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Homework: Week of April 3 - 7
Monday, April 3: Geography envelope is due tomorrow. Make sure you have: Labeled South Asia map in the middle, a geographic feature labeled in each corner, five new facts about each geographic feature, a colored picture for each geographic feature. Feature choices include: Hindu Kush, Khyber Pass, Deccan Plateau, Indus River, Ganges River, Mt. Everest, Himalayas, Eastern and Western Ghats.
In Class Today: Students will learn about the caste system of ancient South Asia.
Warm Up: Collaborative activity on the caste system.
Tuesday, April 4: Finish the Hinduism worksheet.
In Class Today: Students will learn about Hinduism and the role it played in ancient South Asia.
Warm Up: Turn in geography envelope.
Wednesday, April 5: No homework.
In Class Today: Students will go over the Hinduism worksheet and watch a video about Hinduism. We will be viewing the same video series that we have used to learn about Judaism, Christianity and Islam.
Warm Up: Analysis of the Ganges River.
Thursday, April 6: Finish the Buddhism worksheet.
In Class Today: Students will learn about Buddhism and the role it played in ancient South Asia.
Warm Up: How does the social hierarchy of India relate to Hinduism?
Friday, April 7: No homework.
In Class Today: Students will watch the video series on Buddhism.
Warm Up: reading on Asoka the Great.
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Full Female Reproductive Organs of the Lower Torso (Cross-section View) Description
[Continued from above] . . . Within the labia minora and superior to the urethra is the clitoris, a sensitive erectile organ that is responsible for producing feelings of sexual arousal and pleasure.
The internal female reproductive organs work together as a conduit for sperm to reach the egg cell during sexual intercourse and for the development and birth of the fetus during pregnancy. A muscular, epithelium lined tube known as the vagina connects the vulva to the cervix of the uterus. The uterus, or womb, is a muscular, pear-shaped, organ found between the vagina and the fallopian tubes. During pregnancy the fetus grows and develops within the protective uterus. Powerful muscle contractions of the uterus are responsible for delivering the fetus during childbirth. The narrow fallopian tubes extend from the left and right sides of the top of the uterus towards the ovaries. Following ovulation, the egg cell travels through the fallopian tubes to reach the uterus. The fallopian tubes also act as the location for fertilization of the egg cell if sperm are present following sexual intercourse. Resting at the end of each fallopian tube is an ovary. The ovaries are small, almond-sized glands that produce ova, commonly called egg cells, as well as the female sex hormones estrogen and progesterone.
Prepared by Tim Taylor, Anatomy and Physiology Instructor
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Living Planet Index
Living Blue Planet Report
This is a special marine edition of WWF’s Living Planet Report. This report uses the Living Planet Index to provide a global picture of the status of marine biodiversity using data from 7,829 populations of 1,234 species of marine birds, mammals, reptiles and fishes. Download the full report here
The main statistic from the report is the global marine LPI which shows a 49% decline between 1970 and 2012. This means that the average population size of these monitored species is roughly half what it was 42 years ago.
Figure 1: The marine LPI shows a 49% decline between 1970 and 2012. The white line shows the index values and the shaded areas represent the 95% confidence intervals surrounding the trend. WWF/ZSL (2015).
Threats to marine populations
Over-exploitation is one of the main drivers behind the decline, particularly for highly commercial species. For example the average decline in Scombridae populations – species of tuna, mackerel and bonito – was 74%.
Important marine habitats are also under threat from climate change, pollution and coastal development. A reduction in the coverage of coral reefs, seagrass habitat and mangrove forests were reported along with an accompanying decline in fish populations in coral reefs and seagrass.
Coral reefs support 25% of marine species; seagrass habitat is an important carbon sink and provides nursery areas for fish; mangroves offer coastal protection from storm surges and are a key spawning and nursery ground for many species. Safeguarding these habitats is vital for the conservation of marine biodiversity, the protection of coastline and the support of people’s livelihoods and food security across the globe.
An index of 17 species of tunas, mackerels and bonitos from the Scombridae family of fish declined by 74% between 1970 and 2010, a trend that shows no sign yet of recovery. These species are important for regional economies, livelihoods and food.
The LPI for reef-associated fish shows a decline of 34% from 1979 to 2010. These are species that live or feed on or near coral reefs. This index is based on 2,501 populations from 352 species. There has been an observed decline in coral reef cover in many areas, particularly the Caribbean and Indo-Pacific. Project levels of warming mean that climate change could cause the loss of reefs by 2050.
Fish populations that are found in seagrass habitat suffered more than a 70% drop in size between 1970 and 2010. This is based on 350 populations of 232 species. Research suggests that 29% of seagrass area has been lost since the end of the 19th century. This important habitat is a carbon sink and provides nursery areas for many marine species.
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London - Dentists have developed an unusual strategy for avoiding the need for root canal treatment — making tiny cuts in the teeth.
Studies suggest that making tiny areas of damage in the nerve root of damaged and infected teeth triggers bleeding, which then forms bloodclots.
These clots appear to stimulate blood supply to the tooth nerve, helping it re-grow and avoiding the need for painful and lengthy treatment.
The treatment is being trialled at the University of Liverpool.
In the centre of each tooth is a network of nerves and blood vessels that run from the top, or crown, down to the root, which is embedded in the jaw.
This network is called the root canal system, and the nerves and blood vessels are collectively referred to as the pulp.
Root canal treatment is necessary when the pulp becomes infected, often as a result of injury, tooth decay or a faulty filling.
Treatment involves extracting the tooth or removing bacteria from the root canal system to prevent further decay and, in severe cases, the loss of the tooth.
Removing bacteria involves a dentist drilling into the tooth, removing the infected pulp, then filling the entire system with a type of sealant.
The tooth is then topped with a filling or a crown.
However, because the procedure is so long that it requires multiple visits to the dentist, usually over the course of around 18 months.
Often this treatment is needed on the large teeth at the back of the mouth, which contain multiple root canal systems.
The new treatment, called revascularisation, can be performed in just two visits.
In the procedure, dentists drill into the tooth and then apply an antibiotic paste to disinfect thecanal. At a second visit two weeks later, the dentist uses a tool to make tiny cuts to the root canal system, until the tissue starts to bleed.
This bleeding quickly triggers a blood clot, which encourages the growth of new blood vessels.
This boosts oxygen and nutrient supply, and helps the pulp repair itself. Exactly how it does this is not clear, but one suggestion is that the blood clot contains a high concentration of growth factors — compounds that help repair damaged tissue.
Early studies have shown that the technique is successful, and scientists at the University of Liverpool are using it on 30patients.
Half will have the new treatment and half will have conventional root canal treatment.
Commenting on the new treatment, Hugh Devlin, professor of restorative dentistry at the University of Manchester, said: “It’s an excellent technique and is getting a lot of interest in the academic journals.
“Traditional treatment eliminates bacteria, but prevents growth of a new blood supply to the root.”
* Meanwhile, scientists say that a substance based on the sticky glue mussels use to cling onto rocks may be a new treatment for sensitive teeth.
Researchers from Hong Kong have developed a similar material to mussel glue that is sticky enough to hold minerals such as calcium against teeth.
Early stage laboratory tests show this helps repair enamel — the tough outer layer that can wear down and trigger sensitivity.
If further trials are successful, the researchers hope to start human trials in the next five years. - Daily Mail
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Children with DCD: At home, at school and in the community (Booklet)
This booklet is designed to help parents and educators identify and manage school-aged children who are demonstrating movement problems typical of children with Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). Based on research evidence, the purpose of this booklet is to describe common characteristics of children with motor coordination difficulties, to provide guidance for seeking a referral to a physician, to describe the role of occupational therapists and physiotherapists who may work with these children, and to suggest modifications that may improve the ability of children to function at home, at school, and in the community. Some children only experience coordination difficulties while others have associated learning, speech/language, and attention problems. Management of children with DCD varies greatly due to these differences. As a result, particular techniques and strategies may be more appropriate for one child than another. This booklet describes some of the more common techniques and practical suggestions that may be used. An occupational therapist and/or a physiotherapist may wish to highlight or add specific techniques to personalize it for a particular child/student. The authors gratefully acknowledge the many parents, children, educators, colleagues, students, and service providers who have contributed their knowledge and expertise to the development of this booklet. This booklet was developed with support from the Canadian Occupational Therapy Foundation and funding from the Canadian Institutes of Health Research to facilitate early identification of children with DCD.
What is Developmental Coordination Disorder?
Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) occurs when a delay in the development of motor skills, or difficulty coordinating movements, results in a child being unable to perform everyday tasks. A diagnosis can be made by a medical doctor who will ensure: 1) that the movement problems are not due to any other known physical, neurological, or behavioural disorders; and, 2) whether more than one disorder may be present. The characteristics of children with DCD, however, are usually noticed first by those closest to the child because the motor difficulties interfere with academic achievement and/or with activities of daily living (e.g., dressing, playground skills, handwriting, gym activities). DCD is believed to affect 5-6% of school-aged children and tends to occur more frequently in boys. DCD can exist on its own or it may be present in a child who also has learning disabilities, speech/language difficulties, and/or attention deficit disorder. In this booklet, the coordination difficulties that are discussed are those that are most often seen in children with developmental coordination disorder.
How Do Coordination Difficulties Occur?
There is no simple answer to this question since coordination difficulties can arise for many reasons. Although we do not know for sure what causes motor coordination problems, research suggests that children can experience difficulties in learning how to plan, organize, perform, and/or modify their movements. One thing we know for certain is that children with DCD have difficulty learning new motor skills. They tend to use their vision more than other types of feedback to guide their movements and, because of this, their motor skills may be more like those of younger children. Children with DCD perform inconsistently from one occasion to the next, and they often perform motor skills in the same way over and over again, even when they are unsuccessful. Typically, children with DCD depend on feedback and are not able to predict the outcome of their movements. As a result, they don’t easily recognize movement errors, learn from their mistakes, or correct their movements.
The characteristics described above have led researchers to believe that the coordination difficulties of children with DCD may lie not only in learning how to move their bodies but also in learning how to use strategies to problem-solve solutions to motor tasks. Because motor skills do not become automatic for these children, they must devote extra effort and attention to complete motor tasks, even those that have been previously learned. Children with DCD often don’t recognize the similarities of particular motor tasks, and this leads to difficulties transferring their motor learning from one activity to another (e.g., catching a large ball and then catching a small ball). They also have difficulty generalizing their motor learning from one situation to another (e.g., a child approaching a sidewalk curb has to figure out that stepping up onto the sidewalk is similar to climbing stairs). Having to respond to a changing environment (e.g., when catching or hitting a moving ball, or when avoiding others during team play) poses an additional challenge for children with DCD because they find it hard to monitor incoming information from the environment and to make their bodies respond in a timely way. The result of any of these problems is the same: children with DCD appear clumsy and awkward, and will have difficulty learning and performing new motor tasks.
Characteristic Features of Children with DCD
When describing children with DCD, it is important to recognize that they are a very mixed group. Some children may experience difficulties in a variety of areas, while others may have problems only with specific activities. The following is a list of some of the more common characteristics that may be observed in a child with DCD.
- The child may be clumsy or awkward in his/her movements. He/she may bump into, spill, or knock things over.
- The child may experience difficulty with gross motor skills (whole body), fine motor skills (using hands), or both.
- The child may be delayed in developing certain motor skills such as riding a tricycle/bicycle, catching a ball, jumping rope, doing up buttons, and tying shoelaces.
- The child may show a discrepancy between his/her motor abilities and his/her abilities in other areas. For example, intellectual and language skills may be quite strong while motor skills are delayed.
- The child may have difficulty learning new motor skills. Once learned, certain motor skills may be performed quite well while others may continue to be performed poorly.
- The child may have more difficulty with activities that require constant changes in his/her body position or when he/she must adapt to changes in the environment (e.g., baseball, tennis).
- The child may have difficulty with activities that require the coordinated use of both sides of the body (e.g., cutting with scissors, stride jumps, swinging a bat, or handling a hockey stick).
- The child may exhibit poor postural control and poor balance particularly in activities that require balance (e.g. stair climbing, standing while dressing).
- The child may have difficulty with printing or handwriting. This skill involves continually interpreting feedback about the movements of the hand while planning new movements, and is a very difficult task for most children with DCD.
- The child may show a lack of interest in, or avoid, particular activities, especially those that require a physical response. For a child with DCD, performing motor skills requires significant effort. Fatigue and repeated failure may cause the child to avoid participating in motor tasks.
- The child may demonstrate a low frustration tolerance, decreased self-esteem, and a lack of motivation due to difficulties coping with activities that are required in all aspects of his/her life.
- The child may avoid socializing with peers, particularly on the playground. Some children will seek out younger children to play with while others will play on their own or follow the educator or playground supervisor. This may be due to decreased self-confidence or avoidance of physical activities.
- The child may seem dissatisfied with his/her performance (e.g., erases written work, complains of performance in motor activities, shows frustration with work product).
- The child may be resistant to changes in his/her routine or in his/her environment. If the child has to expend a lot of effort to plan a task, then even a small change in how it is to be performed may present a significant problem for the child.
Other Common Characteristics
- The child may have difficulty balancing the need for speed with the need for accuracy. For example, handwriting may be very neat but extremely slow.
- The child may have difficulty with academic subjects such as mathematics, spelling, or written language which require handwriting to be accurate and organized on the page.
- The child may have difficulty with activities of daily living (e.g., dressing, using a knife and fork, brushing teeth, doing up zippers, organizing a backpack).
- The child may have difficulty completing work within an expected time frame. Since tasks require much more effort, children may be more willing to be distracted and may become frustrated with a task that should be straightforward.
- The child may have general difficulties organizing his/her desk, locker, homework, or even the space on a page.
If a child exhibits any number of the above characteristics and if these problems are interfering with the child's ability to participate successfully at home, at school, or in the community, then it is important to have the child seen by a family doctor or paediatrician. The medical practitioner may then refer the child to a health service provider at a local children’s hospital or treatment centre or to another community agency.
It is not uncommon for parents or educators to be told that a child will "grow out" of their difficulties. However, studies have now shown quite conclusively that most children do not outgrow these problems. While children do learn to perform certain motor tasks well, they will continue to have difficulty with new, age-appropriate tasks. It is important to recognize these motor difficulties because children with DCD are more likely to develop academic and behavioural problems, demonstrate low self-esteem, depression, and anxiety, and they are at greater risk of becoming overweight.
The Role of Therapists
Occupational therapists (OTs) and physiotherapists (PTs) are educated and trained in analyzing motor skill development and also in determining the ability of a child to cope with the demands and activities of everyday life. Both are uniquely suited for making recommendations for the management of a child with movement problems. In today’s health care environment, OTs and PTs often function in the role of consultant; this is particularly true of therapists working within school settings. In a consultant role, the therapist will observe the child performing tasks that are difficult for him/her and make recommendations to his/her parents and educators. These recommendations may include: strategies or accommodations to assist with tasks at home, at school, or in the community; modifications to the child’s environment; ways to promote physical activity and increase participation; guidelines on choosing community leisure and sports activities that are matched to the child’s interests and abilities; and assistance with setting appropriate expectations to ensure success.
OTs and PTs can help parents, educators and the child to develop a better understanding of the coordination difficulties that the child is experiencing. It is important that parents and educators identify and learn to manage these problems early in order to prevent secondary complications. The child may need to be taught strategies to compensate for his/her motor problems and must be given adequate opportunities to practice those motor skills that need to be learned.
It is important to educate children with DCD so they become aware of their strengths, as well as their limitations, and so that they gain an understanding of ways in which they may compensate for any difficulties. Children will then be more likely to experience success and may be more willing to attempt activities that they find difficult.
If a child is experiencing a great deal of difficulty or is demonstrating secondary emotional and behavioral problems, the OT or PT may decide to work with the child individually. The therapist may do some direct skill teaching of motor tasks that the child needs or wants to learn. S/he may also use a cognitive approach that teaches the child problem-solving strategies that will help the child learn new motor tasks (this type of approach requires a therapist to have extra training). In either case, the reasons and plan for treatment will be discussed with the parent and child. Although in most cases the coordination difficulties do not disappear, children can show considerable improvement in their ability to perform specific tasks and can be helped to participate successfully at home, at school, and in the community.
The Role of Educators and Parents
There are many small modifications that can make life easier for a child with DCD. Here are a few ideas that may be useful; an OT or PT may have additional suggestions.
- Encourage the child to participate in games and sports that are interesting to him/her and which provide practice in, and exposure to, motor activities. Physical activity and enjoyment should be emphasized rather than proficiency or competition.
- Try to introduce the child to new sports activities or a new playground on an individual basis, before he/she is required to manage the activity in a group. Try to review any rules and routines that are associated with the activity (e.g., baseball rules, soccer plays) at a time when the child is not concentrating on the motor aspects. Ask the child simple questions to ensure comprehension (e.g., "What do you do when you hit the ball?"). Private lessons may be helpful at certain points in time to teach the child specific skills.
- The child may exhibit a preference for, and perform better at, individual sports (e.g., swimming, running, bicycling, skiing) rather than team sports. If this is the case, then try to encourage the child to interact with peers through other activities that are likely to be successful (e.g., cubs, music, drama, or art).
- Encourage the child to wear clothing to school that is easy to get on and off. For example, sweat pants, sweat shirts, t-shirts, leggings, sweaters, and Velcro shoes. When possible, use Velcro closures instead of buttons, snaps or shoelaces. Teach the child how to manage difficult fasteners when you have more time and patience (e.g., on the weekend, or over the summer) rather than when you are pressured to get out the door.
- Encourage the child to participate in practical activities that will help improve his/her ability to plan and organize motor tasks. For example, setting the table, making lunch, or organizing a knapsack. Ask questions that help the child focus on the sequence of steps (e.g., “What do you need to do first?”). Recognize that, if your child is becoming frustrated, it may be time to help or to give specific guidance and direction.
- Recognize and reinforce the child’s strengths. Many children with DCD demonstrate strong abilities in other areas – they may have advanced reading skills, a creative imagination, sensitivity to the needs of others, and/or strong oral communication skills.
Educators and parents can work together to ensure that the child with DCD experiences success at school. Parents may find it helpful to meet with the educator near the beginning of the school year to discuss their child’s specific difficulties and to make suggestions about strategies that have worked well. An Individualized Education Plan (IEP) may be needed for some children; however, the following accommodations may be sufficient for others.
In the Classroom
- Ensure that the child is positioned properly for desk work. Make sure that the child's feet are flat on the floor, and that the desk is at an appropriate height with the shoulders relaxed and the forearms comfortably supported on the desk.
- Set realistic short-term goals. This will ensure that both the child and educator continue to be motivated.
- Provide the child with extra time to complete fine motor activities such as math, printing, writing a story, practical science tasks, and artwork. If speed is necessary, be willing to accept a less accurate product.
- When copying is not the emphasis, provide the child with prepared worksheets that will allow him/her to focus on the task. For example, provide children with prepared math sheets, pages with questions already printed, or 'fill in the blank' for reading comprehension questions. For study purposes, photocopy notes written by another child.
- Introduce computers as early as possible to reduce the amount of handwriting that will be required in higher grades. Although keyboarding may be difficult initially, it is a very beneficial skill and is a skill at which children with movement problems can become quite proficient.
- Teach children specific handwriting strategies that encourage them to print or write letters in a consistent manner. Use thin magic markers or pencil grips if they seem to help the child improve pencil grasp or to reduce pencil pressure on the page.
- Use paper that matches the child's handwriting difficulties. For example: i) widely spaced lines for a child who writes with very large lettering; ii) raised, lined paper for a child who has trouble writing within the lines; iii) graph paper for a child whose writing is too large or improperly spaced; iv) graph paper with large squares for a child who has trouble keeping numbers aligned in mathematics.
- Focus on the purpose of the lesson. If a creative story is the goal, then accept messy handwriting, uneven spacing and multiple erasures. If the goal is to have the child learn to set up a math problem correctly, then allow time to do it even if the math problem does not get solved.
- Consider using a variety of presentation methods when asking the child to demonstrate comprehension of a subject. For example, encourage children to present a report orally, use drawings to illustrate their thoughts, type a story or report on the computer, or record a story or exam on a tape recorder.
- Consider allowing the child to use the computer for draft and final copies of reports, stories and other assignments. If it is important to see the “non-edited” product, ask the child to submit both the draft and final versions.
- When possible, encourage the child to dictate stories, book reports, or answers to comprehension questions to the educator, a volunteer, or another child. For older children, voice recognition software can be introduced as soon as the child’s voice patterns have matured enough that they are consistent.
- Provide additional time, and/or computer access, for tests and exams that require a lot of written output.
In Physical Education
- Break down the physical activity into smaller parts while keeping each part meaningful and achievable.
- Choose activities that will ensure success for the child at least 50% of the time and reward effort, not skill.
- Incorporate activities that require a coordinated response from arms and/or legs (e.g., skipping, bouncing and catching a large ball). Encourage children to develop skills using their hands in a dominant/assistant fashion (e.g., using a baseball bat or a hockey stick).
- Keep the environment as predictable as possible when teaching a new skill (e.g., place a ball on a T-ball stand). Introduce changes gradually after each part of the skill has been mastered.
- Make participation, not competition, the major goals. With fitness and skill-building activities, encourage children to compete with themselves, not others.
- Allow the child to take on a leadership role in physical education activities (e.g., captain of the team, umpire) to encourage them to develop organizational or managerial skills.
- Modify equipment to decrease the risk of injury to children who are learning a new skill. For example, Nerf balls in graduated sizes can be used to develop catching and throwing skills.
- When possible, provide hand-over-hand guidance to help the child get the feel of the movement - for example, by asking the child to help the educator demonstrate a new skill to the class. Also, talk out loud when teaching a new skill, describing each step clearly.
- Focus on understanding the purpose and the rules of various sports or physical activities. When a child understands clearly what he/she needs to do, it is easier to plan the movement.
- Give positive, encouraging feedback. If providing instruction, describe the movement changes specifically (e.g., “you need to lift your arms higher”).
In the Community
- Encourage exposure to physical activities for fun and participation, with an emphasis on health and fitness.
- Consider lifestyle sports such as swimming, skating, cycling, and skiing to maintain or improve strength and overall endurance.
- Keep in mind the potential need for extra support or individual lessons with sporting activities, especially as higher skill levels must be reached.
- Ensure safety through the use of protective gear (wrist guards, helmets) with physical activities.
- Help coaches, sports instructors, and community leaders understand the child’s strengths and challenges so they can support and encourage them to be successful.
- Encourage children to engage in activities that are non-motor based such as music, drama, clubs to promote social experiences and the benefits of social participation.
Developmental Coordination Disorder is a motor skill disorder that interferes with children's ability to perform many tasks that are required every day. Children with DCD are a mixed group. Any given child may present with a variety of different problems.
Educators and parents who are with a child every day may be the first to notice the difficulties that the child is experiencing. It is important for the child to be seen by a physician at an early age to rule out other medical reasons for their motor difficulties. Children with DCD who are not recognized may experience failure and frustration, are often perceived to be lazy or unmotivated, and may develop additional physical, social, and behavioural problems.
Intervention for children with DCD may include referral to an occupational therapist or physiotherapist. An OT and/or PT will help the child learn to perform daily tasks more successfully and will make recommendations to parents and educators regarding the participation of children with DCD at home, in the classroom, on the playground, and in leisure activities in the community.
Contrary to the widely accepted belief that children with DCD will outgrow their problems, studies have demonstrated that children may acquire certain skills with extra practice but new motor skills will still be a problem. Children with DCD require early intervention to help them learn strategies to compensate for their coordination difficulties, to feel better about themselves as individuals, and to prevent other secondary issues from developing.
Many resources about children and youth with DCD can be found on the CanChild website at: www.canchild.ca (click on “Developmental Coordination Disorder”).
- Information for Physicians and other Health Professionals
- Flyers and Resources for Educators
- Typing/Keyboarding and School-Related Recommendations
- Encouraging Physical Activity
- List of Books/Other Resources
If you have found this booklet to be helpful, please let us know:
School of Rehabilitation Science
1400 Main St. West, IAHS Bldg, Rm 408
Hamilton, ON L8S 1C7
Tel: (905) 525‐9140 ext 27850
© C. Missiuna, L. Rivard & N. Pollock, 2011; CanChild Centre for Childhood Disability Research, McMaster University
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Biodiversity and conservation at Kew
Biodiversity describes the variety and variability of all living things on Earth. Find out more about biodiversity and why it matters to all of us.
Snow protea (Protea cryophila) is critically endangered and confined to two of the highest peaks in the Cederberg Wilderness area of South Africa.
Definition of biodiversity
Biological diversity, or biodiversity for short, is a word used to describe the variety and variability of all living things on Earth. The biodiversity of the planet is therefore made up of all the living organisms, from the smallest bacteria to the mighty giant redwood tree and includes humans too. For example, the biodiversity of a woodland includes the trees, the plants and fungi that grow on and under the trees and in the soil, the insects, the birds, the mammals and any other living things that make woodlands their home.
Why plant diversity matters
This video explains why plant diversity matters, and how Kew's conservation work around the world is helping to safeguard plants at risk
Areas that are low in biodiversity support only a small number of different species, even though individual species may occur in large numbers. For example, a polluted lake may be low in biodiversity, only containing a few species, but there may be thousands of algal cells covering the water surface, or large numbers of breeding midges.
Some areas of the planet are naturally low in biodiversity, for example deserts and mountain tops. Such regions can contain unique biodiversity, and these organisms are usually specially adapted to their local environmental conditions. So, even areas of low biodiversity can be important.
Areas that are high in biodiversity support many species and offer lots of variability too. For example, the Amazon rainforest is one of the most diverse natural areas on the planet and can contain many thousands of species of plants, animals and microorganisms in just one hectare.
Plants found nowhere else on Earth
Plants found in some regions of the world are described as endemic, meaning they do not occur anywhere else. Madagascar is one example of a region containing many endemic plants.
The world’s fourth largest island, Madagascar is recognised as one of the world’s top ten hotspots for biodiversity. It is estimated that there are about 10,000 plant species on the island. Of these, 80% or more occur nowhere else on Earth. Man arrived in Madagascar just 2,000 years ago, and since then has cleared much of the island’s forest. The uniqueness of plant life in Madagascar makes the region a priority for international conservation efforts.
Adopt a seed for just £25
For £25 you can adopt a seed in Kew's Millennium Seed Bank, or you can save an entire plant species from £1,000.
Kew's Millennium Seed Bank Partnership has successfully banked 10% of the world's wild plant species and we have set our sights on saving 25% by 2020.
Without plants there could be no life on earth, and yet every day another four plant species face extinction.
Help Kew protect the future of the world's plant life.
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Did you know? Marine plants, specifically photosynthetic algae, produce between 70 and 80 percent of the oxygen in the Earth’s atmosphere.
While trees get most of the credit, it’s also thanks to seaweed and algae that we can continue to survive! Similar to the important role plants play on land, marine plants are heavily relied on in the ocean as a source of food and protection.
There are over 7,000 different identified species of algae that live in both fresh and salt water environments. Together, these algae produce over 300 BILLION tons of oxygen every year!
In recent years, scientists have discovered that dissolved oxygen is a critical indicator of how climate change is impacting our ocean.
To learn more about the critical role algae plays in our lives, click here.
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Dear Trinity Families,
Please talk with your children about race and racism. They are never too young - or too old - for age-appropriate conversation. And don't stop at talking! Help them understand and actively participate in social justice. Below are lots of resources. You will find something to help you engage in this conversation and this work. And don't neglect your own education! Children learn what you teach them, both intentionally and unintentionally. Think about the unspoken messages you send as you react to people and situations around you. Our young generations are our hope and our future. Help them to grow up knowing what it really means to love one's neighbor. -Charissa
Anti-Racism Resources for Families
Your Kids Aren't Too Young to Talk About Race: Resource Roundup This blog post by Christian educator Wendy Claire Barrie is full of good resources. Here's How To Raise Race-Conscious Children Teaching kids not to "see" race actually isn't the best approach for raising anti-racist children. Lest we forget: Children are watching this racism, violence and our reactions: an article about children and the media by Nia Heard-Garris. A Kids Book About Racism by Jelani Memory - read by the author. An example of how to talk to children about racial justice.
Jillian is an educator who trains preschool teachers for social and racial equity in classrooms. Teaching Your Child About Black History, from PBS kids Anti-racism resources for all ages Not My Idea: A Book About Whiteness by Anastasia Higginbotham
Free to download as a PDF through June 19.
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Software designers are responsible for creating new ideas and designing prepackaged and customized computer software. Software designers devise applications such as word processors, front-end database programs, and spreadsheet programs that make it possible for computers to complete given tasks and to solve problems. Once a need in the market has been identified, software designers first conceive of the program on a global level by outlining what the program will do. Then they write the specifications from which programmers code computer commands to perform the given functions.
Software Designer Career History
“In 1983, software development exploded with the introduction of the personal computer. Standard applications included not only spreadsheets and word processors, but graphics packages and communications systems,” according to “Events in the History of Computing,” compiled by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Computer Society.
Advances in computer technology have enabled professionals to put computers to work in a range of activities once thought impossible. Computer software designers have been able to take advantage of computer hardware improvements in speed, memory capacity, reliability, and accuracy to create programs to do almost anything. With the extensive proliferation of computers in our society, there is a great market for user-friendly, imaginative, and high-performance software. Business and industry rely heavily on the power of computers and use both prepackaged software and software that has been custom-designed for their own specific use. Also, with more people purchasing computer systems for home use, the retail market for prepackaged software has grown steadily. Given these conditions, computer software designing will be an important field in the industry for years to come.
The software industry has many facets, including packaged applications for personal computers (known as “shrink-wrapped software”); operating systems for stand-alone and networked systems; management tools for networks; enterprise software that enables efficient management of large corporations’ production, sales, and information systems; software applications and operating systems for mainframe computers; and customized software for specific industry management.
Packaged software is written for mass distribution, not for the specific needs of a particular user. Broad categories include operating systems, utilities, applications, and programming languages. Operating systems control the basic functions of a computer or network. Utilities perform support functions, such as backup or virus protection. Programming software is used to develop the sets of instructions that build all other types of software. The software familiar to most computer users is called application software. This category includes word-processing, spreadsheets, and email packages, commonly used in business, as well as games and reference software used in homes, and subject- or skill-based software used in schools.
The Job of Software Designers
Without software, computer hardware would have nothing to do. Computers need to be told exactly what to do, and software is the set of codes that gives the computer those instructions. It comes in the form of the familiar prepackaged software that you find in a computer store, such as games, word processing, spreadsheet, and desktop publishing programs, and in customized applications designed to fit specific needs of a particular business. Software designers are the initiators of these complex programs. Computer programmers then create the software by writing the code that carries out the directives of the designer.
Software designers must envision every detail of what an application will do, how it will do it, and how it will look (the user interface). A simple example is how a home accounting program is created. The software designer first lays out the overall functionality of the program, specifying what it should be able to do, such as balancing a checkbook, keeping track of incoming and outgoing bills, and maintaining records of expenses. For each of these tasks, the software designer will outline the design details for the specific functions that he or she has mandated, such as what menus and icons will be used, what each screen will look like, and whether there will be help or dialog boxes to assist the user. For example, the designer may specify that the expense record part of the program produce a pie chart that shows the percentage of each household expense in the overall household budget. The designer can specify that the program automatically display the pie chart each time a budget assessment is completed or only after the user clicks on the appropriate icon on the toolbar.
Some software companies specialize in building custom-designed software. This software is highly specialized for specific needs or problems of particular businesses. Some businesses are large enough that they employ in-house software designers who create software applications for their computer systems. A related field is software engineering, which involves writing customized complex software to solve specific engineering or technical problems of a business or industry.
Whether the designer is working on a mass-market or a custom application, the first step is to define the overall goals for the application. This is typically done in consultation with management if working at a software supply company, or with the client if working on a custom-designed project. Then, the software designer studies the goals and problems of the project. If working on custom-designed software, the designer must also take into consideration the existing computer system of the client. Next, the software designer works on the program strategy and specific design detail that he or she has envisioned. At this point, the designer may need to write a proposal outlining the design and estimating time and cost allocations. Based on this report, management or the client decides if the project should proceed.
Once approval is given, the software designer and the programmers begin working on writing the software program. Typically, the software designer writes the specifications for the program, and the applications programmers write the programming codes.
In addition to the duties involved in design, a software designer may be responsible for writing a user’s manual or at least writing a report for what should be included in the user’s manual. After testing and debugging the program, the software designer will present it to management or to the client.
Software Designer Career Requirements
If you are interested in computer science, you should take as many computer, math, and science courses as possible; they provide fundamental math and computer knowledge and teach analytical thinking skills. Classes that focus on schematic drawing and flowcharts are also very valuable. English and speech courses will help you improve your communication skills, which are very important to software designers who must make formal presentations to management and clients. Also, many technical/vocational schools offer programs in software programming and design. The qualities developed by these classes, plus imagination and an ability to work well under pressure, are key to success in software design.
A bachelor’s degree in computer science plus one year’s experience with a programming language is required for most software designers.
In the past, the computer industry has tended to be pretty flexible about official credentials; demonstrated computer proficiency and work experience have often been enough to obtain a good position. However, as more people enter the field, competition has increased, and job requirements have become more stringent. Technical knowledge alone does not suffice in the field of software design anymore. In order to be a successful software designer, you should have at least a peripheral knowledge of the field for which you intend to design software, such as business, education, or science. Individuals with degrees in education and subsequent teaching experience are much sought after as designers for educational software. Those with bachelor’s degrees in computer science with a minor in business or accounting have an excellent chance for employment in designing business or accounting software.
Certification or Licensing
Certification in software development is offered by companies such as Sun Microsystems, Hewlett-Packard, IBM, Novell, and Oracle. While not required, certification tells employers that your skills meet industry education and training standards.
Software design is project- and detail-oriented, and therefore, you must be patient and diligent. You must also enjoy problem-solving challenges and be able to work under a deadline with minimal supervision. As a software designer, you should also possess good communication skills for consulting both with management and with clients who will have varying levels of technical expertise.
Software companies are looking for individuals with vision and imagination to help them create new and exciting programs to sell in the ever-competitive software market. Superior technical skills and knowledge combined with motivation, imagination, and exuberance will make you an attractive candidate.
Exploring Software Designer Career
Spending a day with a professional software designer or applications programmer will allow you to experience firsthand what this work entails. School guidance counselors can often help you organize such a meeting.
If you are interested in computer industry careers in general, you should learn as much as possible about computers. Keep up with new technology by talking to other computer users and by reading related magazines, such as Computer. You will also find it helpful to join computer clubs and use online services and the Internet to find more information about this field.
Advanced students can put their design ideas and programming knowledge to work by designing and programming their own applications, such as simple games and utility programs.
Software designers are employed throughout the United States. Opportunities are best in large cities and suburbs where business and industry are active. Programmers who develop software systems work for software manufacturers, many of whom are in Silicon Valley, in northern California. There are also concentrations of software manufacturers in Boston, Chicago, and Atlanta, among other places. Designers who adapt and tailor the software to meet specific needs of end-users work for those end-user companies, many of which are scattered across the country.
Software design positions are regarded as some of the most interesting, and therefore the most competitive, in the computer industry. Some software designers are promoted from an entry-level programming position. Software design positions in software supply companies and large custom software companies will be difficult to secure straight out of college or technical/vocational school.
Entry-level programming and design jobs may be listed in the help wanted sections of newspapers. Employment agencies and online job banks are other good sources.
Students in technical schools or universities should take advantage of the campus placement office. They should check regularly for internship postings, job listings, and notices of on-campus recruitment. Placement offices are also valuable resources for resume tips and interviewing techniques. Internships and summer jobs with such corporations are always beneficial and provide experience that will give you the edge over your competition. General computer job fairs are also held throughout the year in larger cities.
There are many online career sites listed on the World Wide Web that post job openings, salary surveys, and current employment trends. The Web also has online publications that deal specifically with computer jobs. You can also obtain information from computer organizations such as the IEEE Computer Society. Because this is such a competitive field, you will need to show initiative and creativity that will set you apart from other applicants.
In general, programmers work between one and five years before being promoted to software designer. A programmer can move up by demonstrating an ability to create new software ideas that translate well into marketable applications. Individuals with a knack for spotting trends in the software market are also likely to advance.
Those software designers who demonstrate leadership may be promoted to project team leader. Project team leaders are responsible for developing new software projects and overseeing the work done by software designers and applications programmers. With experience as a project team leader, a motivated software designer may be promoted to a position as a software manager who runs projects from an even higher level.
Salaries for software designers vary with the size of the company and by location. Salaries may be slightly higher in areas where there is a large concentration of computer companies, such as the Silicon Valley in northern California and parts of Washington, Oregon, and the East Coast.
The National Association of Colleges and Employers reports that average starting salaries for graduates with a doctoral degree in computer science were $93,050 in 2005. Graduates with a bachelor’s degree in computer science averaged $50,820.
Median salaries for computer and information scientists (which include software designers) were $85,190 in 2004, according to the U.S. Department of Labor’s National Occupational Employment and Wage Estimates. Salaries ranged from less than $48,930 to $132,700 or more annually. At the managerial level, salaries are even higher and can reach $145,000 or more.
Most designers work for large companies, which offer a full benefits package that includes health insurance, vacation and sick time, and a profit sharing or retirement plan.
Software designers work in comfortable environments. Many computer companies are known for their casual work atmosphere; employees generally do not have to wear suits, except during client meetings. Overall, software designers work standard weeks. However, they may be required to work overtime near a deadline. It is common in software design to share office or cubicle space with two or three co-workers, which is typical of the team approach to working. As a software designer or applications programmer, much of the day is spent in front of the computer, although a software designer will have occasional team meetings or meetings with clients.
Software design can be stressful work for several reasons. First, the market for software is very competitive and companies are pushing to develop more innovative software and to get it on the market before competitors do. For this same reason, software design is also very exciting and creative work. Second, software designers are given a project and a deadline. It is up to the designer and team members to budget their time to finish in the allocated time. Finally, working with programming languages and so many details can be very frustrating, especially when the tiniest glitch means the program will not run. For this reason, software designers must be patient and diligent.
Software Designer Career Outlook
Jobs in software design are expected to grow much faster than the average through 2014, according to the Occupational Outlook Handbook. Employment will increase as technology becomes more sophisticated and organizations continue to adopt and integrate these technologies, making for plentiful job openings. Hardware designers and systems programmers are constantly developing faster, more powerful, and more user-friendly hardware and operating systems. As long as these advancements continue, the industry will need software designers to create software to use these improvements.
Business may have less need to contract for custom software as more prepackaged software arrives on the market that allows users with minimal computer skills to “build” their own software using components that they customize. However, the growth in the retail software market is expected to make up for this loss in customized services.
The expanding integration of Internet technologies by businesses has resulted in a rising demand for a variety of skilled professionals who can develop and support a variety of Internet applications.
For More Information:
- Computer Science Careers
- Association for Computing Machinery
- IEEE Computer Society
- Software & Information Industry Association
- International Institute for Software Testing (IIST)
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Today (April 12) is the first day of the Ludi Cereales, another spring vegetation festival, this one in honor of the goddess Ceres, goddess of grains and cereal crops. It lasts for eight days, and like the Megalesia before it, the Cerealia culminates on its final day.
During Roman times, one of the symbolic rituals of the final day was the release of foxes into the Circus with flaming brands attached to their tails despite the fact that Ceres is notoriously a peaceful goddess and most often accepts offerings of spelt cakes and salt, as well as incense.
In the countryside, people offer milk, honey, and wine on the Cerealia (particularly the final day), after bearing them thrice around the fields.
More About This Festival
Ceres is the Goddess of agriculture, and was credited with the discovery of spelt wheat, the yoking of oxen and ploughing, the sowing, protection and nourishing of the young seed, and the gift of agriculture to humankind; before this, it was said, man had subsisted on acorns, and wandered without settlement or laws. She was the first to “break open the earth”, and all activities of the agricultural cycle were protected by her laws. She held the power to fertilize, multiply and fructify plant and animal seed, whose offspring were the physical incarnations of her power.
Her first plough-furrow opened the earth (Tellus’ realm) to the world of men and created the first field and its boundary; she thus determined the course of settled, lawful, civilized life. She mediated between plebeian and patrician factions. She oversaw the transition of women from girlhood to womanhood, from unmarried to married life and motherhood and the growth of children from infancy. Despite her chthonic connections to Tellus, she was not, according to Spaeth, an underworld deity. Rather, she maintained the boundaries between the realms of the living and the dead.
Given the appropriate rites, she would help the deceased into afterlife as an underworld shade (Di Manes): otherwise, the spirit of the deceased might remain among the living as a wandering, vengeful ghost.
The goddess was worshiped in many ways. There was the porca praecidanea, which involved sacrificing a fertile female pig and was necessary before a harvest. Cato indicates that sacrifices of any large food item will do, however, and suggests a pumpkin as an acceptable substitute for a pig, since it can be cut open and the seeds offered to Ceres in much the same way the entrails of the pig would be. After the offering of the porca praecidanea, it was customary to also give the goddess a libation of wine.
The poor could offer wheat, flowers, and a libation. The expectations of afterlife for initiates in the sacra Cereris may have been somewhat different, as they were offered “a method of living” and of “dying with better hope”.
Ceres’ major festival was the Cerealia – the ludi cereales, culminating on April 19 to celebrate the growth of grain and other agricultural products. Its original form is unknown; it may have been founded during the regal era. During the Republican era, it was organised by the plebeian aediles, and included ludi circenses (circus games). These opened with a horse race in the Circus Maximus, whose starting point lay just below the Aventine Temple of Ceres, Liber and Libera. In a nighttime ritual after the race, blazing torches were tied to the tails of live foxes, who were released into the Circus. The origin and purpose of this ritual are unknown; it may have been intended to cleanse the growing crops and protect them from disease and vermin, or to add warmth and vitality to their growth
Religiously, the purpose of the races and the games were to make the goddess favorably disposed toward the Roman people, so that she would give them a good harvest.
Visual depictions of Ceres were largely derived from Greek portrayals of Demeter. On two coin types, a bust of Ceres was pictured on one side, while a yoke of oxen was on the other. On other coins, she wears a crown of grain stalks called a corona spicea, holds stalks of wheat, and is occasionally pictured with wheat and barley grains. One coin actually portrayed her wearing a modius, an instrument used to measure grain, on her head. Another pictures a bust of series on one side, and a pair of seated male figures with a wheat stalk to their side on the other. The seated men represent the official distribution of grain to the people. Annona, the goddess who personified the wheat supply, appears alongside Ceres on several coins from the imperial period. Reliefs from the Augustan period have even gone so far as to depict her as a plant growing out of the ground. In one her bust emerges from the earth, holding bunches of poppies and grain in her upraised hands while two snakes twine about her arms.
Ceres also assimilated the visual symbols of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which most Romans observed in her name. Ceres is depicted with symbols of the Mysteries, such as riding in a chariot drawn by snakes while holding a torch in her right hand.
Persephone’s Return ~ A Ritual For The Cerelea
Most often celebrated on the last day of the Ludi Cereales (or April 19).
- Color: Green
- Element: Earth
- Offering: Flowers. Begin something new.
- Daily Meal: Dark, coarse bread. Root vegetables. Poppy seeds. Millet. Nuts and seeds.
Altar: Upon a green cloth set as many spring flowers as possible, a bowl of earth saved from the day of Persephone’s descent, and the figure of a girl’s head emerging from the earth.
Invocation to Persephone’s Return
Let the Earth take joy!
Demeter’s heart is warmed,
For her beloved daughter,
The maiden of Spring,
Has returned to the upper world!
Let all upon the Earth take joy!
Flowers spring from her footsteps,
Grass spreads between her toes,
The promise of the summer wind
Falls like butterflies newly loosed
From her hair the color of poppies and clay.
Let us all take joy!
She who descended in the autumn,
She who is married to Death
And yet arises in the bringing of Life,
She who has passed the bodies
Of a thousand corpses,
She who has sung with the shades
Of a thousand ancestors,
She rises to greet the morning sun
For as long as it is her time.
Then, like all things, she will descend again,
Into the depths of the Earth,
And we, we shall learn to love that cycle
Of rising and falling, of birth and death,
And truly call it a blessing.
Kore Kore Kore Proserpina
Let one chosen for the work of the daily ritual carry the bowl of earth from person to person about the hall, and let each one take a bit of the earth and rub it on their faces, and let it remain until the evening ablutions.
~Info collected from various sources, including the Pagan Book of Hours
This festival marks the start of Spring in the old Roman calendar. Each year the Feriae Marti was held, beginning on the Kalends of March and continuing until the 24th. Dancing priests, called the Salii, performed elaborate rituals over and over again, and a sacred fast took place for the last nine days. The dance of the Salii was complex, and involved a lot of jumping, spinning and chanting. On March 25, the celebration of Mars ended and the fast was broken at the celebration of the Hilaria, in which all the priests partook in an elaborate feast.
March is the third month of the year in the Gregorian calendar system, but was actually the first month on the Roman calendar. Originally named Martius, this month in Ancient Rome was characterized by religious festivals and preparations for war. Mars, the Roman god of war was responsible for protecting Rome and securing victory in military campaigns. He is not to be confused with Ares, the impulsive Greek god of war; Mars was depicted as a more “level-headed” and “virtuous” deity than his Grecian counterpart.
General frivolity was characterized by large processions, animal sacrifices, athletic competitions, and musical performances. Courts were closed, and some agricultural chores were suspended to honor the deities. Merry-making with seeds wasn’t restricted though. Some accounts say Romans tossed seeds in the air during the festival to honor the pending thrust of spring.
During the months of March and October, specially-trained religious leaders, called flamen Martialis, led several Mars-centered festivals including:
- Feriae Marti (celebrating the new year)
- Equirria (the blessing of war horses)
- Tubilistrum (to cleanse and favor trumpets)
One of the most important rituals performed during this time was the rousing of Mars before battle. This critical ritual was performed by the commander of the Roman army who “shook the sacred spears,” shouting, “Mars, vigilia!.”
Because early Roman writers associated Mars with not only warrior prowess, but virility and power, he is often tied to the planting season and agricultural bounty.
Ritual For The Feriae Marti – Festival of Mars
- Color: Red
- Element: Fire
Altar: Set out a red cloth and lay crossed weapons, such as spears and swords, upon it. Lay a helm in the center, a horn, and a burning red candle or torch.
Offerings: Candles. Finger-shaped cakes (strues). Acts of courage, especially those which force one to fight for the defense of another or of one’s beliefs. In the morning, the exercise of Gymnastika shall be hard aerobic movements.
Daily Meal: Finger-cakes. Spicy foods, such as cayenne and chilies. Meat from uncastrated male animals.
Invocation to Mars:
Mars, warrior god, Fire that leaps
And dances, Protector of cities
And of this house, and our spirits,
Courageous one, mirror us back
Some of your courage.
Fearless one, show us a path
Through our many fears.
Armored one, give us protection
From all who would harm us.
And may your sword turn away
All danger from our flesh,
Our bones, our house, our home,
Our hearth and our hearts
Our eyes and our spirits.
Protect us from destruction and ruin,
O fiery god of the shining spear.
We hail you, eternal warrior,
And ask that you grant us
Some small measure
Of your boundless fiery heart.
Chant: (To be accompanied by drums and people clashing blades against shields in the manner of the Salii of ancient times)
Gloria Martial! Gloria Martial! Gloria Martial!
Honoria et Gloria Honoria et Gloria!
A libation of red wine is poured out for Mars. One person lifts the horn and winds it, long and slow, five times, and the rite is ended.
The festival of the Robigalia is celebrated to appease the God Robigus (or perhaps the Goddess Robigo; the gender of this deity, who originated as one of the numinae, is uncertain), who is the deity of wheat-rust, mildew, and blight.
It is an ancient festival of the agricultural calendar, and is celebrated by the Flamen Quirinalis. Both a red dog and sheep are sacrificed to Robigus, along with wine and incense; prayers are then spoken to protect the crops. There is some connection with the ascension of the star Sirius, but it is unclear.
Games (ludi) in the form of “major and minor” races were held. The Robigalia was one of several agricultural festivals in April to celebrate and vitalize the growing season, but the darker sacrificial elements of these occasions are also fraught with anxiety about crop failure and the dependence on divine favor to avert it.
Verminus, a God who protects cattle against worm disease, might also be honored on this day.
The Robigalia has been connected to the Christian feast of Rogation, which was concerned with purifying and blessing the parish and fields and which took the place of the Robigalia on April 25 of the Christian calendar.
Nowadays, whenever we hear the term Bacchanalia getting thrown about it is typically used to describe wild partying that has gotten way out of control. In the popular imagination, the Bacchanalia are often characterized by frantic participants moshing together in a pit of sexual orgies.
The Bacchanalia were free-spirited and sexually charged festivals that involved pagan mysticism, wild sex and divine communion which allowed its celebrants’ to achieve states of euphoria that hovered between divine ecstasy and the oblivion of nothingness. Those who have spent a week at one of the Hedonism resorts in Jamaica would probably find the sexually charged atmosphere of the Bacchanalia remarkably familiar.
The cult of Bacchus was a mystery religion that originated in Asia Minor (modern day Turkey) and spread throughout Greece and into southern Italy where it became extremely popular among the Romans. Despite their notoriety, not much is known about the Bacchanalia. This is largely due to the fact that mystery religions were closed to the uninitiated and their inner-workings kept secret from the outside world. However, scholars have managed to piece together fragments from ancient legal documents, historical texts and plays that can help give us a glimpse into the bacchanalian festivities.
The Bacchanalia first appeared in Greece around 700 BC and eventually found their way into Italy around the fourth century BC. The first bacchanals were held twice yearly in the middle of winter and were reserved for girls and women who performed their rites naked. By the time Rome had become the preeminent power in the Mediterranean after their victory over Carthage in the Second Punic War (202 BC), the rituals had opened up considerably making them quite popular with the natives.
Admission was extended to men and people of all social classes; even slaves could even join in on the fun. With the increased popularity, celebrations were taking place as often as five times a month.
The time and location of the bacchanals were usually closely guarded secrets. Priests and priestesses preferred to hold their gatherings in secluded forests where their privacy could be ensured. On the day of the festival, devotees would prepare some goats by painting their horns gold. Special torches dipped in sulphur and charcoal was also made. Devotees often wore fawn skins that emulated forest animals. Skimpy outfits or even complete nudity was also par for the course. Participants would often carry along their favorite sex toy; women would bring sexy wands while men might bring along a wooden phallus.
After nightfall celebrants would proceed to a forest clearing by dancing to the sounds of crashing cymbals and loud music. Once the celebrants arrived at the appointed place, they could be seen quaffing down wine, dancing, leaping, whirling, screaming and generally working themselves up into a frenzied state. They would inspire each other into ever greater acts of ecstasy, whereby the whole scene would descend into a writhing mosh pit of sexual orgies.
The aim was to achieve a heightened state of ecstasy in which the devotee’s souls would be temporarily freed from their physical existence. It was in these moments that the worshipers hoped to commune with Bacchus and obtain a glimpse of what they would someday meet in the afterlife after their resurrection.
The festival would reach its climax with frantic feats of strength and ecstasy, such as ripping trees out of the ground and eating the raw flesh of their sacrificial animals. The latter act was a sacrament similar to communion where the devotees assumed the identity of Bacchus. By symbolically drinking his blood and eating his body, the devotees believed they became one with Bacchus.
