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tomita-1989-parsing | 1,989 | Parsing 2-Dimensional Language | 2-Dimensional Context-Free Grammar (2D-CFG) for 2-dimensional input text is introduced and efficient parsing algorithms for 2D-CFG are presented. In 2D-CFG, a grammar rule`s right hand side symbols can be placed not only horizontally but also vertically. Terminal symbols in a 2-dimensional input text are combined to form a rectangular region, and regions are combined to form a larger region using a 2-dimensional phrase structure rule. The parsing algorithms presented in this paper are the 2D-Ear1ey algorithm and 2D-LR algorithm, which are 2-dimensionally extended versions of Earley`s algorithm and the LR(O) algorithm, respectively. |
jensen-1989-broad | 1,989 | A Broad-Coverage Natural Language Analysis System | |
asija-1989-pseudo | 1,989 | Pseudo Parsing Swift-Answer Algorithm | |
hajicova-1989-dependency | 1,989 | A Dependency-Based Parser for Topic and Focus | |
budhiraja-etal-1989-parsing | 1,989 | Parsing Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar with Dynamic Expansion | A parser is described here based on the Cocke-Young-Kassami algorithm which uses immediate dominance and linear precedence rules together with various feature inheritance conventions. The meta rules in the grammar are not applied beforehand but only when needed. This ensures that the rule set is kept to a minimum. At the same time, determining what rule to expand by applying which meta-rule is done in an efficient manner using the meta-rule reference table. Since this table is generated during {\textquotedblleft}compilation{\textquotedblright} stage, its generation does not add to parsing time. |
thouin-1984-machine | 1,984 | Machine translation from designers to users: management problems and solutions | Today Machine Translation (MT) systems are at best unique combinations of mathematical, linguistic and algorithmic theories, and of the absence of any theory of translation. In most instances, be it or not because of the complexity of the theories and models involved, managers and translators have been kept out, or kept themselves out, of MTsystems design and development. However, they are the ones who have to use and manage such systems (if they ever become operational), cope with their development and operational costs and, with the help of such strange tools, achieve objectives of better communication. Clearly, since designers and users of operational MT systems are quite separate groups, it is not less than a transfer of technology that must occur for managers and translators, who are MT-wise developing professionals, to inherit the so-called achievements of developed computational linguistics theories. Most of those technology transfer problems resemble the ones managers are faced with when a new computerized information system is implemented in its operational and user environment: system and acceptance testing, possible strategies of implementations, conversion from old (manual) to new system, training, resistance to change, operation per se, including file and data-base maintenance, on-going evaluation and improvement of the system, etc. The paper will briefly overview these problems as they arise in an MT environment. Problems are interesting, but solutions are even more so. With examples mainly from the North-American experience, the paper will discuss original strategies that render easier the access of users to MT technology: early involvement of users in the development process, incorporation into existing operation environment, incorporation into a total document design and production system, total service by a translation firm making the system fully transparent to end-users, layered software structure, micro-computer implementation, direct connection and use through existing computer networks, and more ideas that will have emerged or been implemented by the time of the Conference. |
pigott-1984-difficulty | 1,984 | The difficulty of developing logical algorithms for the machine translation of natural language | In studying machine translation software design, computer experts and linguists have traditionally concentrated on a number of phenomena deemed to present special problems and thus require particular attention. Among the favourites in this connection are morphological analysis, prepositional dependencies and the establishment of antecedents. These and similar subjects have been dealt with at great length in the numerous papers written over the years to demonstrate the necessity of adding one or more specific processing features to the software under design or pilot development. Experience in the practical upgrading of operational systems has however tended to reveal a surprising variety of quite different problems and has shown that the fears of designers and theorists are frequently unfounded. Indeed, in tailoring a system for use by translators, many quite unexpected types of error emerge which, in the absence of sufficiently comprehensive studies, have to be eliminated largely on the basis of trial and error. The paper presents several examples of translation problems of this type and explains how difficult it can be to formalize their resolution in computer programs. Special reference is made to the English-French version of Systran, under development at the European Commission in Luxembourg. Explanations are given of the identification of error types, the human effort involved in their study, and the testing procedures used to check the validity of the action taken to reduce their occurrence in routine translation work. Finally, a number of suggestions are made for those working on design aspects of new systems in the hope that by paying lessattention to problems which have already been solved, efforts can be concentrated on the specific areas which continue to cause frustration for those required to correct or use machine translations in practice. |
knowles-1984-machine | 1,984 | Machine-aided translation and lexical strategies | The context of this paper is that of a translator wishing to develop dictionaries for the purposes of machine-aided translation (MAT). A description is given of the ways in which lexical items in running text are statistically ``patterned'', depending on whether these so-called ``types'' are left unaltered as they are extracted from the text or whether they are immediately mapped onto the corresponding dictionary look-up form (``lemma'') for the purpose of statistical analysis. It is obvious, of course, that for translation purposes it is necessary to establish appropriate entry-points into the MAT dictionary, but this is a secondary problem. There are two dimensions which can assist the machine-assisted translator to a considerable extent. One such factor is any degree of homogeneity the greater, the better in the texts he wishes to process. Translators specialising in certain subject areas and types of discourse are at an advantage if they wish to use an MAT system. The second factor is that of the so-called ``multi-word unit''. Although all languages have multi-word units, which are semantically atomic, they are particularly important in English, and even more so in English technical terminology. Frequency studies of multi-word units, although they generate large listings of types, can be very useful for MAT. The machine-assisted translator is faced with the need to view his work as consisting of two distinct modes: dictionary elaboration and text transaction. The second mode, of course, provides important feed-back to guide the first. One thing is clear: the translator must be his own lexicographer to a great extent, at least until the time when software houses realise the commercial value of such ``static'' data as general bi-lingual high-frequency dictionaries ana the potential ``constellation'' of carefully designed and delineated bi-lingual glossaries of technical terminology! |
loh-etal-1984-new | 1,984 | A new dictionary structure for bi-directional MT system | The importance and structure of MT-dictionary were discussed extensively by many researchers in machine, translation in the past. These structures were mainly concerned with MT-dictionaries for one-way translation systems. In the present paper, a new dictionary structure for bi-directional machine translation is being introduced. The new structure is being tested for Chinese-English as well as English-Chinese machine translation. |
