz, IDC, White Paper, 2007. ^ How Much Information? 2003, by P. Lyman, and H.R. Varian, University of California at Berkeley, Research Report, 2003. ^ Got Data? A Guide to Data Preservation in the Information Age Archived 2011-07-18 at the Wayback Machine, by F. Berman, Communications of the ACM, Vol. 51, No. 12, 2008, pp. 50-56. ^ Models and languages for parallel computation, by D.B. Skillicorn, and D. Talia, ACM Computing Surveys, Vol. 30, No. 2, 1998, pp. 123-169. ^ Computing in the 21st Century, by I. Gorton, P. Greenfield, A. Szalay, and R. Williams, IEEE Computer, Vol. 41, No. 4, 2008, pp. 30-32. ^ High-Speed, Wide Area, Data Intensive Computing: A Ten Year Retrospective, by W.E. Johnston, IEEE Computer Society, 1998. ^ IEEE: Hardware Technologies for High-Performance Data-Intensive Computing, by M. Gokhale, J. Cohen, A. Yoo, and W.M. Miller, IEEE Computer, Vol. 41, No. 4, 2008, pp. 60-68. ^ IEEE: A Design Methodology for Data-Parallel Applications Archived 2011-07-24 at the Wayback Machine, by L.S. Nyland, J.F. Prins, A. Goldberg, and P.H. Mills, IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, Vol. 26, No. 4, 2000, pp. 293-314. ^ Handbook of Cloud Computing Archived 2010-11-25 at the Wayback Machine, "Data-Intensive Technologies for Cloud Computing," by A.M. Middleton. Handbook of Cloud Computing. Springer, 2010, pp. 83-86. ^ The terascale challenge by D. Ravichandran, P. Pantel, and E. Hovy. "The terascale challenge," Proceedings of the KDD Workshop on Mining for and from the Semantic Web, 2004 ^ Dynamic adaptation to available resources for parallel computing in an autonomous network of workstations Archived 2011-07-20 at the Wayback Machine by U. Rencuzogullari, and S. Dwarkadas. "Dynamic adaptation to available resources for parallel computing in an autonomous network of workstations," Proceedings of the Eighth ACM SIGPLAN Symposium on Principles and Practices of Parallel Programming, 2001 ^ Information Extraction to Large Document Collections by E. Agichtein, "Scaling Information Extraction to Large Document Collections," Microsoft Research, 2004 ^ "Data-intensive Computing". Program description. NSF. 2009. Retrieved 24 April 2017. ^ Data Intensive Computing by PNNL. "Data Intensive Computing," 2008 ^ The Changing Paradigm of Data-Intensive Computing by R.T. Kouzes, G.A. Anderson, S.T. Elbert, I. Gorton, and D.K. Gracio, "The Changing Paradigm of Data-Intensive Computing," Computer, Vol. 42, No. 1, 2009, pp. 26-3 ^ Cloud computing and emerging IT platforms by R. Buyya, C.S. Yeo, S. Venugopal, J. Broberg, and I. Brandic, "Cloud computing and emerging IT platforms: Vision, hype, and reality for delivering computing as the 5th utility," Future Generation Computer Systems, Vol. 25, No. 6, 2009, pp. 599-616 ^ Distributed Computing Economics by J. Gray, "Distributed Computing Economics," ACM Queue, Vol. 6, No. 3, 2008, pp. 63-68. ^ Computing in the 21st Century, by I. Gorton, P. Greenfield, A. Szalay, and R. Williams, IEEE Computer, Vol. 41, No. 4, 2008, pp. 30-32. ^ Data Intensive Scalable Computing by R.E. Bryant. "Data Intensive Scalable Computing," 2008 ^ A Comparison of Approaches to Large-Scale Data Analysis by A. Pavlo, E. Paulson, A. Rasin, D.J. Abadi, D.J. Dewitt, S. Madden, and M. Stonebraker. Proceedings of the 35th SIGMOD International conference on Management of Data, 2009. ^ MapReduce: Simplified Data Processing on Large Clusters Archived 2009-12-23 at the Wayback Machine by J. Dean, and S. Ghemawat. Proceedings of the Sixth Symposium on Operating System Design and Implementation (OSDI), 2004. ^ as a First-Class Citizen Pig Latin: A Not-So-Foreign Language for Data Processing Archived 2011-07-20 at the Wayback Machine by C. Olston, B. Reed, U. Srivastava, R. Kumar, and A. Tomkins. (Presentation at SIGMOD 2008)," 2008

[{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"parallel computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing"},{"link_name":"data parallel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_parallel"},{"link_name":"terabytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Terabytes"},{"link_name":"petabytes","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Petabytes"},{"link_name":"big data","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Big_data"},{"link_name":"[1]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-1"}],"text":"Data-intensive computing is a class of parallel computing applications which use a data parallel approach to process large volumes of data typically terabytes or petabytes in size and typically referred to as big data. Computing applications that devote most of their execution time to computational requirements are deemed compute-intensive, whereas applications are deemed data-intensive require large volumes of data and devote most of their processing time to I/O and manipulation of data.[1]","title":"Data-intensive computing"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Internet","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet"},{"link_name":"World Wide Web","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_Wide_Web"},{"link_name":"unstructured information","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unstructured_information"},{"link_name":"Vinton Cerf","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vinton_Cerf"},{"link_name":"[2]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-2"},{"link_name":"IDC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Data_Corporation"},{"link_name":"EMC Corporation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EMC_Corporation"},{"link_name":"[3]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-3"},{"link_name":"[4]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-4"},{"link_name":"[5]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-5"},{"link_name":"Parallel processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing"},{"link_name":"[6]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-6"},{"link_name":"[7]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-7"},{"link_name":"[8]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-8"},{"link_name":"task