The euphoric devotees would then rush over to the banks of a nearby river with their flaming torches and dip them into the water. Since their torches were made with sulfur and charcoal, they would emerge from the water still burning, a symbol of Bacchus’s power.
Source: The Bacchanalian
Termini in Roman mythology began as boundary markers between wilderness settings. The termini were rural boundary stones marking property lines between fields and neighbors. There was an annual ceremony each 23rd day of February called the Terminalia when first fruits were offered and libations of oil and honey were poured over the termini to renew the power or forces within the boundary stones between properties. Ovid presents the story as follows
When night has passed, let the god be celebrated
With customary honour, who separates the fields with his sign.
Terminus, whether a stone or a stump buried in the earth,
You have been a god since ancient times.
You are crowned from either side by two landowners,
Who bring two garlands and two cakes in offering.
An altar’s made: here the farmer’s wife herself
Brings coals from the warm hearth on a broken pot.
The old man cuts wood and piles the logs with skill,
And works at setting branches in the solid earth.
Then he nurses the first flames with dry bark,
While a boy stands by and holds the wide basket.
When he’s thrown grain three times into the fire
The little daughter offers the sliced honeycombs.
Others carry wine: part of each is offered to the flames:
The crowd, dressed in white, watch silently.
Terminus, at the boundary, is sprinkled with lamb’s blood,
And doesn’t grumble when a sucking pig is granted him.
Neighbours gather sincerely, and hold a feast,
And sing your praises, sacred Terminus:
‘You set bounds to peoples, cities, great kingdoms:
Without you every field would be disputed…
These rural termini and feast of landmarks had their state counterpart in Terminus. The story told by Ovid about the sacred boundary stone which stood, in the temple of the Capitoline Jupiter, continues:
What happened when the new Capitol was built?
The whole throng of gods yielded to Jupiter and made room:
But as the ancients tell, Terminus remained in the shrine
Where he was found, and shares the temple with great Jupiter.
Even now there’s a small hole in the temple roof,
So he can see nothing above him but stars.
Since then, Terminus, you’ve not been free to wander:
Stay there, in the place where you’ve been put,
And yield not an inch to your neighbour’s prayers …
~Ovid, Fasti Vol II
A Simple Terminalia Celebration
- Themes: Earth; Home
- Symbols: Owl; Geranium
- Presiding Goddess: Minerva
This Etruscan/Italic goddess blended the odd attributes of being a patroness of household tasks, including arts and crafts, and also being the patroness of protection and war. Today she joins in pre-spring festivities by helping people prepare their lands for sowing and embracing the figurative lands of our hearts, homes, and spirits with her positive energy.
To Do Today:
In ancient times, this was a day to bless one’s lands and borders. Gifts of corn, honey, and wine were given to the earth and its spirits to keep the property safe and fertile throughout the year. In modern times, this equates to a Minerva-centered house blessing.
Begin by putting on some spiritually uplifting music. Burn geranium-scented incense if possible; otherwise, any pantry spice will do. Take this into every room of your home, always moving clockwise to promote positive growing energy. As you get to each room, repeat this incantation:
Minerva, protect this sacred space
and all who live within.
by your power and my will,
the magic now begins!
Wear a geranium today to commemorate Minerva and welcome her energy into your life.
The Feralia was the closing festival of the ancient Roman festival of Parentalia. During the Feralia, families would picnic at the tombs of their deceased family members and give libations to the dearly departed. It was believed that the shades of the dead could walk upon the earth above their graves during Feralia.
Roman citizens were instructed to bring offerings to the tombs of their dead ancestors which consisted of at least “an arrangement of wreaths, a sprinkling of grain and a bit of salt, bread soaked in wine and violets scattered about.” Additional offerings were permitted, however the dead were appeased with just the aforementioned.
Ovid tells of a time when Romans, in the midst of war, neglected Feralia, which prompted the spirits of the departed to rise from their graves in anger, howling and roaming the streets. After this event, tribute to the tombs were then made and the ghastly hauntings ceased.
“And the grave must be honoured. Appease your fathers’ Spirits, and bring little gifts to the tombs you built. Their shades ask little, piety they prefer to costly offerings: no greedy deities haunt the Stygian depths. A tile wreathed round with garlands offered is enough, A scattering of meal, and a few grains of salt, and bread soaked in wine, and loose violets: Set them on a brick left in the middle of the path…
…and hide the gods, closing those revealing temple doors, Let the altars be free of incense, the hearths without fire. Now ghostly spirits and the entombed dead wander, Now the shadow feeds on the nourishment that’s offered. But it only lasts till there are no more days in the month Than the feet that my metres possess. This day they call the Feralia because they bear [ferunt] Offerings to the dead: the last day to propitiate the shades.” – Ovid
To indicate public mourning, marriages of any kind were prohibited on the Feralia, and Ovid urged mothers, brides, and widows to refrain from lighting their wedding torches. Magistrates stopped wearing their insignia and any worship of the gods was prohibited as it “should be hidden behind closed temple doors; no incense on the altar, no fire on the hearth.”
Februalia, Februa, and also Februatio, was the Roman festival of ritual purification, later incorporated into Lupercalia. The festival, which is basically one of Spring washing or cleaning (associated also with the raininess of this time of year) is old, and possibly of Sabine origin. According to Ovid, Februare as a Latin word which refers to means of purification (particularly with washing or water) derives from an earlier Etruscan word referring to purging.
The Roman month Februarius (“of Februa,” whence the English February) is named for the Februa/Februatio festival, which occurred on the 15th day of the Roman month. A later Roman god Februus personified both the month and also purification, and is named for them. Thus, the month is named for the festival and not for the god.
- Color: White
- Element: Earth
- Altar: Spread with a clean white cloth and place thereupon four white candles and a bowl of water, very simply.
- Offerings: Clean something externally, and at the same time clean something internally.
- Daily Meal: Fasting for the day. Drink plenty of water.
The winter has lain heavily upon us,
Juno Februata, Queen of the new light,
And we are sunk in layers of thought
Like a hibernating mole
Beneath layers of earth.
Bring us forth into the light, Lady!
Let us remove all filth
From our bodies and our souls,
Making them a place of clarity.
Februus Februus Lucina Lucina
(There is no further ritual; all silently take cleaning tools and being to thoroughly clean the entire building, ending with a ritual bath. As each cleans, they should meditate on what part of the mind or spirit needs cleansing, and let the physical cleansing aid in the spiritual aspect.)
The Goddess Carmenta is celebrated on two dates of the Roman calendar, (January 11 and 15), each day called Carmentalia. These dates should be considered as two separate festivals, rather than one festival extending over this period, yet it is not clear to us today, any more than it was during the Late Republic, why two such holidays should be in such close proximity in one month.
The festival, chiefly observed by women, celebrates Carmenta, who is the Goddess of women’s health, birthing, and prophecy. She is the inventor of letters, as Minerva is the inventor of numbers. She tells the future through Her sister Porrima and reveals the past through Her sister Postvorta, while Carmenta knows all that happens in the present.
Together the three Carmenae sisters are the Good Fates, the Three Mothers, and the Muses. The very name of Carmenta was given to song (carmen) and Latin terms for poetry, charms, and speaking-in-tongues. With Her songs she would soothe the ill and taught women how to care for themselves and their children. Her sanctuaries thus became places for women and children to receive traditional medical treatments using herbs and music.
Carmenta takes us back to a very early period, a time well before the beginnings of Rome around three thousand years ago, back into the Italian Bronze Age. She takes us back to the ecstatic tradition of the female priestesses called vates in which Latin religion began and in which the Religio Romana was first founded.
The sacred grove of Carmenta, the most ancient sanctuary in all of Rome, was located at the foot of the Capitoline Hill. It is still visited today where people gather waters from Her sacred spring. It was in this very grove that Carmenta appeared to Numa Pompilius in his dreams as the nymph Egeria. She instructed Numa on how to commune with the Gods.
With Egeria’s instruction, Numa Pompilius then established rituals for the Gods, festivals, and a calendar by which the Romans could attend these. Numa set out sanctuaries for Gods and Goddesses and he created colleges of priests and priestesses to serve the Gods and Goddesses. Egeria taught Numa the laws which he handed down to the Romans and which still govern our sacramental rituals today.
One of the laws of Numa states:
“The Gods are not to be represented in the form of man or beast, nor are there to be any painted or graven image of a deity admitted (to your rites).”
As one of the oldest Goddesses of Rome, whose worship was established by Numa, Carmenta was never represented by an image. It was sufficient to feel Her presence in the sacred grove below the Capitoline. In the same way, Vesta, Goddess of the Hearth, is never represented by an image but only by living fire.
Another law of Numa holds that:
“Sacrifices are not to be celebrated with an effusion of blood, but consist of flour, wine, and the least costly of offerings.”
The restriction against the use of blood sacrifices was so strong in the worship of Carmenta that no one was allowed to enter Her sacred grove wearing anything made of leather or animal hide. It is not right to take the life of another creature in worshiping the Goddess who helps birth life into the world. And thus it follows that today we offer Carmenta bay leaves as incense, a libation of milk, and popana cakes made of soft cheese and flower.
Invocation to Carmenta
Goddess of Women’s Health
Come, be present, Carmenta.
May Your sisters Porrima and Postvorta attend You.
With joyful mind come, Mother Carmenta, on You I call,
Come, stand by me, stay, and listen to my pleas.
Speak to me once more, in Your own words, as You did before.
In Your sacred grove where Egeria counseled King Numa,
bear forth now Your soothing songs to dispel our sorrows.
Come forth! I call to You, Good Goddess,
Great Goddess of charms.
Give voice, happy Voice of song,
With soothing songs as will cure our ills, or whatever else we fear.
Spare our daughters heavy with child, spare our wives in their pangs of labor,
Care for the mothers who worry over their children.
With pious rite I call out, I summon,
I entice with songs that You come forth, Carmenta,
And look favorably upon the matrons of our families.
In You, dearest Mother, in Your hands we place our safekeeping.
In offering to You this cake of cheese I pray good prayers
in order that, pleased with this offering of popana,
May You be favorable towards our children and to us,
Towards our homes and our households.
More About The Festivals:
According to legend, the cult of Carmenta predated Rome itself. In some accounts She was known as Nicostrate, the mother of Evander, who was fathered by Mercurius. Evander was the legendary founder of Paletum, a village that gave its name to the Palatine Hill. Her sacred grove, therefore, may have originally lain beneath the Palatine Hill as some ascribe it.
Indeed, it may be that it was in Her sacred grove beneath the Palatine that Romulus and Remus were said to have been discovered being suckled by a she-wolf, since Carmentis was so closely associated with the care of infants.
It was said that later Numa Pompilius founded a sacred grove for Her beneath the Capitoline Hill. The dedication of two groves to Carmentis is one possible reason why there were two days celebrated as Carmentalia in the month of January.
It was proposed by Huschke that the two festival days represented the Latins of Romulus and the Sabines of Titus Tatius, just as there were two companies of Luperci and two companies of Salii. Were that the case we might expect that She once had a sacred grove on the Esquiline Hill, and that Numa’s dedication beneath the Capitoline represented a union of the two culti Carmentalis.
The fasti Praeneste suggests that the second date was added by a victorious Roman general who had left the City by the Porta Carmentalis for his campaign against Fidenae. The gate received its name from its proximity to the sacred grove of Carmentis.
Yet another story was told by Ovid, linking the two dates to a protest by the matrons of Rome in 195 BCE. During the fourth century the Roman Senate had granted patrician matrons the privilege of riding in two- wheeled carriages in reward for their contribution in gold to fulfilling a vow to Apollo made by Camillus. The privilege was later to be temporarily revoked during the Second Punic War (215 BCE) along with sumptuary laws that limited the use of colored cloth and gold that women could wear, in order to save on private expenses and war materials (horses) and thus help in the war effort.
But the Senate did not at first renew the privileges at war’s end. In 195 Tribunes Marcus Fundanius and Lucius Valerius finally called for the repeal of this lex Oppia, but they were opposed by the brothers Marcus and Publius Junius Brutus.
Supporters for repealing the lex Oppia, and those who supported its remaining in effect, gathered daily on the Capitoline to argue over the matter. Soon women began to join in the disputes, their numbers increasing daily, even so much as women from the countryside entered into the City to advocate for their rights. The natural place for them to first congregate would have been at the grove of Carmentis. This may be what Ovid indicates by linking the protest to the Carmentalia.
Consul Marcius Porcius Cato spoke out against repealing the lex Oppia. The women then resolved to “refuse to renew their ungrateful husbands’ stock” until their privileges were restored, Ovid referring to the women resorting to abortion as their means of protest.
In a later period the Temple of the Bona Dea would become associated with the use of abortive herbs, and Carmentis associated with the use of the same herbs in birthing. In actuality both Carmentis and the Bona Dea were associated with birthing or prevention of pregnancy, and the difference between the Capitoline and Aventine temples may have been one of class distinction. Eventually the matrons of Rome regained their rights and, according to Ovid, the second Carmentalia was then begun in thanks to the Goddess for Her support. Ovid’s story is the least likely and most fanciful to account for the two Carmentaliae of January.
The notion that there may have earlier been two groves dedicated to Carmentis prior to the known grove beneath the Capitoline is a reasonable speculation, but still would not account for the two festivals. We are left then with the information provided by the Fasti Praeneste, although the inscription is mutilated and uncertain. This source may indicate that while the Carmentalia held on 11 January was dedicated to Carmentis, that of 15 January was intended to honor Janus as guardian of the Porta Carmentalis.
Different aspects of Carmentis related to Janus, and thus it is possible that a festival for Him would include Carmentis in similar fashion as festivals for Ops and Consus. The fact remains that we don’t know today why the month of January has two separate festivals for Carmentis.
Ritual for the Festival of Carmenta
- Color: Red
- Element: Earth
- Offerings: Give gifts to pregnant women in need.
- Daily Meal: Eggs.
- Altar: Upon a red cloth place seven red candles and the figure of a pregnant woman. If possible, a woman who is with child should be present and honored on this day.
All things grow in the dark place
Safe within the womb of the Mother,
Safe within the dream of the Mother.
The Earth lies now asleep
Full with big belly,
Each seed pregnant with hopes
Waiting for the return of the Sun.
So we are each of us,
Pregnant with hopes and dreams,
Big-bellied in our minds,
Waiting to for the moment
To begin our sacred labor.
This is the time of waiting,
Feeling the child within come to fruition,
Feeling it grow and change,
Feeling the faint motions
That signify the oncoming flood of life.
Call: May Life burst forth in a flood of joy!
Response: May Life come forth through the gate of eternity!
Call: We hail the Mother beneath our feet!
Response: We hail the Mother within our souls!
Call: We hail the Mothers from whence we descended!
Response: We hail the Mothers that are yet to bring forth!
Call: We hail the growth of possibility!
Response: We hail all that it yet to come!
Call: We hail the growth of the future!
Response: We wait for the birthing-time with open arms!
Mother I feel you under my feet
Mother I hear your heart beat
In ancient Roman culture, felicitas is a condition of divinely inspired productivity, blessedness, or happiness. Felicitas could encompass both a woman’s fertility, and a general’s luck or good fortune. The divine personification of Felicitas was cultivated as a goddess.
Although felicitas may be translated as “good luck,” and the goddess Felicitas shares some characteristics and attributes with Fortuna, the two were distinguished in Roman religion. Fortuna was unpredictable and her effects could be negative, as the existence of an altar to Mala Fortuna (“Bad Luck”) acknowledges. Felicitas, however, always had a positive significance.
In Ancient Rome
Felicitas had a temple in Rome as early as the mid-2nd century BC, and during the Republican era was honored at two official festivals of Roman state religion, on July 1 in conjunction with Juno and October 9 as Fausta Felicitas.
Felicitas continued to play an important role in Imperial cult, and was frequently portrayed on coins as a symbol of the wealth and prosperity of the Roman Empire. Her primary attributes are the caduceus and cornucopia. The English word “felicity” derives from felicitas.
On July 1 and October 9, Felicitas received a sacrifice in Capitolio, on the Capitoline Hill, on the latter date as Fausta Felicitas in conjunction with the Genius Publicus and Venus Victrix. These observances probably took place at an altar or small shrine, not a separate temple precinct.
The Acts of the Arval Brothers (1st century AD) prescribe a cow as the sacrifice for Felicitas. Pompey established a shrine for Felicitas at his new theater and temple complex, which used the steps to the Temple of Venus Victrix as seating. Felicitas was cultivated with Honor and Virtue, and she may have shared her shrine there with Victory, as she did in the Imperial era as Felicitas Caesaris (Caesar’s Felicitas) at Ameria.
Celebrating Felicitas Today:
“Felicitas’ themes are kindness, charity, love, romance, joy, success and luck. Her symbols are greetings (greeting cards). This Roman Goddess brings happiness, success, and good fortune whenever someone salutes another with good words or amiable deeds. She comes to us today to energize late fall and early winter with the transformational power of kindness.
Her festival day gives us an opportunity to shower anyone and everyone with cheerful trinkets, kind acts, and gentle words to lift people’s spirits. By looking for Felicitas for help, we can bring joy to people who might otherwise be feeling a case of autumn blues.
Here is an idea:
Look for, or make, some humorous greeting cards to send to folks you know would appreciate the thought. Lay your hands on them and invoke Felicitas’s blessings in any way that feels right.
To improve the effect further, anoint the cards with rejuvenating aromatic oils that match the recipient’s needs (such as pine for money, rose for love or peace, cinnamon for luck, sandalwood for health, and lavender to combat depression). This way, when they open that card, the magic and the aroma will be released together to bless, energize, and bear Felicitas’s greetings along with your heartfelt wishes!”
Sources: 365 Goddess, and Wikipedia
In ancient Rome on July 7th, the Feria Ancillarum or Festival of Handmaids was held. This was the maids’ day out, when the maids of Rome were beyond the control of their mistresses.
Also known as the Caprotinae, when free and slave women made offerings to her beneath wild fig trees outside Rome’s city limits, this feast day was in honor of Juno Caprotina, Juno of the Wild Figs. Fig trees were venerated, with feasting beneath them in honor of Caprotina, an aspect of the Goddess Juno.
In this aspect of the goddess, Juno is seen as dressed in goatskins and driving a chariot pulled by goats. Enslaved women made up a large proportion of her devotees.
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Sun and Moon
The Last Quarter phase of the Moon falls on 2nd of January, at 7h30. The New Moon occurs on the 10th of January, at 3h30. The First Quarter falls on the 17th of January at 01h26 and the Full Moon occurs on the 24th of January at 03h46
On the 2nd at 13h53, the Moon will be at apogee (furthest from Earth) at a distance of 404 300 km. The Moon will be at perigee (closest approach to Earth) at a distance of 369 600 km on the 15th at 14h10.
Planetary and Other Events – Morning and Evening
The only naked eye planet visible at sunset is Mercury and it’s only for the first week. Uranus and Neptune can be seen as sunset for the entire month. Jupiter is prominent at midnight and is joined by Mars at month end. From the 26th to 30th, before sunrise, Venus, Mars, Jupiter , Saturn and Mercury can be seen and this one of the best opportunities to view all the five naked eye planets together.
Several meteor showers are active in January. The Puppid-Velids are active from December 5th 2015 to January 7th 2016, peaking on the 29th of December 2015. The alpha Crucids, in the constellation of the Southern Cross (Crux) are active from the 6th January – 28th January, peaking on the 19th. The alpha Centaurids, in the constellation of Centaurus are active from the 28th January to the 21st February, peaking on the 7th of February. They are best viewed between 00:00 AM and 03:30 AM looking towards the constellation of Crux. Hourly rates are expected to be around 5 meteors per hour at the maximum.
The Evening Sky Stars
Low in the north in the evening are the stars variously known as the Seven Sisters, the Pleiades, or IsiLimela. There are six stars in this cluster which are fairly easily visible to the naked eye, and hundreds that can be seen through a telescope. Located about 420 light years away, this is a group of stars which formed from a cloud of interstellar dust and gas about 120 million years ago. The Pleiades stars easily visible to the naked eye are all more than a 100 times as bright as our Sun – our own Sun only looks brighter because it is 27 million times closer to us! Above and to the right of the Pleiades is another cluster of stars called the Hyades, making up the muzzle of Taurus the Bull. The Hyades are about 150 light years away, and about 600 million years old. Bright orange Aldebaran looks as though it ought to be part of this loose group, but is only located in the same direction and, at only 64 light years away, is less than half as distant. It is, however, the most luminous star within a hundred light years of us.
Low on the northern horizon glitters Capella, brightest star in Auriga the Charioteer. As with other bright stars, the effects of atmospheric refraction can cause it to twinkle vigorously when near the horizon, appearing to flash in multiple colours. In July 1951, a pilot in northern Michigan chased Capella for half an hour under the impression that it was a UFO. Given that Capella is 42 light years away, it is not surprising he did not catch it.
High in the NNE are the brilliant stars of Orion, with the twins (Castor and Pollux), lower in the NE. Below Orion in the ENE (below Orion and to the right of the twins) is Procyon, brightest star in Orion’s smaller hunting dog. At only 11 light years away, Procyon is one of our nearest neighbours. Sirius is even nearer, high in the East in January evenings, at only 9 light years distant, and both have dim companions called “white dwarfs”, which are no larger than planets. The diameter of Procyon’s companion is only about 30% larger than the diameter of our Earth, while Procyon’s diameter is millions of kilometers! A white dwarf is a star that has used up its nuclear fuel, and is slowly cooling down until its crystallises, which typically takes billions of years. It still glows, but only with stored energy. Procyon’s companion, for example, is only 0.06% as bright as the Sun.
Canopus, the second brightest star in the Earth’s skies, is a bit SE of the zenith (the point overhead). South of the zenith is Achernar at the Southern end of the Celestial River, while Fomalhaut is the brightest star in the SW. In the southern half of the sky in January there is a curious blend of birds and water creatures (including the Southern Fish, the Crane, The Toucan, The Phoenix, The Peacock, the Bird of Paradise, the Flying Fish, the Swordfish and the Water Snake), mixed with mechanical and scientific constellations such as the Octant, the Pendulum Clock, the Chemical Furnace, the Microscope, the Engraving Tool and the Eyepiece Reticle. The Southern Cross and Pointers are very low in the SW even from the Cape and invisible from northern South Africa.
The Morning Sky Stars
Bright stars in the northern half of the sky include Regulus and Procyon in the northwest, orange Arcturus in the northeast. Blue-white Spica is much higher in the northeast. Spica is the brightest of the stars in Virgo, which represents a goddess of ancient mythology. Which goddess is a bit more mysterious, as some claim she was a goddess of the harvest, others a goddess of justice.
The Cross and the Pointers (the two brightest stars in Centaurus) are high in the south in the predawn January sky, with the three stars of the imaginatively named Southern Triangle directly below the Pointers. The Keel, the Sails, the Poop Deck (constellations seen to the right of the Southern Cross while facing south) were once part of the single giant constellation of Argo Navis, the Argonaut’s Ship that sailed to find the Golden Fleece. Just above the Southern Cross and the Housefly are the stars of the great ship Argo as it sails along the Milky Way, accompanied by the dim stars of the Flying Fish. The Milky Way stretches across the morning sky from east to west, a bit south of the zenith, with the bright stars of the Scorpion now rising in the east before dawn. Look out for the brightest star in Scorpio, Antares (‘rival of Mars’) .
Still very high in the January predawn sky is Hydra the Water Monster, with the Cup mounted on its back and the Crow flying nearby. The brightest star in Hydra is Alphard, high in the NW in the January predawn sky. At a distance of 175 light years away, Alphard is a giant star 40 times the diameter of our Sun, and would stretch halfway to the orbit of Mercury if placed where the Sun is. Since Alphard is also 400 times as bright as the sun, we’d be crispy is a jiffy!
Sivuyile Manxoyi January 2016
PDF version (two pages, including the full text)
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What is saliva? Basically, it’s mostly water secretion in your mouth. Beyond water, saliva consists of mucin, organic salts and digestive enzymes.
Under healthy conditions, you’ll produce in excess of a couple of cups of this fluid daily. This flow is slowest while you sleep and surges during a meal.
Saliva is discharged into your mouth via your salivary gland system. And salivary secretion is controlled by your autonomic nervous system.
You have three sets of major salivary glands. One type of gland is the parotid, which is located between your jaw and ear. The saliva that originates out of this gland tends to be watery in its consistency.
The other two salivary glands are labeled sublingual and submandibula. Sublingual produces the thickest, stickiest version of saliva through numerous ducts in your mouth’s floor.
Submandibular gland is found under your tongue and shoots out saliva of a texture that’s in between watery and sticky. Salivary gland placement is also in various spots throughout your mouth, ejecting saliva similar sublingual’s.
Salivary gland flow decreases during periods of dehydration. And it’s that subsequent dry mouth that causes your sensation of thirst. Thus, causing you to seek sources of hydration, which is just one of saliva’s health benefits.
Saliva has various other health benefits. Some of it’s more notable benefits is it serves as a moisturizer for your mouth, it kicks off starch and fat digestion, it’s a moistening aid for chewing and its stickiness binds food into a bolus for swallowing.
However, saliva benefits your health in other ways as well, like:
- lower pH helps neutralize acids in food
- provides a defensive barrier against bacteria, fungi, viruses
- bicarbonate buffer protects teeth against bacteria producing acids
- dissolves substance in food to make them more accessible to taste buds
When salivary flow is too low, xerostomia (aka dry mouth) becomes an issue. When this happens, you’ll likely have difficulty chewing, swallowing or speaking. And a substantial cut in saliva has a negative impact on dental and oral health, i.e. increases risk of cavities, gingivitis and periodontal disease.
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Smoking is one of the biggest risk factors for cardiovascular diseases, increasing the risk of heart attacks, strokes and vascular disease in the limbs. It damages the inner lining of the arteries, causing them to narrow , which in turn decreases the blood flow, that can lead to, among other things, heart attacks and strokes. Cigarettes also increase the heart rate and blood pressure in the body, making you more vulnerable to cardiovascular diseases.
Passive smoking or second-hand smoking is also harmful as the non-smoker inhales nicotine and toxic chemicals same as the smokers do, placing him or her at risk of lung cancer, and voice box and throat cancers. Passive smoking has been associated with increased risk of respiratory conditions like asthma and COPD as well. In fact, smoking in the presence of a pregnant woman increases the risk of her delivering a low weight baby, having a still-born or having a premature baby
Passive smoking can affect children negatively, making them prone to respiratory disorders like wheezing, even asthma, allergies, sudden infant death and respiratory tract infections.
Most of the passive smoking occurs in colleges, homes and workplaces, when a non-smoker interacts with a smoker. While we cannot stop someone from smoking, we can take steps to protect ourselves by maintaining a distance from smokers to avoid inhaling the smoke, by ensuring that the children’s day care centres and schools are tobacco-free, choosing safe and environment -friendly places for outings and dining and by educating our children and loved ones to avoid smoking and passive smoking.
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Writing to a certain style guideline, or standardized format, is required by many professional and academic entities today. Generally, you begin to learn these styles in high school by writing papers that follow certain formats under one of the main style guides. The most widely accepted and used guides are MLA, APA, Chicago/Turabian, and CSE. Proper citation is especially important to avoid plagiarism.
Fortunately, there are many online resources guides to check your writing against. BestOnlineCollege.org has compiled a plethora of online resources for double checking the format and content of your writing, as well as creating a bibliography or works cited page.
APA style is mainly used in the study of psychology. The official site for APA has free tutorials, links to the books, style guides, instructional aids, and online courses. The site also has a large section on the latest psychology news and events.
MLA is used mainly in the study of humanities, such as English, literature, art, music, philosophy, foreign languages, religion, and architecture. The official site of the MLA, or Modern Language Association, promotes their most recent publications, gives a short overview of MLA style, and discusses MLA membership qualifications, events and conventions.
CSE style was produced to provide the scientific writing community with more specific writing standards in relation to the subjects and topics discussed in the scientific realm.
A set of style rules developed by the University of Chicago Press beginning over a hundred years ago to aid printing technicians and continuing today to provide a writing and formatting standard through The Chicago Manual of Style.
Turabian style is a slight variation on Chicago style specifically designed for student writers and their scholastic writing needs.
AAA style offers a style guide based on the combination of The Chicago Manual of Style and Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary and provides lots of information and examples.
Free Bibliography Generators
EasyBib lets you generate a free MLA style bibliography or works cited page. Just enter your sources into the field and get your free works cited page.
Noodle Tools is the one of the original works cited generators. NoodleBib Express allows you to create a free MLA, APA, or Chicago style works cited page. They have other software that costs money, so be careful.
Son of Citation Machine lets you select which style you want to use and pick which kind of source, then fill in the blanks and, in a few seconds, Son of Citation Machine will create a correctly formatted bibliography or works cited page for you.
WorksCited4U allows you to choose the style you wish to use and then gives you instructions on how to successfully write and cite according to the style of your choice.
APA Lite for College Papers gives an overview of APA style and includes topics such as editing, page formatting, documenting research, and provides examples of reference or works cited styles.
APA Style Essentials has examples of APA style documents, and information on general guidelines, title pages, citations, quotes, references, footnotes, and tables and links to websites where you can purchase the APA style book.
Bedford / St. Martin’s MLA Updates allows you to view portions of the MLA handbook for free by downloading their PDFs.
Chicago Citation Style is a two page downloadable Chicago style guide that covers the basics of citation, including footnotes and endnotes.
Chicago Style Crib Sheet offers a quick overview of Chicago and Turabian style, including how to use style, page formatting, and using footnotes and endnotes.
The Chicago Manual of Style Online goes over things like, how to format tables, quotations, how to write numbers and deal with unusual word usage.
Council of Science Editors is the official site and the best resource for understanding what CSE, or Council of Science Editors, style is and how to properly use it.
The Online Writing Center (OWL) at Purdue has great information to use, such as example papers, work cited, and bibliographies. There is also information on where to purchase Chicago style guides.
Online Citation Guide gives us a short introduction and examples on how to properly cite sources, including using abbreviations parenthetical in-text citations, and different types of paper formats.
Research and Documentation Online discusses how to find sources for your work, and then document them in your work. The site will take you to examples and descriptions, according to your choice of several different disciplines.
Writing at CSU’s “Writing Guide” is Colorado State University’s writing style guide and has more information on CSE style guidelines and how to use proper citations at the conclusion of your paper.
Library Quick Guide: Citing Electronic Resources with MLA has some great links to style resources and offers a useful list of examples for electronic source citations.
MLA Style Lite offers guides for page and document formatting, writing mechanics, citing references and text and block quotations.
Psychology with Style: A Hypertext Writing Guide offers a variety of example APA style research papers so you can go over such topics as the use of quotations, abbreviations, and usage details.
Research and Documentation Online allows you to choose from a variety of disciplines and then select what type or area of your project you need to style or format. It then generates a nicely formatted page designed to give you examples for all of your writing needs.
American Academy of Art offers tutorials, videos, websites, books, PDFs, examples and other resources for writing and citing according to MLA style.
Anne Arundel Community College has guides and links to resources, as well as examples for every style you may need to write a bibliography.
Long Island University Post’s APA Citation Style Guide offers clear, easy-to-follow examples for a variety of APA source citations.
Camosun College gives detailed examples of electronic sources, print sources and other links.
Capital Community College focuses on MLA and APA style and has examples of tables and figures, a FAQ, quotation tutorials, how to perform last minute corrections, and how to write a works cited.
Capital Community College provides examples of works cited, grammar, writing tips, paper formats, writing lessons, and plagiarism rules for MLA style.
Concordia University Libraries includes a section on parenthetical references and then an extensive list of examples of work citations.
Cornell University Library has fantastic examples and descriptions of how to write a proper works cited page in APA, MLA, and Chicago style.
Dakota State University discusses end references and in-text citation and shows examples for both.
Georgia Southern University is an excellent PDF with examples of APA style standards for referencing articles, books, and electronic media.
North Seattle Community College offers examples, and links to games and other resources for learning how to write to APA style.
The Ohio State University has articles, books and electronic resources available for most of the standard styles, including MLA, APA, CSE, CBE, Chicago, and Turabian.
Southwestern College Library gives writers links to excellent citation sources and style guides for MLA and APA style.
The Ohio State University offers articles books and other resources for citing according to scientific style and format, as well as MLA and APA.
UNC University Libraries discusses how to cite your sources, including print sources and online sources, and includes examples of bibliographies. Also offers information about why we use citation.
The University of Illinoisat Urbana-Champaign has a Center for Writing Studies online. This easy to navigate site offers APA tutorials that breaks down how to cite sources. Also included are a grammar handbook, writing tips, and ESL resources.
University of Maryland University College has examples for how to include authors, dates and titles in citations.
The University of Southern Mississippi Libraries has a huge list of examples for citing all kinds of sources in Turabian style.
The University of Wisconsin–Madison has fantastic resources for writing according APA style, including parenthetical citations, references, and a writer’s handbook.
Washington State University provides great download-and-printable MLA style guide resources and has links to other great resources.
Westmont College has a psychology section that offers easy-to-understand examples of APA style guidelines and how to successfully achieve these results in Microsoft Word.
William Paterson University of New Jersey is a site that has great examples of correctly written APA citations.
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Today we live in a DIY world. From furniture building manuals to becoming a chef, we can do all. In this rush of standardizing teaching for everyone, which they can access anytime they want, we ignore the importance of individual attention each learner needs.
Watching YouTube tutorials of swimming, reading a few articles about various tips will not necessarily enable you to become a swimmer. We need that human touch too, a mentor who will carefully study our weaknesses, guide us towards confidence, notice and enhance the wrong strokes, even motivate us when we don’t have the will – and gradually lead us towards perfection.
Similarly, in brain training, self-training tools like videos and online games might work to an extent, but these tools show the best results when handled and modified by trainers to suit each child differently. They know when, how, and with whom to use it. And that makes a vast difference in the outcomes of cognitive training.
Sudoku, puzzles, and other mind games might help, but they don’t usually lead to noticeable improvements in everyday attention to detail, real-life memory tasks, or smoother relationships. We might notice boosted attention as they occur on the computer items, but these performance gains don’t consistently move past the computer, where people want them. This is where expert trainers are required. They not only polish the decision-making power in the brain but also enable us to apply it when we are in a four-way traffic situation.
THE SCIENCE OF COGNITIVE TRAINING.
To be able to understand the need for a physical trainer who caters to every child individually, we need to first look into the science of cognitive training.
Brain training aims to enhance a person’s cognitive functions. The basic tasks of acquiring, processing, storing, and using information are achieved through fun hands-on training. Some examples of these functions include attention, memory, visual perception, reading comprehension, and language production.
The level on which our brain functions can vary in every individual, and external factors such as stress, traumas, or accidents can also lead to weak functioning.
In brain training, we train these functions in a carefully structured and controlled environment to improve the brain’s capacity. For example, training in attention includes intentional concentration on just one stimulus for an extended amount of time to increase the ability to focus and ignore distractions.
Take the example of a car wash with 10 different brushes and mops to work together from all angles to give you a shiny new look. Similarly, the fun environment, the emotionally supportive trainers, the different techniques, and the tools used all coalesce and train a child’s brain. In this clinical and academic manner, many skills are being groomed consciously and unconsciously.
Personal training thus offers a few primary benefits that self-training or brain training games might not be able to provide.
1) Personal training develops cognitive skills like memory and attention and trains to apply the acquired skill in day-to-day life.
2) Having a personal trainer helps a child deal with his own different needs through custom-built specifically tailored exercises, rather than tutoring him in a generalized manner.
3) Expert trainers identify the underlying issue a child is facing, and rather than seeing him as a weak student, they address his problem. This builds confidence in the child, and they feel an urge to strive.
4) Trainers understand each child is different, and so is each day for the same child as well. Keeping this in mind, they challenge the child by studying their capacity.
5) You might not always have the motivation to attempt the IQ-building puzzle and end up skipping it. Trainers are known to bring that motivation back and keep us on track until we reach our goal.
6) Sessions with trainers are more engaging and rewarding as they address the diverse needs of children.
At the Brainnovation center, our vision is to develop a child’s cognitive skills using a blend of both techniques. One is to challenge them one-on-one with training from expert trainers, and the second is to teach them the balance of self-training through virtual and online programs. The combination of the two helps them with the right mix of having someone to look up to while also being self-built to DO IT THEMSELVES.
Hence, we do not believe in giving our clients a cloak that says “one size fits all”. To put it in a nutshell – according to years of research and brain science, training the underlying weak skills through consistent, intensive, and 1:1 personalized training has reflected optimum long-lasting gains to both kids and adults.
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Measuring acid neutralizing capability. You really want to measure the amount of stomach acid neutralized, not the change in pH. Prepare a solution of a base that is similar in concentration to the acid (0.1 M NaOH would be ideal). Determine what volume of base solution is necessary to neutralize 1) a measured volume of fresh acid, and 2) the same volume of acid which has a weighed, crushed antacid tablet dissolved in it. The difference between volumes of base in 1) and 2) is a good, reproducible measure of how much acid was actually neutralized by the antacid.
You might find the Utah State Office of Education's page on comparative studies of common household solutions helpful as you design this part of your experiment. Also see S. Phillips' Chemistry in the Modern World Laboratory pages for ideas.
Detecting complete neutralization. You'll need some way of determining when the acid has been completely neutralized. Add an indicator to the acid before adding any base or antacid. An indicator is a dye that changes color when the pH of the solution changes. Bromothymol blue is a good choice for this experiment. It changes from yellow in acidic solution to blue in basic solution:
Author: Fred Senese [email protected]
Copyright © 1997-2010 by Fred Senese
Comments & questions to [email protected]
Last Revised 02/23/18.URL: http://antoine.frostburg.edu/chem/senese/101/acidbase/faq/print-antacid-titration.shtml
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List of Good Carbs & Bad Carbs
Carbohydrates provide your body with glucose it needs to function properly. Two types of carbohydrates exist: complex carbohydrates and simple carbohydrates. Foods rich in complex or "good" carbohydrates take time to break down into glucose, while foods high in simple or "bad" carbohydrates convert to glucose very quickly. "Bad" carbohydrates cause blood sugar levels to spike, so knowing which foods to eat and which to avoid can play a role in maintaining your overall health.
Whole-grain products such as brown rice, whole-grain pasta, beans, whole wheat bread, whole oats, buckwheat, millet, whole rye, whole-grain barley and whole-grain corn are considered good carbohydrates. These foods are rich in fiber, vitamins, minerals and phytonutrients that are beneficial to your health. Also, they have a low glycemic index because they cause a slower change in blood sugar levels. Diets rich in high glycemic index foods cause a rapid rise in blood glucose levels, thereby increasing the risk for diabetes and heart disease. By contrast, foods with a low glycemic index help you achieve a more stable blood sugar and improve weight loss and control Type 2 diabetes.
Fruits, Vegetables and Legumes
Fruits and vegetables are loaded with vitamins, nutrients and carbohydrates. People who consume about 2,000 calories per day should eat 2 cups of fruit and 2.5 cups of vegetables daily. Legumes such as beans, peas and lentils are high in fiber, carbohydrates and protein and low in fat. Legumes may decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease, Type 2 diabetes and prostate cancer, reports the Linus Pauling Institute. On a 2,000-calorie daily diet, you should eat 3 cups of legumes a week, according to USDA ChooseMyPlate.gov.
Refined Grains, Sweets and Biscuits
Refined grains such as white bread, pizza crust, pretzels, hamburger buns and megamuffins are bad carbohydrates. During the refining process, these grains are stripped of B-vitamins, fiber and certain minerals. In addition, they also have a high glycemic index, negatively affecting blood sugar levels. Other examples of bad carbohydrates include chips, cookies, sodas, bagels, cake, pastries, pancakes, soda, high fructose corn syrup and baked goods. These foods are low in nutrient density as they have little or no nutritional value and supply a large amount of calories.
According to researchers at Yale University, bad carbohydrates such as sweets and biscuits cause falls in blood sugar, affecting the part of the brain that controls impulse. This leads to a loss of self-control and a desire for unhealthy, high-calorie foods. A diet high in calories contributes to weight gain, which increases the risk for developing Type 2 diabetes.
Include beans in your diet as they are a good source of protein and slowly digested carbohydrates. Harvard School of Public Health suggests eating whole wheat or whole oats for breakfast, using whole-grain breads for lunch or snacks and trying brown rice, wheatberries or millet with dinner. In this way, you can add more good carbohydrates to your diet. The recommended serving sizes for breads and cereals are 1 slice of bread, 1 ounce of ready-to-eat cereal, ½ cup of cooked cereal or ½ cup of cooked dry beans.
- Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: Carbohydrates
- Harvard School of Public Health: Carbohydrates: Good Carbs Guide the Way
- ChooseMyPlate.gov: Home
- Linus Pauling Institute: Legumes
- The New York Times: Eating Well; It's Better to Be Whole Than Refined
- Daily Mail: Could Your Sweet Tooth be a Warning Sign That You're Ill?
- American Diabetes Association: Diabetes Myths
- MedlinePlus: Carbohydrates
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Tutorial: Rounded Corners
Open up a new file. Create one or more layers with text on it. The written text should be relatively big in size so that you can see the final effect clearly.
Now render the text (Layer / Discard Text Information) and apply a Gaussian Blur. → Filter / Blur / Gaussian with a value of 15. The higher the value the more rounded are the edges at the end. It should look like that now:
Click right on on this layer, apply Colors / Curves. At the top left set the channel to “Alpha”. After that move the point at the bottom left to the middle, the one top right move at the opposite direction, also towards the middle.
What happens here? The transparent part (the socalled alpha-channel) is moved together as far as possible until there is no half-transparent space left in the layer. The result of this is that there are either totally visible (100% transparency) pixels or totally invisible pixels (0% transparency).
Thats it! The final result should look like this:
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Degenerate art or Entartete Kunst From the 1920s and onwards the German Nazis applied the term Entartete Kunst to pretty much all art from the avant garde art movements. E.g. expressionism. But even more conventional and traditional art was considered wrong and deemed unhealthy for the public to view. Any art which did not conform to Nazi goals and agendas failed the test. Much art was thus considered non-German, perverse, Jewish, Bolschewik and Communist by the National Socialist party. In summary the art was accused of degenerating German culture to a primitive and and unhealthy state of affairs. Under direct supervision of Adolf Hitler, the art was confiscated and exhibited in Dresden, Weimar, Karlsruhe, Munich, Berlin and Stuttgart The sole aim of the exhibitions was large-scale defamation of the art to prevent further and irreversible damage of society. The idea was to educate the public by showing exactly how bad and damaging the art was. In reality the scapegoating and displaying of Enteartete Kunst helped create respect for the avant garde movements. Ironically, then, Hitler acted as a great PR campaigner for degenerate art, though he wanted to achieve the opposite. However, it was not all good news. The Nazis either pursecuted artists via Gestapo or disallowed them to work. Emil Nolde was officially banned from creating art, and much of Nolde’s work from period is called ‘unpainted paintings’. Emil Nolde’s water colours, drawings and oils were kept in hiding until the end of WW2. So-called degenerate artists were: Emil Nolde, Heinrich Zille, Ernst Barlach, Otto Dix to name but a few. See perhaps also article on expressionism.
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Doctor of History, researcher at ESPE Aix-Marseille and member of the teaching team at the Master of European Studies at Aix-Marseille University, Mauve Carbonell talks about the reasons that led to the resurrection of the European idea after World War II.
When did the idea of building a united Europe appear?
The idea of a united Europe as we know it today was developed in the 20th century. Up until 1945, it was marginal in the conceptions of the world put forward by States, political parties, intellectuals and society, although we can find some hints of a European consciousness among the 18th-century humanists or with Victor Hugo, who is often quoted for having mentioned the creation of the "United States of Europe" as early as 1849. The political project for European unity has its roots in the first half of the 20th century. After World War I, Count Richard Coudenhove-Kalergi founded the Pan-Europa movement, or the Paneuropean Union, calling for peace through the creation of a federation of European States. He influenced the French Minister Aristide Briand when he proposed the creation of a European union in 1929. The project did not see the light of day, but it was still one of the first pacifistic political attempts to unite the European States. After World War II, European federalist ideas took on new meaning and a new dimension. In 1948, the Hague Congress, under the honorary presidency of Winston Churchill, brought together over 800 pro-European militants (political personalities, journalists, trade unionists, etc.) and adopted several resolutions calling for the creation of a politically and economically united Europe. Above and beyond the ideological aspirations of part of the European élites, the international political and economic context was central to the concrete implementation of these ideas in the early 1950s.
What were the main motivations behind the resurrection of the "European idea" after the war?
World War II devastated the European continent. The bloody failures of the nationalist ideology pushed beyond its limits brought new ideologies to the fore, from Christian Democracy to Communism, which were founded on democracy, brotherhood, solidarity and freedom. The union of Europe was just one aspect among others in this ideological renewal. The decisive factor in the progression of pro-European ideas, above and beyond their ideological bases, lies in the international geopolitical context after 1945. Liberated by the Allied Armies in the West and by the Red Army in the East, the European continent was quickly divided into two opposing camps. In the West, where liberal democracy (re)occupied its rightful place, the Communist threat quickly replaced the fear of the Nazis. Countering the "red menace" became a necessity. An economically strong and politically stable Western Europe was seen as indispensable for the United States, the big winner of the war, and its allies. The United States offered its financial support to rebuilding Europe (Marshall Plan, 1947) on the condition that the States united and worked together to coordinate aid distribution, giving rise to the OEEC (Organisation for European Economic Co-operation). At the end of the 1940s, it was a question in the West of uniting Europeans, even though they were just coming out of a terrible conflict, to return to prosperity, peace and stability, and to contain Communism. In this context, pro-European ideas were not popular – anti-German feelings still ran strong in many countries – and were imposed from above, with European leaders speeding up the reconciliation process through the launch of European construction in 1950.
What were its founding acts ?
At the origin of a community-based Europe lies the proposal by French Minister of Foreign Affairs, Robert Schuman, to pool French and German coal and steel production in a supranational organisation. At the end of the 1940s, several European cooperation bodies (Organisation for European Economic Co-operation, Western Union Defence Organisation, Council of Europe) and regional economic integration organisations (Benelux) were formed. But the Schuman Declaration, the resulting Treaty of Paris of 18 April 1951 and the European Coal and Steel Community that came out of it gave a conception of Europe that went beyond simple cooperation between States. The founding of the ECSC was not at the origin of European ideas or achievements – other organisations came before it, but it was indeed the founding act of the European community and of institutions that still exist today within the European Union. A few years after the formation of the ECSC, the second founding act was the creation of the European Economic Community (EEC) by the Treaty of Rome in 1957 with the goal of establishing a common market between the Member States, of which there were six.
Who were the founding fathers of Europe?
We call the "founding fathers" of Europe those political leaders who worked in favour of post-war European unity, who took part in the first major steps in European construction and who, in their respective countries and with their fellow citizens, embodied the very idea of Europe. The duo Robert Schuman – Jean Monnet were the emblematic leaders, as they were behind the ECSC. We can mention other "founding fathers": German Chancellor Konrad Adenauer, Italian Premier Alcide de Gasperi, the head of the Luxembourg government Joseph Bech, Belgian Minister and MP Paul-Henri Spaak, Dutch Minister and diplomat Johan Willem Beyen, etc. They all took part in the first stages of European construction: the ECSC and the EEC. Other personalities were later included in the European "pantheon", such as the German Walter Hallstein. The "founding fathers", a legitimate and legitimising affiliation, were often showcased by the European institutions themselves. But the human component of the history of European construction is much wider and goes beyond the six countries present at the start of European construction: members of the ECSC's High Authority, European commissioners (EEC, then EU), Members of the European Parliament, Judges at the European Court of Justice, civil servants, diplomats, men and women in the community administration, etc., have been the basic building blocks of European venture through its successive expansions.
"Europe didn't happen. We ended up with war." said Robert Schuman in his speech on 9 May 1950. In what way is the idea of peace inseparable from European construction?
Peace, along with democracy, is the strongest value put forward by united Europe. In the past, the European continent had been the theatre of many wars and conflicts whose causes were territorial, economic, political and ideological. In the 20th century, the two world wars pushed human and material destruction to new heights. In 1945, the expression "never again" was taken up by all levels of society. The means for establishing lasting peace in Europe – an absolute condition for political and economic recovery – appeared to be few and far between, especially in the face of the international tensions related to the start of the Cold War; the fear of a Third World War was palpable. Starting with the Schuman Declaration, the idea of peace was put forward in European projects, even if they were mainly economic in nature: linking French and German coal and steel production, "the sinews of war" in the 20th century, would de facto prevent war from breaking out between France and Germany. Moreover, this was a way of reintegrating Germany into the concert of nations while controlling its (re)development. The European leaders involved in the process in the early 1950s emphasised the political promise of economic union: establishing peace, reconciliation, strengthening democratic Europe, a political union going all the way to a federation for some, etc.
Peace as a founding value of united Europe should, however, be analysed with care. Of course, peace between the States of Western Europe – for a long time just a small part of Europe – appeared to be ensured, but the European Union was unable to stop horrific conflicts from breaking out on the continent (wars in the former Yugoslavia in the 1990s) or on its borders (Ukraine), even today.
How was the ECSC the "first stage of the European federation"?
The Schuman Declaration and the ECSC that it brought about contained a fundamental ideological originality that help us to understand later developments in European construction. The very principals of the ECSC included abandoning part of national sovereignty in favour of the Community. Executive power was in the hands of a High Authority that was headquartered in Luxembourg, theoretically independent and in charge of decision-making, ensuring that its decisions are applied in a concern for the general welfare. The product of federalist ideas, the ECSC was, in Jean Monnet's mind, just a first step in gradual economic integration, by sector, that was to lead to a political federation. But in practice, the ECSC was quite alone in this and European construction took a very different direction after the failure of the European Defence Community project in 1954 and the ensuing change of course.
How do you explain the failure of the EDC in 1954? What were the consequences (economic integration/political integration)?
In 1950, the United States backed rearming the Federal Republic of Germany in the context of a worsening Cold War. Rearming the former enemy pure and simple was still unacceptable for France, which proposed creating a European defence system that would include Germany. In the wake of the Schuman Declaration, the Pleven Plan – named after French Prime Minister René Pleven – drawn up by Jean Monnet – was presented to the French National Assembly. The project was ambitious and was in keeping with the federalist line of the ECSC: an integrated European army headed by a European Minister of Defence. Following this proposal, there were heated debates in France and Western governments were mostly wary. The treaty signed in May 1952 created a European Defence Community (EDC) that was much less supranational than initially planned. Between the treaty's signing and the ratification vote at the National Assembly in 1954, there were constant quarrels between pro- and anti-EDCs, with the two sides being torn apart through the political debate, in the press, in intellectual circles and in society. The context changed in 1954 compared with the time at which the project and treaty were originally written: the death of Stalin and the end of the war in Korea reduced the Communist menace. French parliamentarians, starting with the Gaullists and the Communists, voted against the EDC on 30 August 1954. The project was subsequently abandoned. The main reason for this negative vote lies in the fear of resurgent German military might so soon after the war. The EDC's failure truly put a stop to European construction as initiated with the ECSC, especially as the project for a European Political Community, which was supposed to integrate the ECSC and the EDC over time, was also abandoned in 1953. In the end, the federalist orientation only really brought the ECSC project to fruition. Proposals were no longer on the agenda and the relaunch of European construction after 1955 concentrated joint efforts on the economy (the future EEC) and, to a lesser extent, energy (the future Euratom).
What were the consequences of the signature of the treaty establishing the EEC and the Euratom treaty in March 1957 in Rome?