nakamura-nagao-1984-software | 1,984 | A software system for describing a grammar of machine translation: GRADE | A new software system for describing a grammar of a machine translation system has been developed. This software system is called GRADE (GRAmmar DEscriber). GRADE has the following features: 1. GRADE allows a grammar writer to divide a whole grammar into several parts. Each part of the grammar is called a subgrammar. A subgrammar describes a step of the translation process. A whole grammar is then described by a network of sub-grammars. This network is called a subgrammar network. A subgrammar network allows a grammar writer to control the process of the translation precisely. When a subgrammar network in the analysis phase consists of a subgrammar for a noun-phrase (SG1) and a subgrammar for a verb-phase (SG2) in this sequence, the subgrammar network first applies SG1 to an input sentence, then applies SG2 to the result of an application of SG1, thus getting a syntactic structure for the input sentence. 2. A subgrammar consists of a set of rewriting rules. Rewriting rules in a subgrammar are applied for an input sentence in an appropriate order, which is specified in the description of the subgrammar. A rewriting rule transforms a tree structure into another tree structure. Rewriting rules use a powerful pattern matching algorithm to test their applicability to a tree structure. For example, a grammar writer can write a pattern that recognizes and parses an arbitrary numbers of sub-trees. Each node of a tree-structure has a list of pairs of a property name and a property value. A node can express a category name, a semantic marker, flags to control the translation process, and various other information. This tree-to-tree transformation operation by GRADE allows a grammar writer to describe all the processes of analysis, transfer and generation of a machine translation system with this uniform description capability of GRADE. 3. A subgrammar network or a subgrammar can be written in an entry of the dictionaries for a machine translation system. A subgrammar network or a subgrammar written in a dictionary entry is called a dictionary rule, which is specific for a word. When an input sentence contains a word which has a dictionary rule, it is applied to an input sentence at an appropriate point of a translation process. It can express more precise processing appropriate for that specific word that a general Subgrammar Network or Subgrammar. it also allows grammar writers to adjust a machine translation system to a specific domain easily. 4. GRADE is written in LISP. GRADE is implemented on FACOM M-382 and Symbolics 3600. GRADE is used in the machine translation system between Japanese and English. The project was started by the Japanese government in 1982. The effectiveness of GRADE has been demonstrated in the project. |
adorni-massone-1984-production | 1,984 | Production of sentences: a general algorithm and a case study | In this paper a procedure for the production of sentences is described, producing written sentences in a particular language starting from formal representations of their meaning. After a brief description of the internal representation used, the algorithm is presented, and some results and future trends are discussed. |
huang-1984-generation | 1,984 | The generation of Chinese sentences from semantic representations of English sentences | The paper describes the CASSEX package, a parser which takes as input English sentences and produces semantic representations of them, and gives an account of the generation procedure which translates these semantic representations into Chinese sentences. |
melby-1984-machine | 1,984 | Machine translation with post editing versus a three-level integrated translator aid system | The standard design for a computer-assisted translation system consists of data entry of source text, machine translation, and post editing (i.e. revision) of raw machine translation. This paper discusses this standard design and presents an alternative three-level design consisting of word processing integrated with terminology aids, simple source text processing, and a link to an off-line machine translation system. Advantages of the new design are discussed. |
mbaeyi-1984-language | 1,984 | What is the language of memory? | This paper outlines the mutual beneficial analogies between the structural dynamics of memory and machine translation, both of which are extensively dependent on fundamental pattern recognition problems. Basically, both processes are faced with a similarly structured problem namely, the problem of condensing large quantities of data into intelligently interpretable smaller volumes (comprised of basic ``information clusters''). For machine translation, the alphabets and words of a language (that make up an essay) define these data, while the multiplicities of physico-chemical objects of sensory perception constitute, amongst others, the data compression problem facing the memory functions of the brain. For the neural systems (underlying the memory functions of the brain) recent advancements in generalized quantum theoretical methods provide some bases. While these foundations will not be discussed here in any detail, they are used to define the components of a language compatible with memory dynamics. Essentially, these culminate in associative (quantum) logical problems with analogical counterparts in linguistics and the use of compartmentalization cum associative logic in essay interpretations. For purposes of computational linguistics, this paper makes these analogies precise (on quantitative analytical basis), with emphasis on discrete recursive generation of larger structures, and equivalents of coding and decoding for machine translation process. |
habermann-1984-application | 1,984 | Application of SYSTRAN for translation of nuclear technology texts at the Nuclear Center of Karlsruhe | Four years ago the Nuclear Center of Karlsruhe has commenced to apply the Systran MT Program for the translation of nuclear technology texts from French into English. During this period the Systran program has been updated several times and about 8000 entries have been made in the stem dictionary to adapt the MT program to the special field. This resulted in substantial improvement of the quality of translated texts. Quantitative judgement of this quality could be achieved by repeated statistical analysis of some representative sample texts. The results of these analyses are shown and commented. |
arnold-johnson-1984-robust-processing | 1,984 | Robust processing in machine translation | We attempt to develop a general theory of robust processing for natural language, and especially Machine Translation purposes. That is, a general characterization of methods by which processes can be made resistant to malfunctioning of various kinds. We distinguish three sources of malfunction: (a) deviant inputs, (b) deviant outputs, and (c) deviant pairings of input and output, and describe the assumptions that guide our discussion (sections 1 and 2). We classify existing approaches to (a)and (b)-robustness, noting that not only do such approaches fail to provide a solution to (c)-type problems, but that the natural consequence of these solutions is to make (c)-type malfunctions harder to detect (section 3) In the final section (4) we outline possible solutions to (c)-type malfunctions. |
maas-1984-control | 1,984 | Control and data structures in the MT system SUSY-E | The MT system SUSY-E which has been developed since 1972 in the Sonderforschungsbereich ``Elektronische Sprachforschung'' of the University of the Saar can be divided into three major subsystems: background, dictionary and kernel systems. The background system represents the interface to implementers, linguists and users. The dictionary system supports the construction and maintenance of the different dictionaries and provides the description of the dictionary entries. The proper translation processes are carried out by the use of the kernel systems containing the linguistic knowledge in different representational schemes and allowing for syntactico-semantic analysis and generation of texts. The most elaborate kernel system of SUSY-E is SUSY which has been constantly developed and tested in the past ten years. Apart from SUSY there exist several new ``prototypes'' which in their architecture show considerable differences between themselves and especially with regard to SUSY. These new approaches are called SUSY-II systems. |
paskaleva-bulgaria-1982-formal | 1,982 | A Formal Procedure for Bulgarian Word Form Generation | |