parallelism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Task_parallelism"},{"link_name":"[9]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-9"},{"link_name":"Parallel processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing"},{"link_name":"[10]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-10"},{"link_name":"MIPS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Million_instructions_per_second"},{"link_name":"[11]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-11"}],"text":"The rapid growth of the Internet and World Wide Web led to vast amounts of information available online. In addition, business and government organizations create large amounts of both structured and unstructured information, which need to be processed, analyzed, and linked. Vinton Cerf described this as an “information avalanche” and stated, “we must harness the Internet’s energy before the information it has unleashed buries us”.[2] An IDC white paper sponsored by EMC Corporation estimated the amount of information currently stored in a digital form in 2007 at 281 exabytes and the overall compound growth rate at 57% with information in organizations growing at even a faster rate.[3] In a 2003 study of the so-called information explosion it was estimated that 95% of all current information exists in unstructured form with increased data processing requirements compared to structured information.[4] The storing, managing, accessing, and processing of this vast amount of data represents a fundamental need and an immense challenge in order to satisfy needs to search, analyze, mine, and visualize this data as information.[5] Data-intensive computing is intended to address this need.Parallel processing approaches can be generally classified as either compute-intensive, or data-intensive.[6][7][8] Compute-intensive is used to describe application programs that are compute-bound. Such applications devote most of their execution time to computational requirements as opposed to I/O, and typically require small volumes of data. Parallel processing of compute-intensive applications typically involves parallelizing individual algorithms within an application process, and decomposing the overall application process into separate tasks, which can then be executed in parallel on an appropriate computing platform to achieve overall higher performance than serial processing. In compute-intensive applications, multiple operations are performed simultaneously, with each operation addressing a particular part of the problem. This is often referred to as task parallelism.Data-intensive is used to describe applications that are I/O bound or with a need to process large volumes of data.[9] Such applications devote most of their processing time to I/O and movement and manipulation of data. Parallel processing of data-intensive applications typically involves partitioning or subdividing the data into multiple segments which can be processed independently using the same executable application program in parallel on an appropriate computing platform, then reassembling the results to produce the completed output data.[10] The greater the aggregate distribution of the data, the more benefit there is in parallel processing of the data. Data-intensive processing requirements normally scale linearly according to the size of the data and are very amenable to straightforward parallelization. The fundamental challenges for data-intensive computing are managing and processing exponentially growing data volumes, significantly reducing associated data analysis cycles to support practical, timely applications, and developing new algorithms which can scale to search and process massive amounts of data. Researchers coined the term BORPS for \"billions of records per second\" to measure record processing speed in a way analogous to how the term MIPS applies to describe computers' processing speed.[11]","title":"Introduction"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"data parallel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_parallel"},{"link_name":"[12]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-12"},{"link_name":"load balancing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Load_balancing_(computing)"},{"link_name":"message passing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Message_passing"},{"link_name":"[13]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-13"},{"link_name":"Information extraction","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Information_extraction"},{"link_name":"[14]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-14"},{"link_name":"National Science Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Science_Foundation"},{"link_name":"[15]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-15"},{"link_name":"parallel programming","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_programming"},{"link_name":"parallel processing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing"},{"link_name":"algorithms","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Algorithms"},{"link_name":"Pacific Northwest National Labs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pacific_Northwest_National_Labs"},{"link_name":"[16]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-16"},{"link_name":"[17]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-17"}],"text":"Computer system architectures which can support data parallel applications were promoted in the early 2000s for large-scale data processing requirements of data-intensive computing.[12] Data-parallelism applied computation independently to each data item of a set of data, which allows the degree of parallelism to be scaled with the volume of data. The most important reason for developing data-parallel applications is the potential for scalable performance, and may result in several orders of magnitude performance improvement. The key issues with developing applications using data-parallelism are the choice of the algorithm, the strategy for data decomposition, load balancing on processing nodes, message passing communications between nodes, and the overall accuracy of the results.