European construction was relaunched in the mid-1950s after the failure of the EDC, taking form at the Messina interministerial conference in 1955. The conference's final resolution called for pursuing the construction of a united Europe "firstly in the economic field", through the creation of a common market. Two years later, the six ECSC countries signed a treaty establishing the European Economic Community (EEC) and the European Atomic Energy Community (EAEC or Euratom). The many differences between the EEC of 1957 and the ECSC of 1951 reflect the change of course of European construction that had intervened in just a few years, now less supranational. New institutions were set up: the European Commission and the EEC Council for the executive branch, with the parliamentary Assembly and the Court of Justice being common to the three Communities. Brussels was chosen to be the main seat of community institutions. The leading economic goal of the EEC was to establish a common market based on a customs union. The Treaty of Rome implanted the principles of the free movement of goods (common market), people, service and capital in the community's genes. Lastly, common policies were targeted: a common agricultural policy (CAP) and a common transport policy, which did not succeed. History will remember that the EEC was the ancestor of today's European Union, with successive treaties reinforcing and consolidating the community structure over time, widening the European Communities' fields of action despite the Member States' reticence at delegating their sovereignty.
The European Communities (the ECSC, the EEC and then the European Community, the EAEC or Euratom) did not become the "European Union" until 1992 with the Maastricht Treaty.
Articles of the review
After the war, what next for Europe?Once the guns had fallen silent, people had to learn how to live in peace again. International conferences were organised to establish a new global balance, but by 1947 Europe had been divided into two zones of influence. In the West, a group of politicians motivated by the same ideal nonetheless be...Read more
April 1948-September 1951: the Marshall PlanRead more
Creation of the UN
Seventy years ago, on 26 June 1945, the United Nations Charter was signed in San Francisco. This founding text of the new international institution joined by 51 countries was designed to ensure world peace and security after World War II.Read more
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What better way to share your feelings regarding your significant other than with a romantic love sonnet? Armed with a very basic knowledge of the sonnet, anyone can learn how to write one.
William Shakespeare made the sonnet famous, so famous that the most common form of sonnet is known as the Shakespearean sonnet. Writing a Shakespearean love sonnet may sound daunting and complicated, but anyone, especially someone in love, can write their way into that special someone’s heart.
Before you begin, consider the subject of the sonnet. While sonnets can be about anything or anyone, a love sonnet usually focuses on the significant person in the writer’s life, with special emphasis placed on their appearance, talents, strengths and any other characteristics the writer wants to focus on. Make a list of positive traits and other things you would like to mention before you begin writing your sonnet. Once you have your list, you will have your ideas in place so you can focus on following the sonnet form.
Once you have a focal point for your sonnet, along with a few things about your focal point, you need to familiarize yourself with the basic form of a sonnet. The Shakespearean sonnet is made up of fourteen lines in two sections. The first section is made up of three quatrains, or four line stanzas and a stanza is a group of lines in a poem. The first section of the sonnet presents the general theme or focal point of the poem and the second section is just a one-stanza couplet, or two lines that rhyme. The second section of the sonnet wraps up the the thought or theme presented in the first section, and puts a bow on it, so to speak.
Once you understand the form, should you decide to follow the Shakespearean form, try to capture the rhythm of iambic pentameter. If you write in iambic pentameter, your sonnet will sound especially nice read aloud since it will have a natural, almost musical rhythm to it.
An iamb is a rhythmic meter in a poem called a foot – each foot has two syllables, with the emphasis on the second syllable. An easy way to understand this emphasis is by saying, “Good bye” aloud. When you say it out loud, “good” is said a little quieter than “bye”, so it’s “Good BYE”. Another example is “to-DAY”. A line of iambic pentameter is made up of five feet, making each line in your sonnet ten syllables long. It may take some tapping and saying lines aloud to get a sense of the syllables and emphasis but eventually you’ll get a sense of how iambic pentameter sounds. You’ll probably discover that you already say a lot of things in iambic pentameter.
After figuring out the structure and the rhythm of the poem, the last technical aspect of writing a love sonnet is the rhyme scheme. In the first section, the rhyme scheme is a-b-a-b-c-d-c-d-e-f-e-f. Each letter in this line scheme represents the last word of a line that rhymes. For example, if the last word of your first line is “love”, the last word in third line would rhyme with the first, so you would pick something like, “above”, for example. The second and fourth lines’ last words would rhyme, and so on. With the second section, the couplets rhyme, therefore the last words follow a g-g scheme.
Try not to get discouraged if the rules and form of the traditional Shakespearean sonnet seem overwhelming. There is a lot to learn and understand but, with some practice, it will get much easier and it will seem like you have written sonnets throughout your life. Even if it takes a little extra effort, your sweetheart will notice and appreciate the hard work you put into giving him or her a unique, heartfelt Valentine’s gift.
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Wikijunior:Solar System/Space exploration
Space exploration — A long dream
Going into space was always one of the biggest dreams people had, even thousands of years ago. Many science fiction authors wrote about traveling in space even before the first airplane flight in 1903. One of the most famous science fiction books on space travel is From the Earth to the Moon by Jules Verne — it was written in 1865, more than one hundred years before the first person walked on the moon. Jules Verne's idea was to use a giant cannon! That might seem silly today, but it shows how much our ideas on space travel have changed.
The first exploration of space
Space begins about 100 km or 62 miles above the earth. A more realistic way to travel in space is with a rocket. Within a rocket is a controlled explosion. However, exhaust (things left over after burning) is only allowed to leave the rocket in one direction. As a result, the rocket is pushed in the other direction. In 1942, the German rocket A-4 became the first to reach that height, but it wasn't meant to do anything but fall straight down again and so wasn't terribly useful. Still, it was an advance in rocket technology.
The Soviets were the first to put anything in space that would stay up: they launched the Sputnik 1 satellite on October 4, 1957. Within a month, the Soviets launched Sputnik 2, and in that spacecraft was the first space traveler: a dog called Laika.
The launch of the Sputnik started the Space Race, a competition between the United States and the Soviet Union to obtain more and more advanced space technology. Americans were very surprised that the Soviets could have launched 'Sputnik', and began to design rockets and satellites of their own. The race would last for the next few decades.
A man in Space
On April 12, 1961, the first person was sent into space: Yuri Gagarin, a Soviet, riding in the spacecraft Vostok 1. The Soviets would send more people into space over the next few decades, and so would the Americans, but it wouldn't be until 2003 that another country would launch a spacecraft with a person in it: China, with the Shenzhou 5.
The race to the moon
At the beginning of the 1960s, American president John F. Kennedy made a famous speech in which he said that the U.S. was going to send people to the moon within the next 10 years. And that's what happened: in July of 1969, Neil Armstrong stepped off the there spacecraft and said "One small step for [a] man and one giant leap for mankind". He and Buzz Aldrin walked on the moon where they put an American flag. Their footprints are still there because there is no wind or water on the Moon to wash them away.
The Space Shuttle
After the Apollo program that sent people to the Moon, the U.S. built the Space Shuttle, that is like a jet-plane that can go to space and return! (With the help of rockets of course). The Space Shuttle helped construct the ISS (International Space Station) among another things.
The last space shuttle mission is on June 28 2011, but it will be replaced with new vehicles that will take mankind to the Moon, Mars, and beyond!
Spaceships of the future
Right now, spaceships are not very efficient. The Saturn V rocket was 363 feet tall, and it could only take people to the moon! To get people further, better rockets must be invented. One of the most popular ideas for a rocket is the antimatter rocket. This type of rocket collides a small amount of antimatter with an equal amount of normal matter to create a large amount of energy!
Other ideas for going into space, that don't need rockets, have been thought of by scientists and astronomers. One of these is a space elevator. A space elevator is basically a big lift into space. It will cost a lot less to get things up into space if a space elevator is built.
Another idea, a bit like the Jules Verne idea, is an electromagnetic catapult. This catapult works by accelerating the spaceship along a rail, similar to a maglev train. Unfortunately, the air on Earth would set spaceships on fire as they launched, but scientists aren't thinking of putting one there: one could go on the Moon! The catapult on the moon could send metal and other resources to Earth's orbit, where a space station could collect them.
Exploration beyond the Solar System
Many people dream of the day when humans can travel to another star and explore other worlds, some people wonder what's out there some belive that aliens or other life may live on another plant. But, if this ever does happen probably won't happen for a very long time. The stars are so spread out that there are trillions of miles between stars that are "neighbors". Maybe one day, your great grandchildren will be standing atop an alien world wondering about their ancient ancestors?
The eye beyond Earth
Many people say the very best invention ever (not just in space technology) was the Hubble space telescope (HST). Others say it's just the space station being selfish having the best technology in the world.
The Hubble Space telescope is a giant telescope that is in orbit around the Earth. Because there is no atmosphere, the Hubble Space Telescope has a clear view of even distant galaxies. One of the pictures the Hubble space telescope has made is called the 'Hubble Deep Field'. The Hubble Deep Field is a picture of some of the most distant galaxies, and it gives a snapshot of what the universe looked like when it was younger.
Even bigger telescopes are also in the planning, so we might be able to see right to the edge of the universe some day soon.
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Myelomeningocele is a birth defect in which the backbone and spinal canal do not close before birth.
The condition is a type of spina bifida.
Causes of Myelomeningocele
Normally, during the first month of a pregnancy, the two sides of the spine (or backbone) join together to cover the spinal cord, spinal nerves and meninges (the tissues covering the spinal cord). Spina bifida refers to any birth defect involving incomplete closure of the spine.
Myelomeningocele is a neural tube defect in which the bones of the spine do not completely form, resulting in an incomplete spinal canal. This causes the spinal cord and meninges (the tissues covering the spinal cord) to protrude from (stick out of) the child's back.
Myelomeningocele may affect as many as 1 out of every 4000 infants.
The rest of spina bifida cases are most commonly:
- Spina bifida occulta, a condition in which the bones of the spine do not close but the spinal cord and meninges remain in place and skin usually covers the defect.
- Meningoceles, a condition where the tissue covering the spinal cord protrudes from the spinal defect, but the spinal cord remains in place.
Other congenital disorders or birth defects may also be present in a child with myelomeningocele. Hydrocephalus may affect as many as 90% of children with myelomeningocele. Other disorders of the spinal cord or musculoskeletal system may be seen, including syringomyelia and hip dislocation.
The cause of myelomeningocele is unknown. However, low levels of folic acid in a woman's body before and during early pregnancy are thought to play a part in this type of birth defect. The vitamin folic acid (or folate) is important for brain and spinal cord development.
If a child is born with myelomeningocele, future children in that family have a higher risk than the general population. However, in many cases, there is no family connection.
Some theorize that a virus may play a role, since there is a higher rate of this condition in children born in the early winter months. Research also indicates possible environmental factors such as radiation.
A newborn may have a sac sticking out of the mid to lower back.
- Loss of bladder or bowel control
- Partial or complete lack of sensation
- Partial or complete paralysis of the legs
- Weakness of the hips, legs, or feet of a newborn
Other signs and/or symptoms may include:
- Abnormal feet or legs, such as clubfoot
- Build up of fluid inside the skull (hydrocephalus)
Tests and Exams
Prenatal screening can help diagnose this condition. During the second trimester, pregnant women can have a blood test called the quadruple screen. This test screens for myelomeningocele, Down syndrome, and other congenital diseases in the baby. Most women carrying a baby with spina bifida will have a higher-than-normal level of a protein called maternal alpha fetoprotein (AFP).
If the quadruple screen test is positive, further testing is needed to confirm the diagnosis.
Such tests may include:
- Pregnancy ultrasound
Myelomeningocele can be seen after the child is born. A neurologic examination may show that the child has loss of nerve-related functions below the defect. For example, watching how the infant responds to pinpricks at various locations may reveal where the baby can feel the sensations.
Tests done on the baby after birth may include x-rays, ultrasound, CT, or MRI of the spinal area.
Treatment of Myelomeningocele
Genetic counseling may be recommended. In some cases where a severe defect is detected early in the pregnancy, abortion may be considered. However, intrauterine surgery to close the defect (before the baby is born) is offered in some centers and appears to reduce the risk of some later complications.
After your baby is born, surgery to repair the defect is usually recommended within the first few days of life. Before surgery, the infant must be handled carefully to reduce damage to the exposed spinal cord. This may include special care and positioning, protective devices, and changes in the methods of handling, feeding, and bathing.
Children who also have hydrocephalus may need a ventriculo-peritoneal shunt placed. This will help drain the extra fluid from the ventricles (in the brain) to the peritoneal cavity (in the abdomen).
Antibiotics may be used to treat or prevent infections such as meningitis or urinary tract infections.
Most children will require lifelong treatment for problems that result from damage to the spinal cord and spinal nerves.
- Bladder and bowel problems: Gentle downward pressure over the bladder may help drain the bladder. Drainage tubes, called catheters, may be needed as well. Bowel training programs and a high fiber diet may improve bowel function.
- Muscle and joint problems: Orthopedic or physical therapy may be needed to treat musculoskeletal symptoms. Braces may be needed. Many patients with myelomeningocele primarily use a wheelchair.
Follow-up examinations generally continue throughout the child's life. These are done to check the child's developmental progress and to treat any intellectual, neurological, or physical problems.
Visiting nurses, social services, support groups, and local agencies can provide emotional support and assist with the care of a child with a myelomeningocele who has significant problems or limitations.
A myelomeningocele can usually be surgically corrected, but the affected nerves may still not function normally. (The higher the location of the defect on the baby's back, the more nerves will be affected.)
With early treatment, length of life is not severely affected. Kidney problems due to poor drainage of urine are the most common cause of death.
Most children with myelomeningocele will have normal intelligence. However, because of the risk of hydrocephalus and meningitis, more of these children will have learning problems and seizure disorders.
New problems within the spinal cord can develop later in life, especially after the child begins growing rapidly during puberty. This can lead to more loss of function as well as orthopedic problems such as scoliosis, foot or ankle deformities, dislocated hips, and joint tightness or contractures.
Many patients with myelomeningocele primarily use a wheelchair.
Complications of spina bifida may include:
- Traumatic birth and difficult delivery of the baby
- Frequent urinary tract infections
- Fluid build up on the brain (hydrocephalus)
- Loss of bowel or bladder control
- Low blood oxygen level in the baby
- Brain infection (meningitis)
- Permanent weakness or paralysis of legs
This list may not be all-inclusive.
When to Contact a Health Professional
Call your health care provider if:
- A sac sticks out of the spine of a newborn infant
- The child is late in walking or crawling
- Symptoms of hydrocephalus develop, including bulging soft spot, irritability, extreme sleepiness, and feeding difficulties
- Symptoms of meningitis develop, including fever, stiff neck, irritability, and a high-pitched cry
Prevention of Myelomeningocele
Folic acid supplements may help reduce the risk of neural tube defects such as myelomeningocele. It is recommended that any woman considering becoming pregnant take 0.4 mg of folic acid a day. Pregnant women need 1 mg per day.
It is important to remember that folic acid deficiencies must be corrected before becoming pregnant, because the defects develop very early.
Prospective mothers may be screened to determine the amount of folic acid in their blood.
Kinsman SL, Johnston MV. Congenital anomalies of the central nervous system. In: Kliegman RM, Behrman RE, Jenson HB, Stanton BF, eds. Nelson Textbook of Pediatrics. 19th ed. Philadelphia, PA: Saunders Elsevier; 2011:chap 585.
Adzick NS et al. A randomized trial of prenatal versus postnatal repair of myelomeningocele. N Engl J Med. Mar 2011; 364(11):993-1004.
|Review Date: 10/29/2013
Reviewed By: Kimberly G Lee, MD, MSc, IBCLC, Associate Professor of Pediatrics, Division of Neonatology, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC. Review provided by VeriMed Healthcare Network. Also reviewed by David Zieve, MD, MHA, Bethanne Black, and the A.D.A.M. Editorial team.
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Some constellations have split identities. Cygnus, for example, is known as both the swan and the Northern Cross. Others, such as Hercules, have split personalities; madness drove him to kill his family, then he spent years trying to atone by carrying out his famous 12 labors. But one constellation is just split: Serpens, the serpent, has two halves, separated by the serpent-bearer, Ophiuchus.
As night falls, the serpent stretches from due south to due west. It’s not much to look at, though — you need pretty dark skies to see many of its stars.
Binoculars or a telescope reveal a couple of impressive objects, though.
One is a globular star cluster known as M5, which looks like a fuzzy blob of light. It’s a tightly packed ball of stars about 25,000 light-years away. The stars are all quite old — as old as the Milky Way galaxy itself. And there are lots of them — at least a hundred thousand, and perhaps hundreds of thousands more.
The other object is a smaller star cluster and a surrounding nebula known as M16. It contains dozens of young stars, surrounded by the nebula of gas and dust that gave them birth, and that is still giving birth to more stars. The bright gas and dark dust form a pattern that gives the nebula a second name: the Eagle Nebula. But that same pattern is also responsible for yet another name, this one thanks to one of the most famous pictures from Hubble Space Telescope: the Pillars of Creation.
Script by Damond Benningfield, Copyright 2011
For more skywatching tips, astronomy news, and much more, read StarDate magazine.
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Kids love balloons and science experiments! How about putting the two of them together for a fun, science class? Your kids are sure to have a great time watching the fun chemical reaction while completing this science experiment!
1 Tablespoon (15 ml) bicarbonate of soda (baking soda)
3 Tablespoons (45 ml) vinegar
Empty plastic water bottle (500ml)
1. Attach the balloon to the funnel
2. Pour the bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) into the funnel and ensure that it goes into the balloon.
3. Rise the Funnel, make sure that all the bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) has been removed.
4. Using the funnel, pour the vinegar into the bottle
5. Twist the balloon and slip if over the mouth of the bottle without spilling the contents into the bottle. Make sure that it won’t slip off by slipping the top of the balloon over the lip.
6. Lift the balloon so that the bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) falls into the vinegar and watch the reaction fill the balloon with carbon dioxide.
Discuss what happens when the bicarbonate of soda (baking soda) and vinegar mix. You can read more about the chemical reaction in this experiment HERE.
Koko, 8 years old, loved doing this experiment. Watching his reaction to the balloon filling up with air was amusing.
When adding your filled balloon to the bottle, make sure it slips over the lip, or it will fly off and you’ll have bicarbonate of soda and vinegar everywhere. If this does happen, quickly slip the balloon over the lip again and and watch the balloon fill with the remainder of the carbon dioxide (it will not inflate, just lift a little). Alternatively, you can use an elastic to secure the balloon to the bottle.
What fun science experiments have your children enjoyed doing this year?
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This article was produced and financed by Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research
Climate change could lead to more Norwegian fruit
Norway is one of the northernmost countries where fruits and berries can be grown commercially. A warmer climate could provide better conditions.
Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research
This year, the fruit trees in Ullensvang in Hardanger blossomed one month earlier than the previous year
A mild winter and spring have caused the earliest blossoming in Norway for ten years, starting around the 22nd of April. Last year, the cherry trees did not blossom before 22nd of May, but this was considered a relatively late spring.
“A long time ago, back in my childhood, cherries and plums usually blossomed in mid-May,” says senior researcher Mekjell Meland from Bioforsk, the Norwegian Institute for Agricultural and Environmental Research.
“Apart from last year, blossoming has taken place in early May for the last few years, so people are starting to think of this as normal,” Meland says.
He points out that from a scientific position it is not possible to establish whether this is normal. What is considered normal is calculated from a period of 30 years, and the scientists do not currently have data going back that far.
However, it is not so long until they will have sufficient data to say something about what is normal. Throughout 25 years, Meland has recorded dates for bud break, flowering and defoliation of different fruit species and varieties.
Can present challenges
One of the benefits of early blossoming is that the growing season expands - but it can also present challenges.
“The flowers freeze when we get cold weather during blossoming. In the worst case scenario, this leads to little or no fruit,” says Meland.
This year, the night temperatures during the first days of May were low in fruit growing areas.
In Telemark, there were four nights with freezing temperatures, which means fruit farmers can expect some frost damage.
“We assume things are okay, but this remains to be seen later,” says the researcher.
In stores early
If the flowers avoid frost damage, consumers are likely to find Norwegian cherries and plums in stores earlier than usual.
According to Meland, it is difficult to predict when this will happen. However, the first plums which usually ripen in early August could be ready in late July this year, provided that the summer weather is good.
If the summer is cool, the head start is likely to be evened out.
Longer growing season gives more fruit
All in all, the effects of climate change on cherries and other fruit production in Norway are mostly favourable
According to Meland, a longer growing season will open up opportunities for growing a greater number of types and more demanding varieties. Better growing conditions and higher temperatures could also increase crops.
On the negative side, warmer temperatures could lead to greater problems with fungal diseases and insect attacks.
But Meland says he is still mostly optimistic on behalf of the Norwegian fruit producers.
“We have run cultivation trials with apricots and peaches here in Ullensvang. Currently, we they have been partly successful, but in the future we might be able to do it properly.”
Milder winters cause problems further south
The future outlook is not as positive for countries further south in Europe. Mild winters could result in a lack of blossoming.
“It is the countries furthest south that will have the greatest problems with fruit if the temperatures rise. In warmer locations, it will be necessary to develop varieties that require less cooling during winter and that can withstand more heat in the summer,” says Meland.
He explains that trees need a resting period to be able to develop the following spring. If the trees do not get a cooler period, they will not blossom.
“Fruit growers in Norway don’t think about this, as it is not a problem here - we have enough cold weather during winter.
Typically, trees require at least 1000-1500 hours below seven degrees Celsius in the winter in order to blossom normally in spring.
Climate database for European cherries
Bioforsk in Ullensvang is carrying out trials on different varieties of cherries and other fruit species such as apples, pears and plums. Unlike a lot of other fruits, cherries are unique in Norway in that the same cherry varieties can be cultivated here as in other places in the world, including French, Italian, American and Canadian varieties.
This is due to the short development time from blossoming to mature berries. The situation is, for example, the opposite with apples, which has a much longer development time from the blossoming to maturity and therefore requires varieties specifically adapted to Nordic conditions.
Recently, Meland gathered a delegation of 20 fellow researchers from 12 European countries, to discuss flower development in cherries in Europe.
The researchers shared experiences and began work on a common database for registering the blossoming and development of the same cherry types in various locations in Europe.
The database will also include climate modelling.
“Then we will be able to see, for instance, what impact there could be when the temperature rises with two degrees. It will help us to predict what problems could emerge through early blossoming and what we need to be prepared for,” explains Meland.
Translated by: Siri Elise Dybdal
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https://partner.sciencenorway.no/agriculture-agriculture--fisheries-bioforsk/climate-change-could-lead-to-more-norwegian-fruit/1402151
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en
| 0.957767 | 1,142 | 3.5 | 4 |
Definition - What does Recess mean?
Recess refers to a break in a trial or court proceeding. This break is usually short; it can be a matter of hours or days.
Recesses typically occur when there is need for someone involved in the trial to take a break. For example, there could be a family emergency in a plaintiff's family, or inclement weather could impact the trial.
Justipedia explains Recess
Recesses are sometimes confused with adjournments. However, the two are different. Unlike recesses, adjournments wrap up court proceedings.
A lawyer may request permission for a recess from the judge if they have a personal need for it, or if their client has a need for it.
During a recess, lawyers may attend to personal business, or may even go over the trial strategy. However, no official legal proceedings take place during a recess. They wait until the court is reconvened.
Improve Your Odds of Getting Compensation in Your Personal Injury Claim
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| 0.959484 | 203 | 3.5 | 4 |
Teething is a milestone in a child's development, but a troubling time for both babies and parents. As the first teeth emerge, babies may experience pain and swelling of the gums. The first set of teeth, the central incisors, either upper or lower, usually appear between the ages of 4 and 7 months. The teething process can last until the child reaches 3 years of age.
Some babies experience no pain while others suffer from pain that can last for weeks. Some methods to reduce the pain of teething include the following:
Early hygiene is important for healthy teeth development. It is recommended for children to see a dentist by the age of one, when they typically have 6 to 8 teeth.
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http://drtreys.com/Teething
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This report outlines findings from our survey exploring young people’s literacy-related interactions both within, and in relation to, video games. 4,626 young people aged 11 to 16 from across the UK took part in our survey through BounceTogether between November and December 2019.
We have also published a separate summary of findings from our surveys of young people and parents during the COVID-19 lockdown to capture any changes to young people’s behaviours around video game playing and literacy. Between May and early June 2020, we conducted a survey of 3,817 young people aged 11 to 18 and a survey of 826 parents of young people in this age group.
This research was conducted independently by the National Literacy Trust to support a new campaign from the charity, the Association of UK Interactive Entertainment (Ukie) and Penguin Random House Children’s to explore the relationship between video games and literacy engagement amongst school children.
Video games can provide young people with a route into reading and improve confidence in reading skills
- 4 in 5 (79.4%) young people who play video games read materials relating to video games once a month, including in-game communications (39.9%), reviews and blogs (30.5%), books (21.8%) and fan fiction (19.4%)
- 1 in 3 (35.3%) young people who play video games believe playing video games makes them a better reader
Video games can encourage young people’s creativity through writing
- 3 in 5 (62.5%) young people who play video games write something relating to video games once a month, including video game scripts (27.5%), advice to help other players (22.1%), fan fiction (10.8%) and blogs or reviews (8.0%)
The shared cultural experience of playing video games was found to support positive communication with friends and family
- 3 in 4 (76.3%) young people talk to their friends about video games compared with only 3 in 10 (29.4%) who discuss books
- Young people said that playing video games helps them to build social connections both ‘in real life’ and online
Video games can have potential benefits for increasing empathy
- 2 in 3 (65.0%) young people say playing video games helps them imagine being someone else
Video games can play a role in supporting young people’s mental wellbeing
- Many young people said that playing video games helps them either deal with, or escape from, stress and difficult emotions
- More than half (55.6%) of parents said their child had chatted with family and friends as part of playing a video game during lockdown
- 3 in 5 (59.6%) parents felt that communicating with family and friends as part of playing a video game during lockdown had been helpful for their child’s mental wellbeing during this time
The benefits of playing video games for young people’s literacy were found to be strongest for boys and reluctant readers
- Boys are much more likely to play video games than girls (95.6% vs 65.2%)
- Nearly twice as many boys than girls said they chatted with family and friends as part of playing a video game during lockdown (70.5% vs 39.7%)
- Almost 3 in 4 (73.1%) young people who don’t enjoy reading say playing video games helps them feel more part of a story than reading a book-based text
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<urn:uuid:f1ff9112-4a79-41d1-97b3-75a5473ba567>
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CC-MAIN-2021-31
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https://literacytrust.org.uk/research-services/research-reports/video-game-playing-and-literacy-survey-young-people-aged-11-16/
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en
| 0.973783 | 706 | 3.5 | 4 |
In 1917 the Social Democratic Workers' Party (Bolsheviks) had 200,000 members. The following year, Vladimir Lenin persuaded members to change the name of the organization to the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) .
Traditionally, the Party Congress elected a 27 member Central Committee every year. Lenin decided this was too large to determine policy and in 1919 the party created a Politburo. This was made up of five members (increased to nine in 1925 and ten in 1930). Its first members were Vladimir Lenin, Leon Trotsky, Joseph Stalin, Lev Kamenev and Nikolai Krestinsky.
There were over 700,000 members of the CPSU in 1921. At first the Politburo allowed free and open debate at party meetings. However, as a result of the Civil War, this policy changed. At the Party Congress in 1921 all factions such as the Workers' Opposition were banned. The following year all political parties other than the CPSU were closed down.
The CPSU was now all powerful. It controlled the government, which consisted of the Council of People's Commissars, headed by its chairman (who was prime minister). The CPSU also appointed all local and national public officials, who had to be members of the party before they could be appointed to these posts.
Gradually power passed from the Politburo to the General Secretary, who controlled the appointment of party members to key jobs throughout the country. Joseph Stalin, who became General Secretary in April, 1922, dominated the CPSU after the death of Vladimir Lenin in January, 1924.
In the 1930s Joseph Stalin instigated a series of purges against senior members of the CPSU. This included the removal of Leon Trotsky, Lev Kamenev, Gregory Zinoviev, Ivan Smirnov, Nikolai Yezhov, Nickolai Bukharin, Alexei Rykov, Genrikh Yagoda, Gregory Ordzhonikidze, Vladimir Antonov-Ovseenko, Nikolai Krestinsky and Christian Rakovsky from power. These men were either executed, assassinated, committed suicide, or died in labour camps.
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CC-MAIN-2017-09
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http://spartacus-educational.com/RUScp.htm
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| 0.976656 | 442 | 3.5 | 4 |
The scanning slit beam profiler moves two narrow orthogonal slits in front of a linear photo-detector through the beam under analysis. Light passing through the slit induces a current in the detector. Thus, as the slit scans through the beam, the detector signal is linearly proportional to the spatial beam irradiance profile integrated along the slit. A digital encoder provides accurate slit position. The photo-induced current signal is digitized and analyzed to obtain the beam profile in both X and Y from the two orthogonal slits.
The slit apertures act as physical attenuators, preventing detector saturation for most beam applications. High dynamic range amplification allows operation over many orders of magnitude in beam power.
From these profiles, important spatial information such as beam width, beam position, beam quality, and other characteristics are determined. This technique can accommodate a wide variety of test conditions. Because slit scanners measure beams at high powers with little or no attenuation, they are ideal to profile beams used in material processing.
Carbon dioxide (CO2) lasers are widely used in materials processing, and have a 10.6 micron wavelength that cannot be profiled with most cameras. Slit scanners, therefore, provide an convenient means of measuring high-resolution CO2 lasers with powers up to and exceeding 1000 watts.
Slit - Based Beam Propagation Analyzer M²
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CC-MAIN-2017-26
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http://www.ophiropt.com/laser--measurement/ru/beam-profilers/scanning-slit-based
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en
| 0.899171 | 281 | 3.5 | 4 |
This is a quick game for intermediate level students and above. I made it as a mingle for new students to get to know each other but over time it has shown that it’s a good exercise for practising the narrative tenses.
To download the handout click here.
The game starts with you telling your students a short story about yourself. The story can be true or made up. When you’ve finished ask your students, “Was that story true or was it a lie?” They discuss in pairs, then in feedback with the class they can ask you questions about the story before they decide. As they guess, ask for their reasoning. Once they’ve all guessed reveal if it was true, or not, and give a little more background detail to the story.
Each student is given a card like the one on the right. (the handout can be downloaded by clicking here)
There are six different cards with a total of 18 different story titles. Give students time to think up their stories and write some notes. At higher levels they should be prepared for follow up questions. The next part is a mingle: They stand up and find a partner, they exchange stories and guess if their partner’s story is true or a lie. Upper intermediate students and above should ask two or three follow up questions before they guess. (Students who prepare quickly can start the activity early but check that they have made some notes and are ready to tell their story.)
While students mingle, monitor for error correction at the end.
After every student has spoken to at least four people they return to their seats. Write one or more of the questions on the board for students to discuss:
- Whose story was the best/most interesting?
- Who fooled you with their lie?
- Who told a true story that you thought was a lie?
- Who do you think is the best liar in the class?
I like this activity because it gives students a reason to listen carefully to each other. Too often in a speaking exercise some students lose interest in what other people are saying. In this game they have to pay attention to listen for clues, so they can guess correctly. This also means that students have an active audience when they speak, which is more encouraging than a bored, expressionless partner.
Possible adaptations depend on whether the focus is on fluency, pronunciation or accuracy. It can be the foundation of a writing exercise, where students have to correctly use the present perfect (or whatever aspect you are focusing on). It can also be used as a ‘get to know you’ activity for new students in an advanced class without much need for preparation or note taking.
This is an optional step, before you play the game, for lower level groups or if your lesson has a specific grammar focus. After you’ve told your story once ask your students, “Was that story in the past, present or the future?” They should recognise that it took place in the past. You then ask them to listen to your story again, writing down every verb they hear in the past simple (substitute past continuous or past perfect if that is the focus of the lesson). Retell your story then students compare their notes in pairs and in class feedback you write them on the board, eliciting correct spellings, infinitives and if the verb is regular or irregular.
When you play the game you can keep score, by giving students points every time they guess correctly, but that isn’t necessary to give the game a competitive edge.
Thanks for reading!
Check out the front page, or use the search bar, to find dozens of games and activities on the site.
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https://teachinggamesefl.com/2015/09/20/is-it-true-story-telling-game-to-practise-narrative-tenses/
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| 0.961629 | 771 | 3.5 | 4 |
Indigenous knowledge and modern research can combine to generate valuable new information. That’s the findings of a new bicultural study published today in the European Geosciences Union’s journal Earth Surface Dynamics, which sets out a roadmap for how this can work in the area of geosciences.
“There are clear links between Indigenous knowledge and values with respect to geomorphology,” said Clare Wilkinson, a Ph.D. student at Te Whare Wananga o Waitaha | University of Canterbury, “but there is not much research that weaves these two cultural knowledge bases together.”
By pinpointing a range of tools relating to framework methodologies, the review paper provides pathways for the development of bicultural collaboration designed to ‘maintain the integrity and validity of both methodologies’.
Clare highlights the importance of oral histories. In the case of the Aotearoa New Zealand Palaeotsunami Database project, for example, details on tsunamis that occurred before official recordkeeping began can provide vital insight on these ‘potentially destructive mega-waves’.
“It is an exciting time to be a researcher and to play a part in increasingly important engagements with Indigenous culture and knowledge,” added Wilkinson.
Official UN SDG advocate, Hindou Oumarou Ibrahim, who is today’s Inside Ideas podcast with Marc Buckley, has a vision to grow support for both traditional knowledge and science to improve resilience to climate change especially for rural communities. Watch/listen now.
We are tracking information on online innovation challenges, funding calls, and initiatives dedicated to supporting cross-sector innovators impact the UN Global Goals. Sign up for our newsletter in the box below for all the latest on these.
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CC-MAIN-2020-50
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https://www.innovatorsmag.com/bicultural-collaboration-roadmap/
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en
| 0.876807 | 365 | 3.5 | 4 |
Text of Amendment:
No soldier shall, in time of peace be quartered in any house, without the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to be prescribed by law.
In the years leading up to the American Revolution, private citizens were required to house British soldiers in their own homes. Given the tension that existed between British soldiers and colonial citizens, this was an unpleasant situation that the founding fathers did not want to repeat.
- See also: Why the Fathers Founded
Right to Privacy:
The Third Amendment was one of the amendments cited in Griswold v. Connecticut (1965) as evidence that the Constitution protects an implicit right to privacy.
The Posse Comitatus Act of 1878 prohibits federal troops from engaging in domestic operations except when authorized to do so by Congress or the Constitution. Although the Third Amendment does not directly address the principle of posse comitatus, it does provide a natural ideological precedent to it.
Engblom v. Carey (1982):
The Third Amendment has never been enforced by the U.S. Supreme Court, but was once addressed by the 2nd Circuit Court of Appeals. In Engblom v. Carey, the circuit court held that the State of New York had violated the rights of prison guards who had been evicted from their on-site residences and replaced by National Guard troops after going on strike.
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http://civilliberty.about.com/od/equalrights/p/3rd_amendment.htm
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en
| 0.971372 | 287 | 3.5 | 4 |
The City of New York is sinking from the weight of its buildings, slowly, into the sea.
That was the conclusion reached by a geological research team at the University of Rhode Island led by geologist Tom Parsons of the US Geological Survey in a study whose findings were published last week in the journal Earth’s Future.
“New York City faces accelerating inundation risk from sea level rise, subsidence, and increasing storm intensity from natural and anthropogenic causes,” the research team wrote.
The study finds that New York is sinking at a rate of 1-2 millimeters each year; but some parts of the city are sinking even faster, at a rate like that of tectonic plates rebounding when glaciers melt.
The phenomenon is called “subsidence,” a gradual settling or sudden sinking of the Earth’s surface, according to Science Alert. It occurs when soft sediments shift, or when loads bearing down on the ground push it deeper.
To reach their conclusion, the research team calculated the cumulative mass of the more than one million buildings in New York City, weighing 1.68 trillion pounds (764 billion kilos). The weight of paved surfaces such as roads, sidewalks, bridges, railways and other structures was not included.
They divided the city into a grid of 100×100 meter squares, and converted the building mass to downward pressure, including the effect of the pull of gravity.
The team then compared the models with satellite data measuring land surface height and mapped its subsidence estimates across the city.
The study is not the first to examine the subsidence in the city. A 2022 study of 99 coastal cities around the world found that subsidence could pose even a bigger problem than sea-level rise. “New York is emblematic of growing coastal cities all over the world that are observed to be subsiding,” the research team wrote.
But it builds on prior research by refining those observations by also considering the complex surface geology beneath the city – comprised mostly of sand, silt, clay lake deposits and bedrock outcrops.
Artificial landfill and clay-rich soils are particularly prone to subsidence, the researchers note, adding that more than eight million people live in New York City, which is sinking at one to two millimeters per year, “while the sea level rises.”
Parson warns the cumulative weight will eventually sink the city into the surrounding sea, adding that the problem is not exclusive to New York.
“The point of the paper is to raise awareness that every additional high-rise building constructed at coastal, river, or lakefront settings could contribute to future flood risk, and mitigation strategies may need to be included,” the researchers wrote.
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<urn:uuid:d3fec874-d695-4f16-a905-ffef7ec78943>
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CC-MAIN-2023-23
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https://www.jewishpress.com/news/us-news/ny/study-new-york-city-sinking-under-its-own-weight/2023/05/18/
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en
| 0.947193 | 565 | 3.5 | 4 |
People will have different opinions about what is funny and what isn’t; what makes them laugh and what doesn’t. But we do know that humour and laughter exist, so the mysterious question surrounding this fact is: how did they evolve? Is there really some evolutionary advantage to finding ‘humour’ (however you define it) in social and imaginary situations, and laughing as a consequence?
Alastair Clarke, in The Faculty of Adaptability, has proposed an evolutionary explanation of humour called Pattern Recognition Theory. As he explains:
The theory is an evolutionary and cognitive explanation of how and why any individual finds anything funny. Effectively it explains that humour occurs when the brain recognizes a pattern that surprises it, and that recognition of this sort is rewarded with the experience of the humorous response, an element of which is broadcast as laughter.
The strength of this theory is that it recognises how crucial pattern recognition has been for the human species. Clarke goes on to state:
An ability to recognize patterns instantly and unconsciously has proved a fundamental weapon in the cognitive arsenal of human beings. The humorous reward has encouraged the development of such faculties, leading to the unique perceptual and intellectual abilities of our species.
Thus, according to Clarke, enjoying humour and laughing as a consequence, is a pleasurable reward which further develops our ability to detect patterns.
Clarke also speculates about whether infant forms of humour (i.e. ‘peek-a-boo’) actually facilitates the cognitive development of the child, or whether this humour is simply a sign of pattern recognition. Perhaps games such as ‘peek-a-boo’ actually help to train the infant mind to recognise more complex patterns in the future. A strange consequence of Clarke’s theory is that there is now the possibility of training artificial intelligence (AI) to develop a sense of humour. If humour and the response of laughter depend on pattern recognition, there is no reason (except computational limitations) why a machine cannot be ‘surprised’ by patterns in the same way we are.
Clarke claims that stand-up comedy regularly involves the “it’s so true” kind of humour. The individual may be surprised to hear a comedian talking in public about a taboo subject or describing a situation which the audience has experienced, but has never heard articulated before. It’s the pattern – the similarity between the comedian’s story-telling and the mental image in the individual’s mind – that underlies the humour and laughter. On the subject of sarcasm, Clarke says, “[it] functions around a basic pattern of reversal, otherwise known as repetition in opposites.”
However, Clarke does recognise how humour can be very particular to the individual in question; as he concludes:
Pattern Recognition answers how and why we find things funny, but it can not say categorically what is funny since no content can be inherently more or less funny than any other. The individual is of paramount importance in determining what they find amusing, bringing memories, associations, meta-meaning, disposition, their tendency to recognize patterns and their comprehension of similarity to the equation. But the theory does offer a vital answer as to why humour exists in every human society.
The theory can, therefore, explain why humour and laughter exist, not necessarily why a particular joke is funny to a particular individual.
Clarke’s theory, although without its evolutionary context, was proposed quite far back in the past. Francis Hutcheson wrote in Thoughts on Laughter (1725) that laughter is a response to the perception of incongruity (a mismatch between what is expected and what the result is, which you could call the ‘surprise factor’). This is known as Incongruity Theory, not too dissimilar from Clarke’s Pattern Recognition Theory. This theory was also proposed by the German philosophers Immanuel Kant and Arthur Schopenhauer.
The idea that laughter is a reward for spotting a pattern is also indicated by the effect that laughter has on our brain. Dr Lee Berk and colleagues in the 80s found that laughter helps the brain to regulate the stress hormones cortisol and epinephrine. They also discovered a link between laughter and the production of antibodies and endorphins, which are the brain’s natural painkillers. Neurological studies have revealed that levels of dopamine, the ‘reward hormone’ that gives us feelings of pleasure, are increased during laughter. Since dopamine is also responsible for regulating mood, attention, learning and motivation, this seems to support the notion that humour and laughter can be adaptive strategies, increasing our likelihood of survival and reproduction.
Three researchers, Hurley, Dennett and Adams, published a book called Inside Jokes: Using Humor To Reverse-Engineer the Mind (2011), in which they offer a similar explanation to Clarke. They argue that humour evolved because it strengthens the ability of the brain to detect mistakes in the beliefs that we hold. It develops our ability to detect mistaken reasoning, which is useful in terms of practical problem-solving.
Another interesting theory on the origins of humour is called Benign Violation Theory. It is laid out in a paper called Benign Violations: Making Immoral Behaviour Funny, published in Psychological Science by researchers Peter McGraw and Caleb Warren. The theory says that anything that threatens one view of “how the world ought to be” (the ‘surprise factor’ again), whilst simultaneously being benign (harmless) will be funny.
From an evolutionary perspective, the most basic forms of humour are those which imitate physical threats, such as play-fighting and tickling. Play-fighting has been observed in other species, such as chimps, suggesting that they have some basic sense of humour (they certainly derive enjoyment from it). As humans evolved, situations that invoked humour expanded from physical threats to other harmless violations of how the world ought to be. This would have included violations of personal dignity (slapstick, teasing), linguistic norms (puns), social norms (strange behaviour, taboo subjects) and moral norms (disrespectful behaviour). What one considers ‘benign’ will vary depending on the individual’s belief system (i.e. religious convictions may prevent someone from finding humour in jokes about that individual’s particular religion).
There is most likely some truth to all of these theories and when taken collectively, help to elucidate the origins of humour and laughter. There is also the idea that humour evolved as part of sexual selection. Psychologists Eric Bressler and Sigal Balshine conclude that a sense of humour will increase a man’s chances of being successful with women. Their paper, titled The Influence of Humor on Desirability (published in Evolution and Human Behaviour) can be found here. They found that men expressed no preference for funny women and that women tend to choose funnier men as partners. In all scenarios except friendship, men chose women who would laugh at their jokes, while women selected men who would make them laugh. Christopher Hitchens expanded on this point in his rather controversially titled article Why Women Aren’t Funny. Hitchens stressed the argument again in a YouTube video called Why Women Still Aren’t Funny. But, of course, not everyone will be amused by his outlook.
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CC-MAIN-2018-43
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https://www.samwoolfe.com/2013/08/0-0-1-1161-6622-sam-woolfe-55-15-7768-14.html
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| 0.95178 | 1,521 | 3.5 | 4 |
The History of Black families began before the civil war. Those families still have descendants living in Alexandria, Virginia. This section will cover the history of those families and their descendants.
George L. Seaton
George and Lucinda were freed people of colored in the early 1800. Lucinda was a former slave of General George Washington. George and Lucinda had the following children: George Lewis, Adolphus, Thomas, Hannah, Mary Ann, Catherine, Lucinda, Sarah, Martha, Laura and John Andrew. George, Sr., was a builder and a large real estate holder.
In 1865 in Ward 4, George, Sr.’s estate was taxed on the following properties:
George Seaton’s estate paid taxes on two houses and lots on Washington Street for $500 and five houses and lots at Franklin & Washington Streets for $2000. Also taxes were paid on two houses and lots on Gibbon Street $1000; a house and a lot at St. Asaph and Wolfe Streets for $2500; and a lot at Washington and Gibbon Streets for $600 along with furniture and a clock.
George and Lucinda’s son George Lewis Seaton was the first African-American state legislator. He was a master carpenter, grocer, and real estate developer, and he was a founder of the Colored Odd Fellows. He also built an Odd Fellows Hall in the “Bottoms,” that African Americans used as a meeting place. He was the founder of the Free School Society of Alexandria and built the first two black public schools. The Schools was called Seaton School for Boys, and later the name changed to Snowden School and the Hallowell School for Girls.
With his brother Adolphus, he built many homes in the Hayti and the Bottoms area and rented them out.
George was a member of Alfred Street Baptist Church. He fought for the advancement of African Americans in the area of education, politics and financial freedom. He also operated a grocery store in Hayti and spearheaded the formation of the Colored Building Association and Colored YMCA. George and his brother John Andrew, a Republican Alderman, were active in the Fourth Ward Radicals.
George, Jr., died in 1881 at his home at 404 South Royal Street. His family lived in that house until 1927.
You can find more information about George L. Seaton in “The Life and Times of George Lewis Seaton” by Peter Bernstein. The publication is Alexandria Archaeology Publication Number 121 and you can order it at http://alexandriava.gov/Archaeology.
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https://theotheralexandria.com/black-people-of-alexandria/
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en
| 0.977426 | 537 | 3.5 | 4 |
Many Uses of Tropical Flora and Fauna
SCIENTISTS learn more about how to use tropical plants and animals every year. The most sophisticated researchers have managed to extract a single gene from a tropical plant - for example, one that determines resistance to a certain pest - and breed it into established domesticated plants used in the United States.
Central America is particularly rich in genes used in modern food. Corn, squash, avocado, tomatoes, beans, cacao, and cassava, among others, originated in the region.
Genes from wild varieties, which have managed to survive without the help of man, are especially valuable in producing new hybrids having improved yields and pest resistance.
``We need to think about the diversity of genes we don't know anything about,'' says Karel R. Schubert, a Washington University biologist whose genetic research concentrates on a tropical palm found in Central America. ``That's why we are concerned about the conservation of genetic resources.''
The processes of identifying tropical plants and animals and tapping their genetic potential is just beginning. Scientists may have collected only 30 percent of the wild species of corn, 5 percent of yams and cassava, and 1 percent of sweet potatoes, according to Donald Plucknett, a science adviser at the World Bank.
Traditional healers use about 10 percent of known flowering plant species, according to pharmacologist Dorothy Bray. ``Only 2 percent have been chemically examined.''
Recent discoveries of new species may result in naturally caffeine-free coffee, perennial corn, or cures for AIDS. But breeding takes time. It was nearly 20 years before genes from a wild species of South American tomato successfully produced a new large tomato that, some estimate, is worth $8 million a year to US commercial farmers.
Meanwhile, concerns continue to mount that deforestation and other pressure on ecosystems will wipe out irreplaceable genetic material. Experts talk of tropical forests and woodlands disappearing every year at a rate of 42,000 square miles, an area more than twice the size of Costa Rica.
Estimates of species loss range from one an hour (about 175,000 over a 20-year period) to a 1980 National Research Council calculation of 1million by the end of the century.
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Fecundity refers to the potential number of children a woman can have. Fertility rate, on the other hand, refers to the actual number of children a woman has. Fecundity is the reproductive capacity; the maximum number of live births calculated to be possible in a given population. Fecundity can also mean the capacity for making productive or fertile. Superfecundity is the ability to store another organism's sperm after copulation and fertilize its own eggs from that store after a period of time. Superfecundity gives the impression as though fertilization occurred without sperm, called parthenogenesis. The terms fecundity and fertility, and similarly fecundation and fertilization, have commonly been used interchangeably.
Fecundity in the female may be potential (the sum total of ova capable of being produced by the ovary), actual (the ova actually matured and discharged) and observed (the ova of which there is visible evidence, as by the production of eggs or young). The ability to produce offspring is defined by Pearl and Surface as fertility, and in mammals this is the same as observed fecundity. Embryological evidence from a number of forms indicates that, in most if not in all cases, actual fecundity is somewhat greater than the observed.
The discrepancy is probably not so great, however, but what the number of offspring produced make a fair measure of fecundity. - Sarah V. H. Jones and James E. Rouse, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wisconsin in The Relation of Age of Dam to Observed Fecundity in Domesticated Animals, I. Multiple births in Cattle and Sheep.
Educational Differences in Impaired Fecundity and the
Utilization of Infertility Services
Song, Seung-Eun. and Cho, Youngtae
Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Sociological Association
Abstract: This study examines the association between education and the fecundity status and the use of infertility services among the fecundity-impaired population, based on data from the 1995 National Survey of Family Growth. We find the strong and gradient relationship between education and impaired fecundity status, and that association is even greater with the utilization patterns of infertility care. That is, impaired fecundity is much common among the less educated, while the more educated are much more likely to receive medical care for infertility problems. And, the result shows that educational attainment affects impaired fecundity through altered lifestyles and its effect on income and insurance status which, in turn, determine access to infertility services.
Does malnutrition affect fecundity? A summary of evidence
- J Bongaarts
Moderate chronic malnutrition has only a minor effect on fecundity, and the resulting effect on fertility (actural reproduction) is very small. Among the fecundity components examined here in noncontracepting populations, age at menarche and the duration of lactational amenorrhea appear to be the ones most affected by malnutrition.
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Some findings break the rules of what we consider history. Recent testing of the Shigir Idol, a wooden statue found in 1894 in a peat bog near the Russian city of Yekaterinburg is re-writing history. It is also reminding us that there is much we don’t know about our past.
The 5 meter wood statue is covered in carvings of faces and zig-zag lines, and made from a single log. Originally dated at being 9500 years old in 1990, newer dating methods put it at a staggering 11,500 years ago. Now that may not sound that impressive, but consider that that conventional theories put the oldest Egyptian pyramids at only about 5000 years ago.
An additional point of interest is that the dating of the Shigir Idol to 11,500 years ago, puts it right at the end of the Younger Dryas period, when forests were expanding again in the northern hemisphere and temperatures were warming again.
The unanswered question is what was the purpose of the Shigir Idol. People of that time were thought to be nomadic hunter gatherers, so what would be the purpose of erecting a wooden effigy. One theory is that the height and zig-zag lines make it a good boundary marker or warning of some kind. But what could have been there that was important enough or dangerous enough for people to fashion a statue?
Were our ancestors just marking their territory, or were they marking the bog lands as dangerous. Perhaps something lived in those swampy places they didn’t want to run into. Most native histories have stories of “hairy men” that live in the forest. Maybe this is their way of telling other people not go enter these swamps because it is someone else’s territory. Likely we will never know.
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American Birth Control League
American Birth Control League (ABCL), organization that advocated for the legalization of contraception in the United States and promoted women’s reproductive rights and health from its creation in 1921 by Margaret Sanger, the founder of the American birth control movement. The first such organization in the United States, the American Birth Control League (ABCL) was a precursor of the Planned Parenthood Federation of America, founded in 1942.