lehmann-stachowitz-1971-feasibility | 1,971 | Feasibility study on fully automatic high quality translation | This report presents the results of a theoretical inquiry into the feasibility of a fully automatic high quality translation (FAHQT), according to Bar-Hillel`s definition of this term. The purpose of this inquiry consisted in determining the viability of the FAHQT concept in the light of previous and projected advances in linguistic theory and software/hardware capabilities. The corollary purpose was to determine whether this concept can be taken into consideration as a legitimate and justifiable objective of R{\&}D. The effort was supported by 20 expert consultants from the various universities and research centers in the U.S.A. and abroad. Conclusions and recommendations are presented on pages 44-50 of the report. Individual contributions of participants and consultants reflect a wide range of opinions concerning the prospects of FAHQT in intermediate and long range of R{\&}D. |
bellert-1963-necessity | 1,963 | Necessity of introducing some information provided by transformational analysis into MT algorithms | A few examples of ambiguous English constructions and their Polish equivalents are discussed in terms of the correlation between their respective phrase-marker representations and transformational analyses. It is shown by these examples that such an investigation can reveal interesting facts for MT, and therefore should be carried out for any pair of languages for which a given MT program is being constructed. If the phrase-marker of the English construction is set into one-to-one correspondence with the phrasemarker of the Polish equivalent construction, whatever particular transformational analysis of this construction is to be taken into account, then the ambiguous phrasemarker representation can be used as a syntactical model for MT algorithms with good results. If the phrase-marker of the English construction is set into one-to-many correspondence with the phrasemarkers of the Polish equivalents, according to the transformational analyses of this construction, then the ambiguous phrase-structure representation has to be resolved in terms of transformational analysis, for only then is it possible to assign the corresponding phrase structure representation to the Polish equivalents. A tentative scheme of syntactical recognition is provided for the multiply ambiguous adjectival construction in English1 (which proved to belong to the latter case) by means of introducing some information obtained from the transformational analysis of this construction. |
betz-hoffman-1963-use | 1,963 | The use of a random access device for dictionary lookup | The purpose of this paper will be to present a scheme to locate for single textual items and idioms in textual order their corresponding dictionary entries stored in an IBM 1301 random access mechanism. Textual items are considered to be 24 characters in length (left justified with following blanks). A dictionary entry consists of a 24 character Russian form, grammar information for the form and a set of translations for that form. Dictionary entries are packed into sequential tracks of the 1301. This paper will cover the method used for dictionary storage. The lookup for a textual item I first consists of a search for the first track that the dictionary entry E (if one exists) for I could be stored in. Once a track has been determined its contents are searched in core by a bisection convergence technique to find E. If E cannot be found, a {\textquotedblleft}no entry{\textquotedblright} indication is made. If E is found a further search is made of the dictionary to find the longest sequence of text, starting with the first item I, that has a dictionary entry. The last such entry found is picked up. Included in the presentation will be examples of the dictionary lookup output for actual text. |
borkowski-micklesen-1963-generative | 1,963 | Generative processes for Russian impersonal sentences | Impersonal sentences of Russian are those traditionally construed to consist of predicates only. Ever since the first Russian grammar was compiled, they have continued to pose a problem for grammarians. This paper is intended to be a review and evaluation of all types of the so-called impersonal sentences in the Russian language. The investigation of these sentences has been conducted in terms of their relationships to basic (kernel) sentences. Our paper attempts to define the origin for such impersonal sentences, i.e., how such sentences might be derived within the framework of a generative grammar from a set of rules possessing maximal simplicity and maximal generative power. The long-range aim of this investigation involves the most efficient manipulation of such sentences in a recognition device for Russian-English MT. |
brady-estes-1963-concerning | 1,963 | Concerning the role of sub-grammars in machine translation | The comprehensive grammars being developed at the Linguistics Research Center of the University of Texas will be too large for easy access and manipulation in either experimental programs or practical translation. It is necessary, therefore, to devise some reliable method for selecting subsets of the grammar rules which will be reasonably adequate for a given purpose. Since the majority of the rules are dictionary rules, this problem is closely related both to the problem of constructing microglossaries and to the subsequent problem of choosing a particular microglossary suitable to a given text. Our current approach to this problem entails the construction of key word lists in the first stage of analysis which guide the computer in its choice of a previously constructed microglossary. Work to date indicates adaptations of this technique may not only contribute to the solution of storage and access problems but also facilitate analysis and simplify problems of semantic resolution. |
charney-1963-word | 1,963 | Word-meaning and sentence-meaning | A theory of semantics is presented which (1) defines the meanings of the most frequently occurring semantic morphemes ({\textquoteleft}all', {\textquoteleft}unless', {\textquoteleft}only', {\textquoteleft}if', {\textquoteleft}not', etc.), (2) explains their role, as semantically interdependent structural-constants, in giving rise to sentence-meanings, (3) suggests a possible approach to a sentenceby-sentence recognition program, and (4) offers a feasible method of coordinating among different language systems synonymous sentences whose grammatical features and structural-constants do not bear a one-to-one correspondence to one another. The theory applies only to morphemes that function as structural-constants and their interlocking relationships, denotative terms being treated as variables whose ranges alone have structural significance in sentencemeaning. The basic views underlying the theory are: In any given sentence, it is the particular configuration of structural-constants in combination with specific grammatical features which produces the sentencemeaning; the defined meaning of each individual structural-constant remains constant. The word-meanings of this type of morpheme, thus, must be carefully distinguished from the sentence-meanings that configuration of these morphemes produce. Sentence-synonymy is not based upon word-synonymy alone. Contrary to the popular view that the meanings of all of the individual words must be known before the sentencemeaning can be known, it is shown that one must comprehend the total configuration of structural-constants and syntactical features in a sentence in order to comprehend the correct sentence-meaning and that this understanding of the sentence as a whole must precede the determination of the correct semantic interpretation of these critical morphemes. In fact, the structural features that produce the sentence-meanings may restrict the possible meanings of even the denotative terms since a structural feature may demand, for example, a verbal rather than a noun phrase as an indispensable feature of the configuration. Two or more synonymous sentences whose denotative terms are everywhere the same but whose structural configurations are not isomorphic express the same fundamental sentence-meaning. The fundamental sentence-meanings can be explicitly formulated, and serve as the mapping functions to co-ordinate morphemically-unlike synonymous sentences within a language system or from one system to another. The research goal of the author is to establish empirically these translation rules that state formally the structural characteristics of the sentence configurations whose sentence-meanings, as wholes, are related as synonymous. |