[13] The development of a data parallel application can involve substantial programming complexity to define the problem in the context of available programming tools, and to address limitations of the target architecture. Information extraction from and indexing of Web documents is typical of data-intensive computing which can derive significant performance benefits from data parallel implementations since Web and other types of document collections can typically then be processed in parallel.[14]The US National Science Foundation (NSF) funded a research program from 2009 through 2010.[15] Areas of focus were:Approaches to parallel programming to address the parallel processing of data on data-intensive systems\nProgramming abstractions including models, languages, and algorithms which allow a natural expression of parallel processing of data\nDesign of data-intensive computing platforms to provide high levels of reliability, efficiency, availability, and scalability.\nIdentifying applications that can exploit this computing paradigm and determining how it should evolve to support emerging data-intensive applicationsPacific Northwest National Labs defined data-intensive computing as “capturing, managing, analyzing, and understanding data at volumes and rates that push the frontiers of current technologies”.[16][17]","title":"Data-parallelism"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"parallel computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing"},{"link_name":"computing clusters","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cluster_(computing)"},{"link_name":"distributed system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_system"},{"link_name":"[18]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-18"},{"link_name":"parallel computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parallel_computing"},{"link_name":"distributed computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_computing"},{"link_name":"cloud computing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cloud_computing"}],"text":"Data-intensive computing platforms typically use a parallel computing approach combining multiple processors and disks in large commodity computing clusters connected using high-speed communications switches and networks which allows the data to be partitioned among the available computing resources and processed independently to achieve performance and scalability based on the amount of data. A cluster can be defined as a type of parallel and distributed system, which consists of a collection of inter-connected stand-alone computers working together as a single integrated computing resource.[18] This approach to parallel processing is often referred to as a “shared nothing” approach since each node consisting of processor, local memory, and disk resources shares nothing with other nodes in the cluster. In parallel computing this approach is considered suitable for data-intensive computing and problems which are “embarrassingly parallel”, i.e. where it is relatively easy to separate the problem into a number of parallel tasks and there is no dependency or communication required between the tasks other than overall management of the tasks. These types of data processing problems are inherently adaptable to various forms of distributed computing including clusters, data grids, and cloud computing.","title":"Approach"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"[19]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-19"},{"link_name":"[20]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-20"},{"link_name":"InfiniBand","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/InfiniBand"},{"link_name":"[21]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-21"},{"link_name":"programming languages","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Programming_languages"},{"link_name":"software architecture","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Software_architecture"},{"link_name":"distributed file system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Distributed_file_system"}],"text":"Several common characteristics of data-intensive computing systems distinguish them from other forms of computing:The principle of collection of the data and programs or algorithms is used to perform the computation. To achieve high performance in data-intensive computing, it is important to minimize the movement of data.[19] This characteristic allows processing algorithms to execute on the nodes where the data resides reducing system overhead and increasing performance.[20] Newer technologies such as InfiniBand allow data to be stored in a separate repository and provide performance comparable to collocated data.\nThe programming model utilized. Data-intensive computing systems utilize a machine-independent approach in which applications are expressed in terms of high-level operations on data, and the runtime system transparently controls the scheduling, execution, load balancing, communications, and movement of programs and data across the distributed computing cluster.[21] The programming abstraction and language tools allow the processing to be expressed in terms of data flows and transformations incorporating new dataflow programming languages and shared libraries of common data manipulation algorithms such as sorting.\nA focus on reliability and availability. Large-scale systems with hundreds or thousands of processing nodes are inherently more susceptible to hardware failures, communications errors, and software bugs. Data-intensive computing systems are designed to be fault resilient. This typically includes redundant copies of all data files on disk, storage of intermediate processing results on disk, automatic detection of node or processing failures, and selective re-computation of results.