Sanger summarized the values of the ABCL in “Principles and Aims of the American Birth Control League,” which appeared as an appendix to her book The Pivot of Civilization (1922). There she asserted that a woman’s right to control her body is central to her human rights, that every woman should have the right to choose when or whether to have children, that every child should be wanted and loved, and that women are entitled to sexual pleasure and fulfillment. Accordingly, the ABCL would, among other activities, promote research on the relation of “reckless breeding” to infant mortality, juvenile delinquency, and other problems; provide instruction in “harmless and reliable” methods of birth control; educate the public regarding the “moral and scientific soundness” of birth control; lobby for the repeal of state and federal laws that impede the practice of birth control; establish branch organizations and birth control clinics in every U.S. state; and cooperate with similar organizations in other countries with the aim of alleviating international problems such as overpopulation, food shortages, and “national and racial conflicts.”
The ABCL also directed the activities of the Clinical Research Bureau, the first legal birth control clinic in the United States, which Sanger founded in 1923. In 1928 Sanger resigned her presidency (from 1921) of the ABCL and left the organization to assume full control of the clinic, which she dissociated from the ABCL and renamed the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau.
The ABCL’s efforts produced a significant change in 1936 when an appellate court judge liberalized the Comstock Act as it applied in New York, Connecticut, and Vermont. The following year the American Medical Association (AMA) recognized birth control as an integral part of medical practice and education. In 1939 the ABCL rejoined the Birth Control Clinical Research Bureau to form the Birth Control Federation of America. The latter organization became the Planned Parenthood Federation of America in 1942.
The official organ of the ABCL was The Birth Control Review, which Sanger founded in 1917 and edited until 1929. The journal ceased publication in 1940.
Learn More in these related Britannica articles:
Contraception, in human physiology, birth control through the deliberate prevention of conception or impregnation. The link between pregnancy and a man’s semen was dimly understood even in ancient times, so that the earliest contraceptive methods involved preventing semen from…
Margaret Sanger, founder of the birth control movement in the United States and an international leader in the field. She is credited with originating the term birth control.…
Birth control, the voluntary limiting of human reproduction, using such means as sexual abstinence, contraception, induced abortion, and surgical sterilization. It includes the spacing as well as the number of children in a family. Birth control encompasses the wide…
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Assume for this essay that your audience is familiar with the play, so summary is necessary only as it serves as evidence for a claim the essay is making. It can be a truly meaningful pleasure to study sophocles' masterpiece 'antigone' with students the essay topics in this lesson are designed to. Objectives: students will be able to demonstrate their understanding of the overall meaning of the play, antigone, through character analysis. Through antigone, the play, sophocles lets it be known that family is more important than authority antigone, ismene, creon, and haemon were a good related family. Antigone moral dilemma essay question in the play antigone by sophocles' is the value of human law vs divine law in this tragic play a newly appointed king creon. Antigone essay - the leading student writing website review questions for essays in antigone after reading quizzes nonconformist essay keywords.
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Since the rise of environmental awareness, business and industry have always considered environmentalism a waste of time, only getting in the way of profits and production. From the perspective of business, environmentalists push for regulations and restrictions on businesses which cost them more money and frequently restrict some of their practices. What business an the economy doesn't know is that they can actually save money by being environmentally responsible, while protecting the very resources they depend on . The protection of the environment
not only has intrinsic value
, but also economical value. Business and industry, can also benefit. These factors can lead to a newly developed economy that protects what it needs instead of destroying it. Despite historical differences between advocates of business and the environment, the fact is the two can and must utilize eachother for the future success of both.
It is important, in order for the economy to see the environment worth something, to put an economic value on it. For this reason, a group of scientists for the Center for Social and Economic Research on the Global Environment have developed an economic valuation for the environment. According to them, it is necessary to impute a value to environmental goods or services (Pearce et al, online). This value is necessary because the economy needs to see that the protection of the environment can prove cost worthy to business and industry. The purpose of valuation is to show true costs of using up scarce environmental resources. It is a way for environmentalists and economists to put a dollar figure on the services the environment provides. Robert Costanza, an ecological economist from the University of Maryland, has done just this. The estimate of services provided by ecosystems worldwide is 33 trillion dollars annually, surpassing the gross national product
of al the countries on earth combined by eight trillion dollars (Zimmer 105). The environment provides services not only commercially, such as timber, but also in less visible ways. For instance, forests protect from soil erosion, which proves costly to correct. With these facts in mind, depleting ecosystems an resources proves costly, while protection them can only save money.
Business and the American economy has much to gain by altering their current practices. One prime example of how protection the environment can prove beneficial to a company is a program created by 3M called Pollution Prevention Pays. This program creates incentives to prevent hazardous and toxic wastes by changing processes, redesigning equipment, and recovering waste for reuse or recycling. Since the program was designed in 1975, 3M has been able to save over $537 million, while reducing its air pollution by 10,000 tons, its wastewater by one billion gallons and its solid waste by 410,000 tons (Hawken 61). This is one example of a business making money fro preventative waste, while becoming environmentally responsible. While at the same time, not being environmentally responsible can cause businesses to lose money. The cost of cleaning up waste can be extremely expensive, while reducing waste and recycling can prove worthwhile. From a surface view, it would appear that the American economy doesn't need to make any change to its current practices. After all, the U.S. is one of the wealthiest nations in the world. The problem rests in the foundation of the economy. America was founded on and flourishes because of its natural resources, most of them non-renewable. These resources, such as petroleum, natural gas an timber, will run out someday, it is inevitable. Research of programs to prevent this or to incorporate alternate forms of energy have barely been researched. Perhaps the reason for this is that actions that deplete lands an species are rewarded in the market, because they are less expensive, while actions that preserve them are not (Schuss and Western 329). It is much less expensive, for instance, to buy a car that is fueled by gasoline than to buy a car that runs on hydrogen, even though hydrogen is a renewable resource an produces barely any waste.
As Paul Hawken, an environmentalist and author of "Ecology of Commerce", explains, "the single most damaging aspect of the present economic system is that the expense of destroying the earth is largely absent fro prices set at the marketplace" (13). Market prices set for products don't include the cost that future generations will have to pay to clean up the mess the current economy is fueling right now. An economy based on the rapid depletion of its own non-renewable resources is certainly destined for doom, while protection of these resources will save the businesses or corporations money while protecting what fuels it.
Hawken, Paul. "Ecology of Commerce". HarperCollins Publishing. 1993.
Pearce, David, Hadker, Nandidn, Whittington, Dale, and Dominic, Moran. "Economic Values and the Environment in the Developing World". http://unep.unep.org/unep/products/eeu/ecoserie/ecso14/ecos141.htm.
Schug, Mark, C. and Western, Richard, D. "An Economic Perspective on Protecting the Environment". Social Education v61 n6. October 1, 1997. Pgs 329-330.
Zimmer, Carl. "The Value of the Free Lunch". Discover. January 1998. Pgs. 104-105.
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Waste management in Antarctica
Students can investigate how waste is managed in Antarctica, and how can Antarctica be used as a model for managing waste in other environments.
One of the ways Australia has attempted to minimise the environmental impact of its activities in Antarctica has been to put in place stringent waste management practices. Landfill rubbish tips at all Australian stations were closed in the 1980s and a dedicated clean-up programme to remove waste from these sites has seen most station tips largely cleared.
Waste management on station
To reduce the amount of waste on station, the Antarctic Division actively promotes waste minimisation strategies.
A number of products are supplied in bulk or concentrate. For example, expeditioners receive only powdered cow, soy and coconut milks, and only concentrated forms of soft drinks and fruit juices. Since the introduction of these cordial drinks, use of plastic bottles has been reduced by 25,000 each year!
On station, waste is sorted into three categories:
- return to Australia (RTA) for landfill.
Other station waste management measures include the following:
- to reduce bulk, recyclable aluminium cans are crushed and stored securely for RTA
- burnable waste, such as foodstuffs and paper, is incinerated on station
- to reduce the likelihood of wind-blown debris, station 'rubbish-runs' use cages fitted to the back of vehicles
- waste water (grey water and sewage) is treated before discharge into the sea
- waste management audits are undertaken each year at every station - expeditioners are encouraged to log hazards or suggestions resulting from these audits, and their suggestions are used to improve the system.
Waste management in the field
Human waste and grey water
The aim is to return all waste from the field, including human waste. There are some exceptions, such as on Macquarie Island, where human waste can be deposited directly into the sea.
Special containers are provided to assist in the return of waste from the field.
Frozen urine and grey water is returned to the waste treatment plant to thaw and go through the system.
Australia maintains a number of permanent field huts and periodic clean-ups are organised to maintain, clean and replenish the huts. This includes the removal of accumulated waste back to station for recycling, incineration or RTA.
During the 2005-06 summer, a number of old fuel drums near the Beaver Lake tide crack were also cleaned up. Most have now been returned to station.
- Have students collect their household garbage for a day. They should discuss the types of waste they will collect and sort them into categories such as compost, plastic, aluminium, paper or other. The students can then weigh each of the categories of waste to find how much waste, and the proportion of each waste category, their family produces.
- The class can collect household waste on another day of the week, sort into categories and weigh the categories and average the results. They can then compare the results of the two days and discuss why the results were different. The class could then look at their collective total and estimate the total garbage generated over the year by the number of households in the school.
- Once the rubbish has been collected, the students could look at recycling options in their community for the various categories of waste. They could suggest the need to recycle something that is not being recycled at present and say why it would be good to recycle it. An example of this might be a product that is produced in some volume and is not biodegradable.
- Nothing rots in Antarctica! Students could look at Mawson's abandoned possessions at Cape Denison. They could find out which of Mawson's possessions are in the best state of preservation and suggest why this would be the case.
- Students can survey the use-by date, and the storage requirements, of different foods and predict how well they'd store in Antarctic conditions.
- The class could debate whether things left behind in Antarctica by previous explorers are waste or historical artefact. Wilkes station was abandoned in 1969 and a decision needs to be made on whether to partly or wholly remove it, or to preserve it as part of the cultural heritage of Antarctica. The debate can lead into a discussion of how an item of waste becomes transformed into a significant cultural artefact. What criteria are useful? What values are considered?
- Students could investigate the packaging that comes with various foodstuffs. Working in groups, the groups could each select a particular type of food, such as breakfast cereals, biscuits, potatoes, oranges, bread, milk, meat, cheese and chocolate. The groups could then estimate the waste generated by a kilo of the food. The groups would then share their results with the class and decide which food has the most wasteful form of packaging. Students may work out the weight ratios of packaging to content for each of the foods.
- Teachers could use the example of packaged cheese to help the class discuss the environmental friendliness of packaging. The class could compare the packaging of a block of cheese with individually wrapped slices. From there, the class could compare volumes, packaging constituents, convenience and cost of production of the different methods of packaging cheese. Extension activities could include interviewing packaging manufacturers about alternative packaging. Read this article on excessive packaging.
- Students could discuss whether things should be taken to Antarctica that cannot be removed. For example, should concrete be used for Antarctic buildings? Read information on Australia's waste management practices in Antarctica.
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New parts for old
Many organs and tissues are now routinely transplanted from one human to another. Except for the rare cases where the donor and recipient are monozygotic ("identical") twins, such grafts are called allografts.
- Living donors can be used because they have two kidneys and can get along with only one.
- For patients with failing hearts (often because of inherited defects). Only cadavers can be used as donors.
- Usually transplanted along with a heart. Some attempts have been made with portions of lungs from living donors.
- For people with Type 1 diabetes mellitus.
- For irreversible liver failure (e.g., from toxins, hepatitis B infection).
- For burns; usually taken from elsewhere on the patient's own body.
- To restore sight; taken from cadavers.
- To temporarily restore blood volume.
- bone marrow
- As a source of blood ("hematopoietic") stem cells to repopulate the patient's own marrow that is
- congenitally deficient in its ability to make one or more kinds of blood cells — Example: severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID)
- has been destroyed by cancer therapy.
- As a source of blood ("hematopoietic") stem cells to repopulate the patient's own marrow that is
- cord blood
- Blood drained (through the umbilical cord) from the placenta of newborn infants. A convenient source of blood stem cells.
- Has restored fertility and produced healthy babies but so far only when donor and recipient were monozygotic (identical) twins.
- Graft rejection
- The patient's immune system "sees" an allograft as foreign (antigenic) and mounts an immune response against it.
- Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD)
- T cells in the graft "see" the tissues of the recipient as foreign antigens and mount an immune attack against them. This a particularly serious problem with grafts of bone marrow because of the many T cells in it.
- Attempts to suppress the immune response to avoid graft rejection and GVHD weaken the ability of the body to combat infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, fungi).
- More rarely, the donated organ may be infected and transmit the agent to the recipient. Tuberculosis, rabies, syphilis, hepatitis B, HIV-1, and several other diseases have been transmitted in this way. Potential organ donors are now routinely tested for evidence of infection by HIV-1 and -2, HTLV-1 and -2, hepatitis B and C (HBV, HCV), human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) and Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) as well as by Treponema pallidum (syphilis).
- Suppressing the host's immune responses also increases the risk of cancer.
Coping with the Immunological Problems
- Use the patient's own tissue when possible (skin, bone marrow, blood vessels).
- Use tissue from an "identical" (monozygotic) twin in the very rare cases that one is available. Being genetically identical, the recipient sees the transplant as "self", not as foreign, and does not mount an attack against it. The first successful kidney transplants (done in the mid 1950s) were between identical twins, and both donors and recipients went on to lead normal lives.
- Use an "immunologically privileged" site. These are parts of the body where the immune system is prevented from mounting an attack. They include the eye, testes, and brain, but only the eye's privileged status has so far been exploited (for corneal grafts).
- Use a relative, preferably a sibling, as the donor. While never identical, they may have inherited some of the same histocompatibility antigens so the recipient's immune response may not be as strong as it otherwise would be.
- Tissue-typing. Determine the histocompatibility antigens of both recipient and potential donor and use the organ with the fewest mismatches.
- Immunosuppression. Use immunosuppressive agents to blunt the recipient's immune response. Invariably required for all allografts.
The strongest antigens expressed by tissues are the class I and class II histocompatibility molecules. These are encoded by an array of genes on chromosome 6 called the major histocompatibility complex (MHC).
Fig. 22.214.171.124 HLA
Class I molecules consist of a transmembrane protein to which are attached (noncovalently), a molecule of beta-2 microglobulin, and a short peptide. The class I transmembrane proteins are encoded by three loci: HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-C. Class I molecules are expressed at the surface of almost all the cells of the body (except for red blood cells and the cells of the central nervous system).
Class II molecules consist of two transmembrane polypeptides: an alpha (α) chain and beta (β) chain between which is nestled (noncovalently) a short peptide. The alpha and beta chains are encoded by clusters of loci in the region of chromosome 6 designated HLA-D. Unlike class I molecules, class II molecules are expressed on only a few types of cells, chiefly antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells and macrophages, as well as other cells where inflammation is occurring.
Why so many MHC alleles
The genes of the MHC are the most polymorphic known. The graphic above shows the latest counts of alleles found at each locus in the human population. Of course, any one human can inherit a maximum of two alleles at each locus. The diversity of alleles in the population makes possible thousands of different combinations. In a study of 1000 blood and organ donors in San Francisco that were typed for HLA-A and HLA-B,
- Over half the group had a combination that was unique.
- Another 111 donors had a set of these molecules that they shared with only one other person in the group.
- The most frequent phenotype (HLA-A1, HLA-A3, HLA-B7, and HLA-B8) was found in 11 donors.
The extreme polymorphism of the MHC did not evolve to frustrate transplant surgeons and their patients.
The function of class I and class II molecules is to "present" antigenic peptides to the T cells of the immune system. The peptides — usually about 9 amino acids long — are bound by noncovalent forces in a groove at the surface of the MHC molecule. These peptides can include fragments of protein antigens derived from intracellular pathogens (e.g. viruses). Different pathogens generate different antigenic fragments. Different MHC molecules differ in the efficiency with which they bind particular sequences of amino acids in these fragments. Therefore, we might expect that some MHC products would be better than others at presenting pathogen antigens to the immune system.
One piece of evidence: People infected with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) who have one particular HLA-B molecule are more resistant to developing a full-blown case of AIDS than those with other HLA-B molecules (even though some of these differ by only a single amino acid).
Another piece of evidence: Wegner and colleagues reported in the 5 September 2003 issue of Science the results of a direct test of this hypothesis. They exposed groups of sticklebacks — differing in the number of their class II alleles — to three types of parasite (all at once). They used two species of parasitic nematode and one species of trematode). Those fish with 5–6 different alleles resisted infection better than those with fewer (or more).
So it may well be that the great diversity of class I and class II alleles in the human population has helped ensure that no single pathogen can wipe out the entire population.
Techniques of tissue typing
Most tissue typing is done using serological methods: antibodies specific for those HLA antigens that have been identified in the human population. A reaction between cells of the subject and, for example, anti-HLA-A28 antibodies and HLA-A9 antibodies — but no other antibodies — establishes the phenotype. At the present time, routine typing is limited to establishing the phenotype at HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-DR.
Coming into wider use is DNA typing, especially for HLA-D antigens. It promises to improve the sensitivity and specificity of tissue typing. The totals of numbers of alleles at each HLA locus given in the graphic above are based on DNA typing.
How useful is tissue typing?
Fig. 126.96.36.199 Possible combinations
So what hope do these data hold for the dialysis patient awaiting a kidney transplant? If the patient has a large family of willing donors, the odds for a good match are not bad because of the tight linkage of the HLA loci.
Assuming that no crossing over occurs within the HLA region of either the mother's or the father's two number 6 chromosomes, there are four possible combinations in which they may transmit their alleles to their children. So even if the parents carry different alleles at each locus (which is often the case), there is a 1:4 probability that any one of their children will be an exact match with any other. (Only the HLA-A and HLA-B antigens are shown here, but the tight linkage of the entire HLA region makes it likely that all the loci on each chromosome will be passed on as a block.)
But most organs are transplanted from cadavers to complete strangers. In the United States, the program is monitored by the United Network for Organ Sharing (UNOS). Tissue typing is usually limited to looking for 6 HLA antigens: the two each at HLA-A, HLA-B, and HLA-DR. If only one antigen is found at a locus, it means that either the tissue is homozygous for that allele or no reagent exists yet to detect the second allele. This table shows the results of one study of several thousand kidney recipients.
|Number of HLA
|% kidneys surviving
after 5 years
The results tell us that:
- Having no mismatches provides a clear, but modest, advantage over mismatched kidneys. (This advantage is cumulative: at 17 years, 50% of the kidneys with no mismatches are still functioning while 50% of those with one or more mismatches have been lost after 8 years.)
- However, the incremental disadvantage of additional mismatches is small. In fact, the procedures to prevent rejection are now sufficiently good that ~90% of all kidneys — even those with all loci mismatched — can be expected to be functioning at the end of the first year.
Minor histocompatibility antigens
Even if it were possible to match donor and recipient at every locus of the MHC, some tissue incompatibility would still remain (except between identical twins). Few of the antigens responsible have been identified, but they include:
- H-Y, an antigen encoded on the Y chromosome and thus present in male, but not female, tissue
- HA-2, an antigen derived from the contractile protein myosin.
The number and variety of histocompatibility antigens tell us that probably no two humans (again, except for identical twins) exist on earth with perfectly compatible tissues. Therefore successful transplantation of allografts requires some degree of immunosuppression to avoid graft rejection.
Graft-versus-host disease (GVHD)
Allografts that contain T cells of the donor can cause graft-versus-host disease (GVHD). The T cells in the transplant see the host as "foreign" and proceed to mount a widespread attack against the tissues of the host. GVHD is an especially serious problem with grafts of bone marrow (the source of all blood cells) and cord blood. Even when the donor and recipient have identical HLA alleles, grafts of bone marrow often cause GVHD because of differences in their minor histocompatibility antigens.
Some cancer patients are now deliberately treated so vigorously with radiation and chemotherapy that their bone marrow is destroyed along with their cancer cells. In order to survive, these patients must be given stem cells to repopulate their marrow after their therapy. In some cases, their own bone marrow is used. Some of it is removed prior to the onset of treatment of the patient and is itself treated to remove any cancer cells that may be lurking in it. If allografted bone marrow is required, there is a strong danger of GVHD. If the GVHD can be controlled, the stem cells should eventually establish themselves in the bone marrow of their new host and in due course generate some or even all of the patient's blood cells. Cord blood — another source of stem cells — presents less of a risk of serious GVHD even from a donor with HLA molecules not present in the recipient. This is because cord blood does not contain any mature T cells.
In mice, GVHD can be minimized by injecting large numbers of regulatory T cells, but for humans, control of GVHD — like control of graft rejection — still depends on the use of immunosuppression.
Immunosuppression is the treatment of the patient with agents that inhibit the immune response. The following is the list of immunosuppressants currently used.
These are relatives of the purines used in DNA synthesis. Because they interfere with DNA synthesis, they interfere with the rapid cell proliferation needed for immune responses. Azathioprine (trade name = Imuran) is a widely-used purine analog.
Unfortunately, these drugs also interfere with the many other tissues that depend on rapid cell division (e.g., lining of the intestine, hair follicles) so they have many unpleasant side effects. Therefore, the search for agents that specifically target immune cells goes on.
These relatives of cortisol interfere with a transcription factor needed to turn on the genes for T cells to become activated. Prednisone and prednisolone are most commonly used.
Tacrolimus (Prograf®) and cyclosporine (Neoral®)
These are natural products isolated from microbial cultures. They inhibit the signaling pathway used by T cells to turn on their genes for activation, e.g., for IL-2 secretion.
This is a macrolide antibiotic produced by an actinomycete found on Easter Island (which the inhabitants call Rapa Nui — hence the name). Rapamycin inhibits T cell proliferation, and shows great promise in reducing the problems of transplant rejection.
Rapamycin is also known as sirolimus and is sold under the trade name Rapamune.
This small molecule inhibits an enzyme needed by B and T cells for purine synthesis. Other types of cells are not dependent on the enzyme so side effects are mild. The trade name is CellCept.
Antithymocyte globulin (ATG)
This preparation contain antibodies — raised in horses or rabbits — directed against T cells.
Several preparations are now used:
- Muromonab-CD3 (OKT3) and two humanized anti-CD3 monoclonals. They bind to the CD3 molecule on the surface of T cells.
- Daclizumab and basiliximab. Target the IL-2 receptor and thus inhibit only activated T cells.
- Alemtuzumab (Campath-1H®). Binds to CD52, a molecule found on lymphocytes and depletes both T cells and B cells.
This is a protein, produced by recombinant DNA technology, that combines
- the extracellular portion of CTLA-4 ("cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4", one of the ligands for B7) with
- the Fc region (the C-terminal two-thirds of the constant region) of a human IgG1 antibody.
It blocks the "Signal Two" needed to activate T cells.
Side effects of immunosuppression
They are serious.
The immune system is vital to protect us against infectious agents (bacteria, viruses, fungi). So infection is a frequent side effect of immunosuppression in transplant recipients. Fortunately, the infections can usually be controlled by the appropriate antibiotic, antiviral drug, etc.
5% or more of transplant recipients will develop cancer within a few years of receiving their allograft. This may not seem to represent a great risk, but it does represent a 100-fold increase in risk compared to the general population. Allograft recipients are particularly prone to developing skin cancers and lymphomas. Curiously, transplant recipients do not seem to be at any greater risk for developing the most common types of cancer in the rest of the population: cancers of the lung, breast, colon, and prostate. One exception: recipients of allografted bone marrow run a slightly, but significantly, higher (2–3 fold) risk of developing these types of tumors. In most cases, these cancers arise from a cell of the host. But in some cases of melanoma and Kaposi's sarcoma the cancer cells were present in the graft and proliferated in the immunosuppressed host.
Things that can be done to help in such cases include stopping the immunosuppression. The chief culprit seems to be the immunosuppression that these patients have been receiving. In most cases,this leads to regression of the cancer, but often rejection of the transplant as well. The choice is usually clear for patients with allografted kidneys; they can go back on dialysis and anticipate receiving another kidney at a future date. But what of the cancer patient with a heart transplant?
Future prospects for transplantation
Although organ transplants have helped thousands of people, much remains to be done. In particular, ways need to be found to
- increase the number of available organs (the need now far exceeds the supply)
- find more precise methods of immunosuppression in order to prevent rejection without the dangerous side effects of infection and cancer.
Both these problems may be helped by xenotransplantation.
Xenotransplantation is the use of organs from other animals. A number of attempts have been made to use hearts, livers, and kidneys from such primates as chimpanzees and baboons — so far with limited success. One reason is that xenotransplants usually are attacked immediately by antibodies of the host resulting in hyperacute rejection. But perhaps the use of pigs as organ donors will be feasible.
- Their organs are about the right size for use in humans.
- They can be made transgenic for molecules that may circumvent
- hyperacute rejection (by knocking out the genes responsible for cell-surface antigens that humans have preformed antibodies against);
- the chronic, T-cell-mediated, rejection that plagues all allografts.
- They can be produced in the numbers needed.
However, pigs contain retroviruses (called PERV = porcine endogenous retrovirus), and there is fear that these might infect the human recipient.
Only a few transplants of pig tissue into humans have been done to date: skin grafts and grafts of pancreatic islets. A larger number of people have been temporarily hooked up to pig organs or "bioreactors" containing pig cells to provide support for their failing spleen, liver, or kidneys. Most of these recipients have been monitored for signs of infection by PERV and — even though PERV can infect human cells growing in culture — there is no evidence that any of these people exposed to pig tissue have become infected.
Is xenotransplantation safe?
Pigs are not the only animals that contain latent viruses in their cells. Could the viruses in the cells of other kinds of animal donors infect the transplant recipient? start an epidemic? The danger seems greater for xenotransplants from other primates. (HIV, the retrovirus that causes AIDS appears to have entered humans from a primate host)
For these reasons, many biologists are urging that transplant surgeons proceed cautiously with xenotransplants.
It has long been know that certain sites in the body, for example,
- the anterior chamber of the eye
- the testes
- the brain
are "privileged". They are protected from attack by the immune system.
This can cause problems. Several cases have emerged of survivors of Ebola who no longer have Ebola virus in their blood and are symptom-free but still retain live virus in such privileged sites as brain, testis, and aqueous humor of the eye where the virus has escaped attack by the immune system.
Many factors are involved in immune privilege, such as
- tight junctions between the cells of the tissue
- little expression of class I histocompatibility molecules
- expression of the Fas ligand, FasL.
The presence of FasL on their surface protects cells in privileged locations from immune attack because when threatened by a cytotoxic T cell, they force the T cell to commit suicide by apoptosis. Activated cytotoxic T cells express Fas on their surface. When they engage (with their T cell receptor) a privileged cell expressing FasL, instead of killing the target, the target kills them!
So if the organs of transgenic pigs can be made to expresses human FasL, perhaps they will be resistant to T-cell mediated rejection.
The human placenta also enjoys immune privilege. It is almost as foreign to the mother as a kidney transplant from her husband would be, but unlike the kidney, she will not reject it (at least not for 9 months). In lab rats, the embryos (and the mother's endometrium) secrete corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). This hormone induces the expression of Fas ligand (FasL) on the cells of the placenta. Activated T cells express Fas, so any threatening T cells would commit suicide by apoptosis when they encounter FasL on their target.
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What do human teeth and shark teeth have in common? Lots. As a former oceanographer turned orthodontist, this subject could not have been more interesting to write about! I spent the first four years of graduate school studying Marine Biology at the Scripps Institution of Oceanography in San Diego, then decided to become a dentist!
To understand the connection between your teeth and shark teeth, we first need to go back in time to the origins of teeth themselves. Teeth are derived from the same tissues that make skin, hair, and nails. These are called the ectoderm, or outer layer. Prehistoric fish didn’t have teeth, but rather the ectoderm made outer plates of armor that protected the fish from prey. These plates were literally the fish’s “armor” and were made out of a very hard substance. The same biological machinery that makes these plates also makes the structures of your teeth. It’s no coincidence that the hardest substance in your body is the enamel of your teeth. As evolution developed more creative innovations, these pieces of armor developed into more specialized chewing structures like teeth.
The fish’s ectoderm formed in the same way your teeth form, with a very hard outer layer called enamel and an inner layer called dentin. Over evolution, these plates developed into scales on fish! Special forms of scales, made out of enamel, bone, and dentin become teeth. These origins of teeth are still found in sharks today. Shark teeth form from modified scales near the tongue and move outward along the jaw until they are eventually dislodged. They form continuously in rows. Way cool, right?!
Human teeth today retain some of these forms. Enamel, our armor, is the hardest substance in the body. Our teeth also form in rows, with the adult teeth budding off from the succedaneous teeth or baby teeth. Unlike sharks, which have a continuously forming rows of teeth, humans have only two sets of teeth. These consist of 20 baby teeth and 32 adult teeth. For this reason, if you’re born missing a baby tooth, you will always be missing the same adult tooth. Sometimes the baby tooth does not dissolve away in time for the adult tooth to erupt into place. This results in an ecoptic tooth, or double set of teeth. Just like shark teeth!
Ectopic Eruptions, or shark teeth, are not a cause for alarm, it’s ok! Sometimes this is a simple fix by extracting the baby tooth to make way for the adult tooth to come through. In some people, a genetic mutation in the tooth forming machinery can result in continuously forming teeth, with tooth formation gone wild, similar to a shark. The picture below is of someone with this condition, called cleidocranial dysplasia. Either way, anything can be treated by your pediatric dentist or careful collaboration between orthodontists, surgeons, and pediatric dentists.
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After successfully exploiting captured functioning German phone systems during the Battle of Mannheim, on March 29, 1945, the 44th Infantry Division approached it's next objective of Heidelberg. Brig. Gen. William Beiderlinden, the commander of the 44th Artillery, received permission from the division's commander, Maj. Gen. William F. Dean, to gain a surrender of the city through the use of phone lines and negotiation and save the city from destruction.
American author Mark Twain proclaimed Heidelberg to be the perfect city. Not too big and not too small, Twain frequently stayed in Heidelberg and his name graces a several local landmarks. Beiderlinden, who had studied the play "Alt Heidelberg" (also known as "The Student Prince") in his high school German class, was familiar with the city, its famous university, and thought that it should be saved, if at all possible. Beiderlinden was fluent in the German language. About 5,000 wounded German soldiers were in Heidelberg and its suburbs. Additionally, a German anti-aircraft battery had set up in Bismarck Platz. When told to relocate, the commander stated that he was out of gasoline and therefore could not move. The German hospital commander, Col. Niessen, supplied the unit with very scarce fuel. The unit moved out but not before American aerial reconnaissance had spotted it.
Telephone negotiations continued and a small party of six Germans, under a white flag, crossed the Neckar River in a white ambulance, to meet in Dossenheim and complete the surrender terms. The Americans stated that they would cross the Neckar at a precise hour. If opposed, they would destroy the city. A German threat to blow the two remaining bridges across the Neckar was carried out while the negotiations were underway. The earlier execution of German officers for their failure to destroy the Lundendorf Bridge served as a grim reminder of the potential consequence for disobedience. At the conclusion of the hour-long talks, the German negotiating party was driven past the assembled tanks and artillery pieces of the 63rd Infantry Division, which had been called forward during the night to replace the 44th I.D.
As the German negotiating party moved back toward the river, stray shells landed and several of them were wounded including the driver, Sgt. Grimm. After the war, Grimm opened a tobacco shop on Bismarck Platz. Because the bridges were out, the German negotiators approached the fishermen and ferry boat captains on the north side, but no one was willing to take them back to the city. Finally, a 16-year-old girl, Anni Tham and two of her young friends, volunteered to row their small boats across at 3:30 a.m. They battled a strong current as artillery shells lit up the sky. Reaching the Heidelberg side, Col. Niessen searched for a working phone line and then contacted the remaining military personnel to inform them that the Americans would be crossing the river at daylight on March 30, and resistance was futile. The Germans complied. Later that afternoon, tanks of the 10th Armored Division entered the city and by April 1, Easter Sunday, the city was completely in American hands.
Heidelberg was the one large German city to escape the war virtually unscathed. The negotiations of Beiderlinden and the German hospital commander, Col. Niessen, assured the survival of the city. Critical to this success was Beiderlinden's knowledge of the German language and his familiarity with the city. Both factors played important roles in this entire episode. And we cannot forget the bravery of three young Germans, who rowed across the Neckar River three times in the middle of the night, at great risk.
Source Dr. James Saunders United States Army Europe, Lecture Heidelberg Capture
Heidelberg Castle and Neckar River
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Q: What kind of fruit tree is this? The fruit looks like little green apples when on the tree. The tree was there when we moved in and is native, I think, because it grows at the edge of the tree line that was not cleared during the site preparation for the building of our home.
A: You have a great example of American persimmon! This native fruit has been important to the diet of North American residents for thousands of years.
Persimmons can be grown throughout the Southeast. Opossums and humans enjoy the fruit each November. Fruit of the native Persimmon, Diospyros virginiana, is about the size of a plum. Oriental Persimmons, Diospyros kaki, are larger and have less astringency when less than fully soft-ripe.
Many Southern children have amused themselves by presenting an ostensible “crabapple” to a friend just to see the look on their face when they bite into a green persimmon.
Persimmons can grow in rich or poor soil. The trees grow to 20 to 30 feet high. They prefer full sun but tolerate shade, although fruiting will be less if planted there. A male tree must be planted nearby to fertilize bearing trees. Fertilize the trees in late winter and in mid-summer, using about 1 pound of 10-10-10 for each inch of trunk diameter.
Some people believe that a frost is necessary to ripen Persimmons. This is incorrect as some fruit will ripen well in advance of the first frost. Use clippers to cut the stem and remove fruit, leaving the leathery leaf-like calix attached to the fruit. Persimmons continue to ripen after they are picked.
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* Your assessment is very important for improving the workof artificial intelligence, which forms the content of this project
Zoology Porifera Attn Grabbers: 1. What is the substance that makes the shells of diatoms? 2. What is the phylum name of diatoms? 3. What % of the world’s O2 comes from diatoms? Porifera Notes General: “porus” means pore and “fera” means to bear Primarily marine animals, although some freshwater varieties exist. ~9000 species Vary in size from less than a CM to several meters across/tall Strong evidence from cell structures suggest that sponges as well as most animals evolved from Protista ancestors. Sessile: live their entire adult life attached to a single spot. Classified by skeleton type: Hard of Soft Body Plan: Asymmetrical or radial symmetric Composed of three cell types Central Cavity, or a series of branching chambers, water circulates here. Water leaves through an opening called the Osculum. This circulation of water provides a simple way to feed, respire, circulate, and excrete. No tissues or organs 3 Cells Types: Pinacocytes: thin, flat cells, which line the outer surface of sponge. Able to contract and slightly change form of sponge. Help to regulate water circulation in body wall. Mesohyl (middle matter) jelly like layer where Amoeboid cells help with reproduction, food transportation and storage, and skeletal elements. Choanocytes (funnel cell) inner most layer Flagellated cells circulate water through sponge and filter for food particles. At the end of the cell is a collar , lined with microvilli to filter food. These cells show evolutionary evidence for the connection to choanoflagellate Protista. Skeleton: Two Types of Sponges: Hard and Soft. Hard sponges are made of microscopic needle like spikes called Spicules. They are formed by the amoeboid cells The spicules are made of CaCO3 and Silica. Soft sponges are made of Spongin, made of collagen. Feeding: filter particles the range from 0.1um to 50um. Mostly bacteria, algae, Protista, and organic matter. Digestion is intercellular, moved to the food vacuole, and digested by the lysosome. Sponges reduce the turbidity of water, natural filters. A sponge 1cm in diameter and 10cm high can filter about 20L of water a day depending on their size. No nervous system to coordinate body movement. Most reactions result from individual cells reacting to stimulus. Reproduction: Monoecious: both sexes in same individual Sexual, but cannot reproduce with themselves. Some choanocyte cells lose their collar and form either sperm or eggs. Sperm and egg released into water and fertilization happens here. External Larva develop, carried by water, settles, and grows into a stationary adult. Asexual: form a resistant capsule called a gemmule which contain masses of amoeboid cells. If the parent dies due to hard conditions, the gemmule can survive extreme temperatures and drying. When conditions are better the gemmules develop into a sponge Sponges have the ability to regenerate. Broken portions can regenerate into a new sponge.
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It is vital that good standards of personal hygiene are maintained by food handlers. Contaminated hands will spread bacteria around a kitchen very quickly.
To prevent cross contamination of food it is essential to wash your hands frequently. Examples include:
Use warm water and preferably antibacterial soap.
After wetting hands, apply soap and use the following procedure to clean your hands thoroughly:
In addition, it is important that staff maintain a high degree of personal hygiene with regard their personal habits. For example:
All cuts, wounds or sores should be covered with a waterproof dressing.
Over-clothing should be clean and present no risk of contamination to food.
Hair should be tidy and covered where necessary to prevent the risk of it falling into food.
Staff should report to their supervisor if they have had symptoms of diarrhoea, vomiting, nausea, abdominal cramps or fever. These may be indications that they have or have had food poisoning. They should also inform their supervisor if they have infected cuts or wounds, boils or sores that may lead to the contamination of foods.
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The Tapeworm Threat
They???re more prevalent and serious than originally thought. Find out how to combat these tricky parasites.
Tapeworms were once considered a fairly benign parasite, unassociated with serious problems in equines. But recent studies show tapeworms are anything but harmless. Consider the statistics:
- 81 percent of ileal impactions (a blockage at the end of the small intestine, commonly referred to as an impaction colic) are associated with tapeworms.
- 22 percent of spasmodic (gas) colics are tapeworm-related.
- Ileocecal intussusception (a serious, surgical form of colic where one part of the intestine telescopes into another) is almost always caused by tapeworm infection.
- On average, more than 54 percent of horses in the United States have been exposed to tapeworms, including 96 percent of horses in the upper Midwest, more than 80 percent of horses in some Southern regions, and 56 percent of horses in the northern Plains and Mountain regions. Even in the lowest-risk areas of the West Coast, at least one out of every 10 horses has tapeworm exposure.
Why didn’t we know about this before?
“Tapeworms are intestinal parasites that infect horses, as well as other species, throughout the world,” explains Brady J. Bergin, DVM, assistant professor, Oregon State University. “They belong to the class of parasites known as cestodes. The three types of tapeworms that can infect horses are Anoplocephala perfoliata, Anoplocephala magna and Paranoplocephala mamillana, with A. perfoliata being by far the most common.”
Unlike other worms, horse tapeworms need an intermediate host to complete their life cycles. That host, the forage mite, becomes infective by ingesting tapeworm eggs; the horse swallows the infective mites while grazing, and the tapeworms mature in the horse’s intestine within six to 10 weeks. Although much is unknown aboutthe mite’s biology, they’re widespread, living in pastures, lawns and vegetation, says Craig R. Reinemeyer, DVM, Ph.D., immediate past president of the American Association of Veterinary Parasitologists, and president of East Tennessee Clinical Research Inc., the research group that identified tapeworm prevalence in the United States. The mite also seems to favor temperate climates. “They live in the humus, the organic layer of the soil,” says Robert H. Dressler, DVM, manager of Equine Veterinary Operations at Pfizer Animal Health. “In the arid desert areas of the Southwest, there isn’t a whole lot of humus, and that’s where there is a much lower incidence of tapeworms.”
Bottom line: Any horse that grazes on pasture is at risk for ingesting infected mites.
Although studies now demonstrate that tapeworms are everywhere in the United States (albeit in varying numbers), experts had been unaware of their prevalence because of the inability to accurately diagnose tapeworm infection in the horse. “Traditionally, we looked for tapeworm eggs in fecal exams, but that’s been very ineffective,” Dr. Reinemeyer says. “With most other parasites in horses the females stay in the gut and pass out eggs, and the eggs leave the horse in the manure. With tapeworms, the eggs develop in a lower segment of the worm’s body, which separates and passes out in the fecal matter into the environment, but it’s not an ongoing process. The tapeworm body is like a freight train with a bunch of boxcars, one chained to the other. The end of the tapeworm matures faster than the rest of it, so every once in a while the caboose (which is like a bag of eggs) drops off. That bag may not rupture until it gets outside the horse or gets farther down the track, we don’t know.” Consequently, detecting tapeworm eggs in the manure is a hit-or-mostly-miss procedure. And because veterinarians weren’t seeing tapeworm eggs in fecal exams, they assumed there was no tapeworm problem.
Further, although tapeworms were detected during surgery or postmortem, they weren’t associated with any disease process.
That all changed in the mid-1990s when a British researcher developed a test that could detect an immune response to a specific protein exuded by tapeworms into the horse’s blood. Although this test only determines exposure to tapeworms as opposed to an active infection (much like horses that have been exposed to equine protozoal myeloencephalitis, or EPM, don’t necessarily have the active disease), it was a step in the right direction and enabled researchers to discover just how widespread tapeworms are.
Since then, researchers learned that tapeworms cause degrees of intestinal damage and disease. Dr. Bergin says, “This damage occurs when large numbers of tapeworms firmly attach to certain areas of the digestive tract, such as the small intestine or, more specifically, the ileocecal junction (the common opening of the ileum, colon and cecum). Their attachment can lead to inflammation, irritation and ulceration at this site, impairing normal function. This intestinal malfunction can also adversely affect the digestive tract, leading to three common types of colic associated with tapeworm infestation: ileocecal intussusception, ileocecal impaction and spasmodic colic.”
Those are the recognized problems caused by tapeworms. Undetermined are the problems a “typical” or low-grade tapeworm infection causes. “Does it cause low-grade diarrhea, low-grade colic, weight loss?” Dr. Reinemeyer ponders. “We don’t know. But anecdotal evidence suggests tapeworms may cause low-grade colic after intense exercise.”
Dealing With It
Even though prevention of tapeworms isn’t truly possible, you can successfully treat these parasites in a horse and prevent the onset of colic and other complications that may be related to tapeworm infection, notes Tom Kennedy, Ph.D., vice president of research and development, Farnam Companies Inc.
In the past, equine tapeworms were controlled with double or triple doses of pyrantel pamoate. “That did a fairly good job but was not 100 percent effective,” says Kevin Hankins, DVM, field veterinary consultant for Fort Dodge Animal Health. “It was costly plus it was sometimes a nightmare to get two or three tubes of dewormer into a horse.”
But the recent development of praziquantel in paste and gel formulations for horses offers an affordable, easier, and, to date, more effective alternative. “Praziquantel has been around for a long time, and has been used extensively in dogs and cats,” Dr. Hankins states. “It kills the tapeworms in the horse by destroying the worm’s protective, tough outer layer, thus making the parasite vulnerable to the horse’s immune system, which takes care of it from there.”
Explains Frank Hurtig, DVM, manager, Veterinary Professional Services at Merial Inc., “The addition of praziquantel to horse parasite control medicines containing macrocyclic lactone drugs (i.e. moxidectin and ivermectin) has been an advance in treatment and control of tapeworms in horses. Praziquantel has a wide margin of safety in horses.” Thus with one dose, praziquantel/macrocyclic lactone formulations offer treatment of tapeworms as well as broad-spectrum activity against strongyles, ascarids, pinworms, bots and other common horse parasites.
Currently, there are four praziquantel/macrocyclic lactone products available: ComboCare (Farnam), Equimax (Pfizer), Quest Plus (Fort Dodge) and Zimectrin Gold (Merial).
The only precaution is treating a horse infected with a lot of parasites or one that is clinically ill, Dr. Hankins says. “If they have a very high parasite load, you could end up causing an impaction from all of the parasites killed off in the gut. Also, when parasites die off, they can produce a toxin, and that can make your horse sick. If your horse is already ill or heavily parasitized, his immune system is likely suppressed and would react differently to a normal deworming schedule; that is why dewormers are labeled as only for use in healthy animals.” Some veterinarians treat at-risk horses by either administering a reduced dose and/or administering mineral oil 24 hours prior to deworming to help with the passage of the dead parasites.
Currently, praziquantel is labeled only for treatment, not prevention. But Dr. Hurtig notes, “Since tapeworms are extremely difficult to definitively diagnose in the live horse, it is best to simply treat for tapeworms on a frequent basis.” This will benefit horses, since using praziquantel products routinely at labeled dosage recommendations removes tapeworms before they become a problem instead of after a problem (i.e. colic) is apparent.
Work with your veterinarian to develop a program that’s specific for your horse and climate. Dr. Bergin says that there is not a single catch-all recipe for controlling parasites that works for every horse in every area—it’s based on a number of factors that need to be evaluated, and from there your veterinarian can create a plan.
Although praziquantel is safe, don’t overuse it as parasites likely will build resistance to it. Dr. Reinemeyer explains, “Frequent use of dewormers puts tremendous pressure on the parasites to adapt to survive this continuous onslaught, so they select for resistance. We’re seeing that now with ascarids and ivermectin.”
Include management techniques in your deworming program. “Good pasture hygiene is a critical management technique for the control of tapeworms as well as other parasites,” Dr. Bergin says. To reduce the spread of parasites, remove manure from stalls daily, dispose of fecal material away from pastures and feed/water supplies, and chain drag or harrow pastures to break up manure piles. Don’t feed your horses directly on the ground; this increases the risk of ingesting forage mites since it is where they typically reside. Avoid overcrowding or overgrazing pastures (rotate if possible). Finally, quarantine all new additions to the herd and perform fecal exams to determine parasite status in general and to avoid the introduction of parasites.
Read more expert opinions on tapeworm treatment.
Down the Line
While differentiating between tapeworm exposure and an active infection is still a guessing game, researchers hope to soon change that. Stephen Kania, Ph.D., associate professor, University of Tennessee College of Veterinary Medicine, has developed a test, with the support of the American Quarter Horse Association, that detects proteins released by the tapeworm parasite into fecal material. “This test differs from antibody detection in that a positive result is likely to indicate an active parasite infection,” Dr. Kania says. “We are currently at the stage of validating the test with samples from a large number of horses.” If all goes well, it’s possible this diagnostic test will be available in two or three years and could be a great aid in advancing knowledge on tapeworm infection.
Fortunately, you have the tools now to avoid tapeworm problems in your horse. Discuss the risks of infection in your area with your veterinarian and work out a responsible deworming program appropriate for your horse.
Marcia King is an award-winning freelance writer.
This article originally appeared in the May 2005 issue of Horse Illustrated. Click here to subscribe.
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How to raise a cash-smart child:
Give an allowance. If used as a teaching tool and not a giveaway, an allowance can be one of the best ways to teach kids, even as young as 5 or 6, about money, taking pride in their management skills, and becoming more charitable.
Help your child start a savings or investment account. The old piggy bank
still can be a fun way to introduce little ones to the concepts of saving and managing money. But at around age 8, your child may want to open a small savings account and begin learning what banking is all about, from filling out deposit slips to reviewing statements.
Encourage the right kinds of "child labor." Jobs can teach kids to be
responsible and to enjoy earning and saving money. One way is to pay a child for extra work around the house -- the kind you might hire someone else to do, such as baby-sitting a sibling on a Saturday night.
Play "show and tell" while you manage your own money. If you expect your
kids to become responsible with their money, and yours, you have to practice what you preach. You'll make more of an impression on your children if they can see and hear what you're doing to manage your money.
Make learning about money fun and interesting. To stimulate a child's
interests in saving, spending wisely and sharing money with others, visit creative Internet sites (including the FDIC's "Learning Bank") that teach kids about money.
Source: FDIC Consumer News
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This article focus to describe on Learning theory in terms of education. Learning is one of the most important activities in which humans engage. It is at the very core of the educational process, although most of what people learn occurs outside of school. For thousands of years, philosophers and psychologists have sought to understand the nature of learning, how it occurs, and how one person can influence the learning of another person through teaching and similar endeavors. Various theories of learning have been suggested, and these theories differ for a variety of reasons.
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From Science In the Kitchen: Cooking methods
Science in the Kitchen from cookingtherapy.info
Science in the Kitchen is one of those cooking classics. Now in Public Domain there is much to be learned from the cooking masters of the past.
CARE OF FIRES.–Much fuel is wasted through the loss of heat from too much draft. Only just enough air should be supplied to promote combustion. A coal fire, when well kindled, needs only air enough to keep it burning. When the coal becomes red all through, it has parted with the most of its heat, and the fire will soon die unless replenished.
To keep a steady fire, add but a small amount of fuel at a time, and repeat often enough to prevent any sensible decrease of the degree of heat. Rake the fire from the bottom, and keep it clear of ashes and cinders. If a very hot fire is needed, open the drafts; at other times, keep them closed, or partially so, and not waste fuel.
There is no economy in allowing a fire to get low before fuel is added; for the fresh fuel cools the fire to a temperature so low that it is not useful, and thus occasions a direct waste of all fuel necessary to again raise the heat to the proper degree, to say nothing of the waste of time and patience.
The addition of small quantities of fuel at short intervals so long as continuous heat is needed, is far better than to let the fuel burn nearly out, and then add a larger quantity. The improper management of the drafts and dampers has also much to do with waste of fuel.
As stoves are generally constructed, it is necessary for the heat to pass over the top, down the back, and under the bottom of the oven before escaping into the flue, in order to properly heat the oven for baking. In order to force the heat to make this circuit, the direct draft of the stove needs to be closed. With this precaution observed, a quick fire from a small amount of fuel, used before its force is spent, will produce better results than a fire-box full under other circumstances.
An item of economy for those who are large users of coal, is the careful sifting of the cinders from the ashes. They can be used to good advantage to put first upon the kindlings, when building the fire, as they ignite more readily than fresh coal, and give a greater, quicker heat, although much less enduring.
METHODS OF COOKING.–A proper source of heat having been secured, the next step is to apply it to the food in some manner. The principal methods commonly employed are roasting, broiling, baking, boiling, stewing, simmering, steaming, and frying.
Roasting is cooking food in its own juices before an open fire. A clear fire with intense heat is necessary.
Broiling or grilling is cooking by radiant heat over glowing coals. This method is only adapted to thin pieces of food with a considerable amount of surface. Larger and more compact foods should be roasted or baked. Roasting and broiling are allied in principle. In both, the work is chiefly done by the radiation of heat directly upon the surface of the food, although some heat is communicated by the hot air surrounding the food. The intense heat applied to the food soon sears its outer surfaces, and thus prevents the escape of its juices. If care be taken frequently to turn the food so that its entire surface will be thus acted upon, the interior of the mass is cooked by its own juices.
Baking is the cooking of food by dry heat in a closed oven. Only foods containing a considerable degree of moisture are adapted for cooking by this method. The hot, dry air which fills the oven is always thirsting for moisture, and will take from every moist substance to which it has access a quantity of water proportionate to its degree of heat. Foods containing but a small amount of moisture, unless protected in some manner from the action of the heated air, or in some way supplied with moisture during the cooking process, come from the oven dry, hard, and unpalatable.
Proper cooking by this method depends greatly upon the facility with which the heat of the oven can be regulated. When oil or gas is the fuel used, it is an easy matter to secure and maintain almost any degree of heat desirable, but with a wood or coal stove, especial care and painstaking are necessary.
It is of the first importance that the mechanism of the oven to be used, be thoroughly understood by the cook, and she should test its heating capacity under various conditions, with a light, quick fire and with a more steady one; she should carefully note the kind and amount of fuel requisite to produce a certain degree of heat; in short, she should thoroughly know her “machine” and its capabilities before attempting to use it for the cooking of food.
An oven thermometer is of the utmost value for testing the heat, but unfortunately, such thermometers are not common. They are obtainable in England, although quite expensive. It is also possible at the present time to obtain ranges with a very reliable thermometer attachment to the oven door.
You can read this entire book at Project Gutenburg
We recommend a Professional Infrared Thermometer
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The Haunted Oak
Paul Laurence Dunbar was one the first influential black poets in American literature. He enjoyed his greatest popularity in the early twentieth century following the publication of dialectic verse in collections such as Majors and Minors and Lyrics of Lowly Life.