darlington-1963-translating | 1,963 | Translating ordinary language into symbolic logic | The paper describes a computer program, written in COMIT, for translating ordinary English into the notation of propositional logic and first-order functional logic. The program is designed to provide an ordinary language input to a COMIT program for the David-Putnam proof-procedure algorithm. The entire set of operations which are performed on an input sentence or argument are divided into three stages. In Stage I, an input sentence {\textquoteleft}S', such as {\textquotedblleft}The composer who wrote {\textquoteleft}Alcina' wrote some operas in English,{\textquotedblright} is rewritten in a quasi-logical notation, {\textquotedblleft}The X/A such that X/A is a composer and X/A wrote Alcina wrote some X/B such that X/B is an opera and X/B is in English.{\textquotedblright} The quasi-logical notation serves as an intermediate language between logic and ordinary English. In Stage II, S is translated into the logical notation of propositional functions and quantifiers, or of propositional logic, whichever is appropriate. In Stage III, S is run through the proof-procedure program and evaluated. (The sample sentence quoted is of course {\textquoteleft}invalid', i.e. nontautological.) The COMIT program for Stage III is complete, that for Stage II is almost complete, and that for Stage I is incomplete. The paper describes the work done to date on the programs for Stages I and II. |
dolby-resnikoff-1963-graphic | 1,963 | The graphic structure of word-breaking | In a recent paper1 the authors have shown that it is possible to determine the possible parts of speech of English words from an analysis of the written form. This determination depends upon the ability to determine the number of graphic syllables in the word. It is natural, then, to speculate as to the nature of graphic syllabification and the relation of this phenomenon to the practice of word-breaking in dictionaries and style manuals. It is not at all clear at the start that dictionary wordbreaking is subject to any fixed structure. In fact, certain forms cannot be broken uniquely in isolation since the dictionary provides different forms depending upon whether the word is used as a noun or a verb. However, it is shown in this paper that letter strings can be decomposed into 3 sets of roughly the same size in the following manner: in the first, strings are never broken in English words; in the second, the strings are always broken in English words; and in the third, both situations occur. Rules for breaking vowel strings are obtained by a study of the CVC forms. Breaks involving consonants can be determined by noting whether or not the consonant string occurs in penultimate position with the final c. The final e in compounds also serves to identify the forms that are generally split off from the rest of the word. A thorough analysis is made of the accuracy of the rules given when applied to the 12,000 words of the Government Printing Office Style Manual Supplement on word-breaking. Comparisons are also drawn between this source and several American dictionaries on the basis of a random sample of 500 words. |
dougherty-1963-writing | 1,963 | Writing of Chinese recognition grammar for machine translation | Our approach to this problem is based on the stratificational grammar outlined and the procedures proposed by Dr. Sydney Lamb. How the theory and the procedures can be applied to written Chinese is briefly discussed. For the time being our research is limited to the particular kind of written Chinese found in chemical and biochemical journals. First the Chinese lexes are classified by detailed syntactical analysis, then binary grammar rules are constructed for joining two primary or constitute classes. How a more and more refined classification can eliminate one by one the ambiguity resulting from all possible constructions arising from juxtaposition of two distributional classes is discussed in detail. |
edmundson-1963-behavior | 1,963 | The behavior of English articles | Machine translation has often been conceived as consisting of three steps: analysis of source-language sentence, transformation of analyzed pieces, and synthesis of target-language sentence. This paper is concerned with one aspect of the last step, namely, the rules of behavior of English articles. Since the classical definitions of definite and indefinite articles are operationally imprecise, proper mechanistic rules must be formulated in order to permit the automatic insertion or non-insertion of English articles. The rules discussed are of syntactic origin; however, note is also taken of their semantic aspects. This paper describes the methods used to derive these rules and offers ideas for further research. |
gammon-1963-representing | 1,963 | On representing syntactic structure | The idea of sentence depth of Yngve (A Model and an Hypothesis for Language Structure, Proc. Am. Phil. Soc., Vol. 104, No. 5, Oct. 1960) is extended to the notion of {\textquotedblleft}distance{\textquotedblright} between constituents of a construction. The distance between constituents is defined as a weighted sum of the number of IC cuts separating them. Yngve`s depth is then a maximum distance from a sentence to any of its words. Various systems of weighting cuts are investigated. For example, in endocentric structures we may require that the distance from an attribute to the structure exceeds the distance from the head to the structure, and in exocentric structures that the distances from each constituent to the structure are equal. Representations of constructions are considered which preserve the distance between constituents. It is shown that it is impossible to represent some sentences in Euclidean space with exact distances, but a representation may be found if only relative order is preserved. If more general spaces are used then exact distances may be represented. It follows that for a wide class of sentence types, there is a weighting, and a space, in which the distance preserving representations are identical with the diagrams of traditional grammar. |
gentilhomme-1963-la | 1,963 | La traduction automatique et l`enseignement du russe | Les recherches effectu{\'e}es depuis quelques ann{\'e}es en vue de la Traduction Automatique ont conduit {\`a} des m{\'e}thodes de travail et {\`a} des r{\'e}sultats int{\'e}ressant la p{\'e}dagogie des langues. Une exp{\'e}rience d`enseignement du russe a l`usage des scientifiques fond{\'e}e sur ces donn{\'e}es a {\'e}t{\'e} poursuivie pendant deux ans {\`a} Paris (Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique et Facult{\'e} des Sciences), et a abouti {\`a} la publication d`un manuel. Le present compte-rendu a pour objet de pr{\'e}ciser les principes g{\'e}n{\'e}raux utilis{\'e}s, la r{\'e}action des {\'e}tudiants et le rendement p{\'e}dagogique obtenu. 1. Graphes morphologiques: Les mots d`une m{\^e}me famille. Notion de base. La double ramification. Les graphes abstraits. Les n{\'e}ologismes scientifiques. 2. Graphes syntaxiques: La double structure d`une phrase. Multiplicit{\'e} des mod{\`e}les. Point de vue psychologique. Notion de fonction. Continuit{\'e} et discontinuit{\'e}. 3. Les s{\'e}parateurs: La segmentation d`une phrase. Le vocabulaire prioritaire. 4. Th{\'e}orie de la valence: macro et microcontexte. Qu`est-ce-que {\textquotedblleft}conna{\^i}tre un mot{\textquotedblright}? 5. Point de vue de l'{\'e}tudiant; point de vue du traducteur humain; et point de vue de l`Enseignant. |
giuliano-1963-word | 1,963 | Word and context association by means of linear networks | This paper is concerned with the use of electrical networks for the automatic recognition of statistical associations among words and contexts present in written text. A general mathematical theory is proposed for association by means of linear transformations, and it is shown that this theory can be realized through use of passive linear electrical networks. Several smallscale experimental associative networks have been built, and are briefly described in the paper; one such device will be demonstrated in the course of the oral presentation of the paper. Some of the devices generate measures of association among index terms used to characterize a document collection, and between the index terms and the documents themselves. Another uses syntactic proximity within sentences as a criterion for the generation of word association measures. Examples are given of associations produced by these network devices. It is conjectured that the networkproduced association measures reflect two distinct types of linguistic association{---}{\textquotedblleft}synonymy{\textquotedblright} association which reflects similarity of meaning, and {\textquotedblleft}contiguity{\textquotedblright} association which reflects real-world relationships among designata. |