\nThe inherent scalability of the underlying hardware and software architecture. Data-intensive computing systems can typically be scaled in a linear fashion to accommodate virtually any amount of data, or to meet time-critical performance requirements by simply adding additional processing nodes. The number of nodes and processing tasks assigned for a specific application can be variable or fixed depending on the hardware, software, communications, and distributed file system architecture.","title":"Characteristics"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"system","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/System"},{"link_name":"relational database management systems","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Relational_database_management_systems"},{"link_name":"[22]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-22"},{"link_name":"MapReduce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MapReduce"},{"link_name":"Hadoop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadoop"},{"link_name":"Yahoo","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yahoo"},{"link_name":"Facebook","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Facebook"},{"link_name":"LexisNexis Risk Solutions","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LexisNexis"},{"link_name":"LexisNexis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LexisNexis"}],"text":"A variety of system architectures have been implemented for data-intensive computing and large-scale data analysis applications including parallel and distributed relational database management systems which have been available to run on shared nothing clusters of processing nodes for more than two decades.[22] \nHowever, most data growth is with data in unstructured form and new processing paradigms with more flexible data models were needed. Several solutions have emerged including the MapReduce architecture pioneered by Google and now available in an open-source implementation called Hadoop used by Yahoo, Facebook, and others. LexisNexis Risk Solutions also developed and implemented a scalable platform for data-intensive computing which is used by LexisNexis.","title":"System architectures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"MapReduce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MapReduce"},{"link_name":"Google","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google"},{"link_name":"[23]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-23"},{"link_name":"key–value pair","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribute%E2%80%93value_pair"},{"link_name":"key–value pairs","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attribute%E2%80%93value_pair"},{"link_name":"MapReduce","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MapReduce"}],"sub_title":"MapReduce","text":"The MapReduce architecture and programming model pioneered by Google is an example of a modern systems architecture designed for data-intensive computing.[23] The MapReduce architecture allows programmers to use a functional programming style to create a map function that processes a key–value pair associated with the input data to generate a set of intermediate key–value pairs, and a reduce function that merges all intermediate values associated with the same intermediate key. Since the system automatically takes care of details like partitioning the input data, scheduling and executing tasks across a processing cluster, and managing the communications between nodes, programmers with no experience in parallel programming can easily use a large distributed processing environment.The programming model for MapReduce architecture is a simple abstraction where the computation takes a set of input key–value pairs associated with the input data and produces a set of output key–value pairs. In the Map phase, the input data is partitioned into input splits and assigned to Map tasks associated with processing nodes in the cluster. The Map task typically executes on the same node containing its assigned partition of data in the cluster. These Map tasks perform user-specified computations on each input key–value pair from the partition of input data assigned to the task, and generates a set of intermediate results for each key. The shuffle and sort phase then takes the intermediate data generated by each Map task, sorts this data with intermediate data from other nodes, divides this data into regions to be processed by the reduce tasks, and distributes this data as needed to nodes where the Reduce tasks will execute. The Reduce tasks perform additional user-specified operations on the intermediate data possibly merging values associated with a key to a smaller set of values to produce the output data. For more complex data processing procedures, multiple MapReduce calls may be linked together in sequence.","title":"System architectures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"Apache Hadoop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Hadoop"},{"link_name":"Apache Software Foundation","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Software_Foundation"},{"link_name":"Pig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"HBase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBase"},{"link_name":"ZooKeeper","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_ZooKeeper"},{"link_name":"Hive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Hive"},{"link_name":"Java","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Java_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"GFS","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_File_System"},{"link_name":"HBase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBase"},{"link_name":"data warehouse","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_warehouse"},{"link_name":"SQL","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/SQL"},{"link_name":"Pig","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pig_(programming_language)"},{"link_name":"[24]","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/#cite_note-24"}],"sub_title":"Hadoop","text":"Apache Hadoop is an open source software project sponsored by The Apache Software Foundation which implements the MapReduce architecture. Hadoop now encompasses multiple subprojects in addition to the base core, MapReduce, and HDFS distributed filesystem. These additional subprojects provide enhanced application processing