Born in Dayton, Ohio, to parents who had been enslaved in Kentucky before the American Civil War. After completing his formal schooling in 1891, Dunbar took a job as an elevator operator, earning a salary of four dollars a week. He had hoped to study law, but was not able to because of his mother’s limited finances. He was restricted at work because of racial discrimination.
Dunbar began to write stories and verse when still a child; he was president of his high school’s literary society. He published his first poems at the age of 16 in a Dayton newspaper. In 1890 Dunbar wrote and edited The Tattler, Dayton’s first weekly African-American newspaper. It was printed by the fledgling company of his high-school acquaintances, Wilbur and Orville Wright. The paper lasted six weeks.
Dunbar was prolific during his relatively short career: he wrote a dozen books of poetry, four books of short stories, four novels, lyrics for a musical, and a play. His first collection of short stories, Folks From Dixie (1898), a sometimes “harsh examination of racial prejudice”, had favorable reviews. Dunbar’s essays and poems were published widely in the leading journals of the day, including Harper’s Weekly, the Saturday Evening Post, the Denver Post, Current Literature and others. Suffering from tuberculosis, which then had no cure, Dunbar died in Dayton at the age of 33 on February 9, 1906.
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The Importance of Pretend Play in Child Development
Does your child love pretending? Find out how pretend play can spur child development, while learning new dramatic play ideas, activities and games. In the midst of creating a restaurant together, clomping around in grown-up shoes, or twirling around with friends in a fairytale land, children are learning to solve problems, coordinate, cooperate, and think flexibly.
Where can you find police officers, veterinarians, office workers, princesses, karate instructors, and chefs all happily working side-by-side? In a dramatic play area of a classroom, of course.
A child’s pretend play in classrooms or at home is often considered fun and imaginative, but with limited educational value. The truth is, in the midst of creating a restaurant together, clomping around in grown-up shoes, or twirling around with friends in a fairytale land, children are learning to solve problems, coordinate, cooperate, and think flexibly. Imagine the skills required to turn the sandbox into a dinosaur bone excavation site!
Dr. Scott Kaufman emphasizes the value of pretend play in his 2012 Psychology Today article stating that, “Systematic research has increasingly demonstrated a series of clear benefits of children’s engagement in pretend games from the ages of about two and one half through ages six or seven.”
How Pretend Play Helps Children Learn
Pretending is important in child development. Through pretend play:
- Children learn about themselves and the world. Dramatic play experiences are some of the first ways children learn about their likes and dislikes, their interests, and their abilities. They experiment with role playing and work to make sense out of what they’ve observed. Just watch children playing with dolls to see examples of this. Dolls often become versions of the child himself and are a safe way for children to express new ideas and feelings.
- Children work out confusing, scary, or new life issues. Have you ever witnessed children pretending to visit the doctor? One child dutifully holds the mock stethoscope as the others line up for a check-up. More often than not someone gets ‘shots’. This is a child’s way of exploring an experience that is common and sometimes confusing or scary. Through these role plays, children become more comfortable and prepared for life events in a safe way. Children often use pretend play to work out more personal challenging life events too, whether it is coping with an illness in the family, the absence of a parent or divorce, or a house fire.
- Children develop important complex social and higher order thinking skills. Pretend play is much more than simple play activities; it requires advanced thinking strategies, communication, and social skills. Through pretend play, children learn to do things like negotiate, consider others’ perspectives, transfer knowledge from one situation to another, delay gratification, balance their own ideas with others, develop a plan and act on it, explore symbolism, express and listen to thoughts and ideas, assign tasks and roles, and synthesize different information and ideas. In this creative play description, we could just as easily be describing the skills needed to successfully manage a work project for an adult as describing children’s pretend play.
- Children cultivate social and emotional intelligence. How we interact with others is key to our lifelong success and happiness. Knowing how to read social cues, recognize and regulate emotions, negotiate and take turns, and engage in a long-term activity that is mutually beneficial are no easy tasks. There is no substitute for creative and imaginative play when it comes to teaching and enhancing these abilities in children.
- Children synthesize knowledge and skills. Because learning and child development doesn’t happen in discrete pockets of time or during isolated activities, children need opportunities to blend their skills and knowledge together. Pretend play is an ideal way to do this. Think of children playing ‘grocery’ store. They sort by attributes as they group similar foods in sections of the store, use math concepts to tabulate amounts as they determine prices and calculate grocery bills, use writing to communicate by making signs, experiment with shapes and weights as they organize the store, work collaboratively as they assign roles and play together, and much more.
Dramatic Play Ideas & Activities for Children
As a parent or caregiver, you further encourage learning skills and child development as kids engage in pretending. Here are a few children’s activities and tips for pretend play.
- Use stories: Invite your children to recreate a favorite story or take it further and add their own twist. During your pretending game, prompt their ideas by asking questions like: “What do you think happened next?” and “What if the dog didn’t find his bone?”
- Provide dolls and puppets: Make sure your child has ample and regular access to things like dolls, stuffed animals, or puppets. These don’t have to be store-bought; they can be cut out of paper or made from socks. Through imaginative play, children easily ascribe feelings and ideas to these ‘people’ and ‘animals’ and often use them to express, explore and work out their own ideas, thoughts, and feelings.
- Create “prop boxes”: Prop boxes are something most high-quality early childhood programs have plenty of. They are boxes (or bins, crates, or bags) with themed dramatic play materials in them. It’s like having a creative experience in a box. Examples of popular prop boxes are a flower shop, office, restaurant, post office, and shoe store. Have a few materials in prop boxes and let your children’s creativity take it from there.
- Make time: No material, environment, or story can take the place of uninterrupted time to play and explore ideas. Pretend play doesn’t fit nicely into twenty minute segments. Be ok with leaving a post office in the living room for a few days to allow your children to fully explore and enhance their creative explorations.
Find more learning activities for kids!
As children’s time is taken up more and more with scheduled activities, it is important to consider what they are losing when they miss out on pretend play. In many ways, a few hours creating pretend ponies and galloping around the yard with fellow cowboys and cowgirls is as developmentally essential as any other pursuit. So next time you see your children engaged in pretend play, don’t rush them to homework, cleaning their room, or piano practice. Allow time for them to build a rocket ship from chairs and blankets and pretend they’re astronauts; it’s time well spent. You might consider crafting a space helmet from foil and a bowl and joining in!
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Colorado's great diversity of rocks, geologic structures, soil types, topography, and climatic conditions combine to create vigorous and diverse geologic processes. When humans move into this dynamic environment, these natural processes can become problematic as geologic hazards.
For example, naturally occurring, inactive landslides may be triggered into renewed activity by the construction of roads or buildings that disrupt the stability of the slope. In addition, many of Colorado's geologic hazards, such as heaving bedrock, swelling soils, and collapsible soils are commonly triggered by human activity that could have been mitigated though proper land-use practices.
Other geologic hazards, like earthquakes, rockfall, mudslides, and avalanches are naturally occurring; but can wreak havoc on buildings, roads, and other engineered structures.
The Colorado Geological Survey is directed by statute to review geologic reports for new developments in unincorporated areas of the state with lot sizes less than 35 acres. We supply a report to the counties stating whether the geologic hazards present on the site have been properly identified and that the proposed plan of mitigation is adequate. Our goal is to reduce the impact of geologic hazards on the lives and property of our citizens.
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| 0.949628 | 246 | 3.5 | 4 |
Unit 9 Have you ever been to a museum?
Section B 1 (1a-2e) 教案设计
教 学 目 标
1. Knowledge and Ability Objects
(1) Key vocabulary: the Terracotta Army, the Great Wall the Bird’s Nest, the Palace Museum
Singapore, population, southeast Asia, western food, Indian food, Night Safa
(2) Target language: Have you visited …?
Have you been to …?Have you seen …?Have you tried …
(3) To train students’ listening, speaking reading abilities and skills.
2. Method Objects in Teaching
(1) Listening and speaking methods.
(2) Reading methods.
(3) Practice method.
3. Sensibility and Value
(1) To raise students’ interest of learning English.
(2) To make students get to know cultures of other countries 教材分析
Teaching Key Points
1. Key vocabulary in this period.
2. Target language in this period.
1. Improve students’ listening.
2. Improve students’ reading skills.
1. A computer for multimedia use. 2. A tape recorder.
.A guessing game.
1. Match the pictures with names.
2. Ask and answer
3. Listen to a student interviewing a foreign student. Check (√) the 5Listen again and take notes
Work in pairs to ask your partner where she/he has been to? Have you visited …? Have you been to …? Have you seen …? Have you tried …? Step3.
1.Look at the pictures and learn the new words.
thousand num. 一千 thousands of 数以千计的 safe adj.安全的 fear v.& n.害怕;惧怕 Indian adj.印度人;印度的 spring n.春天 Japanese adj.日本人;日本的 fox n.狐狸 equator n.赤道 questions you hear.
1. Introduction of Singapore
1)Look at some pictures and watch some videos about Singapore
2)Talk about the symbol of Singapore
2. Fill in the blanks according to the article.
Singapore’s geographical position
A small island (1) ____________
Language(s) people speak in Singapore (2) ______________________ Food we can find in Singapore Chinese food, (3) __________ and Japanese food.
Name of the night zoo in Singapore (4) ___________
Temperature in Singapore It is (5) _________ _____ all year round.
4. Work on 2b. Read the article. How many reasons can you find for visiting Singapore? 4
5. . Work on 2c. The statements below are false. Use information from the article to correct them.
6. Work on 2d. Fill in conversation about Singapore using the information form the article.
Step4 Language points
1. on the one hand… on the other hand
2. …more than three quarters of the population are Chinese… quarter n. 四分之一;一刻钟 three quarters 四分之三
3. May be you fear that you won’t…fear v. 害怕;担心
4. A lot of animals only wake up at night… wake v.
Step5 Exercises Translate the following phrases. Step6 Homework
Write an article to advertise Jilin city .
Unit 9 Have you ever been to a museum? Section B 1 (1a-2e) I.
New words and expressions. Singapore — A Place You Will Never Forget!(Main ideas).
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|Yale-New Haven Teachers Institute||Home|
This curriculum unit is designed for third grade bilingual students learning to write English, with the understanding that some of the students may not be literate in their first language. The plan is specifically for use during the first six to eight weeks of school and leads into narrative writing. It contains suggestions and possible lessons that can be adjusted to the levels of the students. I have based these lessons on the Higher Standards of the New Haven curriculum provided specifically for teachers of English as a Second Language and Bilingual Education.
(Recommended for Languagae Arts and ESL, grades 2-3.)
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Ultra high energy neutrinos emitted by radiant galaxies at the other end of the Universe
An artistic depiction of how a blazar accelerates protons that produce pions, which in turn generate neutrinos and gamma rays. Neutrinos are always the result of hadron reactions. Gamma rays can appear in both hadronic and electromagnetic interactions.
One of the greatest mysteries of science is the definition of not only objects existing in the Universe, but also the sources of signals that we fix here on Earth. For more than a hundred years we have known that cosmic rays have been plying the Universe: high-energy particles, whose sources are far beyond the limits of our Galaxy. And although some of the sources of these particles are already identified, most of them, including those that are the most energetic, remained a mystery.
And so, this situation has changed. On September 22, 2017, the IceCube collaboration detected ultrahigh-energy neutrinos arriving at the South Pole and was able to determine their source. When several telescopes operating in the gamma range were directed to the same point, they not only saw the signal, but also recognized the blazar flashing right at that moment . Finally, humanity has discovered at least one source creating these ultra-energy cosmic particles.
When black holes devour matter, they create an accretion disk and jets flying from both poles, which are perpendicular to it. When the jet of a supermassive black hole points to us, we call it the blazar, and in a particular case it was the BL object of the Lizard. Now they are considered the main source of cosmic rays and high-energy neutrinos. The
Universe, wherever we look, is filled with things that can be observed and with which you can interact. Matter clumps, forming galaxies, stars, planets and even people. Radiation flows through the Universe, covering the entire electromagnetic spectrum. And in every cubic centimeter of space you can find hundreds of ghostly particles with a tiny mass, known as neutrinos.
At the very least, they could be found if they often interact with normal matter, with which we know how to manage. But instead, neutrinos can pass through a wall of lead thickness in a light year, and have a 50/50 chance of colliding with any particle of it. Several decades after their existence was assumed in 1930, we could not detect them.
Experimental nuclear reactor RA-6 , demonstrating the characteristic Cherenkov radiation caused by particles moving faster than light in water. Neutrinos (or, more precisely, antineutrinos), the hypothesis of the existence of which Pauli first put forward in 1930, were discovered in a similar nuclear reactor in 1956.
In 1956, we first discovered them by placing the detectors near nuclear reactors, a few meters from the place of their appearance. In the 1960s, we built large enough detectors — underground, protected from other contaminating particles — to find neutrinos appearing in the Sun, and those generated by the collision of cosmic rays with the atmosphere.
Then in 1987 only a pleasant surprise in the form of a supernova explosion near us allowed us to detect the neutrinos flying from there. Experiments that worked with a completely different purpose , found neutrinos from SN 1987A , and opened the era of astronomy of several "messengers". As far as we could tell, neutrinos flew through the Universe with energies indistinguishable from the speed of light.
1987n supernova remnants located in the Large Magellanic Cloud, 165,000 light-years from us. The fact that neutrinos arrived a few hours before the first signal told us more about the time it took the light to propagate through the star's layers than about the speed of movement of the neutrinos, which was indistinguishable from the speed of light. Apparently, neutrinos, light and gravity move with the same speed.
For about 30 years, the neutrinos from this supernova have remained the only confirmed neutrinos that have come from outside the solar system, not to mention the limits of the galaxy. But this does not mean that we did not take neutrinos from more distant sources; it simply meant that we could not reliably match them to any known source in the sky. Although neutrinos react very weakly with matter, the probability of a reaction increases with an increase in their energy.
And here comes the IceCube observatory .
The IceCube Observatory, the first neutrino observatory of its kind, is designed to observe these elusive particles of high energy under the ice of Antarctica.
Deep under the ice of the South Pole, inside the IceCube is a cubic kilometer of solid matter that helps to find these almost massless neutrinos. When neutrinos pass through the Earth there is always a chance that they will react with the particle there. The interaction will lead to the appearance of a shower of particles, which should leave unequivocal traces on the detectors.
An illustration of how a neutrino reacted with an ice molecule, producing a secondary particle - a muon - moving in ice at a relativistic speed, and leaving a trail of blue light behind it
In six years of operation, IceCube detectors detected more than 80 high-energy cosmic neutrinos with energies of more than 100 TeV: this is more than 10 times higher than the highest energy values achieved by any particles at the Large Hadron Collider. Some of them even approached the scale in PeV, reaching energies a thousand times larger than those necessary to create even the heaviest of the known fundamental particles.
Despite all these neutrinos from space that arrived on Earth, we have so far not been able to compare them with a source in the sky, the location of which we would know for sure. Detection of these neutrinos is an amazing achievement, but we cannot understand which process generates them, unless we can match them in a real, observable object of the Universe — for example, one that we can also observe in electromagnetic radiation.
When a neutrino interacts with particles of pure Antarctic ice, it generates secondary particles, leaving a trace in the form of blue light during the passage through the IceCube detector
. Theorists had no problems with coming up with ideas, for example:
- hypernovae , the brightest varieties of supernovae,
- gamma bursts,
- flashes generated by black holes
- quasars, the largest of the active black holes of the universe.
But to solve this question, evidence was needed.
An example of a high-energy neutrino detected on the IceCube: a 4.45 PeV neutrino collided with a detector in 2014.
IceCube monitored and released reports after each ultra-high energy neutrino detected by them. On September 22, 2017, another such phenomenon was observed: IceCube-170922A. In the report, scientists announced the following:
On September 22, 2017, IceCube discovered a very high energy event with a high probability having an astrophysical source. This event was detected by the Extremely High Energy (EHE) high energy event tracking system. IceCube was in normal operation. EHE events are usually associated with an interaction peak outside the detector where a muon is generated that crosses the detector volume with a high level [energy].
Cosmic rays cause air showers of particles, colliding with protons and atoms of the atmosphere, and emit light due to Cherenkov radiation. Observing cosmic rays in the sky and neutrinos reaching the Earth, we use coincidences to uncover the sources of both phenomena.
This enterprise is interesting not only by neutrino particles, but also by cosmic rays as a whole. Despite the fact that we have seen millions of high-energy cosmic rays over the past hundred years, we do not know the sources of most of them. And this is true for protons, nuclei and neutrinos, both created at their source and resulting from air showers.
That is why it was so interesting that, in addition to a warning about the phenomenon, IceCube also gave out the heavenly coordinates from where these neutrinos were supposed to arrive:
- RA: 77.43 degrees (-0.80 degrees / + 1.30 degrees 90% PSF containment) J2000
- Dec: 5.72 degrees (-0.40 degrees / + 0.70 degrees 90% PSF containment) J2000
And they led observers who were trying to make subsequent observations in the electromagnetic spectrum to this object.
Artistic image of the active galaxy nucleus. A supermassive black hole in the center of an accretion disk sends narrow jets of high energy matter into space, perpendicular to the disk. Blazar, located 4 billion light years away, has become the source of these cosmic rays and neutrinos.
It turned out to be a blazar: a supermassive black hole in the active state, feeding on matter and accelerating it to incredible speeds. Blazars are the same quasars, but with one important difference. Quasars can be oriented in any direction, and at Blazar one of the jets is always directed directly to the Earth. They are called blazars from the word blaze, which means "shine, burn brightly" - they shine straight in our direction.
This particular blazar is known as TXS 0506 + 056 , and many observatories, including the Fermi Observatory at NASA and the MAGIC ground telescope in the Canary Islands, immediately detected the gamma rays emanating from it. About 20 observatories on Earth and in space conducted observations on the traces of neutrino detection using the location given by the IceCube detector last September. This made it possible to determine what scientists believe is the source of high-energy neutrinos, and, therefore, cosmic rays. In addition to neutrinos, observations made across the entire electromagnetic spectrum were made in the gamma, x-ray, optical, and radio frequency ranges.
In addition, upon arrival of the neutrino, it turned out that the blazar is in a radiant state corresponding to the most active particle ejection for such objects. Since particle ejection has its highs and lows, researchers from IceCube combed records for ten years of observations that preceded the outbreak of September 22, 2017, in search of any events related to neutrinos that could have come from TXS 0506 + 056 .
They immediately discovered that neutrinos came from this object in several flashes, which stretched for many years. By combining observations of neutrinos with observations in the electromagnetic range, we were able to reliably conclude that high-energy neutrinos come to us from blazars, and that we have the ability to detect them, even from such great distances. TXS 0506 + 056is 4 billion light years away from us.
Blazar TXS 0506 + 056 is the first confirmed source of high-energy neutrinos and cosmic rays. The picture shows the location of the blazar, located in the sky at the left shoulder of the constellation Orion.
From a single observation of an event with several "messengers" you can derive a huge amount of information:
- It has been demonstrated that blazars are at least one of the sources of cosmic rays.
- The appearance of neutrinos requires decaying pions that appear due to rapidly moving protons.
- The first convincing evidence of the acceleration of protons by black holes.
- TXS 0506 + 056 is one of the brightest sources of the Universe.
- Associated gamma rays suggest that cosmic neutrinos and cosmic rays, at least from time to time, may have a common source.
Cosmic rays emitted by astrophysical sources of high energy, can reach the Earth's surface. When a cosmic ray collides with a particle of the earth's atmosphere, it creates a shower of particles, which we can detect using arrays of ground-based sensors. Finally, we have disclosed their main source.
According to Francis Hulsen, IceCube neutrino observatory research leader:
Interestingly, in the astrophysical community, it was widely believed that blazars can hardly be considered sources of cosmic rays - and here it is ... The ability to build telescopes from all over the world and make discoveries at many wavelengths together with a neutrino detector like IceCube, marks a new milestone in Scientists call multi-messenger astronomy astronomy.
The era of astronomy of several messengers has officially come, and now we have three completely independent, complementary ways to look at the sky: with the help of light, neutrinos and gravitational waves. We have learned that blazars, once thought to be unlikely candidates for generating high-energy neutrinos and cosmic rays, actually produce both.
The artist's idea of the remote quasar 3C 279. Outgoing from both poles of the jet is a common phenomenon, but it very rarely happens that such a jet points directly to us. When this happens, we get the blazar - as now confirmed, the source of cosmic rays and high-energy neutrinos that we have observed for many years.
Together with this discovery, a new scientific field, the astronomy of high-energy neutrinos, is officially launched. Neutrinos are no longer a byproduct of other interactions or a space wonder, barely extending beyond the limits of the solar system. Now we can use them as a fundamental probe of the Universe and the laws of physics themselves. One of the main goals of the IceCube was to identify sources of high-energy cosmic neutrinos. With the confirmation of Blazar TXS 0506 + 056 as a source of both these neutrinos and cosmic rays, one of many of the cosmic dreams finally came true.
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By Nudge Sustainability Reporter Trish Nyarumbu
Rivers, dams and lakes play a very important role in the ecosystem as sources of water for all forms of life, habitat and also of aesthetic value to nature. Their importance seems to be undermined assuming the rate at which eutrophication is taking place especially in the urban areas of many cities in Zimbabwe.
It has favored the growth and proliferation of water hyacinth (Eichhornia Crassipes Martius) which is considered as noxious weed in a number of countries. Water hyacinth depletes oxygen rapidly thus is affecting all forms of aquatic life. The increase in hyacinth populations is a clear indication that the water systems are heavily enriched with nitrogen and phosphorous nutrients.
The contribution of agriculture to this matter can not be undermined as it is one of the major activities taking place along river banks and in wetlands (Figure 1) resulting in an increased nutrient load in rivers through leaching of fertilizers and soil erosion.
The construction of residential stands (Figure 2), factories and pavements also destroy the soil affecting the natural mechanism of self purification of wetland areas.
The colonization of water bodies with such water weeds (Figure 3) becomes a challenge for the water system because it leads to poor water quality, obstruction of recreation and loss of aquatic biodiversity.
Whose responsibility is it then?
Communities should be made aware of the need of sustainable utilization of environmental resources and the consequences of environmental degradation. That sense of belonging should be instilled through participatory programs from grassroots level. There are local initiatives in environmental conservation such as Mukuvisi Woodlands which are open to tours from youngsters to older people.
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“Having undertaken for the Glory of God, and Advancement of the Christian Faith…” were the words written in the first political charter (The Mayflower Compact) in the American colonies. William Bradford, the chief architect of the Mayflower Compact wrote a history of the Plymouth Colony and in that history he expressed the reason that they undertook such a dangerous and risky venture of sailing to the New World. Bradford wrote:
“They [colonists] cherished a great hope and inward zeal of laying good foundations…for the propagations and advance of the Gospel of the kingdom of Christ in the remote parts of the world, even though they should be but stepping stones to others in the performance of so great a work.”
Bradford and his fellow Separatists established the Plymouth colony in 1620 to escape the strict religious persecution taking place in England and other European countries. From 1620 up to the 1770’s, thousands of colonists fled their countries for the promise of religious freedom that was to be found in the American Colonies.
Puritan minister Rev. Thomas Hooker left England in 1633 due to his Christian views. Rev. Hooker settled in Connecticut and soon became aware of the need for a Christian rule to govern the colonists. In 1638, he was instrumental in writing the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut which were adopted in 1639. These Fundamental Orders contained many biblical rights and ideas. This is the first written constitution in history.
In 1641, Rev. Nathaniel Ward wrote the Body of Liberties for the people of the Massachusetts colony. The Body of Liberty was the first Bill of Rights ever written. Its purpose was stated as:
“Wee doe therefore this day religiously and unanimously decree and confirme these following Rites, liberties and priveledges concerneing our Churches, and Civill State to be respectively impartiallie and inviolably enjoyed and observed throughout our Jurisdiction for ever.”
Article 95 of the Body of Liberties was titled:
“A Declaration of the Liberties the Lord Jesus hath given to the Churches.”
As the American colonies developed, charters were written to govern them and most of these charters shared the same sentiments found in the Mayflower Compact – to advance and propagate the Gospel and the kingdom of Jesus Christ. A number of these charters actually had provisions for the support of the Christian church. In Massachusetts, taxes were collected for the express purpose of supporting local churches and ministers. The practice continued into statehood and eventually ended in 1833.
Between 1740 and 1760, the colonies experienced a revival known as the Great Awakening. Led by Rev. George Whitefield and Rev. Jonathan Edwards, tens of thousands colonists were converted to Christianity and many churches more than doubled in size. Among those that were influenced by the Great Awakening were George Washington, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Samuel Adams and James Madison along with many of the other Founders responsible for America’s freedom. Christian historians attribute the Great Awakening as the impetus that launched the American Revolution as it helped to form their biblical and Christian worldviews which in turn molded their views on virtue, statesmanship and liberty.
Among those greatly influenced by the Great Awakening was Samuel Adams, often called the “Father of the Revolution”. Samuel Adams was known to be a very ardent Christian and a true prayer warrior. Inspired by his biblical beliefs, Adams realized that the growing conflict with Great Britain was more than just political or economic; it was also a spiritual battle. The British were violating the individual and Christian rights of the colonists. Adams was instrumental in circulating letters throughout the colonies educating the colonists on the reasons to support the idea of revolution against the British based upon biblical principles. Without these circulating letters explaining the biblical reasons to support revolution, many colonists would have resisted the idea of revolution and the colonies would have remained under British control for many more years to come.
Under the influence of Adam’s circular letters and the fervent preaching of the clergy, the colonists became more unified than ever before. On September 5, 1774, the First Continental Congress was convened in Philadelphia. Its first official act was to pass a resolution to have the Congress meet the next day at Carpenter’s Hall where Rev. Jacob Duché would open the session with prayer. Before dispersing on October 26, 1774, the First Continental Congress adopted the Declaration of Rights and Grievances which was a response to the British Intolerable Acts, and they agreed to call for a Second Continental Congress to reconvene on May 10, 1775.
Before the Second Continental Congress could convene, the first shots of the American Revolution were fired at Lexington, MA on April 19, 1775. With the American colonies at war with Great Britain, the main task of the Second Continental Congress was to manage the war that had broken out with the British.
It was the clergy who preached for religious and political freedom from British tyranny. On January 21, 1776, a Virginia minister by the name of Peter Muhlenberg preached from Ecclesiastes 3 which starts out: concluded his sermon with the following words:
“To all things there is an appointed time, and a time to every purpose under the heaven.”
Concluding his sermon, Mulenberg walked to the rear of his church, taking off his black clerical robe to reveal the dress uniform of a colonel in the Virginia Militia. Then in a booming voice he quoted part of Ecclesiastes 3:8, saying:
“There is a time to fight, and that time has come.”
With drums beating, nearly every one of the 300 men in the congregation followed Rev. Muhlenberg to war. The Rev. Peter Muhlenberg is often most remembered for serving as a Brigadier General under George Washington and playing a very crucial role in the Revolutionary war.
On June 11, 1776, the Continental Congress appointed a committee of five men to work on a draft of a document for independence. That committee consisted of John Adams, Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, Robert Livingston and Roger Sherman. As the Committee of Five worked on the draft, the rest of the Convention continued to argue over whether or not the colonies should declare their independence or continue to use diplomatic means to reach an agreeable peace with Great Britain.
By early July, the declaration was almost complete, yet the debate about whether to sign such an important document or not still persisted. One of the delegates, the Rev. John Witherspoon, addressed the Convention with the following words:
“There is a tide in the affairs of men, and we can perceive it now before us. To hesitate is to consent to our own slavery. That noble instrument upon your table, which insures immortality to its author, should be subscribed this morning by every pen in this House. He that will not respond to its accents and strain every nerve to carry into effect its provisions is unworthy the name of freeman! For my own part, of property I have some, of reputation more. That reputation is staked, that property is pledged on the issue of this contest; and although these gray hairs must soon descend into the sepulchre, I would infinitely rather that they descend thither by the hand of the executioner than desert at this crisis the sacred cause of my country!”
The Rev. John Witherspoon was not only a well known minister of the Gospel, he was also a very popular educator and college president. Shortly after hearing the words of Rev. Witherspoon, the delegates signed the document that was titled, The United States Declaration of Independence on July 4, 1776. Witherspoon’s educational legacy included 9 of the signers of the Declaration of Independence, 1 U.S. President (James Madison), 1 U.S. Vice-President, 28 U.S. Senators, 49 U.S. Congressmen, 3 U.S. Supreme Court Justices, 34 other judges, 10 federal Cabinet officers, 12 state governors and numerous state congressmen.
Every one of these signers of the Declaration of Independence knew that their signatures on this document meant that they were to be declared as sworn enemies of the British crown and that they stood to lose all of their wealth, possessions and lives. They were willing sacrifice everything for the cause of political and religious freedom.
News of the Declaration of Independence was spread throughout the colonies mostly through the churches. After receiving a copy of the newly signed declaration, the executive council for the Massachusetts Bay issued the following order:
“In Council July 17, 1776. Ordered, that the Declaration of Independence be Printed, and a copy sent to the Ministers of each Parish of every denomination, within this State; and that they severally be required to read the same to their respective congregations as soon as divine service is ended in the afternoon, on the first Lord’s Day after they shall have received it: and after such Publication thereof, to deliver the said Declaration to the Clerks of their several Towns or Districts, who are hereby required to record the same in their respective Town or District Books, there to remain as a perpetual Memorial thereof.”
During that time, the Second Continental Congress knew that they needed to create some form of rule to govern the 13 colonies. In 1777, they established the Articles of Confederation which were ratified in 1781 and used to govern the new nation to until 1787. By the time the Revolutionary War ended in 1783, the Second Continental Congress began to realize that the Articles of Confederation were insufficient to rule the newly won nation. Among the problems with the ruling document was that Congress had no power to raise money or to enforce any of its decisions, it did not provide for any type of executive leadership and did not sufficiently provide for solutions of the many interstate conflicts that were arising.
James Madison, a member of the Virginia Lower House and former student Rev. John Witherspoon, urged that the newly formed states meet to discuss ways to fix and repair the Articles of Confederation. In January 1786, the Virginia Legislature sent invitations to the other 12 states to meet in Annapolis, Maryland to hammer out these issues. The Annapolis Convention was poorly attended and called for a Grand Convention to meet in Philadelphia on May 14, 1787.
On May 14, 1787, the Constitutional Convention met at Pennsylvania State House in Philadelphia and elected General George Washington as the Convention President. It soon became clear that it would take too much work to try to amend the Articles of Confederation and that it would be necessary to create a new governing document.
However, over the course of the next few weeks, little progress was made towards that singular goal. The smaller states didn’t want the large states to have more power then they did and the northern and southern states had their differences of opinions on a number of issues including slavery. There was also a great deal of disagreement on what type of government they should adopt. Various “Plans” were put forth including the Virginia Plan (also known and the Large State Plan), the New Jersey Plan (also known as the Small State Plan), the Charles Pinckney Plan, the Hamilton Plan and the Connecticut Compromise.
Tempers often flared in the heat of early summer. Towards the end of June, the Constitutional Convention was on the verge of disbanding without accomplishing anything towards forming a new governing document. At this time, the delegate considered to be the most deist of all of the Founding Fathers, Benjamin Franklin, asked the Convention President, George Washington for the floor to address his fellow delegates. Upon being granted permission, Franklin gave the following speech:
The small progress we have made after 4 or five weeks close attendance & continual reasonings with each other — our different sentiments on almost every question, several of the last producing as many noes as ays, is methinks a melancholy proof of the imperfection of the Human Understanding. We indeed seem to feel our own wont of political wisdom, since we have been running about in search of it. We have gone back to ancient history for models of government, and examined the different forms of those Republics which having been formed with the seeds of their own dissolution now no longer exist. And we have viewed Modern States all round Europe, but find none of their Constitutions suitable to our circumstances.
In this situation of this Assembly groping as it were in the dark to find political truth, and scarce able to distinguish it when to us, how has it happened, Sir, that we have not hitherto once thought of humbly applying to the Father of lights to illuminate our understandings? In the beginning of the contest with G. Britain, when we were sensible of danger we had daily prayer in this room for the Divine Protection. — Our prayers, Sir, were heard, and they were graciously answered. All of us who were engaged in the struggle must have observed frequent instances of a Superintending providence in our favor. To that kind providence we owe this happy opportunity of consulting in peace on the means of establishing our future national felicity. And have we now forgotten that powerful friend? or do we imagine that we no longer need His assistance.
I have lived, Sir, a long time and the longer I live, the more convincing proofs I see of this truth — that God governs in the affairs of men. And if a sparrow cannot fall to the ground without his notice, is it probable that an empire can rise without his aid? We have been assured, Sir, in the sacred writings that ‘except the Lord build they labor in vain that build it.’ I firmly believe this; and I also believe that without his concurring aid we shall succeed in this political building no better than the Builders of Babel: We shall be divided by our little partial local interests; our projects will be confounded, and we ourselves shall be become a reproach and a bye word down to future age. And what is worse, mankind may hereafter this unfortunate instance, despair of establishing Governments by Human Wisdom, and leave it to chance, war, and conquest.
I therefore beg leave to move — that henceforth prayers imploring the assistance of Heaven, and its blessings on our deliberations, be held in this Assembly every morning before we proceed to business, and that one or more of the Clergy of this City be requested to officiate in that service.”
When the venerable Dr. Franklin finished his address, the room was silent for several moments. Then the resolution for prayer was unanimously approved and the entire atmosphere of the Convention was changed. Every session from then on was opened with prayer.
The delegates started to listen to each other’s concerns and over the next two and half months, they were finally able to agree on a form of government that addressed most of their concerns. On September 17, 1787, the Constitution of the United States of America was adopted and sent to the states for ratification. The Constitution was ratified on June 21, 1788. Today, this is the oldest active constitution in the world.
During the Convention’s deliberations leading to the formation of the Constitution, some of the delegates proposed adding a list of rights to help secure certain individual freedoms and to restrict the role and power of the new federal government. One suggestion was to add a Bill of Rights to the beginning of the Constitution while another went as far as to suggest that all the new government needed was just a Bill of Rights and no constitution. By the end of the Convention and adoption of the U.S. Constitution, they had not come to any agreement on a Bill of Rights.
During the deliberations of the First United States Congress in 1789, James Madison, a U.S. Representative from the state of Virginia, began to introduce a series of articles into the U.S. Congress. Madison’s biblical education led him to see the need to secure a number of individual rights and liberties and the need to restrict the federal government from acquiring too much power and control over the states. By September 25, 1789, Madison had finalized his articles into the Bill of Rights consisting of 10 amendments to the U.S. Constitution. The Bill of Rights was approved by the states and officially ratified on December 15, 1791.
What you will not see in textbooks today is that America owes its existence to those whose Christian beliefs and convictions were so strong that they were willing to sacrifice everything including their lives to create and protect it. These early Founders firmly believed that the only form of government was one that was firmly rooted in God’s Word, and upon the biblical principles of virtue, morality, civility, liberty and the rights of the individual. And without the clergy of colonial America, we probably would all still be singing, “God Save the Queen.”
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University of Maryland professor helped evaluate the ability of software to assemble, classify and analyze complex pools of bacterial DNA
Communities of bacteria live everywhere: inside our bodies, on our bodies and all around us. The human gut alone contains hundreds of species of bacteria that help digest food and provide nutrients, but can also make us sick. To learn more about these groups of bacteria and how they impact our lives, scientists need to study them. But this task poses challenges, because taking the bacteria into the laboratory is either impossible or would disrupt the biological processes the scientists wish to study.
To bypass these difficulties, scientists have turned to the field of metagenomics. In metagenomics, researchers use algorithms to piece together DNA from an environmental sample to determine the type and role of bacteria present. Unlike established fields such as chemistry, where researchers evaluate their results against a set of known standards, metagenomics is a relatively young field that lacks such benchmarks.
Mihai Pop, a professor of computer science at the University of Maryland with a joint appointment in the University of Maryland Institute for Advanced Computer Studies, recently helped judge an international challenge called the Critical Assessment of Metagenome Interpretation (CAMI), which benchmarked metagenomics software. The results were published in the journal Nature Methods on October 2, 2017.
“There’s no one algorithm that we can say is the best at everything,” said Pop, who is also co-director of the Center for Health-related Informatics and Bioimaging at UMD. “What we found was that one tool does better in one context, but another does better in another context. It is important for researchers to know that they need to choose software based on the specific questions they are trying to answer.”
The study’s results were not surprising to Pop, because of the many challenges metagenomics software developers face. First, DNA analysis is challenging in metagenomics because the recovered DNA often comes from the field, not a tightly controlled laboratory environment. In addition, DNA from many organisms—some of which may not have known genomes—mingle together in a sample, making it difficult to correctly assemble, or piece together, individual genomes. Moreover, DNA degrades in harsh environments.
“I like to think of metagenomics as a new type of microscope,” Pop said. “In the old days, you would use a microscope to study bacteria. Now we have a much more powerful microscope, which is DNA sequencing coupled with advanced algorithms. Metagenomics holds the promise of helping us understand what bacteria do in the world. But first we need to tune that microscope.”
CAMI’s leader invited Pop to help evaluate the submissions by challenge participants because of his expertise in genome and metagenome assembly. In 2009, Pop helped publish Bowtie, one of the most commonly used software packages for assembling genomes. More recently, he collaborated with the University of Maryland School of Medicine to analyze hundreds of thousands of gene sequences as part of the largest, most comprehensive study of childhood diarrheal diseases ever conducted in developing countries.
“We uncovered new, unknown bacteria that cause diarrheal diseases, and we also found interactions between bacteria that might worsen or improve illness,” Pop said. “I feel that’s one of the most impactful projects I’ve done using metagenomics.”
For the competition, CAMI researchers combined approximately 700 microbial genomes and 600 viral genomes with other DNA sources and simulated how such a collection of DNA might appear in the field. The participants’ task was to reconstruct and analyze the genomes of the simulated DNA pool.
CAMI researchers scored the participants’ submissions in three areas: how well they assembled the fragmented genomes; how well they “binned,” or organized, DNA fragments into related groups to determine the families of organisms in the mixture; and how well they “profiled,” or reconstructed, the identity and relative abundance of the organisms present in the mixture. Pop contributed metrics and software for evaluating the submitted assembled genomes.
Nineteen teams submitted 215 entries using six genome assemblers, nine binners and 10 profilers to tackle this challenge.
The results showed that for assembly, algorithms that pieced together a genome using different lengths of smaller DNA fragments outperformed those that used DNA fragments of a fixed length. However, no assemblers did well at picking apart different, yet similar genomes.
For the binning task, the researchers found tradeoffs in how accurately the software programs identified the group to which a particular DNA fragment belonged, versus how many DNA fragments the software assigned to any groups. This result suggests that researchers need to choose their binning software based on whether accuracy or coverage is more important. In addition, the performance of all binning algorithms decreased when samples included multiple related genomes.
In profiling, software either recovered the relative abundance of bacteria in the sample better or detected organisms better, even at very low quantities. However, the latter algorithms identified the wrong organism more often.
Going forward, Pop said the CAMI group will continue to run new challenges with different data sets and new evaluations aimed at more specific aspects of software performance. Pop is excited to see scientists use the benchmarks to address research questions in the laboratory and the clinic.
“The field of metagenomics needs standards to ensure that results are correct, well validated and follow best practices,” Pop said. “For instance, if a doctor is going to stage an intervention based on results from metagenomic software, it’s essential that those results be correct. Our work provides a roadmap for choosing appropriate software.”
This work was led by Alice McHardy of the Department for Computational Biology of Infection Research at the Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research and the Braunschweig Integrated Centre of Systems Biology in Braunschweig, Germany.
This work was supported by an Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council Grant (Award No. EP/K032208/1), a U.S. Department of Energy contract (Award No. DEAC02-05CH11231) and the Cluster of Excellence on Plant Sciences program funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft. The content of this article does not necessarily reflect the views of these organizations.
The research paper, “Critical Assessment of Metagenome Interpretation – a benchmark of computational metagenomics software,” Alice McHardy et al., was published in the journal Nature Methods on October 2, 2017.
Media Relations Contact: Irene Ying, 301-405-5204, [email protected]
About the College of Computer, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences
The College of Computer, Mathematical, and Natural Sciences at the University of Maryland educates more than 7,000 future scientific leaders in its undergraduate and graduate programs each year. The college’s 10 departments and more than a dozen interdisciplinary research centers foster scientific discovery with annual sponsored research funding exceeding $150 million.
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Taking the easy road this week. I pulled this week’s Quiz Question from an Internet site, so don’t go searching math puzzles on Google. Copied and pasted from the site:
Use the numerals 1, 9, 9 and 6 exactly in that order to make the following numbers: 28, 32, 35, 38, 72, 73, 76, 77, 100 and 1000
You can use the mathematical symbols +, -, ×, /, √, ^ (exponent symbol) and brackets.
Example: 63 = 1×9+9×6
Post your answer in the comments section below. The winner will be whoever posts the greatest number of correct solutions.
This is from somebody else. It showed up on my Facebook feed just in time, when I needed inspiration for a new Quiz Question. It’s easy. Give yourself about 15 seconds. The problem was posed as:
There are three boxes and three statements. There is a car in only one of the boxes. Only one statement is true. Which statement is true, and in which box is the car?
Post your answer as a comment below.
Got this one from the Internet, so no fair going to Google for the answer.
ABCDEF × 3 = BCDEFA
Substitute a digit for each letter to provide the correct equation. Post your answer as a comment below. The solution will be provided next week (or sooner).
No solution given yet. I have not taken the time to solve this, but here are some hints.
Note that A < 4 and A ≠ 0. A ≠ 0 is not stated in the problem, but I’m taking it as assumed. If A > 3, then multiplying by three would produce overflow and a number with more digits.
BCDEFA is divisible by 3, which means ABCDEF is divisible by 3, since both have the same digital root.
BCDEFA is divisible by 9.
That should get people going, so I’m going to give more time to come up with an answer.
Easy one for a change, so give yourself 10 seconds to work it. It’s a single water hose with the ends uncoupled. Where are the ends?
Post your answer in the comment section below.
Update and solution
The solution is straight-forward. See the revised picture below.
Draw circles (ellipses) around A and B. Each has three hoses crossing into (or out of) the ellipse. Therefore, there must be a hose end within each of the two ellipses. Since there are only two ends (one hose), the ends must be under A and B. You don’t need to examine C and D, but if you do you will observe an even number of crossings.
Readers have been getting off easy recently. I’m going back to geometry questions, so give your brain a work out.
I found this on the Internet, but you shouldn’t go looking for the solution without first coming up with a solution. With a single line, does not need to be straight, divide the shape shown above into two identical parts. Post your answer as a comment below.
Actually, send me a copy of your solution by email, and I will post it.
No solution. I have not solved it. Mike proposed a solution. See his comment below. Unable to post a graphic, he indicated the shape of the solution as follows:
See the figure below:
Shape A is the original, turned upright. Shape B is Mike’s proposed solution in graphical form. My apologies if I misinterpreted Mike’s rendition.
What is apparent to me is that shape B cannot be fitted twice into shape A. I’m calling the Quiz Question still unanswered.
Another safe geometry problem. I find these on the Internet, so there’s not a lot of originality going to waste. Slice the picture into 2 sections from which you could make an 8×8 square.
Post your solution in the comments section below.
Mathematics again. What is the value of the indicated angle? Post your answer as a comment below.
Three people have submitted correct answers, all holding Ph.D. degrees, but none in mathematics. Here is my solution, which I believe to be the simplest approach. See the diagram:
It’s the same as the original diagram, but I have added some labels, and I have added line BC.
Notice immediately that BC is the same as AB. If you don’t notice this immediately, then stop reading now and get into another line of work. Now notice that angle BAD is the same as angle EBC. Again, if you don’t notice, stop reading. BAD = EBC implies ABC is a right angle. Again, you can quit while you’re ahead. We have a right isosceles triangle, which means that BAC is 45°. And no mental gymnastics have been required.
This popped up on my Facebook time line, posted by somebody else. So I stole it, and here it is: What is the sum of all the blue angles? Post your answer as a comment below.
A number of people have posted responses, so I am going to supply the answer. See the following diagram:
What is the sum of interior angles of a polygon? The example of a triangle explains. The triangle is ABC, defined by its three interior angles. But concentrate on the complementary angles a and b and c. What is the sum of those angles? Consider the line ab. Line bc branches off from ab with a change of direction equal to angle b. Follow the path around the triangle, and the total change of direction is 360 degrees. That’s going to be the total of a and b and c. The sum of a and A is 180° so the sum of all angles is 3 × 180 = 540. 540 – 360 = 180, the sum of interior angles of all triangles.
The method holds true for all polygons. The polygon in this puzzle is unusual in that the path makes two complete turns or 360 × 2 = 720. There are 6 sides and six interior angles, so the sum of the interior angles is 6 × 180 – 720 = 360.
The squares are equal in size. What is A + B + C?
Post your answer as a comment below. Hint, it’s not all that hard.
One of a continuing series
Back to some basic math for a change. What is the answer?
Those aren’t radio buttons. You have to enter your answer as a comment below.
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15 Mar How to Talk to Kids About COVID -19
HOW TO TALK TO KIDS ABOUT COVID-19
Just as I continue to advocate about the need to talk with children about death and dying, given the experience we are currently living through, I thought it might be helpful to provide some clear suggestions about how to navigate some conversations related to COVID -19:
Fill up their tool kit:
Children already have experience with fearful situations such as transitioning to a new school or engaging in a new activity. The best tools we can offer is to provide information in an honest manner – we can let our kids know we were feeling scared too, but now we have learned how to keep ourselves and others safe: it’s called social distancing – keeping ourselves away from groups of people like schools or community groups. By doing this, we are modelling how to effectively cope through these trying times.
Actions speak louder than words:
Children learn far more by what they see than what they hear – so running to the stores and hoarding items without any explanation can prove very scary to children – particularly for those children who already have a propensity towards anxiety.
Explain what the Coronavirus is:
Using age appropriate terms, you can tell your children it’s not like a cold or other flus. This is a new virus that scientists (people that study illness) are still learning about, which is why we have to be extra careful right now. Then stop talking – let them lead the conversation/ask questions – it will give you a good idea of what they are thinking/feeling.
How much information is too much?
While honesty is very important at any time, there is a lot of misinformation out there so try to limit the amount of TV/internet exposure as it may give children (and you) an exaggerated perspective on the reality of COVID-19. According to Health Canada https://www.canada.ca/en/health-canada.html “They do not need detailed information about events, but they do need to talk about their feelings. Let them know they can ask questions. Answer them honestly, but make sure the information is suitable for their age level. If you don’t know the answers, it’s okay to say so and together look for resources that can answer their questions.”
What can we do?
Keeping safe means washing our hands with soap and water A LOT. Explain that they can use their favourite song to sing while washing to help them remember how long to scrub. This will help towards avoiding getting sick. Remind them to cough into their shirt or elbow rather than their hands. It is also important that children try not to pick their nose.
Things to avoid
The Centre for Disease Control https://www.cdc.gov/warns adults to be aware of the stigma when talking to children about the coronavirus. “Viruses can make anyone sick, regardless of a person’s race or ethnicity. Avoid making assumptions about who might have COVID-19”. Therefore, please don’t tell your children that only older people contract this virus – as they may have a different definition of ‘old’ than you do.
Listen more than talk:
Please do not dismiss their fears by saying things like “don’t worry” rather, ask them what they are particularly worried about and help them problem solve together as to what things they and you can do together to help manage their worry.
Is there a ‘Silver lining?”
While these may be scary times, please remember that this can also be an opportunity to teach children problem solving skills, empathy and how to support one another through times of difficulty.
Be safe & take care of yourself and others!
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This is a guest post by Jim Martin, senior legal information analyst at the Law Library of Congress. Jim has written some of our most popular posts over the years including The Articles of Confederation.
On June 28, 1914, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the Hapsburg presumptive heir to the throne of the Austro-Hungarian Empire, and his wife Sophie, Duchess of Hohenberg, were assassinated in the city of Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a member of a Serbian backed secret para-military organization. This event followed several years of tensions between the governments of Austria-Hungary and Serbia after the former’s annexation of Bosnia-Herzegovina in 1908.
As a result of the shootings the government of Austria-Hungary communicated a list of demands to the government of Serbia. The Serbian government agreed to comply wholly, or in part, with most of the ultimatum, but, after obtaining guarantees from the Russian government that it would receive support against Austria-Hungary, it rejected the last demand that would have resulted in a major infringement of its sovereignty. The government in Vienna broke diplomatic relations and announced a mobilization of the army against Serbia. On July 28, 1914, after a report of an unverified incident involving Hapsburg and Serbian troops, the government of Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.
This image is taken from a July 28, 1914, extra edition of the Wiener Zeitung, the official newspaper of the Austrian government, announcing that a state of war exists with Serbia. It is printed in both German and French. A similar announcement was published on August 6, 1914, the day that war was declared on Russia. The Wiener Zeitung is one of the oldest official newspapers published.
Princip was tried by Haspburg authorities for his role in the assassinations. He was convicted of the crimes, but due to his age at the time of their commission he escaped the death penalty and was instead sentenced to 20 years imprisonment. He died in prison in 1918 of complications from tuberculosis.
World War I was fought on three continents and across the world’s major oceans. Four empires ended as a result of the war: the German; Austro-Hungarian; Russian; and Ottoman. Approximately 8.5 million combatants died during the course of World War I.
Williamson, Samuel R., Jr., Austria-Hungary and the origins of the First World War (1991).
Herwig, Holger H., The First World War: Germany and Austria-Hungary, 1914-1918 (1997).
Owings, W.A. Dolph, Trans. & Ed. Elizabeth Pribic and Nikola Pribic, The Sarajevo Trial (1984).
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Read everything you need to know about Shakespeare’s death – what age he died, where he died, how he died, and what his last words were.
At what age did Shakespeare die?
William Shakespeare died on 23 April 1616, his 52nd birthday. In truth, the exact date of Shakespeare’s death is not known but assumed from a record of his burial two days later, 25 April 1616, at Holy Trinity Church. Stratford Upon Avon, where his grave remains.
The last months of Shakespeare’s life were embroiled in scandal after his daughter Judith’s husband Thomas Quiney was brought before the church court at Holy Trinity. Thomas was made to do penance for getting another woman pregnant who then died in childbirth – a likely reason behind Shakespeare rewriting his will on 25 March 16167. Within weeks of writing his new will, Shakespeare was dead.
Where did Shakespeare’s death happen?
In 1610 Shakespeare left his working life in London and lived in retirement with his wife in Stratford-upon-Avon’s largest house – New House. It is believed that Shakespeare’s death occurred in New House, where he would have been attended by his son-in-law Dr John Hall, the local physician.
How did Shakespeare die?
We don’t know the cause of Shakespeare’s death, but there is a theory that Shakespeare died after contracting a fever following a drinking binge with fellow playwrights Ben Jonson and Michael Drayton. The source of this theory is John Ward, the vicar of Holy Trinity Church in, who wrote many years after Shakespeare’s death that “Shakespeare, Drayton, and Ben Jonson had a merry meeting, and it seems drank too hard; for Shakespeare died of a fever there contracted.” Most historians agree, however, that given Stratford-upon-Avon’s reputation for scandalous stories and rumors in the 17th Century this an overblown anecdote with no base in fact.