harper-1963-study | 1,963 | A study of the combinatorial properties of Russian nouns | A statistical study was made of the extent to which Russian nouns enter into certain kinds of syntactic combination. The basis of the study was a corpus of 180,000 running words of Russian physics text prepared for analysis by the Automatic Language Data Processing group at The Rand Corporation; for each sentence of text the syntactic dependency of each word had been previously coded. A data retrieval program was applied, showing for each noun in text the number of occurrences (a) with at least one genitive noun dependent, (b) with at least one adjective dependent, and (c) with either type of dependent. A listing of all nouns in text (64,026 occurrences of 2,993 nouns) was prepared, ordered by frequency, and showing counts for a, b, and c above. Separate listings were prepared, showing for each noun that occurred 50 times or more the probability P that it would be modified in each of these three ways; these listings were ordered on P. The data suggests, among others, the following conclusions: there is statistical significance in the variability with which nouns enter into the given combinations; the partial interchangeability of adjective and genitive noun modification is supported; a general correspondence exists between combinatorial groupings of nouns and morphological or semantic groupings (concrete nouns have low P for genitive complementation, abstract nouns have high P, etc); the use of words in a given field of discourse can be determined empirically (e.g., the use of deverbative nouns either to indicate a process or the result of a process). It is suggested that the distributional approach is a useful supplement to traditional syntactic and semantic classification schemes, and that it is of direct utility in automatic parsing programs. |
hays-1963-connectability | 1,963 | Connectability calculations, syntactic functions, and Russian syntax | A program for sentence-structure determination can be divided into routines for analysis of word order and for testing the grammatical connectability of pairs of sentence members. The present paper describes a connectability-test routine that uses the technique called code matching. This technique requires elaborate descriptions of individual items, say the words or morphemes listed in a dictionary, but it avoids the use of large tables or complicated programs for testing connectability. Development of the technique also leads to a certain clarification of the linguistic concepts of function, exocentrism, and homography. In the present paper, a format for the description of Russian items is offered and a program for testing the connectability of pairs of Russian items is sketched. This system recognizes nine dominative functions: subjective; first, second, and third complementary; first, second, and third auxiliary; modifying; and predicative. The nature of a program for testing connectability with respect to coordinative functions (coordination, apposition, etc.) is suggested. |
hirschberg-1963-punctuation | 1,963 | Punctuation and automatic syntactic analysis | In this paper we discuss how algorithms for automatic analysis can take advantage of information carried by the punctuation marks. We neglect stylistic aspects of punctuation because they lack universality of usage and we restrict ourselves to those rules which any punctuation must observe in order to be intelligible. This involves a concept we call {\textquotedblleft}coherence{\textquotedblright} of punctuation. In order to define {\textquotedblleft}coherence{\textquotedblright}, we introduce two characteristics, which we prove to be mutually independent, namely {\textquotedblleft}separating power{\textquotedblright} and {\textquotedblleft}syntactic function{\textquotedblright}. The separating power is defined by three experimental laws expressing the fact that two punctuation marks of different separating power prevent to a different extent syntactic links from crossing them. These laws are defined independently of any particular grammatical character of the punctuation marks or of the attached grammatical syntagms. On the other hand, whichever grammatical system we choose, we may assimilate the punctuation marks to the ordinary words, to the extent that we can assign to them a known grammatical character and function, well defined in any particular context. They differ however from the other words by their large number of homographs and synonyms i.e. by the fact that almost every punctuation mark can occur with almost every grammatical value in each particular case, and in quite similar contexts. The syntactic functions, in general, and in particular those of the punctuation marks, can be ordered according to an arbitrary scale of decreasing {\textquotedblleft}value{\textquotedblright} of syntactic links, where the {\textquotedblleft}value{\textquotedblright} of a link is directly related to the number of syntactic conditions the links must satisfy. The law of coherence, then, shows that in a given context, a particular punctuation mark cannot indistinctly represent all its homographs, so that a certain number of assumptions about its syntactic nature and function can be discarded. This law can be stated as follows: {\textquotedblleft}When moving from a punctuation mark to its immediate (left or right) neighbor in any text, the separating power cannot increase if the value of the syntactic function increases and vice-versa{\textquotedblright}. In addition we review two related topics, namely the stylistic character of punctuation and the necessity and existence of intrinsic criteria of grammatically, i.e. independent of punctuation. We propose such a criterion, and suggest a formalism related to the parenthesis free notation of logic. |
hoffman-etal-1963-application | 1,963 | Application of decision tables to syntactic analysis | Decision tables have recently become an object of investigation as a possible means of improving problem formulation of data processing procedures. The initial emphasis for this new tool came from systems analysts who were primarily concerned with business data processing problems. The purpose of this paper is to investigate the suitability of decision tables as a means of expressing syntactic relations as an alternative to customary flow charting techniques. The history of decision tables will be briefly reviewed and several kinds of decision tables will be defined. As an example, parts of the predicative blocking routine developed at Wayne State University will be presented as formulated with the aid of decision tables. The aim of the predicative blocking routine is to group a predicative form together with its modal and temporal auxiliaries, infinitive complements, and negative particle, if any of these exist. The object of the search is to define such a syntactic block, but it may turn out instead that an infinitive phrase is defined or that a possible predicative form turns out to be an adverb. |
jaffe-1963-simultaneous | 1,963 | Simultaneous computation of lexical and extralinguistic information measures in dialogue | An approach to the study of information processing in verbal interaction is described. It compares patterns of two indices of dispersion in recorded dialogue. The lexical measure is the mean segmental type{---}token ratio, based on 25-word segments of the running conversation. It is computed from a key punched transcript of the dialogue without regard to the speaker of the words. The extralinguistic measure is the H statistic, computed from the temporal pattern of the interaction. The latter is prepared from a two-channel tape recording by a special analogue to digital converter (AVTA system) which key punches the state of the vocal transaction 200 times per minute. Probabilities of the four possible states (either A or B speaking, neither speaking, both speaking) are the basis for the computation. All analyses are done on the IBM 7090. The methodology is part of an investigation of information processing in dyadic systems, aimed toward the reclassification of pathological communication. |