capabilities to the base Hadoop implementation and currently include Avro, Pig, HBase, ZooKeeper, Hive, and Chukwa. The Hadoop MapReduce architecture is functionally similar to the Google implementation except that the base programming language for Hadoop is Java instead of C++. The implementation is intended to execute on clusters of commodity processors.Hadoop implements a distributed data processing scheduling and execution environment and framework for MapReduce jobs. Hadoop includes a distributed file system called HDFS which is analogous to GFS in the Google MapReduce implementation. The Hadoop execution environment supports additional distributed data processing capabilities which are designed to run using the Hadoop MapReduce architecture. These include HBase, a distributed column-oriented database which provides random access read/write capabilities; Hive, which is a data warehouse system built on top of Hadoop that provides SQL-like query capabilities for data summarization, ad hoc queries, and analysis of large datasets; and Pig – a high-level data-flow programming language and execution framework for data-intensive computing.Pig was developed at Yahoo! to provide a specific language notation for data analysis applications and to improve programmer productivity and reduce development cycles when using the Hadoop MapReduce environment. Pig programs are automatically translated into sequences of MapReduce programs if needed in the execution environment. Pig provides capabilities in the language for loading, storing, filtering, grouping, de-duplication, ordering, sorting, aggregation, and joining operations on the data.[24]","title":"System architectures"},{"links_in_text":[{"link_name":"HPCC","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HPCC"},{"link_name":"LexisNexis","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LexisNexis"},{"link_name":"Linux","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux"},{"link_name":"ECL programming language","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ECL_(data-centric_programming_language)"},{"link_name":"implicitly parallel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_parallelism"},{"link_name":"C++","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%2B%2B"},{"link_name":"data cleansing","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_cleansing"},{"link_name":"extract, transform, load","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Extract,_transform,_load"},{"link_name":"record linking","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Record_linking&action=edit&redlink=1"},{"link_name":"Hadoop","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hadoop"},{"link_name":"HBase","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/HBase"},{"link_name":"Hive","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apache_Hive"}],"sub_title":"HPCC","text":"HPCC (High-Performance Computing Cluster) was developed and implemented by LexisNexis Risk Solutions. The development of this computing platform began in 1999 and applications were in production by late 2000. The HPCC approach also utilizes commodity clusters of hardware running the Linux operating system. Custom system software and middleware components were developed and layered on the base Linux operating system to provide the execution environment and distributed filesystem support required for data-intensive computing. LexisNexis also implemented a new high-level language for data-intensive computing.The ECL programming language is a high-level, declarative, data-centric, implicitly parallel language that allows the programmer to define what the data processing result should be and the dataflows and transformations that are necessary to achieve the result. The ECL language includes extensive capabilities for data definition, filtering, data management, and data transformation, and provides an extensive set of built-in functions to operate on records in datasets which can include user-defined transformation functions. ECL programs are compiled into optimized C++ source code, which is subsequently compiled into executable code and distributed to the nodes of a processing cluster.To address both batch and online aspects data-intensive computing applications, HPCC includes two distinct cluster environments, each of which can be optimized independently for its parallel data processing purpose. The Thor platform is a cluster whose purpose is to be a data refinery for processing massive volumes of raw data for applications such as data cleansing and hygiene, extract, transform, load (ETL), record linking and entity resolution, large-scale ad hoc analysis of data, and creation of key data and indexes to support high-performance structured queries and data warehouse applications. A Thor system is similar to the Hadoop MapReduce platform in its hardware configuration, function, execution environment, filesystem, and capabilities but provides higher performance in equivalent configurations. The Roxie platform provides an online high-performance structured query and analysis system or data warehouse delivering the parallel data access processing requirements of online applications through Web services interfaces supporting thousands of simultaneous queries and users with sub-second response times. A Roxie system is similar in its function and capabilities to Hadoop with HBase and Hive capabilities added, but provides an optimized execution environment and filesystem for high-performance online processing. Both Thor and Roxie systems utilize the same ECL programming language for implementing applications, increasing programmer productivity.","title":"System architectures"}]

[]

[{"title":"Implicit parallelism","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Implicit_parallelism"},{"title":"Massively parallel","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Massively_parallel"},{"title":"Supercomputer","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supercomputer"},{"title":"Graph500","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Graph500"}]

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