A more convincing theory is that Shakespeare was sick for over a month before he died. The evidence comes from the fact that on 25 March 1616 (just 4 weeks before his death) Shakespeare dictated his will – in keeping with the 17th Century tradition of drawing up wills on one’s deathbed. This suggests Shakespeare could have been aware his life was coming to an end. Some scholars also point to his signature on his will being somewhat shaky, giving evidence of his frailty at the time.
Despite all of the theories, the cause of Shakespeare’s death at the age of just 52 will likely remain a mystery. But living in Elizabethan England where the average life expectancy was just 35 years, Shakespeare died a grandfather after living a relatively long and healthy life.
Did Shakespeare die poor?
Shakespeare died a wealthy man. His plays were very popular and his London theatres were booked out every day, ensuring a good income. At the end of his life, he owned several properties in London and Stratford. He left generous amounts of money to friends and relatives.
It is sometimes thought that he died poor because he left his second-best bed to his wife. It was a loving gesture because it was the custom to reserve the best bed for guests and to sleep in the second-best bed. That is where the couple slept together, where their children were conceived and born, and probably where Shakespeare died. He knew, too that his wife would be taken care of after his death, and would continue to live in the matrimonial home.
What were Shakespeare’s last words?
Nobody knows for sure what Shakespeare’s last words were, as he died in the privacy of his close family and there are no known reports of his death. However, in anticipation of his death, Shakespeare wrote a few words to be inscribed on his tomb, to ensure that once buried no-one would dig him up to move his body to somewhere else. Shakespeare’s epitaph reads:
Good friend for Jesus sake forbeare,
To dig the dust enclosed here.
Blessed be the man that spares these stones,
And cursed be he that moves my bones.
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Yorkshire is named after York and York is a shortened form of the Viking name Jorvik, which was in turn an interpretation of the Anglo-Saxon name Eoforwic. Yorkshire is the county or 'shire' of York City and has been know in the past as Eoferwicscir, the County of York and Le Counte d' Everwyck.
North Yorkshire is the biggest county in England, formed in part by the old North Riding of Yorkshire. The term 'riding' is of Viking origin and derives from Threthingr meaning a third part. There were indeed three ridings in Yorkshire - the East Riding, West Riding and North Riding. The ancient Kingdom of Lindsey, known today as Lincolnshire was also an area of considerable Viking settlement and was likewise divided into three ridings.
The village of Bainbridge in Wensleydale in the old North Riding of Yorkshire. Photograph by David Simpson.
The East and North Ridings of Yorkshire were separated by the River Derwent and the West and North Ridings were separated by the Ouse and the UreNidd watershed. In 1974 the three ridings of Yorkshire were abolished and York which had been a county in its own right, independent of the three ridings, was incorporated into the new county called North Yorkshire. Northallerton, the capital of the North Riding continued its administrative role as the headquarters for North Yorkshire, but Middlesbrough which once held a quarter of the North Riding population was moved into the newly created county called Cleveland The county of Cleveland also included Hartlepool and Stockton from County Durham north of the Tees. At the time of Cleveland's creation, most of East Yorkshire, centred upon the city of Hull was combined with North Lincolnshire to form a County called Humberside.
More recently Cleveland County and Humberside have been abolished and for cultural purposes inhabitants north of the River Humber and south of the River Tees can regard themselves as Yorkshiremen once again.
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It’s well known that everyone’s favourite religious reformer and psychopath, Henry VIII, called six different women his wife. He may have claimed that four of them never counted, he may have had two of those killed. Nonetheless, he got married on six different occasions. Henry VIII had six wives.
But the reason we’re hammering this home is that the phrase is nonetheless just a tiny bit misleading. Referring blithely to “the six wives of Henry VIII” creates an impression of parity: it suggests a line of unfortunate women of similar degrees of importance to national life and English history.
Run the numbers, though, and you can instantly see that the phrase is deeply unfair to poor, abandoned Catherine of Aragon:
Catherine was queen for 24 years. That’s nearly seven times longer than her nearest successor. It’s nearly 50 times longer than Anne of Cleves, who was queen for all of six months. There was barely time to adjust the headband on the crown.
Frame it a pie chart (what’s more fun than a historical pie chart?) and you can see that Catherine was queen for nearly two-thirds of Henry’s entire reign.
No wonder she was miffed at being pushed out. “The Six Wives of Henry VIII”? If Catherine hadn’t been dead for 479 years, she would sue.
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Logo is one of the most powerful programming languages around. In order to take advantage of that power, you must understand Logo's central ideas: procedures and evaluation. It is with these ideas that our exploration of Logo programming begins.
In response to Logo's question-mark prompt, type this instruction:
Logo will respond to this instruction by printing the number 17 and then printing another question mark, to indicate that it's ready for another instruction:
? print 17 17
underlined things are the ones
you should type; what's
not underlined is what the computer prints.)
This instruction doesn't do much, but it's important to understand how it's
put together. The word
If you have previously used some other programming language, you may
be accustomed to the idea of different statement types making
up the repertoire of the language. For example, BASIC has a
let statement, an
input statement, etc. Pascal
has an assignment
if statement, a
while statement, etc. Each
kind of statement has its own syntax, that is, its own special
punctuation and organization. Logo is very different. It does not
have different kinds of instructions; everything in Logo is
done by the use of procedures. If Logo is your first programming
language, you don't have to worry about this. But for people with
previous experience in another language, it's a common source of misunderstanding.
When you first start up Logo, it "knows" about 200 procedures. These initial procedures are called primitive procedures. Your task as a Logo programmer is to add to Logo's repertoire by defining new procedures of your own. You do this by putting together procedures that already exist. We'll see how this is done later in this chapter.
In ordinary conversation, words such as instruction and procedure have pretty much the same meaning--they refer to any process, recipe, or method for carrying out some task. That's not the situation when we're talking about computer programming. Each of these words has a specific technical meaning, and it's very important for you to keep them straight in your head while you're reading this chapter. (Soon we'll start using more words, such as command and operation, which also have similar meanings in ordinary use but very different meanings for us.)
An instruction is what you type to Logo to
tell it to do something.
Print 17 is an example of an
instruction. We're about to see some more complicated instructions,
made up of more pieces. An instruction has to contain enough
information to specify exactly what you want Logo to do. To
make an analogy with instructing human beings, "Read Chapter 2 of
this book" is an instruction, but "read" isn't one, because it
doesn't tell you what to read.
A procedure is like a recipe or a technique for carrying out a
certain kind of task.
If an instruction is made up of names of procedures, and if the procedures invoked by the instruction are made up of more instructions, why doesn't the computer get caught in a vicious circle, always finding more detailed procedures to invoke and never actually doing anything? This question is a lot like the one about dictionaries: When you look up the definition of a word, all you find is more words. How do you know what those words mean? For words in the dictionary this turns out to be a very profound and difficult question. For Logo programming the answer is much simpler. In the end, your instructions and the procedures they invoke must be defined in terms of the primitive procedures. Those procedures are not made up of Logo instructions. They're the things that Logo just knows how to do in the first place.
Now try this instruction:
print sum 2 3
If everything is going according to plan, Logo didn't print
the words "
sum 2 3"; it printed the number 5. The input to
sum 2 3, but Logo
evaluated the input before passing it to the
sum) to compute the value of the expression (5).
In this instruction the word
sum is also the name of a procedure.
Sum requires two inputs. In this case we gave it the numbers 2 and
3 as inputs. Just as the task of procedure
sum is to add two numbers. It is the result
of this addition, the output from
sum, that becomes the
Don't confuse output with printing. In Logo the word
"output" is one of those technical terms I mentioned before. It
refers to a value that one procedure computes and hands on to another
procedure that needs an input. In this example
sum outputs the
number 5 to
See if you can figure out what this instruction will do before you try it:
print sum 4 product 10 2
Here are the steps Logo takes to evaluate the instruction:
sum. This, too, is the name of a procedure. This tells Logo that the output from
sumwill be the input to
sumtakes two inputs, so
sumcan't be invoked until Logo finds
sum. This input, too, must be evaluated. Fortunately, a number simply evaluates to itself, so the value of this input is 4.
sum. The next thing in the instruction is the word
product. This is, again, the name of a procedure. Logo must carry out that procedure to evaluate
sum's second input.
productrequires two inputs. It must now look for the first of those inputs. (Meanwhile,
sumare both "on hold" waiting for their inputs to be evaluated.
sum, which has found one input, is waiting for its second.) The next thing on the line is the number 10. This number evaluates to itself, so the first input to
product, so it continues reading the instruction. The next thing it finds is the number 2. This number evaluates to itself, so the second input to
producthas the value 2.
product, with inputs 10 and 2. The output from
productis 10 times 2, or 20.
sum. Logo is now ready to invoke
sum, with inputs 4 and 20. The output from
sum, 24, is the input to
That's a lot of talking about a pretty simple instruction! I promise not to do it again in quite so much detail. It's important, though, to be able to call upon your understanding of these details to figure out more complicated situations later. Using the output from one procedure as an input to another procedure is called composition of functions.
Some people find it helpful to look at a pictorial form of this analysis. We can represent each procedure as a kind of tank, with input hoppers on top and perhaps an output pipe at the bottom. (This organization makes sense because gravity will pull the information downward.) For example:
Sum has two inputs, shown at the top, and an output,
shown at the bottom.
We can put these parts together to form a kind of "plumbing diagram" of the instruction:
In that diagram the output pipes from one procedure are connected to the input hoppers of another. Every pipe must be connected to something. The inputs that are explicitly given as numbers in the instruction are shown with arrows pointing into the hoppers.
You can annotate the diagram by indicating the actual information that flows through each pipe. Here's how that would look for this instruction:
By the way, I've introduced the procedures
product so casually that you might think it's a law of
nature that every programming language must have procedures with these
names. Actually the details of Logo's repertoire of primitive
procedures are quite arbitrary. It would be hard to avoid having a way
to add numbers, but it might have been named
sum. For some primitives there are additional
arbitrary details; for noncommutative
operations such as
remainder, for example, the
rule about which input comes first was an
arbitrary choice for Logo's designers. (» Experiment with
remainder and see if you can describe it well enough that someone
else can use it without needing to experiment.) I am making a point of
the arbitrary nature of these details because people who are learning
to program sometimes think they're doing badly if they don't
figure out how a primitive procedure works in advance. But these
rules aren't things you work out; they're things someone has to tell
you, like the capital of Kansas.
We've observed that Logo knows in advance how many inputs a particular
procedure needs. (
each need two.) What if you give a procedure the wrong number of
inputs? Try this:
(That is, the word
? print Not enough inputs to print
This gentle complaint from Logo tells you two things. First,
it indicates the general kind of thing that went wrong (not
enough inputs to some procedure). Second, it names the particular
procedure that complained (
? print remainder product 4 5 Not enough inputs to remainder
In this case Logo's message is helpful in pinpointing the
fact that it was
that lacked an input.
The reason I'm beating this error message to death is that one of the most common mistakes made by beginning programmers is to ignore what an error message says. Some people get very upset at seeing this kind of message and just give up without trying to figure out the problem. Other people make the opposite mistake, breezing past the message without taking advantage of the detailed help it offers. Some smart people at M.I.T. put a lot of effort into designing Logo's error messages, so please pay attention to them.
What if you give a procedure too many inputs? Try this:
? print 2 3 2 You don't say what to do with 3
(The exact text of the message, by the way, may be slightly
different in some versions of Logo.) What happened here is that Logo
carried out the instruction
print 2, and then found the extra
3 on the line. It would have been okay if we'd done
something with the 3:
? print 2 print 3 2 3
It's okay to have more than one instruction on the same line, as long as they are complete instructions.
What's a "complete instruction"? Before I can answer that question, you have to understand that in Logo there are two kinds of procedures: commands and operations.
An operation is a procedure that computes a value and outputs
product are operations, for example.
A command is a procedure that does not output a value
but instead has some effect such as
printing something on the screen,
moving a turtle, or making a sound.
A complete instruction consists of the name of a command, followed by
as many expressions as necessary to provide its inputs. An
expression is something like
sum 3 2 or
Operations are used to construct expressions. More formally, an
expression is one of two things: either an explicitly provided value
such as a number, or else the name of an operation, followed by as many
expressions as necessary to provide its inputs. For example, the
sum 3 2 consists of the operation name
followed by two expressions, the number
3 and the number
2. Numbers are the only values we've seen how to provide
explicitly, but that's about to change.
So far, our examples have been about numbers and arithmetic. Many people think that computers just do arithmetic, but actually it's much more interesting to use computers with other kinds of information. You've seen examples of text processing in Chapter 1, but this time we're going to do it carefully!
Suppose you want Logo to print the word
Hello. You might try this:
? print Hello I don't know how to Hello
Logo interpreted the word
Hello as the name of a procedure,
just as in the examples with
print sum earlier. The error message
means that there is no procedure named
hello in Logo's repertoire.
When Logo is evaluating instructions, it always interprets unadorned
words such as
hello as names of
procedures. In order to convince Logo to treat a word simply as
itself, you must type a quotation mark (
") in front of it:
? print "Hello Hello
Here is why the quotation mark is used for this purpose in Logo: In computer science, to quote something means to prevent it from being evaluated. (Another way to say the same thing is that the thing evaluates to itself or that its value after evaluation is the same as what it is before evaluation.) For example, we have already seen that in Logo, numbers are automatically quoted. (It doesn't hurt to use the quotation mark with numbers, however.
? print sum "2 "3 5
Logo is perfectly happy to add the quote-marked numbers.)
(People who have programmed in some other language should note that quotation marks are not used in pairs in Logo. This is not just an arbitrary syntactic foible; it reflects the fact that a Logo word is a different idea from what would be called a character string in other languages. I urge you not only to program in Logo but even to think in Logo terminology.)
What if you want to print more than one word? You can combine several words to form a list. The easiest way to do this is to enclose the words in square brackets, which tells Logo to quote the list. That is, a list in brackets evaluates to the list itself:
? print [How are you?] How are you?
(If square brackets quote a list, what does it mean to evaluate a list? Well, every instruction line you type to Logo is actually a list, which is evaluated by invoking the procedures it names. Most of the time you don't have to remember that an instruction is a list, but that fact will become very useful later on.)
The list in the example above contains three members. In this
example each member is a word. For example, the first member is the word
How. But the members of a list aren't required to be words; they can
also be lists. The fact that a list can have another list as a member
makes lists very flexible as a way of grouping information. For
example, the list
[[cherry vanilla] mango [root beer swirl]]
contains three members. The first and third members are
themselves lists, while the second member is the word
list like this can be represented using a tree diagram:
This diagram has the name "tree" because it resembles an upside-down tree, with a trunk at the top and branches extending downward. Often a tree diagram is drawn with only the leaves labeled--the words that make up the smallest sublists:
Keep in mind that the square brackets in Logo serve two purposes at once: they delimit a list--that is, they show where the list begins and ends--and they also quote the list, so that Logo's evaluator interprets the list as representing itself and not as requesting the invocation of procedures. The brackets surround the list; they are not part of the list. (Similarly, the quotation mark that indicates a quoted word is not part of the word.)
Words and lists are the two kinds of information that Logo can process.
(Numbers are a special case of words.) The name I'll use for "either
a word or a list" is a datum.* A list of words, such as
[How are you?], is called a sentence
or a flat list. (It's called "flat" because the tree
diagram only has one level, not counting the "root" at the top.)
The name "sentence" is meant to suggest that flat lists are often,
although not always, used to represent English sentences. A sentence
is a special kind of list, just as a number is a special kind of word.
We'll see other kinds of lists later.
*Later we'll use a
third kind of datum, called an "array."
My high school U.S. history teacher was very fussy about what he considered the proper way to color in outline maps. He would make us do them over if we used colors or shading techniques he didn't like. We humored him because he was a very good teacher in other ways; for example, he gave us original historical documents to read instead of boring textbooks.
I hope you will humor me when I tell you that there is a right way and a wrong way to talk about procedures. If I were teaching you in person, I'd be very understanding about mistakes in your programs, but I'd hit you over the head (gently, of course) if you were sloppy about your descriptions.
Here is an example of the wrong way: "
Sum adds up two numbers."
It's not that this description isn't true but that it's inadequate.
It leaves out too much.
Here is an example of the right way: "
Sum is an operation.
It has two inputs. Both inputs must be numbers. The output from
sum is a number, the result of adding the two inputs."
Here are the ingredients in the right way:
Another example: "The command
Logo provides several primitive operations for taking data apart and putting data together. Words come apart into characters, such as letters or digits or punctuation marks. (A character is not a third kind of datum. It's just a word that happens to be one character long.) Lists come apart into whatever data are the members of the list. A sentence, which is a list of words, comes apart into words.
First is an operation that takes one input. The input can be any
nonempty datum. (In a moment you'll see what an empty datum is.)
The output from
first is the first member of the input if the input
is a list, or the first character if the input is a word. Try these
? print first "Hello H ? print first [How are you?] How
Butfirst is also an operation that takes one input. The input can
be any nonempty datum. The output from
butfirst is a list containing
all but the first member of the input if the input is a list, or
a word containing all but the first character of the input if it's
? print butfirst "Hello ello ? print butfirst [How are you?] are you?
Notice that the
first of a list can be a word, but the
any datum is always another datum of the same type. Also notice
what happens when you take the
butfirst of a datum with only one
thing in it:
? print butfirst "A ? print butfirst [Hello] ?
In each case Logo printed a blank line. In the first case that blank line represents an empty word, a word with no characters in it. The second blank line represents an empty list, a list with no members. You can indicate the empty word in an instruction by using a quotation mark with a space (or the RETURN key to end the instruction) after it. To indicate an empty list, use brackets with nothing inside them:
? print " print ?
Do you understand why it doesn't make sense to use the empty
word or the empty list as input to
butfirst? Try it and
see what happens.
You should also notice that the list
[Hello] is not the same as the
"Hello. They look the same when you print them, but they
act differently when you take their
There are also primitive operations
sure you'll have no trouble guessing what they do. Try them out, then
practice describing them properly.
This is probably a good place to mention that there are
abbreviations for some Logo primitive procedures. For
bf is an abbreviation for
Pr is an
If you want to extract a piece of a word or list that isn't at the beginning
or end, you can use the more general operation
item with two
inputs: a positive integer to indicate which member to select, and a word
or list. For example:
? print item 3 "Yesterday s ? print item 2 [Good Day Sunshine] Day
taking-apart operations, or selectors. Logo also provides
putting-together operations, or constructors.
Sentence is a constructor. It takes two inputs, which can be any
data at all. Its output is always a list.
Describing the output from
sentence is a little tricky because the
same procedure serves two different purposes. The first purpose is the one
suggested by its name: constructing sentences. If you use only words and
sentences (flat lists) as inputs, then the output from
sentence is a
sentence concatenating (stringing together) the words contained in the
inputs. Here are some examples:
? print sentence "hello "goodbye hello goodbye ? print sentence [this is] [a test] this is a test ? print sentence "this [is one too] this is one too ? print sentence [list of words] list of words
On the other hand,
sentence can also be used to append two
lists (flat or not). With lists as inputs, the output from
is a list in which the members of the first input and the
members of the second input are concatenated:
? print sentence [[list 1a] [list 1b]] [[list 2a] [list 2b]] [list 1a] [list 1b] [list 2a] [list 2b] ? print sentence [flat list] [[not flat] [list]] flat list [not flat] [list]
In the second example the output is a list with four members: two words and two lists.
Using a word as input to
sentence is equivalent to using a list with
that word as its single member.
Sentence is the only primitive
operation that treats words the same
as single-word lists; you've seen from the earlier examples that
butfirst treat the word
hello and the list
Another constructor for lists is
list. Its inputs can be any data;
its output is a list whose members are the inputs--not the members of the
inputs, as for
? print list [this is] [a test] [this is] [a test] ? print list "this [is one too] this [is one too] ? print list [list of words] [list of words]
Word is an operation that takes two inputs. Both inputs must be words.
(They may be the empty word.) The output from
word is a word formed
by concatenating the characters in the input
? print word "hello "goodbye hellogoodbye ? print word "now "here nowhere ? print word "this [is a test] word doesn't like [is a test] as input
Selectors and constructors can be composed, in the same way we composed
product earlier. See if you can work out what this example
will do before you try it with the computer:*
Other Logo dialects have other rules for line continuation.
(In some dialects everything you type is automatically taken as one big
line, so you don't have to think about this.) In the book, I'll indent
continuation lines, as above, to make it quite clear that they are meant
to be part of the same instruction as the line above. But Logo doesn't pay
attention to the indentation.
*The tilde (
the end of the first line is the notation used by Berkeley Logo to indicate
that this and the following line should be understood as a single, long
instruction line. It's somewhat analogous to the way a hyphen (-) is used
in English text when a single word must be split between two lines.
Berkeley Logo will also continue an instruction to the next line if a line
ends inside parentheses or brackets, so another way to indicate a long
instruction line is to enclose the entire instruction in parentheses, like
(print word word last "awful first butfirst "computer ~
first [go to the store, please.])
Other Logo dialects have other rules for line continuation. (In some dialects everything you type is automatically taken as one big line, so you don't have to think about this.) In the book, I'll indent continuation lines, as above, to make it quite clear that they are meant to be part of the same instruction as the line above. But Logo doesn't pay attention to the indentation.
print word word last "awful first butfirst "computer first [go to the store, please.]
Here is how I'd analyze it.
The input to
The first input to
word is the output from
The first input to (the second)
word is the output from
The input to
last is the quoted word
The output from
last is the word
l, which becomes the first input
to the second
The second input to the second
word is the output from
The input to
first is the output from
The input to
butfirst is the quoted word
The output from
butfirst is the word
becomes the input to
The output from
first is the word
o, which becomes the
second input to the second
The output from the second
word is the word
lo, which becomes the
first input to the first
The second input to (the first)
word is the output from (the second)
The input to
first is the sentence
[go to the store, please.].
The output from
first is the word
go, which becomes the
second input to the first
The output from
word is the word
logo, which becomes the input to
And here is the plumbing diagram:
»If you made it through that, you should find it easy to predict what these instructions will do:
print butlast "tricky print butlast [tricky] print se bl "farm bl bl bl "output print first butfirst "hello print first butfirst [abc def ghi] (print word bl "hard word bl bl first [very hard] last first [extremely hard])
Remember that numbers are words, so you can combine arithmetic operations with these word and list operations:
? print word sum 2 3 product 2 3 56 ? print sum word 2 3 product 2 3 29 ? print sentence sum 2 3 word 2 3 5 23
Count is an operation that takes one input. The input can be any
datum. The output from
count is a number, indicating the length
of the input. If the input is a word, the output is the number of
characters in the word. If the input is a list, the output is the
number of members in the list.
? print count "hello 5 ? print count [hello] 1 ? print count " 0 ? print count 0 ? print word count "hello count "goodbye 57 ? print sum count "hello count "goodbye 12
Because lists are often used to represent English sentences in
conversational programs like the
hi procedure of Chapter 1,
? print [aardvark] aardvark ? print "aardvark aardvark
There is no visible difference between a word and a
one-word list. But the two values are actually quite different,
as we can see if we use them as inputs to
? print first [aardvark] aardvark ? print first "aardvark a
first of a sentence is its first word, even if
it has only one word, but the
first of a word is its first
To help distinguish words from lists, Logo has another printing
show that displays brackets around lists:
? show [aardvark] [aardvark] ? show "aardvark aardvark ? show sentence [this is] [an example] [this is an example] ? show list [this is] [an example] [[this is] [an example]]
show if you are
using lists to represent some structure other than a sentence.
You may hear people say something like this: "Logo evaluates from right to left." What they mean is that in an instruction such as
print first butfirst butfirst [print the third word]
Logo first evaluates
butfirst [print the third word]
and next evaluates
butfirst [the third word]
first [third word]
In other words, the procedures named toward the right end of the instruction line must be invoked before Logo can know the appropriate input values for the procedures farther to the left.
This right-to-left idea can be a useful way of helping you understand
evaluation in Logo. But you should realize that it's not quite true.
It only works out that way if the instruction line contains only one
instruction and each procedure used in that instruction takes only
one input. If you look back at one of the examples in which two-input
procedures such as
sum are used, you'll see that Logo really
does read the instruction line from left to right. And if there are
two instructions on the same line, the one on the left is evaluated
The reason for the seeming right-to-left evaluation is that Logo can't
finish evaluating a procedure invocation until it has collected
and evaluated the inputs to the procedure. But Logo starts
evaluating an instruction line by looking at the first word on the
line. In the example just above, the evaluation of
butfirst is part of the evaluation of
So far, the evaluation process has been very uniform. Logo looks at the first word of an instruction and interprets that word as the name of a procedure. Logo knows how many inputs each procedure requires. It then evaluates as many expressions as necessary to assign values to those inputs. The expressions are evaluated the same way: Logo looks at the first word... and so on.
Although this evaluation process is perfectly general, Logo also provides a couple of special forms of evaluation to make certain things easier to type. (The computer science terminology for such a special case is a "kludge." The letter "u" in this word is pronounced as in "rude," not as in "sludge.")
One special case is that Logo provides infix arithmetic as well as the prefix arithmetic we've used so far. That is, you can say
print sum 2 3
When you use infix operations, the usual rules of precedence apply:
multiplications and divisions are done before additions and
subtractions unless you use parentheses. In other words,
(the asterisk represents multiplication) means
(2*3)+4. You should take note that this issue
of precedence doesn't arise when prefix operations are used.
»For example, look at these expressions:
sum 2 product 3 4 product sum 2 3 4 sum product 2 3 4 product 2 sum 3 4
Each of these indicates precisely what order of operations
is desired. The first, for example, is equivalent to
Try converting the others to infix form. Which ones require
The second special form of evaluation is that certain primitive procedures can be given extra inputs, or fewer inputs than usual, by using parentheses around the procedure name and all its inputs. Here are some examples:
? print sum 2 3 4 5 You don't say what to do with 4 ? print (sum 2 3 4) 9 ? show (list "one) [one] ? show (list)
By the way, it is always permitted to enclose a procedure name and its inputs (the correct number of them!) in parentheses, even when it's not necessary, to make the instruction more readable. One of the earlier illustrations, for example, might be easier to read in this form:
print word (word (last "awful) (first butfirst "computer)) ~ (first [go to the store, please.])
Notice that Logo's placement of parentheses is different from the
function notation used in algebra. In algebra you say f(x). In
Logo you would express the same idea as
With these tools, you are ready to begin writing new procedures. Type this:
To is a command, but it's a very special one. It's the
only one that does not evaluate its inputs. Remember earlier when
and Logo complained that it didn't know how to
to doesn't make that kind of complaint. Instead it
prepares to have you teach it how
to hello. (That's why
to is called
to!) What you should see on the screen is
something like this:
? to hello >
Instead of a question mark, Logo has printed a greater-than
symbol as the prompt. This special prompt warns you that whatever
instructions you type won't be carried out immediately, as usual.
Instead Logo remembers what you type as part of the procedure named
hello. Continue like this:
> print "Hello > print [This is Logo speaking.] > print [What's new?] > end ?
end isn't the name of a procedure. It's a
special signal to Logo that you're finished defining the procedure
*Why can't we simply think of
end as the name of a
procedure, just as
end were a procedure, it wouldn't be evaluated right away, just as those
hello. Instead, typing
end has an immediate effect: It ends the procedure definition
and returns to the question-mark prompt that allows interactive evaluation.
Now you can try out your new procedure:
? hello Hello This is Logo speaking. What's new?
You can also examine the procedure itself by asking Logo
to print it out. The command
po (for Print Out) takes one input,
a word or a list. The input is either the name of a procedure (if
a word) or a list of names of procedures. The effect of
po is to
print out the definition(s) of the procedure(s) named by the input.
Here is an example:
? po "hello to hello print "Hello print [This is Logo speaking.] print [What's new?] end ?
to, but like all other Logo procedures,
po does evaluate its input. That's why the word
must be quoted in this example.
In a procedure definition the line starting
to is called the
title line. The lines containing instructions are, naturally, called
instruction lines. We won't have many occasions to talk about
the line containing only the word
end, but just in case, we'll call
it the end line.
pops (for Print Out ProcedureS) takes no inputs. Its
effect is to print out the definitions of all the procedures you've
defined. The command
pots (for Print Out TitleS) also takes no inputs
and prints out only the title lines of all the procedures you've defined.
Some writers and teachers reserve the word "procedure" to refer only
to ones you write yourself, such as
hello. They use the word
"primitive" as a noun, to mean things like
butfirst. They say things like "Logo instructions are made up
of procedures and primitives." This is a big mistake. The procedures
you write are just like the procedures Logo happens to know
about in the first place. It's just that somebody else wrote the
primitive procedures. But you use your own procedures in exactly the
same way that you use primitive procedures: you type the name of the
procedure and Logo evaluates that name by invoking the procedure.
It's okay to say "
Last is a primitive" as an abbreviation for
Last is a primitive procedure," as long as you know what
you're talking about.
»Try defining more procedures. You'll find that you don't have quite enough tools yet to make your procedures very interesting; the main problem is that yours don't take inputs, so they do exactly the same thing every time you use them. We'll solve that problem in the next chapter.
As you may remember from earlier experiences, Logo includes an editor, a program that allows you to make corrections to a procedure you've defined. You can also use the editor to write procedure definitions in the first place. The editor works slightly differently in each version of Logo, so you should consult the manuals for your own computer (or Appendix A, for Berkeley Logo) to review the details.
By the way, when you're learning about the
edit command, don't forget
that it can accept a list of procedure names as input, not only a
single word. By listing several procedures in the input to
you can have them all visible at once while you're editing,
and you can copy instructions from one to another. This is a powerful
capability of the Logo editor, which beginners often neglect.
Once you've gotten familiar with the Logo editor, you'll probably find
yourself wanting to use it all the time, and you'll rarely choose to
define a procedure by invoking
to directly. (Don't get
confused about that last sentence; of course you type
you're using the editor, but you don't type it as a command to the
Logo interpreter in response to a question mark prompt.) The editor
makes it much easier to correct typing mistakes. Nevertheless, if you
need to define a short procedure in the middle of doing something else, you
may occasionally find it simpler to use
to rather than wait for an
editor to start up.
Except for the special case of
to, all Logo instructions follow the
same rules about the meaning of punctuation and about which subexpression
provides an input to which procedure call. These are called
syntax rules. The rules pay no attention to what any particular
procedure means, or what inputs might or might not be sensible for that
procedure; those aspects of a program are called its
semantics, which is a fancy word for "meaning." You might say
that Logo's plumber, the part of Logo that hooks up the plumbing diagrams,
doesn't know anything about semantics. So, for example, if you make a
print item [john paul george ringo] 2
and get a Logo error message, you might feel that it's obvious what you meant--and it would be, to another person--and so Logo should have figured it out and done the right thing. But computers aren't as smart as people, and so you can rely only on Logo's syntax rules, not on the semantics of your program, to help Logo make sense of what you write.
To illustrate the difference between syntax and semantics, we'll start by examining the following Logo instruction:
? print word sum 2 4 "es 6es
Here's its plumbing diagram:
The connections in a plumbing diagram depend only on the numbers of inputs and outputs for each procedure used. Logo "connects the plumbing" before invoking any of the procedures named in the instruction. The plumbing is connected regardless of whether the specified inputs actually make sense to the procedures in question. For example, suppose we make a slight change to the instruction given just now:
print sum word 2 4 "es
The only change is that
sum have been
interchanged. Since these are both two-input operations, the shape of the
plumbing diagram is unchanged.
The plumbing connections are syntactically fine, so Logo can work
out which expression provides the input to which procedure call. However,
when Logo gets around to invoking the procedure
sum with inputs
es, an error message will result because the second input
isn't a number. This is a semantic error.
By contrast, the following instruction shows a syntactic error, in which Logo is unable to figure out a plumbing diagram in which all the pieces connect up.
print word sum 2 "es
The question mark in the diagram indicates a missing input. In
this example, the programmer intended the word
es to be the second
word; from the programmer's point of view, it is a number,
the desired second input to
sum, that's "really" missing. But Logo
doesn't know about the programmer's intentions, and Logo's plumber follows
uniform rules in deciding which input goes with which procedure call.
The rule is that Logo starts by looking for an input to
word, so the output from
word is hooked
up to the input for
word. The next thing it finds is
sum, so the output from
is hooked up to the first input for
word. Now Logo is looking for two
sum, and the syntax rules say that Logo must find those two
inputs before it can continue with the still-pending task of finding a
second input for
word. Logo's plumber isn't smart enough to say,
"Hey, here's a non-number as input to
sum, and I happen to remember
that we still need another input for
word, so that must be what the
There are really only two kinds of plumbing errors. In the one shown here,
too few expressions are included in the instruction, so that the message
not enough inputs results. The other error is that too many
expressions appear inside the instruction. This may result in the message
you don't say what to do with something, or, if the extra expressions
are within parentheses, by
too much inside ()'s.
Parentheses can be used in a Logo instruction for three reasons: for readability, to show the precedence of infix operators, or to include a nonstandard number of inputs for certain primitives. In all three cases, the syntax rule is that everything inside the parentheses must form one single complete expression. In plumbing diagram terms, this means that the stuff inside the parentheses must correspond to a subdiagram with no inputs and with exactly one output (unless an entire instruction is parenthesized, in which case the diagram will have no outputs):
print (word "a "b "c)
The dotted rectangle indicates the subdiagram corresponding to the
expression inside the parentheses. That rectangle has no inputs; there are
three inputs within the rectangle, but in each case the source of
the input and the recipient of the input are both inside. There is no
recipient inside the rectangle that needs a source from outside. The
rectangle has one output; the entire expression within the rectangle
provides the input to
The mathematical function notation f(x) used in algebra often tempts beginning Logo programmers to write the above example as
print word ("a "b "c) ; (wrong)
but by thinking about the plumbing diagram we can see that that would not put one single expression inside the parentheses:
The part of the instruction inside the parentheses is trying to provide
three outputs, not just one. This violates the rules. Also, since the word
word isn't inside the parentheses, that procedure follows its ordinary
rules and expects only two inputs.
To emphasize the point that the plumbing diagram depends only on the number
of inputs expected by each procedure, and not on the purpose or meaning of
the procedure, we can draw plumbing diagrams for nonsense instructions using
unknown procedures. The rule of this game is that each procedure name
includes a number indicating how many inputs it accepts. For example,
garply2 is a procedure that requires two inputs. If a procedure can
accept extra inputs when used with parentheses, we put an
x after the
baz3x ordinarily takes three inputs, but can be given any
number of inputs by using parentheses around the subexpression that invokes
john2 "paul george2 ringo0 "stu
We don't have to know what any of these procedures do. The only information we need is that some words in the instruction are quoted, while others are names of procedures that take a known number of inputs. This is a syntactically correct instruction because each procedure has been given exactly as many inputs as it requires.
baz3x 1 2 foo3x foo3x 4 5 6 (foo3x 7) 8 baz3x 1 [2 foo3x foo3x 4 5 6 (foo3x 7)] 8 if2 test3 [a b] [c d] [e f] [g h] if2 try0 [foo3x 8 9]
(back to Table of Contents)
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Sound, code, image
Postwar composers, such as Cage, Cardew and Crumb, have left an exuberant legacy of seductive graphic scores that still puzzle and fascinate the artists and musicians of today.
Score-writing is a powerful form of visual communication that reaches across the barriers of language, space and time, writes John L. Walters. The mark-making of western musical notation has an intrinsic aesthetic appeal generated by elements that are simpler – more primeval perhaps – than the Roman alphabet: a rhythmic procession of thick and thin lines, open and closed ellipses, Arabic numerals, commands and ornaments scattered along a rigid grid. A score assumes shared knowledge, a body of skilled expertise – it is a diagram, a recipe, a route-map and an exhortation to perform.
Yet something in the design of a score reaches beyond the private codes of a trained musician. Whether composers write conventionally functional scores, play visual tricks (the staves of a ballad twisted into a heart shape or the face of a loved one traced in black and white piano notation) or scatter circles and wavy lines across their score paper, they are translating non-visual ideas into visual codes. The craft involved in preparing scores requires a link between ear, eye and hand.
The stave can be thought of as a two-dimensional graph, the horizontal x-axis for time and the y-axis – the vertical location of the note-head on the horizontal lines that make up the stave – for pitch. The score is an arrangement of several staves in parallel, synchronised in time: each note has a time co-ordinate plus several other parameters, including pitch, duration, timbre and intensity. Since the passage of time can be followed by reading from left to right, so simultaneous musical events are directly above and beneath each other in the score. One of the most important functions of this coded graph is to keep musicians silent at certain times – the musical equivalent of white space.
The graphical organisation of music in this way made it possible for more complex, large-scale music to be made and performed, with the attendant emergence of new roles and hierarchies. The graphic effectiveness of the musical score was central to the development of western Classical music. Playing from individual parts copied down from the score, each musician is part of a vast system whose aural architecture can be appreciated as the music unfolds in time.
Give or take a few written instructions, a Classical score by Mozart or Mahler uses the same language as, say, Stephen Montague’s new piano concerto, a film score by Michael Gibbs or Rachel Portman, say, or the string arrangements Jocelyn Pook wrote for The Stranglers’ anniversary gig at the Albert Hall. As an international language of signs, conventional notation is hard to beat. Yet for a couple of decades, from the 1950s to the early 1970s, composers questioned every convention to produce an extravagant body of exuberant, ornate and sometimes totally baffling “graphic scores”.
Cage infects the art schools
The first rumblings of the graphic explosion that was to peak in the 1960s were in early twentieth-century scores that incorporated percussion. Non-pitched instruments require only single-line staves, so Edgard Varèse’s Ionisation (1931), scored for percussion, looks as graphically stark and brutal as the music sounds. This century’s fascination for non-pitched noise – continued in alternative music to the present day – was predicted by the Futurist activist Luigi Russolo, whose written music for his “intonarumori” noise instruments (1916) has similarities with experimental scores of the 1960s.
John Cage was known initially as a “percussion composer”, who gained a reputation in the 1930s for his modern dance scores. His simplest pieces combine graphic directness (he had worked for architect Erno Goldfinger) with a decorative charm that may be inspired by Erik Satie, whose hand-written scores contained decorative illustrations and an imaginative, eccentric use of lettering and white space. Cage’s need for a low-cost percussion unit that would fit into a small performance space led to his invention of the “prepared piano”, where the strings are damped or otherwise modified by the addition of metal screws, erasers and small objects carefully listed on the opening page of the score. With this system, written music takes a leap into the dark. It is impossible to read a prepared piano work such as Sonatas and Interludes (1946-48) and deduce the sound: when the piece is played on a correctly prepared instrument it produces an extraordinary sequence of percussive sounds, vaguely oriental and quite beautiful.
Here, the written music is a series of instructions for a sequence of events in time. Later scores by Cage, or others spurred on by his example, take this idea to the point where there is little correlation between what one sees and hears. The “score” to Ligeti’s Poème Symphonique (1962), intended as a Fluxus event, is merely a command to wind up 100 metronomes and set them going.
By the 1950s graphic scores were becoming one of the dominant forces in “serious” music, with radical, visually stunning work by Earle Brown, La Monte Young, Christian Wolff and the energetic British composer Cornelius Cardew, who absorbed much by assisting (at different times) both Cage and Karlheinz Stockhausen. Earle Brown’s December 1952 is one of the more celebrated graphic scores – an ambiguous, Mondrian-like construction that has resulted in quite different performances. Yet the visual aesthetic of this work evokes an imagined music in the observer’s mind, an invisible music perhaps more ascetic, beautiful and formally Modern than any earthly ensemble could produce with real instruments.
For a time, graphic notation was the Big Idea of mainstream contemporary music: in 1959 at Darmstadt (the great annual meeting place of the European avant-garde) Stockhausen lectured on “Musik und Graphik”, where he spoke of the “emancipation of the graphic from the music element”. Conversely, the late 1950s and 1960s saw an emerging interest in sound and performance from visual artists: Jean Tinguely’s jangling “metaméchanique” sculptures; Bruce Lacey’s events and films; and the Happenings of Allan Kaprow, who had studied with Cage at an impressionable age. Composers collaborated with visual artists, or exploited their own graphic skills: Toru Takemitsu worked with a graphic designer for Le Son-Calligraphie no. 1 (31 bars for string quartet) in 1958, as did Cathy Berberian for Stripsody (1966); Louis Andriessen collaborated with Dick Elffers on a Kleur Partituur [colour score] in 1967. Tom Phillips produced work that could be performed, or exhibited, or both. Some scores began to look more like poetry: Stockhausen’s From The Seven Days (1968) is a slim booklet of written instructions. The entire score for Intensity, for ensemble, comprises the words:
play single sounds / with such dedication / until you feel the warmth / that radiates from you
play on and sustain it / as long as you can
This blurring of boundaries between visual, written and musical languages had many long-term effects in the postmodern culture of later decades, from the British art-school influence on Anglo-American pop and rock to the performance art of the 1970s and 1980s. Experimental composers, such as Philip Glass and Michael Nyman, who rejected graphic excesses for more functional notation (together with the Modernist aesthetic) still found a warmer reception performing in art galleries and contemporary dance venues than in conventional concert halls and music colleges. For a time, composer-lecturers such as Gavin Bryars, Michael Parsons and Nyman found employment in visual art departments. Parsons has written that “a close study of the visual arts can bring renewed awareness of the medium of sound and of the autonomous character of its formal and relational properties”. The audible legacy of the art school experimentalists (whose most famous recruit is Brian Eno) can be heard in installations and CDs by soundsmiths with no traditional musical training – people who can sculpt recorded sound in much the same way that visual artists work with materials.
The big image
Graphic scores raise some thorny issues: does the composer have a duty to specify every note, dynamic, articulation and then demand an equivalent degree of accuracy and fidelity in the resulting performance? Should the composer delegate certain roles to specialists (conductors, drummers, say) who bring new knowledge and traditions to bear upon the work? Should they merely set musical actions in progress and sit back to hear the result? These questions address issues of autocratic power versus democratic organisation and individual creative expression: the political stirrings of the 1960s were not lost on contemporary composers, who wrestled with such implications in the music they made. Cornelius Cardew wrote: “Graphic notation is a perfectly justifiable expansion of normal notation in cases where the composer has an imprecise conception . . . his conception maybe quite precise as to its overall characteristics but imprecise as to the minutiae. For example, if a composer wants a string orchestra to sound like a shower of sparks, he can interrupt his five-line staves and scatter a host of dots in the relevant spaces, give a rough estimate of the proportion of plucked notes to harmonics, and let the players get on with it.”
The most prolific era for graphic scores was celebrated by the now out-of-print Notations (1969) edited by Cage and Alison Knowles, which showed manuscripts by Louis Andriessen, Franco Donatoni, Ton de Leeuw, Dick Higgins, Anestis Logothetis, Frederic Rzewski and James Tenney alongside minimal, text-based scraps by Mauricio Kagel, Allan Kaprow and Yoko Ono, conventional sketch scores by Leonard Bernstein and Gunther Schuller and a decorated lyric sheet for ‘The Word’ by The Beatles. Notations, which also contains composers’ responses to a questionnaire about the subject matter, is a typographical curiosity: the text was edited and set using chance operations, so that letter size, weight and font change in mid-word.
Perhaps the greatest graphic score to emerge from this time was Cardew’s Treatise (1963-67) a monumental work that continues to inspire musicians – improvisers, electronic soundsmiths, even DJs – to turn his inscrutable marks into sound. Treatise is beautifully made, baffling and 193 pages long. “The whole piece is a critique of notation,” says John Tilbury, a colleague of Cardew’s in the legendary group AMM. “The most profound aspect of the piece . . . is the way it makes people think. It’s a very precise score, but sometimes precision in notation results in an imprecise sound.”
Roberto Gerhard wrote: “Notation’s ambiguities are its saving grace. Fundamentally, notation is a serviceable device for coping with imponderables. Precision is never of the essence in creative work. Subliminal man (the real creative boss) gets along famously with material of such low definition that any self-respecting computer would have to reject it as unprogrammable.”
Composer John Woolrich comments: “There is no clear dividing line between standard notation and graphic scores – there are always things in notation that are indeterminate – you might specify the notes, but not the instrument or the acoustic, for example.
“Unless you’re Brian Ferneyhough (and you think you can notate everything), notation is to do with hints rather than absolute instruction. You are trying to convey the big image.”
Treatise, which is purely graphic, containing no clues or explanations for the performer(s), may have marked the end of an era. In the 1970s the graphic score activity subsided and Cardew made several dramatic, politically inspired repudiations of the notion, and began writing simple, Maoist songs “for the workers”. Cage moved further into the visual realm, discovering a new vocation in fine art print-making, while his scores became more graphically simple. And many composers rejected graphic scores along with other youthful excesses such as taking drugs or wearing flowered shirts.
Yet the visual excitement remains seductive for later generations of composers and performers, some of whom are prepared to interpret the work with far more enthusiasm and creativity than their counterparts of the previous generation. The Brood, a loose ensemble based around Susan Stenger’s Band of Susans, Scanner and Sonic Boom, with members of Wire, Elastica and the Scapegoats, recently performed scores by Cage, Wolff and Phil Niblock at London’s South Bank. “We rehearsed quite a lot to sort out the language,” said the Scapegoats’ Terry Edwards. “It helped a lot that Susan had worked with the composers in the past.”
Neil Ardley’s Charade for the Bard (1974) used a simple graphic language for a practical purpose – to organise a piece for jazz improvisers at very short notice. John White’s machine pieces (including the notorious Drinking and Hooting Machine (1969), which requires the musicians to drink each other under the table) are still published and performed while George Crumb’s graphic, spacious Ancient Voices of Children (1970) has acquired the status of a contemporary classic. The work’s large-format score looks and sounds equally rich, strange and beautiful.
“The look of the score is not irrelevant,” says Howard Skempton, whose hand-drawn scores are famous for their stripped-down elegance. “A score has a life of its own: its look has a lot to do with the power of the piece. When I look at a Classical score (Mozart, Beethoven and so on) you can’t actually see at a glance why it works. If you look at a Modernist postwar score by Boulez or Ligeti, say, you get a much clearer idea of what it sounds like. Graphic scores turn this around.
“It might have something to do with the Constructivist aesthetic of the 1950s – the scores by Bussotti and Stockhausen look stunning in their own right. And when I look at Morton Feldman pieces from that time I get the sort of pleasure I get from looking at a painting – I can get a feel of the piece . . . it’s only one small step from that to playing around with notation. Bussotti is the one who made the tail wag the dog.”
“I don’t think graphic scoring is a dead issue,” says composer Christopher Fox. “There’s much to be done there, but it’s deeply unfashionable among musical establishment . . . as new music got more ‘professional’, London ensembles just wanted to have dots they could play and get done with in a three-hour rehearsal.” Christopher Fox participated in many performances of graphic notation outside London with like-minded friends who were interested in playing Cardew and Wolff. “By the end,” he says, “Stevie Wishart couldn’t see any reason for having anything on the music stand.”
The orchestral score, graphical or otherwise, is a remarkably efficient way of organising and producing a large quantity and variety of musical events in a short time. This fact is not lost on Hollywood producers and music supervisors, who still prefer to commission a film score that can be completed in days rather than months. Film and pop scores are rarely published and sometimes discarded, much to the chagrin of film music record companies attempting to re-record classic film soundtracks.
In the 1960s, Kenneth Payne, a music educator and composer, developed Tonescript, a graphical system of colours, squiggles and shapes that would help listeners understand pieces from the Classical repertoire. A descriptive score that relates to an electronic piece has to make up some new rules. The “diffusion score” to Trevor Wishart’s Vox 5 (1979-86) is really a conductor’s part for the sound engineer who mans the mixing desk and multi-speaker sound system through which the tape is diffused. But this is not a score in the Classical sense. As in most kinds of tape-based work, any need for a conventional score has been eclipsed by the recording.
Recent music by Tom Phillips brings some of the issues of graphic notation full circle. Six of Hearts (1991), commissioned for Woolrich’s Composers Ensemble, comprises six songs framed by thick staves. Further comments caution musicians against using electronics (in VI) or request that they play a “favourite operatic aria . . . transposed to D maj or min” (II). “Most graphic scores I know that are any good are very precise,” says Phillips. “They don’t leave you any more freedom than conventional pieces.”
For many composers the time for graphic scores has come and gone. In several different respects, new technology has overshadowed traditional methods. Score-writing programs such as Sibelius and Finale are popular with publishers, professional composers and students alike: the output looks much like professional engraving – a revelation to some older composers. And in many areas of commercial, functional and creative music, the definitive original work is not the score, but the recording: a tape or a sound file saved to disk. The printed output of a computer editing system (such as ProTools) makes an immediate graphic impression of signal amplitude against time – on screen, the dynamics of a recording (whether Stravinsky or Prince) have a clear outline that helps the mastering engineer find his way through a long piece.
Geoff Smith, an academically trained composer (and an authority on John Cage) sees written scores as no more than a means to an end – that can be discarded once the music has been committed to tape. In the recording studio, written music may have no more significance than a track sheet or cue sheet used by non-musicians. At a recent exhibition of graphic scores at the Workfortheeyetodo gallery in London, a contemporary dance “score” by Bruce Gilbert was a sketch, a blueprint for the recording process with comments, shapes and shadings that organised the composer’s creative thoughts within a timeline specified by the choreographer. As a score, it spoke in a hybrid language of Gilbert’s making.
Graphic scores have increasing importance in education. Tom Deveson, advisory teacher for music at Southwark Education in London, says: “Graphic scores manage the trick of being free, and fun, yet precise. A class of kids of mixed abilities soon agree what a red line or a green squiggle means, and by the end of the lesson they have made a piece out of it. Children love to sort out the rules and then follow them conscientiously.”
“Cardew said something interesting,” recalls composer Howard Skempton. “Graphic scores are designed for people who have avoided a musical education but somehow acquired a visual education.”
Frank Zappa warned against the fetishisation of musical scores by pointing out that “you don’t eat the recipe”. In some senses, the postwar avant-garde’s obsession with graphic notation is a critical commentary on the redundant conventions of European art music. Yet, although such graphic excesses may have little lasting impact on “serious” music itself – Cardew repudiated such “squiggly lines” as bourgeois nonsense before his death in 1981 – they enrich the culture, and continue to reverberate in electronic studios, where a few scribbles can be more expressive, or accurate, than conventional note-heads, sharps and flats. The functional use of graphic scores as an aid to understanding (in education or entertainment) or as a way of communication between people without formal musical training (DJs and engineers, for example) is still in its infancy.
Graphic scores have an aesthetic immediacy that music can never have – the instant visuality of a well-drawn manuscript liberates the composition from the tyranny of time. In the digital domain, music has acquired some visual attributes. At one extreme we have the short, retriggered samples from which much commercial music is constructed; at the other, the on-screen analysis provided by a sound editing program such as ProTools, which can zoom out from the dynamic shape of a symphony, a pop album or a drum’n’bass opus to turn 80 minutes of music into a single image.
Like the “Eye music” of sixteenth-century Italian Mannerists, many graphic scores are now relics of a vanished era, fading manuscripts with little meaning to present-day musicians. But the seductive complexity of work by Cardew and Bussotti continues to fascinate both musicians and non-musicians, and recent work by Phillips and Skempton shows the resilience of such ideas. Each score is a chest of treasures that can be unlocked by performers and interpreters not yet born, a code or puzzle to be solved in time.
John L. Walters, composer, Unknown Public editor and co-founder.