jonas-1963-design | 1,963 | Design of a generalized information system | While mechanical translation research involves the design of a computer system which simulates language processes, there is the associated problem of collecting the language data which are to be used in translation. Because large quantities of information will be needed, the computer may be useful for data accumulation and verification. A generalized information system should be able to accept the many types of data which a linguist encodes. A suitable means of communication between the linguist and the system has to be established. This may be achieved with a central input, called Linguistic Requests, and a central output, called Information Displays. The requests should be coordinated so that all possible inputs to the system are compatible, and the displays should be composed by the system such that they are clearly understandable. An information system should be interpretive of the linguist`s needs by allowing him to program the data manipulation. The key to such a scheme is that the linguist be permitted to classify his data freely and to retrieve it as he chooses. He should have at his disposal selecting, sorting, and displaying functions with which he can verify data, select data for introduction to a mechanical translation system, and perform other activities necessary in his research. Such an information system has been designed at the Linguistics Research Center of The University of Texas. |
klein-1963-experiments | 1,963 | Some experiments performed with an automatic paraphraser | The automatic paraphrasing system used in the experiments described herein consisted of a phrase structure, grammatically correct nonsense generator coupled with a monitoring system that required the dependency relations of the sentence in production to be in harmony with those of a source text. The output sentences also appeared to be logically consistent with the content of that source. Dependency was treated as a binary relation, transitive except across most verbs and prepositions. Five experiments in paraphrasing were performed with this basic system. The first attempted to paraphrase without the operation of the dependency monitoring system, yielding grammatically correct nonsense. The second experiment included the operation of the monitoring system and yielded logically consistent paraphrases of the source text. The third and fourth experiments demanded that the monitoring system permit the production of only those sentences whose dependency relations were non-existent in the source text. While these latter outputs were seemingly nonsensical, they bore a special logical relationship to the source. The fifth experiment demanded that the monitoring system permit the production of sentences whose dependency relations were the converse of those in the source. This restriction was equivalent to turning the dependency tree of the source text upside down. The output of this experiment consisted only of kernel type sentences which, if read backwards, were logically consistent with the source. The results of these experiments determine some formal properties of dependency and engender some comments about the role of dependency in phrase structure and transformational models of language. |
klima-1963-interlingual | 1,963 | Interlingual correspondence at the syntactic level | The paper will investigate a few major construction types in several related European languages: relative clauses, attributive phrases, and certain instances of coordinate conjunction involving these constructions. In each of the languages independently, the constructions will be described as resulting from syntactic mechanisms further analyzable into chains of partially ordered operations on more basic structures. Pairs of sentences equivalent in two languages will be examined. Sentences will be considered equivalent if they are acceptable translations of one another. The examples used will, in fact, be drawn primarily from standard translations of scholarly and literary prose. Equivalence between whole sentences can be further analyzed, as will be shown, into general equivalence 1) between the chains of operations describing the constructions and 2) between certain elements (e.g., lexical items) in the more basic underlying structures. It will be seen that superficial differences in the ultimate shape of certain translation pairs can be accounted for as the result of minor differences in the particular operations involved or in the basic underlying structure. We shall examine two languages (e.g., French and German) in which attributive phrase formation and relative clause formation on the whole correspond and in which, in a more or less abstract way, the rules of relative clause formation are included as intermediate links in the chain of operations describing attributive phrases. The fact that in particular cases a relative clause in the one language corresponds to an attributive phrase in the other will be found to result from, e.g., differences in the choice of perfect auxiliary in the two languages. |
kuno-1963-sentence | 1,963 | Sentence structure diagrams | A system for automatically producing a sentence structure diagram for each analysis of a given sentence has been added to the program of the multiple-path syntactic analyzer. A structure code, consisting of a series of structure symbols or phrase markers that identify the successive higher-order structures to which the word in question belongs, is assigned to each word of the sentence. The set of structure codes for the words of a given sentence is equivalent to an explicit tree diagram of the sentence structure, but more compact and easier to lay out on conventional printers. The diagramming system makes some experimental assumptions about the dependencies of certain structures upon higher-level structures. All the major syntactic components of a sentence (i.e., subject, verb, object, complement, period, or question mark) are represented in the current system as occurring on the same level, all being dependent on the topmost level, {\textquotedblleft}sentence{\textquotedblright}. A floating structure such as a prepositional phrase or adverbial phrase or clause, whose dependency is not determined in the analyzer, is represented as depending upon the nearest preceding structure modifiable by such a floating structure. Different assumptions as to structural dependencies would yield different diagrams without requiring modification on the main flow of the diagramming program. The diagrams thus obtained contribute greatly to the rapid and accurate evaluation of the analysis results, and they are also useful for obtaining basic syntactic patterns of analyzed structures, and for detecting the head of each identified structure. |
lamb-1963-linguistic | 1,963 | Linguistic structure and machine translation | If one understands the nature of linguistic structure, one will know what design features an adequate machine translation system must have. To put it the other way around, it is futile to attempt the construction of a machine translation system without a knowledge of what the structure of language is like. This principle means that if someone wants to construct a machine translation system, the most important thing he must do is to understand the structure of language. Any MT system, whether by conscious intention on the part of its creators or not, is based upon some view of the nature of linguistic structure. By making explicit the underlying theory for various MT systems which have been proposed we can determine whether or not they are adequate. Similarly, by observing linguistic phenomena we can determine what properties an adequate theory of language must have, and such determination will show what features an MT system must have in order to be adequate. It can be shown that some of the approaches to MT now being pursued must necessarily fail because their underlying linguistic theories are inadequate to account for various well-known linguistic phenomena. |
lehmann-1963-redundancy | 1,963 | On redundancy in artificial languages | Artificial languages are one concern of work in computational linguistics, if only as a mnemonic device for interlinguas which will be developed. Even if it does not gain wider use, the structure of an artificial language is of general interest. In contrast to the artificial languages which have been widely proposed, linguistic principles underlying a welldesigned artificial language and its usefulness are wellestablished, particularly through Trubetzkoy`s article, TCLP 8.5-21. which indicates phonological limitations for such a language. Since Trubetzkoy`s specifications yield a total of approximately 11,000 morphemes, if an artificial language incorporated the degree of redundancy found in natural languages it would be severely handicapped by the size of its lexicon. The paper discusses the problem particularly with regard to suprasegmentals, which Trubetzkoy almost entirely ignored. |
lieberman-1963-procedure | 1,963 | A procedure for automatic sentence structure analysis | The two main considerations in the design of this procedure were the economical recognition and representation of multiple readings of syntactically ambiguous sentences, and general applicability to {\textquotedblleft}all{\textquotedblright} languages (English, Russian, Chinese). The following features will be discussed: types of structural descriptions, form of linguistic rules, use of linguistic heuristics to achieve economical multiple analyses, application to linguistic research and application to production MT systems. Also, the relation between this procedure and other existing sentence analysis procedures will be discussed. |
micklesen-smith-1963-algorithm | 1,963 | An algorithm for the translation of Russian inorganic-chemistry terms | An algorithm has been devised, and a computer program written, to translate certain recurring types of inorganic-chemistry terms from Russian to English. The terms arc all noun-phrases, and several different types of such phrases have been included in the program. Examples are: AZOTNONATRIEVA4 SOL6 sodium nitrate SOL6 ZAKISI/OKISI JELEZA ferrous/ferric salt ZAKISNA4 OKISNA4 SOL6 JELEZA GIDRAT ZAKISI/OKISI JELEZA ferrous/ferric salt etc., where the stems underlined may be replaced by any of a number of other stems (up to 65 in some positions) in the particular type. Translation of each type encounters problems common to almost all the types: (1) The Russian noun is translated as an English adjective, while the noun of the resulting English phrase is found among the modifiers of the Russian noun. (2) The Russian noun (English adjective) may be a metal with more than one valence state, the state indicated (if at all) by the modifiers. (3) The number of the resulting English noun-phrase is determined by some member of the Russian phrase other than the noun. (4) The phrase elements may occur compounded in the chemical phrase but free in other contexts, and dictionary storage must provide for this. The program permits translation of conjoined phrase elements as well. The paper also includes an investigation into the deeper grammatical implications of this type of chemical nomenclature, and some excursions into the semantic correlations involved. |
opler-etal-1963-application | 1,963 | The application of table processing concepts to the Sakai translation technique | In 1961, I. Sakai described a new technique for the mechanical translation of languages. The method utilizes large tables which contain the syntactic rules of the source and target languages. As part of a study of the AN/GSQ-16 Lexical Processing Machine, a modification of the Sakai method was developed. Five of six planned table scanning phases were implemented and tested. Our translation system (1) converts input text to syntactic and semantic codes with a dictionary scan, (2) clears syntactic ambiguities where resolution by adjacent words is effective, (3) resolves residual syntactic ambiguities by determining the longest meaningful semantic unit, (4) reorders word sequence according to the rules of the target language and (5) produces the final target language translation. French to English was the source-target pair selected for the study. An Input Dictionary of 3,000 French stems was prepared and 17,000 entries comprised the Input Product Table (allowable syntactic combinations ). Since Sakai was working with highly dissimilar languages, he found it necessary to use an intermediate language. Because of the structural similarity between French and English, we found an intermediate language was unnecessary. The method proved straightforward to implement using the table lookup logic of the Lexical Processor. The translation was actually performed on an IBM 1401 which we programmed to simulate the concept of the AN/GSQ-16 Lexical Processor. In our implementation magnetic tapes replaced the photoscopic storage disk. |
pacak-1963-slavic | 1,963 | Slavic languages---comparative morphosyntactic research | An appropriate goal for present-day linguistics is the development of a general theory of relations between languages. One necessary requirement in the development of such a theory is the identification and classification of inflected forms in terms of their morphosyntactic properties in a set of presumably related languages. According to Sapir, {\textquotedblleft}all languages differ from one another, but certain ones differ far more than others{\textquotedblright}. As for the Slavic languages he might well have said that they are all alike, but some are more alike than others. The similarities stemming from their common origin and from subsequent parallel development enable us to group them into a number of more or less homogeneous types. The experimental comparative research at The Georgetown University was focused on a group of four Slavic languages, namely, Russian, Czech, Polish and Serbocroatian. The first step in the comparative procedure here described is the morphosyntactic analysis of each of the four languages individually. The analysis should be based on the complementary distribution of inflectional morphemes. The properties whose distribution must be determined are: 1) the graphemic shape of the inflectional morphemes, 2) the establishment of distributional classes and subclasses of stem morphemes and (on the basis of 1 and 2), 3) the morphosyntactic function of inflectional morphemes which is determined by the distributional subclass of the stem morpheme. f(x,y)-l, where x is the distributional subclass of the stem morpheme (which is a constant) and y is the given inflectional morpheme (which is a free variable). On the basis of this preliminary analysis the patterns of absolute equivalence, partial equivalence, and absolute difference can be established for each class of inflected forms in each language under study. Once this has been accomplished, the results can be used in order to determine the extent of distributional equivalences among the individual languages. The applicability of this procedure was tested on the class of adjectivals. Within the frame of adjectivals the following morphosyntactic properties were analyzed within each language languages: 1) the category of gender, 2) the category of animateness, 3) the category of case and murder. The product of this comparative analysis is a set of formation rules which embody a system for the identification of the inflected forms. The detailed result will be presented in an additional report. |
pendergraft-1963-types | 1,963 | Types of language hierarchy | Various relations lead to hierarchical systems of linguistic description. This paper considers briefly a typology of descriptive metalanguages based on such relations and sketches possible consequences for computational linguistics. Its scope is accordingly limited to metalanguages having operational interpretations which specify individual linguistic processes and structural interpretations which specify language data of individual languages. Immediate-constituent, context-free metalanguages are used to illustrate hierarchical types. |