First published in Eye no. 26 vol. 7, 1997
Eye is the world’s most beautiful and collectable graphic design journal, published quarterly for professional designers, students and anyone interested in critical, informed writing about graphic design and visual culture. It is available from all good design bookshops and online at the Eye shop, where you can buy subscriptions, back issues and single copies of the latest issue. You can also browse visual samples of recent issues at Eye before You Buy.
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The following smart board activities are designed for students with special needs who are struggling to learn numbers and skip counting. This product comes with a prompting assessment worksheet, worksheets for practice at home or in the classroom, and simple lesson plans to allow consistency, so the teacher and assistants are using the same verbiage when working with the student(s). The activities allow the teacher or assistant to work on different concepts along with a variety of learning abilities at the same time in a small group setting.
Worksheets: Cut out each problem and laminate problems, so students can reinforce the concept with repetition, but in a different order each time. Worksheets works on numbers from 1-69.
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In helping two southern Oregon school districts increase their data literacy (which I define as the ability of a district or group of people to collect and understand data and then use the data to ultimately improve student learning), I’ve developed some suggestions to share with districts starting down a similar path.
In the Medford School District, when I was the director of secondary education, I helped create a process for leaders and educators to deepen understanding of how their students were doing in order to implement the right solutions to problems impacting achievement. As a first step, we created a chart showing student data pulled by content area and grade level. For educators, looking at this kind of chart is where the journey begins. Next, we used a data analysis protocol—a process tool for examining and making observations about the data. The goal in this step is to describe the data and answer the question: What do the data reveal? The data charts showed all of the data on our subpopulations, allowing us to see if there were trends or discrepancies. The next steps included the actual analysis, asking and answering questions as simple as: What is going up? What is going down? We then moved to more complicated questions using verbs like differentiate and compare, drawn from the “analyze” stage of Bloom’s taxonomy. After that, we interpreted the data by asking: What does this information mean? Are we missing something?
When we completed that process, we started talking about what we should do based on our analysis and how the next steps fit into our continuous improvement model. We asked ourselves: What are we going to do? What does it look like?
I am now with the Grants Pass School District, working on a similar process focused on our students with special needs. For some staff working with this population, it was their first time looking this deeply at data. The questions guiding our process include:
- Is what we are doing working?
- How do we know that?
- What should we be doing?
- How do we know that?
The second and fourth questions (How do we know that?) are the hard ones to answer. However, the ability to determine if existing or proposed practices will have the desired results is important. I’ve found that working through these four questions is a great way for staff to become better consumers of research. That process, combined with a data protocol, has led to some important program changes.
For districts that want to move toward more data-driven decision making, here are three takeaways drawn from my experiences:
- Becoming data literate is a matter of sheer will by a district. District leadership and staff need to make a deep commitment to becoming literate, creating the time to analyze their data.
- Analyzing and responding to data needs to be foundational for district goals and budgeting. If a district is not able to adjust its priorities around what they are learning from data, increasing student learning and success remains random.
- And finally, it’s important to ask ourselves if there is anything we can stop doing. Districts are always taking on new projects and we often do not take older ones off the table. Data can help show which projects are having little or no effect.
Data analysis helps us understand why we are doing well or why we are doing poorly. Being data literate doesn’t have to be complicated, but making changes based on the analysis can be. However, in thinking about what is at stake, how can we not take the time and effort?
Todd Bloomquist has been teaching and leading in public schools for 25 years and is currently the director of special services, technology and instructional improvement with the Grants Pass School District in Southern Oregon. He holds a doctorate in education from George Fox University in Newberg, Oregon and also teaches as an adjunct faculty member for Southern Oregon University for the School of Education.
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Read more: Click here to see the original, longer version of this article
HERE’S one Mayan 2012 story that might not inspire a disaster movie: archaeologists have uncovered the earliest evidence of the Mayan astronomical calendar, painted on the wall of a 9th-century house.
Until now, our main evidence of Mayan astronomical knowledge has come from books, such as the Dresden Codex, produced centuries after their society declined.
In 2010, William Saturno of Boston University and colleagues were excavating Mayan ruins at Xultún in Guatemala. In one house they found a mural covered with pictures of Mayan people (see). In the gaps between the drawings were glyphs: Mayan writing that contained astronomical information (Science, DOI: 10.1126/science.1221444).
“It seems obvious that the Maya were making Dresden Codex-like astronomical tables for over 1000 years,” says Joyce Marcus, an anthropologist at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor.
The house probably belonged to a senior public figure. That suggests astronomical information was broadly available, says Gary Feinman of the Field Museum in Chicago.
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This article discusses Renaissance and Baroque jewelry, but her ideas are useful when thinking of medieval jewelry.
Rodini’s main points can be summarized:
– though small in size jewelry signified the relationship between the wearer and society
– During the Renaissance the world was considered to be infused with signs, and it was a necessary skill to decode them. The was a literal nature to signs, in the sense that the ultimate truth, or meaning, could be inferred if you had the right knowledge. This assumes that there was a design, or an essence, before the sign.
– Jewelry was both private and public. Private because it was worn close to the body, public because it carried a pronouncement of wealth, rank, or loyalty.
Some interesting medieval notes in her article include:
– Late medieval jewelry enhanced the rarity of the stone through a simple setting.
-Jewelry was not just decorative, but served as a good form of portable currency.
– Sumptuary laws came about at moments when wealth distribution was in flux. For example, Venice saw an impressive amount of rare jewel trade. Laws regulating pearl wearing came about in order to maintain an appearance of equality. In 1299, wearing bridal pearls,except on a girdle, was forbidden. In 1582, pearls were forbidden to all except women married for 10 or more years, direct relations of the Doge, foreign ambassadors, and brides. By 1609, the importation of pearls was forbidden. From these laws, it is possible to infer that wearing pearls took priority over receiving a fine.
– Crown Jewels, or the idea of a collection of jewels belonging to a royal line, was begun by French King Francis I in 1530.
-Portrait Jewels, though given in courtship, where seldom truly romantic. Instead they served as political reminders of promises, to the wearer and to all who saw the jewels worn.
– In the case of dowries, jewels and riches represented the moral and physical health of the bride. Portraits of females often flattened the sitter, yet the jewels are depicted brightly and in great detail. The jewels tell the viewer more about the female’s inherent qualities than her physical form.
– Pilgrimage medallions pronounced a wearer’s faith, provided protection, and reminded one of their pilgrimage. The medallions were often worn on the hat and had a simple iconic nature.
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Lungs are the most crucial organ of our body that expand and relax multiple times daily for expelling the carbon dioxide from the body and inhaling the oxygen. Problems in any part of the lungs can lead to lung diseases. The windpipe or trachea branches into two tubes which are called bronchi that in return branch out to million small tubes that pass throughout the lungs. The cells of the body need oxygen for their functioning and that oxygen is provided to the body by the lungs. Lungs throw the oxygen in the blood stream and take out the carbon dioxide. Normally an individual breathes almost 25,000 in a day but people suffering from lung disease experience difficulty in breathing. Some of the common diseases that affects lung are:
Allergies: The allergies could be triggered by some infections or pollutants that hamper the overall functioning of the lungs in long run.
Asthma: In Asthma the airways are always inflamed and sometimes it may also get spasm that leads to wheezing and shortness of breath.
Flu: Number of viruses is found responsible for causing the respiratory infections which is called as Flu. The viruses enter the body through the nose or mouth and straight away reach the lungs causing damage and infection there. Common symptoms of Flu are cough, fever, cold, sore throat and headache. Flu may also cause an upset stomach in some patients.
Pneumonia: It is an infection that may affect one or both lungs. Various germs like fungus, bacteria and viruses can cause pneumonia. People aged above 65 or less that 2 years are at more risk. Fever, chills, cough and shortness of breath are some of the common symptoms for pneumonia.
Tuberculosis: Mycobacterium tuberculosis is the bacteria responsible for causing this infection. TB spreads all through the lungs when the infected person talks or coughs. People with weak immune system are more likely to get this infection.
Lung Cancer: It is the most common form of cancer that causes severe damage to both the lungs. The major reason behind lung cancer is smoking that leads to a huge number of deaths all over the world.
Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD): this condition makes it very hard to breath. COPD is caused due to the long term exposure to irritants and chemicals that can damage the lungs.
Chronic Bronchitis: This is a category of COPD that causes cough that may develop lot of mucous, initially the symptoms of the disease could be mild but as the time increases the disease may gets worse.
Emphysema: It is another category of COPD in which chest tightness, wheezing and shortness of breath is experienced with any physical activity.
Pulmonary Embolism: This is a kind of lung disease that causes severe damage to lungs. In this muscles and nerves that control breathing gets affected that leads to severe other complications.
Respiratory Failure: When the lungs do not get sufficient oxygen then it may lead to respiratory failure. A condition which is caused by smoking, injury to lungs and any infection to the lungs.
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Veterinarians often are called upon to perform surgery on sick or injured animals. Patients range from small household pets to large farm animals. There are three major categories of veterinary surgery.
The first category is orthopedics. This type of surgery involves anything related to the muscles, joints or bones. The second type of surgery that a veterinarian may perform is a surgery of the soft tissue. Soft tissue surgery includes anything related to the skin, cardiovascular system, stomach, respiratory tract, genitals or other organ systems. The third major category is neurosurgery which includes any surgery that involves the brain.
Perhaps the most common surgery that veterinarians perform is sterilization surgery. These procedures can be performed on male or female animals and ensure that an animal is incapable of reproducing. This can be done to prevent breeding, unwanted behavior, or certain medical problems.
At times, animals may develop dental problems that require surgery. Teeth may need to be removed, or surgical treatment for gum disease may be necessary. Eye surgeries called ophthalmic surgeries may also be performed to treat a variety of diseases and conditions of the eyes including cataracts, glaucoma, and eyelid tumors. Older animals can commonly develop tumors of any number of organs. Surgery to remove the tumor is often the first treatment step. Modern surgical techniques are available that utilize lasers. These types of surgery are much more minimally invasive which improves the patient’s experience and recovery time.
Prior to performing surgery, the veterinarian will, in most cases, perform a thorough examination and diagnosis. Tests may include blood work, ultrasound scans, and x-rays. During surgery, animals often need to undergo anesthesia. Local anesthesia can be used for minor surgeries. In more complex cases, the animal may have to be sedated or be put under general anesthesia.
Veterinarians who work in general practice often perform routine surgeries. These surgeries may include spays and castrations, removing minor masses and more. More advanced surgeries may require a specialist. Examples of advanced surgeries include total joint replacement, cancer surgery, complicated internal issues, kidney transplants, severe or complicated wounds and more. Surgery is one of the specializations that veterinarians can have under their certification board, the American Veterinary Medical Association. Veterinarians who wish to become board certified surgeons must undergo additional years of training and residency and perform a large number of supervised surgeries in all surgical categories. They must also pass an exam.
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Turnus, legendary warrior and leader of the Rutuli people, best known from his appearance in the second half of Virgil’s Aeneid (19 bc). Virgil identifies him as the son of Daunus and the nymph Venilia and as the brother of the nymph Juturna. The Roman historians Cato the Censor (2nd century bc) and Livy (1st century bc) identify Turnus as Aeneas’s major rival upon the latter’s escape to Italy after the sack of Troy. The Greek historian of early Rome Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1st century bc) calls him Tyrrhenus, which means “Etruscan.” In Virgil’s Aeneid Turnus is king of the city of Ardea, and his people are called the Rutuli. He is the favourite suitor of Lavinia, daughter of King Latinus, eponymous king of the Latins. When Latinus engages Lavinia to marry Aeneas instead, the goddess Juno, who hates the Trojans, drives Turnus mad. He leads his people in a war against Aeneas and the Trojans. After many acts of courage and rashness, Turnus is slain by Aeneas to avenge the killing of Evander’s son Pallas.
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Crafting with young children is a lot of fun. Additionally, crafts are a great way to help little ones develop their fine motor skills. A fun, easy, creative and inexpensive craft idea is to make hole-punch dot pictures.
Simply provide a lot of hole-punch dots, glue and paper. (For younger children, put some glue in a jar lid and give them a cotton swab so that they can apply glue with more controlled dots.) [Note: Always cover a work area with newspaper.] Apply glue dots. Shake some hole-punch dots onto the paper and the glue will accept them. Or, ask the child to place hole-punch dots on the dots of glue, one by one.
Here are two examples of dots glued to paper. The one on the left shows glue and dots arranged to form a picture. The one beside it shows dots placed randomly on paper. For more ideas on using hole-punch dots, check out my book, Little Hands--Create! p. 10 "Hole-Punch Magic."(Williamson--an Ideals Publication.)
Now, let's store more dots to use another time. Using scraps of bright-colored paper, allow the child to practice using a hole-punch. Scoop up the punches and keep them for future projects. They can be kept in an envelope. But, why not store them in a way that shows the colors? I keep hole-punch dots in empty mint containers or in empty medicine bottles. (above, right) (I also keep the scraps that have holes in them. They look great in a collage.) Have fun!
Saturday, October 2, 2010
At the recent FRA conference, I presented a truncated version of my popular craft/subject coupling in two sessions—one for Pre-K and one for K-2nd. These sessions focused on how you can have students make easy, fun, crafts and integrate them with core disciplines. The idea: Why not combine learning with fun AND creativity? Here are just some of the skill activities we engaged in during the recent "Make and Take."
Snipper Critters (A versatile book waiting for your adaptations.)
Sure, the over 80 'open-ended' critter patterns alone may be used to create individually designed animals for a lesson or unit. A few of the critters are shown here. But, just as with all of my 'open-ended' patterns, that's not the end of it.
Once the animal is cut out, keep an 'outlines file.' (Right) The normal 'throw-away' portion of Snipper Critters isn't trash at all—it is a treasure. Here are some of the uses.
(Left)The outline can be placed on a piece of acetate on the overhead for a brainstorming full-class participation lesson. Or, why not write a poem on the overhead? The helpful critter facts in the back of the book make this even easier for the teacher.
(Right) When students are done using the miniature example in the corner on each critter's page, it makes a delightful mini-puppet. Cut it out. Glue it to a craft stick. Students will be inspired to write their own mini plays for the critters. Or, students may glue an outline (put glue on printed side) to a contrasting piece of paper to make a book cover or poem frame. Several critters may be put together using a brass fastener.
Here's a fun lesson for you to do that helps with motor skills, visualizing positive and negative space, and discovery.
Snipper Critter Stenciling
1. Take an outline left over from cutting out a Snipper Critter.
2. Lightly attach the outline to a contrasting piece of paper using small rolled-tape pieces.
|Bingo marker the exposed area.|
3. Place the prepared stencil on a piece of newspaper to protect work surface.
4. Bingo-marker the exposed area. Allow to dry.
5. Once dry, carefully remove the outline stencil.
- Use your stenciled critter as a book cover.
- Write pertinent vocabulary words around the critter.
- On the unpainted area, write facts about the critter. (Elicit student responses.)
- Place an appropriate beginning sound letter on the critter. Look for and cut out (from old magazines) words matching the same beginning sound. Glue them on the space around the critter.
Posted by marydallcreates at 9:02 PM
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Lazy evaluation is the most widely used method for executing Haskell program code on a computer. In this tutorial, we explain that we actually do *not* need know how it works in order to understand *what* a Haskell program calculates, thanks to thanks to a concept called *denotational semantics*.
Table of contents
Or: What Exactly does Lazy Evaluation Calculate?
Lazy evaluation is the most widely used method for executing Haskell program code on a computer. In previous tutorials, we have looked at how lazy evaluation works in detail and how it can help with making our code simpler and more modular. However, the main drawback of lazy evaluation is that it can be quite hard to understand all details of how exactly the program is evaluated. How, then, we can understand what the program does in the first place?
In this tutorial, I want to explain how we can understand a Haskell program without having a clue about lazy evaluation at all. This is possible thanks to Haskell’s non-strict semantics. First, we will introduce the concept of denotational semantics and the special value “⊥”, which is called “bottom”. Next, we will look at the concepts of strictness and non-strictness, which often show up in discussions about the optimization of Haskell programs. Afterwards, we will learn how to understand infinite lists without using lazy evaluation. Finally, we will consider the illuminating example of the children’s game “rock-paper-scissors” – which I learned from the classic book An Introduction to Functional Programming by R. Bird and P. Wadler – to see how this method works in practice.
The key message is that there are different levels at which we can understand a program. Lazy evaluation tells us how a Haskell program is executed, which is very useful for understanding its time and memory usage. However, we are also interested in what a program calculates, which is important for showing that the program is correct and free of bugs. In fact, I would say that the latter is more important than the former – there is no point in calculating a wrong result very fast. In most traditional imperative languages, the what and the how are very similar, but in Haskell, these are two different and complementary viewpoints. Often, the what part is easier to understand than the how part, because for the former, we may replace any expression by one that is equal to it, whereas for the latter, no two expressions are equal, their evaluation always proceeds in slightly different ways. In a way, the idea of separating the how from the what is what purely functional programming is all about.
The how of a program also goes under the monicker of operational semantics, whereas the what is also called denotational semantics. The word semantics simply refers to the “meaning” of a program. In this tutorial, we are concerned with the denotational semantics of Haskell and how it relates to operational semantics, i.e. lazy evaluation.
Consider any Haskell expression, for example
40 + 2
The meaning or denotation of this expression is the number 42. The expressions
42 2*21 sum [1..8] + 6
also denote the same value, 42. Note that we carefully distinguish between an expression, which is a syntactically legal piece of Haskell code, written in typewriter face, and a value, which is a mathematical object, written in italics. So, the expression
42 denotes the value 42, but these are different things. This may seem like hair-splitting, but it’s a very useful distinction to keep in mind. The point is that different expressions, like
2*21, may denote the same thing, 42. In this case, we write an equal sign
42 = 40+2 = 2*21
to indicate that while the expressions are different, they denote the same value.
The rule is that two expressions denote the same thing if they evaluate to the same normal form. When running a Haskell program, the normal form is the final result that we care about. It represents what is being calculated.
However, the beautiful thing about denotational semantics is that we can also give meaning to expressions that do not have a normal form, for instance because their evaluation goes into an infinite loop. For example, evaluation of the expression
let loop = loop + 1 in loop
will never terminate. What value do we assign to it? The solution is very simple: We introduce a new value written “⊥” and called “bottom”, which represents the value of a computation that, well, “does not have a value”, for instance because it goes to an infinite loop or because it throws an exception. In our example, the expression
loop denotes the value ⊥, because its evaluation never terminates. Another example would be the expression
which also denotes the value ⊥ (albeit of a different type), because the head of an empty list is undefined and trying to evaluate this expression will throw an exception. In fact, Haskell has a predefined expression
which always throws an exception and thus denotes the value ⊥.
For each type, we can make a list of possible semantic values. For instance, an expression of type
Bool may denote one of the values ⊥,
True. An expression of type
Integer may denote one of the values ⊥,
2, … and so on. Essentially, we just have to add the extra value ⊥ to each type, at least for simple types like
Integer. Later, however, we will see that more complex types, like the list type
[Int] will contain additional extra values.
Once again, let us consider the example of the logical AND, whose definition is
(&&) :: Bool -> Bool -> Bool True && x = x False && x = False
To understand what this function does, we can write down a truth table. However, this time, we also have to consider the new value ⊥, which indicates that an argument does not terminate. So, the truth table we consider here has not just 4, but 9 entries. The first rows of the table are:
⊥ && ⊥ = ⊥ ⊥ && True = ⊥ ⊥ && False = ⊥
The reasoning is that since the function performs a pattern match on the first argument, the function will not terminate if the evaluation of the first argument does not terminate. The next rows are
True && ⊥ = ⊥ True && True = True True && False = False
These simply mimic the first equation in the definition of the function. The final rows of the truth table are the most interesting:
False && ⊥ = False False && True = False False && False = False
These rows mimic the second equation of the function definition. Note that thanks to lazy evaluation, the function returns the result
False in all cases, even when the second argument is ⊥. In contrast, in a language with eager evaluation, like LISP or O’Caml, the first line would have to read “
False && ⊥ = ⊥”, because arguments are always evaluated first, and evaluation of the function application does not terminate if evaluation of the argument does not terminate. We say that these languages have strict semantics, whereas Haskell has non-strict semantics.
(A word of caution: The equations above look like we might be able to “pattern match” on the value ⊥. But this is not possible because ⊥ is not a legal Haskell expression; it only exists in the denotational semantics. Remember: we write expressions in typeface, but values in italics.)
Where do the monickers strict and non-strict come from? Here is the main definition: A function
f is called strict if it satisfies
f ⊥ = ⊥
In other words, evaluation of the function does not terminate if evaluation of the argument does not terminate. In most cases, this is because the function performs a pattern match on the argument. For a function
g with, say, two arguments, we say that it is strict in its second argument whenever
g x ⊥ = ⊥ for any first argument
x; likewise for other positions.
Now, in Haskell, the function
(&&) is not strict in its second argument, because
False && ⊥ = False ≠ ⊥
We also say that it is lazy in its second argument. Haskell is said to have non-strict semantics because it allows such functions, whereas in a language with strict semantics, all functions are strict.
The fact that this function is not strict also means that the function does not always evaluate its second argument, because otherwise, well, the result would have to be ⊥. This is the connection between lazy evaluation, the how, and non-strict denotational semantics, the what. The latter only cares about end results, though, and is thus easier to work with. In fact, the Haskell standard only specifies that a compiler needs to respect the non-strict semantics, it does not say that Haskell needs to be evaluated using lazy evaluation. In other words, Haskell compilers are free to employ some other means, but in practice, the Glasgow Haskell Compiler (GHC) does use lazy evaluation (with some minor adjustments). Clearly, this is important for understanding time and space usage of a program compiled with GHC.
Even though they are part of denotational semantics, the notions of strict functions and lazy functions are often used to discuss matters from operational semantics. For instance, bang patterns are an extension of the Haskell language that allow you to specify that some function arguments are to be evaluated to WHNF before the function body is evaluated, mimicking eager evaluaton. If you look at the GHC user manual, you will find that this is often described in terms of “strict” and “lazy”. For instance, it says that the bang pattern in the function definition
f1 !x = True
makes the function strict, so that we now have f1 ⊥ = ⊥ instead of f1 ⊥ = True. No statement in the manual is incorrect, but I would like to caution the reader again that strictness is a concept from denotational semantics, whereas bang patterns affect the operational semantics. In informal discussions, the word “strict” is often used to mean that a function evaluates its argument to WHNF before proceeding, but “strictly speaking”, this is not a correct use of the word “strict”.
Another point where you may encounter the notion of strictness is an optimization pass called strictness analysis. Here, the idea is that the compiler tries to figure out which functions are strict, and compiles them to use eager evaluation instead of lazy evaluation. This is safe to do, because it does not change their denotational semantics. The reason for doing so is that lazy evaluation does incur a certain administrative overhead which can be avoided by using eager evaluation; the code will run faster.
We have seen that simple types like
Integer contain both the ordinary values and the special value ⊥. In the case of more complex types, however, the value ⊥ can appear in many more places. For example: What value does the expression
2 : undefined
have? It appears to be a list whose head element is 2, but whose tail is undefined. And that’s indeed the case, its value is
2 : ⊥
The point is that the list constructor is not strict, so the “totally undefined” list ⊥ is different from the “partially defined list” 2 : ⊥. For instance, if we apply the function
head, we get
head ⊥ = ⊥ head (2 : ⊥) = 2
In Haskell, all constructors are lazy (unless indicated otherwise by a strictness annotation).
We have already discussed the usefulness of infinite lists, but so far, we could only explain how lazy evaluation allows us to write down expressions for “potentially infinite” lists. Now, denotational semantics, and the just introduced concept of partial lists, allows us to talk about actually infinite lists. The idea is that an infinite list is to be understood as a limit of partial lists. Just like the number π=3.1415… is mathematically a limit of successive approximations 3, 3.1, 3.14 and so on, an infinite list, like the list of all positive integers,
1 : 2 : 3 : …
is a limit of partial lists
⊥ 1 : ⊥ 1 : 2 : ⊥ 1 : 2 : 3 : ⊥ …
and so on. To see how this works, consider the expression
filter (< 3) [1..]
To understand the denotation of this expression, we apply the function filter to the partial lists that approximate the infinite argument list:
filter (< 3) ⊥ = ⊥ filter (< 3) (1 : ⊥) = 1 : ⊥ filter (< 3) (1 : 2 : ⊥) = 1 : 2 : ⊥ filter (< 3) (1 : 2 : 3 : ⊥) = 1 : 2 : ⊥ filter (< 3) (1 : 2 : 3 : 4 : ⊥) = 1 : 2 : ⊥ …
All this has been calculated by applying the definition of the function
filter. As you can see, the results stabilize after the third approximation, because there are no other positive integers smaller than the number 3. Hence, the limit is a partial list
filter (< 3) [1..] = 1 : 2 : ⊥
And indeed, if you fire up a Haskell interpreter like GHCi and try to evaluate this expression, the interpreter will first output
> filter (< 3) [1..] [1,2
and then not respond to inputs anymore; this is what happens when you try to print the partial list 1 : 2 : ⊥.
The main message here is that using partial lists, we can understand infinite lists in a way that does not involve lazy evaluation. We had already noted in our previous discussion of infinite lists that the latter adds many additional complications, like the need to distinguish between the expressions
1, and so on. Working on the level of denotational semantics allows us to understand infinite lists in a more practical and intuitive way as actually infinite.
Of course, the denotational semantics do mimic the reductions steps taken by lazy evaluation to some extend. In particular, the value ⊥ does feel a bit like an “unevaluated” expression, as it gets refined from ⊥ to 1 : ⊥ to 1 : 2 : ⊥ and so on. It is a good idea to update our intuition of the value ⊥, and to think of it as a “computation that has not finished yet”. Sometimes, this means that the computation may never finish, because it goes into an infinite loop. At other times, it is better to imagine that it may yield more information after some time, for instance when the list ⊥ is refined to the list 1 : ⊥. From this point of view, a strict function is a function that cannot reveal any information about its result before it has gained more information about its argument.
To gain more practice with infinite lists, we will now consider the children’s game “rock-paper-scissors”, a classic example which I learned from the book An Introduction to Functional Programming By R. Bird and P. Wadler.
You probably know the rules of the game. In every round, each player makes one hand sign: either “rock”, “paper” or “scissors”. We represent this as an algebraic data type
data Sign = Rock | Paper | Scissors
(Image CC-BY-SA from Wikimedia)
Each sign is beaten by another sign
beat :: Sign -> Sign beat Rock = Paper beat Paper = Scissors beat Scissors = Rock
and we give a point to the player whose sign beats the other player’s sign
points :: (Sign, Sign) -> (Int,Int) points (x,y) | x == y = (0,0) -- draw | x == beat y = (1,0) | y == beat x = (0,1)
Now, we assume that each player’s strategy is represented by a type
Strategy and that there is a function
rounds :: (Strategy, Strategy) -> [(Sign, Sign)]
which takes two strategies and returns an infinite list of rounds where they play against each other. Then, we can use the following function to play a match of
n rounds and tally the points:
match :: Int -> (Strategy, Strategy) -> (Int, Int) match n = pair sum . unzip . map points . take n . rounds where pair f (x,y) = (f x, f y)
What is a strategy? It is a method used by one player to decide which sign to play, based on all the previous moves by the other player. We can represent this by a function type
type Strategy = [Sign] -> Sign
Given a list of the opponent’s previous moves, this function calculates the player’s current move. For instance, the strategy that always plays “paper” is represented as
alwaysPaper :: Strategy alwaysPaper signs = Paper
Another example is the strategy that plays “paper” first, and then plays the move that would have beaten the opponent in the previous round:
whatYouDid :: Strategy whatYouDid = Paper whatYouDid signs = beat (last signs)
Finally, we need to write the function
rounds, which plays two strategies against each other and generates an infinite lists of sign pairs. We can use the function iterate to repeatedly append a new move to the list of previous moves
rounds :: (Strategy, Strategy) -> [(Sign, Sign)] rounds (player1, player2) = map lastOfPair $ tail $ iterate update (,) where update (signs1, signs2) = ( signs1 ++ [player1 signs2] , signs2 ++ [player2 signs1] ) lastOfPair (x,y) = (last x, last y)
Unfortunately, this implementation of the
Strategy type has a serious drawback: Usually, a strategy needs O(n) time to analyze the previous n moves. For example, this is the case for the strategy
whatYouDid. Then, to calculate the first n moves with this strategy, the function
rounds will need 1 + 2 + … + n = O(n²) time. In other words, it takes quadratic time to calculate a match of n rounds. Certainly, we can do better?
For a more efficient implementation of the
Strategy type, consider the following idea: Instead of calculating just a single move from a list of the opponent’s previous moves, we calculate the infinite list of all moves from the infinite list of all of the opponent’s moves.
type Strategy = [Sign] -> [Sign]
For instance, the strategy
alwaysPaper ignores the opponent’s moves and just returns an infinite lists consisting entirely of the sign
alwaysPaper :: Strategy alwaysPaper signs = repeat Paper
whatYouDid first returns
Paper and then applies the function
beat to all moves of the opponent
whatYouDid :: Strategy whatYouDid signs = Paper : map beat signs
The key point is that now, this strategy only needs O(1) time to calculate the next move, instead of the O(n) time needed to inspect a list of the n previous moves.
The implementation of the function
rounds that plays one strategy against the other is particularly interesting:
rounds :: (Strategy, Strategy) -> [(Sign, Sign)] rounds (player1, player2) = zip signs1 signs2 where signs1 = player1 signs2 signs2 = player2 signs1
signs1 is the infinite list of moves of the first player. Note that it depends on the list
signs2, which in turn depends on the list
signs1 again. This is also known as mutual recursion. How does it work? For concreteness, let us consider the example where the strategy
alwaysPaper plays against the strategy
The rule is that for any (mutually) recursive definition, we start with the approximation
signs1 = ⊥ signs2 = ⊥
which means that we know nothing about the results yet. Then, we calculate the right-hand side under these assumptions. The result for the list
signs2 = whatYouDid signs1 = whatYouDid ⊥ -- used first approximation for signs1 = Paper : map beat ⊥ = Paper : ⊥
(Remember that we consider the example where
whatYouDid.) For the list
signs1, we get
signs1 = alwaysPaper signs2 = alwaysPaper ⊥ -- used first approximation for signs2 = Paper : Paper : Paper : …
With this calculation, our knowledge about the result is refined to
signs1 = Paper : Paper : Paper : … signs2 = Paper : ⊥
This is our second approximation to the end result. Note that the result for the first strategy is already complete. To get an even better approximation, we once again calculate the right-hand side, but this time using the new approximation:
signs2 = whatYouDid signs1 = whatYouDid (Paper : Paper : …) = Paper : map beat (Paper : Paper : …) = Paper : Scissors : Scissors : …
Apparently, our new approxiatiom is already the complete result
signs1 = Paper : Paper : Paper : … signs2 = Paper : Scissors : Scissors : …
Hence, the denotation of the expression
rounds (alwaysPaper, whatYouDid) is
rounds (alwaysPaper, whatYouDid) = (Paper, Paper) : (Paper, Scissors) : (Paper, Scissors) : …
To summarize, this example shows how we can calculate the result of a lazy computation without using lazy evaluation. The main advantage is that instead of having to track the how of the computation in detail, we can concentrate on the what, which means that we can treat different expressions as equal, as long as they have the same denotation, something we cannot do when considering how they are evaluated.
The efficient implementation of the
Strategy type has a serious drawback: It allows strategies that can cheat. For instance, the strategy
cheat :: Strategy chat signs = map beat signs
plays exactly the move that would beat the opponent’s move in each round. This is now possible, because the list
signs contains all moves of the opponent, not just the previous ones.
If we play the strategy
cheat against the strategy
whatYouDid, we will get the following sequence of approximations:
signs1 = ⊥ signs2 = ⊥
signs1 = cheat ⊥ = ⊥ signs2 = whatYouDid ⊥ = Paper : ⊥
signs1 = cheat (Paper : ⊥) = Scissors : ⊥ signs2 = whatYouDid ⊥ = Paper : ⊥
signs1 = cheat (Paper : ⊥) = Scissors : ⊥ signs2 = whatYouDid (Scissors : ⊥) = Paper : Rock : ⊥
and so on, with the end result being
signs1 = Scissors : Paper : Rock : … signs2 = Paper : Rock : Scissors : …
cheat wins every round, because it “knows” all the moves of the opponent.
Of course, the cheating strategy will fail when
cheat plays against itself. In this case, the computation will go into an infinite loop and the result will be signs1 = ⊥ and signs2 = ⊥. (Exercise: Show this!)
How can we ensure that a strategy does not cheat? First, we have to think about what exactly cheating is. A strategy does not cheat if it does not “look into the future”, i.e. if it produces the n-th hand sign only by looking at the first n-1 hand signs of the input list. In other words, a strategy
player is fair if it satisfies the equation
last (take n (player signs)) = last (player (take (n-1) signs))
for all possible lists
sign. The strategy
cheat is not fair, as the following example shows
last (take 1 (cheat (Paper : ⊥))) = Scissors last (cheat (take 0 (Paper : ⊥))) = ⊥
Unfortunately, there is no way to automatically check whether a strategy is fair, because we can’t test an infinite number of rounds and also because we cannot even check whether a strategy will terminate at all. The best we can do is to let strategies play as long as they behave fairly, but return ⊥ as soon as one of them starts to cheat. The following function is very helpful for that:
sync :: [a] -> [b] -> [a] sync = sync (x:xs) (_:ys) = x : sync xs ys
The idea is that
sync essentially returns its first argument, but when the second argument is a partial list, then only a corresponding part of the first argument is returned. Example:
sync (Paper : Scissors : ⊥) ('a' : ⊥) = Paper : ⊥
Using this helper function, we can implement the function
rounds :: (Strategy, Strategy) -> [(Sign, Sign)] rounds (player1, player2) = zip signs1 signs2 where signs1 = player1 (sync signs2 signs1) signs2 = player2 (sync signs1 signs2)
By “synchronizing” the outputs of the two strategies, each strategy may only inspect as many moves of the opponents as the strategy itself has already decided upon. Any attempt to cheat will result in ⊥ for the next move.
With this, we come to the end of today’s tutorial. I hope the “rock-paper-scissors” example was as helpful to you as it was helpful to me back when I first learned about lazy evaluation and infinite lists.
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By Liz Seward
The first global map of magnetic peculiarities - or anomalies - on Earth has been assembled by an international team of researchers.
Magnetic anomalies are caused by differences in the magnetisation of the rocks in the Earth's crust.
Many years of negotiation were required to obtain confidential data from governments and institutes.
Scientists hope to use the map to learn more about the geological composition of our planet.
The World Digital Magnetic Anomaly Map (WDMAM) is available through the Commission for the Geological Map of the World.
The magnetic signature of the Earth's crust has been measured for many decades by a multitude of groups; but now, for the first time, the data has been combined to give a truly worldwide view of the phenomenon.
A British company involved in the project is GETECH, a spin-off from Leeds University.
Managing Director Dr J Derek Fairhead explains: "The project is the result of a lot of coordinating efforts by the IAGA (International Association of Geomagnetism and Aeronomy) organisation to put together a magnetic map of the world, and it's taken decades to get to this position.
"Many of the companies and country organisations who hold the data in a confidential mode have been prepared to release 'decimated versions' of their data so that the commerciality of the data isn't affected.
"But the regional nature of the magnetic field can be clearly imaged and put together with all the other data to generate a global image of the magnetics."
Dr Juha Korhonen, one of the lead researchers on the project from the Geological Survey of Finland, explained that the map was available at "a low resolution".
"It represents a square grid of about five kilometres, so it's very coarse indeed. It is a starting point, and to go into detail, you can contact those organisations who have more detailed data on both the geology and mineral sources.
"There are just a few major deposits that can be seen on this map, like the Kursk iron ore deposit. Mainly one can see the major geological formations.
"It's generally considered in prospecting and resource analysis that this magnetic anomaly field is one of the most valuable tools or regional assets."
The global map shows the variation in strength of the magnetic field after the Earth's dipole field has been removed (Earth's dipole field varies from 35,000 nanoTesla (nT) at the Equator to 70,000 nT at the poles). After removal of the dipole field, the remaining variations in the field (few hundreds of nT) are due to changes in the magnetic properties of the crustal rocks.
Hot colours (reds) indicate high values; cold colours (blues) indicate low or negative values.
As well as revealing ore deposits, magnetic anomalies can also show areas of ground water and sea weakness zones. It is a useful tool for geologists and geophysics, as well as a teaching resource.
The information can be viewed as a flat, two-dimensional map or rendered in 3D on a virtual globe.
There are several different causes of magnetic anomalies in the Earth's crust.
On the ocean sea bed, the map shows a striped effect. Where Earth's tectonic plates are moving apart, new crust is created at mid-ocean ridges.
As the new material spreads out and cools, minerals in the rocks that make up the crust are magnetised in the direction of the Earth's magnetic field at the time of their formation. This field reverses polarity over time, creating alternating stripes on either side of the ridge.
On land, the dominant factors for magnetic anomalies are the thickness of the magnetised layer and the composition of the crust. Usually, young crust is relatively thin and has a low content in magnetic minerals.
A different perspective on the material under our feet
The old cratons, stable interior sections of the continental crust, are thicker and have high magnetic mineral content. Perhaps the most prominent feature is the Kursk anomaly, which can be seen at the border between young western Europe and the old "Baltic Shield".
First identified in the late 18th Century, the anomalous region became the focus of a major industrial effort by the Soviets to develop iron ore mines.
Pieces in a jigsaw
The international team had many difficulties to overcome in creating its map.
Dr Korhonen said: "To acquire the Russian data required a ministry decision there. Then India released their data. We have Argentine data, similarly, which has been closed to all the world."
Dr Michael Purucker from the US space agency (Nasa), a user of the map, said: "There are literally hundreds, perhaps thousands, of organisations around the world which hold this kind of data. One should not underestimate the diplomatic efforts needed to secure support and data contributions from these organisations."
One of the challenges in gathering data from many different sources is piecing it together, and ensuring that all the data sets are in the same format.
"There are different techniques," explained Dr Korhonen. "If the techniques are somewhat similar, it's fairly easy finally doing the calculations in a similar fashion to put the map together.
"If the anomaly is defined in some other way, then we might have [a] problem. That's the main reason that the long wavelengths have been removed from the ground-based data and replaced by satellite data."
This magnetic data has been gathered by Champ, a German and Russian-built satellite that has been in orbit since 2001. Now coming to the end of its life, it has charted the entire globe.
Not only does Champ measure the Earth's magnetic field, it can also measure the very long wavelength components of the Earth's crustal field with wavelengths greater than about 400 km, said Dr Fairhead.
Swarm is a future mission of the European Space Agency
With the publication of the first edition of the map, the team is already planning the second edition.
One area it hopes to improve on is the marine data coverage. The first edition uses information from the US National Geophysical Data Center, but there are other sources that may help to improve the accuracy of the map.
The upcoming Swarm magnetic field satellites, to be flown by the European Space Agency (Esa), will also help build new detail into the map.
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Fresh produce is very healthy no doubt; but, only when they are safe from any type of contamination. Food contamination can start from the farming process. To be on the safe side, you must take appropriate measures to ensure you’re not consuming contaminated fruits and vegetables. When farmers grow foods in the field, contaminated soil or water can ruin the quality of the crops. Food can get contaminated even after completing the harvesting process. For instance, deadly pathogens can infect a food during the packaging or storage process. To know the most vulnerable and potential sources of food contamination, you can get registered for an online food handlers course.
To avoid food contamination, it’s important that you buy fresh produces carefully. Avoid damaged or bruised produces when you go to the local market. You’ve to know the safe food storage process to understand what type of produce is safe to buy from the market. When you buy half or pre cut fruits like watermelon, make sure that the fruit is stored in the refrigerator, and not at the normal room temperature. If not, then the fruit should be at least stored in ice. The storage facility arranged by the food suppliers or food sellers should be adequate enough so that no contamination occurs.
Fresh produce should be stored around 40 degree Fahrenheit to prohibit any food contamination. When preparing meal using fresh produce, clean them with warm water properly for around 20 seconds. Does not matter whether you use organic or inorganic produce. Always clean them with running water. That’s an absolute necessity. If you think fruits and vegetables are safe for eating if they are peeled properly, then you’re wrong. You can’t avoid the risk of contamination until unless you clean the fresh produce with water. It’s essential that you get your TABC online certification; because you need to learn about food safety.
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Steinbeck explores the story’s themes using a third-person point of view that focuses on the consciousness of Pepe during his ordeal in the mountains. The author achieves a poetic grace with plain language that is appropriate to the thought processes of his protagonist. Contained in that language is the sharp detail of the physical landscape, which has a beauty of its own. Steinbeck also uses the detail of the physical landscape to suggest Pepe’s inner emotions. For example, in the scene before his death, Pepe sees that “strewn over the hill there were giant outcroppings, and on the top the granite teeth stood out against the sky.” The stark image of the “granite teeth” works to reflect the emotion that Pepe feels; trapped in his fate, he senses powers that will overwhelm and “devour” him. The images of the landscape provide a backdrop for his final act of defiance, of standing up to be shot down.
The dialogue early in the story between Pepe and members of his family is filled with short, declarative statements and the use of “thy” and “thou,” which gives it a stilted quality. By such devices, Steinbeck—rather like Ernest Hemingway in For Whom the Bell Tolls (1940)—was attempting, unsuccessfully, to convey the archaic dignity of his characters’ speech.
Steinbeck’s technique and style are appropriate to his subject: Pepe’s direct, uncomplicated emotions are presented without authorial comment, being placed directly before the reader with a simple honesty that gives this story both power and poignancy.
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For years, the United States has resisted mandatory reductions in greenhouse gas emissions because of the perceived cost to the national economy. But a new report suggests that significantly reducing U.S. carbon emissions could cost far less than the trillions of dollars some have projected. McKinsey & Co., a privately owned management consulting firm, predicts that making substantial emissions cuts may cost the economy only a few billion dollars, and that at least 40 percent of the reductions would actually bring economic savings.
This week, delegates at the United Nations climate change conference in Bali are struggling to build a post-Kyoto Protocol framework to reduce worldwide greenhouse gas emissions. But they face resistance from some of the world’s biggest emitters, China, India, and the United States. These countries are worried that their economies will suffer from imposed emissions caps.
Some models do predict heavy costs associated with reducing emissions. Last month, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce estimated that a new bill to restrict emissions currently being debated in the U.S. Congress would cost 3.4 million Americans their jobs. And William Nordhaus of Yale University calculates that slowing global warming would cost $20 trillion, according to Business Week.
But the McKinsey report argues that with a long-term model, costs are actually much lower. Supported by both energy companes and environmental groups, including Environmental Defense, Natural Resources Defense Council, Royal Dutch Shell, and Pacific Gas and Electric, the study finds that the United States could reduce its projected greenhouse gas emissions in 2030 by three to four-and-a-half gigatons using technology that is largely already in place. “Eighty percent of the reductions come from technology that exists today at the commercial scale,” according to McKinsey director Jack Stephenson. The other 20 percent is from technology that is currently being developed, such as plug-in hybrids and cellulosic biofuels.
The report predicts that mitigation efforts will cost less than $50 per ton of greenhouse gas emissions, or an amount in the tens of billions of dollars overall. One reason for the lower cost, explains Stevenson, is because the United States currently wastes large amounts of energy, and simple changes could make the country vastly more efficient. The McKinsey report acknowledges that there will be some short-term losses, and that different sectors of the economy will not be affected equally. But overall, the report is considered a more encouraging analysis than many. “It’s the difference between a business consultant who sees opportunities for business, and a hired-gun economist,” says Dan Lashof of the Natural Resources Defense Council.
By Alana Herro. This story was produced by Eye on Earth, a joint project of the Worldwatch Institute and the blue moon fund.
Its very true the reduction of CO2 will help us save the economy....
One of the cheapest means of offsetting carbon listed in the McKinsey report is nuclear power. New is on the carbon abatement curve at slightly cheaper than onshore wind at less than $10/ton.
They argue for streamlining approval and permitting procedures for nuclear, tranmission lines and pipelines.
The report does not consider even faster shifts to nuclear power that are possible.
Widespread thermoelectronics and improved diesel engines and superconductors for power grids and motors could radically transform efficiency.
The main impacts are that successful development of thermoelectronics via the DOE/ EERE / Freedomcar program and the Westinghouse development of the MIT or other work to allow for major uprating of nuclear reactors and new reactors fast build reactors like form Hyperion power systems can radically alter the energy picture by 2012-2020.
Thermoelectric retrofit and 50% uprating can increase nuclear power by 225%.
Brian and friends,
Thanks for the suggestions re thermoelectronics. At first glance it looks very interesting. I will check into it further.
Investing more money in nuclear however just seems stupid to me. There are so many truly renewable technologies that are now being developed that this is where we should be putting our money, that and into energy efficiency and conservation. If we had invested all of the money that we have put into nuclear into renewables and energy efficiency in the first place, we would probably already being powering society totally with renewables.
I am also wondering if anyone has ever done an analysis of what it is likely to cost society over the long term to safeguard civilization from the waste stream from nuclear energy. I would imagine that it will cost far more in both energy and money than we will ever get from the energy production itself.
It would make so much more sense to move to a fully sustainable energy system as quickly as possible and that is where we should be putting our money now.
>If money invested in nuclear had gone to renewables
Since we do not have a time machine then this is an irrelevant point.
The current situation is the one that needs to be optimized.
>On the cost of the nuclear waste stream
The amount of nuclear "waste" is reduced 1000 times.
The technology for burning all current and future nuclear waste (actually unburned fuel) can be developed. So the strawman of how much it costs to store unburned fuel for thousands of years is completely incorrect.
Developing the proper reactors (investing in nuclear) is the cost effective solution to the existing unburned fuel (nuclear waste problem). Not developing the proper reactors and not making the investment would be very stupid. It would be the same as trying prevent everyone from getting cuts and infected when we can develop vaccines innoculate the people at lower cost.
Also, the very report and research that the worldchanging team is applauding for saying that CO2 fixes can be cheap is saying that nuclear power is cheaper than solar and wind and sequestered coal.
The McKinsey report quotes far higher prices for solar and wind and other renewables and does not incidicate that solar and wind and other renewables can by themselves replace coal or oil or nuclear in any timeframe.
The cost to safeguard humanity from nuclear waste is the cost of developing the Fuji molten salt reactor and building several of them or the other liquid flouride reactor designs. A few billion dollars or less than 0.1% of the noted $20 trillion cost of global warming.
If the hype about Nanosolar's products is true (presumably they've begun shipping) then the objections about solar's cost become moot.
However absent a worldwide superconducting power grid solar isn't going to be a panacea to our energy problems due to the simple fact that it doesn't work at night.
Fourth generation nuclear plants makes sense, if only as a means of disposing of our current stockpile of nuclear waste. I think if people understood how these new technologies could enable us to eliminate our current stockpile of waste (much of it sitting in temporary storage facilities that were never designed to be used this long) objections about deploying these technologies would evaporate.
Unfortunately even mentioning the word nuclear stirs up a lot of negative connotations and most people shut off immediately.
I suspect this issue needs to be framed as a method of dealing with the problem of Nuclear waste rather than as a means of power generation in order to be effectively communicated to the uninitiated.
I'd encourage the folks at Worldchaning to take a look at this.
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Political Caricature – from Ancient Times to Present Days
“A caricature is putting the face of a joke on the body of a truth.”
Drawing a caricature seems simple at a first glance. Just take a famous face (a politician or a celebrity for example), find its most distinctive feature (it could be a nose, eyes, lips, ears or whatever draws the attention), exaggerate it so that the whole face becomes funny and comic and voilà – the caricature is ready. However, behind the seeming simplicity of the process, the art of caricature is pretty complex and requires expert painting skills, specific vision and a good sense of humor, of course. For many centuries, caricature has always been a vivid marker of human race evolution and social life, not only making people smile and laugh but also lashing the drawbacks of the society and drawing the public attention to the most questionable aspects of social life.
Today caricature is commonly defined as the art, type of a portrait, where one’s specific features or peculiarities are deliberately exaggerated to produce comic, funny, or grotesque effect. Caricature has a long history of its development, and political caricature is, perhaps, where this particular art reached its culmination. By the way, a surprising fact is that even such “serious” painters as Leonardo da Vinci and Monet worked in the caricature genre at certain times of their art career. To get more familiar with caricature let us follow the timeline of caricature development from the earliest times to the modern age, paying special attention to political caricature.
The art of caricature dates back to the far away prehistoric times, when a man first took a stone into his hands and scratched the picture on the walls of his cave. That was the origin of painting art and caricature as well. Paintings and images from ancient Egypt, Greece and Roman Empire carry some features of caricature as well; just have a look at the picture of a man, which is believed to be a politician in the ancient city of Pompeii. What a caricature, isn’t it?
Pompeii Villa of Mysteries
Early caricatures can be found in the works of Leonardo da Vinci, who often invited people with some physiological abnormalities or face deformations to be his models. The below caricatures were produced by genius Leonardo back in the 14th-15th century.
Cinque by Leonardo da Vinci
Man with Bushy Hair by Leonardo da Vinci
William Hogarth is the first name to mention among the pioneers of the true caricature art and political caricature in particular. Being famous English painter, who lived between 1697 and 1764, he raised political caricature at the next level of its development. Even nowadays, satirical political illustrations are often known as “Hogarthian”. “A Rake’s Process” and engraving of a British radical politician John Wilkes are among the most well-known caricature works by Hogarth, which represent formation and strengthening of the political satire genre in art.
A Rake’s Process by William Hogarth
John Wilkes by William Hogarth
James Gillray (1757-1815) has contributed a lot to the development of political caricature as well, producing his flashing and well-aimed social satire, featuring George III, the King of Britain, Napoleon, and general political and social life in 18th-19th century. L’assamble Nationale (1804) by Gillray was called the most talented caricature, which draw a wide response in the society. It is said that Prince of Wales even had to spend pretty much money to have this painting destroyed.
L’assamble Nationale by James Gillray
Monstrous Craws by James Gillray
The Plumb Pudding in Danger by James Gillray
The Cow Pock by James Gillray
Fashionable Contrasts by James Gillray
Very Slippy Weather by James Gillray
American political caricature movement was initiated by Thomas Nast (1840-1902). Actually, this notable artist is commonly referred to as the Farther of the American Cartoon. He was the first to depict Santa Clause with the appearance, familiar to all of us today (before Nast illustration, Santa looked like a tall and thin man). Harper’s Weekly was the magazine, where Nast published his political caricature, dealing with multiple social issues – from American Civil War to American Indians and to Ku Klux Klan. These are some samples of the works by Thomas Nast.
The Brains by Thomas Nast
Uncle Sam’s Gunpowder by Thomas Nast
Public Nuisance by Thomas Nast
Santa Claus by Thomas Nast
Throughout the whole 20th century the caricature art and political caricature in particular flourished, either in view of growing number of artists, choosing caricature genre, or growing democracy, which allowed creating caricatures without being afraid of the consequences. Naturally, the American caricaturists continued to generate a larger amount of political satire caricatures. Some of them are presented below:
Ohio – The Mother of Presidents
How They’re Acting – and How They Feel
It is interesting to point out that even such cruel dictators as Natzi Hitler and Soviet Stalin became the objects for caricature. Have a look at some of the caricatures, created not after the death of those tyrants but when their power was at its apogee.
Hitler – Stalin by Bob Row
Nazi-Soviet Alliance by David Low
Russian Church and Stalin by Lev Regelson
A Cartoon From “The Nation” in New York (5 April 1933)
A Hot Seat is Sometimes Uncomfortable…!