plath-1963-path | 1,963 | Path economization in exhaustive left-to-right syntactic analysis | In exhaustive left-to-right syntactic analysis using the predictive approach, each path of syntactic connection which originates at the beginning of a sentence must be followed until it is clear whether or not it will lead to the production of a well-formed analysis. The original scheme of following each path until it terminates either in an analysis or in a grammatical inconsistency has been considerably improved through the. incorporation of two path-testing techniques. Using the first technique, the program abandons a path as unproductive whenever a situation is detected where the prediction pool contains more predictions of a given type than can possibly be fulfilled by the remaining words in the sentence. Employment of the second technique, which is based on periodic comparison of the current prediction pool with pools formed on earlier productive paths, eliminates repeated analysis of identical right-hand segments which belong to distinct paths. Taken together, the two path-testing procedures frequently enable the program to terminate the processing of a path well before its end has been reached. For most sentences, this means a considerable reduction in the total path length traversed, accompanied by a corresponding increase in the speed of analysis. Comparison of runs performed using both versions of the program indicates that employment of the new techniques reduces the average running time per sentence to less than one-fifth of its former value. |
raphael-1963-computer | 1,963 | A computer representation for semantic information | This paper deals with the problem of representing in a useful form, within a digital computer, the information content of statements in natural language. The model proposed consists of words and list-structure associations between words. Statements in simple English are thought of as describing relations between objects in the real world. Sentences are analyzed by matching them against members of a list of formats, each of which determines a unique relation. These relations are stored on description-lists associated with those words which denote objects (or sets of objects). A LISP computer program uses this model in the context of a simple question-answering system. Functions are provided which may grow, search, and modify this model. Formats and functions dealing with set-relations, part-whole and numeric relations, and left-toright spatial relations have been included in the system, which is being expanded to handle other types of relations. All functions which operate on the model report information concerning their actions to the programmer, so that the applicability and limitations of this kind of model may more easily be evaluated. |
tabory-1963-specifications | 1,963 | Specifications for generative grammars used in language data processing | It becomes more and more evident that successful pragmatics (i.e. automatic recognition and production procedures for sentences) cannot be performed without previously written generative grammars for the languages involved, using an underlying meta-theoretical framework proposed by the present school of mathematical linguistics. Two aspects of grammar writing are examined: 1. A taxonomy over the non-terminal vocabulary, using a subscripting system for signs and fitting into the more general string taxonomy of phrase structure components. The resulting more complex lexical organization is studied. 2. A command syntax for phrase structure components limiting the full, not necessarily needed generative power of these grammars. The proposed restrictions correspond to a priori linguistic intuition. Applicational order and location of the rules is studied. Finally, the recognitional power and generative capacity of a computer are examined, the machine being structured according to a Newell-Shaw-Simon list system. It is well known that pushdown stores are particular cases of list structures, that context-free grammars are particular cases of phrase structure grammars and that pushdown stores are the generative devices for context-free grammars. |
tosh-1963-collecting | 1,963 | Collecting linguistic data for the grammar of a language | Establishing the grammatical description of a language is one of the major tasks facing the technician in machine translation. Another is that of creating the system of programs with which to carry out the translation process. The Linguistics Research Center of The University of Texas recognizes the advantages in maintaining the specialties of linguistic research and computer programming as two separate areas of endeavor. We regard the linguistic task as a problem in convergence. We do not expect ever to have a final description of a language (except theoretically for a given point in the history of that language). We do expect, however, to begin with almost immediate application of the very first grammatical description. We shall make repeated revisions of the grammar as we learn how to make it approximate better the language text fed into the computer. The grammatical description of any one language is based primarily on specific text evidence. We are not attempting to describe {\textquotedblleft}the language{\textquotedblright}. We are, however, attempting to make descriptive decisions sufficiently general that new text evidence does not require extensive revision of earlier descriptions. Corpora selected for description are chosen so as to have similar texts within the same scientific discipline for the several languages. Tree diagrams are drawn for each sentence in detail. The diagrams are inspected for consistency before corresponding phrase-structure rules are compiled in the computer. The grammar is then verified in the computer system and revised as necessary. |
wahlgren-1963-derivational | 1,963 | Derivational suffixes in Russian general vocabulary and in chemical nomenclature | A grammar based upon a conventional morphemic analysis of Russian will have a rather large inventory of derivational suffixes. A relatively small number of these recur with sufficient generality to acquire lexemic status (i.e., to be what is usually termed {\textquotedblleft}productive{\textquotedblright}). Names of chemical substances in Russian may likewise be analyzed as combinations of roots or stems with derivational affixes, in particular, suffixes. The number of productive suffixes in the chemical nomenclature is considerably larger than in the general vocabulary. These suffixes derive from adoption into Russian of an international system of chemical nomenclature. A grammar of this system is basically independent of any grammar of Russian. It must, however, be consistently incorporated into the grammar and dictionary which are to serve in a machine translation system for texts in the source language containing chemical names. Grammatical analysis of chemical suffixes and connected study of general Russian derivational suffixes has raised certain practical problems and theoretical questions concerning the nature of derivation. On the practical side, where a complex and highly productive system is involved, effective means of detecting and dealing with homography have required development. Theoretical consideration has been given to the question of grammaticality in chemical names and to problems of sememic analysis and classification of root and stem lexemes into tactic classes on the basis of cooccurrence with derivational suffixes. |
yngve-1963-order | 1,963 | On the order of clauses | We used to think that the output of a translation machine would be stylistically inelegant, but this would be tolerable if only the message got across. We now find that getting the message across accurately is difficult, but we may be able to have stylistic elegance in the output since much of style reflects depth phenomena and thus is systematic. As an example, the order of the clauses in many twoclause sentences can be reversed without a change of meaning, but the same is not normally true of sentences with more than two clauses. The meaning usually changes when the clause order is changed. Equivalently, there appear to be severe restrictions on clause order for any given meaning. These restrictions appear to follow from depth considerations. The idea is being investigated that there is a normal depth-related clause order and any deviations from this order must be signalled by special syntactic or semantic devices. The nature of these devices is being explored. When translating multi-clause sentences, there may be trouble due to the fact that the clause types of the two languages are not exactly parallel. Therefore the list of allowed and preferred clause orders in the two languages will not be equivalent and the special syntactic and semantic devices available to signal deviations from the normal order will be different. Thus one would predict that multi-clause sentences in language A often have to be split into two or more sentences when translated into language B, while at the same time multi-clause sentences in language B will often have to be broken into two or more sentences when translating into language A. |
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