The Führer’s Complaint: “How Can I Become a Dictator If No One helps!”
How Hitler Says “Legal”
Now getting back to the USA, below there are several caricatures, created at different times during the 20th and 21th century, featuring US Presidents. For example, Bill Clinton has always been popular on wide public and so did the caricatures, featuring him.
Bill Clinton by Steve Curl
However, the present President Obama does not leg behind, winning the attention of modern caricaturists.
Barack Obama by Dan Johnson
Commander in Chief by Kal Lex
Relief by Kal Lex
As the human evolution continues, so does the development of caricature. The army of caricaturists today is great. Though their works are rarely displayed in art galleries, they are still very close to all of us, whether we meet their caricatures on the newspaper pages or invite them to make a few friendly caricatures at birthday party. The role of caricature in social life is still significant and there is not much exaggeration in this statement. Putting the face of a joke on the body of truth, caricature has always helped and continues helping us in understand the real core and value of things and revealing the true faces under the masks, worn on public… That’s because “parodies and caricatures are the most penetrating of criticisms,” as Aldous Huxley said.
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Source: “Fluorescent peptides highlight peripheral nerves during surgery in mice”
Quyen T. Nguyen et al.
Nature Biotechnology online, February 6, 2011
Results: Researchers from the University of California, San Diego, developed a fluorescent peptide that binds specifically to nerve tissue. Two hours after it was injected into mice, all the animal’s peripheral nerves glowed when illuminated with a specific wavelength of light. The effect lasted for several hours. Researchers showed that the marker also identifies nerves in human tissue.
Why it matters: An easy way to visualize nerves should help surgeons avoid damaging them during delicate procedures. Nerve damage during surgery can lead to chronic pain and paralysis and, in the case of prostate operations, incontinence or erectile dysfunction. Existing methods of identifying nerves label only a single tract of nerves and can take days to do so.
Methods: To create nerve-specific probes, researchers first created a library of viruses that infect only bacteria and display different peptides, short chains of amino acids, on their coats. They then exposed nerve tissue to the viruses, looking for the peptide that bound most specifically to peripheral nerves. Attaching a fluorescent molecule to the target peptide created a glowing marker easily detectable under certain wavelengths of light.
Next Steps: Additional animal testing will be needed before the marker is ready to be tested in people. The technology has been licensed by Avelas Biosciences, a biotech startup, which is currently looking for private or industrial partnerships to develop it.
Home Heart Monitoring
An implanted sensor significantly reduces hospitalization rates for heart-failure patients.
Source: “Wireless pulmonary artery haemodynamic monitoring in chronic heart failure: a randomised controlled trial”
William T. Abraham et al.
Lancet 377(9766): 658-666
Results: An implantable wireless sensor that measures fluid pressure in the pulmonary artery significantly reduced hospitalization rates in heart-failure patients. In a study of 550 patients at 64 centers across the country, those whose physicians used data from the sensor to monitor their health were 40 percent less likely to be hospitalized in the 15 months after receiving the implant than patients whose treatment was guided by observation of traditional measures such as weight and blood pressure. The pressure-sensing device transmits data wirelessly to a computer, where physicians can access the results and adjust the patient’s medication accordingly.
Why it matters: About two million people in the United States suffer from the type of heart failure targeted in this study. In these patients, changes in fluid pressure worsen congestion, triggering fluid buildup in other parts of the body. These pressure changes typically occur weeks or months before the symptoms get worse, but because existing methods of measuring this pressure are invasive, they are often performed only during a patient’s initial evaluation. The new device provides a way for physicians to monitor fluid pressure continually after a patient leaves the hospital. They can then fine-tune medications, preventing health crises that require additional hospitalization.
Methods: The device is made up of two metal loops that keep it in place inside the artery and a pressure transducer that records the flow of blood through the vessel. It is implanted using a simple catheter-based procedure. The device is activated when the patient lies on a pillow with a built-in receiver. The sensor then takes a reading and transmits the data to a computer for a physician’s review.
Next Steps: The company that makes the device, CardioMEMS, is seeking approval from the U.S. Food and Drug Administration. It also plans to integrate the sensor’s receiver into the patient’s cell phone. Physicians and patients will then have instant access to pressure data.
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Hydrogel used to create precise new biochemical sensor
Scientists have used gelatinous hydrogel to create an inexpensive new type of biochemical sensor that is highly sensitive, sturdy, long-lasting, and has few moving parts. The gel expands or contracts according to the acidity of its environment, a quality that allows the sensor to measure changes in pH down to one one-thousandth on the pH scale. This amount of accuracy, along with its robustness, could make it ideal for chemical and biological applications such as environmental monitoring in waterways and glucose monitoring in blood.
Developed at Indiana’s Purdue University, the hydrogel within the device is formed into a series of raised stripes known as a “diffraction grating,” separated by lower-lying spaces. Both the stripes and the spaces are covered in separate coatings of gold. As the gel expands and contracts according to acidity in its environment, the pattern of stripes and spaces changes. When a laser is shone on the gold/hydrogel, changes in that pattern cause the reflection of the laser light to be diffracted differently. The sensor measures changes in the diffraction, and from that deduces pH levels.
“Many sensors being developed today are brilliantly designed but are too expensive to produce, require highly skilled operators and are not robust enough to be practical,” said Cagri Savran, an associate professor of mechanical engineering at Purdue. “As with any novel platform, more development is needed, but the detection principle behind this technology is so simple that it wouldn't be difficult to commercialize.”
Savran also stated that the sensors could be made even more sensitive, and that they could be designed to measure things other than pH by using other hydrogels that respond to different types of stimuli.
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The term “Left-Hand Pizzicato” is usually applied indiscriminately to two very different techniques:
- the normal “pluck-pizzicato” technique in which, instead of a right-hand finger, it is a left-hand finger which hooks itself around the string, pulls it and then releases it. These pizzicatos are often indicated with a “+” sign and this is a surprisingly important and frequently-used technique.
- a second type of LH pizzicato which is not, strictly speaking, a pizzicato because we don’t actually pluck the string. Here, we make a note sound simply by doing a very energetic percussive left-hand finger articulation on it, which does in fact produce a sound rather like a “pizzicato”. To differentiate this technique from the “pluck”, we could call this one the “whack!”. This word is perfect for describing the sudden release of explosive energy involved in hitting the string in these “pizzicato”.
While some composers know enough about the cello to indicate left-hand plucks with a “+” symbol, no sign seems to exist to indicate the “whack” which is why we have invented our own: the “snowflake” symbol (∗). Normally it is the cellist who must write these symbols in their sheet music part because Left-Hand pizzicatos are a technical “trick of the trade” with which most composers are unfamiliar.
Play the following note sequences only with the left hand:
Left-hand “plucks” and “whacks” are surprisingly frequent and useful, but their use is rarely specified by the composer. The following example is an exception because Brahms, by placing a slur over groups of two pizzicato notes is clearly indicating that the second of each group is to be played using a LH pizzicato.
Both of these techniques could be considered “tricks” in the sense that we use them to simulate the sound of a normal right-hand pizzicato in situations where it is impossible or impractical to use the right hand. But they do have other more subtle uses also. Let’s look now at some of the different situations in which these techniques can be used.
1: TO CHECK A NOTE BEFORE PLAYING (SOUNDING) IT
This is undoubtedly the most common and important use of the LH pizzicato techniques. When we are finding our left-hand position without the help of an audible glissando (this occurs usually after a silence/rest) then we will almost always check the correct pitch of our new finger with a very light LH pizz, before sounding it with the bow. We can use either the “whack” or the “pluck” technique. For checking a note played by the thumb, we will be obliged to pluck it with a higher finger, whereas for checking the higher fingers we will have to do a “whack”. For the first and second fingers however, we have the choice – both the whack and the pluck (with a higher finger) are possible. Normally the pluck is easier to do very softly (imperceptibly) than the whack.
We will probably use this technique very many times in any piece of music, although it is less often necessary in studies because studies don’t usually have rests!! In a piece with non-stop legato and no rests we may only have one opportunity to use this technique: to find the starting note! This trick is especially useful for silently finding notes in the higher fingerboard regions because up there our positional sense is weaker.
Sometimes the pitch of our starting note might be very hard to imagine because of the tonality of what has come before (or because of what other instruments are playing as we are trying to find our note). In these cases we may want to find our hand position by using an “intermediate note”: this would be a note in the new position that is easy to imagine (because it fits in with the surrounding harmony) and from which we can easily find the new note that we will need to play. For example, if the note we need to play is a “C” on the third finger but the previous chord is “B”, then we can simply find the “B” on the second finger. Once we have found and checked that “B” then placing the “C” on the third finger is very easy.
2: THE USE OF “IMPERCEPTIBLE” LEFT-HAND PIZZICATOS TO HELP THE BOWED OPEN STRING TO SPEAK
These are the next most common uses of Left Hand Pizzicato, but, just like the “note-checkers” above, they are also never specified by the composer. These are cellistic trade secrets that we use to help make our bowed open strings sound cleanly and immediately.
Open strings, more than any other notes, often need a little bit of help to start sounding cleanly (without a scratch). I’m not sure why this is, but it is probably due to the fact that they are not stopped by our fingertip, but rather by the hard edge of the wood at the nut (top of the fingerboard). This difficulty of setting the open strings cleanly and rapidly into vibration makes them more susceptible to “false” starts, with squeaks, whistles, scratches and other undesired noises occurring at the slightest maladjustment of bowspeed, pressure and point of contact.
When the open string coincides with a bow change, this articulation (bow change) is often (but not always) enough to start the string vibrating cleanly, thus eliminating this need for the left hand pizz articulation. It is in slurred bow strokes that the open string needs the most help to sound cleanly from the very beginning, With some cellos, bows and strings we may however still need to use this LH pizz technique even on a bow change or on a bow start.
This plucking of the open string with a left-hand finger can be on the same string, to a different string, during a slur, on a bow change etc. Let’s look at some of the different ways in which we will use a LH pizz of the open string:
2.1 ON THE SAME STRING, ON A BOW CHANGE
The most basic use of this technique is simply to start the open string vibrating with an LH pizz just a microsecond before we start our bowstroke at the start of a phrase or after a silence. The pizzicato is not actually heard, but it gives a clean and precise start to the note and allows us to start the bowstroke on the open string without fear of a scratch or squeak. We won’t, of course, need this technique for smooth soft gentle starts.
2.2 ON THE SAME STRING DURING A SLUR
Another common use is in slurred passages on one string. Plucking the open string with the preceding finger as we remove it from the string, sets the open string in vibration. This is especially useful when we are playing up high on the string and then suddenly need the open string. When playing “up high”, our bow is closer to the bridge than it would want to be for playing the open string, thus the danger of a squeak or scratch is multiplied. And thus the benefit of an LH pizz is also multiplied …..
Sometimes these LH pizzicatos can disturb the bow’s legato, making the bow actually bounce – or at least judder (shake) – especially when the pizz comes in the middle of the bow. That is why we might want to break the long slurs in the following passage in order to be able to stay in the upper half of the bow where it has less tendency to be shaken/bounced/thrown off the string by the LH pizz.
Unfortunately, after playing a note with the thumb we can’t pluck the same open string. This means that, if we need an LH pizz to sound the open string, then we will need to change our fingering in order to have any other “normal” finger on the note before the open string:
Open the following link for material to practise this skill:
Left Hand Pizzicato To Same Open String: EXERCISES
2.3 TO A NEIGHBOURING OPEN STRING DURING A SLUR
The most frequent use of this technique (LH pizz of the open string) is however in slurred string crossings to a neighbouring open string. When we pluck the “same” open string, we naturally use the preceding playing finger to do the pluck. When we cross over to a different open string however, the plucking finger will be – unlike in the above examples – any other finger than the finger which we have just used. Normally we will probably favour the first finger.
However, there are of course times when the first finger is the finger preceding the new open string, in which case we have two choices:
- change our fingering so as to be able to liberate the first finger for the pluck
- use another finger for this LH pizz:
2.4 THE USE OF LH PIZZ TO HELP CLEARLY ARTICULATE A LOWER FINGER (IN A BOWED SLURRED PASSAGE)
Try the following passage:
In order that the lower finger might sound clearly (without a scratch or a squeak), it helps to remove the top finger each time with a slight horizontal plucking movement rather than just lifting vertically off the string. The greater the distance between the top and bottom notes, and the faster the alternation between the two notes, the more this plucking motion will be useful. The distance between the thumb and third finger is the largest interval that we play on the cello within one hand position, which is why the use of this lefthand pluck-on-release trick (by the third finger) is especially useful for this finger combination. This is exactly the same technique that we used above for helping the open strings to sound cleanly and immediately after a higher finger:
In these cases where we have a large distance, for example between the thumb and the higher fingers, in order to get a clean start to each new note, not only do we need to pluck the thumb note, but we also need to articulate very clearly the top notes with our “hammer attack”. Because now in fact every note requires an LH-pizz-assisted attack, these types of passages can be usefully practised without the bow: every note should sound with its respective LH pizzicato:
Here is some practice material for working on this skill:
Left Hand Pizzicato To The Lower Fingers: EXERCISES
CONCLUSION: LH PIZZ TO HELP BOWED OPEN STRINGS AND LOWER FINGERS TO HAVE A CLEAN, CLEAR START
Whether we use them to help sound open strings or lower fingers, it is surprising just how useful all of these “invisible” (not notated) LH pizzicatos are during bowed passages, and how often we will use them. Let’s use the first three bars of the Allemande from Bach’s First Suite as an example. During these 44 notes, mostly slurred across the open strings, 14 LH plucks (indicated with a + sign) could be used to help sound the lower notes. Of these, 11 are to facilitate the sounding of a slurred open string, and 3 are to help sound a lower finger.
3. SPECIAL EFFECTS: LEFT-HAND PLUCKS OPEN STRING(S) WHILE PLAYING BOWED NOTES ON ANOTHER STRING
There are not many passages that use this technique. This is fortunate because it is very destabilising for both the left hand and the bow. The Kodaly Solo Sonata is however full of these types of passages, especially the slow movement. They are not shown here because playing them in the correct key requires retuning our bottom two strings down a semitone. Whereas in the Kodaly Solo Sonata there is nobody else available to pluck those notes and we have no choice but to play them, in the following concerto examples it would be very tempting to give those LH pizzicato notes to the cello section (or the timpani?) !!!
WHICH FINGER TO USE FOR OUR LH PIZZICATO PLUCKS ?
Sometimes, we have no choice as to which finger we will use for our LH pluck. To help a lower finger to sound after a higher finger, or to help the open string to sound after a finger on the same string, the plucking finger will in both cases automatically be the previous finger.
But when we are helping a neighbouring open string to sound, usually during a slurred string crossing, we will have a choice as to which finger to use:
Our first finger will probably be our preferred finger for LH plucks of the neighbouring open string for the intervals shown in the green enclosures but when we are using (playing on/stopping) the first finger just before the open string (shown in the red enclosures), then we won’t be able to use it for our LH pluck. This is why we need to practice using the other fingers also for these types of LH pizzicato.
In cases where, as in the above example, we can’t use the first finger for our LH pizz, it might be a good idea to pluck the open string with the finger that is going to be used just after the open string because, in that way, this little pluck could be felt as a “rehearsal” for its imminent placement on the string. And when we are going from first finger to first finger, via the open string (blue enclosure), it may be a good idea to use the second finger as our plucking finger because it is the closest finger to the stopping finger. Unfortunately, there is no simple way to indicate in the notation which finger we will use to do this open-string pluck.
We have the same problem with our “special effects” LH pizz while bowing on another string. While our first finger is our preferred LH pizz plucking finger, if it is being used to stop a string at the time we need the open-string pluck, then we will have to use another finger (see the examples from the Dvorak and Shostakovitch Concertos above.
Click on the following link to open a page of mixed repertoire excerpts that make use of all the different types of left-hand pizzicato:
Mixed Left-Hand Pizzicatos: REPERTOIRE EXCERPTS
In certain circumstances, we will use LH pizzicatos to facilitate a right-hand pizzicato passage. These “mixed-hand” pizzicato passages are dealt with on their own dedicated page:
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β-Glucans (beta-glucans) comprise a group of β-D-glucose polysaccharides naturally occurring in the cell walls of cereals, bacteria, and fungi, with significantly differing physicochemical properties dependent on source. Typically, β-glucans form a linear backbone with 1–3 β-glycosidic bonds but vary with respect to molecular mass, solubility, viscosity, branching structure, and gelation properties, causing diverse physiological effects in animals.
At dietary intake levels of at least 3 g per day, oat fiber β-glucan decreases blood levels of LDL cholesterol and so may reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases. β-glucans are used as texturing agents in various nutraceutical and cosmetic products, and as soluble fiber supplements.
Cereal and fungal products have been used for centuries for medicinal and cosmetic purposes; however, the specific role of β-glucan was not explored until the 20th century. β-glucans were first discovered in lichens, and shortly thereafter in barley. A particular interest in oat β-glucan arose after a cholesterol lowering effect from oat bran reported in 1981.
In 1997, the FDA approved of a claim that intake of at least 3.0 g of β-glucan from oats per day decreased absorption of dietary cholesterol and reduced the risk of coronary heart disease. The approved health claim was later amended to include these sources of β-glucan: rolled oats (oatmeal), oat bran, whole oat flour, oatrim (the soluble fraction of alpha-amylase hydrolyzed oat bran or whole oat flour), whole grain barley and barley beta-fiber. An example of an allowed label claim: Soluble fiber from foods such as oatmeal, as part of a diet low in saturated fat and cholesterol, may reduce the risk of heart disease. A serving of oatmeal supplies 0.75 grams of the 3.0 g of β-glucan soluble fiber necessary per day to have this effect. The claim language is in the Federal Register 21 CFR 101.81 Health Claims: Soluble fiber from certain foods and risk of coronary heart disease (CHD).
Glucans are arranged in six-sided D-glucose rings connected linearly at varying carbon positions depending on the source, although most commonly β-glucans include a 1-3 glycosidic link in their backbone. Although technically β-glucans are chains of D-glucose polysaccharides linked by β-type glycosidic bonds, by convention not all β-D-glucose polysaccharides are categorized as β-glucans. Cellulose is not conventionally considered a β-glucan, as it is insoluble and does not exhibit the same physicochemical properties as other cereal or yeast β-glucans.
Some β-glucan molecules have branching glucose side-chains attached to other positions on the main D-glucose chain, which branch off the β-glucan backbone. In addition, these side-chains can be attached to other types of molecules, like proteins, as in polysaccharide-K.
The most common forms of β-glucans are those comprising D-glucose units with β-1,3 links. Yeast and fungal β-glucans contain 1-6 side branches, while cereal β-glucans contain both β-1,3 and β-1,4 backbone bonds. The frequency, location, and length of the side-chains may play a role in immunomodulation. Differences in molecular weight, shape, and structure of β-glucans dictate the differences in biological activity.
In general, β-1,3 linkages are created by 1,3-Beta-glucan synthase, and β-1,4 linkages are created by cellulose synthase. The process leading to β-1,6 linkages is poorly understood: although genes important in the process have been identified, not much is known about what each of them do.
|Source (Example)||Backbone||Branching||Solubility in Water|
|Fungus||Short β-1,6 branching||Insoluble|
|Yeast||Long β-1,6 branching||Insoluble|
|Cereal (Oat beta-glucan)||None||Soluble|
β-glucans form a natural component of the cell walls of bacteria, fungi, yeast, and cereals such as oat and barley. Each type of beta-glucan comprises a different molecular backbone, level of branching, and molecular weight which affects its solubility and physiological impact. One of the most common sources of β(1,3)D-glucan for supplement use is derived from the cell wall of baker's yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae). β-glucans found in the cell walls of yeast contain a 1,3 carbon backbone with elongated 1,6 carbon branches. Other sources include seaweed, and various mushrooms, such as lingzhi, shiitake, chaga, and maitake, which are under preliminary research for their potential immune effects.
In the diet, β-glucans are a source of soluble, fermentable fiber – also called prebiotic fiber – which provides a substrate for microbiota within the large intestine, increasing fecal bulk and producing short-chain fatty acids as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities. This fermentation impacts the expression of many genes within the large intestine, which further affects digestive function and cholesterol and glucose metabolism, as well as the immune system and other systemic functions.
Cereal β-glucans from oat, barley, wheat, and rye have been studied for their effects on cholesterol levels in people with normal cholesterol levels and in those with hypercholesterolemia. Intake of oat β-glucan at daily amounts of at least 3 grams lowers total and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels by 5 to 10% in people with normal or elevated blood cholesterol levels.
Oats and barley differ in the ratio of trimer and tetramer 1-4 linkages. Barley has more 1-4 linkages with a degree of polymerization higher than 4. However, the majority of barley blocks remain trimers and tetramers. In oats, β-glucan is found mainly in the endosperm of the oat kernel, especially in the outer layers of that endosperm.
Enterocytes facilitate the transportation of β(1,3)-glucans and similar compounds across the intestinal cell wall into the lymph, where they begin to interact with macrophages to activate immune function. Radiolabeled studies have verified that both small and large fragments of β-glucans are found in the serum, which indicates that they are absorbed from the intestinal tract. M cells within the Peyer's patches physically transport the insoluble whole glucan particles into the gut-associated lymphoid tissue.
(1,3)-β-D-glucan medical application
An assay to detect the presence of (1,3)-β-D-glucan in blood is marketed as a means of identifying invasive or disseminated fungal infections. This test should be interpreted within the broader clinical context, however, as a positive test does not render a diagnosis, and a negative test does not rule out infection. False positives may occur because of fungal contaminants in the antibiotics amoxicillin-clavulanate, and piperacillin/tazobactam. False positives can also occur with contamination of clinical specimens with the bacteria Streptococcus pneumoniae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Alcaligenes faecalis, which also produce (1→3)β-D-glucan. This test can aid in the detection of Aspergillus, Candida, and Pneumocystis jirovecii. This test cannot be used to detect Mucor or Rhizopus, the fungi responsible for mucormycosis, as they do not produce (1,3)-beta-D-glucan.
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- Sikora, Per (14 June 2012). "Identification of high b-glucan oat lines and localization and chemical characterization of their seed kernel b-glucans". Food Chemistry. 137 (1–4): 83–91. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2012.10.007. PMID 23199994.
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cover crop, summer annual, weeds, biomass production
Cover crops can benefit agricultural production by improving soil health and productivity, reducing weeds, and providing biomass for grazing. In this one-year study, biomass production was measured in 17 different single species summer cover crops and a fallow control. Overall, grass species produced more biomass than brassicas, with legumes, broadleaves, and fallow yielding intermediate amounts of biomass. Within the grass species, pearl millet, brown midrib (BMR) sorghum, and sorghum sudan produced more biomass than proso millet; German millet and browntop millet had intermediate biomass production. Within the brassicas, both brown and yellow mustards produced more biomass than collards. There was no difference in biomass production within the broadleaf species or the legume species tested. Plots that produced higher amounts of biomass also had fewer weeds, indicating the potential for cover crops to reduce weed growth and establishment. The cost of biomass production varied widely between the cover crops, with the broadleaf and grass species being the least expensive. Choice of a cover crop depends on the goals. Based on cost, weed suppression, and grazing potential, the most suitable cover crops identified in this study were pearl millet, BMR sorghum, sorghum sudan, German millet, okra, and cowpea.
Creative Commons License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.
Sassenrath, G. F. and Farney, J. K.
"Biomass Production of Single Species Cover Crop,"
Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station Research Reports:
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A recent study has accumulated data for about 100,000 dogs, including about 83,000 mixed breed dogs and 18,000 purebred dogs representing 330 breeds (Donner et al 2018). For testing, the authors used a SNP array that tests for 152 known mutations, or "variants," at the same time. These tests cannot identify all mutations, only the ones that have been identified and localized at a particular SNP. So the data represent only a fraction of the actual number of mutations in the entire gene pool.
The data reveal that 34 mutations were only seen in mixed breed dogs, 13 were only seen in purebreds, and 25 were not found in this sample population. Of the mutations identified, 80 were found in both mixed and purebred dogs. If we add up the numbers for mixed and purebreds, we find that a total of 114 mutations (34 + 80) were found in mixed breed dogs, and 93 occurred in purebred dogs.
You might look at these data and conclude that this is proof that purebred dogs are healthier than mixed breeds. Would you be correct?
One consequence of this behavior of recessive mutations is that a dog can be a carrier of many mutations but suffer no ill effects from any of them. In fact, because of this, recessive mutations can be passed from parent to offspring generation after generation without affecting the health of the dog.
Dogs that inherit two copies of a mutation (called homozygous, affected, or "at risk") are likely to display some negative effects like blindness, exercise collapse, a nervous disorder, or some other disturbance to a body function. If the consequences are severe enough, natural selection or the breeder will remove the dog from the population of breeding animals and those mutations are not passed on to offspring.
So we have two situations: in one, a dog carries a single copy of the mutation and suffers no ill effects (heterozygous), and in the other the dog carries two copies and the mutation is expressed as a genetic disorder.
This pair of graphs show the proportions of mixed breed and purebred dogs in which the mutations were heterozygous (left). The graph on the right shows the proportion of dogs in which the mutations were homozygous (right). Mutations in the heterozygous state on the left were found in both mixed and purebred dogs, but as we would expect from the Venn diagram above, more of the mixed breed dogs were carrying mutations (yellow arrow). The graph on the right shows what we really need to see: both mixed and purebred dogs had homozygous mutations, but they were much higher in purebred than mixed breed dogs.
Here is what the study's authors had to say:
"The distribution of the number of disease variants carried in the heterozygous state differed significantly between mixed breed dogs and the combined purebred sample, with a higher ratio of mixed breed dogs being carriers of the common analyzed disease risk alleles....
However, when we compared the groups for the number of common recessive disease variants carried in the homozygous state, an opposite pattern emerged... Purebred dogs were 2.7 times more likely than mixed breed dogs to be genetically affected for at least one of the common recessive disorders (3.9% vs. 1.4% of dogs, respectively)."
In a nutshell, here's what they found:
a) The collective population of mixed breed dogs contains more recessive mutations than that of purebreds, but those mutations are more likely to be heterozygous and therefore harmless.
b) On the other hand, there are fewer mutations found in purebred dogs, but they are far more likely to be homozygous, and therefore expressed as a genetic disorder, than in mixed breed dogs.
It is this simple property of recessive mutations, of only being expressed when homozygous, that results in the higher rate of genetic disorders in purebred than mixed breed dogs.
This comparison of the health of mixed and purebred dogs is oft debated, and breeders usually argue that purebred dogs are just as healthy as mixed breed dogs. For problems caused by non-genetic disorders (broken bones, allergies, and the like), this could be true. But, for genetic disorders, the purebred dogs fare far worse than mixed breed dogs. It's a simple matter of the genetics of recessive mutations.
Why are there more mutations hanging around in the huge gene pool of mixed breed dogs? It's because recessive mutations are harmless if they are heterozygous, so they are not eliminated from the population by selection. The frequency of a specific mutations in the population is usually very low (< 1%, with a few notable exceptions, like the mutation associated with degenerative myelopathy, DM). The chances of any two random mixed breed dogs having the same mutations is low. Although a mixed breed dog can be affected by a genetic disorder caused by a recessive mutation if it inherits two copies, the chance of this happening is very low.
Breeding purebred dogs in a closed population means that all of the dogs in a breed are related and therefore share many genes in common. Some of these shared genes will be mutations. The more closely related the sire and dam, the more likely the puppies are to be afflicted with a genetic disorder caused by a recessive mutation.
This is why the best strategy for reducing the incidence of genetic disorders in purebred dogs is not endless DNA testing. To control the risk from all mutations, the ones you know about as well as the ones you don't, the best strategy is to reduce the relatedness of the parents. Reducing genetic disease in dogs boils down to reducing the risk of a puppy inheriting two copies of the same recessive mutation. The way to accomplish this is to reduce the relatedness of the parents.
Donner J, H Anderson, S Davison, AM Hughes, and others. 2018. Frequency and distribution of 152 genetic disease variants in over 100,000 mixed breed and purebred dogs. PLOS Genetics 14(4):31007361. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pgen.1007361
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|Title page of Ephraim Clapp’s manuscript|
Sarah Small, a cousin of William’s, recalled that Grandfather Clapp was “a great student. Could tell you all about the different planets, Mars, Jupiter and Saturn, and which one would be the ruling planet for the year, and tell of the big and little dippers and where they were placed, and each year would write it all down. He had complied quite a book on different subjects. He was always pleased when some of the friends came in to visit them, and would be interested in his writings on these subjects.”
|Portrait of Newton by|
Godfrey Kneller, 1702
However, this did not mean that Newton was universally accepted, or that people agreed with all aspects of his work. Challengers to Newton ranged from those who saw unexplained problems in his theories (such as the precise nature and source of gravity) that they attempted to resolve, all the way through proponents of fringe theories like Flat- and Hollow-Earthers. Others objected to Newton on scriptural grounds, arguing that his picture of the universe was contrary to the Bible’s description of sun, moon, and stars fixed in a firmament that revolved around the earth. Some people felt that Newton’s mechanistic universe, running on mathematical principles, opened the door to rationalism and free thought.
|Clapp’s diagram showing Newton’s supposed error |
regarding the size of the sun.
Still, by Ephraim Clapp’s day, anti-Newtonianism was a pretty eccentric position. His objections to Newton seem to have come from his belief that Newton was mistaken about some fundamental facts. Clapp argued that the sun cannot be as large as Newton says it is, because if it were, the earth would never experience days and nights of equal length. Moreover, Clapp claimed, if Newton were correct about the size of the sun and the distance of the earth’s orbit around it, the earth would have to be moving so fast that gravity would cease to function and “every thing moveable would fall from the earth.” (This is just in the first two pages of the manuscript, by the way.)
|Page from Principia Mathematica|
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Postage stamps came into existence for over 300 years, and have undergone a lot of evolution, and the claim for being the inventor of postage stamp is a highly debatable topic. Postage stamps may be defined as pieces of paper that needs to be bought and displayed on the post/mail as an evidence of payment for postage. Postage stamps typically bear a number of things on its face, like the price or cost, the country of origin, an image among other important things and they are made from special paper. Incidentally postage stamps are of extremely important documents, as they depict a lot about the culture and history of the country, as well as many important events of the country or around the world. Philately is about collecting stamps and also studying stamps and postal history. Here are some of the most expensive postage stamps, which are expensive due to their rarity as well as their historical importance. 6. British Guiana 1 Cent Magenta This postage stamp was printed on magenta paper in black color. It is one of the most costly postage stamps in the world now, with a cost of more than 850,000 USD. The stamp attained an octagonal shape, due to the trimmed corners. The stamps were initialled by a post-office employee to prevent forgery. The stamps were printed by a local press in Guiana, due to shortage of stamps and also time to get them delivered from Britain. The stamps were priced at one to four cents. 5. Post Office Mauritius Post office Mauritius is one of the error stamps issued by Mauritius, and the rarity of these stamps makes them one of the costliest. The stamps were designed by Joseph Barnard, which was more inspired on British stamps. The error in this stamp was the print “Post Office” instead of “Post Paid” due to some error in the printing plate. A total of 240 such stamps were printed, of which only 26 are known to have survived. They are valued at around $1.67 million USD. 4. Inverted Jenny Inverted Jenny was the first air delivery stamp that was issued in 1918. Priced at 24 cent, this stamp is normally a collectible item. But some of these stamps were riddled with an interesting error. Some of these stamps had the Jenny Plane upside down, which led their name as the inverted Jenny. They were a result of human error while passing the sheet for the second print of the image. Only a hundred of these rare misprints are available, and they have been valued at about $3 million USD. 3. U.S. Franklin Z-Grill Only two copies of this rarest of U.S. stamps are available to this day. A Portrait of Benjamin Franklin is embossed with a z-grille pattern. A pattern of tiny squares embossed into paper and it was also visible on the back of the stamps. This was to permit efficient absorbing of the cancellation ink. The Z-grille was not found to be practical and discontinued. The stamp was priced at 1-cent in 1868. The present valuation of the stamp stands at $8.8 million USD. 2. Penny Black: Issued in 1840 Penny Black is distinguished as the first postage stamp in the world. Rowland Hill designed it, and was a part of his reform plans for the British postal system. The stamp was valued at one penny, and bore the sketch of Queen Victoria by William Wyon. That resulted in the stamps famous name as Penny Black. This stamp was in circulation and print for nine months from its date of inception. They are now valued at around $5 million USD. 1. The Treskilling Yellow: The Three-Skilling Yellow or Treskilling yellow is the highest priced single postage stamp in the world. This Swedish stamp is also another error postage stamp. Instead of its regular green colour, a printing mistake resulted in this three skilling stamps to be printed in yellow in 1855. Till date only one surviving stamp with this error has been found. The sale price has crossed well over $3 million USD in 1996. It was resold in 2010 to an undisclosed buyer for an undisclosed amount. But the auctioneer declared that this Treskilling Yellow has become the most expensive single postage stamp in the world.
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Norwegian Arctic Islands Hold Biodiversity Bank
[Sorry, the video for this story has expired, but you can still read the transcript below. ]
JIM LEHRER: And finally tonight, another in our reports from the Arctic. Under the deep permafrost is a newly constructed vault containing every variety of seed from around the world. Tom Clarke of Independent Television News reports from the Norwegian Arctic islands.
TOM CLARKE, ITV News Correspondent: Not much grows in the high Arctic, and what does ekes out a meager living during this short summer just a few hundred miles from the North Pole. But the very fact this landscape is frozen is why it’s been chosen as the home of a global effort to protect the plants we’re most directly dependent on for food.
Carved into this mountain on the island of Spitzburgen is the entrance to a seed bank. At the end of this tunnel blasted out of frozen rock, three giant vaults are taking shape. Why here? Because it’s cold and it’s safe.
DAG RINDAL BROX, Project Manager, Global Feed Bank: It’s permafrost here, so you can store the seeds in minus 40 degrees Celsius. Temperatures will never rise beyond it. And it’s an island that is a neutral island and that you know everybody who comes here will either come by plane or you come by boat. So you know every people who come up here.
Building a "backup vault"
TOM CLARKE: Many countries keep stores of important seeds in case disease or drought wipes out key crops. The idea here is to build a backup vault, a kind of Fort Knox for crops, where other seed banks can make deposits, whether it's wheat, cassava or cabbage.
It's a long-planned-for endeavor given new impetus by the threat of climate change to plants. The seed bank now opens next February. Each vault can store 1.5 million different seeds. Space is at a premium. There's 100,000 varieties of rice alone.
So we're here visiting a seed bank designed to ensure the world's biodiversity against the effects of climate change, but the plants that actually live here on Svalbard outside the vault are some of the first to feel the effects of global warming.
We accompanied Elisabeth Cooper into the tundra she and her students have studied for seven years. Not many botanists carry high-powered rifles, but then not many botanists study Arctic plants. And for those that do, polar bear attacks are an occupational hazard. Dr. Cooper is studying how climate change is affecting humble arctic flora like polar willow, mountain avens, and Arctic white bell heather.
ELISABETH COOPER, University Centre, Svalbard: This is one of my snow fences that I made last autumn.
Climate change in the Artic
TOM CLARKE: Climate change expected to bring more snow to Svalbard Islands. Experiments here are designed to see whether these tiny plants can continue to thrive under deeper flurries.
ELISABETH COOPER: We have large areas of tundra which are likely to be affected by climate change which at the moment are holding huge amounts of carbon. But if their carbon balance is shifted, they might be releasing more carbon.
TOM CLARKE: Initial results suggest plants here might struggle, so as well as threatening this fragile ecosystem, further warming could turn the high Arctic from an area that helps keep our climate stable into one that makes it warmer still. And that would affect the whole planet, valuable crops and all.
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Covering both U.S. and world history topics, History Reference Center is a full-text database featuring historical reference books, magazines, journals and thousands of primary source documents.
History Reference Center Tutorial
Note for Educators: History Reference Center features variety of resources to help educators prepare their students to meet curriculum goals, such as lesson plans and rich multimedia content to enhance delivery. In addition, articles include Lexile® Measures to address text complexity requirements. History Reference Center also links to EBSCO’s Curriculum Standards Module, a tool that can help teachers in the U.S. and Canada correlate EBSCO content quickly and easily to Common Core, state, or provincial curriculum standards.
- More than 650,000 full-text records from peer-reviewed journals, reference books, periodicals and other sources
- More than 74,000 full-text primary source documents
- More than 81,000 full-text biographies of historical figures
- Nearly 2,000 full-text reference books, encyclopedias and non-fiction books
- Full-text content from more than 140 leading history journals
- Nearly 45,000 images, including maps and historical photos
- 83+ hours of historical video
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in ancient Roman stories, the two brothers who established the city of Rome. Romulus and Remus were twins (=two children born at the same time) who were left to die when they were babies. They were taken care of by a wolf (=a wild animal like a large dog), who fed them with her milk. Later, when they had started to build the city of Rome, Romulus killed Remus after a quarrel.
Definition from the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English Advanced Learner's Dictionary.
Dictionary pictures of the day
Do you know what each of these is called?
Click on any of the pictures above to find out what it is called.
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ALS and speech
Weakening of the muscle groups that are used for speech can cause communication problems for ALS patients. This is called "dysarthria" and is often linked to eating and swallowing difficulties. Some muscles employed in the act of swallowing also function to generate speech sounds. Since speech formation is complex and concerns a number of muscle groups, ALS can cause different types of speech difficulties, depending on the affected muscle groups. Weak vocal cords can make a voice hoarse or cause breath sounds. Impairment of the weak palate can cause air hoarse or breath sounds, degradation of the soft palate can lead to a nasal voice. Impairment of lips and tongue can hamper good articulation and the release of certain sounds. Speech may then become slurred and unclear. A speech therapist can help with training techniques to make up for weak speech muscles. However, if these compensation techniques fail to help, the speech therapist can provide information on various means of communication that are available.
The impact of speech impairment
Since ALS is a progressive disease, speech can deteriorate to the point where talking is no longer possible and communication depends on means of communication. It is an important responsibility of all caregivers and family members that every communication method is taught that the patient chooses to use. Willing cooperation of friends and family can help alleviate or eliminate any feeling of isolation.
Communication can be encouraged by simple methods.
- Each message should be given with as few words as possible, so as to spare the voice as much as possible.
- Non-verbal communication such as nodding, shrugging or hand movements can also speak volumes.
- When a patient is speaking it is best to turn the radio or television volume down on or even off. Family and friends often become good lip readers if they are able to observe a patient’s face well. While eating a patient should be a listener rather than speaker, to avoid choking.
- A precise and slow pronunciation of short sentences with possible repetition of certain words may compensate for weakness of lips and tongue somewhat.
- When speaking or writing is no longer an option, you can proceed to certain codes for "yes or no". Head movements, finger tapping and eye expressions are applied successfully. The questions should then be formulated in such a way that they can be answered with "yes" or "no".
- A suction device may make the voice less "gurgling" in case of excessive mucus and saliva.
- To give the listener more information and to improve communication, the use of an alphabet card can be a good idea, always indicating the first letters of the words to be pronounced.
Using the telephone
ALS can make telephone calls difficult, but there are ways to deal with many telephone problems.
There are hands-free keys phones, as well as deaf telephones. The latter is a phone with a small computer screen and a letter keyboard, which enables written communication (Alto by Belgacom). The downside is that the respondent needs to have the same device available. Similar features are provided by a fax or computer equipped with a modem.
A voice amplifier can be connected to a phone to boost the volume of a weak voice;
Emergency calls are possible with systems that automatically dial different emergency numbers and transmit pre-recorded messages.
Pre-recorded messages can also be used for daily telephone use. For example, as soon as someone answers the phone, he can hear a recording that explains the patient’s speech problem and suggests a "code" for the remainder of the conversation. Thus a one-way conversation can proceed where the patient answers questions with "yes / no" by tapping the mouthpiece.
An answering machine can also be used for "selecting" incoming calls and only answering desirable ones.
Communication means range from very simple to highly complex. For some people, writing can replace speaking. A small clipboard, small slate or a "magical" slate can easily be taken along and are also inexpensive. If writing is rendered difficult by the loss of manual dexterity, a typewriter can offer a solution. The keys can be pressed manually or with a head stick when hand and arm function is inadequate for typing. An occupational therapist can determine which keyboard is needed. As an ordinary typewriter is not that easy to carry along, there are also portable ribbon writers such as the Canon Communicator. They are approximately the size of a pocket calculator and they print messages on narrow paper strips.
Communication or alphabet boards can be made at home and are the most common tool. "Speaker" and "listener" both see the board and each other. Each can indicate the letters to spell a message. Paper and pencil to write down the letters are useful. Communication Boards provide the advantage that both people are actively involved in a real two-way communication. And they are much cheaper than some more sophisticated tools.
Computer controlled devices can be used by almost anyone who is still able to move to some extent. These devices use a computer memory to store words, sentences or even entire messages. The sender can create a text by means of an indications table. This text can be "spoken" by a speech synthesizer or shown on a light board or paper web. These devices can be very effective but both sender and receiver must be motivated to learn to use them. There is a wide range of communication means available with an extensive variety of cost and complexity. For example: Light Writer and Buddy. However, Lucy, Mudikom and Tellus are systems which are more developed to confirm on the trolley. When selecting a device, it is important to seek the assistance of an occupational therapist and speech therapist. The occupational therapist usually determines the physical capabilities of a person with ALS to operate various devices. The occupational therapist and speech therapist cooperate to recommend the more complex devices and to train the ALS patient so he can use them. These two experts assist the patient with the choice of a device, adapted to individual problems and abilities.
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Traditional Chinese Medicine refers to a broad range of medicine practices sharing common theoretical concepts which have been developed in China and look back on a tradition of more than 2000 years, including various forms of herbal medicine, acupuncture, massage therapy, and dietary therapy. These practices are a common part of medical care throughout East Asia, but are considered alternative medicine in the western world.
The doctrines of Chinese medicine are rooted in books such as the Yellow Emperor s Inner Canon and the Treatise on Cold Damage, as well as in cosmological notions like yin-yang and the Five Phases. Starting in the 1950s, these precepts were modernized in the People s Republic of China so as to integrate many anatomical and pathological notions from scientific medicine. Nonetheless, many of its assumptions, including the model of the body, or concept of disease, are not supported by modern evidence-based medicine. Clinical trials have so far produced little evidence for the efficacy of TCM therapies, such as acupuncture.
TCM s view of the body is little concerned with anatomical structures, but with the identification of functional entities (which regulate digestion, breathing, aging etc.). While health is perceived as harmonious interaction of these entities and the outside world, disease is interpreted as a disharmony in interaction. TCM diagnosis consists in tracing symptoms to an underlying disharmony, mainly by palpating the pulse and inspecting the tongue
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Taking control of your life starts by taking control of your nutrition. Read this article to find out what you should or should not eat! Learn how to make healthy choices that is right for you!
Fill up on vegetables during lunch and dinner versus fatty foods. You can eat over twice as many vegetables while still cutting down your calorie intake. This way, you are full and still under your calories for the day. You can add vegetables to any meal to have a larger meal without increasing the amount of fatty foods.
Instead of snacking on sweet items like cookies and ice cream, try their healthier counterparts. Replace cookies with items like granola, oatmeal and cereal, and fruit bars. For ice cream, try going with low-fat or non-fat yogurt. These options not only taste better than the unhealthier ones, but you get nutrients like iron, calcium, fiber and much more in your diet.
Make sure to eat the proper amount of fruits and vegetables a day. If you don't like eating them whole, try different ways to eat them. For example, spinach can be eaten as dry leaves, in an omelet, in lasagna and many other meals. Try eating these healthy foods in a different way and you may find you eat more of them.
As people get older, you should try to limit yourselves on the amount of salt you eat every day. These salts are mostly found in processed foods and you may not even realize just how much you are consuming. Try reading the labels of the foods that you see at the grocery store before you buy them.
Limit your intake of frozen meals if you're watching your sodium intake. The salt content in most frozen meals is ridiculous. Some even contain an entire day's worth of salt. They may be convenient, but are you willing to risk your health over spending a few extra minutes in the kitchen?
You want to gain the greatest nutritional value from your food. Fresh vegetables are high on your list. What a loss if you throw away these nutrients through overcooking! When you immerse vegetables in water, much of the nutrients are leached out as they cook and are thrown away in the water. Avoid this by using a steamer and cooking vegetables lightly.
Nutrition in infants is very easy. Under the age of six months, an infant needs nothing but breast milk or formula. Once the child has reached six months old, pediatricians recommend that you introduce solid foods. This is more for acceptance than nutrition, as breast milk and formula has all the nutrition that an infant needs in the first year of life.
Bread isn't the only food with a healthier whole grain counterpart; pastas like elbow macaroni, spaghetti, angel hair, and linguine are best consumed when made from whole grains instead of refined pastas. The difference in taste and texture between refined and whole wheat pastas is negligible, and even the pickiest eater would be hard-pressed to tell them apart.
Always try and choose a whole wheat option with your food. Whole wheat can reduce heart disease, stroke, cancer, diabetes, and many other diseases. Don't bye white bread, it has none of these benefits, and will increase your waist line. Try purchasing rye bread, or whole wheat instead. Also try a brown rice instead of white.
Be cautious when using additives, such as dressings or condiments to your foods. It can drastically change your nutrition. Not only will it add a lot more calories to your meals, but these products have so many preservatives in them, that can be bad for your overall health.
Eat breakfast. Skipping it will https://www.tfsupplements.com/ start off your day on the wrong foot. Skipping breakfast isn't a good idea, it's a common, mistaken belief that it can help you lower caloric consumption. The truth is that not eating a meal, especially breakfast, actually puts you at a higher risk for overeating the rest of the day. Without breakfast and with copious snacking, your final calorie total for the day may end up much higher.
Nutrition is a huge market with all types of help available in many different ways. If you are a tech geek make sure to use the resources available to you for help. This includes many applications for smart phones that can give you great tips as well as calorie counters.
Avoid prepared foods that are high in corn syrup, fructose or sugar. Meanwhile all of these listed items are sometimes unavoidable try to find sugar- free alternatives of these foods. If you are unable to find a low- sugar version of these foods find a healthy alternative such as fruit.
The best way to maintain healthy eating habits that last a lifetime is to start early. You should encourage your children to eat well. Give them healthy options and keep their diets varied. Your children will be more likely to grow up with a taste for trying new things and healthy habits for satiating cravings.
A great nutrition tip if you're pregnant is to make sure you're getting enough iron. Iron is crucial for helping blood carry oxygen throughout the body. You need iron as acidophilus and probiotic well as your baby. A good way to get iron is by taking a supplement or you can get it from eating meats.
When nutrition comes into question, one thing that can't be stressed enough is: whole wheat. Try to focus on purchasing and consuming items that are whole wheat based as wheat has a rich amount of fiber which can help to regulate your body. It can also help prevent things such as heart disease, stroke, cancer and even diabetes.
Feed your body throughout the day with foods that maximize your energy and health. Three meals and two snacks or even five small "meals" which consist of fresh, organic foods will keep your system functioning at peak levels. Consistent fueling allows for a higher, more consistent metabolism which in turn keeps your weight down.
Slow down and savor your food when you are eating. Eating slowly will allow you to sense when your body is full and let you stop eating. If you eat quickly, you may miss the cues that signal you are full and you will consume too many calories which can lead to weight gain.
So many people in the world are under nourished and are suffering from malnutrition. This is not because they make poor choices, but because they don't have the options that we have. We are a very unhealthy country because of the choices that we make. If you follow the advice you read here, you will be among a small number of people, who make the right choices and find the difference that proper nutrition can make in your life.
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Learning Beyond Grade Level
Learning Beyond Grade Level (frequently called Gifted and Talented Education) is the identification of students who show evidence of high achievement capability in areas such as intellectual, creative, artistic, or leadership capacity, or in specific academic fields, and who need services or activities not ordinarily provided by the school in order to fully develop those capabilities.
State Law and Regulations
Rhode Island General Laws, Chapter 16-42 – Education of Gifted Children
- Allows gifted programming;
- Establishes a State Advisory Committee; and
- Sets criteria and requires regulations, which were last revised in 1982. The regulations apply to portions of school programs that select only certain students to participate. Regulations were originally required for RI school districts to obtain state funding; however, dedicated funding is not currently available.
State Advisory Committee on Gifted Education
About the Committee
The Rhode Island Advisory Committee on Gifted Education was established by the legislature for the primary purpose of providing advice to the Commissioner of Education. It has about thirty members representing a wide variety of constituencies, who meet at least four times a year.
Objectives of the Committee
- All schools provide curriculum and instruction that continuously challenge each student to increase his/her knowledge, understanding and skills. Schools ensure that every student will be challenged appropriately by:
- Recognizing those students who differ within and among them and will continue to grow and learn only if provided with experiences and materials at individually appropriate levels;
- Responding to this recognition by differentiating curriculum and instruction;
- Providing flexible teacher-student working arrangements that vary in size, age range, time frame and purpose and keeping class size small;
- Offering all students the opportunity to explore potential abilities and interests through exposure to a wide variety of experiences and topics; and
- Ensuring that teachers and staff have the knowledge and capacity to recognize and respond to indications of student abilities and interests.
- All school staff shares the expectation that every student will achieve at ever-higher levels within and beyond the curriculum.
- Professional, legislative, community, family and financial support at the state and local level ensures that teachers are supported in recognizing and responding to talents, interests, and abilities.
- All teachers and other staff in schools are confident, knowledgeable, and supported in recognizing and responding to talents, interests, and abilities. Pre-service and ongoing professional development convey the expectation and provide the opportunities for all staff to increase their knowledge of the learning process, strategies to differentiate curriculum and instruction, and their own abilities and interests. Specialists in these are also present in each school.
- All schools have the capacity to recognize potential abilities and interests in any student, and the systematic means available to analyze and respond to the students need for support. Staff actively observes students at all ages for individual indications of abilities and interests. The school and district response system is personalized and provides support in a variety of ways in response to specific student need, including student performance at levels far beyond age level. Data management that tracks specific responses provided and their effectiveness supports the system.
- Every student in every school learns continuously, has the opportunity and capacity to participate in planning his/her educational activities, and has recognition and individualized support for his/her abilities and interests.
What does the Committee do?
- Assesses statewide trends and needs;
- Seeks wide public and professional input;
- Disseminates information;
- Advises and makes recommendations regarding legislation and program guidelines; and
- Provides other policy, process and programmatic recommendations.
Rhode Island Advocates for Gifted Education (RIAGE)
Rhode Island Advocates for Gifted Education (RIAGE) is a non-profit organization of parents, educators, and others who recognize the need to provide appropriate education and support for gifted and talented students in Rhode Island. In 2001 RIAGE was founded to provide a forum for the development of public awareness of the needs of the gifted and talented; to facilitate an interchange of information on the subject of the gifted and talented; to develop cooperation with community and professional organizations; and to provide an organized voice for parents, teachers, administrators, school board members and others concerned about the unmet needs of gifted and talented students.
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<urn:uuid:80f70716-0ada-4d30-a42d-eb79adb8125a>
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CC-MAIN-2017-04
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http://ride.ri.gov/StudentsFamilies/EducationPrograms/LearningBeyondGradeLevel.aspx
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s3://commoncrawl/crawl-data/CC-MAIN-2017-04/segments/1484560280899.42/warc/CC-MAIN-20170116095120-00386-ip-10-171-10-70.ec2.internal.warc.gz
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en
| 0.953559 | 865 | 3.5 | 4 |
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